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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Montessori Elementary Materials - The Advanced Montessori Method - -Author: Maria Montessori - -Translator: Arthur Livingston - -Release Date: June 4, 2013 [EBook #42869] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIALS *** - - - - -Produced by Alicia Williams, Emmy and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was -produced from scanned images of public domain material -from the Google Print project.) Music files created by Linda -Cantoni. - - - - - - - - -[Transcriber's Notes: Bold text is surrounded by =equal signs= and -italic text by _underscores_. Superscripted text will be precede by a ^ -and surrounded by {braces}. - -Two symbols were used to show stressed and unstressed syllables. These -have been represented by U and --.] - - -THE MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL - -[Illustration: The first Montessori Elementary Class in America, opened -in Rivington Street, New York, May, 1916.] - - - - -_THE ADVANCED MONTESSORI METHOD_ - -THE MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL - -BY - -MARIA MONTESSORI - - AUTHOR OF "THE MONTESSORI METHOD," "PEDAGOGICAL - ANTHROPOLOGY," ETC. - - TRANSLATED FROM THE ITALIAN BY - ARTHUR LIVINGSTON - ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ITALIAN AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - - _WITH FORTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS - AND WITH NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS_ - -[Illustration] - - NEW YORK - FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY - PUBLISHERS - - - - - _Copyright, 1917, by_ - FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY - - _All rights reserved, including that of translation into - foreign languages._ - - - - -ACKNOWLEDGMENT - - -The patent rights in the Montessori apparatus and material are -controlled, in the United States and Canada, by The House of Childhood, -Inc., 16 Horatio Street, New York. The publishers are indebted to them -for the photographs showing the Grammar Boxes. - - - - -TRANSLATOR'S NOTE - - -So far as Dr. Montessori's experiments contain the affirmation of a new -doctrine and the illustration of a new method in regard to the teaching -of Grammar, Reading and Metrics, the following pages are, we hope, a -faithful rendition of her work. But it is only in these respects that -the chapters devoted to these subjects are to be considered a -translation. It will be observed that Dr. Montessori's text is not only -a theoretical treatise but also an actual text-book for the teaching of -Italian grammar, Italian reading and Italian metrics to young pupils. -Her exercises constitute a rigidly "tested" material: her Italian word -lists are lists which, in actual practise, have accomplished their -purpose; her grammatical categories with their relative illustration are -those actually mastered by her Italian students; her reading selections -and her metrical analyses are those which, from an offering doubtless -far more extensive, actually survived the experiment of use in class. - -It is obvious that no such value can be claimed for any "translation" of -the original material. The categories of Italian grammar are not exactly -the categories of English grammar. The morphology and, to a certain -extent, the syntax of the various parts of speech differ in the two -languages. The immediate result is that the Montessori material offers -much that is inapplicable and fails to touch on much that is essential -to the teaching of English grammar. The nature and extent of the -difficulties thus arising are more fully set forth in connection with -specific cases in our text. Suffice it here to indicate that the -English material offered below is but approximately "experimental," -approximately scientific. The constitution of a definitive Montessori -material for English grammar and the definitive manner and order of its -presentment must await the results of experiments in actual use. For the -clearer orientation of such eventual experiments we offer, even for -those parts of Italian grammar which bear no relation to English, a -virtually complete translation of the original text; venturing meanwhile -the suggestion that such studies as Dr. Montessori's treatise on the -teaching of Italian noun and adjective inflections--entirely foreign to -English--may prove valuable to all teachers of modern languages. While -it might seem desirable to isolate such superfluous material from the -"English grammar" given below, we decided to retain the relative -paragraphs in their actual position in the Italian work, in order to -preserve the literal integrity of the original method. Among our -additions to the text we may cite the exercises on the possessive -pronouns--identified by Dr. Montessori with the possessive -adjectives--the interrogatives and the comparison of adjectives and -adverbs. - -Even where, as regards morphology, a reasonably close adaptation of the -Italian material to English uses has been possible, it by no means -follows that the pedagogical problems involved remain the same. The -teaching of the relative pronoun, for instance, is far more complicated -in English than in Italian; in the sense that the steps to be taken by -the child are for English more numerous and of a higher order. Likewise -for the verb, if Italian is more difficult as regards variety of forms, -it is much more simple as regards negation, interrogation and -progressive action. We have made no attempt to be consistent in adapting -the translation to such difficulties. In general we have treated the -parts of speech in the order in which they appear in the Italian text, -though actual experiment may prove that some other order is desirable -for the teaching of English grammar. The English material given below is -thus in part a translation of the original exercises in Italian, in part -new. In cases where it proved impossible to utilize any of the Italian -material, an attempt has been made to find sentences illustrating the -same pedagogical principle and involving the same number and character -of mental processes as are required by the original text. - -The special emphasis laid by Dr. Montessori upon selections from Manzoni -is due simply to the peculiar conditions surrounding the teaching of -language in Italy, where general concepts of the national language are -affected by the existence of powerful dialects and the unstable nature -of the grammar, vocabulary and syntax of the national literature. We -have made no effort to find a writer worthy of being set up as a like -authority, since no such problem exists for the American and English -public. Our citations are drawn to a large extent from the "Book of -Knowledge" and from a number of classics. Occasionally for special -reasons we have translated the Italian original. The chapter on Italian -metrics has been translated entire as an illustration of method; whereas -the portion relating to English is, as explained below, entirely of -speculative character. - -To Miss Helen Parkhurst and Miss Emily H. Greenman thanks are due for -the translation of the chapters on Arithmetic, Geometry, and Drawing. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PART I - - GRAMMAR - - TRANSLATOR'S NOTE vii - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. The Transition from the Mechanical to the Intellectual - Development of Language 3 - - II. WORD STUDY 12 - Suffixes and Prefixes 13 - Suffixes 13 - Prefixes 17 - Compound Words 18 - Word-Families 20 - - III. ARTICLE AND NOUN 22 - Singular and Plural 25 - Masculine and Feminine 27 - Singular and Plural in English 33 - - IV. LESSONS--COMMANDS 39 - Nouns 40 - Commands on Nouns 48 - - V. ADJECTIVES 51 - Analyses 51 - Descriptive Adjectives 51 - Permutations 55 - Inflection of Adjectives 56 - Logical and Grammatical Agreement of Nouns and Adjectives 59 - Descriptive Adjectives 61 - Adjectives of Quantity 63 - Ordinals 64 - Demonstrative Adjectives 64 - Possessive Adjectives 65 - Comparison of Adjectives 65 - - VI. VERBS 66 - Analyses 66 - Permutations 68 - Lessons and Commands on the Verb 69 - Lessons with Experiments 74 - - VII. PREPOSITIONS 77 - Analyses 77 - Permutations 80 - Lessons and Commands on Prepositions 81 - - VIII. ADVERBS 85 - Analyses 85 - Permutations 87 - Lessons and Commands on Adverbs 90 - A Burst of Activity: the Future of the Written Language in - Popular Education 93 - Commands Improvised by the Children 96 - - IX. PRONOUNS 98 - Analyses 98 - Personals 98 - Demonstratives 99 - Relatives and Interrogatives 99 - Possessives 101 - Permutations 101 - Lessons and Commands on the Pronoun 102 - Paradyms 106 - Agreement of Pronoun and Verb 108 - Conjugation of Verbs 110 - - X. CONJUNCTIONS 113 - Analyses 113 - Coordinates 113 - Subordinates 114 - Permutations 115 - Lessons and Commands on the Conjunction 115 - Comparison of Adjectives 117 - - XI. INTERJECTIONS 120 - Analyses 120 - Classification 122 - - XII. SENTENCE ANALYSIS 124 - Simple Sentences 124 - The Order of Elements in the Sentence: Permutations 132 - Compound and Complex Sentences 136 - Test Cards 140 - The Order of Clauses in the Sentence: Sentence Forms - in Prose and Verse 144 - Permutations 147 - Test Cards 151 - Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions 155 - Sequence of Tenses 157 - Punctuation 160 - - XIII. WORD CLASSIFICATION 164 - Kinds of Words 164 - Classified According to Formation 164 - Classified According to Inflection 165 - Classified According to Their Use 165 - - - PART II - - READING - - I. EXPRESSION AND INTERPRETATION 171 - Mechanical Processes 171 - Analysis 173 - Experimental Section: Reading Aloud 179 - Interpretations 182 - Audition 196 - The Most Popular Books 198 - - - PART III - - ARITHMETIC - - I. ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS 205 - Numbers 1-10 205 - Tens, Hundreds and Thousands 208 - Counting-frames 210 - - II. THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE 217 - - III. DIVISION 223 - - IV. OPERATIONS IN SEVERAL FIGURES 225 - Addition 225 - Subtraction 227 - Multiplication 228 - Multiplying on Ruled Paper 235 - Long Division 237 - - V. EXERCISES WITH NUMBERS 241 - Multiples, Prime Numbers and Factoring 241 - - VI. SQUARE AND CUBE OF NUMBERS 251 - - - PART IV - - GEOMETRY - - I. PLANE GEOMETRY 259 - - II. DIDACTIC MATERIAL USED FOR GEOMETRY 265 - Squares and Divided Figures 265 - Fractions 267 - Reduction of Common Fractions to Decimal Fractions 273 - Equivalent Figures 277 - Some Theorems Based on Equivalent Figures 282 - Division of a Triangle 289 - Inscribed and Concentric Figures 290 - - III. SOLID GEOMETRY 292 - The Powers of Numbers 294 - The Cube of a Binomial 295 - Weights and Measures 295 - - - PART V - - DRAWING - - I. LINEAR GEOMETRIC DESIGN DECORATION 301 - Artistic Composition with the Insets 305 - - II. FREE-HAND DRAWING: STUDIES FROM LIFE 307 - - - PART VI - - MUSIC - - I. THE SCALE 319 - - II. THE READING AND WRITING OF MUSIC 326 - Treble and Bass Clefs 328 - - III. THE MAJOR SCALES 333 - - IV. EXERCISES IN RHYTHM 341 - Singing 365 - Musical Phrases for Rhythmic Exercises 367 - - V. MUSICAL AUDITIONS 376 - - - PART VII - - METRICS - - I. THE STUDY OF METRICS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 383 - Stanza and line 384 - Rhyme 384 - Tonic accents (stresses) 385 - Parisyllabic lines 386 - Imparisyllabic lines 388 - The cæsura 391 - Metrical analyses 392 - Translator's note on English metrics 395 - Material for nomenclature 404 - - APPENDIX I 409 - - APPENDIX II 423 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FACING - PAGE - The first Montessori Elementary Class in America _Frontispiece_ - - One of the first steps in grammar 24 - - Grammar Boxes, showing respectively two and three parts of - speech 25 - - Grammar Boxes, showing respectively four and five parts of - speech 78 - - Grammar Boxes, showing respectively six and seven parts of - speech 79 - - Grammar Boxes, showing respectively eight and nine parts of - speech 114 - - The children working at their various occupations in complete - freedom 115 - - Interpreted reading: "Smile and clap your hands" 174 - - Interpreted reading: "Take off your hat and make a low bow" 175 - - Interpreted reading: "Whisper to him" 188 - - Interpreting the pose and expression of a picture 189 - - Interpreted reading: "She was sleepy; she leaned her arms on - the table, her head on her arms, and went to sleep" 200 - - Exercises in interpreted reading and in arithmetic 201 - - The bead material used for addition and subtraction 214 - - Counting and calculating by means of the bead chains 214 - - The bead chain, square, and cube 215 - - The first bead frame 215 - - The second counting-frame used in arithmetic 226 - - Working out problems in seven figures 227 - - Solving a problem in long division 238 - - Bead squares and cubes; and the arithmetic-board for - multiplication and division 239 - - The bead number cubes built into a tower 282 - - The decagon and the rectangle composed of the same - triangular insets 283 - - The triangular insets fitted into their metal plates 283 - - Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two rectangles 288 - - Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two squares 289 - - Hollow geometric solids 296 - - Designs formed by arranging sections of the insets within the - frames 297 - - Making decorative designs with the aid of geometric insets 312 - - Water-color paintings from nature 313 - - The monocord 334 - - Material for indicating the intervals of the major scale 334 - - The music bars 335 - - The children using the music bells and the wooden keyboards 352 - - Analyzing the beat of a measure while walking on a line 353 - - - - -PART I - -GRAMMAR - - - - -MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL - - - - -I - -THE TRANSITION FROM THE MECHANICAL TO THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF -LANGUAGE - - -In the "Children's Houses" we had reached a stage of development where -the children could write words and even sentences. They read little -slips on which were written different actions which they were to -execute, thus demonstrating that they had understood them. The material -for the development of writing and reading consisted of two alphabets: a -larger one with vowels and consonants in different colors, and a smaller -one with all the letters in one color. - -(In English, to diminish the phonetic difficulties of the language, -combinations of vowels and consonants, known as phonograms, are used. -The phonograms with few exceptions have constant sounds and little -attention is paid to the teaching of the separate values of the -different letters: not until the child has built up his rules -inductively does he realize the meaning of separate vowel symbols.) - -However, the actual amount of progress made was not very precisely -ascertained. We could be sure only that the children had acquired the -mechanical technique of writing and reading and were on the way to a -greater intellectual development along these lines. Their progress, -however extensive it may have been, could be called little more than a -foundation for their next step in advance, the elementary school. What -beyond all question was accomplished with the little child in the first -steps of our method was to establish the psycho-motor mechanism of the -written word by a slow process of maturation such as takes place in the -natural growth of articulate speech; in other words, by methodically -exercising psycho-motor paths. - -Later on the child's mind is able to make use of the successive -operations performed with the written language which has been thus built -up by the child as a matter of mechanical execution (writing) and to a -certain extent of intelligent interpretation (reading). Normally this is -an established fact at the age of five. When the child begins to think -and to make use of the written language to express his rudimentary -thinking, he is ready for elementary work; and this fitness is a -question not of age or other incidental circumstance but of mental -maturity. - -We have said, of course, that the children stayed in the "Children's -House" up to the age of seven; nevertheless they learned to write, to -count, to read, and even to do a certain amount of simple composition. -It is clear, accordingly, that they had gone some distance in the -elementary grade as regards both age and educational development. -However, what they had actually accomplished beyond the mechanical -technique of writing was more or less difficult to estimate. We can now -say that our later experiments have not only clarified this situation, -but enabled us to take the children much farther along than -before. - -This only proves, however, that on beginning elementary grade work we -did not depart from the "Children's House" idea; on the contrary we -returned to it to give distinct realization to the nebulous hopes with -which our first course concluded. Hence the "Children's House" and the -lower grades are not two distinct things as is the case with the Fröbel -Kindergarten and the ordinary primary school--in fact, they are one and -the same thing, the continuation of an identical process. - -Let us return then to the "Children's House" and consider the child of -five and one-half years. To-day in those "Children's Houses" which have -kept up with the improvements in our method the child is actually -started on his elementary education. From the second alphabet of the -"Children's House" we go on to a third alphabet. Here the movable -letters are a great deal smaller and are executed in model hand-writing. -There are twenty specimens of each letter, whereas formerly there were -but four; furthermore, there are three complete alphabets, one white, -one black, and one red. There are, therefore, sixty copies of each -letter of the alphabet. We include also all the punctuation marks: -period, comma, accents (for Italian), apostrophe, interrogation and -exclamation points. The letters are made of plain glazed paper. - -The uses of this alphabet are many; so before we stop to examine them -let us look somewhat ahead. Everybody has recognized the naturalness of -the exercise, used in the "Children's House," where the children placed -a card bearing the name of an object on the object referred to. This was -the first lesson in reading. We could see that the child knew how to -read as soon as he was able to identify the object indicated on the -card. In schools all over the world a similar procedure would, I -imagine, be considered logical. I suppose that in all the schools where -the objective method is used much the same thing is done; and this is -found to be not a hindrance but a help to the child in learning the -names of objects. As regards the teaching of the noun, accordingly, we -have been using methods already in use--the objective method, with -practical exercises. But why should we restrict such methods to the -noun? Is the noun not just as truly a _part of speech_ as the adjective, -or the verb? If there is a method by which the knowledge of a noun is -made easy, may there not be similar ways of facilitating the learning of -all the other parts of speech (article, adjective, verb, pronoun, -adverb, interjection, conjunction, and preposition)? - -When a slip with the interpreted word is placed on the object -corresponding to it, the children are actually distinguishing the noun -from all the other parts of speech. They are learning intuitively to -define it. The first step has thus been taken into the realm of grammar. -But if this "reading" has brought the child directly into word -_classification_, the transition has not been for him so abrupt as might -at first appear. The child has built _all_ his words with the movable -alphabet, and he has, in addition, _written_ them. He has thus traversed -a two-fold preparatory exercise involving, first, the analysis of the -sounds and, second, the analysis of the words in their meaning. In fact, -we have seen that, as the child reads, it is his discovery of the tonic -accent that brings him to recognize the word. The child has begun to -analyze not only the sounds and accent but also the form of the word.[1] - - -How absurd it would seem to suggest a study of phonology and morphology -in a nursery with four-year-old children as investigators! Yet our -children have accomplished this very thing! The analysis was the means -of attaining the word. It was what made the child able to write without -effort. Why should such a procedure be useful for single words and not -so for connected discourse? Proceeding to the classification of words by -distinguishing the noun from all other words, we have really advanced -into the analysis of connected speech, just as truly as, by having the -sand-papered letters "touched" and the word pronounced, we took the -first step into the analysis of words. We have only to carry the process -farther and perhaps we shall succeed in getting the analysis of whole -sentences, just as we succeeded in getting at the composition of -words--discovering meanwhile a method which will prove efficacious in -leading the child to write his thoughts more perfectly than would seem -possible at such a tender age. - -For some time, then, we have been actually in the field of grammar. It -is a question simply of continuing along the same path. The undertaking -may indeed seem hazardous. Never mind! That "awful grammar," that -horrible bugaboo, no less terrible than the frightful method, once in -use, of learning to read and write, may perhaps become a delightful -exercise, a loving guide to lead the child along pleasant pathways to -the _discovery_ of things he has _actually performed_. Yes, the child -will suddenly find himself, one day, in possession of a little -composition, a little "work of art," that has issued from his own pen! -And he will be as happy over it as he was when for the first time words -were formed by his tiny hands! - -How different grammar will seem to the young pupil, if, instead of being -the cruel assassin that tears the sentence to pieces so that nothing can -be understood, it becomes the amiable and indispensable help to "the -construction of connected discourse"! It used to be so easy to say: "The -sentence is written! Please leave it alone!" Why put asunder what God -has joined? Why take away from a sentence its meaning, the very thing -which gave it life? Why make of it a mere mass of senseless words? Why -spoil something already perfect just for the annoyance of plunging into -an analysis which has no apparent purpose? Indeed, to impose upon people -who can already read the task of reducing every word to its primal -sounds, would be to demand of them an effort of will so gigantic that -only a professional philologist could apply himself to it with the -necessary diligence, and then only because he has his own particular -interests and aims involved in such work. Yet the four-year-old child, -when he passes from those meaningless sounds to the composition of a -whole, which corresponds to an idea and represents a useful and -wonderful conquest, is just as attentive as the philologist and perhaps -even more enthusiastic. He will find the same joy in grammar, if, -starting from analyses, it gains progressively in significance, -acquiring, step by step, a greater interest, working finally up to a -climax, up to the moment, that is, when the finished sentence is before -him, its meaning clear and _felt_ in its subtlest essences. The child -has created something beautiful, full grown and perfect at its birth, -not now to be tampered with by anybody! - -The analysis of sounds which, in our method, leads to spontaneous -writing, is not, to be sure, adapted to all ages. It is when the child -is four or four and a half, that he shows the characteristically -childlike passion for such work, which keeps him at it longer than at -any other age, and leads him to develop perfection in the mechanical -aspect of writing. Similarly the analytical study of parts of speech, -the passionate lingering over words, is not for children of all ages. It -is the children between five and seven who are the _word-lovers_. It is -they who show a predisposition toward such study. Their undeveloped -minds can not yet grasp a complete idea with distinctness. They do, -however, understand _words_. And they may be entirely carried away by -their ecstatic, their tireless interest in the _parts_ of speech. - -It is true that our whole method was born of heresy. The first departure -from orthodoxy was in holding that the child can best learn to write -between the ages of four and five. We are now constrained to advance -another heretical proposition: children should begin the study of -grammar between the ages of five and a half and seven and a half, or -eight! - -The idea that analysis must be preceded by construction was a matter of -mere prejudice. Only things produced by nature must be analyzed before -they can be understood. The violet, for instance, is found perfect in -nature. We have to tear off the petals, cut the flower into sections to -see how it grew. But in making an artificial violet we do just the -opposite. We prepare the stems piece by piece; then we work out the -petals, cutting, coloring, and ironing them one by one. The preparation -of the stamens, even of the glue with which we put the whole together, -is a distinct process. A few simple-minded people, with a gift for -light manual labor, take unbounded delight in these single operations, -these wonderfully varied steps which all converge to the creation of a -pretty flower; the beauty of which depends on the amount of patience and -skill applied to the work on the individual parts. - -Analysis, furthermore, is involved quite as much in building as in -taking to pieces. The building of a house is an analytical process. The -stones are treated one by one from cellar to roof. The person who puts -the house together knows it in its minutest details and has a far more -accurate idea of its construction than the man who tears it down. This -is true, first, because the process of construction lasts much longer -than that of demolition: more time is spent on the study of the -different parts. But besides this, the builder has a point of view -different from that of the man who is destroying. The sensation of -seeing a harmonious whole fall into meaningless bits has nothing in -common with the alternating impulses of hope, surprise or satisfaction -which come to a workman as he sees his edifice slowly assuming its -destined form. - -For these and still other reasons, the child, when interested in words -at a certain age, can utilize grammar to good purpose, dwelling -analytically upon the various parts of speech according as the processes -of his inner spiritual growth determine. In this way he comes to own his -language perfectly, and to acquire some appreciation of its qualities -and power. - -Our grammar is not a book. The nouns (names), which the child was to -place on the objects they referred to as soon as he understood their -meaning, were written on cards. Similarly the words, belonging to all -the other parts of speech, are written on cards. These cards are all of -the same dimensions: oblongs (5 × 3-1/2 cmm.) of different colors: black -for the noun; tan for the article; brown for the adjective; red for the -verb; pink for the adverb; violet for the preposition; yellow for the -conjunction; blue for the interjection. - -These cards go in special boxes, eight in number. The first box has two -compartments simply; the second, however, three; the third, four; and so -on down to the eighth, which is divided into nine. One wall in each -section is somewhat higher than the others. This is to provide space for -a card with a title describing the contents of the section. It bears, -that is, the name of the relative part of speech. The title-card, -furthermore, is of the same color as that used for the part of speech to -which it refers. The teacher is expected to arrange these boxes so as to -provide for the study of two or more parts of speech. However, our -experiments have enabled us to make the exercises very specific in -character; so that the teacher has at her disposal not only a thoroughly -prepared material but also something to facilitate her work and to check -up the accuracy of it. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[1] The process of learning to read has been more fully set forth in -_The Montessori Method_; the child at first pronounces the sounds -represented by the individual letters (phonograms), without -understanding what they mean. As he repeats the word several times he -comes to read more rapidly. Eventually he discovers the tonic accent of -the word, which is then immediately identified. - - - - -II - -WORD STUDY - - -When a little child begins to read he shows a keen desire to learn -words, words, words! Indeed in the "Children's House" we had that -impressive phenomenon of the children's tireless reading of the little -slips of paper upon which were written the names of objects. - -The child must acquire his word-store for himself. The peculiar -characteristic of the child's vocabulary is its meagerness. But he is -nearing the age when he will need to express his thoughts and he must -now acquire the material necessary for that time. Many people must have -noticed the intense attention given by children to the conversation of -grown-ups when they cannot possibly be understanding a word of what they -hear. They are trying to get hold of _words_, and they often demonstrate -this fact by repeating joyously some word which they have been able to -grasp. We should second this tendency in the child by giving him an -abundant material and by organizing for him such exercises as his -reactions clearly show us are suitable for him. - -The material used in our system not only is very abundant, but it has -been dictated to us by rigid experimentation on every detail. However, -the same successive choices of material do not appear among the children -as a whole. Indeed their individual differences begin to assert -themselves progressively at this point in their education. The -exercises are easy for some children and very hard for others, nor is -the order of selection the same among all the children. The teacher -should know this material thoroughly. She should be able to recognize -the favorable moment for presenting the material to the child. As a -matter of fact, a little experience with the material is sufficient to -show the teacher that the educational facts develop spontaneously and in -such a way as to simplify the teacher's task in a most surprising -manner. - - -SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES - -Here we use charts with printed lists of words which may be hung on the -wall. The children can look at them and also take them in their hands. - -LIST I - -SUFFIXES: AUGMENTATIVES, DIMINUTIVES, PEGGIORATIVES, ETC. - - _buono_ (_good_): buonuccio, buonino, buonissimo - - _casa_ (_house_): casona, casetta, casettina, - casuccia, casaccia, casettaccia - - _formica_ (_ant_): formicona, formicuccia, formicola, - formichetta - - _ragazzo_ (_boy_): ragazzone, ragazzino, ragazaccio, - ragazzetto - - _lettera_ (_letter_): letterina, letterona, - letteruccia, letteraccia - - _campana_ (_bell_): campanone, campanello, - campanellino, campanino, campanaccio - - _giovane_ (_youth_): giovanetto, giovincello, - giovinastro - - _fiore_ (_flower_): fioretto, fiorellino, fioraccio, - fiorone - - _tavolo_ (_board_): tavolino, tavoletta, tavolone, - tavolaccio - - _seggiola_ (_chair_): seggiolone, seggiolina, - seggiolaccia - - _pietra_ (_stone_): pietruzza, pietrina, pietrone, - pietraccio - - _sasso_ (_rock_): sassetto, sassolino, sassettino, - sassone, sassaccio - - _cesto_ (_basket_): cestino, cestone, cestello, - cestellino - - _piatto_ (_plate_): piattino, piattello, piattone - - _pianta_ (_plant_ or _tree_): piantina, pianticella, - pianticina, pianterella, piantona, piantaccia - - _fuoco_ (_fire_): fuochetto, fuochino, fuocherello, - fuocone, fuochettino - - _festa_ (_festival_): festicciola, festona, festaccia - - _piede_ (_foot_): piedino, piedone, pieduccio, - piedaccio - - _mano_ (_hand_): manina, manona, manaccia, manuccia - - _seme_ (_seed_): semino, semetto, semone, semaccio, - semettino - - _semplice_ (_simple person_): semplicino, semplicetto, - sempliciotto, semplicione - - _ghiotto_ ("_sweet-tooth_"): ghiottone, ghiottoncello, - ghiottaccio, ghiottissimo - - _vecchio_ (_old man_): vecchietto, vecchione, - vecchiaccio, vecchissimo - - _cieco_ (_blind_): ciechino, ciechetto, ciecolino, - ciecone, ciecaccio - -Note:--The rôle of augmentative and diminutive suffixes in English is -vastly less important than in Italian. Here are a few specimens: - - _lamb_--lambkin - _duck_--duckling - _bird_--birdling - _nest_--nestling - _goose_--gosling - _mouse_--mousie - _girl_--girlie - _book_-booklet - _brook_--brooklet - _stream_--streamlet - _poet_--poetaster - -The child's exercise is as follows: he composes the first word in any -line with the alphabet of a single color (e.g., black). Next underneath -and using the alphabet of the same color, he repeats the letters in the -second word which he sees also in the first. But just as soon as a -letter changes he uses the alphabet of another color (e.g., red). In -this way the root is always shown by one color, the suffixes by another; -for example:-- - - buono - buon_uccio_ - buon_ino_ - buon_issimo_ - -_For English:_ - - stream - stream_let_ - lamb - lamb_kin_ - -Then the child chooses another word and repeats the same exercise. Often -he finds for himself words not included in the list which is given him. - -In the following chart the suffixes are constant while the root varies. -Here the suffix changes the meaning of the word. From the original -meaning is derived the word for a trade, a place of business, an action, -a collective or an abstract idea. Naturally, the child does not realize -all this at first but limits himself merely to building the words -mechanically with the two alphabets. Later on, however, as grammar is -developed, he may return to the reading of these charts, which are -always at his disposal, and begin to realize the value of the -differences. - -LIST II - - macello (slaughter) macellaio (butcher) - sella (saddle) sellaio (saddler) - forno (oven) fornaio (baker) - cappello (hat) capellaio (hatter) - vetro (glass) vetreria (glaziery) - calzolaio (shoe-maker) calzoleria (shoe-shop) - libro (book) libreria (book-store) - oste (host) osteria (inn) - pane (bread) panetteria (bakery) - cera (wax) cereria (chandler's shop) - dente (tooth) dentista (dentist) - farmacia (pharmacy) farmacista (druggist) - elettricita (electricity) elettricista (electrician) - telefono (telephone) telefonista (telephone operator) - arte (art) artista (artist) - bestia (beast) bestiame (cattle) - osso (bone) ossame (bones, _collective_) - corda (string) cordame (strings, _collective_) - foglia (leaf) fogliame (foliage) - pollo (chicken) pollame (poultry) - grato (grateful) gratitudine (gratitude) - beato (blessed) beatitudine (blessedness) - inquieto (uneasy) inquietudine (uneasiness) - grano (grain) granaio (barn) - colombo (dove) colombaio (dove-cote) - paglia (straw) pagliaio (hay-stack) - frutto (fruit) frutteto (orchard) - canna (reed) canneto (brake) - oliva (olive) oliveto (olive-grove) - quercia (oak) querceto (oak-grove) - -ENGLISH EXAMPLES - - teach teacher - sing singer - work worker - cater caterer - wring wringer - conduct conductor - direct director - launder laundry - seam seamstress - song songstress - priest priestess - mister mistress - cow cowherd - piano pianist - art artist - pharmacy pharmacist - drug druggist - physic physician - prison prisoner - house household - earl earldom - king kingdom - count county - real reality - modern modernness - good goodness - sad sadness - aloof aloofness - -The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as follows: - - frutto frutt_eto_ - canna cann_eto_ - oliva oliv_eto_ - quercia querc_eto_ - -_For English_: - - song song_ster_ song_stress_ - art art_ist_ art_less_ art_ful_ - -LIST III - -PREFIXES - - _nodo_ (_knot_): annodare, snodare, risnodare - - _scrivere_ (_write_): riscrivere, trascrivere, - sottoscrivere, descrivere - - _coprire_ (_cover_): scoprire, riscoprire - - _gancio_ (_hook_): agganciare, sganciare, riagganciare - - _legare_ (_bind_): collegare, rilegare, allegare, - slegare - - _bottone_ (_button_): abbottonare, sbottonare, - riabbottonare - - _macchiare_ (_spot_): smacchiare, rismacchiare - - _chiudere_ (_close_): socchiudere, schiudere, - richiudere, rinchiudere - - _guardare_ (_look at_): riguardare, traguardare, - sogguardare - - _vedere_ (_see_): travedere, rivedere, intravedere - - _perdere_ (_lose_): disperdere, sperdere, riperdere - - _mettere_ (_put_, _place_): smettere, emettere, - rimettere, permettere, commettere, promettere, - sottomettere - - _vincere_ (_overcome_): rivincere, avvincere, - convincere, stravincere - -_For English:_ - - _cover_: uncover, discover, recover - - _pose_: impose, compose, dispose, repose, transpose - - _do_: undo, overdo - - _place_: displace, replace, misplace - - _submit_: remit, commit, omit, permit - - _close_: disclose, foreclose, reclose - - _arrange_: rearrange, disarrange - -The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as follows: - - coprire - _s_coprire - _ri_coprire - -_For English:_ - - place - _dis_place - _re_place - -LIST IV - -COMPOUND WORDS - - cartapecora (parchment) - cartapesta (papier maché) - falsariga (guide) - madreperla (mother-of-pearl) - melagrana (pomegranate) - melarancia (orange) - biancospino (hawthorn) - ficcanaso (busybody) - lavamano (wash-stand) - mezzogiorno (noon) - passatempo (pastime) - ragnatela (cobweb) - madrevite (vine) - guardaportone (doorkeeper) - capoluogo (capital) - capomaestro ("boss") - capofila (pivot-soldier) - capopopolo (demagogue) - caposquadra (commodore) - capogiro (dizziness) - capolavoro (masterpiece) - giravolta (whirl) - mezzaluna (half-moon) - mezzanotte (midnight) - palcoscenico (stage) - acchiappacani (dog-catcher) - cantastorie (story-teller) - guardaboschi (forester) - lustrascarpe (boot-black) - portalettere (letter-carrier) - portamonete (pocketbook) - portasigari (cigar-case) - portalapis (pencil-case) - portabandiera (standard bearer) - guardaroba (wardrobe) - asciugamano (towel) - cassapanca (wooden bench) - arcobaleno (rainbow) - terrapieno (rampart, terrace) - bassorilievo (bas-relief) - granduca (grand-duke) - pianoforte (piano) - spazzacamino (chimney-sweep) - pettorosso (redbreast) - -_For English:_ - - sheepskin - cardboard - shoestring - midnight - midday - noontime - redbreast - appletree - afternoon - moonlight - starlight - doorknob - bedtime - daytime - springtime - flagstaff - rainbow - workman - housekeeper - pastime - chimneysweep - sheepfold - barnyard - sidewalk - snowshoe - shoeblack - firefly - steamboat - milkman - bathroom - streetcar - lifelike - pocketbook - inkwell - tablecloth - courtyard - honeycomb - beehive - flowerpot - buttonhole - hallway - midway - storekeeper - horseman - masterpiece - bookcase - -The children read one word at a time and try to reproduce it from -memory, distinguishing through the two alphabets the two words of which -each one is composed: - - carta _pecora_ - bianco _spino_ - piano _forte_ - spazza _camino_ - lava _mano_ - -_For English:_ - - moon _light_ - work _man_ - -In the following chart the words are grouped in families. This chart may -be used by children who are already well advanced in the identification -of the parts of speech. All the words are derived from some other more -simple word which is a root and of which the other words, either by -suffix or prefix, are made up. All these roots are primitive words which -some day the child may look for in a group of derivatives; and when he -finds them he will realize that the primitive word is a noun, -adjective, or a verb, as the case may be, that it is the word which -contains the simplest idea, and so the derivatives may be nouns, -adjectives, verbs or adverbs. - -On these charts appear various word-families. The teacher is thus spared -the trouble of looking them up. Furthermore the child will some day be -able to use them by himself. The exercises based on these are still -performed with two different alphabets of different color so that the -child can tell at a glance which is the root word. - -WORD-FAMILIES - - _terra_ (_earth_): terrazzo, terremoto, terrapieno, - atterrare, terreno, terriccio, terricciola, - territorio, conterraneo, terreo, terroso, - dissotterrare - - _ferro_ (_iron_): ferraio, ferriera, ferrata, - ferrigno, ferrugginoso, ferrare, sferrare, inferriata - - _soldo_ (_penny_): assoldare, soldato, soldatesca, - soldatescamente - - _grande_ (_great_): ingrandire, grandiosità, - grandioso, grandiosamente, grandeggiare - - _scrivere_ (_write_): scrittura, scritto, scritturare, - scrittore, inscrizione, trascrivere, sottoscrivere, - riscrivere - - _beneficio_ (_benefit_): beneficare, benefattore, - beneficato, beneficenza, beneficamente - - _benedizione_ (_benediction_): benedire, benedicente, - benedetto, ribenedire - - _felicità_ (_happiness_): felice, felicemente, - felicitare, felicitazione - - _fiamma_ (_flame_): fiammante, fiammeggiante, - fiammeggiare, fiammelle, fiammiferi, infiammare - - _bagno_ (_bath_): bagnante, bagnino, bagnarola, - bagnatura, bagnare, ribagnare - - _freddo_ (_cold_): freddolose, infreddatura, - freddamente, raffreddore, raffreddare, sfreddare - - _polvere_ (_dust_): spolverare, impolverare, - polverino, polverizzare, polverone, polveroso, - polveriera, polverizzatore - - _pesce_ (_fish_): pescare, pescatore, ripescare, - pescabile, ripescabile - - _opera_ (_work_): operaio, operare, operazione, - operoso, operosamente, cooperare, cooperazione, - inoperare - - _canto_ (_song_): cantore, cantante, cantare, - cantarellare, cantiochiare ricantare - - _gioco_ (_game_): giocare, giocattolo, giocarellare, - giocatore, giocoso, giocosamente - - _dolore_ (_pain_): doloroso, dolorosamente, dolente, - addolorare, dolersi, condolersi, condoglianza, - addolorato - - _pietra_ (_stone_): pietrificare, pietrificazione, - pietroso, impietrire, pietraio - - _sole_ (_sun_): assolato, soleggiante, soleggiare - - _festa_ (_festival_): festeggiare, festino, - festeggiatore, festeggiato, festaiolo, festante, - festevole, festevolmente, festosamente - - _allegro_ (_happy_): allegria, allegramente, - rallegrare, rallegramento - - _seme_ (_seed_): semina, semenze, seminare, semenzaio, - seminatore, riseminare, seminazione, disseminare, - seminatrice - -_For English:_ - - _wood_: wooden, woodworker, woody, woodsman, woodland - - _earth_: earthen, earthy, earthly, earthborn, - earthward, earthquake, earthling - - _fish_: fishing, fisherman, fishery, fishy, - fishmonger, fishnet - - _well_: welcome, wellmeaning, wellknit - - _war_: warrior, warlike, warship, warhorse, war-whoop, - warsong, war-cry - - _play_: player, playful, playhouse, playmate - - _politic_: politics, politician, political, polity, - politically - - _hard_: hardly, harden, hardness, hardship, hardy, - hardihood, hardware - - _turn_: return, turner, turnstile - - _close_: disclose, closet, unclose, closure, foreclose - -The child sees that the mother word is always the shortest. The _root_ -remains in one color. - - - - -III - -ARTICLE AND NOUN - - [Note:--The English language presents a far simpler - situation than the Italian as regards the agreement of - article and adjectives. Gender itself being, in the - case of English nouns, more a matter of logical theory - than of word-ending, adjectival agreement in the - formal sense in practically unknown to English - grammar. Likewise the formation of the plural is much - simpler in English than in Italian, where the singular - and plural word-endings are closely associated with - gender. It is a question, in fact, whether the whole - subject of the gender of English nouns should not be - taken up somewhat later in connection with the - pronouns, where English shows three singular forms - masculine, feminine, neuter (him, her, it) as against - the Italian two, masculine and feminine (_lo_, _la_, - plural _li_, _le_, etc.). Signora Montessori's - discussion of the situation in Italian still remains - instructive to the teacher of English as an - illustration of method. We retain her text, - accordingly, in its entirety.--TR.] - - -As we have already said, the words chosen for grammatical study are all -printed on small rectangular pieces of cardboard. The little cards are -held together in packages by an elastic band and are kept in their -respective boxes. The first box which we present has two compartments. -In the holders at the back of each compartment are placed the cards -which show the part of speech to be studied, in this case _article_ and -_noun_. The article cards are placed in the article compartment and the -nouns in the noun compartment. When the children have finished their -exercise they replace the cards--the nouns in the place for the nouns -and the articles in the place for the articles. If the words _article_ -and _noun_ are not a sufficient guide for the child, the color at least -will make the task easy. In fact the child will place the black cards -for the noun in the compartment indicated by the black guide-card -(marked _noun_); the tan cards for the article with the tan guide-card -(marked _article_). This exercise recalls the child's experience with -the alphabet boxes, where one copy of each letter is pasted to the -bottom of the box as a guide for the child in replacing the other -letters. The child begins to speak of the _article-section_, the -_noun-section_, and the _article-cards_ and _noun-cards_. In so doing he -begins to _distinguish_ between the parts of speech. The material must -be prepared very accurately and in a definitely determined quantity. For -the first exercise, the children are given boxes with the articles and -nouns shuffled together in their respective compartments. But there must -be just enough articles of each gender to go with the respective nouns. -The child's task is to put the right article in front of the right -noun--a long and patient research, which, however, is singularly -fascinating to him. - -We have prepared the following words. We should recall, however, that -the cards are not found in the boxes in this order, but are mixed -together--the articles shuffled in their box-section and the nouns in -theirs. - - il fazzoletto (the handkerchief) - il libro (the book) - il vestito (the dress) - il tavolino (the little table) - lo specchio (the mirror) - lo zucchero (the sugar) - lo zio (the uncle) - lo stivale (the boot) - i colori (the colors) - i fiori (the flowers) - i disegni (the drawings) - i compagni (the companions) - gli zoccoli (the wooden shoes) - gli uomini (the men) - gli articoli (the articles) - le sedie (the chairs) - la stoffa (the cloth) - la perla (the pearl) - la piramide (the pyramid) - la finestra (the window) - le scarpe (the shoes) - le addizioni (the sums) - le piante (the plants, the trees) - l'occhio (the eye) - l'amico (the friend) - l'acqua (the water) - l'albero (the tree) - gl'invitati (the guests) - gl'incastri (the insets) - gl'italiani (the Italians) - gl'insetti (the insects) - -(We suggest as a corresponding English exercise the introduction of the -_indefinite_ article. This substitution involves four processes against -the eight of the Italian exercise. The use of _an_ before a vowel is -quite analogous to the problem of the Italian _l'_ and _gl'_. However -the theoretical distinction between the definite and indefinite article, -as regards meaning, is reserved by Signora Montessori to a much later -period, though the practical distinction appear in the earliest _Lessons -and Commands_.--Tr.) - - the handkerchief - the book - the dress - the table - the mirror - the sugar - - the colors - the flowers - the drawings - the children - the shoes - the men - - a man - a pearl - a prism - a card - a window - a chair - a tree - - an orange - an apple - an uncle - an eye - an insect - an American - an aunt - -[Illustration: One of the first steps in grammar. The children are -deeply interested in placing the correct articles and nouns together. -(_A Montessori School in Italy._)] - -The child tries to combine article and noun and puts them side by side -on his little table. In this exercise he is guided by sound just as -he was in building words with the movable alphabet. There the child's -first step was to find relationships between real objects and the -linguistic sounds corresponding to them. Now he sees suddenly revealed -to him hitherto unsuspected relationships between these sounds, these -words. To have an empirical way of demonstrating and testing these -relationships, to practise very thoroughly on two kinds of words, -suddenly brought forth into systematic distinctness from the chaos of -words in his mind, offers the child not only a necessary exercise but -the sensation of relief which comes from satisfying an inner spiritual -need. With the most intense attention he persists to the very end of the -exercise and takes great pride in his success. The teacher as she passes -may glance about to see if all the cards are properly placed, but the -child, doubtless, will call her to admire or verify the work that he has -done, before he begins to gather together, first, all the articles, -then, all the nouns, to return them to their boxes. - -[Illustration: Grammar Boxes. The one on the left is for articles and -nouns only; the one on the right, for articles, nouns, and adjectives.] - -This is the first step; but he proceeds with increasing enthusiasm to -set the words in his mind "in order," thereby enriching his vocabulary -by placing new acquisitions in an already determined place. Thus he -continues to construct, with respect to exterior objects, an inner -spiritual system, which had already been begun by his sensory exercises. - - -SINGULAR AND PLURAL - -The exercises on the number and gender of nouns are done without the -help of the boxes. The child already knows that those words are articles -and nouns, so we give him now small groups of forty cards (nouns and -articles) held together by an elastic band. In each one, the group -(tied separately) of the ten singular nouns serves as the guide for the -exercise. These nouns are arranged in a column on the table, one beneath -the other, and the other cards, which are shuffled, must be placed -around this first group in the right order. There are two more cards of -different colors on which the words _singular_ and _plural_ respectively -are written; and these are placed at the top of the respective columns. -We have prepared four series of ten nouns in alphabetical order. In this -way four children may do the exercise at the same time and by exchanging -material they come in contact with a very considerable number of words. - -This is the way the cards should finally be arranged in the four -different exercises: - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il bambino i bambini the child the children, etc. - il berretto i berretti the cap - la bocca le bocche the mouth - il calamaio i calamai the inkstand - la calza le calze the stocking - la casa le case the house - il cappello i cappelli the hat - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - la maestra le maestre the teacher the teachers, etc. - la mano le mani the hand - la matita le matite the pencil - il naso i nasi the nose - il nastro i nastri the ribbon - l'occhio gli occhi the eye - l'orologio gli orologi the clock (watch) - il panchetto i panchetti the bench - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il dente i denti the tooth the teeth, etc. - l'elastico gli elastici the elastic - il fagiolo i fagioli the bean - la fava le fave the bean - la gamba le gambe the leg - il gesso i gessi the plaster - la giacca le giacche the coat - il grembiale i grembiali the apron - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il piede i piedi the foot the feet, etc. - il quaderno i quaderni the copy book - la rapa i rape the turnip - la scarpa le scarpe the shoe - la tasca le tasche the pocket - il tavolino i tavolini the table - la testa le teste the head - l'unghia le unghie the nail (finger) - -Like material has been prepared for the masculine and feminine forms: -The masculine group is kept by itself, while the feminines are shuffled. - - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - - il conte la contessa the count the countess, etc. - l'amico l'amica the friend - l'asino l'asina the donkey - il babbo la mamma the father - il benefattore la benefattrice the benefactor - il bottegaio la bottegaia the shop-keeper - il cugino la cugina the cousin - il cuoco la cuoca the cook - il cacciatore la cacciatrice the hunter - il cavallo la cavalla the horse - - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - - il duca la duchessa the duke the duchess, etc. - il canarino la canarina the canary - il dottore la dottoressa the doctor - il dattilografo la dattilografa the stenographer - l'elefante l'elefantessa the elephant - il figlio la figlia the son - il fratello la sorella the brother - il gallo la gallina the cock - il gatto la gatta the cat - - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - - il leone la leonessa the lion the lioness, etc. - l'ispettore l'ispettrice the inspector - il lupo la lupa the wolf - il lettore la lettrice the reader - il maestro la maestra the schoolmaster - il marchese la marchesa the marquis - il mulo la mula the mule - il nonno la nonna the grandfather - il nemico la nemica the enemy - l'oste l'ostessa the host the hostess, etc. - l'orologiaio l'orologiaia the watch-maker - il poeta la poetessa the poet - il pellicciaio la pellicciaia the furrier - il padre la madre the father - il re la regina the king - il ranocchio la ranocchia the frog - lo sposo la sposa the husband - il servo la serva the man-servant - il somaro la somara the ass - -Finally there are three series of nouns in four forms: Singular and -Plural, Masculine and Feminine. Each group has eighty cards counting -both nouns and articles, and the ten singular masculines in the guiding -group are kept together, apart from the others. The title cards (twelve -in number) are _singular_ and _plural_ and for each of them is a card -marked _masculine_ and a card marked _feminine_. The following is the -order of the material when properly arranged by the child: - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - l'amico l'amica the friend the friend, etc. - il bambino la bambina the child - il burattinaio la burattinaia the puppet-player - il contadino la contadina the peasant - il cavallo la cavalla the horse - il compagno la compagna the companion - il disegnatore la disegnatrice the designer - il dattilografo la dattilografa the stenographer - l'ebreo l'ebrea the Jew - il fanciullo la fanciulla the boy - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - gli amici le amiche the friends the friends, etc. - i bambini le bambine the children - i burattinai le burattinaie the puppet-players - i contadini le contadine the peasants - i cavalli le cavalle the horses - i compagni le compagne the companions - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i disegnatori le disegnatrici the designers - i dattilografi le dattilografe the stenographers - gli ebrei l'ebree the Jews - i fanciulli le fanciulle the boys - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - il gatto la gatta the cat the cat, etc. - il giardiniere la giardiniera the gardener - il giovinetto la giovinetta the youth - l'infermiere l'infermiera the nurse - l'italiano l'italiana the Italian - il lavoratore la lavoratrice the worker - il medico la medichessa the physician - il materassaio la materassaia the mattress-maker - l'operaio l'operaia the workman - il pittore la pittrice the painter - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i gatti le gatte the cats the cats, etc. - i giardinieri le giardiniere the gardeners - i giovinetti le giovinette the youths - gl'infermieri le infermiere the nurses - gl'italiani le italiane the Italians - i lavoratori le lavoratrici the workers - i medici le medichesse the physicians - i materassai le materassaie the mattress-makers - gli operai le operaie the workmen - i pittori le pittrici the painters - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - il ragazzo la ragazza the boy the girl, etc. - il romano la romana the Roman - lo scolare la scolara the scholar - il sarto la sarta the tailor - il santo la santa the saint - il tagliatore la tagliatrice the cutter - l'uomo la donna the man - il vecchio la vecchia the old man - il visitatore la visitatrice the visitor - lo zio la zia the uncle - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i ragazzi le ragazze the boys the girls, etc. - i romani le romane the Romans - gli scolari le scolare the scholars - i sarti le sarte the tailors - i santi le sante the saints - i tagliatori le tagliatrici the cutters - gli uomini le donne the men - i vecchi le vecchie the old men - i visitatori le visitatrici the visitors - gli zii le zie the uncles - -Occasionally class exercises are used in our schools for the four forms -of the Italian noun, masculine and feminine, singular and plural. They -take the form almost of a game, which the children find amusing. A child -for instance distributes around the class all the plural nouns. Then he -reads aloud a noun in the singular. The child who holds the -corresponding plural answers immediately. The same thing is next done -for masculine and feminine, and, finally, for all four forms at once. - -When these exercises have become familiar to the child, others somewhat -more difficult may be presented. These new ones comprise: nouns which -change form completely as they change gender and of which, so far, only -the most familiar examples (_babbo_, "father," _mamma_, "mother," etc.) -have been given (Series A); nouns in which the form is the same in the -singular of both genders (Series B); those in which both genders have a -common form in the singular and a common form in the plural (Series C); -nouns which have only one form for both singular and plural (Series D); -nouns where the same form appears in both genders but with a different -meaning (Series E); finally, nouns which change gender as they pass from -the singular to the plural (Series F). - - -SERIES A - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - il babbo la mamma the father the mother - il becco la capra the he-goat the she-goat - il frate la suora the friar the nun - il fratello la sorella the brother the sister - il genero la nuora the son-in-law the daughter-in-law - il montone la pecora the ram the ewe - il maschio la femmina the male the female - il marito la moglie the husband the wife - il padre la madre the father the mother - il padrino la madrina the godfather the godmother - il porco la scrofa the hog the sow - il toro la vacca the bull the cow - l'uomo la donna the man the woman - il re la regina the king the queen - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i babbi le mamme the fathers the mothers, etc. - i becchi le capre the he-goats - i frati le suore the friars - i fratelli le sorelle the brothers - i generi le nuore the sons-in-law - i montoni le pecore the rams - i maschi le femmine the males - i mariti le mogli the husbands - i padri le madri the fathers - i padrini le madrine the godfathers - i porci le scrofe the hogs - i tori le vacche the bulls - gli uomini le donne the men - i re le regine the kings - - -SERIES B - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - l'artista l'artista the artist the artist, etc. - il collega la collega the colleague - il dentista la dentista the dentist - il pianista la pianista the pianist - il telefonista la telefonista the telephone operator - il telegrafista la telegrafista the telegraph operator - il violinista la violinista the violinist - gli artisti le artiste the artists the artists, etc. - i colleghi le colleghe the colleagues - i dentisti le dentiste the dentists - i pianisti le pianiste the pianists - i telefonisti le telefoniste the telephone operators - i telegrafisti le telegrafiste the telegraph operators - i violinisti le violiniste the violinists - - -SERIES C - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - il consorte la consorte the husband the wife, etc. - il custode la custode the keeper - il cantante la cantante the singer - l'erede l'erede the heir - il giovane la giovane the youth - l'inglese l'inglese the Englishman - il nipote la nipote the nephew - (grandson) - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i consorti le consorti the husbands the wives, etc. - i custodi le custodi the guards - i cantanti le cantanti the singers - gli eredi l'eredi the heirs - i giovani le giovani the youths - gl'inglesi le inglesi the Englishmen - i nipoti le nipoti the nephews - (grandsons) - - -SERIES D - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il bazar i bazar the bazaar the bazaars, etc. - il caffè i caffè the coffee - il gas i gas the gas - la gru le gru the crane - il lapis i lapis the pencil - la libertà le libertà the liberty - l'omnibus gli omnibus the omnibus - la virtù le virtù the virtue - - SERIES E - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculinr_ _Feminine_ - il melo la mela the apple tree the apple - il pesco la pesca the peach tree the peach - l'ulivo l'uliva the olive tree the olive - il pugno la pugna the blow (punch) the battle - il manico la manica the handle the sleeve - il suolo la suola the floor the sole - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i meli le mele the apple tree the apples - i peschi le pesche the peach tree the peaches - gli ulivi le ulive the olive trees the olives - i pugni le pugne the blows (punches) the battles - i manichi le maniche the handles the sleeves - i suoli le suole the floors the soles - - SERIES F - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il centinalo le centinala the hundred the hundreds, etc. - il dito le dita the finger - la eco gli echi the echo - il paio le paia the pair - il riso le risa the smile (laugh) - l'uovo le uova the egg - - -THE SINGULAR AND PLURAL IN ENGLISH - -TRANSLATOR'S NOTE:--While the formation of the English plural does not -present the complications of gender that appear in Italian, the phonetic -adaptations required by the plural ending -s along with certain -orthographical caprices and historical survivals of the language, result -in a situation somewhat more complex than treated by Signora Montessori. -In fact, her analysis of the Italian plural requires eight word-lists, -while English requires at least fourteen, not including the question of -foreign nouns. The special stress on the article is hardly necessary in -English. An analogous treatment for English would be somewhat as -follows: - - -SERIES I - -(Simple plurals in _-s_) - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - book books - bed beds - desk desks - street streets - tree trees - card cards - prism prisms - lamp lamps - cow cows - cat cats - train trains - ticket tickets - car cars - floor floors - chairs chairs - pin pins - shoe shoes - wagon wagons - bean beans - counter counters - - -SERIES II - -(Plurals in _-es_, including _-s_ pronounced like _-es_) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - house houses - horse horses - prize prizes - judge judges - cage cages - case cases - sausage sausages - wedge wedges - edge edges - ledge ledges - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - bush bushes - church churches - box boxes - fox foxes - glass glasses - watch watches - topaz topazes - class classes - wretch wretches - - -SERIES III - -(Plurals of Nouns in _-o_) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - potato potatoes - negro negroes - volcano volcanoes - tomato tomatoes - - -SERIES III - -(Plurals of Nouns in _-o_) - - LIST A - - hero heroes - mosquito mosquitoes - motto mottoes - domino dominoes - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - piano pianos - soprano sopranos - zero zeros - banjo banjos - halo halos - dynamo dynamos - canto cantos - solo solos - memento mementos - chromo chromos - - -SERIES IV - -(Nouns in _-f_ or _-fe_) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - calf calves - elf elves - half halves - loaf loaves - wolf wolves - shelf shelves - thief thieves - leaf loaves - self selves - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - knife knives - wife wives - life lives - - LIST C - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - staff staffs - wharf wharfs - puff puffs - cliff cliffs - scarf scarfs - chief chiefs - fife fifes - - -SERIES V - -(Nouns in _-y_) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - body bodies - sky skies - gipsy gipsies - berry berries - penny pennies - soliloquy soliloquies - sty sties - Mary Maries - ferry ferries - country countries - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - boy boys - valley valleys - day days - derby derbys - - -SERIES VI - -(Plurals in _-en_) - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - child children - ox oxen - brother brethren (brothers) - - -SERIES VII - -(Plurals with internal change (umlaut)) - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - foot feet - tooth teeth - goose geese - louse lice - mouse mice - man men - woman women - - -SERIES VIII - -(Singular and Plural identical) - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - sheep sheep - fish fish - deer deer - swine swine - - -SERIES IX - -(Compound words) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - black-bird black-birds - steamboat steamboats - redcoat redcoats - redbreast redbreasts - forget-me-not forget-me-nots - spoonful spoonfuls - mouthful mouthfuls - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - brother-in-law brothers-in-law - mother-in-law mothers-in-law - court-martial courts-martial - attorney-general attorneys-generals - general-in-chief generals-in-chief - Knight-Templar Knights-Templar - -All these groups of words in their order are reproduced in special -booklets which the children may take home and read. In actual practise -such books have proved both convenient and necessary. The children -generally spend much time on them and delight in reading the words over -and over in the order in which they themselves have discovered them in -the card exercise. This recalls and fixes their own ideas, inducing a -sort of inner maturation which is often followed by the spontaneous -discovery of grammatical laws on the relations of nouns, or by a lively -interest which throws the children into exclamations or laughter as they -observe what great differences of meaning are sometimes caused by a very -slight change in the word. At the same time these simple exercises, so -fruitful in results, may be used for work at home and well meet the -demands for something to do with which children are continually -assailing their parents. For homework we have prepared alphabets where -the letters are printed in type-writing order. With them the child can -compose words, or later, sentences, at the same time becoming familiar -with the alphabet arrangement of standard typewriters. - - - - -IV - -LESSONS--COMMANDS - - -The first lessons in grammar which I gave to children go back fully -sixteen years. I first attempted the education of defectives in the -"Scuola Magistrale Ortofrenica" in Rome in the year 1899 following a -course of lectures I had given to teachers in the normal school of our -capital. In this experiment I went far enough with primary work to -prepare some of the defective children for successful examinations in -the public schools. A very brief and incomplete summary of my -pedagogical studies delivered in the teacher's courses is given in the -appendix to this volume. - -The teaching of grammar was not at that time so complete as it has since -been made in my work with normal children; even so it was a marked -success. Grammar was actually _lived_ by the children, who became deeply -interested in it. Even those wretched children who came, like rubbish -thrown out of the public schools, directly off the street or from the -insane asylums, passed delightful half hours of joyous laughter over -their exercises in grammar. Here are some excerpts from the old pamphlet -of 1900 giving an idea of the didactic material which was then used and -some notion of a lesson on nouns. "As each word is read or written for -every object-lesson, for every action, printed cards are being assembled -which will later be used to make clauses and sentences with words that -may be moved about just as the individual letters were moved about in -making the words themselves. The simple clauses or sentences should -refer to actions performed by the children. The first step should be to -bring two or more words together: e.g., _red-wool_, _sweet-candy_, -_four-footed dog_, etc. Then we may go on to the sentence itself: _The -wool is red_; _the soup is hot_; _the dog has four feet_; _Mary eats the -candy_, etc. The children first compose the sentences with their cards; -then they copy them in their writing books. To facilitate the choice of -the cards, they may be arranged in special boxes: for instance, one box -may be labeled _noun_; or the boxes may be distinguished thus: _food_, -_clothing_, _animals_, _people_, etc. There should be a box for -_adjectives_ with compartments for colors, shapes, qualities, etc. There -should be another for _particles_, with compartments for articles, -conjunctions, prepositions, etc. A box should be reserved for _actions_, -with the label _verbs_ above it, containing compartments for the -infinitive, present, past and future. The children gradually learn by -practise to take their cards from the boxes and put them back in their -proper places. They soon learn to know their "word boxes" and they -readily find the cards they want among the _colors_, _shapes_, -_qualities_, etc., or among _animals_, _foods_, etc. Ultimately the -teacher will find occasion to explain the meaning of the big words -written at the top of the drawers, _noun_, _adjective_, _verb_, etc., -and this will be the first step into the subject of _grammar_. - - -NOUNS - -We may call persons and objects by their _name_, their _noun_. People -answer if we call them, so do animals. Inanimate objects, however, -never answer, because they cannot; but if they could they would. For -example, if I say _Mary_, Mary answers; if I say _peas_, the peas do not -answer, because they cannot. You children _do_ understand when I call an -object and you _bring_ it to me. I say, for example, _book_, _beans_, -_peas_. If I don't tell you the name of the object, you don't understand -what I am talking about; because every object has a different name. This -_name_ is the word that stands for the object. This name is a _noun_. - -Whenever I mention a noun to you, you understand immediately the object -which the noun represents: tree, chair, pen, book, lamb, etc. If I do -not give this noun, you don't know what I am talking about; for, if I -say simply _bring me ... at once, I want it_, you do not know what I -want, unless I tell you the name of the object. Unless I give you the -_noun_, you do not understand. Thus every object is represented by a -word which is its _name_; and this name is a _noun_. To understand -whether a word is a noun or not, you simply ask: _Is it a thing? Would -it answer if I spoke to it?_ or _Could I carry it to the teacher?_ For -instance, _bread_: yes, bread is an object; _table_: yes, it is an -object; _conductor_: yes, the conductor would answer, if I were to speak -to him. - -Let us look through our cards now. I take several cards from different -boxes and shuffle them. Here is the word _sweet_. Bring me _sweet_! Is -there anything to answer when I call _sweet_? But you are bringing me a -piece of candy! I didn't say _candy_: I said _sweet_. And now you have -given me _sugar_! I said _sweet_! _Sweet_, you see, is not an object You -cannot guess what I have in mind when I say _sweet_. If I say _candy_, -_sugar_, then you understand what I want, what object I am thinking -about, because the words _candy_, _sugar_, stand for objects. Those -words are _nouns_."[2] - -This summary, however, fails to give a real idea of the success of these -lessons. When I said with a tone of decision, as if I could not think of -the necessary word, "Bring me--bring me--bring me--," the children would -gather round me, looking fixedly at my lips, like so many little dogs, -waiting for me to throw something for them to fetch. They were in fact -ready to run and get what I wanted. But the word refused to come. "Bring -me--, bring me--." Finally in great impatience I cried, "But bring it to -me quick--I want it." Then their faces lit up and they would laughingly -cry, "But bring you what? What is it you want? What shall we bring you?" - -This was the real lesson on the noun, and when, after great difficulty, -the word "_sweet_" came out, the children would run and bring me every -possible object that was sweet. I would refuse each one in turn. "No, I -didn't ask for candy! No, I didn't ask for sugar!" The children would -look at the object they had in their hands, half laughing, half puzzled -and beginning to realize that _sweet_ was not a _name_, that it was not -a _noun_. These first lessons, which seemed something like commands that -needed the help of the children to express themselves, brought the -children to understand some part of speech, while evoking, at the same -time, vivid and interesting scenes. They furnished the original impulse -to the development we have reached to-day in our lessons on grammar. For -such lessons we have adopted the term "commands." But with normal -children these "commands" were gradually multiplied and evolved. They -are no longer entrusted to the teacher's ingenuity; nor are they -dependent solely upon her dramatic sense--something essential if she is -to stimulate the weak nervous reactions of little defectives and so gain -and hold their attention. The "commands" to-day are written and may be -read. They are combined with the card-exercises where the cards are read -in silence and interpreted through actions--a method which grew -spontaneously and with such great success from the work in the -"Children's House." That is why, to-day, we speak in the elementary -courses of "reading commands" or even of "writing commands." - -The study of grammar has finally been arranged in a methodical series of -exercises and the material has been prepared after careful and rigid -experiment. Those who read this method will get a clear idea of the -teacher's task. She has a material ready for use. She need not bother to -compose a single sentence nor to consult a single program. The objects -at her disposal contain all that is necessary. She need know simply what -they are and how they are to be used. The lessons which she must give -are so simple, and require so few words, that they become lessons rather -of gesture and action than of words. It must be borne in mind, further, -that the work is not as uninteresting as would appear from this arid -summary. The actual school is a real intellectual laboratory, where the -children work all the time and by themselves. After the material has -been presented to them, they _recognize_ it and like to hunt for it. -They know how to find for themselves the precious objects which they -want to use. They often exchange materials and even lessons with other -children. The few lessons the teacher gives connect, as it were, a -system of live wires, which set in motion activities quite -disproportionate to the energy expended in the simple act she performs. -She pushes, so to speak, a button and here a bell rings, there a light -goes on, there a machine begins to buzz. Very often the teacher sees a -whole week go by without any need of intervention on her part. - -And yet what delicacy and tact are necessary properly to "offer" this -material, to give in an interesting way a lesson calculated to exert a -direct action upon the child's spiritual activity! How skilful we must -be to leave all the child's spontaneous impulses free to develop -themselves, to keep careful watch over so many different individual -impulses! This we must do if we are to "keep the lamp burning"! When, -for example, on passing a table where the child has analyzed a sentence -with the colored cards, the teacher shifts about, as if in play, one of -the little slips, not only must she be possessed of the psychological -insight necessary for intervening in this child's work at the proper -time, but she must also have in mind the grammatical rule of which she -wishes to give the child his first intuition. It follows that every -single act of the teacher, however insignificant apparently, is, like -the acts of the priest in the service, of the greatest importance, and -should come from a consciousness thoroughly awake, and full of -potentiality. Instead of giving out what she has in herself, the teacher -must bring out the full possibilities of the children. - -The teacher's extrinsic preparation is a matter of thorough acquaintance -with the material. It should be so much a part of her that she knows at -once what is needed for each individual case as soon as it arises. -Actual practise soon develops this skill. - -The exercises are performed with these little packages of specially -prepared cards. The most important problem (for Italian grammar) is in -the _agreements_; the agreement of article and noun, as we have already -shown, the agreement of noun and adjective, and later on of pronoun and -verb, and pronoun and noun. There are two kinds of exercises, which we -have termed respectively "analyses" and "commands." - -The _commands_ involve both work done by the teacher and exercises -performed by the children. The purpose here is to clarify the meanings -of words and often to suggest a _practical_ interpretation of them. This -_explanation_ is followed by an exercise of the children themselves, who -in turn practically interpret the meaning of one or more sentences -written on a card which they read just as they did in the first -exercises of reading in the "Children's House." On this card are the -words which the teacher has just explained. In our experiments we gave -these lessons immediately after "silence" just as we did for reading in -the "Children's House." All the children, however, do not necessarily -take part in these executions--oftenest it is only a group of children, -sometimes one child alone, again, at other times, almost all of them. If -possible the commands are given in another room, while the other -children continue their work in the large hall. If this is not possible -it takes place in the same room. These commands might be called "an -introduction to dramatic art," for right there little dramatic scenes -full of vivacity and interest are "acted out." The children are -singularly delighted in working for the one exact "interpretation" which -a given word requires. - -The _analyses_, on the other hand, are of quite different character. -"Analysis" is done at the table. It is work which requires quiet and -concentration. While the command gives the _intuition_, the analysis -provides for the _maturation_ of the idea. The grammar boxes are used -in these exercises. In a larger compartment which each box contains, -are placed several slips bearing a printed sentence; for example, _Throw -down your handkerchief_. The child draws a slip and places it to one -side on the table. Then he takes from the different boxes the colored -slips corresponding to the different words in the sentence and places -them side by side one after the other. In this way he composes the -entire sentence: _Throw down your handkerchief_. The child is actually -doing here a very simple thing: he is merely translating into colored -cards the sentence which is printed on his slip. He composes this -sentence in the same way in which he has already composed words with the -moveable alphabet. But here the exercise is even more simple because the -child need not remember the sentence, for it is there right before his -eyes. His attention must be concentrated on other facts, so that all -intellectual effort in the composition of the sentence itself is -eliminated. The child has to note the colors and the position of the -cards in the different boxes, since he must take the cards now from the -noun box, now from the adverb box, now from that of the preposition, -etc.; and the colors together with the position (each section has a -title, as we have already seen) strengthen his consciousness of a -_classification_ of words according to _grammar_. - -But what really makes this exercise in analysis so interesting is the -teacher's repeated permutation of the different cards. As she goes by a -table she changes, as though in fun, the position of a card, and in this -way provokes the intuition of grammatical rules and definitions. Indeed, -when she takes out the card, which refers to some new part of the -exercise, the remaining sentence with its changed meaning emphasizes the -function of the part of speech which has been moved. The effect shows a -distant analogy to the light that pathology and vivisection throw on -physiology. An organ which fails in its function illustrates exactly -that function, for never does one realize the precise use of an organ -more clearly than when it has lost its power of functioning. Furthermore -the removal of the words demonstrates that the meaning of the sentence -is not given by the word alone but by the _order_ of the word in the -sentence, and this makes a great impression on the child. He sees the -same cards first in a chaotic mass and then in an orderly arrangement. -What was first a collection of meaningless words has suddenly become the -expression of a _thought_. - -From now on the child begins to experience a keen interest in the -_order_ of words. The meaning, the only thing the child is after, is no -longer hidden in confusion. He begins to enjoy subtle permutations, -changes which, without destroying the expression of a thought, obscure -its clarity, complicate it, or make it "sound wrong." It is here that -the teacher must have at her fingertips the rules governing the position -of the various parts of speech. This will give her the necessary -"lightness of touch," perhaps even the opportunity of making some -brilliant little explanation, some casual observation, which may -suddenly develop in the child a profound "grammatical insight." When the -child has understood this he will become a deep "strategist" in -mobilizing, disposing and moving about these cards which express -_thought_; and if he really succeeds in mastering this secret, he will -not be easily satiated with so fascinating an exercise. No one but a -child would ever have the patience to study grammar so profoundly and at -such length. This subtle work is, after all, not so easy for the -teacher. That is why the material must be such as to suggest each step -in detail. The teacher should be relieved as much as possible of the -labor of preparation and research: for her delicate work of -_intervention_ is a task hard enough in itself. In preparing this -material we have worked for her: we have acted as the workmen who -produce the various objects necessary to life; she has but to "live" and -"make live." This will show still more clearly how far from truth is the -modern conception of pedagogy which attempts to realize its desire for -freedom in the school by saying to the teacher, "Try to respond to the -needs of the pupils without being conscious of your authority over -them." When we ask a teacher to respond to the needs of the inner life -of man, we are asking a great deal of her. She will never be able to -accomplish it, unless we have first done something for her by giving her -all that is necessary to that end. Here is our material:-- - - -COMMANDS ON NOUNS - -"CALLING" - - Call loudly: - Mary! Lucy! Ethel! - - Later call again: - Blonde! Beautiful! Good! - - Call: - Peter! bring a chair. - George! bring a cube. - Louis! get a frame. - Charles! Charles! quick! bring me the ... bring it to me, - quick, quick. - - Call slowly this way: - Come! Come! give me a kiss--please, come! - - Then say: - Mary! come! give me a kiss! - -These commands lend themselves to a little dramatic scene. It is really -a sort of play, which the children recite. - -The tendency to recitation and to imitation is very strong and often -well developed at the age of five years. Little children experience a -singular fascination in pronouncing the words with sentiment and in -accompanying them with gestures. One can hardly imagine the simplicity -of the little dramatic acts which interest the five year old child. -Nothing but actual experiment could possibly have revealed it to us. One -day, in fact, our little children were invited to be present at a -dramatic entertainment given by the older children of the Public -Schools. They followed it with really surprising interest. However, they -remembered only three words of the play they had heard; but with these -three words they made up a little dramatic action of their own, which -they repeated over and over again the following day. - -The commands of these "call" cards are, accordingly, real plays for our -little ones. The child calls, pronouncing the name with a sort of -sustained drawl; the child who is called comes forward; then the same -thing is done with the other names, and each child obeys as he is -called. Then the incomplete calls begin: _blonde!_ _blonde!_ -_beautiful!_ And no one moves! This makes a great impression on the -children. Imperative commands, like requests, lend themselves to active -dramatic action. Peter has been called and has brought his chair; George -has brought the cube; Louis has taken out a frame; but Charles sits -there intent, expectant, while the child calls out,--_But bring it to -me, bring it to me quickly!_ And how expressive we found the vain -request,--_Come, come! please give me a kiss,--come, come!_ At last the -cry,--_Mary! come!_ brings the resulting action and Mary runs to give -the kiss which has been so long invoked! - -These little "plays" require a real study of the parts, and the children -rehearse their different rôles over and over again. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[2] See pp. 446-448. - - - - -V - -ADJECTIVES - - -ANALYSES - - MATERIAL: _Grammar box._ - _Various objects already familiar to the children._ - _New objects._ - -The material for word analysis consists of small cards for articles -(tan), nouns (black) and adjectives (brown). There is one box with three -compartments, each section marked with a card bearing the respective -title: _article_, _noun_, _adjective_. At the front of the box is a -space for other cards containing printed sentences to be analyzed. - - -DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES - -The child is to read the sentences, find the objects described in them, -and finally build the sentences with his cards as follows: suppose the -card reads: - - il colore verde the green color - il colore turchino the blue color - il colore rosso the red color - -The child finds the three colored tablets used in the familiar exercise -of the "Children's House" for the education of the sense of color. He -places these tablets on his table. Then he builds the phrases out of his -word cards: - - - +----+ +--------+ +-------+ +-----+ +-------+ +-------+ - | il | | colore | | verde | | the | | green | | color | - +----+ +--------+ +-------+ +-----+ +-------+ +-------+ - -Beside the completed expression he places the green color-tablet. -Passing to the next phrase, he does not disturb the words _the_ and -_color_. He removes only the word _green_ and substitutes for it the -adjective _blue_, at the same time removing the green tablet and -substituting for it the blue. Similarly, for the third phrase, he -changes the adjective, putting the red tablet at the end. Thus the -_three different objects_ were distinguished _only_ by the adjective: - - { verde { green} - _il colore_ { turchino _the_ { blue } _color_ - { rosso { red } - -All the phrases and sentences refer to objects used in the previous -educational material. Occasionally the teacher will have to prepare -something herself (e.g., hot, cold, warm, or iced water; clear water; -colored water). For this exercise on _water_, the box contains six slips -with the six printed phrases. In the box-sections, the child finds the -corresponding word-cards which are exactly in the number needed for the -exercise (not corresponding, that is, to the number of words in the -phrases, since the articles and nouns are not repeated). There are five -groups of such exercises, dealing with various kinds of sensation. - - A. SENSO CROMATICO SENSE OF COLOR - - il colore rosa the pink color - il colore rosa scuro the dark pink color - il colore rosa chiaro the light pink color - - il prisma azzurro the blue prism - il prisma marrone the brown prism - - il colore verde the green color - il colore turchino the blue color - il colore rosso the red color - - i lapis neri the black pencils - i lapis colorati the colored pencils - - l'acqua colorata the colored water - l'acqua incolora the clear water - - il colore giallo the yellow color - il colore arancione the orange color - - B. SENSO VISIVO: DIMENSIONI SENSE OF SIGHT: SIZE - - l'asta lunga the long staff - l'asta corta the short staff - - il cubo grande the large cube - il cubo piccolo the small cube - - il cilindro alto the tall cylinder - il cilindro basso the short cylinder - - il prisma marrone grosso the thick brown prism - il prisma marrone fino the thin brown prism - - il rettangolo largo the broad rectangle - il rettangolo stretto the narrow rectangle - - l'incastro solido the solid inset - l'incastro piano the plane inset - - C. SENSO VISIVO: FORMA SENSE OF SIGHT: SHAPE - - il triangolo equilatero the equilateral triangle - il triangolo isocele the isoceles triangle - il triangolo scaleno the scalene triangle - - il triangolo acutangolo the acute-angled triangle - il triangolo ottusangolo the obtuse-angled triangle - il triangolo rettangolo the right-angled triangle - - l'incastro circolare the circular inset - l'incastro quadrato the square inset - l'incastro rettangolare the rectangular inset - - la piramide quadrangolare the quadrangular pyramid - la piramide triangolare the triangular pyramid - il prisma azzurro rettangolare the blue rectangular prism - il prisma azzurro quadrangolare the blue quadrangular prism - - la scatola cilindrica the cylindrical box - la scatola prismatica the prismatic box - - D. SENSO TATTILE: MUSCOLARE SENSE OF TOUCH: MUSCULAR SENSE - - la superfice piana the flat surface - la superfice curva the curved surface - - la stoffa ruvida the rough cloth - la stoffa liscia the smooth cloth - - l'acqua calda the hot water - l'acqua fredda the cold water - l'acqua tiepida the warm water - - l'acqua fredda the cold water - l'acqua ghiacciata the iced water - - la tavoletta pesante the heavy black-board - la tavoletta leggera the light black-board - - la stoffa morbida the soft cloth - la stoffa dura the hard cloth - - E. SENSO UDITIVO; SENSES OF HEARING; - OLFATTIVO; GUSTATIVO SMELL; TASTE - il rumore forte the loud noise - il rumore leggero the faint noise - - il suono acuto the sharp sound - il suono basso the deep sound - - l'acqua odorosa the fragrant water - l'acqua inodora the odorless water - - l'odore buono the good smell - l'odore cattivo the bad smell - - il sapore amaro the bitter taste - il sapore dolce the sweet taste - - il sapore acido the sour taste - il sapore salso the salty taste - -The teacher who is observing notices whether the child has taken the -right objects; if so, she proceeds to the permutations. - - -PERMUTATIONS - -At this point, the teacher should recall (in dealing with Italian) the -grammatical rules for the position of adjectives, some of which (the -fundamental ones) will certainly be very useful to her in executing -these first permutations:-- - -I. In general, the adjective follows the noun. If placed before the -noun, it is less conspicuous; if placed after, it assumes more -importance and has a different force. - -II. When the adjective is used to signify the exclusive superlative of a -quality, it is not only placed after the noun, but is preceded by the -article. (_Umberto il buono_, "Humbert the Good.") - -Example:--The child has composed the following phrase with his cards: -_il triangolo rettangolo_ "the right-angled triangle." The teacher can -interchange the words thus: _il rettangolo triangolo_, "the triangle -right-angled." Similarly also, for other phrases:-- - - il prisma rettangolare azzurro the rectangular blue prism - il rettangolare azzurro prisma the prism, rectangular, blue - i lapis neri the black pencils - i neri lapis the pencils black - il colore rosso the red color - il rosso colore the color red - -Both the meaning and the child's habits show him the normal position of -the adjective. In some phrases, such as, - - il rumore leggero the faint sound - il sapore dolce the sweet taste - -the placing of the adjective before the noun renders the meaning vague, -figurative, emotional, or generic, whereas it would be clearly -descriptive and precise were the adjective in its normal position: - - il dolce sapore the taste sweet - il leggero rumore the noise faint - -(In English the normal position of the adjective is before the noun. The -permutation develops a strong rhetorical flavor, of which the child will -become conscious later in his studies on poetic inversions.--Tr.) - -After the teacher has made these changes, if they have interested the -child, she may say for example: "The adjective comes after its noun" -(for Italian); "The adjective comes before its noun" (for English). In -this way she will have given a lesson in _theoretical_ grammar. - - -INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES - -(Exclusively for the Italian language) - -Another exercise to be done at the table deals with the formation of the -singular and plural of adjectives in the two genders. This exercise -brings the child in contact with a great many adjectives of quality. Two -series, one of twenty masculine, the other of twenty feminine adjectives -(in the two numbers) and two other series, twenty singulars and twenty -plurals (in the two genders), form four groups of cards, one-half of -which (tied separately) serves to direct the placing of the other half. -Here are the words in their groups: - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ - acuto acuti sharp - allegro allegri joyous - attenta attente careful, attentive - basso bassi low - buona buone good - caldo caldi hot - cattiva cattive bad - dolce dolci sweet - duro duri hard - educata educate educated, well mannered - felice felici happy - fredda fredde cold - grande grandi large - grazioso graziosi graceful, pretty - gioiosa gioiose merry - gentile gentili kind - italiano italiani Italian - rabbioso rabbiosi angry - largo larghi broad - lento lenti slow - malata malate ill - odorosa odorose fragrant - arioso ariose airy - prezioso preziosi precious - piena piene full - pesante pesanti heavy - pulito puliti clean - rozza rozze rough, uncouth - rosso rossi red - robusta robuste robust - sincero sinceri sincere - studioso studiosi studious - stretto stretti narrow - stupida stupide stupid - vecchia vecchie old - morbido morbide soft - leggiera leggiere light (weight) - lunga lunghe long - grosso grossi thick - colorita colorite colored - - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ - alti alte tall - bello bella beautiful - brevi brevi short, brief - biondo bionda blonde - chiaro chiara clear, light (of color) - corto corta short - coraggiosi coraggiose courageous - disordinato disordinata disorderly - dolce dolce sweet - debole debole feeble - esatto esatta accurate - freddo fredda cold - grazioso graziosa graceful - grande grande large - garbati garbate polite - gentili gentili kind - italiani italiane Italian - inglese inglese English - lento lenta slow - svelto svelta lithe - ottimo ottima best, excellent - ordinato ordinata orderly - pigri pigre lazy - pallido pallida pale - piccolo piccola small - ruvidi ruvide rough - serio seria serious, honest - suo sua his, her, your - sgarbato sgarbata rude - tuo tua thy - timido timida timid - ultimo ultima last - vostro vostra yours - zoppi zoppe lame - zitto zitta silent - carino carina dear - liscio liscia smooth - obbediente obbediente obedient - contenti contente content, happy - allegro allegra joyous - -Here, just as with the four noun forms (masculine, feminine, singular -and plural), class games may be found useful. The plural forms may be -dealt out to the class, while one child reads aloud the singulars, one -after the other. The child, who, in a given case, has the proper plural, -reads his card in answer. Similarly, for masculine and feminine. - - -LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL AGREEMENT OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES - -(For Italian Exclusively) - -Another table exercise consists in arranging two groups of fifty cards, -of which twenty-five are nouns (constituting the directing group), while -the other twenty-five are adjectives. The nouns are put in a row and the -child looks among the adjectives (which have been thoroughly shuffled) -for those which are best suited to the different nouns. As he finds them -he places them by the nouns with which they belong. Sometimes the nouns -and adjectives placed together cause a great deal of merriment by the -amusing contrasts that arise. The children try to put as many adjectives -as possible with the same noun and develop in this way the most -interesting combinations. Here are two groups which come prepared with -the material: - - _Nome_ _Aggettivo_ _Adjective_ _Noun_ - contadina allegra happy peasant-girl - casa bella beautiful house - zia brava good aunt - mamma cara dear mother - professore alto tall professor - meastra magra thin (lean) teacher - lavandaia pulita neat washerwoman - marinaio robusto strong sailor - carrettiere abbronzato sunburnt wagon-driver - bambino buono good child - lavagnetta rettangolare square slate - foglio bianco white paper (sheet of) - panchetto basso low bench - prisma grosso thick prism - vaso largo broad vase - foglia verde green leaf - circolo perfetto perfect circle - pizzicagnolo grosso fat butcher - testa unta oily (dirty) head - gomma densa hard, dense rubber - fanciullo stizzito cross, angry child - figlio obbediente obedient son - pietra nera black rock, stone - latte bianco white milk - formaggio tenero soft, tender cheese - carne fresca fresh meat - vino rosso red wine - disegno grazioso pretty drawing - perla lucente shining pearl - vetro trasparente transparent glass - ragazzina impertinente impertinent lass - asino paziente patient donkey - gallina grassa fat hen - topo agile quick, nimble mouse - acqua limpida clear water - saponetta odorosa perfumed, fragrant soap - medico bravo good doctor - giardiniere bizzarro surly gardener - cane arrabbiato mad dog - manicotto morbido soft muff - gatto arruffato ruffled cat - colombo viaggiatore travelling (carrier) pigeon - uomo brontolone grumbling man - ragno pericoloso dangerous spider - serpente velenoso poisonous snake - medicina amara bitter medicine - nonna indulgente indulgent, kind grandmother - babbo severo strict father - vespa maligna cruel wasp - cassetto ordinato orderly box - -For a class game with these lists, the nouns may be placed on one table -and the adjectives on another. Moving as during the "silence" lesson, -each child selects first a noun, and then an adjective. When the -selections have all been made, the pairs are read one after the other -amid general enthusiasm. - - -DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES - -COMMANDS (_Individual Lessons_) - -The study of the adjective may furnish occasion for giving the child a -knowledge of physical properties (of substances) so far unknown to him. -For example, the teacher may present a piece of transparent glass; a -piece of black glass (or any opaque screen); a sheet of white paper with -an oil stain. The child will see that through the _transparent_ glass -objects may be seen distinctly; that through the oil stain only the -light is visible; that nothing at all can be seen through the _opaque_ -screen. Or she may take a small glass funnel and put into it a piece of -filter paper, then a sponge, then a piece of waterproof cloth. The child -observes that the water passes through the filter paper, that the sponge -absorbs water, and that the water clings to the surface of the -waterproof. Or take two glass graduators and fill them with water to -different heights. In the case of the graduator filled to the very top, -the surface of the water is _convex_; in the other, it is _concave_. - -The commands are printed on little slips of paper which are folded and -all held together by an elastic band with a series of brown cards -containing the adjectives used in the commands. Here is the material -prepared: - - --Fill one graduator with water to the point of - over-flowing, and another not so full. Notice the form - assumed by the surface of the water in each case and - apply the proper adjective: _convex_, _concave_. - - --Take various objects such as filter paper, cloth, a - sponge, and see whether water can pass through them, - applying the adjectives: _permeable_, _impermeable_, - _porous_. - - --Take a piece of clear glass, a sheet of black paper, - a sheet of oiled paper; look at the light through - them, applying the adjectives: _transparent_, - _opaque_, _translucent_. - -Object lessens demonstrating comparative weights may also be given by -putting successively into a glass of water, oil, alcohol colored with -aniline, a piece of cork, a little leaden ball (to be dropped). Then the -command would be: - - --Compare the weights of water and of colored alcohol; - water and oil; water and cork; and water and lead. - Then tell which is _heavier_ and which is _lighter_ - than the other. - -As an answer the child should give a little written exercise something -like the following: _Water is heavier than oil_, etc. The children -actually perform these little experiments, learning to handle -graduators, funnels, filters, etc., and to pour the last drops of water -very carefully so as to obtain the concave and convex surfaces. They -acquire a very delicate touch in pouring the colored alcohol and oil on -the water. Thus they take the first step into the field of practical -science. - -To continue the study of adjectives of quality, there is a series of -commands relating to the comparative and superlative. An example of the -comparative crept into these experiments on weight. Here are additional -commands where the little slip and the brown cards are kept together. - - --Take the blue stairs or any other objects and put - with each object the proper adjectives from the - following list: _thick_, _thin_, _thickest_ (Ital. - grossissimo), _thinnest_ (Ital. finissimo). - - --Take the eight tablets of the color you like best, - arrange them according to shades and apply the proper - adjectives of quality from the following: _light_, - _lightest_, _dark_, _darkest_. - - --Take the series of circles in the plane insets, and - pick out the circles which correspond to these - adjectives: _large_, _small_, _intermediate_. - - --Take the cloths or other objects adapted to these - adjectives: _smooth_, _smoothest_, _rough_, - _roughest_, _soft_, _softest_. - - --Take the cubes of the pink tower or any other - objects adapted to these adjectives: _large_, - _largest_, _small_, _smallest_. - - --Grade a number of objects according to weight so as - to fit these adjectives to them: _heavy_, _heaviest_, - _light_, _lightest_. - - -ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY - -COMMANDS (_Individual Lessons_) - -Just as above, the slip is tied with the series of brown cards by an -elastic band. Thus a group is formed. In our material the following -three groups are available: - - --Take the counters and make little piles which - correspond in quantity to these adjectives: _one_, - _two_, _three_, _four_, _five_, _six_, etc. - - --Take the beads and make little piles of them to fit - these adjectives: _few_, _none_, _many_, _some_. - - --Decide first of all on some definite number of beads - (two) and then make other little piles to fit these - adjectives: _double_, _triple_, _quadruple_, - _quintuple_, _sextuple_, _tenfold_, _half_, _equal_. - - -ORDINALS - -(_Individual Commands_) - - --Build the blue stair and on each step place the - proper adjective from the following: _first_, - _second_, _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_, _sixth_, - _seventh_, _eighth_, _ninth_, _tenth_. - - --Place the following adjectives on the different - drawers of the cabinet, beginning with the top drawer: - _first_, _second_, _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_. - - --Differentiate between the drawers of the cabinet by - the following adjectives, beginning with the lowest: - _first_, _second_, _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_. - - -DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES - -(_Class Lessons_) - -As occasion may offer, the teacher may assemble a group of children and -give them a few simple explanations on the meaning of certain words: -_questo_, "this" (near us); _cotesto_, "that" (near you); _quello_, -"that" (over there away from both of us). (Note: English lacks the -demonstrative of the second person.) - -Then she can distribute these commands which require collective actions -of the class:-- - - --Gather in _that_ (codesto) corner of the room near - you; then all of you come over to _this_ (questo) - corner near me; then all of you run over to that - (_quello_) corner over there. - - --Choose one of your school-mates and tell him to put - a box on _this_ (questo) table; a small plate on - _that_ (quello) table over there. - - --Tell one of your companions, pointing at the place, - to put a green bead in _this_ (questo) vase; a blue - one in _that_ (codesto) vase; a white one in _that_ - (quello) vase over there. - -Arrange the children in groups in three different places in the room, -and then give this command: - ---Let _that_ (quello) group over there take the place of _this_ (questo) -group. Let _that_ (codesto) group break up, the children going back to -their tables. - - -POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES - -(_Class Lessons_) - -In like manner the teacher explains the meaning of the words _my_, -_your_, _his_, _her_, etc. She may do this with a simple gesture. Here -are the commands: - - --Point out various objects saying: This is _my_ - slate; that is _your_ slate; that (over there) is - _her_ slate. - - --Point at the different seats, saying: That (over - there) is _his_ place, that is _your_ place, and this - is _my_ place. - - --Pass around the little baskets, saying: This is _my_ - basket. Whose is that other basket? Is it _your_ - basket? And this one? Ah, this one is _his_ basket. - - --Let us take a turn around the room and then return - to _our_ seats. _You_ go to _your_ seat and _they_ - will go to _their_ seats. Then we will divide up our - things. Let us put _our_ things here and _their_ - things there. We will go to _your_ seats and you go to - _their_ seats. Meanwhile they will get up and then - come over here to take _our_ places. - -[Signora Montessori does not differentiate between the possessive -_adjective_ and the possessive _pronoun_; perhaps because there is in -Italian no characteristic pronominal form. Strictly speaking the Italian -predicate form _mio_ (e.g., _Questo libra è mio_) is adjectival, while -the form _il mio_ (i.e., with the definite article) is pronominal (e.g., -_Questo è il mio_). English has, however, the pronominal possessives: -_mine_, _yours_ (thine), _his_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, used -also as predicate adjectives. The above exercise should therefore he -repeated later under the subject of pronouns in a slightly different -form.--TR.] - - - - -VI - -VERBS - - -When I gave the first grammar lessons to defective children I put -special emphasis on nouns and verbs. The noun (= object), and the verb -(= action) were distinguished with the greatest clearness, much as we -distinguish matter from energy, chemistry from physics. _Condition_ and -_motion_, as potential and kinetic energy, are both expressed by verbs. -Whereas formerly the child took the objects in his hands and studied -their name and attributes, here he must _perform_ actions. In the -execution of actions he must necessarily receive some help, for he is -not always capable of interpreting the word with the precise action -which corresponds to it. On the contrary, the study of the verb is -necessary to initiate him into a series of "object lessons" upon the -different actions he must perform. The teacher therefore must give -individual lessons teaching the child to interpret the verb. - - -ANALYSES - -In the usual manner we present a box which has four compartments, for -the article, the noun, the adjective, and the verb. The sections are -designated by the usual title cards: tan, black, brown, and red. In the -compartment at the back of the box there are six slips for each -exercise, and for every written word there is a card, except for such -words as are repeated in successive sentences. For example: if the -following sentences are written on the cards: - - Close the door! - Lock the door! - -on the corresponding cards will be found the words: - - Lock } - Close } the door. - -And so the child after he has composed his first sentence needs to -change only one card (_lock_ for _close_) for the second sentence. This -brings out the force of the verb, showing that one sentence may be -changed into another by indicating an entirely different action. The -child performs the action and then on his table he builds the sentences -with the cards. In the series we have prepared, the verbs are either -synonyms or antonyms. Here is the material: - -SERIES A - - --Close the door - Lock the door - - --Tie a knot - Untie a knot - - --Spread your beads - Collect your beads - - --Fold the paper - Unfold the paper - - --Open the book - Shut the book - - --Speak a word - Whisper a word - - -SERIES B - - --Raise your hands - Lower your hands - - --Toss the ball - Throw the ball - - --Show your right hand - Hide your right hand - - --Touch the velvet - Feel the velvet - - --Write a short word - Erase a short word - - --Draw a circle - Fill a circle - - -SERIES C - - --Bring a chair - Drag a chair - - --Lace a frame - Unlace a frame - - --Raise your head - Bow your head - - --Fill a glass - Empty a glass - - --Arrange the brown cards - Mix the brown cards - - --Roll the white handkerchief - Twist the white handkerchief - - -SERIES D - - --Embrace your nearest schoolmate - Kiss your nearest schoolmate - - --Gather your prisms - Separate your prisms - - --Borrow a black pencil - Lend a black pencil - - --Cover your face - Uncover your face - - --Lift the red counter - Drop the red counter - - --Smooth the white paper - Crumple the white paper - - -SERIES E - - --Clench your two hands - Open your two hands - - --Spread the large carpet - Fold the large carpet - - --Bend your left arm - Straighten your left arm - - --Rub the table - Scratch the table - - --Pour the water - Spill the water - - --Comb your hair - Part your hair - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The teacher should have in mind the grammatical rules for the position -of the verb in the sentence, to give the child a clear idea of its -normal location before the direct object: "first the verb, then the -object upon which it acts." - -Example: - - Smooth the white paper. - -The verb should, for the first permutation, be transferred to the end: - - the white paper smooth. - -Or, if you wish, - - Arrange the brown cards. - the brown cards arrange. - -When the verb is taken away entirely the action vanishes: - - Lift } the red counter. - Drop } - the red counter. - -Making all possible permutations, the child sees that only one order of -words is capable of bringing a meaning out of the confusion: - - Roll the white handkerchief. - the white handkerchief roll. - white the handkerchief roll. - white roll handkerchief the. - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE VERB - -The children take considerable delight in our verb lessons which develop -through interpretations of actions. We use packs of red cards, tied with -an elastic, each pack containing ten cards. The child executes the -actions indicated on each card, one after the other. He may afterward -copy the cards--an exercise specially attractive to very young children. - -Examples: - - --walk, sing, jump, dance, bow, sit, sleep, wake, - pray, sigh. - - --write, erase, weep, laugh, hide, draw, read, speak, - listen, run. - - --arrange, clean, dust, sweep, button, lace, tie, - hook, greet, brush. - - --comb, wash, wipe, embrace, kiss, smile, yawn, scowl, - stare, breathe. - -These are fairly common words, representing actions more or less -familiar to the pupils. But this exercise is only an introduction to the -real verb-lessons. For these the teacher selects, as subject for a -lesson, a series of synonymous verbs. Their shades of meaning are -taught to the children by translating them into action, the teacher -executing the action herself. She then distributes around the class -commands making use of the verbs in question. There may be several -copies of a given command if the pupils are very numerous. The child -reads by himself the card he has received, executing the action from -memory of what he has seen the teacher do. We have tested experimentally -the Italian material (_i.e._, the verbs in parentheses), as follows: - -Subject: - - lay, throw, toss, hurl (posare, gettare, lanciare, - scagliare). - -Commands:-- - - --Take a counter and _lay_ it on the floor. Pick it up - again and _throw_ it on the floor. - - --Roll your handkerchief into a ball. _Toss_ it into - the air. Pick it up again and _hurl_ it against the - wall. - - --_Lay_ your handkerchief carefully, very carefully, - on the floor. Pick it up again and _throw_ it on the - floor. Make a ball of it and _hurl_ it across the - room. Pick it up and _toss_ it into the air. - -Subject: - - lie, crouch, sit, rise (sollevare, alzare, levare). - -Commands:-- - - --Go to the sofa and _lie_ with your face to the wall. - Now _rise_, go to your table and _sit_ with head - erect. - - --_Rise_ from your chair and _crouch_ behind the - table, as though you were playing hide-and-seek. - _Rise_ and go back to the sofa. - -Subject: - - open, close, lock, unlock (aprire, spalancare, - chiudere, socchiudere, serrare, disserrare). - -Commands:-- - - --Go to a window and _open_ it a little; wait a moment - and then _close_ it again. _Open_ the window as wide - as you can and _close_ it immediately. - - --Go to the door and _open_ it wide. Then _close_ the - door gently. If the key is in the key-hole _lock_ the - door; but before you go away, _unlock_ it again, so - that everything is left just as you found it. - -Subject: - - breathe, inhale, exhale (respirare, sospirare, - inspirare, espirare). - -Commands:-- - - --Go to the window, open it, and _inhale_ and _exhale_ - the fresh air five times. Then after a moment _inhale_ - once and hold your breath as long as you can. When you - can hold your breath no longer, _exhale_ as slowly as - you can. - - --Take a hand mirror and _breathe_ upon the glass. - What happens? - -Subject: - - hang, attach (appendere, affiggere, sospendere). - -Commands:-- - - --_Hang_ one of your best drawings on a hook in the - room. - - --_Attach_ the drawing you like best with two pins to - the wall near the door. - -Subject: - - cover, wrap, tie, undo (avvolgere, involgere, - svolgere). - -Commands:-- - - --Take a book, a string and a large piece of cloth. - Lay the book on your table and _cover_ it with the - cloth. - - --Take the cloth and _wrap_ it around the book so that - the book cannot be seen. - - --_Tie_ a string around the cloth so that the book - will not fall out. - - --_Undo_ the bundle, and return each object to the - place where you found it. - -Subject: - - turn, invert, revolve, whirl, reverse (volgere, - capovolgere, rovesciare). - -Commands:-- - - --_Turn_ a picture toward one of your school-mates so - that he can see it clearly. - - --_Invert_ the picture, so that it will be upside - down. - - --_Reverse_ the picture so that the back only can be - seen by your school-mate. - - --_Revolve_ the seat of the piano-stool as rapidly as - you can. - - --Stand with your back to the window and _turn_ slowly - on your heel till you face the window. _Whirl_ on your - heel completely around till you again face the window. - -Subject: - - breathe, blow, puff, pant (sbuffare, soffiare, - alitare). - -Commands:-- - - --Tear a large piece of paper into tiny bits on your - table. _Blow_ steadily upon the table till the pieces - of paper are all on the floor. - - --Pick up the pieces of paper and place them on the - table. _Puff_ three times upon them and see if they - all fall to the floor. Gather up the pieces and throw - them into the waste-basket. - - --_Breathe_ softly upon the back of your hand. What do - you feel? - - --_Blow_ upon the back of your hand. What do you feel? - - --_Puff_ upon the back of your band. What do you feel? - - --_Pant_ noisily as though you had been running a long - way. - -Subject: - - murmur, mutter, whisper, speak, grumble (mormorare, - sussurrare, brontolare). - -Commands:-- - - --Ask one of your school-mates to listen carefully to - what you say; then _murmur_ a short sentence as though - you were speaking to yourself. - - --_Mutter_ the same words in a louder voice and see - whether he understands. - - --_Whisper_ the same words in the ear of one of two - children. Then ask the other whether he has heard. - - --_Grumble_ the same words and watch how the two - children look at you. - - --_Speak_ the same words aloud and as distinctly as - you can. Do the children understand? - -Subject: - - touch, rub, graze (toccare, tastare, palpare, - sfiorare). - -Commands:-- - - --Go to your table and with your eyes shut _touch_ it - as though to recognize it. - - --_Rub_ the table with the tips of your fingers, - bearing down as hard as you can. What do you feel? - - --_Graze_ the table with the tips of your fingers, - trying not to touch it. - -Subject: - - spread, sprinkle, collect, scatter (spargere, - spruzzare, aspergere). - -Commands:-- - - --Take a box full of beads and _spread_ them evenly - around the center of your table. Then _collect_ them - in a pile in the center of the table. - - --Take a handful of the beads and _scatter_ them over - the table. Return all the beads to the box. - - --Take a glass of water and _sprinkle_ two or three - handfuls on a plant in the room. - -Subject: - - walk, stagger, march (barcollare, dondolare, - erigersi). - -Commands:-- - - --_Walk_ naturally to the end of the room farthest - from your table. - - --_March_ back to your seat as though you were keeping - time to music. - - --_Stagger_ across the room as though you were very - dizzy. - -Subject: - - take, seize, catch (acchiappare, acciuffare, - afferrare). - -Commands:-- - - --Walk to the cabinet and _take_ a box of counters in - your hands. - - --Run to the sofa, _seize_ the sofa-pillow, and run - around the room with it, holding it in your arms. - - --Roll your handkerchief into a ball, toss it into the - air and try to _catch_ it before it falls to the - floor. - - -LESSONS WITH EXPERIMENTS - -The function of the verb can be still more interestingly emphasized by -suggesting actions designed to increase the child's knowledge in the -direction of elementary science. Here the teacher, instead of executing -simple movements, performs experiments, which on the same day or on -succeeding days the child can imitate guided by the directions in the -commands. - -Subject: - - stir, mix, beat, flavor (mescolare, emulsionare, - stemperare). - -Commands:-- - - --Take a bowl half full of water and drop into it a - half cup of flour; _stir_ with a spoon until the - mixture is thick. - - --Place a table-spoonful of vinegar and a - table-spoonful of olive-oil in a clean bowl; _beat_ - them together until an emulsion is formed. - - --Place a tea-spoonful of chocolate and a tea-spoonful - of sugar in a cup and _mix_ them thoroughly. What - color was the chocolate? What color was the sugar? - What color is the mixture? - - --Take a little milk in a cup and taste of it; add a - drop of vanilla extract. Then taste of the milk again. - Do you taste the vanilla? In the same way _flavor_ a - glass of water with the vanilla. _Flavor_ another - glass of water with vinegar. - -Subject: - - dissolve, saturate, be in suspension (sciogliere, fare - la sospensiona, saturare). - -Commands:-- - - --Place a spoonful of sugar in a glass of warm water - and _dissolve_ the sugar by stirring with a spoon. Is - the water still clear? - - --_Saturate_ the water with sugar by continuing to add - sugar and stirring till you can see the sugar at the - bottom of the glass. Allow the water to rest a moment. - Is the water still clear? - - --Mix a spoonful of starch in the water. The water - becomes white, since the starch does not _dissolve_ - but remains _in suspension_ in the water. - -Subject: - - strain, filter (decantare, filtrare). - -Commands:-- - - --Take the glass containing the water saturated with - sugar and the one with the starch in suspension, and - allow the starch and sugar to settle for some time, - until the water is clear. Taste the water in each - glass, and then _strain_ each glass of water - separately. - - --_Filter_ the water saturated with sugar and the - water with the suspended starch. Then taste of each. - -By the time all these commands have been executed, the child will have -developed a keen desire to go on, becoming so interested in the meaning -of verbs as not to require further commands to stimulate his study of -these words. The most frequent question now is "How many verbs are there -in the language?" "Are there more in other languages?" etc. To satisfy -this new curiosity of the children we have dictionaries of synonyms and -antonyms, and word-charts. But meantime they have been building their -own dictionaries. One by one they begin to own copy books (rubrics) with -illuminated letters of the alphabet. Under the proper letter the child -copies his words as fast as he learns them. We are still experimenting -on the question of the exact amount of information that may successfully -be offered to elementary school children of various ages and stages of -development, with the word material required for the notions of natural -history, physics and chemistry they may be expected to acquire. We can -say, at this moment, simply that each experiment involves the use of a -certain number of new words (nouns, adjectives and verbs), which are -copied into the word-books (rubrics) as fast as they occur. - - - - -VII - -PREPOSITIONS - - -ANALYSES - -Here also the first exercise is to compose sentences analyzed with the -colored cards. This grammar box has five compartments, each with a small -title card of the color corresponding to the different parts of speech, -red for the verb, black for the noun, brown for the adjective, tan for -the article and _violet_ for the _preposition_. In the compartment at -the rear of the box are six cards with printed sentences. The colored -cards do not correspond exactly to the number of words used in the -sentences because the words of one sentence which are repeated in the -next are not duplicated in the cards. In this case it is the change in -preposition only which alters the meaning of the sentence. Here are the -series of sentences, some of which the teacher may have used already in -previous lessons (commands). - - -SERIES A - -(Prepositions of space relations) - - --Take the box _with_ the colored beads. (con, senza, - insieme con). Take the box _without_ the colored - beads. Take the box _together_ with the colored beads. - - --Place the prism _under_ the cylinder. (sotto a, - sopra a). Place the prism _upon_ the cylinder. - - --Lay the pen _in front of_ the ink-well. (avanti a, - dietro a, a lato di). Lay the pen _behind_ the - ink-well. Lay the pen _beside_ the ink-well. - - --Put the green bead _into_ the box. (in, dentro). Put - the green bead _inside_ the box. - - --Arrange a few beads _between_ the red counters. (in - mezzo a, tra). Arrange a few beads _among_ the red - counters. - - --Set one chair _opposite_ another chair. (dirimpetto - a, accanto a). Set one chair _next_ to another chair. - -[Illustration: Grammar Boxes, showing respectively four and five parts -of speech. (Note: The cards forming the sentence, "Place the blue cone -against the pink cube," should have been arranged in one continuous -line, not in two lines.)] - - -SERIES B - -(Space relations continued) - - --Lay the counter _inside_ the box. (dentro, fuori, - di). Lay the counter _outside_ the box. - - --Place a chair _on this side of_ the door. (di là da, - di qua da, oltre). Place a chair _on that side of_ the - door. Place a chair _beyond_ the door. - - --Stand _in front of_ the blackboard. (di fronte a, di - fianco a). Stand _to one side of_ the blackboard. - Stand _to the other side of_ the blackboard. - - --Arrange the chairs _along_ the wall. (lungo, - contro). Arrange the chairs _against_ the wall. - - --Place the blue cone _near_ the pink cube. (vicino a, - accosto a). Place the blue cone _against_ the pink - cube. - - -SERIES C - -(Possession, material, use, purpose) - -[NOTE:--Such relationships are expressed in English preferably by -adjectives: _cloth of cotton_ = _cotton cloth_; or by the possessive -inflection with _-s_: _the drawing of George = George's drawing_. In -Italian they are expressed by the prepositions _di_, _per_, _da_, etc.: -_stoffa di cotone_ "cotton cloth," _piattino di vetro_ "glass saucer." -For Signora Montessori's simple exercise we suggest for English the -following definitions (TR.)]. - -[Illustration: Grammar Boxes, containing respectively six and seven -parts of speech. (Note: In the sentence on the right, the cards should -be in one line, not two.)] - - --Cotton cloth is cloth _of_ cotton. Woollen cloth is - cloth _of_ wool. Silk cloth is cloth _of_ silk. - - --The iron triangle is a triangle _of_ iron. The - wooden triangle is a triangle _of_ wood. - - --The glass saucer is a saucer _of_ glass. The china - saucer is a saucer _of_ china. - - --A shoe-brush is a brush _for_ shoes. A clothes-brush - is a brush _for_ clothes. - - --George's hat is the hat _of_ George; George's hat - belongs _to_ George. Mary's hat is the hat _of_ Mary; - Mary's hat belongs _to_ Mary. - - --A drinking-cup is a cup _for_ drinking. A copy-book - is a book _for_ copying. - - -SERIES D - -(Direction and source of motion) - - --Turn _from_ the right _to_ the left. (da ... a, a ... da) - Turn _from_ the left _to_ the right. - - --Draw a line _from_ the bottom of the paper _to_ the top. - Draw a line _from_ the top of the paper _to_ the bottom. - - --Go _from_ your seat _to_ the cabinet. - Go _from_ the cabinet _to_ your seat. - - --Change the pen _from_ your right hand _to_ your left hand. - Change the pen _from_ your left hand _to_ your right hand. - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The child has built the first sentences on each of the slips with his -cards, and he has reproduced the others by changing simply the -preposition cards. In this way he has seen how the position of objects -relative to each other is determined wholly and only by the use of the -preposition. The preposition, therefore, determines the _relation of -words_, the relation of a _noun_ to some other word, here to another -_noun_ or to a _verb_. In the phrase, - -Set one chair opposite another chair, - -if we take away the preposition, leaving, - -Set one chair another chair, - -the relation that formerly existed between the words _chair_ and -_another chair_ is lost. The teacher must not forget the rules for the -position of the preposition. The preposition must always precede its -object and no other word can come between it and the word or words it -controls. - -Here are some examples of sentences in the above exercises from which -the preposition has been taken away by the teacher: - -Go from your seat the cabinet. - -Place a chair the door. - -Lay the counter the box. - -Place the prism the cylinder. - -The china saucer is made china. - -To give the child an idea of the normal position of prepositions a -series of permutations may be made leaving the preposition and its -object in their normal positions. In this case some meaning is still -left to the sentence: - -Stretch a string from the door to the window. - -From the door to the window stretch a string. - -Stretch from the door a string to the window. - -From the door to the window a string stretch. - -From the door stretch to the window a string. - -But the child will recognize that the right sentence is the simplest and -the clearest: - -Stretch a string from the door to the window. - -On the other hand if we separate the preposition from its object or -invert their normal position, the meaning is entirely lost: - -Stretch a string the door from the window to. - -Stretch a string from the door window to the. - -String from the stretch door to the a window. - - -And likewise with these other sentences: - -Run from the wash-stand to the table. - -Run wash-stand table (_definition of motion lacking_). - -Run wash-stand from the table to the. - -From the run wash-stand to the table. - -Wash-stand from the to the run table. - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON PREPOSITIONS - -The teacher may also take groups of children and give them short lessons -on the preposition to explain the meaning, selecting if possible two or -three synonyms or antonyms each time. The lessons should always he -practical and full of action. The child should come to understand in -this case the relationship established by this or that preposition -between the object (noun) and the action (verb) to be performed. As soon -as this has been made clear by the teacher the commands are distributed -to the children who put them into execution. Here is the material that -we use: - -Subject: - -Of (di). - -Command:-- - ---Go and get a boxful _of_ counters. Go and get a glass _of_ water. -Bring me a piece _of_ cloth. - -Subject: - -near (to), next (to), beside, far away from (vicino, accosto, lontano). - -Command:-- - ---One of you boys stand in the middle of the room. Now you others go and -stand _near_ him. One of you stand _next_ to him on the right, another -_beside_ him on the left. Now all go _far away from_ him. - -Subject: - -in, into, inside, out of (in, dentro, fuori). - -Command:-- - ---Rise from your chairs and go _into_ the next room. Stay _in_ that room -a moment and then come back _into_ this one. Go back on tip-toe and lock -yourselves _inside_ the next room. Come _out of_ the next room _into_ -this one. - -Subject: - -On this side of, on that side of, beyond (di là da, di qua da, oltre). - -Command:-- - ---Leave your places and form a circle _on that side of_ the door; form a -circle then _on this side of_ the door. All of you go and stand -somewhere _beyond_ the door. - -Subject: - -except, save (tranne, eccetto). - -Command:-- - ---All the children, _except_ George and Mary, walk on tip-toe around the -room. - ---All the children, _save_ George and Mary, walk on tip-toe around the -room. - -Subject: - -side by side with, opposite, in front of, along (di fianco, di fronte, -avanti). - -Command:-- - ---Form a line _side by side_ with each other. - ---Form a line _along_ the wall _opposite_ the door. - ---Form two lines _in front of_ the piano. - -Subject: - -before, behind (dirimpetto, dietro). - -Command:-- - ---Two of you come and stand _before_ me. - ---The rest of you go and stand _behind_ me. - -Subject: - -on, about, along (su, secondo, lungo). - -Command:-- - ---Each of you place one counter on the table. Now arrange the same -counters _along_ the far edge of the table. Now scatter the same -counters _about_ the center of the table. - -Subject: - -between, among (fra, in mezzo a). - -Command:-- - ---One of you go and stand _between_ the door and the piano. - ---Place ten white counters on the table. Now go and scatter two or three -red counters _among_ the white ones. - -Subject: - -from, to, as far as (da, a, fino a). - -Command:-- - ---Rise and walk _from_ your places _to_ the piano; wait a moment and -then continue _as far as_ the door of the next room. - -Subject: - -around, about (attorno, intorno). - -Command:-- - ---Walk in couples, arm in arm, _around_ the room twice; when you reach -the piano on the second round, form a circle _about_ the piano. - -Subject: - -toward, against (verso, contro). - -Command:-- - ---Take your chairs and move them three steps _toward_ the wall in front -of you. Next, arrange your chairs in a row with their backs _against_ -the wall behind you. - -Subject: - -across, through (attraverso, per). - -Command:-- - ---Roll your handkerchiefs into balls and throw them _across_ the room. - ---Pick them up as they lie and try to throw them _through_ the door into -the hall. - -Subject: - -With, without (con, senza). - -Command:-- - ---Walk around the room _with_ your chairs in your hands. - ---Walk around the room _without_ your chairs. - -Subject: - -to, in order to, so as to (per). - -Command:-- - ---Wash your hands _in order_ not _to_ soil the cloth. Then close your -eyes and feel this cloth _so as to_ recognize it. - - - - -VIII - -ADVERBS - - -ANALYSES - -Again the exercise consists of sentences analyzed by means of colored -cards and commands. The grammar box contains six compartments having, -like the others, the names of the different parts of speech on title -cards of proper color. The card for the adverb is pink. In the rear -compartment are six slips for each exercise, and in the sections the -usual number of corresponding colored cards for the necessary words. - -GROUP A - -(Adverbs of Manner) - - --Walk _slowly_ to the window. - Walk _rapidly_ to the window. - - --Rise _silently_ from your seat. - Rise _noisily_ from your seat. - - --Speak _softly_ into the ear of your nearest comrade. - Speak _loudly_ into the ear of your nearest comrade. - - --Take five steps toward the door; turn _abruptly_ to the left. - Take five steps toward the door; turn _gradually_ to the left. - - --Take your nearest comrade _lightly_ by the arm. - Take your nearest comrade _roughly_ by the arm. - - --Look _smilingly_ into the mirror. - Look _scowlingly_ into the mirror. - - -GROUP B - -(Adverbs of place and time) - - --Place your pencil _there_. - Place your pencil _here_. - - --Lay your book _somewhere_ on the table. - Lay your book _elsewhere_ on the table. - - --Walk to the window _constantly_ clapping your hands. - Walk to the window _occasionally_ clapping your hands. - - --Drink the water in the glass _now_. - Drink the water in the glass _by and by_. - - --Carry the pink tower _upstairs_. - Carry the pink tower _downstairs_. - - --Write a word on the blackboard _immediately_. - Write a word on the blackboard _soon_. - - -GROUP C - -(Adverbs of quantity, comparison) - - --Walk along the hall swinging your arms _somewhat_. - Walk along the hall swinging your arms _a great deal_. - - --Bend your head a _little_. - Bend your head _much_. - - --Walk _slowly_ to the window. - Walk _less slowly_ to the window. - Walk _more slowly_ to the window. - - --Place on the table your _most_ beautiful drawing. - --Place on the table your beautiful drawing. - - --Make a broad mark on the blackboard. - Make a _very_ broad mark on the blackboard. - - -GROUP D - -(Adverbs of comparison, correlative adverbs) - - --Look for a piece of cloth softer _than_ velvet. - --Look for a piece of cloth _as_ soft as velvet. - - --Find among your colors a shade _as_ black _as_ the blackboard. - --Find a piece of cloth _not so_ shiny _as_ satin. - --Find among the plane insets a rectangle _as_ broad _as_ half - the square. - --Bring a rod longer _than_ your copy-book. - --Bring a rod _as_ long _as_ your copy-book. - --Bring a rod _not so_ long _as_ your copy-book. - --Find a piece of cloth _less_ rough _than_ the canvas. - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The sentences to be analyzed are reproduced as usual by building the -first sentence on each slip; and then, by changing the adverb, the child -gets the second or third sentence. One of the first permutations is to -remove the adverb from those sentences where it performs the function of -an _adjective to the verb_, thereby causing one action to be changed -into another. For example take the two sentences: - - Walk slowly to the window. - Walk rapidly to the window. - -Taking away the adverb we have: - - Walk to the window. - -The child can perform the action which, now, is a simple one. The -adverb, however, changes, _modifies_, the action. If the teacher in play -puts the two adverbs together in the same sentence the child has the -problem of interpreting two contrary movements. That is, he is to go to -the window _slowly_ and _rapidly_ at the same time. Taking away the -adverb cards the sentence left is _Go to the window_. This action the -child can perform. But how shall he perform it, in what way? With the -help of adverbs! Similarly in the following sentences: - - Bend your head _a little_. - Bend your head _much_. - -Written without the adverb they indicate one action. What slight changes -in the position of the head can be brought about by these adverbs! It is -the _adverb_ which really shows fine differentiations in movement! - -In other sentences also where the adverb is, so to speak, an _adjective_ -to an _adjective_ and therefore really affects the object (noun), -similar permutations may be made. - - Make a broad mark on the blackboard. - Make a _very_ broad mark on the blackboard. - -Here by the use of an adverb two different _objects_ (nouns) are -distinguished which, though they have the same quality (breadth) differ -in degree (broad, very broad). Take, for instance, two objects belonging -to the same series: - - Place on your table the prism which is most thick. - Place on your table the prism which is least thick. - -If the adverbs are taken away the factor determining the degree of -quality (thickness) disappears and we have sentences which are far less -precise in their meaning: - - Place on your table the prism which is thick. - -As the teacher proceeds to make permutations in the different sentences -she should remember (for Italian) that the normal position of the adverb -is after the verb (in the compound tenses it comes between the auxiliary -and the participle). - -(Note: In English the position of the adverb is much freer than in -Italian; it often stands at the end of the sentence and even between -subject and verb,--something quite foreign to normal Italian usage. We -retain the text entire.) - -In the sentences analyzed by the child it is sufficient to recall that -the adverb modifies the verb and follows the verb it modifies. Take the -sentence: - - Bend your head a little as you write. - -If the adverb is placed after the second verb the meaning changes: - - Bend your head as you write a little. - -The same is true in the following: - - Walk along the hall swinging your arms somewhat. - Walk somewhat along the hall swinging your arms. - -General shifting of position would give results as follows: - - Bend a little your head as you write. - A little bend your head as you write, etc., etc. - Somewhat walk along the hall swinging your arms. - Walk along somewhat the hall swinging your arms, etc., etc. - -The child is quick to recognize by ear the accurate, the normal position -of the adverb. - -On the other hand, adverbs of quantity and comparison precede the -adjective: - - Make a very broad mark on the blackboard. - Place on your table the prism that is least thick. - -Permutation gives the following results: - - Make a broad very mark on the blackboard. - Place on your table the prism which thick least is, etc., etc. - -Adverbs of time and place often ring like trumpet calls to attention at -the beginning of the sentence: - - Drink the water in the glass now. - Now drink the water in the glass. - -(Note: In English the adverb of time, placed at the end of the sentence, -gains quite as much emphasis. So for adverbs of place.) - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON ADVERBS - -Subject: - - straight, zig-zag (diritto, a zig-zag). - -Command:-- - - --Run _straight_ into the other room; return to your place - walking _zig-zag_. - -Subject: - - lightly, heavily, sedately (leggermente, gravemente, - pesantemente). - -Command:-- - - --Walk _lightly_ into the other room; return to your - place walking _sedately_ as though you were a very - important person; walk across the room and back again - resting _heavily_ on each step as though it were - hurting you to walk. - -Subject: - - suddenly, gradually (ad un tratto, gradatamente). - -Command:-- - - --Form in line and walk forward beginning _suddenly_ - to stamp with your left foot. Return to your places - letting the stamping _gradually_ cease. - -Subject: - - meanwhile, frequently, occasionally (sempre, spesso, raramente). - -Command:-- - - --Form in line and march slowly into the next room, stopping - _frequently_. Return to your places stopping - _occasionally_. - --Walk into the next room and back again, _meanwhile_ keeping - your eyes closed. - -Subject: - - back, forward, to and fro (avanti, indietro, su e giù). - -Command:-- - - --Form in line and walk _forward_ to the other side of the - room; then come _back_ to your places. - --Walk _to and fro_ across the room with your heads lowered - and your hands behind your back. - -Subject: - - forwards, backwards. - -Command:-- - - --Stand in the middle of the room; then walk - _backwards_ to the window, being careful to walk in a - straight line. Return to your places walking - _forwards_. - -Subject: - - slowly, abruptly (lentamente, bruscamente). - -Command:-- - - --Rise _slowly_ from your seats. - --Rise _abruptly_ from your seats. - -Subject: - - politely, cordially (gentilmente, garbatamente). - -Command:-- - - --Offer your chair _politely_ to your nearest neighbor. - --Shake hands _cordially_ with your nearest neighbor. - -Subject: - - alternately, in succession, simultaneously (successivamente, - alternativamente, simultaneamente). - -Command:-- - - --Raise your two hands _alternately_ above your heads. - --Raise your two hands _simultaneously_ above your heads. - --One of you children walk around the room bowing to each pupil - _in succession_. - -Subject: - - Well, badly, fairly, best, worst (bene, male, meglio, peggio, - così così, benino, maluccio, benissimo, malissimo). - -Command:-- - - --One of you call the children to the end of the room, - carefully observing how they walk; judge their - carriage without speaking and distribute the following - cards where they belong: _well_, _badly_, _fairly_, - _best_, _worst_. - -Subject: - - away, back (via). - -Command:-- - - --One of you stand in the center of the room; the - others gather round him. Suddenly all of you run - _away_ from him. Then come _back_ to him again. - -Subject: - - here, there, somewhere, elsewhere (qui, qua, costì, costà, - lì, là, altrove). - -Command:-- - - --Form in line and the first four children come to me - _here_; the rest go and stand _there_ by the window. - Now go and stand _somewhere_ in the other room. Remain - where you are a moment, then go and stand _elsewhere_. - Finally all come back _here_ to me. - -Subject: - - thus, likewise (così). - -Command:-- - - --One of you walk around the room holding his arms in a certain - position. The rest of you do _likewise_. - --All of you hold your hands _thus_, as I am doing. - -Subject: - - up, down, upward, downward. - -Command:-- - - --Roll your handkerchiefs into balls and throw them _up_ - to the ceiling. - --Pick them up and throw them _down_ again to the floor. - --Look _upward_ to the ceiling. Now look _downward_ to - the floor. - -Subject: - - crosswise, lengthwise. - -Command:-- - - --Lay two rods _crosswise_ on the table. Then lay them - _lengthwise_ on the table. - -Subject: - - sharply, sullenly, gently, kindly. - -Command:-- - - --_Sharply_ order your nearest neighbor to rise from his seat. - --Ask him _gently_ to sit down again. - --Sit _sullenly_ in your chair with your eyes lowered. - --Smile _kindly_ at your nearest neighbor. - - -A BURST OF ACTIVITY: - -THE FUTURE OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE IN POPULAR EDUCATION - -In our own private experiments when we reached the adverb there occurred -among the children a veritable explosion into a new kind of activity. -They insisted on making up commands themselves. They invented them and -then read them aloud to their companions or had their companions -interpret the slips which they had written. All were most enthusiastic -in performing these commands and they were rigorously scrupulous in -acting them out down to the minutest detail. The executions came to be a -literal, intensely real dramatisation: if a word was inexact or -incorrect, the interpretation of the command threw the error into noisy -relief, and the child who has written it saw before him an action quite -different from what he had in mind. Then he realized that he had -expressed his thought wrongly or inadequately and immediately set to -work to correct his mistake. The revelation seemed to redouble his -energy. He would hunt among his numerous words for the one necessary to -translate his idea into a living scene before his eyes. Suppose a child -had written the following sentence involving the use of the adverb -_sempre_ "always": - - Walk about the room (sempre) _always_ on tip-toe. - -meaning that the child should _all the while_ go on tip-toe; if the -child began to walk on tip-toe and continued to do so for a long time, -trying to express _sempre_ (always--forever) he would find himself -facing a serious problem. Hence the spontaneous query: "What must I do -to express myself correctly?" - -A little girl once wrote "Walk around the tables," meaning that the -children should form a line and walk in and out around each table. -Instead she saw her companions form a line and walk round the entire -group of tables. Red in the face and out of breath she kept calling: -"Stop, stop. That isn't the way," just as if this difference between the -thought she actually had in mind and the way it was being executed were -hurting her intolerably. - -This is only a passing suggestion of something which, I think, will -merit much further development later on, after more thorough experiment. -It will suffice, however, to bring to the teacher a notion of a most -fertile field for the development of the written language in its most -rigorous purity. It is evident that the experiment shows the possibility -not only of having spontaneous compositions without grammatical errors -(just as the mechanical writing was spontaneous and without errors), but -of developing a love for clearness and purity of speech which will be a -potent factor in improving the literary appreciation of the masses, and -popular culture generally. - -When the children are seized with this passion for accurate expression -of their thoughts in writing, when, spontaneously, clearness becomes the -goal of their efforts, they follow the hunt for words with the keenest -enthusiasm. They feel that there are never too many words to build with -exactness the delicate edifice of thought. Problems of language come to -them as a revelation. "How many words are there?" they ask. "How many -nouns, how many verbs, how many adjectives? Is there any way for us to -learn them all?" They are no longer content with their little copy-books -of words. They ask for a wealth of word material which they now enjoy -with all the delight of attractive and orderly interpretation. They -never get tired of it. - -These developments in our work suggested to us the idea of giving the -children a large vocabulary comprising a sufficient number of nouns, -verbs, and adjectives and containing _all_ the words of the other parts -of speech. The difference in bulk between the real content of language -(substance and modification, that is, nouns with their adjectives, and -verbs with their adverbs) and the other words which serve to establish -relations and consolidate this content, is something very impressive to -children of eight. It is for them that we tried to prepare our word -charts and the dictionaries of synonyms for nouns, verbs, and -adjectives. Here, meanwhile, are some of the commands which the children -wrote themselves--things which they improvised all of a sudden, by an -explosion of energy, as it were, developed as the result of inner -maturity. Compare the aridity and uniformity of the commands we invented -ourselves with the variety and richness of ideas appearing in the -children's commands! We very evidently show the weariness the -preparation of the material caused us. They, on the contrary, reveal an -ardent, vivacious spirit, a life full of exuberance. - - -COMMANDS IMPROVISED BY THE CHILDREN - - --Build the pink tower very _badly_. - - --Make _accurately_ a pose for each of the pictures in - the room. - - --Pretend you were two old men: speak _softly_ as if - you were very sad; and one of you say this: "Too bad - poor Pancrazio is dead!" And the other say: "Shall we - have to wear our black clothes to-morrow?" Then walk - along _silently_. - - --Walk along limping _heavily_; then _suddenly_ fall - _prostrate_ on your faces as though you were - exhausted. Return tripping _lightly_ to your places, - without falling and without limping. - - --Walk _slowly_ with lowered heads as though you were - very sad; return then _joyfully_ and walking - _lightly_. - - --Take a flower and run _eagerly_ and give it to the - lady. - - --Go half way round the room limping; the rest of the - way _on all fours_. - - --Silence _immediately_; _silently_ act out poses for - the pictures in the room. - - --Go from your seats to the door _on all fours_; - _then_ rise and limp _lightly_ half way round the - room; do the other half back to the door _on all - fours_; _there_ rise and run _lightly back_ to your - seats. - - --Walk _silently_ into the next room; walk three times - around the big table and _then_ return to your places. - - --Go into the next room running _quite fast_; come - back _gradually_ reducing speed until you reach your - places. - - --Go to the cabinet _immediately_; take a - letter-chart, and walk twice around the room with the - chart on your head, trying _never_ to let it fall; go - back to your places _in the same way_. - - --Walk around the large hall, walking _wearily_; sit - down, as though you were tired, and fall asleep; wake - up _shortly after_ and go back to your places. - - --Form in line and march forward till you reach a - clear space; _there_ form a circle; _next_ a rhombus; - _then_ a square; _finally_ a trapezium. Go into the - big hall conversing _softly_; _suddenly_ fall to the - floor _lightly_ and go to sleep; then wake up and look - around, saying, "Where are we?" Then go back to your - seats. - - - - -IX - -PRONOUNS - -ANALYSES - - -Material:--The box has seven compartments marked with the colored title -slips; tan for the article, black for the noun, brown for the adjective, -red for the verb, violet for the preposition, pink for the adverb, and -_green_ for the _pronoun_. In the rear space are the slips for the -sentences to be analyzed. There are, as usual, fewer cards than words. -The exercise is to substitute the pronouns for nouns. - - -GROUP A - -(Personal Pronouns) - - --George's sister was weeping. George soothed his sister with a - kiss. - George's sister was weeping. _He_ soothed _her_ with a kiss. - - --The book fell to the floor. Emma replaced the book on the table. - The book fell to the floor. _She_ replaced _it_ on the table. - - --The children gave their mother a surprise. The children wrote a - letter to their mother. - The children gave their mother a surprise. _They_ wrote _her_ a - letter. - - --The teacher said: The drawing is beautiful! Will _you_ give the - drawing to the teacher? - The teacher said: _It_ is beautiful! Will _you_ give _it_ to - _me_? - - --Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find Charles? - Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find _him_? - - -GROUP B - -(Demonstratives (questo, cotesto, quello) "this, that, these, those, -this one, that one) - -(As already noted for the adjective English lacks the demonstrative of -the second person: that _near you_.) - - --Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; _this_ prism is - thicker than _that_ prism; _that_ prism is thinner than - _these_ prisms. - Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; _this_ is thicker - than _that_; _that_ is thinner than _these_. - - --Let us look at the children: _this_ child is taller than _that_ - child; _that_ child is shorter than _this_ child. - Let us look at the children: _this one_ is taller than _that - one_; _that one_ is shorter than _this one_. - - --Here is a cone on top of a cylinder: try to put the cylinder on - top of the cone. - Here is a cone on top of a cylinder: try to put _this_ on top - of _that_. - - --Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl: _this_ - cube is the largest; _those_ cubes are the smallest of the - series. - Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl: _this - one_ is the largest; _those_ are the smallest of the - series. - - -GROUP C - -(Relatives and Interrogatives: (che, il quale, cui, chi? quale?) who, -whom, whose, which, that, who? whose? whom? what? which? where, when?) - - Note: The situation with the relatives is different in - English: _who_ refers to persons; _which_ to things; - _that_ to either persons or things; whereas _che_ and - _il quale_ are interchangeable referring to both - persons and things, _il quale_ having special - rhetorical advantages over _che_, in addition to - showing gender and number. _Cui_ is used after - prepositions; and, for the possessive Italian has _il - cui_, _la cui_, etc., "whose". - - --Ask the children: Which child wants to see my drawing? - Ask the children: _Who_ wants to see my drawing? - - --Ask Charles for the pencil; Charles put the pencil into the - drawer. - Ask Charles for the pencil _which_ Charles put into the drawer. - Ask Charles for the pencil _that_ he put into the drawer. - - --Thank Charles. Charles gave you the pencil. - Thank Charles _who_ gave you the pencil. - - --Look at the children. You hear the children in the next room. - Look at the children _whom_ you hear in the next room. - - --Yesterday you put the flowers into a vase: change the water in - the vase. - Change the water in the vase into _which_ you put the flowers - yesterday. - Change the water in the vase _where_ you put the flowers - yesterday. - Change the water in the vase _that_ you put the flowers into - yesterday. - - --Choose among the pieces of cloth the cloth most like your dress. - Choose among the pieces of cloth _the one which_ is most like - your dress. - Choose among the pieces of cloth _the one that_ is most like - your dress. - - --Here is the little girl. We found her pocketbook. - Here is the little girl _whose_ pocketbook we found. - - --Here is the boy. We saw him yesterday. - Here is the boy _whom_ we saw yesterday. - - --Select an inset from the insets used for drawing. - Select an inset from _those which_ are used for drawing. - Select an inset from _those that_ are used for drawing. - - -GROUP D - -(Possessives: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs) - - --This book is my book - This book is _mine_ - - --This book is your book - This book is _yours_ - - --Those pencils are his pencils - Those pencils are _his_ - - --Those pencils are her pencils - Those pencils are _hers_ - - --That house is our house - That house is _ours_ - - --This money is your money - This money is _yours_ - - --Those seats are their seats - Those seats are _theirs_ - - --This place is its place - This place is _its_ - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The function of the pronoun as a substitute for a noun has been made -clear in the analysis of the above sentences. After the children -themselves have composed the first sentence with the colored cards they -form the second sentence by taking away the noun card and substituting -the corresponding pronoun. In the work done by the teacher to give the -child an idea of the normal position of the pronoun, let her remember -that in Italian personal pronouns precede the verb except in -interrogation (where the subject may follow) and in cases where the -subject is specially emphasized and where the pronouns appear as a -suffix (infinitive, participle and imperative). - - He soothed her with a kiss. - He her soothed with a kiss, etc., etc. - -[It will become apparent that in English the personal pronoun takes the -position of the noun, whereas for Italian the pronoun shifts to a -position in front of the verb. Considerable variety develops in English -when the noun is replaced by a relative pronoun. However, the different -problems arising in connection with pronouns generally are so complex -that we return to this subject, especially to the question of subject -and object forms, in dealing with sentence-analysis later.] - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE PRONOUN - -Subject: - - Subjective Personal Pronouns: I, you, he, she, we, you, they - (io, tu, egli, essa, noi, voi, loro, etc.). - -Explain these pronouns as briefly and practically as possible from the -point of view of speaker and listener, etc., one child commanding the -others while they _execute_ the command along with him. Example: The -teacher, named for instance Anna Fedeli, explains in this way: "I don't -say _Anna Fedeli_; I say _I_." "To Carlino here I don't say Carlino; I -say, _you_." "Of Gigino, over there, I don't say Gigino; I say _he_," -etc., etc. - -Command:-- - - The command is given by a child; but he himself - executes the first personal form along with the other - children: - - --_I_ walk around the table - --_You_ walk around the table - --_She_ walks around the table - --_He_ walks around the table - --_We_ walk around the table - --_You_ walk around the table - --_They_ walk around the table - - --_I_ raise my arms - --_You_ raise your arms - --_She_ raises her arms - --_He_ raises his arms - --_We_ raise our arms - --_You_ raise your arms - --_They_ raise their arms - - --_I_ lift the chair - --_You_ lift the chair - --_He_ lifts the chair, etc., etc. - - --_I_ take the ink-stand - --_You_ take the ink-stand - --_He_ takes the ink-stand, etc., etc. - - --_I_ wave my handkerchief - --_You_ wave your handkerchief, etc., etc. - -From these exercises the notion gradually develops that: - - the _first person_ is the one who _speaks_; - the _second person_ is the one who _listens_; - the _third person_ is the one spoken of. - -Other commands may be dramatized by small groups as follows: - - --The first person must put a question the second must - answer, and the third from a distance must try to hear - both of them. - - --Let the first one write, the second one watch, and - the third one say "That is not right." - -The following commands may be read aloud by the child: - - --_I_ ask you a question very softly. _You_ answer - _me_; and _he_, over there, must try to hear both of - us. - - --_I_ shall write; _you_ must act as if you were - trying to read what I am writing; and then _he_, over - there, will call out: "That is not right." - -Subject: - - Direct Objective Personal Pronouns: me, you, him, her, - us, you, them (mi, ti, si, lo, la, ci, vi, si, li, - le). - - Reflexives and reciprocals: myself, yourself, etc., - each other. - -Command:-- - - (Here too one child commands executing the first - personal forms, while the others act out the second - and third): - - --I touch the oil-cloth on the table; I touch - _myself_; I touch _you_; you touch _yourself_; I touch - _him_; you touch _her_; let us touch _each other_; you - touch _me_. - - --Charles, take the whisk-broom and brush the table; - Charles, brush _me_; Charles, brush _him_; Charles, - brush _her_; Charles, brush _yourself_. - - --Mary and I bow to the teacher; now we bow to _you_; - now we bow to _him_; now we bow to _her_; now we bow - to _each other_. - - --I lead George by the hand to the window; I lead - _you_ by the hand to the window; I lead _him_ by the - hand to the window; he leads _us_ by the hand to the - window; we lead _her_ by the hand to the window. - -Subject: - - Indirect object personal pronouns: me, te, se, mi, ti, - si, le, gli, lui, lei, noi, voi, ci, vi, loro (the - disjunctive pronouns, used after prepositions, etc., - do not differ in English from the simple direct object - forms). - - (The commands are still executed as above): - -Commands:-- - - --I am going to distribute these pencils: one to - _you_, one to _him_, one to _her_; one to _myself_. - - --Louis, give _me_ a command; give _him_ a command; - give _her_ a command; give _yourself_ a command. - - --Attention! Charles, give _her_ a blue bead! Mary, - give _him_ a red bead! - - --Alfred, give a white bead to _me_; give _me_ also a - yellow bead! - -Subject: - - Demonstratives for persons (questi, costui, colui; the - second person, "that one near you," is lacking in - English, which also fails to distinguish between - persons and things and between genders). - -When the distinctions in space represented by these pronouns have been -taught as above the children read and execute as follows: - -Commands:-- - - Distribute the pronouns to different children in the - class; _questi_, "this one (near me)," _costei_ - (feminine); _costui_, "that one (near you)," _costei_ - (fem.); _colui_, "that one (over there)," _colei_ - (fem.); when the children are in their proper places, - give to each child a different command. - - --Call to you a boy and a girl, and then command: - _that one_ (_costui_) go and get a case; _that one_ - (_costei_) go and get a counter; _those_ (_costoro_) - keep far away and preserve complete silence. - - --Point to two children, one standing near you and one - far away; then command: _that one_ (_colui_) go and - fetch an armchair for _that one_ (fem. _costei_) and a - chair for _this one_ (_questo_); then have him return - to his place. Then have all the children execute the - commands which _those_ (_costoro_) will now give. - -In case the class is made up entirely of girls or entirely of boys, the -children find considerable amusement in trying to imitate the manners of -whichever opposite sex is missing. - -Subject: - - Demonstratives of things (questo, cotesto, quello, - ciò, ne); here also English has no pronoun of the - second person (_that near you_), nor does it possess - the general indefinite _ciò_ (referring to a general - idea: _that_ (ciò) _is true_). - - When the meaning of these words, in terms of space - location, has been taught, the children execute as - follows: - -Commands:-- - - --You children divide into three groups; then go and - occupy three different places; change places as - follows: you leave _that_ (_cotesto_) and occupy - _that_ over there; the others leave _that_ (_quello_) - and occupy this (_questo_). - -Subject: - - Possessives: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs. - -Commands:-- - - --Point out various objects, saying: This is my slate; - that one is _yours_, that is _hers_, and this one is - _his_. - - --Point at the different seats, saying: Here are our - places, that is _mine_ and this is _yours_. Those over - there are _theirs_. - - --Pass around little baskets, saying: This is my - basket. Whose is that? Is that _yours_? Is this - _hers_? Are these _ours_? Is this one _his_? - -We dealt with the relatives only incidentally in the analyses (Group C -above); we do not treat them here, postponing the study of them in -detail to the chapter on sentence-analysis. - - -PARADYMS - -In teaching the declension of the pronouns we use the method employed by -us in teaching all inflections: bundles of cards, of which one group is -tied separately and serves as a guide. The child arranges the cards on -the table, working first on the guiding group and putting the pronouns -in order of persons: first, second, third. - - -GROUP A - -(Personal Pronouns) - - _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - I we io noi io noi - you, thou you tu voi tu voi - he they egli loro ella loro - she they esso essi essa esse - it they lo li la le - me us lui lei - you, thee you gli le - him them - her them - it them - - -GROUP B - -(Demonstratives of Person) - - _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - this these questi costei - that those costui costei - this one these colui colei - that one those costoro costoro - coloro coloro - - -GROUP C - -(Demonstratives of Things) - - _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - this these questo questi questa queste - that those cotesto cotesti cotesta coteste - this one these quel(lo) quegli, quei quella quelle - that one those ciò ciò - ne ne - - -GROUP D - -(Relatives) - - _Persons_ _Persons and Things_ - _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - who il quale i quali la quale le quali - whose che che - whom chi chi - that cui cui - - _Things_ - which chi (compound = "he who") - that - - what (compound = that which) - - -GROUP E - -(Possessives) - - mine its - yours (thine) ours - his yours - hers theirs - - -GROUP F - -(Interrogatives) - - _Persons_ _Persons_ - who? chi? - whose? - whom? quale? - - which? - - _Things_ _Things_ - - che? - what? cosa? - che cosa? - - which? quale? - - -AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND VERB - -The cards given to the child for this work are green for the personal -pronoun subjects, and red for the verb forms of the three simple tenses, -present, past, and future. There are, for Italian, three groups -corresponding to the three conjugations: _amare_, _temere_, _sentire_. -The child's work is to place the pronouns in the proper order of person -(first, second, third, singular and plural) and to put after each -pronoun the corresponding verb form. Each child corrects his work by his -own sense of the language; however, the teacher looks it over to verify -it. The resulting exercises when correctly performed are as follows: - - -GROUP A - - io amo ("I love" Io amavo ("I was io amerò ("I shall - etc.) loving") love") - tu ami tu amavi tu amerai - egli ama egli amava egli amerà - noi amiamo noi amavamo noi ameremo - voi amate voi amavate voi amerete - essi amano essi amavano essi ameranno - - -GROUP B - - io temo ("I fear") io temevo ("I was io temerò ("I shall - fearing") fear") - tu temi tu temevi tu temerai - egli teme egli temeva egli temerà - noi temiamo noi temevamo noi temeremo - voi temete voi temevate voi temerete - essi temono essi temevano essi temeranno - - -GROUP C - - io sento ("I hear") io sentivo ("I was io sentirò ("I shall - hearing") hear") - tu senti tu sentivi tu sentirai - egli sente egli sentiva egli sentirà - noi sentiamo noi sentivamo noi sentiremo - voi sentite voi sentivate voi sentirete - essi sentono essi sentivano essi sentiranno - - -FOR ENGLISH - -GROUP A - -(Simple Tenses) - - I love I loved I shall love - you love you loved you will love - he loves he loved he will love - we love we loved we shall love - you love you loved you will love - they love they loved they will love - - -GROUP B - -(Progressive Forms) - - I am loving I was loving I shall be loving - you are loving you were loving you will be loving - he is loving he was loving he will be loving - we are loving we were loving we shall be loving - you are loving you were loving you will be loving - they are loving they were loving they will be loving - - -GROUP C - -(Interrogative Forms) - - do I love? did I love? will I love? - do you love? did you love? shall you love? - does he love? did he love? will he love? - do we love? did we love? will we love? - do you love? did you love? shall you love? - do they love? did they love? will they love? - - -GROUP D - -(Intensive and Negative Forms) - - I do (not) love I did (not) love I shall (not) love - etc. etc. etc. - -The child can shuffle his cards in various ways, mixing the verb forms -of the three different Italian verbs, or the four tense forms of the -English verb; passing then to a reconstruction of the different tenses -according to the pronouns, the order of which has by this time become -familiar to him. - -The next step is to conjugate properly. - - -CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS - -MATERIAL - -In our material we offer (for Italian) the conjugation of the two -auxiliary verbs (_essere_ "to be," _avere_ "to have") and the model -verbs of the first, second and third conjugations. The colors used for -the five verbs are all different, yellow for _essere_ "to be," black for -_avere_ "to have," pink for _amare_ "to love," green for _temere_ "to -fear," light blue for _sentire_ "to hear." Each card has both pronoun -and verb form. This is not only to simplify and expedite the exercise -but also to make sure of auto-exercise, since the pronoun guides the -order of the forms in each tense. These verb forms of a given verb -preceded by the pronouns are, accordingly, made into a little package. -Here, however, the groups are not so simple as in other cases. For the -verb, the cards are kept in a sort of red envelope tied with a ribbon. -The infinitive of the verb is written on the outside of the envelope, -which, though very simple, is most attractive. When the whole verb is -wrapped in its package and tied with the ribbon, it forms a small red -prism of the following dimensions: cmm. 35 X 4 X 5.5. On untying the -ribbon and opening the envelope the child finds inside ten little -"volumes" with red covers. These volumes represent the _moods_ of the -verb and they have the following titles inscribed on the first page: - - Indicative Mood - Conditional Mood (for Italian) - Subjunctive Mood - Imperative Mood - Verbals - -To facilitate replacing these materials in an orderly way and to be sure -that this order is recognized, the child finds in the corner of each -envelope a Roman numeral (I, II, III, IV, V); and besides that, an -Arabic numeral indicating the number of tenses in the given mood. On -opening the little volume and taking off the cover we find many other -tiny volumes with red covers. These are the tenses. In the middle of -each cover is written the name and, to one side, the number indicating -the relative position of the tenses in the following manner: the -_simple_ tense is marked with the letter _S_ and the _compound_ tense -with the letter _C_. The titles, then, of the eight booklets contained -in the little volume for a given mood are: - - Present Tense 1s - Past Tense 2s - Future Tense 3s - Perfect Tense 1c - Pluperfect Tense 2c - Future Perfect Tense 3c - -(For Italian the tenses are: Present, 1s, Imperfect 2s, Remote Past 3s, -Future 4s, Perfect 1c, Pluperfect 2c, Past Anterior 3c, Future Perfect -4c.) - -Finally, on opening each of these little booklets (which, by the way, -are 3.5 X 4 cmm. and only a bare millimeter thick) we have the cards -with the verb forms preceded by the corresponding pronoun. - -This rather resembles the famous egg in which a number of smaller and -smaller eggs were enclosed. For this beautiful package forming as a -whole the entire conjugation of the verb contains the booklets of the -different moods, which in their turn contain the smaller booklets of the -tenses. The orderly enumeration of the moods and tenses, together with -the pronouns which serve to show the order of the verb forms, allows the -child to conjugate the entire verb by himself and to study the -classification of the different forms that make it up. In fact the -children need no help in this exercise. Once they have this attractive, -complicated, and mysterious little red package, they evolve on their -little tables in an orderly way the entire conjugation of the verb. -Having learned the verb forms little by little they shuffle the cards of -the different tenses in various ways and then try to put them in their -regular order. At length they are able to shuffle all the cards in the -entire verb as the children in the "Children's House" did with the -sixty-four colors; and to reconstruct correctly the whole conjugation by -tense and by mood. They themselves finally ask to write the verb and -they prepare of their own accord new booklets writing out the new verbs -as they meet them. - -For this purpose we have included in our materials many booklets -likewise covered in red and filled with _blank_ cards of a variety of -colors. The children themselves fill out these cards in conjugating -their new verbs. - -The exercises both of working out the conjugation of the verb and of -writing out new verbs may be performed at home. - - - - -X - -CONJUNCTIONS - -ANALYSES - - -Material: This box has eight compartments for the title cards, which are -tan (article), black (noun), brown (adjective), red (verb), violet -(preposition), pink (adverb), green (pronoun), and _yellow_ -(_conjunction_). It also has the usual place for the sentences that are -to be analyzed. These again are given in groups. - - -GROUP A - -Coordinate Conjunctions - -(Copulative, Disjunctive, Illative, Adversative) - - --Put away the pen _and_ the ink-stand. - Put away the pen _or_ the ink-stand. - Put away _neither_ the pen _nor_ the ink-stand, _but_ the paper. - - --The table, therefore, is bare _and_ in order. - _For_ all your things are in their places. - - --Do not leave the objects you use here and there about the room, - _but_ put them all back in their places. - - --Speak to your nearest school-mate not aloud _but_ in a whisper. - - --Move your table forward a little, _but_ only a little _and_ - without making any noise. - -[Illustration: Grammar Boxes, showing respectively eight and nine parts -of speech.] - - -GROUP B - -Subordinate Conjunctions - -(Time, condition, cause, purpose) - - --You can push down a key of the piano without making - any sound _if_ you push it down slowly. - - --You could write with your left hand _if_ you - "touched" the letters with that hand. - - --You will get silence from the children _as soon as_ - you write "silence" on the blackboard. - - --That child is happy: he always sings _while_ he - works. - - --Always shut the door _when_ you go from one room to - another. - - --Everybody must be orderly _in order that_ the - "Children's House" may look neat. - - -GROUP C - -Subordinate conjunctions, _continued_ - -(Cause, concession, alternative) - - --The "Children's House" is attractive _because_ it is - pretty and _because_ it is so easy to keep busy all - the time. - - --I shall give it to you _since_ you have asked me for - it very politely. - - --We shall go to walk in the park rather _than_ in the - crowded streets. - - --I shall give you that toy _although_ I should have - preferred to let you have a beautiful book. - - --You may promise to go and visit him to-morrow - _provided_ you keep your promise. - -[Illustration: The children are permitted to work at their various -occupations in complete freedom. (_The Lenox School, Montessori -Elementary Class, New York._)] - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The removal of the conjunction destroys the relationship between the -words, and this brings out its function in the sentence: - - Put away the pen and the ink-stand. - Put away the pen the ink-stand. - - Put away the pen or the ink-stand. - Put away the pen the ink-stand. - - You could write with your left hand if you touched the letters - with that hand. - You could write with your left hand you touched the letters with - that hand. - -The conjunction must be placed between the words it connects: otherwise -the meaning is changed or destroyed: - - Put away the pen and the ink-stand. - Put and away the pen the ink-stand. - - The "Children's House" is attractive because it is pretty. - The "Children's House" is attractive it is pretty. - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE CONJUNCTIONS - -Subject: - - Coordinate conjunctions: and, or, neither, nor (e, o, - nè). - -Commands:-- - - --Come to "silence" where you are _and_ move only at - my call. - - --Come to "silence" where you are _or else_ move - silently among the chairs. - - --Walk on tip-toe about the room, being careful - _neither_ to meet _nor_ to follow one another. - -Subject: - - Declarative: that (che). - -Command:-- - - --Tell two of your schoolmates _that_ you know a - conjunction. - -Subject: - - Adversatives: but, however, instead (ma, invece). - -Command:-- - - --Form two lines; now one line face about turning from - left to right; the other line, _instead_, turn in - opposite direction. - - --Form in one long line and advance; when you reach - the end of the room, do not stop, _but_ turn to the - left. - -Subject: - - Condition: if (se). - -Command:-- - - --You will be able to hear this drop of water fall, - _if_ you remain for a moment in absolute silence. - -Subject: - - Time: while, when, as soon as (mentre, quando, - appena). - -Command:-- - - --A few of you walk about among the tables; then stop - in the center of the room, _while_ the others gather - round you and try to cover your eyes with their hands. - - --One of you start to leave the room. _When_ you are - about to cross the threshold, the others will block - the way compelling you to stop. - - --All of you ready! _As soon as_ I say "Go!" run to - the other end of the room. - -Subject: - - Purpose: so that, in order that (affinchè, perchè). - -Command:-- - - --One of you stand in the middle of the room; the - others try to pass near him quickly _so that_ he - cannot touch you. - - --I am going to whisper a command: listen in perfect - silence _in order that_ you may hear what I command. - -Subject: - - Alternative: rather than (piuttostochè, anzichè). - -Command:-- - - --Those children who would _rather_ work _than_ go out - of doors rise from their places. - -Subject: - - Cause: because, since (perchè, poichè). - -Command:-- - - --Before beginning to work let us become entirely - quiet, _because_ then we can think about what we are - going to do. - -Subject: - - Exception: except, save (fuorchè, salvochè). - -Command:-- - - --Get the counters and place one on every table in the - room _except_ on this one. Gather up all the counters - _save_ the red ones. Return all the counters to their - box. - - -COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES - -SERIES A - - --Of these two long rods, this one is the _longer_. - Of these three rods, which is the _longest_? - - --This rod is _longer_ than that. - That rod in the _longest_ of the three. - Which is the _longest_ of the series? - - --This cloth is _smoother_ than that. - This cloth is _smoothest_ of all. - - --Of these two shades of red which is the _darker_? - Of all these shades of red which is the _darkest_? - - --Of these two prisms which is the _thicker_? - This prism is _thicker_ than that. - Of these three prisms, which is _thickest_? - - --Which of these two children is the _taller_? - Which is the _tallest_ child in the room? - -SERIES B - - --Which of these two pictures is the _more_ beautiful? - This picture is _more_ beautiful than that. - - --Which of these three pictures is _most_ beautiful? - Which is the _most_ beautiful picture in the room? - - --Which of these two games is the _more_ amusing? - This game is _more_ amusing than that. - This game is _most_ amusing of all. - - --This drawing is good. - That drawing is _better_. - That drawing is _best_. - - --There are some beads on this table. - There are _more_ beads on that table. - There are _most_ beads on that table. - - --There is a little water in this glass. - There is _less_ water in that glass. - There is _least_ water in that glass. - - --Of these two children John is the _elder_. - Of these three children Mary is the _eldest_. - Mary is _older_ than John. - John is _older_ than Laura. - -A set of exercises may be arranged to bring out the paradymns of -comparison by means of suffixes (_-er_, _-est_) and of adverbs (_more_, -_most_). Here the series of cards for the positive adjectival forms are, -as usual, brown, the phonograms for _-er_ and _-est_ in lighter and -darker shades of brown respectively. The cards for _more_ and _most_ as -adverbs are colored pink. When properly arranged, the cards appear as -follows: - - long tall thick smooth - long _er_ tall _er_ thick _er_ smooth _er_ - long _est_ tall _est_ thick _est_ smooth _est_ - - short dark light rough - short _er_ dark _er_ light _er_ rough _er_ - short _est_ dark _est_ light _est_ rough _est_ - - beautiful amusing interesting - _more_ beautiful _more_ amusing _more_ interesting - _most_ beautiful _most_ amusing _most_ interesting - -A second exercise contains cards for each of the forms for these same -words. There are three colors: brown, light brown and dark brown -(superlative). There are in addition similar cards for the adjectives of -irregular comparisons, and three title cards: _Positive_, _Comparative_, -_Superlative_. The exercise results as follows: - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - long longer longest - tall taller tallest - thick thicker thickest - smooth smoother smoothest - short shorter shortest - dark darker darkest - light lighter lightest - rough rougher roughest - beautiful more beautiful most beautiful - amusing more amusing most amusing - interesting more interesting most interesting - old elder eldest - many more most - good better best - bad worse worst - little less least - - - - -XI - -INTERJECTIONS - - -Since this is the last part of speech to be studied the children are now -able to recognize _all_ the different parts of speech and it is no -longer necessary to make sentences containing only parts of speech which -the children know. Therefore in our Italian lessons we choose henceforth -sentences from the classic authors (mostly from Manzoni). Since the -interjection is really a thought expressed in an abbreviated form it -lends itself readily to dramatic interpretation. With the same sentence -the children accordingly can now perform the two-fold exercise of -general analysis and "interpretative reading." They now recite sentences -which they have picked out and studied instead of the commands. At this -time also they are given a chart containing the complete classification -of interjections. The children read them, interpreting each as they go -along by voice and gesture. This is the first table of classification to -be presented. Later on all the parts of speech will be given on charts -with their definitions and classification. - - -ANALYSES - -Material: The grammar box is complete. It now has nine separate -compartments for the colored cards, article (tan), noun (black), -adjective (brown), verb (red), preposition (violet), adverb (pink), -pronoun (green), conjunction (yellow), and _interjection_ (_blue_). In -the compartment for the sentence slips are groups of cards which -correspond exactly to the number of the words contained in the -sentences. - - -GROUP A - -(Per amor del cielo! oibò! addio! ehm! misericordia! ah!) - - _Please!_ Don't make so much noise! - - _Shame on you!_ exclaimed Henry, much shocked at those - words. - - _Good-by!_ We shall see you to-morrow. - - _Look out!_ If you drop that vase, you will break it. - - _Mercy on us!_ What is the matter with the poor man? - - _Aha!_ now I understand! - - -GROUP B - -(Eh via! bravo! bene! ehi! poh! per carità! oh!) - - _Come, come!_ Do you think I am going to believe all - that nonsense? - - _Goodness!_ I hope the child is not going to fall. - - _Thanks!_ It was kind of you to help me put my objects - away. - - _Cockadoodledoo!_ sang the rooster in the yard! - - _Ding-dong, ding-dong!_ The engines were passing by. - There was a fire! - - _Cheer up!_ There is no harm done! - - -GROUP C - -(Ohè! ih! toh! poveretto! ahi! ohi! eh! animo! uh! ton!) - - _Farewell!_ The ship gradually drew away from the - shore! The houses faded from view one by one. The - hills formed a low line on the horizon. _Farewell!_ It - would be months, years perhaps, before George would - see the old familiar town again. _Farewell!_ - - _Help! Help!_ came a voice through the fog! A man was - drowning. - - _Hush!_ Do you hear that bird singing in the distance? - - _Alas!_ It was too late! When the doctor came, the - poor man was dead! - - _Hurrah! Hurrah!_ The soldiers were now almost at the - top of the hill. _Hurrah! hurrah!_ The - red-white-and-blue was waving at last where the enemy - had held out so long! - - _Bang!_ In the still night the sound of a gun roused - the sleeping inhabitants. - - -CHART OF CLASSIFIED INTERJECTIONS - -(For interpretative reading) - -ITALIAN INTERJECTIONS: - - _Pain_: ahi! ohi! ohimè! ahimè! ah! oh! poveretto! - - _Prayer_: deh! mercè! aiuto! per carità! per amor di - Dio! - - _Surprise_, _wonder_: Oh! ih! nientedimeno! poh! toh! - eh! corbezzoli! bazzecole! caspita! cospetto! uh! - oooh! misericordia! diavolo! bubbole! - - _Threat_: ehm! guai! - - _Disgust_, _horror_: puh! puah! brr! - - _Anger_: oibò! vergogna! - - _Doubt_: uhm! - - _Weariness_: auf! auff! - - _Calls_, _silence_: ehi! ohè! olà! alto là! pss! st! - psst! - - _Demonstratives_: ecco! riecco! eccomi! eccoci! - - _Encouragement_: orsù! via! suvvia! animo! coraggio! - arri là! hop hop! - - _Greeting_: salve! vale! addio! arrivederci! ave! - ciao! - - _Applause_: bene! bravo! viva! evviva! gloria! osanna! - alleluja! - - _Onomatapoetic_: crac! patatrac! piff paff! din don! - ton ton! zum zum! bum bum! - - _Animal sounds_: gnau! chicchirichì! coccodè! cra cra - cra! uè uè uè! glu glu glu! pi pi pi! cri cri! fron - fron! bu bu! - - _Curses_: accidenti! accidempoli! perbacco! canchero! - malanaggia! - - -ENGLISH INTERJECTIONS: - - _Pain_: oh! alas! ah! ouch! my! - - _Joy_: oh! ah! oh my! good! splendid! - - _Surprise_: ha! aha! oh! really! you don't say! - indeed! well, well! upon my word! - - _Contempt_: fudge! pshaw! fie! nonsense! bother! - - _Hesitation_: hum! - - _Resolution_: by Jove! - - _Silence_: hush! hist! listen! shh! - - _To animals_: whoa! gee! haw! geddap! kitty-kitty! - puss-puss! - - _Onomatapoetic_: ding-dong! bang! whiz! bing! crack! - snap! etc., etc. - -(In general the use of interjections, especially of capricious -character, is much more characteristic of the best Italian writing and -speech than it is of English.) - - - - -XII - -SENTENCE ANALYSIS - - -I - -SIMPLE SENTENCES - -The material for logical analysis consists of little rolls of fairly -stiff paper, on which are printed simple, compound and complex -sentences, in carefully prepared series. - -There is also a chart, divided into two columns of rectangular spaces, -with the name of one sentence element printed in each space. The -sentence read on the roll can be torn off part by part, and each of -these parts is placed in one of the rectangles, according to the name -printed on it. This is another application of the compartment box method -used to analyze first the alphabet, then the sounds which go to make up -the word, finally the words as parts of speech. Here, the compartments -are reduced to a simple design. - -The charts for logical analysis are on colored paper and are -artistically drawn and decorated. We have charts of four different kinds -as regards ornament and color, for such details exert a considerable -influence upon the work of the children. On the following page is a -sample of the charts with its "sections." - - -CHART A - - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | VERB | Who is it that? | - | | What is it that? | - | (The verbal or nominal | | - | predicate.) | SUBJECT | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | Who? What? | To whom? To what? | - | (Direct object.) | (Indirect object.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | By Whom? By What? | Of whom? Of what? | - | (Agent.) | (Possessive, material.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | When? | Where? | - | (Time.) | (Place.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | Whence? | How? | - | (Source.) | (Manner.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | Why? | What for? | - | (Cause.) | (Purpose.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | By means of whom? | With whom? | - | By means of what? | With what? | - | (Instrument.) | (Accompaniment.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | (Attributive (phrases).) | (Vocative.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - -The two spaces at the top, subject and predicate, are somewhat larger -and are more conspicuously decorated than the other rectangles below. -The words _subject_ and _verb_ are printed entirely in large capitals. -The other spaces, however, are much more simply decorated and the -words are in small letters. This helps to distinguish the principal from -the secondary elements in the sentences. The names of the parts of -speech, and the questions which bring out the meaning of these names, -are in different colors: for instance, the names may be black and the -questions red, or the names may be in red and the questions in green. -And the letters of the questions are larger than the letters of the -names, except in the two upper spaces, where the words _subject_ and -_verb_ are in the largest type. - -The child begins to see what a sentence is: that is, he begins to -_concentrate_ on this particular question. How many times he has read -sentences, pronounced sentences, composed sentences! But now he is -examining them in detail, _studying_ them. The simple sentence is a -short proposition, with completed meaning, which expresses an action or -a situation, organizing its different parts around a _verb_. - -The first exercise for the child must be to find the verb, a task not -very difficult after the preceding exercises on the parts of speech have -been performed. When he has found the verb, it becomes essential for him -to find the subject. The subject may be found by asking the question: -_Who is it that_--? For example: - - The child reads. - -The word _reads_ is the verb. The section of the roll where the word -_reads_ appears is torn off and placed in the space marked _Verb_. Then -ask: "_Who is it that_ reads?" The answer is, "_The child_ reads." The -section containing the word _the child_ is torn off and placed in the -space marked _Subject_. - -Another sentence: on the roll the child finds written: - - _The glass is broken._ - -The teacher can briefly explain that the verb taken by itself, has no -special meaning. _Is_ means nothing! "_Is?_ Is _what_?" Some attribute -must be added: "Is _broken_!" Here we get a _nominal predicate_. When -the verb contains some definite meaning in terms of action, for instance -_reads_, we get a _verbal predicate_. The section of the roll containing -_is broken_ is torn off, accordingly, and placed in the space of the -verb. But _what_ is broken? _The glass!_ The section containing the -words _the glass_ is placed in the space of the subject. All of this can -be copied off by the child by hand, as follows: - - Simple sentence: The child reads. - The child: Subject. - Reads: Predicate (verbal). - -SERIES I - -(Simple Sentences) - -The first roll contains the following simple sentences without modifiers -of any kind: - - --The child reads. - --The glass is broken. - --Charles is tall. - --The trees are blossoming. - --The blackboard is clean. - --Who has come? - --The pencil is broken. - --The sky is blue. - --I am reading. - --I am studying. - --The children are playing. - --Time flies. - --The teacher sings. - - -SERIES II - -(Simple Sentences, containing a few modifiers) - -The roll contains the following sentences, written one after another: - - --The mother loves her child dearly. - --Johnny brought his teacher a rose. - --You may keep the book for some days, Louis. - --Mary, give the poor man a penny. - --Where have you been, Mary? - --I will do it, mother. - --Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole - blackboard. - --Who drew the pretty picture? - --Last night I showed the letter to father. - --In the yard a red white and blue flag is waving. - --Did you go to the theater last night? - --The rain was beating against the window panes. - --The dog is barking at the cat. - --The poor deaf-mutes talk with their hands. - -Example of application: The section containing the first sentence, - - The mother loves her child dearly. - -is first torn off from the roll. Then the section containing the word -_loves_ is placed in the space marked _verb_. _Who_ loves?--_the -mother_. The section containing the words _the mother_ is placed in the -space marked _subject_. The mother loved _whom_? _Her child._ The -section containing _her child_ is torn off and placed in the space -marked _direct object_. By thus reading the names printed in the spaces -of the chart the child learns to classify the various kinds of -modifiers. _How_ does the mother love her child? _In what manner?_ -_Dearly._ The section containing the word _dearly_ is placed in the -space marked _Manner_ and the sentence is completed. - -Now the child can copy off these analyses immediately or make others, as -he thinks best. The copy may be as follows: - - The mother loves her child dearly. - The mother: Subject. - Loves: Predicate (verbal). - Her child: Direct object. - Dearly: Adverb, manner. - -In classifying the vocatives and attributives, a little help from the -teacher may be required. Example: - - You may keep the book for some days, Louis. - -The word _Louis_ can be dramatized somewhat into a kind of invocation, -as--_O Louis, you may keep the book_ and so on. Vocatives can almost -always be identified by trying the exclamatory _O_ before them. - -In the sentence, - - Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the - whole blackboard. - -_only three years old_ is an attributive of Harry. It should be torn off -and placed in the space marked _Attributive_. - - -SERIES III - -(Simple sentences with two or more modifiers of the same kind) - -The roll contains the following sentences in sections which may be read -and torn off one after the other as the child unrolls the strip: - - --The child sleeps and dreams. - --Everybody likes fruit and flowers. - --He took paper, pen and ink to write to his friends. - --Charles opened and closed the book. - --The doctor and the father left the sick child's room. - --The women recommended calmness, patience and prudence. - --In the beginning God created heaven and earth. - --He will always have money and friends. - --In the street we could see crowds of men and a few women. - - -SERIES IV - -(Elliptical sentences with subject understood) - -[This situation does not however arise in English, which, save in the -imperative, always requires at least a pronominal subject for the verb.] - -Here, the child interprets the sentence, completing it and finding the -element that is lacking. - - --La ringrazio (_I_ thank you). - --Verrete? (Will _you_ come?) - --Sono stanco (_I_ am tired). - --Non mi sento bene oggi (_I_ don't feel well to-day). - --Com'è andata? (How did _it_ turn out?) - --Dico la verità (_I_ will tell you all about it). - --Siamo contentissimi (_We_ are delighted). - --Vi saluto (_I_ bid you good-by). - --Vado a casa (_I_ am going home). - --Lampeggia (_It_ is lightening). - --M'impose silenzio (_He_ told me to say nothing). - --Ascolto (_I_ am listening). - - -SERIES V - -(Elliptical sentences where the predicate is understood) - - --Silence! - --Why all this noise? - --After me, the deluge! - --The sooner the better! - --Good luck to you, sir! - --What nasty weather! - --What an attractive school! - --O for a calm, a thankful heart! - --A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse! - --Away with him! - --Fire! Fire! - --Here, here, quick! - --Honor to the brave! - - -SERIES VI - -(Elliptical sentences where the direct object is understood: _incomplete -predication_) - - --They drove away. - --He spends like a millionaire. - --He drinks like a fish. - --The farmer's boy had just milked. - --Do you understand? - --The cavalry spurred across the field at full speed. - --Did you see? - --The child did not hear. - - -SERIES VII - -(Sentences with numerous modifiers and of increased difficulty) - - --The poor boy came home that night, all tired out, covered - with mud from head to foot, with his coat torn and - with a black and blue lump on his forehead. - --Ethel hurried home as fast as possible. - --We heard the clatter of horse's hoofs on the pavement. - --And so through the night went his cry of alarm - To every Middlesex village and farm. - --The beautiful child with the black hair is here on the lawn. - --And yet through the gloom and the night - The fate of a nation was riding that night. - --The woman walked along in front of me with the child in her - arms. - --The girl's voice sounded distinctly above all the others. - --To-morrow I shall come to town on foot. - --He spent the summer every year with his parents in their old - home on the mountain side. - --That evening the old house was more lonely than ever. - --They are very busy this morning. - --I never did such a thing in my life! - --Every now and then a group of people hurriedly crossed the - street. - --The doctor whispered something into the Mayor's ear. - --Just then some one knocked at the door. - --Here I am back again at my work. - --Mary had a little lamb - With fleece as white as snow. - - -THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE: PERMUTATIONS - -Rules: - -The English (the Italian) language tends to follow the direct order in -prose, inversion being very rare. - -In poetry, inversion is very common. - -The direct order consists in placing: first, the subject, then the -predicate, then the objects, direct and indirect; then the modifiers -follow according to the importance they derive from the meaning of the -sentence. - -These ideas are after all so simple and clear that the child rarely has -any difficulty in understanding them. Nevertheless, it is much easier to -give the child a vivid impression of them by the permutation of parts -than by explanation. This permutation is made very convenient by the -sentences being printed in sections which may be moved about and -combined at will. Just as the sequence of the various parts of speech -was made clear by transposing the parts, here the same result can be -accomplished by transposing the sections of the printed slip. Example: - - We heard the clatter of the horse's hoofs - (subject) (predicate) (direct object) (attribute) - - on the pavement. - (place: adverb) - -The following combinations are possible results of permutation: - - We--heard--the clatter--of the horse's hoofs--on the - pavement. - - We--the clatter--heard--on the pavement--of the - horse's hoofs. - - We--of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--the - clatter--heard. - - Of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--heard--the - clatter--we, etc., etc. - - -SERIES VIII - -(The inverted order) - -The effect of direct and inverted order can be shown in every sentence. -But it is better to try examples of inversion from poetic language. In -this series, all the sentences show inversion of one type or another: - - --Meanwhile, impatient to mount and ride, - Booted and spurred, with a heavy stride - On the opposite shore walked Paul Revere. - - --Upon the roof we sat that night! - The noise of bells went sweeping by; - Awesome bells they were to me. - - --Still sits the school-house by the road. - - --Before them under the garden-wall - Forward and back - Went drearily singing the chore-girl small. - - --And day by day more holy grew - Each spot of the sacred ground. - - --There thronged the citizens with terror dumb. - -Exercises on the putting together of sentence elements can lead to -practise in the identification and use of grammatical forms as parts of -speech, which the study of single words would not at first permit; as -for instance, forms of the verbs used as nouns (infinitive and gerund as -subject and object), the difference between personal pronouns used as -direct or indirect objects, and so on. - - -SERIES IX - -(The forms of the verb) - -The roll contains the two forms of the verb, active and passive, in -sections. The analysis is conducted on the chart for the simple -sentence: - - ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE REFLEXIVE - - (Action performed by (Action performed by (_Middle Voice_) - subject) agent) (Subject is direct - object) - - Mary dresses the little The little girl is The little girl - girl. dressed by Mary. dresses herself. - - The teacher praised Charles was praised Charles praised - Charles for the by the teacher for himself for the - drawing. the drawing. drawing. - - The little girl excused George was excused George excuses - George for his for his roughness by himself for his - roughness. the little girl. roughness. - - The janitor accused The boy was accused The boy accused - the boy. by the janitor. himself. - - The old man liked Albert Albert was very much Albert liked himself - very much. liked by the old man. very much. - - The nurse tucked the The child was tucked The child tucked - child into the warm into the warm bed himself into the - bed. by the nurse. warm bed. - - The girl rocked her The little friend was Her little friend - little friend to sleep rocked to sleep in rocked herself to - in the rocking-chair. the rocking-chair by sleep in the - the little girl. rocking-chair. - - The teacher saw Henry Henry was seen in the Henry saw himself in - in the large mirror. large mirror by the the large mirror. - teacher. - - The angry boy hurt Louis was hurt by the Louis hurt himself. - Louis. angry boy. - - -SERIES X - -(Use of the personal pronoun) - -The sentences previously given for analysis in teaching the personal -pronouns can be used over again at this point for analysis on the -sentence-chart. - - --The children wrote a letter to their mother - The children wrote her a letter - They wrote it to her - - --They gave their mother a surprise - They gave her a surprise - - --I told father all about it - I told him all about it - - --Charles soothed his sister with a kiss - He soothed her with a kiss - - --Will you give your drawing to the teacher? - Will you give her your drawing? - Will you give it to her? - - --Don't think badly of your schoolmates - Don't think badly of them - - --Show those dirty hands to the teacher - Show her those dirty hands - Show them to her - - --Tell the story to the children in the other room - Tell it to the children in the other room - Tell it to them there - -The exercise in permutation brings out the relative positions of the -direct and indirect objects; as also the conditions under which the -preposition _to_ is required before the indirect object. - - -II - -COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES - -Here we are dealing with a number of propositions (clauses) which -combine into one complete meaning. The clauses fit together in the -sentences just as did the various elements in the simple sentence. The -material for the analysis is therefore analogous to that used in the -analysis of the simple sentence: strips of paper in rolls on which are -written the sentences to be analyzed, and a chart with spaces where the -detached pieces may be placed, according to the designation of these -spaces. - -The principal space on the chart is reserved for the main clause, around -which the other clauses are arranged, as coordinate or subordinate. - -Since the work of logical analysis of the complex sentence is -sufficiently interesting to attract the attention of the child to -various forms of study, the material contains in addition to the rolls -and the chart, a number of test-cards where the analysis is completed -and logically demonstrated. These cards serve as tests of the accuracy -of the work done by the children, and as actual charts for analytical -study. Of course, when the child is doing his exercise with the strips -of paper and the chart, he does not have these test-cards before him. He -should, however, always have free access to them. His interest in the -game is to succeed by himself in placing the different propositions -where they belong. - - -CHART B - - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | PRINCIPAL CLAUSE | - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | INCIDENTAL CLAUSES (Parenthetical clauses) | - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | SUBORDINATE ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE (Adjective or Relative clauses) | - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | who is it that...? | whom...? what...? | - | | | - | subordinate _subject_ clause | subordinate _object_ clause | - | (subject clause) | (object clause) | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - | when...? | where...? | - | | | - | subordinate clause of _time_ | subordinate clause of _place_ | - | (temporal clause) | (locative clause) | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - | for what purpose...? | why...? for what cause? | - | | | - | subordinate clause of _purpose_| subordinate clause of _cause_ | - | (purpose clause) | (causal clause) | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - | how...? than what? | on what condition...? | - | | | - | subordinate clause of _manner_ | subordinate clause of _condition_| - | or comparison | (conditional clause) | - | (modal clauses) | | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - | in spite of what...? | with what result...? | - | subordinate clause of | | - | _concession_ | subordinate clause of _result_ | - | (concessive clause) | (result clause) | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - - -SERIES I - -(Compound Sentences) - -The clauses are independent of each other. Each contains a complete -meaning, and each therefore could stand alone. It is a question of -simple sentences _coordinated_ with each other. - - --I hunted carefully everywhere and at last I found it. - --She started in fear, lifted her face and shaded it from the - strong sun. - --The bees hummed in the warm sunshine and the cat sat purring - at her side. - --She dropped her sewing and went to the door. - --The girl covered her eyes with her hands and wept. - --They looked into each other's faces: each of them had a question - to ask and neither dared to speak. - --I am a lowly peasant and you are a gallant knight. - --They all looked at the speaker, and crowded round him and waited - for his next word to attack him. - --Then he began to weep and he tore his hair in anguish. - --Louis clapped his hands for joy and began to dance around the - room. - --He looked into the mirror, straightened his tie, smoothed his - hair and went out to greet his two friends. - --She went to the window and looked out over the stormy sea. - -The child divides these sentences into clauses, analyzing each -separately. Then, placing one under the other, he is impressed by the -fact that each has a complete meaning and can stand by itself; save that -in English the subject of the first clause is often carried over to the -second: - - I hunted carefully everywhere. - And at last I found it. - - I am a lowly peasant. - And you are a gallant knight. - - Louis clapped his hands for joy. - began to dance around the room. - - He looked into the mirror. - straightened his tie. - smoothed his hair. - _and_ went out to meet his two friends. - - The bees hummed in the warm sunshine. - And the cat sat purring at her side. - - Then he began to weep. - And he tore his hair in anguish. - - The girl covered her face with her hands. - _and_ wept. - - They looked at the speaker. - crowded around him. - _and_ waited for his next word to attack him. - - -SERIES II - -(The Complex Sentence) - -Here only the main clause has a complete meaning. The other clauses make -sense only when they are united with the main clause. On this roll, the -subordinate clauses are attributes of one of the elements of the main -clause (relative clauses). - - --The gold ring which you found yesterday on the stairs belongs - to my mother. - --The man who brought me to school this morning was my uncle. - --He was educated by his sister who taught him many beautiful - things. - --The colors which Aunt Anna gave me Christmas are very good. - --A little girl who was at a party sat looking with longing eyes - at a plate of sandwiches. - --The knife with which you sharpened my pencil was very dull. - --Bees don't care about the snow! - I can tell you why it's so: - Once I caught a little bee - Who was much too warm for me.--(F. D. SHERMAN) - --We have at home the prettiest cat you ever saw. - --Here are the pennies my mother gave me. - --The children I play with did not come to school to-day. - --The house we live in is beautiful and airy. - --Stars are the little daisies white - That dot the meadow of the night.--(SHERMAN) - - -TEST CARDS - - PRINCIPAL CLAUSE ATTRIBUTIVE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE - (The words modified by the relative (Relative or Adjective Clauses) - clause are in _italics_). (The clause has no meaning until - united with some noun in the - main clause). - - The gold _ring_ belongs to which you found on the stairs - mother yesterday - - The _man_ was my uncle who brought me to school this - morning - - He was educated by his _sister_ who taught him many beautiful - things - - The _colors_ are very good which Aunt Anna gave me - Christmas - - A little _girl_ sat looking with who was at a party - longing eyes at a plate of - sandwiches - - Once I caught a little _bee_ who was much too warm for - me - - Stars are the little _daisies_ that dot the meadow of the - white night - - -RELATIVE OMITTED - - _What word is omitted?_ - - Here are the _pennies_ --my mother gave me - - The _children_ did not come to with--I play - school to-day - - The _house_ is beautiful and in--we live - airy - - -SERIES III - -In the preceding roll, the subordinate clauses completed the meaning and -constituted an attribute of _one word_ of the principal clause. Here, -however, the subordinate clauses refer to the whole content of the main -clause and complete _the whole thought_ of the main clause. They have, -therefore, a logical dependence on the main clause. The child will be -guided in finding the place of the different subordinate clauses and in -classifying them according to the designations of the spaces by the -questions which appear in the analytical chart. It is presupposed that -he can readily identify the main clause itself. - -The following sentences come one after the other on the rolled strip of -paper: - - --Do not forget that your objects are not in their places. - --Will you play with me when you have finished your work? - --When the sun is low our shadows are longer. - --I hope that you will write me a long letter as soon as you - arrive in Europe. - --The little girl stood on tiptoe so that she could see the queen - as the procession went by. - --Brer Rabbit thought it was the worst time he had had in all his - life. - --All is well that ends well, says the proverb. - --The people mourned when the good President died. - --It is not right that the big boys should have all the candy. - --As she sat there reading, a beautiful red bird flew in through - the window. - --They could not play in the yard because the ground was too wet. - --Remember that you must thank the lady who gave you the book. - - -TEST CARD - - PRINCIPAL AND INCIDENTAL QUESTION SUBORDINATE AND ATTRIBUTIVE - CLAUSES CLAUSES - - Do not forget what? that your objects are not - in their places. - - Will you play with me when? when you have finished - your work? - - Our shadows are longer when? when the sun is low. - - I hope what? that you will write me a - long letter. - - when? as soon as you arrive in - Europe. - - The little girl stood on tip-toe why? so that she could see the - queen - - when? as the procession went by. - - Brer Rabbit thought what? (that) it was the worst - _time_ he had had in all - his life (_attributive, - relative pronoun - omitted_) - - All is well that ends well - says the proverb (incidental (_attributive_). - clause) - - The people mourned when? the good President died. - - It is not right what? that the big boys should - have all the candy. - - A beautiful red bird flew when? as she sat there - in through the window reading. - - They could not play in the why? because the ground was - yard too wet. - - Remember what? that you must thank the - _lady_ who gave you the - book (_attributive_). - - -SERIES IV - -Here we have sentences both compound and complex, containing both -coordinate and subordinate clauses. - - --As he said this, he rose from his chair and left the room. - --The two friends shook hands and said they would always be - faithful to each other. - --When the wolf came out, Brer Rabbit threw the stone on him and - laughed. - --When the lady knocked on the door, a smiling old man appeared - and asked what he might do for her. - --The children walked along in the forest and became very hungry - because they had had nothing to eat since morning. - --The king's face grew very red and he angrily ordered that the - deceitful general be put to death. - --Since the wind was blowing hard, the captain told the children - to keep off the deck and a sailor carried them to their - state-rooms. - --The dogs began to bark and the people all ran out into the - streets as the uproar of the combat increased. - --Where that tree now stands, there was once a beautiful house - and a fine road led up to it. - --He had left the village and mounted the steep, - And under the alders that skirt its edge, - Now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge, - Is heard the tramp of his steed as he rides. - -TEST CARD - - SUBORDINATE AND - PRINCIPAL CLAUSE COORDINATE CLAUSE QUESTION ATTRIBUTIVE - CLAUSES - - He rose from his and left the when? as he said this - chair room - - The two friends and said what? that they would - shook hands always be faithful - to each other - - Brer Rabbit threw and laughed when? when the wolf came - the stone on him out - - A smiling old man and asked what? what he might do for - appeared her - - when? when the lady - knocked on the - door - - The children walked and became very why? because they had had - along in the hungry nothing to eat - forest since morning - - The king's face grew and he angrily what? that the deceitful - very red ordered general be put to - death - - The captain told the and a sailor why? because the wind was - children to keep carried them blowing hard - off the deck to their - state-rooms - - The dogs began to and the people when? as the uproar of the - bark all ran into combat increased - the streets - - There was once a and a fine road where? where that tree now - beautiful house led up to it stands - - He had left the and mounted the - village steep - - under the that skirt its edge - _alders_ now (attributive). - soft on the - sand, now loud - on the ledge, - is heard the - tramp of his - steed when? as he rides - - -SERIES V - -(Correlative Sentences) - -The clauses are here dependent upon each other: - - --The flowers were so beautiful that we picked them all. - --That day he was so lazy that he did not get his work done. - --She sings much better than she plays. - --The more one studies, the more one learns. - --Either you return your objects to their places or some one - else must do it. - --Not only was the man very cross, but he actually punished - the little boy. - - -TEST CARD - - PRINCIPAL CLAUSE QUESTION SUBORDINATE CLAUSE - - The flowers were so with what result? that we picked them all. - beautiful - - That day he was so with what result? that he did not get his - lazy work done. - - She sings much than what? than she plays. - better - - The more one with what result? the more one learns. - studies - - Either you return with what result? or some one else must do - your objects to it. - their places - - Not only was the man with what result? but he actually punished - very cross the little boy. - - -SERIES VI - -(The Order of Clauses in Sentences: Sentence Forms in Prose and Verse) - -Our material makes it very easy for the children to understand the -mutual dependence of the subordinate clauses. We take the commonest -cases within easy reach of the children. There are clauses of the first -degree of subordination, dependent directly on the principal clause. -There are others of the second degree of subordination which depend on a -subordinate clause (clause subordinate to a subordinate). We have the -same situation in coordinates. We have the first degree of coordination -when the clause is parallel with the principal clause, and the second -degree when the clause is parallel with a subordinate clause. - -Since the slips have as many sections as there are clauses, the clauses -may be arranged on the table in the order of their subordination, -keeping, for example, the principal clause to the left, and arranging -the subordinate clauses downward and downward to the right. Take, for -instance, the sentence: - - --The old man liked to tell stories; and he would - laugh heartily when the women were frightened at the - terrible things that he had to relate. - -As the different clauses are torn off they are placed on a chart marked -into sections by vertically placed arrows: the principal clause to the -right of the first arrow; the first subordinate clause to the right of -the second; the subordinate to the subordinate to the right of the -third, and so on. The above sentence results as follows: - - Principal and Coordinate 1st subordinate subordinate to - subordinate - - The old man liked to - tell stories - and he would laugh - heartily - - when the women were - frightened at the - terrible things - - that he had to tell. - - -CHART C - - - /|\ Principal and 1st subordinate subordinate to - | coordinate and its coordinates subordinate - | (incidental) - | - | I shall feel - | better /|\ if you will let me sit - | | next to the window - | | /|\ where there is more - | | | air. - -Here is another example: - - --I often sit and wish that I - Could be a kite up in the sky, - And ride upon the breeze, and go - Whatever way it chanced to blow. - - /|\ Principal and 1st subordinate and subordinate to - | Coordinates coordinate subordinate - | - | I often sit - | and wish - | /|\ that I could be a kite - | | up in the sky - | | and ride upon the - | | breeze - | | and go whatever way - | | /|\ it chanced to blow. - | | | - -Here, finally, is another: - --- I was a bad boy, I admit, but no one ever paid any attention to me, -unless I was to be blamed for something wrong that I had done, or was -accused of doing. - - /|\ I was a bad boy - | I admit (incidental) - | but no one ever paid - | any attention to me - | /|\ unless I was to be - | | blamed - | | for something wrong - | | /|\ that I had done, - | | | or was accused of - | | | doing. - | | | (coordinate of second - | | | subordinate) - -In using this material, the child tears off the clause-slips using the -analytical sentence-chart (Chart B). This gives him the classification -of the clauses. The strips are then to be placed on the dependence chart -(Chart C) according to the indications of the arrows. This brings out -the mutual relation of the clauses. - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The preceding exercises have created in the child a notion of sentence -construction and of the position of the clauses which make it up. Our -material permits, of course, as an exercise supplementary to the -analyses, dislocations and translocations of parts just as was true with -the simple sentence. To derive the full benefit of this possibility, the -teacher should have in mind the general rules for location of clauses: - -Adjective clauses (relative, attributive) always follow, and most often -directly, the noun they modify. - -Subject subordinate clauses may stand either before or after the -principal clause. If the subject clause follows, it is usually -anticipated before the verb by the pronoun it (just as a following noun -subject is anticipated by _there_). - -(In Italian, if the object clause precedes the main clause, it is -usually repeated before the noun by a conjunctive object personal -pronoun.) - -The position of the other clauses depends on considerations of emphasis. - -The direct order for complex sentences is in general similar to that for -simple sentences: - - subject clause - principal clause - object clause - adverbial clauses. - -Coordination is possible with subordinate as well as with principal -clauses. - -The special exercises on the complex sentence conclude with some -practise in turning simple inversions as found in poetry into direct -sentence order. - - -SERIES VII - -The detachable strips are used here also. The exercise should be -conducted with reference to the sentence charts. - - -1 - - --Just where the tide of battle Old John Burns stood, erect and - turns, lonely just where the tide of - Erect and lonely stood old battle turns.... - John Burns ... A bright blue coat, with a rolling - And buttoned over his manly collar, was buttoned over his - breast manly breast. - Was a bright blue coat with a - rolling collar. - - -2 - - --It was terrible: on the right It was terrible: the deadly - Raged for hours the deadly fight raged for hours on the - fight, right; the battery's double bass - Thundered the battery's double thundered,--difficult music for - bass, men to face; while round shot - Difficult music for men to face; ploughed the upland glades on - While on the left, where now the left, where now the graves - the graves undulate like the living waves - Undulate like the living waves that swept unceasing all that - That all that day unceasing day up to the pits the rebels - swept kept. - Up to the pits the rebels kept, - Round shot ploughed the upland - glades. - BRET HARTE.--_John Burns - of Gettysburg._ - - -3 - - --Merrily rang the bridle reins, The bridle reins rang merrily - and scarf and plume steamed and scarf and plume streamed - gay, gay, as the riders, held their - As fast beside her father's way fast by her father's gate. - gate the riders held their - way ... - - "Now break your shield asunder Now break your shield asunder - and shatter your sign and shatter across your knightly - and boss, knee your sign and boss unmeet - Unmeet for peasant-wedded for peasant-wedded arms. - warms, your knightly - knee across. - WHITTIER.--_King Volmer._ - - -4 - - The breaking waves dashed high The breaking waves dashed - On a stern and rock bound coast; high on a stern and rock-bound - And the woods against a stormy coast; and the woods tossed their - sky giant branches against a stormy - Their giant branches tossed. sky. - And the heavy night hung dark The heavy night hung dark - The hills and waters o'er, over (o'er) the hills and waters, - When a band of Pilgrims moored when a band of Pilgrims moored - their bark their bark on the wild New England - On the wild New England shore. shore. - - Not as the conqueror comes They, the true hearted, came - They the true hearted came, not as the conqueror comes, not - Not with the roll of the stirring with the roll of the stirring - drums drums and the trumpet that - And the trumpet that sings of sings of fame. - fame. - MRS. HEMANS. - - -5 - - My golden spurs now bring to me Bring to me now my golden - And bring to me my richest mail, spurs and bring to me my richest - For tomorrow I go over land and mail; for I go in search of the - sea Holy Grail tomorrow over land - In search of the Holy Grail. and sea; a bed shall never be - Shall never a bed for me be spread for me, nor shall a pillow - spread. be under my head till I begin to - Nor shall a pillow be under my keep my vow; I will sleep here - head, on the rushes, and perchance a - Till I begin my vow to keep; true vision will come _before_ (ere) - Here on the rushes will I sleep. day creates the world anew. - And perchance there may come a - vision true - Ere day create the world anew. - LOWELL. - - -6 - - Glad tidings of great joy I bring I bring to you and all mankind - To you and all mankind: glad tidings of great joy. The - To you, in David's town this day Saviour, who is Christ the Lord, - Is born of David's line is born to you this day in David's - The Saviour, who is Christ the town, of David's line; and this - Lord, shall be the sign: you shall find - And this shall be the sign: the heavenly Babe there displayed - The heavenly Babe you there to human view, all meanly wrapt - shall find in swaddling clothes and laid in - To human view displayed, a manger. - All meanly wrapt in swaddling - bands - And in a manger laid. - TATE.--_While Shepherds - Watched._ - - -7 - - The harp that once through The harp, that once shed the - Tara's halls soul of music through Tara's - The soul of music shed, halls, now hangs on Tara's walls, - Now hangs on Tara's walls as though that soul were fled. - As if that soul were fled. So the pride of former days - So sleeps the pride of former sleeps, so glory's thrill is over, - days, and hearts that once beat high - So glory's thrill is o'er, for praise now feel that pulse no - And hearts that once beat high more. The harp of Tara swells - for praise no more to chiefs and bright ladies: - Now feel that pulse no more. the chord alone, that breaks - at night, tells its tale of ruin. - No more to chiefs and ladies Thus Freedom now wakes so seldom - bright (that) the only throb she - The harp of Tara swells; gives is when some indignant - The chord alone that breaks at heart breaks to show that she - night still lives. - Its tale of ruin tells. - Thus Freedom now so seldom - wakes, - The only throb she gives, - Is when some heart indignant - breaks - To show that still she lives. - THOMAS MOORE. - - -8 - - Childhood is the bough where Childhood is the bough where - slumbered many numbered birds and blossoms - Birds and blossoms many numbered; slumbered; Age encumbered - Age that bough with snow encumbered. that bough with snow. - LONGFELLOW. - - -TEST CARDS - - -1 - - Just where the tide of battle subordinate of place (locative) - turns - Erect and lonely stood old John principal - Burns - And, buttoned over his manly (verbal attributive phrase) - breast, - Was a bright blue coat with a coordinate of principal - rolling collar - -2 - - It was terrible principal - on the right - raged for hours the deadly fight coordinate of principal - - thundered the battery's double coordinate of principal - bass - Difficult music for men to face (verbal attributive phrase in - apposition) - While on the left (round shot subordinate of time (temporal) - ploughed, etc.) begun - where now (_While_ may be considered as - the graves adversative coordinate) - Undulate like the living waves subordinate to subordinate - (locative) 2d degree - That all that day unceasing - swept attributive subordinate (relative - up to the pits adjectival clause modifying - _waves_) of 3d degree - the rebels kept attributive subordinate (relative - pronoun omitted) of 4th degree - Round shot ploughed the upland subordinate of time (concluded). - glades - - -3 - - Merrily rang the bridle reins principal - - and scarf and plume coordinate - streamed gay - - As fast beside her father's gate - the riders held their way subordinate of time - - Now break your shield asunder principal - - and shatter - your sign and boss coordinate - Unmeet for peasant-wedded arms - your knightly knee across - - -4 - - The breaking waves dashed high - On a stern and rock-bound coast principal - - And the woods against a stormy - sky - Their giant branches tossed coordinate - - And the heavy night hung dark - The hills and waters o'er principal (coordinated in - paragraph) - When a band of pilgrims moored - their bark - On a wild New England shore subordinate temporal - - Not principal begun - as the conqueror comes subordinate of manner (modal) - They the true hearted came principal concluded - Not with the roll of the stirring - drums - and the trumpet coordinate (elipsis of verb _they_ - _came_ continued from principal) - that sings of fame attributive (relative) - subordinate to coordinate. - - -5 - - My golden spurs now bring to me principal - - And bring to me my richest mail coordinate - - For tomorrow I go over land and subordinate of cause (causal): - sea may be considered coordinate - In search of the Holy Grail of _reason_ - - Shall never a bed for me be - spread principal - - Nor shall a pillow be under my - head coordinate - - Till I begin my vow to keep subordinate of time (temporal) - - Here on the rushes will I sleep principal - - And perchance there may come a - vision true coordinate - - Ere day create the world anew subordinate temporal. - - -6 - - Great tidings of great joy I - bring - To you and all mankind principal - - To you in David's town this day - Is born of David's line - The Saviour principal - - who is Christ the Lord attributive (relative) subordinate - - And this shall be the sign coordinate - - The heavenly Babe you there - shall find - To human view displayed - All meanly wrapped in swaddling - bands - And in a manger laid. simple sentence with three - coordinate verbal phrases. - - -7 - - The harp principal begun - that once through - Tara's hall - The soul of music shed attributive subordinate (relative) - - Now hangs on Tara's walls principal concluded - - As if that soul were fled subordinate of manner (modal) - - So sleeps the pride of former - days principal - - So glory's thrill is o'er coordinate - - And hearts coordinate begun - that once beat high attributive relative subordinate - for praise - - Now feel that pulse no more coordinate concluded. - - No more to chiefs and ladies - bright - The harp of Tara swells principal - - The chord alone coordinate begun - - that breaks at night attributive relative subordinate - - Its tale of ruin tells coordinate concluded. - - Thus freedom now so seldom - wakes principal - - The only throb subordinate result begun - (conjunction _that_ omitted) - - she gives subordinate to subordinate (2d - degree; relative omitted) - - Is when some heart indignant - breaks - To show subordinate result concluded - - that still she lives subordinate object (noun) clause - of 2d degree. - - -8 - - Childhood is the bough principal - where slumbered - Birds and blossoms many-numbered subordinate locative (of place) - - Age that bow with snows encumbered coordinate. - -(Note: the best English poetry makes far less use of inversion than does -Italian. Such exercises as the above could be profitably applied to the -analysis of the different kinds of phrases (adjective, adverbial, etc.). -It should be noted that Dr. Montessori in her own exercises treats -verbal phrases (participles and infinitives) as subordinate -clauses.--TR.) - - -COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS - -This study of the complex sentence leads the child to a more precise -comprehension of the values of certain parts of speech as, notably, the -conjunction. We have found, in fact, that little difficulty is -experienced in realizing the distinction between the terms -_coordinating_ and _subordinating_ as applied to conjunctions which -_unite_ clauses but in different ways. The following charts serve to -cover the vast majority of cases that the child is likely to meet. We -may add that at this point it may be found useful to have the child -analyze the complex sentences which appeared in the commands and -readings already familiar to him (see below under _Reading_). - - -COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS - -_Copulatives_: and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, furthermore, -nor. - -_Disjunctives_: or else, otherwise, rather. - -_Adversatives_: but, nevertheless, however, notwithstanding, yet, still, -while, only, instead. - -_Declaratives_: namely, in other words, that is. - -_Asseverative_: in fact, assuredly, really. - -_Illative_: hence, therefore, then, accordingly, so. - - -PRINCIPAL AND COORDINATE CLAUSES MAY BEGIN WITH ONE OF THESE -CONJUNCTIONS - -CHART D - -THE CONJUNCTIONS IN THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE - - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | PRINCIPAL CLAUSE | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Incidental (parenthetical) clause | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Adjective (relative, attributive) clause | - | who, which, that, whose, whom | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Subordinate subject clause | Subordinate object clause | - | that | that | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - | Subordinate clause of time | Subordinate clause of place | - | (temporal) | (locative) | - | when, while, as soon as, | where, whence, wherever, whither | - | before, after, till, until | | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - | Subordinate clause of purpose | Subordinate clause of cause | - | (final, purpose clause) | (casual clause) | - | that, in order that, so that | as, because, for, since, | - | | in as much as | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - | Subordinate clause of | Subordinate clause of condition | - | manner and comparison | | - | (modal clause) | (conditional clause) | - | as (manner), than (comparison) | if, unless, provided, | - | | provided that | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - | Subordinate clause of | Subordinate clause of | - | concession | result and correlatives | - | (concessive clause) | that, so that (result) | - | though, although, even if, | so ... as, so ... that | - | however, notwithstanding that | (correlative, degree) | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - - -SEQUENCE OF TENSES - -A special series of exercises on the relations of the subordinate to the -principal clause brings out the changes in tense made necessary in the -subordinate clause as the tense of the principal clause varies. - - -SERIES VIII - -Sequence of Tenses - -GROUP A - -(Causal Clauses) - - --I am writing to you because I have some important news. - " wrote " " " " had " " " - - --I shall not go because I must attend to my work. - " did " " " " had to " " " " - - --I am glad that you have done so well. - " was " " " had " " " - - --I will give it to you since you insist on having it. - " gave " " " " " insisted " " " - - --He does not answer because your letter is insulting. - " did " " " " " was " - - -GROUP B - -(Miscellaneous Clauses) - - --I shall be proud of you if you become a fine scholar. - " should " " " " " " became " " " - - --I believe that only the rich can be happy. - " believed " " " " could " " - - --I am waiting here till my father returns from town. - " waited " " " " returned " " - - --They expect that something will happen before long. - " expected " " would " " " - - --He is doing that for you, in order that you may go to school. - " did " " " " " " " might " " " - - --He will let you know where he has been. - " let " " " " had " - - -GROUP C - -(Object Clauses) - - --They are telling me what they have been doing. - " were " " " " had " " - - --I promise you that I will do everything punctually. - " promised " " " would " " " - - --I think he will not be back before Wednesday. - " thought " would " " " " " - - --Do you know that your friend has gone away? - Did " " " " " had " " - - --I assure you that I will take good care of it. - " assured " " " would " " " " " - - --I repeat that you ought to be ashamed of yourself. - " repeated " " " " have been " " " - - -GROUP D - -(Conditional Sentences) - - --I would read this book too, if I could. - " " have read " " " " " had been able. - - --If I see him, I shall tell him what you say. - " " saw " " should " " " " said. - - --I will finish this work, if you can wait. - " would " " " " " could " - - --I shall come sooner if I can. - " should " " " " could. - - --He would give it to you if you asked him for it. - " " have given " " " " " had asked " " " - - --He would give it to you if you should ask him for it. - - --I shall go there if I have time. - " should " " " " had " - " shall " " " " should have " - " should have gone " " " had had " - - - - -XIII - -PUNCTUATION - - -The permutations of clauses permitted by our materials give empirical -evidence of the pauses and accordingly of the functions of the -orthographical signs of suspense in the sentence. These signs are -included also in our alphabets. All the exercises hitherto given require -more or less spontaneous attention to punctuation. We offer, however, in -addition, several series of sentences for analysis in illustration of -the principal rules for the use of punctuation points. Almost all of our -Italian sentences are taken from Manzoni, a writer especially noteworthy -for his care in punctuation. (The majority of the sentences below are -taken from the _Book of Knowledge_, by special permission of the -publishers.) - - -SERIES I - -The comma may separate coordinate elements. - - --The mother took a glowing pride in the beauty of her - children's faces, the grace and strength of their - bodies, their reckless daring and unflinching courage. - - --The little star fell plump into the middle of a big - puddle, and there it lay sad and shaken and quaking - with fright. - - --It was dumb and half blind, it had a soiled face, - and could give no more light. - - --A mouse was just then peeping from its hole to see - whether it was going to rain, and whether it would be - safe to cross the fields. - - --The mouse started running again, and ran until it - was tired out and had to sit down. - - --The little star poured a flood of bright light over - the poor woman, and made her bright and cheerful and - strong again, and then the little girl became very - happy. - - -SERIES II - -A comma isolates vocatives and incidental clauses. - - --"Cæsar, let your men go forward," said the guide. - - --Why do you want to find your father, Mora? - - --"No," said he, "I shall be very well presently." - - --"Boys," said our host, "I know whose hand it is." - - --That, excuse me for saying so, is not the way to - speak to a friend. - - --"Come with us, you handsome young huntsman," he - cried. - - -SERIES III - -A comma separates clauses, especially for clearness, when the elements -of one clause might seem to apply equally well to another clause, and -when one clause is interpolated between the essential elements of -another. - - --Mohammed taught that men should pray at stated - times, wherever they are. - - --George, who was only five years old, could not go - with his father to fight. - - --The tribemen, after quarreling a long time, decided - to march away. - - --He went that evening, as he had planned, to the - doctor's house. - - --The poor Indian had been kept moving, ever since he - was born, to regions farther and farther north. - - --The child crept to the bed, and, taking his little - fan, stood over his father all night fanning him. - - -SERIES IV - -A comma indicates a pause caused by the ellipsis of some word or idea -(in such cases longer suspense can be indicated by a colon or a -semi-colon). - - --Very well, what of it? - - --Good-by, all you nice people! - - --Just what I wanted: a plate of wild strawberries - with real cream! - - --Please, mother, just a little more, a very little - more! - - --Silence, obedience, and everybody at work! - - --Enough said; I know exactly what the matter is! - - -SERIES V - -A semi-colon marks a considerable halt between clauses. In some special -cases, a colon is used. The dash. Quotations. - - --The knight mounted a superb steed; the old huntsman - did the same. - - --Some carriages opened at the back, with the driver - sitting perched high above the door; others had the - driver's seat at the side, and in all sorts of queer - positions. - - --The first trams were drawn, usually, by horses; - though many people can remember when London - street-cars were drawn by mules--two big ones or three - little ones for each car. - - --The letter began: "I hope you will let me know if - this letter does not reach you." - - --Patrick Henry said: "Give me liberty, or give me - death!" - - --The boy's mind was full of love and romance but not - of sadness for-- - - Singing he was and fluting all the day: - He was as fresh as in the month of May. - - --The king will ask you three questions: "How old are - you?" "How long have you been in his service?" "Are - you satisfied with your food and lodgings?" - - --How happy they were: all kinds of toys to play with; - all sorts of good things to eat; and a kind old father - to satisfy their every want! - - --Slowly one of the dialects of English--the language - of London--came to be regarded as standard English. - - --Washington is called "the Father of his Country." - - --When he got home, he said to his wife: "See, I have - brought you a present." - - --He shouted gleefully: "I am a lion--a terrible - lion." - - -SERIES VI - -(Other Punctuation Points) - -The period, the question mark, exclamation point and other signs of -punctuation: - -In this series should be given dialogues, interesting stories, passages -which express emotional states of mind vividly portrayed. Such -selections, as is true also of our shorter passages, ought to be taken -from the best writers, distinguished by the naturalness and vivacity of -their style and the use of an accurate orthographical technique. At this -point we make use of the selections used for our "interpretations," -since the question of punctuation coincides with the problems of text -interpretation itself. - - - - -XIV - -WORD CLASSIFICATION - - -THE KINDS OF WORDS - -In doing the work outlined thus far, the children have acquired -considerable resources in vocabulary. They have seen all the articles, -prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, many of the -adverbs; and they know many nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which will be -increased in number as their culture is widened. They know something -also of the use of the parts of speech and their functions in the -expression of thought. This is the natural place for a classification in -retrospect of those words which the children have in writing before them -on the cards and slips of different colors. Separate tables should be -used for these exercises in word grouping. - -This new step is preparatory to a _theoretical study_ of language to be -developed in later courses in the second period of their education. - - -WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORMATION - - Root } - Derived[3] } words - Compound[4] } - - - -CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO INFLECTION - -There are two kinds of words, thus considered: variable and invariable: - - / / - | preposition | They may be simple or - INVARIABLES: < conjunction < compound, made up, - | interjection | that is, of one word or more. - \ \ - - / / may be of masculine, - | \ | feminine, neuter or - | in gender | | common gender. - | and number > nouns < form their plurals by - | | | adding -s or by - | / | changing the root - | \ vowel (umlaut) - | - | \ / have special - | | | words for - | in gender, number > pronouns < each form: e.g. he, - | person and case | | him, who, whom, I, - | / \ me, etc. - | - | } adjectives { -er for comparative - | in degree } adverbs { -est for superlative - | - | / show third person - | | singular by adding -s, - VARIABLES < | and old second person - | | singular by adding - | | -st - | | show moods by adding - | | -ing, -ed or by vowel - | in person, number,} verbs < change for participles: - | tense and mood } | or by special - | | forms (I be, he be, - | | etc.) for subjunctive. - | | show tense by suffix - | | -ed, -t: or by vowel - | | change (I go, I - | | went). - | \ show irregular forms. - | - | / _the_ has two - | \ definite | pronunciations - | for | article < according to - | phonetic reasons > | the following word. - | | \ - | | { _a_ becomes _an_ before - \ / indefinite { a vowel. - - -CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE - -(Parts of Speech) - - Article Verb Pronoun - Noun Adverb Conjunction - Adjective Preposition Interjection - -NOTE: In actual usage the parts of speech perform not only their own -functions, but also the functions of other parts of speech, for -instance, the adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, etc., may be used as -nouns. The participles, etc., may be used as adjectives, or as clauses, -etc. - - -THE NOUN - - Proper Common - Concrete Abstract - Collective Individual - - -THE ARTICLE - - Definite--the - Indefinite--a, an - - -THE ADJECTIVE - -Descriptive: Properties, qualities of things and living beings. - - / _cardinal_: one, two, three, four, etc. - | _ordinal_: first, second, third, - / Definite | fourth, last, etc. - | (numeral) < _multiple_: single, double, triple, - | | quadruple, etc. - | \ _fractional_: half, third, etc. - Quantitative: < - | / many, all, some, much, enough, no, - | | more, most, other, little, few, - \ Indefinite <| whatever, each, every, certain, - | several, somewhat, etc. - \ - -Demonstrative (position in space): this, that, these, those, such, same. - -Possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their. - -Interrogative: what? which? - - -VERB - -The verb indicates: - - existence: _to be_. - state or condition: _nominal predicate_ (copular): e.g., She _is_ - beautiful. - action: _verbal predicate_: e.g., I _run_. - - / lay, throw, toss, hurl, roll, raise, - | lower, attach, touch, tie, cover, uncover, - Transitive (action upon | undo, invert, rub, spread, collect, - an object different < scatter, sprinkle, stir, beat, mix, - from subject) | dissolve, flavor, arrange, clean, dust, - | sweep, button, lace, hook, - \ brush, wash, wipe, embrace, etc., etc. - - / grow, die, smile, laugh, stare, walk, stagger, - Intransitive | march, sing, whistle, speak, hum, dance, - (action remains < shout, dine, bark, think, burst, blossom, - in subject) | remain, stand, rise, go, run, breathe, sigh, - \ hesitate, weep, sleep, etc., etc. - - Note: Certain verbs may be by nature both transitive - and intransitive (incomplete predication). - - Impersonals (the / - subject is _it_ | rain, snow, hail, dawn, lighten, thunder, - without reference to a < etc. - specific object): | - \ - - -ADVERBS - - / slowly, rapidly, silently, noisily, abruptly, - | loudly, strongly, weakly, moderately, well, ill, - of Manner: < better, worse, otherwise, differently, thus, so, - | lightly, heavily, etc., etc. - \ - - of Place: { here, there, elsewhere, up, down, forward, - { backward, upstairs, downstairs, etc., etc. - - / - | always, ever, never, again, still, yesterday, - of Time: < tomorrow, today, now, occasionally, before, - | afterwards, soon, etc., etc. - \ - - of Quantity: { much, little, enough, nothing, more, less, - { least, most, about, only, too, very, etc. - - of Comparison: more, less, than, etc. - - of Affirmation: { yes, certainly, precisely, indeed, surely, - { assuredly, truly, even, etc. - - of Negation: no, never, not, at all, etc. - - of Doubt: perhaps, perchance, almost, probably, etc. - - -PREPOSITION - - / - | of, to, by, from, in, with, on, among, above, - Simple: < through, under, around, beside, behind, save, - | except, near, next, like, during, off, etc. - \ - - Compound { in place of, out of, away from, as to, on board, - (preposition { with regard to, etc. - phrases): - - -PRONOUN - - / - | subject: { I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they - | - Personal < { me, thee, him, her, it, us, you, - | object: { them - \ - - / - | definite: { this, this one, that, that one, - | { these, those - Demonstrative < - | / - | | one, ones, some, somebody, - | indefinite: < everyone, each, each one, no one, - \ | nobody, none, nothing, etc. - \ - - / - | / - | | subject: who, that - | of person: < possessive: whose - | | object: whom, that - | \ - | - | of thing: which, that - Relative < - | indefinite: whoever, which ever - | - | compound (antecedent understood): what (that - | which), whereof, wherewith, etc. - \ - - / - | who - / | whose - | of person < whom - | | which - | \ - Interrogative < - | - | of thing { what - \ { which - - Possessive: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. - - -CONJUNCTION - - Disjunctive: or, or else, otherwise, rather. - - Copulative: { and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, - { furthermore, nor, etc. - - Adversative: { but, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still, - { while, however, only, on the contrary, instead, etc. - - Declarative: namely, in other words, that is, etc. - - Relative: that. - - Illative: { hence, therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, so, - { with the result that, etc. - - Temporal: { while, when, as soon as, after, before, until, till, - { hardly, etc. - - Concessive: though, although, even if. - - Purpose (Final): that, in order that, to the end that, etc. - - Conditional: if, unless, provided, provided that, etc. - - Causal: as, because, for, since, seeing that, etc. - - Result: that, so that, etc. - - Locative: where, whence, whither, whereto, wherefrom, etc. - - Degree and Comparison: as, than. - - -INTERJECTION - -See list already given on pp. 122-123. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[3] Under this heading we include all derivations by suffix: some -suffixes change one part of speech into another: _love_ (verb), -_lovable_ (adj.), etc.; others, such as _diminutives_, _peggioratives_, -_augmentatives_, etc., change the quality of a word's meaning. In -adjectives we have suffixes of degree (comparison: _-er_, _-est_). - -[4] Under this heading we include all words formed by the union of two -words or by prefixes. - - - - -PART II - -READING - - - - -I - -EXPRESSION AND INTERPRETATION - - -MECHANICAL PROCESSES - -Reading begins in the "Children's House" as soon as the children -_reread_ the word they have already composed with the movable alphabet. -This early effort is not indeed the true reading of the word, since -interpretation is lacking. The children, it has been seen, know the word -because they have actually put it together. They have not gained an -understanding of it from the simple recognition of the graphic symbols. -What they have done is, nevertheless, an important contribution to real -reading. As one considers all of the details of this period of -development, it is apparent that its mechanism is closely allied with -that of the spoken language. - -When the child's attention has been intensively applied to the -recognition of the written word, it can easily be fixed on the analysis -of the sounds which make up the word. At a certain age the child's -interest was aroused by "touching" the letter. He can now be interested -in hearing the sounds of the word when pronounced by others and in -pronouncing it himself. We have shown that the work on the written -language in the exercises with the alphabet was _necessary_ for -developing and perfecting the spoken language. It is by so doing that we -make it possible to correct defects in speech and to pass naturally over -the period when such defects are formed. - -We now aim at finding an _exercise_ in the actual mechanism of -pronunciation which can be started at the moment of its natural -development in such a way that its growth to perfection will follow as a -matter of course. It is a question of bringing the children rapidly to -pronounce without hesitation. In so pronouncing well, in performing -extensive exercises in hearing words and in the interpretation of them -from graphic signs, the child brings together in a unit of effect the -basic processes of reading and writing. - -A good pronunciation of the word read is of great importance. We may say -that in the elementary schools of our day this is the principal purpose -of reading. Nevertheless, it is very difficult to obtain a good -pronunciation when defects have been allowed to develop and become -habitual in the child's previous work. In fact, the elimination of these -defects, which have been the result of a fundamental error in education, -comes to absorb all of the energies of the reading class in ordinary -primary schools. So far along as the fifth grade we see teachers -struggling to make the children read, that they may acquire a good -"pronunciation," and in our reading books there are graduated exercises -constructed on the basis of "Difficulties in Pronunciation." It is -apparent that all of this stress on the _physiological mechanics_ of -pronunciation is foreign to _true reading_. It is, rather, an impediment -to the development of true reading. Such reading exercises constitute, -as it were, a foreign body, which operates like a disease to prevent the -development of the high intellectual activity which interprets the -mysterious language of written symbols and arouses the child's -enthusiasm with the fascinating revelations they can give. The eagerness -of the child to learn is curbed and cheated when he is compelled to -stop his mind from working because his tongue refuses to act properly -and must be laboriously trained to work right. This training, if begun -at the proper time, when the child's whole psychic and nervous organism -yearns for the perfection of the mechanism of speech, would have been a -fascinating task; and once started along the right path, the pupil would -have continued to follow it with alacrity and confidence. When the time -comes for the intelligence to try its wings, its wings should be ready. -What would happen to a painter, if at the moment of inspiration, he had -to sit down and manufacture his brushes! - - -ANALYSIS - -Our first publication on the methods used in the "Children's House" made -clear two distinct operations involved in reading: the interpretation of -the meaning and the pronunciation aloud of the "word." The stress we -laid on that analysis as a guide to the development of reading was the -result of actual experience. Those who followed this work during its -initial stages saw how the children, when they read for the first time, -interpreting the meaning of the words before them, did so without -speaking,--reading, that is, mentally. Interpretation, in fact, is a -question of mental concentration. Reading is an affair of the -_intelligence_. The pronunciation aloud is quite a different thing, not -only distinguished from the first process, but secondary to it. Talking -aloud is a question of speech, involving first hearing and then the -mechanical reproduction of sounds in articulate language. Its function -is to bring into immediate communication two or more people, who thus -exchange the thoughts which they have already perfected in the secret -places of their minds. - -[Illustration: Interpreted reading: "Smile and clap your hands." The -child reads silently an order written on a slip of paper; then proves -that she understands by acting the direction given. (_A Montessori -School in Italy._)] - -But reading stands in a direct relation with writing. Here there are no -sounds to be heard or pronounced. The individual, all by himself, can -put himself into communication not only with human beings actually alive -on the earth, but also with those who lived centuries and centuries ago -down to the dawn of history. Such communication is made possible not by -sound but by the written symbol. The mind takes in these symbols in -silence. Books are mute, as far as sound is concerned. - -It follows that reading aloud is a combination of two distinct -operations, of two "languages." It is something far more complex than -speaking and reading taken separately by themselves. In reading aloud -the child speaks not to express his own thoughts, but thoughts revealed -by the written symbol. The "word" in this case no longer has that -natural stimulus from within which creation gives it. In fact, it is -something forced and monotonous, something like the language of the -deaf-mute. Words which are the product of the interpretation of -individual alphabetical symbols come with effort, and the meaning which -comes from the interpretation of the entire sentence, as the eye reads -word by word, and translates into sound, is apprehended and reduced to -expression with great difficulty. To give a fairly intelligible -expression to the meaning, the eyes have been obliged rapidly to -traverse the sentence as a whole, while the tongue has been laboriously -and monotonously pronouncing one word after another. Just imagine adding -to such a complex problem for the child of the primary schools the -additional task of correcting his pronunciation! It is no wonder that -reading is one of the rocks on which the rudderless ship of elementary -education inevitably runs aground. - -[Illustration: Interpreted reading: "Take off your hat and make a low -bow." (_A Montessori School in Italy._)] - - / - / | mechanical - | writing < grammatical (controlled by translation - | | into action) - | \ narration and description - | - | - Composition of | - words (with < / - movable | | mechanical - alphabet) | | / - | | | grammatical - | | | (translations - | reading < interpretative < into action)[5] - \ | | declamatory - | | (elocution) - | expressed \ - | (aloud) - \ - -The experiments we have succeeded in conducting on the subject of -reading are perhaps among the most complete we have made. We found the -key to the problem when we discovered that the child passed from the -mental reading of the words written on the cards directly to -interpretation in action. This interpretation, ready and facile, as all -the acts of children are, reveals to us what the child has understood -and accordingly what he is capable of understanding. We have thus been -able to obtain an experimental graduation of passages for reading, which -on being gathered together, show the nature of the difficulties which -successively present themselves to the child. The children have made for -themselves specimen clauses and sentences which an expert grammarian -could not have devised better for facilitating the study of language. As -we went on with this work, we became more and more convinced that the -study of grammar may be made a help in the up-building of the child's -language and that it makes its influence felt in reading and in the -written composition. The table (p. 175) may be useful in showing the -successive steps actually traversed by the child in the phenomena of -reading. - -The fundamental point to realize is that _interpretation_ alone -constitutes true reading. Reading aloud, on the other hand, is a -combination of reading and articulate expression, in other words, a -combination involving the two great mechanisms of the spoken language -and the written language. Reading aloud permits an audience to take part -in the reading communicated to it by means of articulate speech. Even -here, the mental effort required to listen to the voice of a man -passionately interested in the narration of things which he himself has -experienced is not the same as that demanded in listening to a reading -of the same things by a person who has not experienced them, and who, to -narrate them, must perform the rapid and intense effort of -interpretation. In this reading, so to speak, by "transmission," the -most serious difficulties are encountered. We all know by experience how -difficult it is to endure a reading, and how rare an endowment the "gift -of reading" is. However, the person who is thus gifted can get a hearing -almost as well as the person who speaks. The teaching of reading, then, -in this sense, is not merely the teaching of the interpretation of the -meaning,--all that would be necessary, if the sole function of reading -were to gain new ideas for the reader. Reading, thus conceived, -represents really the addition of an _art of expression_ to simple -reading, and since this expressive art is purely dramatic, the _teaching -of reading_ involves the development of _dramatic art_. Only through -dramatic art can the transmission of reading to a group of people be -made possible. - -It is clear that the oftener the exercise of identifying oneself with -what is read is repeated and perfected, the greater the possibility of -expression becomes. It follows that in the perfection of this art we -should be less concerned with _timbre_, with tone of voice and gestures, -all extrinsic aspects of this art, than with intense vivid -_interpretation_ which brings the child to an identification of himself -with what he reads. And this interpretation will realize its objects if -it is practised as a habit and as _a form of reading_. - -The proof of correct interpretation was the child's ability to reproduce -in action what was described in the words he read. Similarly, the proof -of the interpretation in reading aloud is the repetition of the things -heard by means of the spoken language. That is, the children, in order -to prove to us that they have understood something read aloud, should be -able to repeat in narrative form what they have heard. - -The practical results of our efforts in this direction were very -interesting to watch. Some children can say nothing. Others offer to -tell the whole story. Their story is not clear or perhaps it is -defective in some respect. Immediately other children are ready to -correct the ones telling the story: "No, no, that's not what happened, -that's not what happened," or, "Wait, you have forgotten something," and -so on. In fact, to understand and to be able to narrate what has been -understood is not the same thing. In telling a story there is a -successive unfolding of very complex mental activities which are based -on and added to the primal activity of "having understood." It is a -question again of the three different stages noted by us in the first -lessons given to children: - -_First stage_, the causing of the perception: (_That is red, that is -blue_); - -_Second stage_, the perfection of recognition: (_What is red or blue?_); - -_Third stage_, the provocation of expression: (_What about this or -that?_). - -Thus, the child who succeeds in expressing, even in an imperfect way, -what he has understood of the passage he has read, is in a more advanced -state of development than other children who are unable to tell the -story. However, these children who are not able to relate what they have -heard said may very well be in the preceding stage in which they are -capable of "recognition." These latter are the relentless critics, the -constant "hecklers" of those who are trying to relate--"No, no,--that's -not so," "You have forgotten this, or that." Let one of us teachers try -to tell the story in the most perfect and complete manner, and these -tiny impetuous hecklers listen to us in ecstasy, showing their approval -in every form of approbation of which they are capable. By studying such -manifestations in the children, we can get sufficient psychological data -for determining what reading is adapted to children of different ages, -the best ways of reading aloud, and the line of development followed by -each child in that hidden mental world of his which is cut off from our -gaze. But to derive these benefits from reading, it is perfectly clear -that the children must be left absolutely _free_ in the expression of -what goes on in their minds. - -According to the method used in ordinary schools a child is called upon -to read aloud, and the teacher herself continually interrupts, either to -correct the pronunciation, or to assist by explanations and suggestions -in the interpretation of the meaning. This is all useless for -experimental purposes. We have no certain means of determining whether -the pupil has understood either what he has read or the explanations of -the teacher. Furthermore the corrections of pronunciation have centered -the child's attention on this detail which is entirely without relation -to the meaning of the text he is interpreting. Another situation not -infrequently arises. A child is selected at random to tell in his own -words what he has been read. Often the selection is not made at random, -but some pupil is called on because he has shown himself the most -inattentive, the least interested in what is being done--the recitation -thus becoming correctional in character! While the child is telling his -story, there is a constant suppression of interruptions: "Hush, I did -not call on you," "Wait till you are called on," "It is not polite to -interrupt some one who is talking," etc. It is clear that the teacher -will never learn anything about her pupils in this way. - -This explains why, from the psychological point of view, our present-day -schools have not been able to contribute anything new to a reformed -scientific pedagogy of reading. - - -EXPERIMENTAL SECTION: READING ALOUD - -Although we lay all possible stress on interpretative reading, we -nevertheless put into the hands of the child a little reading book which -he can go over by himself first in a low voice, and then, when he has -grasped the meaning, aloud, provided he can express himself clearly and -easily. - -The simplicity of these texts occasions surprise when one observes how -completely and enthusiastically absorbed in them the children become. -They find them so delightful that the books get literally worn out with -the reading and rereading to which they are subjected. Sometimes a book -is read from beginning to end. Again the child opens it by chance and -reads the page he happens on. Some children like to read the whole book -over and over. Others prefer to read some particular page a great many -times. One frequently sees these tiny things suddenly rise with great -decision and read aloud one of the pages which has been so seriously -examined. - -The little book was composed very carefully on the basis of rigid -experimentation. As the book is opened only one page of print appears, -the tergo of the right hand page being always blank. Nor does the text -always cover the entire page. The spaces above and below the print are -decorated with designs. - -The twenty pages of this beginners book are as follows: - - Page 1. My school is the "Children's House." - - Page 2. In the "Children's House" there are ever so - many little chairs and tables for us. - - Page 3. There are also some pretty cabinets. Each - child has his own drawer. - - Page 4. There are green plants and beautiful bouquets - of flowers everywhere about the rooms in our school. - - Page 5. I often stop to look at the pictures which are - hanging on the walls. - - Page 6. We are busy all the time. We wash our faces - and hands. We keep everything where it belongs. We - dust the furniture. We study and try to learn all we - can. - - Page 7. Can you guess how we learned to dress - ourselves? We kept our fingers busy working on the - canvas frames, lacing and unlacing, fastening and - unfastening the hooks and eyes, buttoning and - unbuttoning, tying and untying knots. - - Page 8. Then are ten blocks for this tower, all of - different sizes. First I spread them around on this - carpet. It is great fun to put them together again, - taking one after the other and choosing the largest - each time. - - Page 9. I use the tower too in a balancing game. Just - try to carry the tower around the room without letting - it fall to pieces! Sometimes I succeed and then again - I sometimes fail. - - Page 10. I like the long rods, too! I must put the - rods near each other according to their length. I must - be careful to place the blue sections near the blue - ones and the red ones near the red. Thus, I build some - pretty stairs with red and blue steps. - - Page 11. But to get a real stair case I use the brown - prisms. These prisms are of different size, and I get - some fine stairs with ten steps. - - Page 12. I have also some solid insets of wood into - which I fit little cylinders of different dimensions. - They differ in length and breadth. The game is to put - these cylinders in their places after looking at them - and touching them carefully. - - Page 13. We often make mistakes in working with the - insets. When we put a cylinder where it doesn't - belong, we find that at the end of the game we have - one cylinder left over and it won't fit in anywhere. - Then the exercise becomes very exciting. We look at - the inset carefully; we find the mistake and begin all - over again. The most skilful pupils work the insets - with their eyes closed. - - Page 14. These colors are called: red, black, green, - yellow, blue, brown, pink and violet. - - Page 15. I amuse myself by picking out and pulling - together pieces of the same color from the collection - spread out over my table. I get thus a long strip of - different colors. - - Page 16. We learn to arrange sixty-four different - colors by graduations. We get eight beautiful blends - of colors, each formed by eight tints of different - tones. When we become skilful we can make a pretty rug - with blending strips. - - Page 17. We also have two little chests full of pieces - of cloth. The cloths are of all kinds from the - roughest and hardest to the smoothest and softest: - canvas, cotton, linen, wool, flannel, velvet, etc. If - we keep our hands clean, we can learn to recognize all - sorts of things with the tips of our fingers! - - Page 18. A child is blindfolded. He mixes the pieces - of cloth with his little hands. He feels about among - the pieces of cloth. At last he smiles and holds up - his hands with two pieces of cloth, both alike. Though - he could not see, the child has found out, just by - using his fingers, that the two pieces were of the - same cloth. - - Page 19. These are my plane insets. Here are the blue - tablets. I must fit them into the frames, which have - just enough room for them. I run two fingers, the - fore-finger and the middle-finger, around the edge of - the tablet, and then around the edge of the frames. - Next I fit the tablet into its proper place. After a - little practise I can put the six tablets in their - places even with my eyes blindfolded. - - Page 20. With the plane insets I have learned to - recognize many figures: the square, the circle, the - rectangle, the ellipse, the triangle, the oval, the - pentagon, the hexagon, the heptagon, the octagon, the - enneagon, the decagon. I learned all these hard names - very easily because the insets are so amusing! - - -INTERPRETATIONS - -Reading with the object of interpretation is conducted as in the first -experiments of the "Children's House," with cards. From the graduated -series we have prepared the child selects a card. He reads it mentally -and then executes the action indicated on the card. Our later -experiments became very interesting when they were based upon a more -rigorous method. When we gave a card describing two actions to a child -of five years, he would execute only one of the actions. Take the -following for example: - - --She leaned over the back of a chair. - --She covered her face with her hands and wept. - -The child would act out either the first sentence (_She leaned over the -back of the chair_) or the second (_She covered her face with, her hands -and wept_). In spite of the fact that this child seemed extraordinarily -eager to get the cards into his hands and to interpret them, those -containing two sentences always aroused in him less enthusiasm than -those containing a single sentence or indicating a single action (for -instance, _The boy ran away as fast as he could_). In this latter case -the enthusiasm of the little ones, their care in interpreting the action -vividly, their eagerness to repeat it, their flushed faces and shining -eyes, told us that at last we had the reading adapted to their -psychology. - -Our _first series_ of readings accordingly is entirely "tested" or -_experimental_. It is made up of simple sentences something like those -analyzed in the lessons on grammar (Verb to Pronoun). - - -SERIES I - - --She gazed slowly around the room. - --He looked at them out of the corners of his eyes. - --The boy ran away as fast as he could. - --She threw herself on her knees before him. - --The man paced slowly up and down the room. - --The little girl stood with lowered head. - --The teacher nodded her approval. - --The little child sat with folded arms. - --He started rapidly toward the door. - --He began to walk to and fro about the room. - --His mother tenderly stroked his head. - --She motioned to him to keep away. - --He whispered in her ear. - --She placed her hand on his shoulder. - --They knocked at the door. - --The little girl frowned. - -The children carry out the indicated action after they have read -mentally, but they put what amounts to artistic expression into their -interpretations, which are never executed listlessly. For them it -becomes a real "interpretation." They often "study" the action, trying -it over and over again, as though rehearsing for a play. Their aptitude -for this is something remarkable. Furthermore the words have, for the -most part, already been studied in the grammatical exercises, so that -the meaning of each word is becoming more and more clear. This helps in -the interpretation. For example, the sentence _The little girl stood -with lowered head_ does not mean simply "she lowered her head." If the -child has understood he will stand for some time with lowered head in an -attitude more or less expressive according to the vividness of his -feeling of the situation. In the sentence _She threw herself on her -knees before him_ there will not be a simple act of kneeling, but -something more dramatic. The child will assume the kneeling posture with -some indication of emotion. The children take no end of interest in each -other's interpretations. - -In a _second series_ of readings we have two coordinated clauses, the -children executing two consecutive actions instead of one. - - -SERIES II - - --He opened the door and came in. - --He left the room and locked the door behind him. - --He went on tiptoe to the door and carefully opened it. - --She covered her face with her hands and began to sob violently. - --She gave a cry of joy and ran to the door. - --She burst into a laugh and clapped her hands. - --He took off his cap and made a low bow. - --She shook her head sadly and smiled. - --He threw the window wide open and looked into the garden. - --He hurried to the table and rang the bell. - --With a sigh of relief he stretched himself out on the sofa, and - lay there looking at the ceiling with his mouth open. - --He shut his eyes and fell asleep. - -In the _third series_, there are sentences with one or more coordinate -clauses. - - -SERIES III - - --She opened the door, smoothed her hair slowly and - came in. - - --He went to the window, opened it a little and peered - into the street. - - --He closed the window, went back to his desk and then - began to walk hurriedly up and down the room. - - --The doctor bent over the sick man, felt his pulse - with one hand and placed the other on his forehead. - - --He took a key out of his pocket, opened the door and - came in. - - --She uttered a cry of joy, ran to her mother and sank - on her knees before her. - - --He put his left elbow on his knee, rested his - forehead in his left hand and began to stroke his - beard with his right. - - --She leaned over the back of the chair, covered her - face with her hands and wept. - - --He went to the table, found the picture and joyfully - took it in his hands. - - --She took her handkerchief out of her pocket, - unfolded it and wiped the tears from her eyes. - - --The child was sleepy. He rested his head on his arms - on the table and went to sleep. - - --He looked toward the door fixedly, with an - expression of terror on his face and waited for the - man to come in. - - -SERIES IV - -(Complex sentences with one subordinate clause) - - --While he was making the drawing, he kept examining - the flower very carefully. - - --She covered her eyes with her hands, as if she were - trying to collect her thoughts. - - --She closed her eyes so that she could feel more - intensely the softness of the piece of velvet. - - --She looked tenderly after the little boy, till he - disappeared through the door. - - --When he had succeeded in turning the knob without - making any noise, he stealthily opened the door and - peered into the room. - - --George held the book before his face so that no one - could see him laughing. - - --She walked slowly across the room and with bowed - head, as though she were in great sorrow. - - --The old man stroked the little boy's head as though - he were much amused. - - --After she had motioned to the child to be silent, - the lady smilingly approached and took him by the - hand. - - --They stopped suddenly and listened, as though - wondering what it could be. - - --When Mary opened the door, George went to meet her - with a cheery smile of welcome. - - -SERIES V - -(Sentences somewhat more involved; descriptions more complex; an exact -interpretation sometimes requires the pronunciation of words aloud) - - --The child rose from her seat, and with her face - buried in her handkerchief, walked slowly, sadly, - toward the window. - - --He lay back in his chair, his head sunk between his - shoulders, while his arms were pressed tightly across - his breast, as though he were cold. - - [Illustration: Interpreted reading: "Whisper to him." - (_The Lenox School, Montessori Elementary Class, New - York._)] - - --He dropped wearily into a chair and sat there - looking at the floor, his right elbow on his knee and - his chin resting on his hand. - - --He stood at the open window, with figure erect, and - his hands resting on the window-sill, while in deep - breaths he took into his lungs the delicious fresh air - that was coming into the room. - - --The boy lowered his head, and rubbed his forehead - with his hands as though he were trying to collect his - thoughts. - - --There she knelt, her face turned heavenward, her - hands crossed in her lap, while her body drooped - gently as though she were very, very tired. - - --When he reached the door of his house, he hastily - unlocked the door, opened it, went in, and carefully - locked the door again behind him; and in his eagerness - to confide his secret to some one he could trust, he - went down the hall calling "Mother, Mother!" - - --His eyes filled with tears as he went to the wall - where the picture of his father hung, and there with - his head resting on his arm against the wall, he - sobbed bitterly. - - --Rizpah spread the cloth on the ground at the foot of - the tree, seated herself upon it, and with her arms - resting limp upon her knees, her eyes set in - unutterable woe, watched the birds and thought about - her lost children. - - --The man was lying, sprawling, on the couch, but he - jumped up and ran to the door and angrily motioned to - his servant to come to him. - - --The old lady sat shivering near the stove, holding - out her hands to get the warmth and nervously opening - and closing them so that the tips of her fingers kept - rubbing her palms. - - --"I see," thought the boy as he stood with folded - arms looking fixedly at the floor. - - --He took the handkerchief, examined it a moment and - said: "It doesn't belong to me!" - - --He stooped over and picked up a pencil that was - lying on the floor: "Pshaw," said he, "it is broken!" - - --Pecopin, feeling that all was over, threw himself - face downward on the ground, and moaned: "I shall - never see her again!" - - --On waking, Rip Van Winkle rubbed his eyes and looked - around for his gun; as he rose to walk he found - himself stiff in the joints and wanting in his usual - agility. - - --The clergyman folded his hands before his breast - and, bending his head above them, prayed fervently. - - --The girl knelt beside the fallen soldier, while with - her right hand she waved her handkerchief to and fro - in the air. - - --As the door opened, Florence ran to meet him, - crying, "Oh, dear, dear papa!" and she held out her - arms to him; but, as he paid no attention to her, she - put her handkerchief to her face and burst into tears. - - --Beatrice came through the door holding her skirt - with one beautiful arm, while with the other she held - a candlestick above her head, so that the light shone - upon her face. - - --She advanced holding forward her head as if she - would have him kiss her as he used to when she was a - child; but then remembering herself, she made him a - deep curtsy, sweeping down to the ground almost, - looking up meanwhile with the sweetest smile. - - --She closed the door very carefully behind her, and - then leant back against it, her hands folded before - her, looking at the boy who was kneeling beside his - trunk to pack it. - - --He took the paper and stepped to the window; then - holding the sheet so that the light fell full upon it, - he examined it carefully, folded it as though musing - on its contents and put it into his vest pocket. - - --My Lord was lifting the glass to his lips, when - Esmond entered; but at the sight of the familiar face, - the movement of his arm ceased when the glass was on a - level with his chin; he held it there a moment in - astonishment, then, suddenly setting it on the table - he rushed toward Esmond with outstretched arms, and - would almost have embraced him: "I thought you were in - France," he exclaimed. - - --The Prince was lying on the bed, but at the sound of - the footsteps, he rose on his elbow in alarm, while he - reached under the pillow for his pistols: "Who goes - there?" he shouted sternly. - - [Illustration: In a similar manner, the children set - out or interpret poses and expressions in pictures. - (_A Montessori School in Italy._)] - - --The child playfully drew his cap down over his eyes - as though he were a very fierce bandit, and rushed - into the room holding out his arm and pointing his - fore-finger like a pistol. - - --As the ladies rode up, the old gentleman raised his - hat and stood with bowed head till they had passed. - - --The young man picked up the glove from the floor, - pressed it fervently to his lips and clasped it - tenderly against his bosom, as though it were a - priceless treasure. - - -SERIES VI - -(More difficult interpretations with occasional speaking) - - --Dunsey threw himself into a chair by the window, - drew another chair before him, threw one leg over it, - and began to beat on the window sill with the points - of his fingers. - - --Godfrey stood with his back to the fire, moving his - fingers uneasily among the contents of his - side-pockets and looking at the floor. - - --Aaron replied by rubbing his head against his - mother's skirt, passing the backs of his hands over - his eyes and peeping through his fingers at Master - Marner. - - --Mr. Macey screwed up his mouth, leaned his head - further on one side and twirled his thumbs rapidly, - with his two hands resting on his lap and touching at - the finger-tips. - - --Silas sat with his elbows on his knees, his forehead - pressed rigidly into his two palms, his eyes closed, - deep sighs that were almost groans shaking his slender - frame. - - --The little tot squatted on the coat and spread out - her hands to the fire; but the little eyes refused to - stay open, and finally the golden head sank down upon - the floor fast asleep. - - --Presently the child slipped from his knee and began - to walk about; but suddenly she fell into a sitting - posture and began to pull at her little boots, as - though she were trying to get at her toes. - - --"At last," he said, stretching back in the arm - chair, crossing his legs and joining his hands behind - his head: "I can now have a minute to myself!" - - --"Ssshh," said the boy, frowning, and waving his - right arm with hand outspread towards his companion. - - -SERIES VII - -(Interpretation requiring more than one person) - - --As Rip Van Winkle approached the town, the people - all stared at him with marks of surprise and - invariably stroked their chins, so that Rip was - induced involuntarily to do likewise: his beard was a - foot long. - - --A self-important old gentleman pushed through the - crowd, shoving the people to the right and left with - his elbows as he passed; and planting himself before - Van Winkle, with one hand on his side, the other - resting on his cane, he demanded with an austere tone: - "What are you doing here?" - - --As Rip Van Winkle told his story, the bystanders - began to look at each other, nod, and wink - significantly and tap their fingers against their - foreheads. - - --An old woman came tottering forward, put her hand to - her brow and peering under it into his face for a - moment, exclaimed: "Sure enough, it is Rip Van - Winkle!" - - --As the Emperor stepped into the court-yard, the - ladies were all so busy crowding about the young - prince, holding his hands and counting the kisses, - that they did not see the old gentleman: "What's all - this, what's all this?" he shouted in rage; and they - all scampered off in every direction. - - --Trotty sat down in his chair and beat his knees and - laughed; he sat down in his chair and beat his knees - and cried; he got out of his chair and hugged Med; he - got out of his chair and hugged Richard; he got out of - his chair and hugged them both at once. He was - constantly getting up and sitting down, never stopping - in his chair a single minute, being beside himself - with joy. - - --"Here, little girl, can you tell us the way to - town?" "That's not the way. The town is over in this - direction!" But as the little girl was turning to - point out the road, one of the men seized her by the - waist and lifted her from the ground. Lucia looked - back over her shoulder terrified and gave a shriek. - (Manzoni.) - - (The children were delighted with this little action - and rehearsed it over and over again.) - - --With a start, Evangeline looked wildly about her: - "Where is Gabriel?" she asked dazedly. "Where is - Gabriel? Where is Gabriel?" "He is on that ship that - is just sailing out of the harbor!" some one answered. - For a few moments Evangeline stood shading her eyes - with her palm, gazing after the vessel, fast - disappearing into the horizon. At last she spoke half - aloud: "I will follow you and find you wherever they - may take you, Gabriel," she said, as though taking a - vow. Then she turned to the soldier and said: "Lead on - to the boat, I am coming. I am coming." - - --"Give me the bow," said Tell. Tell chose two arrows: - one he fitted to the bow-string, the other he thrust - into his girdle. Then for a moment he stood, a little - bowed of shoulder, with his eyes downward: he was - praying. You might have heard a leaf fall, so still - was the place. Then Tell raised his head; his eyes - were steady, his hands had become still; his face was - like iron; he brought the cross bow to his shoulder - and laid his eye to the feather of the shaft: "Twang," - the apple fell. A cheer arose from the crowd. Tell - laid his hand upon the arrow in his girdle. "If the - first had hurt my child," he said, "this one by now - would have been through your heart, O Gessler!" - -The children by no means restrict themselves to acting out these little -scenes and poses. In a second stage they read aloud all these slips -which they have interpreted, and in view of the preparation they have -had, their reading shows considerable power of expression. They tend to -read the slips over and over again, many times, and not infrequently -commit them to memory. To take advantage of this new activity we got -together a number of poems, making up a little book of children's verse. -The pupils read them both mentally and aloud, ultimately committing them -to memory and reciting them. Here are some specimens of our Italian -collection: - - IL BACIO THE KISS - - Dormiva nella cuna un bel bambino, "A pretty child was sleeping - E la mamma lo stava a rimirare; in his cradle; its mother was - Voleva dargli il bacio del mattino, looking at it. She wanted to - Ma il bacio lo poteva risvegliare; give it the morning kiss; but the - Svegliarlo non voleva, e con la mano kiss might awaken it. To avoid - Gli buttò cento baci da lontano. this, she threw it a thousand - kisses with her hand." - - - UN SOGNO A DREAM - - Vidi una fata un giorno I saw a fairy one day, with - Che avea le trecce d'oro golden hair and a dress of - E un abito di perle pearls, richer than a treasure. - Più ricco d'un tesoro - - "Vieni con me," mi disse, "Come with me," the fairy - "Che ti farò regina." said, "and I'll make you a - "Non vengo, bella fata; queen." "I cannot, pretty - Io sto con la mammina." fairy," I replied, "I must stay - with mother." - - - LA NEVE THE SNOW - - Lenta la neve fiocca, fiocca, The flakes of snow are falling, - fiocca, falling, falling. Listen, a - Senti, una culla dondola pian cradle is gently, gently - piano. rocking; a baby cries, his - Un bimbo piange, il piccol dito finger in his mouth; the old - in bocca, nurse sings, her chin in her - Canta la vecchia, il mento in hand. - su la mano. - - - LA GALLINA THE HEN - - Io vi domando se si può trovare I leave it to you: is there a - Un più bravo animal della gallina. nicer animal than the hen? If - Se non avesse il vizio di raspare only she wouldn't scratch, I - would like to have one with me - Ne vorrei sempre aver una vicina. all the time. Every day, at a - Tutti i giorni a quell'ora: certain hour: - "Coccodè!" "Cut-cut-cut-cut-cadakut!" - Corri a guardar nel covo e l'ovo Run and look in the nest, and - "Coccodè!" an egg is there! - - - LA POVERA BAMBINA THE POOR ORPHAN CHILD - - Disse: "Mia madre è morta! She said: "My mother is - Io son digiuna dead; I have nothing to eat; the - E la stagion è cruda: weather is cold. There is no one - In terra a me non pensa anima left to think of me. I am a - alcuna: ragged orphan girl." - Sono orfanella e ignuda." - - - IL PESCE THE FISH - - Un dì fuor della vasca del giardino One day a little fish jumped - Guizzò imprudentemente un imprudently out of the garden - pesciolino. pool. Gigi saw it and all - Gigi lo vide, e tutto disperato excitedly cried out: "Mamma, - Gridò alla mamma: un pesce s'è mamma, a fish has drowned - annegato! himself." - - - QUEL CHE POSSIEDE UN BAMBINO A CHILD'S POSSESSIONS - - Due piedi lesti lesti per correre Two little lively feet to run - e saltare. and jump with. - Due mani sempre in moto per Two busy hands to take and do - prendere e per fare. things. - La bocca piccolina per tutto One little mouth to ask - domandare. questions with. - Due orecchie sempre all'erta Two ears always awake to hear - intente ad ascoltare. everything with. - Due occhioni spalancati per tutto Two bright eyes always open to - investigare. see everything with. - E un cuoricino buono per molto, One little heart to love with. - molto amare. - - - IL BUON ODORE THE FLOWER'S FRAGRANCE - - "Ma, bimbo mio, perchè "Why spoil that pretty flower, - Sciupar questo bel fiore?" my child?" - "Cercavo il buon odore, "I was looking for the sweet - Non so capir dov'è." smell and I haven't been able to - LINA SCHWARZ. find it." - - - NINNA-NANNA DI NATALE CHRISTMAS LULLABY - - Ninna-nanna, gelato è il focolare; Lullaby, the fire is out, my - fanciul, non ti svegliare. child, do not awaken. To keep - Per coprirti dal freddo, o mio you warm, my little child, I - bambino, must make you a little dress - Cucio in un vecchio scialle un from this old shawl. - vestitino. - - Ma il lucignolo trema e l'occhio But the lamp is dim and my - è stanco, eyes are tired, O child of the - bimbo dal viso bianco. white face. Who knows if even - Chi sa se per domani avrò finito by tomorrow I can have this - Questo che aspetti povero vestito! poor dress for you. - ADA NEGRI. - -A corresponding book of English verse might include something like the -following: - - - THE WHOLE DUTY OF A CHILD - - A child should always say what's true, - And speak when he is spoken to, - And behave mannerly at table-- - At least so far as he is able. - STEVENSON. - - - THE RAIN - - The rain is raining all around, - It falls on field and tree, - It rains on the umbrella here - And on the ships at sea. - STEVENSON. - - - THE COW - - Thank you, pretty cow, that made - Pleasant milk to soak my bread, - Every day and every night - Warm and fresh and sweet and white. - ANN TAYLOR. - - - THE RAIN - - The rain is raining all around, - Kittens to shelter fly, - But human folk wear over-shoes - To keep their hind-paws dry. - O. HERFORD. - - - FISHES - - How very pleasant it must be - For little fishes in the sea! - They never learn to swim at all: - It came to them when they were small. - "Swim out like this," their mother cried, - "Straight through the water, foam and tide." - They waved their fins and writhed their scales, - And steered their little rudder tails. - Already they know what to do-- - I wish that I could do it too! - ALICE FARWELL BROWN. - - - THE LITTLE COCK SPARROW - - A little cock-sparrow sat on a green tree, - And he chirruped, he chirruped, so merry was he; - A naughty boy came with his wee bow and arrow, - Determined to shoot this little cock-sparrow. - - "This little cock-sparrow shall make me a stew, - And his giblets shall make me a little pie too." - "Oh, no!" said the sparrow, "I won't make a stew"; - So he flapped his wings and away he flew. - BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE. - - - THE TREE - - What do we do when we plant the tree? - We plant the houses for you and me; - We plant the rafters, the shingle, the floors, - We plant the studding, the laths, the doors, - The beams and siding--all parts that be! - We plant the house when we plant the tree. - HENRY ABBEY. - - - THE LAMB - - Little lamb, who made thee? - Dost thou know who made thee, - Gave thee life and bade thee feed - By the stream and o'er the mead; - Gave thee clothing of delight, - Softest clothing woolly bright; - Gave thee such a tender voice, - Making all the vales rejoice? - Little lamb who made thee? - Dost thou know who made thee? - W. BLAKE. - - - Let dogs delight to bark and bite, - For God hath made them so; - Let bears and lions growl and fight, - For 'tis their nature too. - But, children, you should never let - Such angry passions rise: - Your little hands were never made - To tear each others' eyes. - WATTS. - - - The sunshine flickers through the lace - Of leaves above my head, - And kisses me upon the face - Like Mother before bed. - - The wind comes stealing o'er the grass - To whisper pretty things; - And though I cannot see him pass - I feel his careful wings. - STEVENSON. - -After this preparation the children are able to "understand" what they -read. All their difficulties in grasping the sentences and their most -complicated constructions have been overcome. They have an insight into -the grammatical form of language; and the construction of a sentence, -as well as the meaning of the words in it, interests them. There has -been created within them a fund of suppressed energy which will very -soon break forth into intense activity. In fact, in our school, after -these exercises the passion for reading began to show itself. The -children wanted "reading, reading, more reading." We got together -hastily a few books but never enough to satisfy the eagerness of the -children. We found a surprising lack of reading for little children in -Italian. The American system of opening special rooms in public -libraries for the use of little readers seems to me an excellent thing. - -But to take full advantage of this awakened enthusiasm for reading and -to cultivate at the same time the art of reading aloud we must not -neglect another element in reading: audition. - - -AUDITION - -When the child has advanced to some extent in the exercises of -interpretation, the teacher may begin reading aloud. This should be done -as artistically as possible. We recommend for the training of teachers -not only a considerable artistic education in general but special -attention to the art of reading. One of the differences between the -traditional teacher of the past and the teachers we should like to -create is that the former used to speak of an "art of teaching," which -consisted of various devices to make the child learn, in spite of -itself, what the teacher wanted to teach. Our teachers, rather, should -be _cultivators_ of the fine arts. For in our method art is considered a -_means to life_. It is beauty in all its forms which helps the inner man -to grow. We have repeatedly emphasized that both in the environment at -school and in the materials used, everything should be carefully -considered in its artistic bearings, to provide ample room for -development for all the phenomena of attention and persistence in work -which are the secret keys of self-education. The Montessori teacher -should be a cultivator of music, drawing and elocution, responsive to -the harmony of things; she must, that is, have sufficient "good taste" -to be able to lay out the school plant and keep it in condition; and -sufficient delicacy of manner--the product of a sensitive nature--to be -alive to all the manifestations of the child spirit. - -In the matter of reading aloud the teacher has an important task to -accomplish. We found the drawing hour best adapted for this work. It was -our experience that it is easier to gain a hearing when the children are -busy with something which does not require great concentration and which -is not sustained by any particular inspiration. During the drawing -lesson, in the placid silence which comes from work, and while the -children are intent on their designs, the teacher may begin her reading -aloud. It sometimes happens that the substance of what she reads will be -sufficient to engage the interest of the whole school. But this is not -always an easy task. It is more often the musical quality of the -teacher's execution which will attract the little ones with a sense for -art and bring them to that motionless attention which is the evidence of -eager enjoyment. Possibly a really perfect reader might be able so to -hold the whole group of children with some absorbing selection. - -The readings we used were numerous and of great variety: fairy tales, -short stories, anecdotes, novels, historical episodes. Specifically -there were the tales of Andersen, some of the short stories of Capuana, -the _Cuore_ of De Amicis, episodes of the life of Jesus, _Uncle Tom's -Cabin_, _The Betrothed_ (_I promessi sposi_ of Manzoni), _Fabiola_, -stories from the Italian wars for independence (Nineteenth Century), -Itard's _Education of the Young Savage of Aveyron_. - - -THE MOST POPULAR BOOKS - -In general the child will listen to anything that is really interesting. -But certainly some surprises will be occasioned by our discovery that -the children liked above everything else the readings on Italian history -and the _Education of the Savage of Aveyron_. The phenomenon is -sufficiently curious to merit further consideration. The history we used -was not one commonly thought adapted to young readers. Quite the -contrary: it was Pasquale de Luca's _I Liberatori_ (_Makers of Freedom_, -Bergamo, 1909), written to arouse a feeling of patriotism among the -Italian emigrants of Argentina. The special feature of this publication -is its contemporary documents reprinted in _fac-simile_. There are, for -instance, telegrams, notices in cipher published on the walls of the -towns on the eve of uprisings, commemorative medals, a receipt given by -an executioner for whipping publicly an Italian patriot, etc. Patriotic -songs are given with the music (these the children learned by heart, -following the piano); there are also copious illustrations. - -This documented history was so absorbing that the children became -entirely possessed by the situations. They started animated discussions -on various subjects, arguing and deciding. They were particularly -outraged at an edict of the king of Naples which was intended to mislead -the public. They raged at unjust persecutions, applauded heroic deeds, -and ended by insisting on acting out some of the scenes. They formed -little companies of three or four and "acted" the episodes with a most -impressive dramatic sense. One little girl was moved to bring to school -a collection of all the Italian patriotic songs. It fascinated many of -the children, who learned several by heart and sang them in chorus. In a -word, the Italian Risorgimento came to live in those little hearts with -a freshness it has long since lost in the souls of their elders. Many of -the children wrote down their impressions of their own accord, often -giving surprisingly original judgments. Finally they began to "take -notes." They asked the teacher to give an outline of the principal -events, which they took down in their copy-books. This whole experience -corrected many of my own ideas on the teaching of history. I had thought -of preparing moving-picture films and giving historical representations. -But that, naturally, being beyond my resources, I had been compelled to -give up the plan. The reading of De Luca's book was a revelation. To -teach history to children it is sufficient to give a _living documented -truth_. We need, not more cinematographs, but different school books. -Children are much more sensible to the true and beautiful than we. They -suggest fact and situation. De Luca, moved by affection for his distant -brothers, tried to write a book flaming both with truth and with love, -which would awaken them and bring them back to live among us as -Italians. Our task is the same. We must be filled with a similarly -intense human zeal: we must call back to us the distant souls of the -children. They too are brothers living far away in a distant country. We -must arouse them, bring them back to us as partners in our own life. - -After our readings from Itard's _Savage_, the parents of the children -kept coming to us with inquiries: "What have you been reading to our -children? We should like to hear it ourselves." The little ones had told -of hearing an extraordinary story about a child who had lived with the -animals, beginning little by little to understand, to feel, to live like -us. All the psychological details of his study, his attempts at -education, seemed to have touched the children deeply. It occurred to us -to take the older of such children to a "Children's House" and show them -our educational method. They took the greatest interest in it, and some -of them are now collaborators in the foundation of other "Children's -Houses." Such children are able to follow the development of the child -mind with extraordinary sympathy. However, if we reflect that the best -teachers for children are children themselves, and that little tots like -the company of another child much better than that of an adult, we need -not be surprised at the downfall of another prejudice. - -[Illustration: Interpreted reading: "She was sleepy; she leaned her arms -on the table, her head on her arms, and went to sleep." Notice the slip -of paper which the child has just read. (_The Lenox School, Montessori -Elementary Class, New York._)] - -We have conceived of children according to a fantastic idea of our own, -making of them a sort of human species distinct from that to which -adults belong. As a matter of fact, they are our children, more purely -human than we ourselves. The beautiful and the true have for them an -intense fascination, into which they plunge as into something actually -necessary for their existence. - -The results here witnessed led us to many a reflection. We succeeded in -teaching history and even pedagogy by means of "reading." And, in truth, -does not reading embrace everything? Travel stories teach geography; -insect stories lead the child into natural science; and so on. The -teacher, in short, can use reading to introduce her pupils to the most -varied subjects; and the moment they have been thus started, they can go -on to any limit guided by the single passion for reading. Our task is -to offer the child the instruments of education, to keep pure within him -the springs of his intellectual growth, of his life of feeling. The rest -follows as a matter of course. As the ancients said: "_Necessary_ -education is the three 'r's': reading, writing and arithmetic," for -these are things which the child cannot discover by himself. We can only -add that "method" must be scientifically determined only at the points -where it becomes necessary to assist the "formation of man," that he may -develop his activities by strengthening them and not by repressing them, -that he may receive essential help without losing any pure freshness of -his interior activities. But this does not mean that "a rigorous method -must guide the child at all times and in every step that he takes." When -he has become strong and is in possession of his tools for discovery, he -will be able to uncover many of life's secrets by himself. We tied the -child to the materials in his sensory exercises, but we left him free to -explore his environment. This must be the method for all his later steps -in advance: he must be given the instrument and the strength to use it, -and then left free to find things out for himself. - -[Illustration: Exercises in interpreted reading and arithmetic. (_The -Rivington Street Montessori School, New York._)] - -The fondness of children for reading and their preference for the "true" -is something already demonstrated by experiments conducted elsewhere. I -may refer here to the investigations on readings for children conducted -by the "Education" section of the Federation for School Libraries of the -province of Emilia (Italy). The questionnaire was as follows: - - Do you remember what books you have read and which you - liked best? - - How did you get them? - - Do you know the title of some book you would like to - read? - - Do you prefer fairy-tales, or rather stories of true - or probable facts? Why? - - Do you prefer sad or humorous stories? - - Do you like poetry? - - Do you like stories of travel and adventure? - - Do you subscribe to any weekly or monthly newspaper? - If so, to which? - - If your mother were to offer you a choice between a - subscription to a weekly or monthly and an illustrated - book, which would you take? And why? - -The answers, very carefully sifted, showed that the vast majority of -children preferred readings which dealt with fact. Here are some of the -reasons alleged by the children in support for their preference for -"truth": "Facts teach me something; fairy-tales are too improbable; true -stories don't upset my thinking; true stories teach me history; true -stories always convey some good idea; fairy-stories give me desires -impossible to satisfy; many good ideas come from actual experiences; -fantastic tales make me think too much about supernatural things"; etc., -etc. In favor of the fairy-tales we find: "They amuse me in hours free -from work; I like to be in the midst of fairies and enchantments"; etc. -Those who preferred sad or serious stories justified themselves as -follows: "I feel that I am a better person, and realize better the wrong -I do; I feel that my disposition becomes more kindly; they arouse in me -feelings of kindness and pity." Many supported their preference for -humorous tales on the ground that "when I read them, I am able to forget -my own little troubles." In general, a great majority denied any -educational value to joy and humor. In this conviction--or rather this -feeling--so widely diffused among children, have we not evidence that -something must be wrong in the kind of education we have been giving -them? - -FOOTNOTE: - -[5] The first readings consist of a special grammar and a dictionary. - - - - -PART III - -ARITHMETIC - - - - -I - -ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS - -NUMBERS: 1-10 - - -The children already had performed the four arithmetical operations in -their simplest forms, in the "Children's Houses," the didactic material -for these having consisted of the rods of the long stair which gave -empirical representation of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. -By means of its divisions into sections of alternating colors, red and -blue, each rod represented the quantity of unity for which it stood; and -so the entrance into the complex and arduous field of numbers was thus -rendered easy, interesting, and attractive by the conception that -collective number can be represented by a _single_ object containing -signs by which the relative quantity of unity can be recognized, instead -of by _a number of different_ units, represented by the figure in -question. For instance, the fact that five may be represented by a -single object with five distinct and equal parts instead of by five -distinct objects which the mind must reduce to a concept of number, -saves mental effort and clarifies the idea. - -It was through the application of this principle by means of the rods -that the children succeeded so easily in accomplishing the first -arithmetical operations: 7 + 3 = 10; 2 + 8 = 10; 10 - 4 = 6; etc. - -The long stair material is excellent for this purpose. But it is too -limited in quantity and is too large to be handled easily and used to -good advantage in meeting the demands of a room full of children who -already have been initiated into arithmetic. Therefore, keeping to the -same fundamental concepts, we have prepared smaller, more abundant -material, and one more readily accessible to a large number of children -working at the same time. - -This material consists of beads strung on wires: i.e., bead bars -representing respectively 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. The beads are -of different colors. The 10-bead bar is orange; 9, dark blue; 8, -lavender; 7, white; 6, gray; 5, light blue; 4, yellow; 3, pink; 2, -green; and there are separate beads for unity.[6] The beads are -opalescent; and the white metal wire on which they are strung is bent at -each end, holding the beads rigid and preventing them from slipping. - -There are five sets of these attractive objects in each box; and so each -child has at his disposal the equivalent of five sets of the long stairs -used for his numerical combinations in the earliest exercise. The fact -that the rods are small and so easily handled permits of their being -used at the small tables. - -This very simple and easily prepared material has been extraordinarily -successful with children of five and a half years. They have worked with -marked concentration, doing as many as sixty successive operations and -filling whole copybooks within a few days' time. Special quadrille paper -is used for the purpose; and the sheets are ruled in different colors: -some in black, some in red, some in green, some in blue, some in pink, -and some in orange. The variety of colors helps to hold the child's -attention: after filling a sheet lined in red, he will enjoy filling one -lined in blue, etc. - -Experience has taught us to prepare a large number of the ten-bead bars; -for the children will choose these from all the others, in order to -count the tens in succession: 10, 20, 30, 40, etc. To this first bead -material, therefore, we have added boxes filled with nothing but -ten-bead bars. There are also small cards on which are written 10, 20, -etc. The children put together two or more of the ten-bead bars to -correspond with the number on the cards. This is an initial exercise -which leads up to the multiples of 10. By superimposing these cards on -that for the number 100 and that for the number 1000, such numbers as -_1917_ can be obtained. - -The "bead work" became at once an established element in our method, -scientifically determined as a conquest brought to maturity by the child -in the very act of making it. Our success in amplifying and making more -complex the early exercises with the rods has made the child's mental -calculation more rapid, more certain, and more comprehensive. Mental -calculation develops spontaneously, as if by a law of conservation -tending to realize the "minimum of effort." Indeed, little by little the -child ceases counting the beads and recognizes the numbers by their -color: the dark blue he knows is 9, the yellow 4, etc. Almost without -realizing it he comes now to count by _colors_ instead of by -_quantities_ of beads, and thus performs actual operations in mental -arithmetic. As soon as the child becomes conscious of this power, he -joyfully announces his transition to the higher plane, exclaiming, "I -can count in my head and I can do it more quickly!" This declaration -indicates that he has conquered the first bead material. - - -TENS, HUNDREDS, AND THOUSANDS - -MATERIAL: I have had a chain made by joining ten ten-bead bars end to -end. This is called the "hundred chain." Then, by means of short and -very flexible connecting links I had ten of these "hundred chains" put -together, making the "thousand chain." - -These chains are of the same color as the ten-bead bars, all of them -being constructed of orange-colored beads. The difference in their -reciprocal length is very striking. Let us first put down a single bead; -then a ten-bead bar, which is about seven centimeters long; then a -hundred-bead chain, which is about seventy centimeters long; and finally -the thousand-bead chain, which is about seven meters long. The great -length of this thousand-bead chain leads directly to another idea of -quantity; for whereas the 1, the 10, and the 100 can be placed on the -table for convenient study, the entire length of the room will hardly -suffice for the thousand-bead chain! The children find it necessary to -go into the corridor or an adjoining room; they have to form little -groups to accomplish the patient work of stretching it out into a -straight line. And to examine the whole extent of this chain, they have -to walk up and down its entire length. The realization they thus obtain -of the relative values of quantity is in truth an event for them. For -days at a time this amazing "thousand chain" claims the child's entire -activity. - -The flexible connections between the different hundred lengths of the -thousand-bead chain permit of its being folded so that the "hundred -chains" lie one next to the other, forming in their entirety a long -rectangle. The same quantity which formerly impressed the child by its -length is now, in its broad, folded form, presented as a _surface_ -quantity. - -Now all may be placed on a small table, one below the other: first the -single bead, then the ten-bead bar, then the "hundred chain," and -finally the broad strip of the "thousand chain." - -Any teacher who has asked herself how in the world a child may be taught -to express in numerical terms quantitative proportions perceived through -the eye, has some idea of the problem that confronts us. However, our -children set to work patiently counting bead by bead from 1 to 100. Then -they gathered in two's and three's about the "thousand chain," as if to -help one another in counting it, undaunted by the arduous undertaking. -They counted on hundred; and after one hundred, what? One hundred one. -And finally two hundred, two hundred one. One day they reached seven -hundred. "I am tired," said the child. "I'll mark this place and come -back tomorrow." - -"Seven hundred, seven hundred--Look!" cried another child. "There are -seven--_seven_ hundreds! Yes, yes; count the chains! Seven hundred, -eight hundred, nine hundred, one thousand. Signora, signora, the -'thousand chain' has ten 'hundred chains'! Look at it!" And other -children, who had been working with the "hundred chain," in turn called -the attention of _their_ comrades: "Oh, look, look! The 'hundred chain' -has ten ten-bead bars!" - -Thus we realized that the numerical concept of tens, hundreds, and -thousands was given by presenting these chains to the child's -intelligent curiosity and by respecting the spontaneous endeavors of his -free activities. - -And since this was our experience with most of the children, one easily -can see how simple a suggestion would be necessary if the deduction did -not take place in the case of some exceptional child. In fact, to make -the idea of decimal relations apparent to a child, it is sufficient to -direct his attention to the material he is handling. The teacher -experienced in this method knows how to wait; she realizes that the -child needs to exercise his mind constantly and slowly; and if the inner -maturation takes place naturally, "intuitive explosions" are bound to -follow as a matter of course. The more we allow the children to follow -the interests which have claimed their fixed attention, the greater will -be the value of the results. - - -COUNTING-FRAMES - -The direct assistance of the teacher, her clear and brief explanation, -is, however, essential when she presents to the child another new -material, which may be considered "symbolic" of the decimal relations. -This material consists of two very simple bead counting-frames, similar -in size and shape to the dressing-frames of the first material. They are -light and easily handled and may be included in the individual -possessions of each child. The frames are easily made and are -inexpensive. - -One frame is arranged with the longest side as base, and has four -parallel metal wires, each of which is strung with ten beads. The three -top wires are equidistant but the fourth is separated from the others by -a greater distance, and this separation is further emphasized by a brass -nail-head fixed on the left hand side of the frame. The frame is painted -one color above the nail-head and another color below it; and on this -side of the frame, also, numerals corresponding to each wire are marked. -The numeral opposite the top wire is 1, the next 10, then 100, and the -lowest, 1000. - -We explain to the child that each bead of the first wire is assumed to -stand for one, or unity, as did the separate beads they have had before; -but each bead of the second wire stands for ten (or for one of the -ten-bead bars); the value of each bead of the third wire is one hundred -and represents the "hundred chain"; and each bead on the last wire -(which is separated from the others by the brass nail-head) has the same -value as a "thousand chain."[7] - -At first it is not easy for the child to understand this symbolism, but -it will be less difficult if he previously has worked over the chains, -counting and studying them without being hurried. When the concept of -the relationship between unity, tens, hundreds, and thousands has -matured spontaneously, he more readily will be able to recognize and use -the symbol. - -Specially lined paper is designed for use with these frames. This paper -is divided lengthwise into two equal parts, and on both sides of the -division are vertical lines of different colors: to the right a green -line, then a blue, and next a red line. These are parallel and -equidistant. A vertical line of dots separates this group of three lines -from another line which follows. On the first three lines from right to -left are written respectively the units, tens, and hundreds; on the -inner line the thousands. - -The right half of the page is used entirely and exclusively to clarify -this idea and to show the relationship of written numbers to the decimal -symbolism of the counting-frame. - -With this object in view, we first count the beads on each wire of the -frame; saying for the top wire, one unit, two units, three units, four -units, five units, six units, seven units, eight units, nine units, ten -units. The ten units of this top wire are equal to one bead on the -second wire. - -The beads on the second wire are counted in the same way: one ten, two -tens, three tens, four tens, five tens, six tens, seven tens, eight -tens, nine tens, ten tens. The ten ten-beads are equal to one bead on -the third wire. - -The beads on this third wire then are counted one by one: one hundred, -two hundreds, three hundreds, four hundreds, five hundreds, six -hundreds, seven hundreds, eight hundreds, nine hundreds, ten hundreds. -These ten hundred-beads are equal to one of the thousand-beads. - -There also are ten thousand-beads: one thousand, two thousands, three -thousands, four thousands, five thousands, six thousands, seven -thousands, eight thousands, nine thousands, ten thousands. The child can -picture ten separate "thousand chains"; this symbol is in direct -relation, therefore, to a tangible idea of quantity. - -Now we must transcribe all these acts by which we have in succession -counted, ten units, ten tens, ten hundreds, and ten thousands. On the -first vertical line to the extreme right (the green line) we write the -units, one beneath the other; on the second line (blue) we write the -tens; on the third line (red) the hundreds; and, finally, on the line -beyond the dots we write the thousands. There are sufficient horizontal -lines for all the numbers, including one thousand. - -Having reached 9, we must leave the line of the units and pass over to -that of the tens; in fact, ten units make one ten. And, similarly, when -we have written 9 in the tens line we must of necessity pass to the -hundreds line, because ten tens equal one hundred. Finally, when 9 in -the hundreds line has been written, we must pass to the thousands line -for the same reason. - -The units from 1 to 9 are written on the line farthest to the right; on -the next line to the left are written the tens (from 1 to 9); and on the -third line, the hundreds (from 1 to 9). Thus always we have the numbers -1 to 9; and it cannot be otherwise, for any more would cause the figure -itself to change position. It is this fact that the child must quietly -ponder over and allow to ripen in his mind. - -It is the nine numbers that change position in order to form all the -numbers that are possible. Therefore, it is not the number in itself but -its _position_ in respect to the other numbers which gives it the value -now of one, now of ten, now of one hundred or one thousand. Thus we have -the symbolic translation of those real values which increase in so -prodigious a way and which are almost impossible for us to conceive. One -line of ten thousand beads is seventy meters long! Ten such lines would -be the length of a long street! Therefore we are forced to have recourse -to symbols. How very important this _position_ occupied by the number -becomes! - -How do we indicate the position and hence the value of a certain number -with reference to other numbers? As there are not always vertical lines -to indicate the relative position of the figure, _the requisite number -of zeros are placed to the right of the figure!_ - -The children already know, from the "Children's House," that zero has no -value and that it can give no value to the figure with which it is used. -It serves merely to show the position and the value of the figure -written at its left. Zero does not give value to 1 and so make it -become 10: the zero of the number 10 indicates that the figure 1 is not -a unit but is in the next preceding position--that of the tens--and -means therefore one ten and not one unit. If, for instance, 4 units -followed the 1 in the tens position, then the figure 4 would be in the -units place and the 1 would be in the tens position. - -[Illustration: The bead material used for addition and subtraction. Each -of the nine numbers is of different colored beads.] - -[Illustration: Counting and calculating by means of the bead chains. (_A -Montessori School in Italy._)] - -The "Children's House" child already knows how to write ten and even one -hundred; and it is now very easy for him to write, with the aid of -zeros, and _in columns_, from 1 to 1000: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 10, -20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90; 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, -900; 1,000. When the child has learned to count well in this manner, he -can easily read any number of four figures. - -Let us now make up a number on the counting-frame; for example, 4827. We -move four beads to the left on the thousands-wire, eight on the -hundreds-wire, two on the tens-wire, and seven on the units-wire; and we -read, four thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven. This number is -written by placing the numbers _on the same line_ and in the mutually -relative order determined by the symbolic positions for the decimal -relations, 4827. - -We can do the same with the date of our present year, writing the -figures on the left-hand side of the paper as indicated: 1917. - -Let us compose 2049 on the symbolic number frame. Two of the -thousand-beads are moved to the left, four of the ten-beads, and nine of -the unit-beads. On the hundreds-wire there is nothing. Here we have a -good demonstration of the function of zero, which is to occupy the -places that are empty on this chart. - -Similarly, to form the number 4700 on the frame, four thousand-beads -are moved to the left and seven hundred-beads, the tens-wire and the -units-wire remaining empty. In transcribing this number, these empty -places are filled by zeros--a figure of no value in itself. - -[Illustration: The bead cube of 10; ten squares of 10; and chains of 10, -of 100, and of 1000 beads.] - -[Illustration: This shows the first bead frame which the child uses in -his study of arithmetic. The number formed at the left on the frame is -1,111.] - -When the child fully understands this process he makes up many exercises -of his own accord and with the greatest interest. He moves beads to the -left at random, on one or on all of the wires, then interprets and -writes the number on the sheets of paper purposely prepared for this. -When he has comprehended the position of the figures and performed -operations with numbers of several figures he has mastered the process. -The child need only be left to his auto-exercises here in order to -attain perfection. - -Very soon he will ask to go beyond the thousands. For this there is -another frame, with seven wires representing respectively units, tens, -and hundreds; units, tens and hundreds of the thousands; and a million. - -This frame is the same size as the other one but in this the shorter -side is used as the base and there are seven wires instead of four. The -right-hand side is marked by three different colors according to the -groups of wires. The units, tens, and hundreds wires are separated from -the three thousands wires by a brass tack, and these in turn are -separated in the same manner from the million wire. - -The transition from one frame to the other furnishes much interest but -no difficulty. Children will need very few explanations and will try by -themselves to understand as much as possible. The large numbers are the -most interesting to them, therefore the easiest. Soon their copybooks -are full of the most marvelous numbers; they have now become dealers in -millions. - -For this frame also there is specially prepared paper. On the -right-hand side the child writes the numbers corresponding to the frame, -counting from one to a million: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 10, 20, 30, -40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90; 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900; -1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000; 10,000, -20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000; 100,000, -200,000, 300,000, 400,000, 500,000, 600,000, 700,000, 800,000, 900,000; -1,000,000. - -After this the child, moving the beads to the left on one or more of the -wires, tries to read and then to write on the left half of the paper the -numbers resulting from these haphazard experiments. For example, on the -counting-frame he may have the number 6,206,818, and on the paper the -numbers 1,111,111; 8,640,850; 1,500,000; 3,780,000; 5,840,714; 720,000; -500,000; 430,000; 35,840; 80,724; 15,229; 1,240. - -When we come to add and subtract numbers of several figures and to write -the results in column, the facility resulting from this preparation is -something astonishing. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[6] At the present time, because of the difficulty of getting beads of -certain colors, owing to war conditions, the following colors have been -approved by Dr. Montessori to replace those originally used: 10 bead -bar, gold; 9, dark blue; 8, white; 7, light green; 6, light blue; 5, -yellow; 4, pink; 3, green; 2, yellow-green; 1, gold. These same colors -are retained for the bead squares and the bead cubes. They will be -supplied by The House of Childhood, 16 Horatio Street, New York. - -[7] It would, perhaps, be better in this first counting-frame to have -the beads not only of different colors, but of different sizes, -according to the value of the wires, as was suggested to me by a -Portuguese professor who had been taking my course. - - - - -II - -THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE - - -MATERIAL: The material for the multiplication table is in several parts. -There is a square cardboard with a hundred sockets or indentures (ten -rows, ten in a row), and into each of these indentures may be placed a -bead. At the top of the square and corresponding to each vertical line -of indentures are printed the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. At -the left is an opening into which may be slipped a small piece of -cardboard upon which are printed in red the numbers from 1 to 10. This -cardboard serves as the multiplicand; and it can be changed, for there -are ten of these slips, bearing the ten different numbers. In the upper -left-hand corner is a small indenture for a little red marker, but this -detail is merely secondary. This arithmetic board is a white square with -a red border; and with it comes an attractive box containing a hundred -loose beads. - -The exercise which is done with this material is very simple. Suppose -that 6 is to be multiplied by the numbers in turn from 1 to 10: 6 × 1; 6 -× 2; 6 × 3; 6 × 4; 6 × 5; 6 × 6; 6 × 7; 6 × 8; 6 × 9; 6 × 10. Opposite -the sixth horizontal line of indentures, in the small opening at the -left is slipped the card bearing the number 6. In multiplying the 6 by -1, the child performs two operations: first, he puts the red marker -above the printed 1 at the top of the board, and then he puts six beads -(corresponding to the number 6) in a vertical column underneath the -number 1. To multiply 6 by 2, he places the red marker over the printed -2, and adds six more beads, placed in a column under number 2. -Similarly, multiplying 6 by 3, the red marker must be placed over the 3, -and six more beads added in a vertical line under that number. In this -manner he proceeds up to 6 × 10. - -The shifting of the little red marker serves to indicate the multiplier -and requires constant attention on the part of the child and great -exactness in his work. - -3 - - ____________________________ - | MULTIPLICATION TABLE | - | | - | COMBINATION OF | - | | - | =THREE= | - | | - | WITH THE NUMBERS 1 TO 10 | - | | - | 3 × 1 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 × 2 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 × 3 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 × 4 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 × 5 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 × 6 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 × 7 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 × 8 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 × 9 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 × 10 = ___________ | - |____________________________| - -While the child is doing these operations he is writing down the -results. For this purpose there is specially prepared paper with an -attractive heading which the child can place at the right of his -multiplication board. There are ten sets of this paper in a series and -ten series in a set, making a hundred sheets with each set of -multiplication material. The accompanying cut shows a sheet prepared for -the multiplication of number 3. - -Everything is ready on the printed sheet; the child has only to write -the results which he obtains by adding the beads in columns of three -each. If he makes no error he will write: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, -27, 30. - -In this way he will work out and write down the whole series from 1 to -10; and as there are ten copies of each sheet, he can repeat each -exercise ten times. - -Thus the child learns by memory each of these multiplications. And we -find that he helps himself to memorize even in other ways. He walks up -and down holding the multiplication sheet, which he looks at from time -to time. It is a sheet which he himself has filled, and he may be -memorizing seven times six, forty-two; seven times seven, forty-nine; -seven times eight, fifty-six, etc. - -This material for the multiplication table is one of the most -interesting to the children. They fill six or seven sets, one after the -other, and work for days and weeks on this one exercise. Almost all of -them ask to take it home with them. With us, the first time the material -was presented a small uprising took place, for they all wished to carry -it away with them. As this was not permitted the children implored their -mothers to buy it for them, and it was with difficulty that we made them -understand that it was not on the market and therefore could not be -purchased. But the children could not give up the idea. One older girl -headed the rebellion. "The Dottoressa wants to try an experiment with -us," she said. "Well, let's tell her that unless she gives us the -material for the multiplication table we won't come to school any -more." - -This threat in itself was impolite, and yet it was interesting; for the -multiplication table, the bug-bear of all children, had become so -attractive and tempting a thing that it had made wolves out of my lambs! - -When the children have repeatedly filled a whole series of these blanks, -with the aid of the material, they are given a test-card by means of -which they may compare their work for verification, and see whether they -have made any errors in their multiplication. Table by table, number by -number, they do the work of comparing each result with the number which -corresponds to it in each one of the ten columns. When this has been -done carefully, the children possess their own series, the accuracy of -which they are able to guarantee themselves. - -MULTIPLICATION TABLE - -PRESENTING THE COMBINATIONS OF NUMBERS IN THE PROGRESSIVE SERIES FROM 1 -TO 10 - - ___________________________________________________________________ - | | - | 1 × 1 = 1 2 × 1 = 2 3 × 1 = 3 4 × 1 = 4 5 × 1 = 5 | - | 1 × 2 = 2 2 × 2 = 4 3 × 2 = 6 4 × 2 = 8 5 × 2 = 10 | - | 1 × 3 = 3 2 × 3 = 6 3 × 3 = 9 4 × 3 = 12 5 × 3 = 15 | - | 1 × 4 = 4 2 × 4 = 8 3 × 4 = 12 4 × 4 = 16 5 × 4 = 20 | - | 1 × 5 = 5 2 × 5 = 10 3 × 5 = 15 4 × 5 = 20 5 × 5 = 25 | - | 1 × 6 = 6 2 × 6 = 12 3 × 6 = 18 4 × 6 = 24 5 × 6 = 30 | - | 1 × 7 = 7 2 × 7 = 14 3 × 7 = 21 4 × 7 = 28 5 × 7 = 35 | - | 1 × 8 = 8 2 × 8 = 16 3 × 8 = 24 4 × 8 = 32 5 × 8 = 40 | - | 1 × 9 = 9 2 × 9 = 18 3 × 9 = 27 4 × 9 = 36 5 × 9 = 45 | - | 1 × 10 = 10 2 × 10 = 20 3 × 10 = 30 4 × 10 = 40 5 × 10 = 50 | - |___________________________________________________________________| - - ___________________________________________________________________ - | | - | 6 × 1 = 6 7 × 1 = 7 8 × 1 = 8 9 × 7 = 9 10 × 1 = 10 | - | 6 × 2 = 12 7 × 2 = 14 8 × 2 = 16 9 × 2 = 18 10 × 2 = 20 | - | 6 × 3 = 18 7 × 3 = 21 8 × 3 = 24 9 × 3 = 27 10 × 3 = 30 | - | 6 × 4 = 24 7 × 4 = 28 8 × 4 = 32 9 × 4 = 36 10 × 4 = 40 | - | 6 × 5 = 30 7 × 5 = 35 8 × 5 = 40 9 × 5 = 45 10 × 5 = 50 | - | 6 × 6 = 36 7 × 6 = 42 8 × 6 = 48 9 × 6 = 54 10 × 6 = 60 | - | 6 × 7 = 42 7 × 7 = 49 8 × 7 = 56 9 × 7 = 63 10 × 7 = 70 | - | 6 × 8 = 48 7 × 8 = 56 8 × 8 = 64 9 × 8 = 72 10 × 8 = 80 | - | 6 × 9 = 54 7 × 9 = 63 8 × 9 = 72 9 × 9 = 81 10 × 9 = 90 | - | 6 × 10 = 60 7 × 10 = 70 8 × 10 = 80 9 × 10 = 90 10 × 10 = 100 | - |___________________________________________________________________| - -The children should write down on the following form, in the separate -columns, their verified results: under the 2, the column of the 2's; -under the 3, the column of the 3's; under the 4, the column of the 4's, -etc. - - _________________________________________________________________ - | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 2 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 3 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 4 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 5 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 6 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 7 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 8 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 9 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 10 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - -Then they get the following table, which is identical with the test -cards included in the material. It is a summary of the multiplication -table--the famous Pythagorean table. - -THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE - - _________________________________________________________ - | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | - | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | - | 3 | 6 | 9 | 12 | 15 | 18 | 21 | 24 | 27 | 30 | - | 4 | 8 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 32 | 36 | 40 | - | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 | 45 | 50 | - | 6 | 12 | 18 | 24 | 30 | 36 | 42 | 48 | 54 | 60 | - | 7 | 14 | 21 | 28 | 35 | 42 | 49 | 56 | 63 | 70 | - | 8 | 16 | 24 | 32 | 40 | 48 | 56 | 64 | 72 | 80 | - | 9 | 18 | 27 | 36 | 45 | 54 | 63 | 72 | 81 | 90 | - | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 |100 | - ___|____|____|____|____|____|____|____|____|____|____|___ - -The child has built up his multiplication table by a long series of -processes each incomplete in itself. It will now be easy to teach him to -read it as a "multiplication table," for he already knows it by memory. -Indeed, he will be able to fill the blanks from memory, the only -difficulty being the recognition of the square in which he must write -the number, which must correspond both to the multiplicand and to the -multiplier. - -We offer ten of these blank forms in our material. When the child, left -free to work as long as he wishes on these exercises, has finished them -all, he has certainly learned the multiplication table. - - - - -III - -DIVISION - - -MATERIAL: The same material may be used for division, except the blanks, -which are somewhat different. - -Take any number of beads from the box and count them. Let us suppose -that we have twenty-seven. This number is written in the vacant space at -the left-hand side of the division blank. - - +---------------+-----------+ - | DIVISION | REMAINDER | - +---------------+-----------+ - | : 2 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 3 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 4 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 5 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - |27 : 6 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 7 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 8 = 3 | 3 | - | | | - | : 9 = 3 | | - | | | - | :10 = 2 | 7 | - +---------------+-----------+ - -Then taking the box of beads and the arithmetic board with the hundred -indentures we proceed to the operation. - -Let us first divide 27 by 10. We place ten beads in a vertical line -under the 1; then in the next row ten more beads under the 2. The beads, -however, are not sufficient to fill the row under the 3. Now on the -paper prepared for division we write 2 on a line with the 10 to the -left of the vertical line, and to the right of the same vertical line we -write the remainder 7. - -To divide 27 by 9, nine beads are counted out in the first row, then -nine in the second row under the 2, and still another nine under the 3. -There are no beads left over. So the figure 3 is written after the -equal-sign (=) on a line with 9. - -To divide 27 by 8 we count out eight beads, place them in a row under -the 1, and then fill like rows under the 2 and the 3; in the fourth row -there are only three beads. They are the remainder. And so on. - -A package of one hundred division blanks comes in an attractive dark -green cover tied with a silk ribbon. The multiplication blanks, with -their tables for comparison and summary tables, come in a parchment -envelope tied with leather strings. - - +---------------+-----------+ - | DIVISION | REMAINDER | - +---------------+-----------+ - | : 2 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 3 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 4 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 5 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 6 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 7 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 8 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 9 = | _________ | - | | | - | :10 = | _________ | - +---------------+-----------+ - - - - -IV - -OPERATIONS IN SEVERAL FIGURES - - -By this time the child can easily perform operations with numbers of two -or more figures, for he possesses all the materials necessary and is -already prepared to make use of them. - -For this work we have for the first three operations, addition, -subtraction, and multiplication, a counting-frame; and for division a -more complicated material which will be described later on. - - -ADDITION - -Addition on the counting frame is a most simple operation, and therefore -is very attractive. Let us take, for example, the following: - - 1320 + - 435 - ____ - = - -First we slide over the beads to represent the first number: 1 on the -thousands-wire, 3 on the hundreds-wire, and 2 on the tens-wire. Then we -place next to them the beads representing the second number: 4 on the -hundreds-wire, 3 on the tens-wire, and 5 on the units-wire. Now there -remains nothing to be done except to write the number shown by the beads -in their present position: 1755. - -[Illustration: This shows the second counting-frame used in arithmetic. -The child is writing the number she has just formed on her frame. (_The -Rivington Street Montessori School, New York._)] - -When the problem is a more complicated one, the beads for any one wire -amounting to more than 10, the solution is still very easy. In that case -the entire ten beads would be returned to their original position and in -their stead one corresponding bead of the next lower wire would be -slipped over. Then the operation is continued. Take, for example: - - 390 + - 482 - ___ - = - -We first place the beads representing 390: that is, 3 on the -hundreds-wire and 9 on the tens-wire; or, vice versa, beginning with the -units, we would first place the 9 tens and then the 3 hundreds. For the -second number we place 4 beads for the hundreds and then we begin to -place the 8 tens. But when we have placed only one ten, the wire is -full; so the ten tens are returned to their original position and to -represent them we move over another bead on the hundreds-wire; then we -continue to place the beads of the tens which now, after having -converted 10 of them into 1 hundred, remain but 7. Or we can begin the -addition by placing the beads for the units before we place those for -the hundreds; and in that case we move on the hundreds-wire first the -bead representing the ten beads on the wire above, and then the 4 -hundreds which must be added. Finally we write down the sum as now -indicated by the position of the beads: 872. - -With a larger counting-frame it is possible to perform in this manner -very complicated problems in addition. - -[Illustration: The two little girls are working out problems in seven -figures. (_The Washington Montessori School, Washington, D. C._)] - - -SUBTRACTION - -The counting-frame lends itself equally well to problems in subtraction. -Let us take, for example, the following: - - 8947 - - 6735 - ____ - = - -We place the beads representing the first number; then from them we take -the beads representing the second number The beads remaining indicate -the difference between the two numbers; and this is written: 2212. - -Then comes the more complicated problem where it is necessary to borrow -from a higher denomination. When the beads of one wire are exhausted, we -move over the entire ten and take to represent them one bead from the -lower wire; then we continue the subtraction. For example: - - 8954 - - 7593 - ____ - = - -We move the beads representing the first number; then we take 3 beads -from the units. Now we begin to subtract the tens. We wish to take away -9 beads; but when we have moved five the wire is empty, and there are -still four more to be moved. We take away one bead from the -hundreds-wire and replace the entire ten on the tens-wire; and then we -continue to move beads on the tens-wire until we have taken a total of -nine--that is, we now move the other four. On the hundreds-wire there -remain but 8 beads, and from them we take the 5, etc. Our final -remainder is 1361. - -It is easy to see how familiar and clear to the child the technique of -"borrowing" becomes. - - -MULTIPLICATION - -When there is a number to be multiplied by more than one figure, the -child not only knows the multiplication table but he easily -distinguishes the units from the tens, hundreds, etc., and he is -familiar with their reciprocal relations. He knows all the numbers up to -a million and also their positions in relation to their value. He knows -from habitual practise that a unit of a higher order can be exchanged -for ten of a lower order. - -To have the child attack this new difficulty successfully one need only -tell him that each figure of the multiplier must multiply in turn each -figure of the multiplicand and that the separate products are placed in -columns and then added. The analytical processes hold the child's -attention for a long period of time; and for this reason they have too -great a formative value not to be made use of in the highest degree. -They are the processes which lead to that inner maturation which gives a -deeper realization of cognitions and which results in bursts of -spontaneous synthesis and abstraction. - -The children, by rapidly graduated exercises, soon become accustomed to -writing the analysis of each multiplication (according to its factors) -in such a way that, once the work of arranging the material is finished, -nothing is left for them to do but to perform the multiplications which -they already have learned in the simple multiplication table. - -Here is an example of the analysis of a multiplication with three -figures appearing in both the multiplicand and the multiplier: 356 X -742. - - { 2 units { 6 units - 742 = { 4 tens 356 = { 5 tens - { 7 hundreds { 3 hundreds - -Each of the first numbers is combined with the three figures of the -other number in the following manner: - - u. 6 } { 12 _units_ u. 6 } { 24 _tens_ - t. 5 } × u. 2 = { 10 tens t. 5 } × t. 4 = { 20 hundreds - h. 3 } { 6 hundreds h. 3 } { 12 thousands - - u. 6 } { 42 _hundreds_ - t. 5 } × h. 7 = { 35 thousands - h. 3 } { 21 tens of thousands - -When this analysis is written down, the work on the counting-frames -begins. Here the operations are performed in the following manner: 2 × 6 -units necessitate the bringing forward of the ten beads on the first -wire. However, even those do not suffice. So they are slid back and one -bead on the second wire is brought forward, to represent the ten -replaced, and on the first wire two beads are brought forward (12). - -Next we take 2 × 5 tens. There is already one bead on the tens-wire and -to this should be added ten more, but instead we bring forward one bead -on the hundreds-wire. At this point in the operation the beads are -distributed on the wires in this manner: - - 2 - 1 - 1 - -Now comes 2 × 3 hundreds, and six beads on the corresponding wire are -brought forward. When the multiplication by the units of the multiplier -is finished, the beads on the frame are in the following order: - - 2 - 1 - 7 - -We pass now to the tens: 4 × 6 = 24 tens. We must therefore bring -forward four beads on the tens-wire and two on the hundreds-wire: - - 2 - 5 - 9 - -4 × 5 = 20 hundreds, therefore two thousands: - - 2 - 5 - 9 - 2 - -4 × 3 thousands = 12 thousands; so we bring forward two beads on the -thousands-wire and one on the ten-thousands-wire: - - 2 - 5 - 9 - 4 - 1 - -Now we take the hundreds: 7 × 6 hundreds are 42 hundreds; therefore we -slide four beads on the thousands-wire and two on the hundreds-wire. But -there already were nine beads on this wire, so only one remains and the -other ten give us instead another bead on the thousands-wire: - - 2 - 5 - - 1 - 9 - 1 - -5 × 7 thousands = 35 thousands, which is the same as five thousands and -three ten-thousands. Three beads on the fifth wire and five on the -fourth are brought forward; but on the fourth wire there already were -nine beads, so we leave only four, exchanging the other ten for one bead -on the fifth wire: - - 2 - 5 - 1 - 4 - 5 - -Finally 7 × 3 ten-thousands = 21 ten-thousands. One bead is brought -forward on the fifth wire and two on the hundred-thousands-wire. - -At the end of the operation the beads will be distributed as follows: - - 2 beads on the first wire (units) - 5 " " " second " (tens) - 1 " " " third " (hundreds) - 4 " " " fourth " (thousands) - 6 " " " fifth " (tens of thousands) - 2 " " " sixth " (hundreds of thousands) - -This distribution translated into figures gives the following number: -264,152. This may be written as a result right after the factors without -the partial products: that is, 742 × 356 = 264,152. - -Although this description may sound very complicated, the exercise on -the counting-frame is an easy and most interesting arithmetic game. And -this game, which contains the secret of such surprising results, not -only is an exercise which makes more and more clear the decimal -relations of reciprocal value and position, but also it explains the -manner of procedure in abstract operations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. The disposition of the beads for the number -49,152.] - -In fact, in the multiplication as commonly performed: - - 356 × - 742 - ______ - 712 - 1424 - 2492 - ______ - 264152 - -the same operations are involved; but the figures, once written down, -cannot be modified as is possible on the frame by moving the beads and -substituting beads of higher value for those of lower value when the -ten beads of one wire, as a mechanical result of the structure of the -frame, are all used. As multiplication is ordinarily written, such -substitutions cannot be made; but the partial products must be written -down in order, placed in column according to their value, and finally -added. This is a much longer piece of work, because the act of writing a -figure is more complicated than that of moving a bead which slides -easily on the metal wire. Again, it is not so clear as the work with the -beads, once the child is accustomed to handling the frame and no longer -has any doubt as to the position of the different values, and when it -has become a sort of routine to substitute one bead of the lower wire -for the ten beads of the upper wire which have been exhausted. -Furthermore, it is much easier to add new products without the -possibility of making a mistake. Let us go back to the point in the -operation where the beads on the frame read thus: - - 2 - 5 - 1 - 9 - 1 - -and it was necessary to add 35 thousands--five beads to the -thousands-wire and three beads to the ten-thousands-wire. The three -beads on the fifth wire can be brought forward without any thought as to -what will happen on the wire above when the five are added to the nine. -Indeed, what takes place there does not make any difference, for it is -not necessary that the operation on the higher wire precede that on the -lower wire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. The disposition of the beads for the number -54,152; after adding 5 thousands to the number 49,152.] - -In adding the five beads to the nine beads only four remain on the -fourth wire, since the other ten are substituted by a bead on the lower -wire; this bead may be brought forward even after the three for the -ten-thousands have been placed. - -By the use of the frame the child acquires remarkable dexterity and -facility in calculating, and this makes his work in multiplication much -more rapid. Often one child, working out an example on paper, has -finished only the first partial multiplication when another child, -working at the frame, has completed the problem and knows the final -product. It is interesting even among adults to watch two compete in the -same problem, one at the frame and the other using the ordinary method -on paper. - -It is very interesting, also, not to work out on the frame the -individual products in the sequence indicated in analyzing the factors, -but to work them out by chance. Indeed, it does not matter whether the -beads are moved in the order of their alignment or at random. The beads -on the ten-thousands-wire may be moved first, then the hundreds, the -units, and finally the thousands. - -These exercises, which give such a deep understanding of the operations -of arithmetic, would be impossible with the abstract operation which is -performed only by means of figures. And it is evident that the exercises -can be amplified to any extent as a pleasing game. - - -MULTIPLYING ON RULED PAPER - -Take, for example, 8640 × 2531. We write the figures of the multiplicand -one under the other but in their relative positions; this also can be -written by filling in the vacant spaces with zeros. - -In this way we repeat the multiplicand as many times as there are -figures in the multiplier; but instead of writing beside these figures -the words units, tens, etc., we indicate this with zeros, which, for the -sake of clearness, we fill in till they resemble large dots. - -The child already knows, from his previous exercises, that zero -indicates the position of a figure and that multiplying by ten changes -this position. Therefore zeros in the multiplier would cause a -corresponding change of position in the figures of the multiplicand. - -The accompanying figure shows clearly what it is not so easy to explain -in words. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -We are now ready for the usual procedure of multiplication. A child of -seven years reaches this stage very easily after having done our -preliminary exercises, and then it does not matter to him how many -figures he has to use. Indeed, he is very fond of working with numbers -of unheard of figures, as is shown in the following example--one of the -usual exercises done by the children, who of themselves choose the -multiplicand and the multiplier; the teacher would never think of giving -such enormous numbers. They can now perform the operation - - 22,364,253 × 345,234,611 - - 22364253 × - 345234611 - ________________ - 22364253 - 22364253 - 134185518 - 89457012 - 67092759 - 44728506 - 111821265 - 89457012 - 67092759 - ________________ - 7720914184760583 - -without analysis of factors and without help from the frames but by the -method commonly used. This may be seen by the way in which the example -is written out and then done by the child. - - -LONG DIVISION - -Not only is it possible to perform long division with our bead material, -but the work is so delightful that it becomes an arithmetical pastime -especially adapted to the child's home activities. Using the beads -clarifies the different steps of the operation, creating almost a -_rational arithmetic_ which supersedes the common empirical methods, -that reduce the mechanism of abstract operations to a simple _routine_. -For this reason, these pastimes prepare the way for the rational -processes of mathematics which the child meets in the higher grades. - -The bead frame will no longer suffice here. We need the square -arithmetic board used for the first partial multiplications and for -short division. However, we require several such boards and an adequate -provision of beads. The work is too complicated to be described clearly, -but in practise it is easy and most interesting. - -It is sufficient here to suggest the method of procedure with the -material. The units, tens, hundreds, etc., are expressed by -different-colored beads: _units_, white; _tens_, green; _hundreds_, red. -Then there are racks of different colors: _white_ for the simple units, -tens, and hundreds; _gray_ for the thousands; _black_ for the millions. -There also are boxes, which on the outside are white, gray, or black, -and on the inside white, green, or red. And for each box there is a -corresponding rack containing ten tubes with ten beads in each. - -Suppose we must divide 87,632 by 64. Five of the boxes are put in a -row, arranged from left to right according to the value of their color, -as follows: two gray boxes--one green inside and the other white--and -three white boxes with the inside respectively red, green, and white. In -the first box to the left we put 8 green beads; in the second box 7 -white beads; in the third, 6 red beads; in the fourth 3 green beads; and -in the fifth box 2 white beads. Back of each box is one of the racks -with ten tubes filled with beads of corresponding colors. These -beads--ten in each tube--are used in exchanging the units of a higher -denomination for those of a lower. - -[Illustration: The child here is solving a problem in long division. (_A -Montessori School, Barcelona, Spain._)] - -There are two arithmetic boards, one next to the other, placed below the -row of boxes. In the one to the left, the little cardboard with the -figure 6 is inserted in the slot we have described, and in the other to -the right the figure 4. - -Now to divide 87,632 by 64, place the first two boxes at the left -(containing 8 and 7 beads respectively) above the two arithmetic boards. -On the first board the eight beads are arranged in rows of six, as in -the more simple division. On the second board the seven beads are -arranged in rows of four, corresponding to the number indicated by the -red figure. The two quotients must be reduced with reference to the -quotient in the first arithmetic board. All the other is considered as a -remainder. The quotient in this case is 1 and the remainders are 2 on -the first board and 3 on the second. - -When this is finished, the boxes are moved up one place and then the -first box is out of the game, its place having been taken by the second -box; so the gray-green box is no longer above the first board but the -gray-white one instead, and above the second board we must place the box -with the red beads. - -[Illustration: The illustration at the top shows the square and the cube -of 4 and of 5. That in the middle shows the arithmetic board being used -for multiplication. In the photograph at the bottom a problem in -division is being worked out on the arithmetic-board: 26 ÷ 4 = 6 and 2 -remainder.] - -Now the beads must be adjusted. The two beads that are left over on the -card marked with the number 6 are green but the box above this card is -the gray-white one. We must therefore change the green beads into white -beads, taking for each one of them a tube of ten white beads. The white -beads which were left over on the other card must be brought to the card -above which the white box is now placed. We have only to arrange the -white beads now in rows of six while the other box of red beads is -emptied on to the second board in rows of four, as in simple division. - -With the material arranged in this way according to color, we proceed to -the reduction, which is done by exchanging one bead of a higher -denomination for ten of a lower. Thus, for example, in the present case -we have twenty-three white beads distributed on the first board in rows -of six, which gives a quotient of three and a remainder of five. On the -second board there are six red beads distributed in rows of four, giving -a quotient of one with a remainder of two. Now the work of reduction -begins. This consists in taking one by one the beads from the board to -the left--in this case the white--and exchanging them for ten red beads, -which in turn are placed in rows of four on the other board until the -quotients on the two cards are alike. What is left over is the -remainder. In this case it is necessary to change only the one white -bead so as to have the other quotient reach three with a remainder of -four. - -The same process is continued until all the boxes are used. - -The final remainder is the one to be written down with the quotient. - -The exercise requires great patience and exactness, but it is most -interesting and might be called an excellent game of solitaire for -children for home use. There is no intellectual fatigue but much -movement and much intense attention. The quotients and remainders may be -written on a prepared sheet of paper, so as to be verified by the -teacher. - -When the child has performed many of these exercises he comes -spontaneously to try to foresee the result of an operation without -having to make the material exchange and arrangement of the beads; hence -to shorten the mechanical process. When at length he can "see" the -situation at a glance, he will be able to do the most difficult division -by the ordinary processes without experiencing any fatigue, or without -having been obliged to endure tiring progressive lessons and humiliating -corrections. Not only will he have learned how to perform long divisions -but he will have become a master of their mechanism. He will realize -each step, in ways that the children of ordinary secondary schools -possibly never will be able to understand, when through the usual -methods of rational mathematics they approach the incomprehensible -operations which they have performed for several years without -considering the reasons for them. - - - - -V - -EXERCISES WITH NUMBERS - - -MULTIPLES, PRIME NUMBERS, FACTORING - -When the child, by the aid of all this material, has had a chance to -grasp the fundamental ideas relating to the four operations and has -passed on to the execution of them in the abstract, he is ready to -continue on the numerical processes which will lead to a more profound -study preparatory to the more complex problems that await him in the -secondary schools. - -These studies are, however, a means of helping him to remember the -things he already knows and to enlarge upon them. They come to him as a -pastime, as an agreeable manner of thinking over either in school or at -home the ideas which he already has gained. - -One of the first exercises is that of continuing the multiplication of -each number by the series of 1 to 10 which was begun by the exercises on -the multiplication tables. This should be done in the abstract: that is, -without recourse to the material. Let us, however, set some limit--we -will stop when each product has reached 100. In order that these series -of exercises may each be in one column the first exercises will stop -with 50 and another can be used for the numbers from 51 to 100. - -The two following tables (A and B) are the result. These are prepared in -this manner in our material so that the child may compare his work with -them. - - -TABLE A - - 2× 1= 2 3× 1= 3 4× 1= 4 5× 1= 5 6× 1= 6 7× 1= 7 8× 1= 8 9× 1= 9 10× 1=10 - 2× 2= 4 3× 2= 6 4× 2= 8 5× 2=10 6× 2=12 7× 2=14 8× 2=16 9× 2=18 10× 2=20 - 2× 3= 6 3× 3= 9 4× 3=12 5× 3=15 6× 3=18 7× 3=21 8× 3=24 9× 3=27 10× 3=30 - 2× 4= 8 3× 4=12 4× 4=16 5× 4=20 6× 4=24 7× 4=28 8× 4=32 9× 4=36 10× 4=40 - 2× 5=10 3× 5=15 4× 5=20 5× 5=25 6× 5=30 7× 5=35 8× 5=40 9× 5=45 10× 5=50 - 2× 6=12 3× 6=18 4× 6=24 5× 6=30 6× 6=36 7× 6=42 8× 6=48 - 2× 7=14 3× 7=21 4× 7=28 5× 7=35 6× 7=42 7× 7=49 - 2× 8=16 3× 8=24 4× 8=32 5× 8=40 6× 8=48 - 2× 9=18 3× 9=27 4× 9=36 5× 9=45 - 2×10=20 3×10=30 4×10=40 5×10=50 - 2×11=22 3×11=33 4×11=44 - 2×12=24 3×12=36 4×12=48 - 2×13=26 3×13=39 - 2×14=28 3×14=42 - 2×15=30 3×15=45 - 2×16=32 3×16=48 - 2×17=34 - 2×18=36 - 2×19=38 - 2×20=40 - 2×21=42 - 2×22=44 - 2×23=46 - 2×24=48 - 2×25=50 - - -TABLE B - - 2×26= 52 3×17=51 4×13= 52 5×11= 55 6× 9=54 7× 8=56 8× 7=56 9× 6=54 10× 6= 60 - 2×27= 54 3×18=54 4×14= 56 5×12= 60 6×10=60 7× 9=63 8× 8=64 9× 7=63 10× 7= 70 - 2×28= 56 3×19=57 4×15= 60 5×13= 65 6×11=66 7×10=70 8× 9=72 9× 8=72 10× 8= 80 - 2×29= 58 3×20=60 4×16= 64 5×14= 70 6×12=72 7×11=77 8×10=80 9× 9=81 10× 9= 90 - 2×30= 60 3×21=63 4×17= 68 5×15= 75 6×13=78 7×12=84 8×11=88 9×10=90 10×10=100 - 2×31= 62 3×22=66 4×18= 72 5×16= 80 6×14=84 7×13=91 8×12=96 9×11=99 - 2×32= 64 3×23=69 4×19= 76 5×17= 85 6×15=90 7×14=98 - 2×33= 66 3×24=72 4×20= 80 5×18= 90 6×16=96 - 2×34= 68 3×25=75 4×21= 84 5×19= 95 - 2×35= 70 3×26=78 4×22= 88 5×20=100 - 2×36= 72 3×27=81 4×23= 92 - 2×37= 74 3×28=84 4×24= 96 - 2×38= 76 3×29=87 4×25=100 - 2×39= 78 3×30=90 - 2×40= 80 3×31=93 - 2×41= 82 3×32=96 - 2×42= 84 3×33=99 - 2×43= 86 - 2×44= 88 - 2×45= 90 - 2×46= 92 - 2×47= 94 - 2×48= 96 - 2×49= 98 - 2×50=100 - - -TABLE C - - _______________________________________________________________ - 1 | || 51 | - 2 | || 52 | - 3 | || 53 | - 4 | || 54 | - 5 | || 55 | - 6 | || 56 | - 7 | || 57 | - 8 | || 58 | - 9 | || 59 | - 10 | || 60 | - 11 | || 61 | - 12 | || 62 | - 13 | || 63 | - 14 | || 64 | - 15 | || 65 | - 16 | || 66 | - 17 | || 67 | - 18 | || 68 | - 19 | || 69 | - 20 | || 70 | - 21 | || 71 | - 22 | || 72 | - 23 | || 73 | - 24 | || 74 | - 25 | || 75 | - 26 | || 76 | - 27 | || 77 | - 28 | || 78 | - 29 | || 79 | - 30 | || 80 | - 31 | || 81 | - 32 | || 82 | - 33 | || 83 | - 34 | || 84 | - 35 | || 85 | - 36 | || 86 | - 37 | || 87 | - 38 | || 88 | - 39 | || 89 | - 40 | || 90 | - 41 | || 91 | - 42 | || 92 | - 43 | || 93 | - 44 | || 94 | - 45 | || 95 | - 46 | || 96 | - 47 | || 97 | - 48 | || 98 | - 49 | || 99 | - 50 | || 100 | - _______________________________________________________________ - - -TABLE D - - 1 || 53 - 2 || 54 = 2×27 = 3×18 = 6×9 = - 3 || 9×6 - 4 = 2×2 || 55 = 5×11 - 5 || 56 = 2×28 = 4×14 = 7×8 = - 6 = 2×3 = 3×2 || 8×7 - 7 || 57 = 3×19 - 8 = 2×4 = 4×2 || 58 = 2×29 - 9 = 3×3 || 59 - 10 = 2×5 = 5×2 || 60 = 2×30 = 3×20 = 4×15 = - 11 || 5×12 = 6×10 = 15×4 - 12 = 2×6 = 3×4 = 4×3 = 6×2 || 61 - 13 || 62 = 2×31 - 14 = 2×7 = 7×2 || 63 = 3×21 = 7×9 = 9×7 - 15 = 3×5 = 5×3 || 64 = 2×32 = 4×16 = 8×8 - 16 = 2×8 = 4×4 = 8×2 || 65 = 5×13 - 17 || 66 = 2×33 = 3×22 = 6×11 - 18 = 2×9 = 3×6 = 6×3 = 9×2 || 67 - 19 || 68 = 2×34 = 4×17 - 20 = 2×10 = 4×5 = 5×4 = || 69 = 3×23 - 10×2 || 70 = 2×35 = 5×14 = 7×10 = - 21 = 7×3 = 3×7 || 10×7 - 22 = 2×11 || 71 - 23 || 72 = 2×36 = 3×24 = 4×18 = - 24 = 2×12 = 3×8 = 4×6 = || 6×12 = 8×9 = 9×8 - 6×4 = 8×3 || 73 - 25 = 5×5 || 74 = 2×37 - 26 = 2×13 || 75 = 3×25 = 5×15 - 27 = 3×9 = 9×3 || 76 = 2×38 = 4×19 - 28 = 2×14 = 4×7 = 7×4 || 77 = 7×11 - 29 || 78 = 2×39 = 3×26 = 6×13 - 30 = 2×15 = 3×10 = 5×6 = || 79 - 6×5 = 10×3 || 80 = 2×40 = 4×20 = 5×16 - 31 || 8×10 = 10×8 - 32 = 2×16 = 4×8 = 8×4 || 81 = 3×27 = 9×9 - 33 = 3×11 || 82 = 2×41 - 34 = 2×17 || 83 - 35 = 5×7 = 7×5 || 84 = 2×42 = 3×28 = 4×21 = - 36 = 2×18 = 3×12 = 4×9 = || 6×14 = 7×12 - 6×6 = 9×4 || 85 = 5×17 - 37 || 86 = 2×43 - 38 = 2×19 || 87 = 3×29 - 39 = 3×13 || 88 = 2×44 = 4×22 = 8×11 - 40 = 2×20 = 4×10 = 5×8 = || 89 - 8×5 = 10×4 || 90 = 2×45 = 3×30 = 5×18 = - 41 || 6×15 = 9×10 = 10×9 - 42 = 2×21 = 3×14 = 6×7 = || 91 = 7×13 - 7×6 || 92 = 2×46 = 4×23 - 43 || 93 = 3×31 - 44 = 2×22 = 4×11 || 94 = 2×47 - 45 = 3×15 = 5×9 = 9×5 || 95 = 5×19 - 46 = 2×23 || 96 = 2×48 = 3×32 = 4×24 = - 47 || 6×16 = 8×12 - 48 = 2×24 = 3×16 = 4×12 = || 97 - 6×8 = 8×6 || 98 = 2×49 = 7×14 - 49 = 7×7 || 99 = 3×33 = 9×11 - 50 = 2×25 = 5×10 = 10×5 || 100 = 2×50 = 4×25 = 5×20 = - 51 = 3×17 || 10×10 - 52 = 2×26 = 4×13 || - -To read over a column of the results of each number is to learn them by -heart, and it impresses upon the child's memory the series of multiples -of each number from 1 to 100. - -With these tables a child can perform many interesting exercises. He has -sheets of long narrow paper. On the left are written the series of -numbers from 1 to 50 and from 51 to 100. He compares the numbers on -these sheets with the same numbers in the tables, series by series, and -writes down the different factors which he thus finds; for example, 6 = -2 × 3; 8 = 2 × 4; 10 = 2 × 5. Then finding the same number in the second -column and the other columns his result will read, 6 = 2 × 3 = 3 × 2; 18 -= 2 × 9 = 3 × 6 = 6 × 3 = 9 × 2. - -In this comparison the child will find that some numbers cannot be -resolved into factors and their line is blank. By this means he gets his -first intuition of prime numbers (Tables C and D). - -When the child has filled in this work from 1 to 50 and from 51 to 100 -and has reduced the numbers to factors and prime numbers he may pass on -to some exercises with the beads. - -The children now meditate, using the material, on the results that they -have obtained by comparing these tables. Let us consider, for example, 6 -= 2 × 3 = 3 × 2. The child takes six beads, and first makes two groups -of three beads and then three groups of two. - - ° ° °°° - ° ° ° ° °°° - -And so on for each number he chooses. For example: - - 18 = 2 × 9 = °°°°°°°°° - °°°°°°°°° - - = 9 × 2 = ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° - ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° - -[Illustration] - - = 6 × 3 = ° ° ° ° ° ° - ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° - - = 3 × 6 = °°° °°° °°° - °°° °°° °°° - -The child will try in every way to make other combinations and he will -try also to divide the prime numbers into factors. - -This intelligent and pleasing game makes clear to the child the -"divisibility" of numbers. The work that he does in getting these -factors by multiplication is really a way of dividing the numbers. For -example, he has divided 18 into 2 equal groups, 9 equal groups, 6 equal -groups, and 3 equal groups. Previously he has divided 6 into 2 equal -groups and then into 3 equal groups. Therefore when it is a question of -multiplying the two factors there is no difference in the result whether -he multiplies 2 by 3 or 3 by 2; for the inverted order of the factors -does not change the product. But in division the object is to arrange -the number in equal parts and any modification in this equal -distribution of objects changes the character of the grouping. Each -separate combination is a different way of dividing the number. - -The idea of division is made very clear to the child's mind: 6 ÷ 3 = 2, -means that the 6 can be divided into three groups, each of which has two -units or objects; and 6 ÷ 2 = 3, means that the 6 also can be divided -into but two equal groups, each group made up of three units or objects. - -The relations between multiplication and division are very evident since -we started with 6 = 3 × 2; 6 = 2 × 3. This brings out the fact that -multiplication may be used to prove division; and it prepares the child -to understand the practical steps taken in division. Then some day when -he has to do an example in long division, he will find no difficulty -with the mental calculation required to determine whether the dividend, -or a part of it, is divisible by the divisor. This is not the usual -preparation for division, though memorizing the multiplication table is -indeed used as a preparation for multiplication. - -From the above exercises (Table D) others might be derived involving -further analysis of the same numbers. For example, one of the possible -factor groups for the number 40 is 2 × 20. But 20 = 2 × 10; and 10 = 2 × -5. Bringing together the smaller figures into which the larger numbers -have been broken, we get 40 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5; in other words 40 = 2^{3} × -5. - -This is the result for 60: - - 60 = 2 × 30 = 2 × 2 × 15 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 2^{2} × 3 × 5 - -For these two numbers we get accordingly the prime factors: 2^{3} × 5; -and 2^{2} × 3 × 5. What then have the two larger numbers, 40 and 60 in -common? The 2^{2} is included in the 2^{3}; the series therefore may be -written: 2^{2} × 2 × 5; and 2^{2} × 3 × 5. The common element (the -greatest common divisor) is 2^{2} × 5 = 20. The proof consists in -dividing 60 and 40 by 20, something which will not be possible for any -number higher than 20. - -We have test sheets where the numbers from 1 to 100 are arranged in rows -of 10, forming a square. Here the child's exercise consists in -underlining, in different squares, the multiples of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, -9, 10. The numbers so underlined stand out like a design in such a way -that the child easily can study and compare the tables. For instance, in -the square where he underlines the multiples of 2 all the even numbers -in the vertical columns are marked; in the multiple of 4 we have the -same linear grouping--a vertical line--but the numbers marked are -alternate numbers; in 6 the same vertical grouping continues, but one -number is marked and two are skipped; and again in the multiples of 8 -the same design is repeated with the difference that every fourth number -is underlined. On the square marked off for the multiples of 3 the -numbers marked form oblique lines running from right to left and all the -numbers in these oblique lines are underlined. In the multiples of 6 the -design is the same but only the alternating numbers are underlined. The -6 therefore, partakes of the type of the 2 and of the 3; and both of -these are indeed its factors. - - -TABLE E - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - | - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - | - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - | - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - | - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 | 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - | - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 | 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - | - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 | 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - | - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 | 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - | - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 | 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - | - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 | 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ________________________________|________________________________ - | - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - | - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - | - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - | - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - | - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 | 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - | - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 | 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - | - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 | 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - | - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 | 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - | - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 | 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - | - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 | 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ________________________________|________________________________ - | - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - | - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - | - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - | - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - | - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 | 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - | - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 | 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - | - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 | 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - | - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 | 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - | - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 | 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - | - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 | 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ________________________________|________________________________ - | - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - | - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - | - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - | - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - | - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 | 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - | - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 | 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - | - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 | 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - | - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 | 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - | - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 | 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - | - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 | 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ________________________________|________________________________ - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - - - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - - - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - - - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - - - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - - - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - - - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - - - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - - - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - - - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ______________________________ - - - - - -VI - -SQUARE AND CUBE OF NUMBERS - - -Let us take two of the two-bead bars (green) which were used in counting -in the first bead exercises. Here, however, these form part of another -series of beads. Along with these two bars there is a small chain: °°-°° -By joining two like bars, the chains represent 2 × 2. There is another -combination of these same objects--the two bars are joined together not -in a chain but in the form of a square: - - ° ° - ° ° - -They represent the same thing: that is to say, as numbers they are 2 × -2; but they differ in position--one has the form of a line, the other of -a square. It can be seen from this that if as many bars as there are -beads on a bar are placed side by side they form a square. - -In the series in fact we offer squares of 3 × 3 pink beads; 4 × 4 yellow -beads; 5 × 5 pale blue beads; 6 × 6 gray beads; 7 × 7 white beads; 8 × 8 -lavender beads; 9 × 9 dark blue beads; and 10 × 10 orange beads; thus -reproducing the same colors as were used at the beginning in counting. - -For every number there are as many bars as there are beads for the -number, 3 bars for the 3, 4 for the 4, etc.; in addition there is a -chain consisting of an equal number of bars, 3 × 3; 4 × 4; and, as we -have seen, there is a square containing another equal quantity. - -The child not only can count the beads of the chains and squares, but -he can reproduce them by placing the corresponding single bars either in -a horizontal line or laying them side by side in the shape of a square. -The number repeated as many times as the unit it contains is really the -multiplication of the number by itself. - -For example, taking the small square of four the child can count four -beads on each side; multiplying 4 by 4 we have the number of beads in -the square, 16. Multiplying one side by itself (squaring one side) we -have the area of the little square. - -This can be continued for 5, 8, 9, etc. The square of 10 has ten beads -on each side. Multiplying 10 by 10, in other words, "squaring" one side -we get the entire number of beads forming the area of the square: 100. - -However, it is not the form alone which gives these results; for if the -ten bars which formed the square are placed end to end in a horizontal -line, we get the "hundred chain." This can be done with each square; the -chain 5 × 5, like the square 5 × 5, contains the same number of beads, -25. We teach the child to write the numbers with symbol for the square: -5^{2} = 25; 7^{2} = 49; 10^{2} = 100, etc. - -Our material here is manufactured with reference to the numbers 2, 3, 4, -5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. It is "offered" to the child, beginning with the -smaller numbers. Given the material and freedom, the idea will come of -itself and the child will "work" it into his consciousness on them. - -In this same period we take up also the cubes of the numbers, and there -is a similar material for this: that is, the chain of the cube of the -number is made up of chains of the square of that number joined by -several links which permit of its being folded. There are as many -squares for a number as there are units in that number--four squares -for number 4, six squares for 6, ten squares for 10--and a cube of the -beads is formed by placing the necessary number of squares one on top of -the other. - -[Illustration] - -Let us consider the cube of four. There is a chain formed by four chains -each representing the square of four. They are joined by small links so -that the chain can be rolled up lengthwise. The chain of the cube, when -thus rolled, gives four squares similar to the separate squares which, -when drawn out again, for a straight line. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--This shows only part of the entire chain for -4^{3}.] - -The quantity is always the same: four times the square of four. 4 × 4 × -4 = 4^{2} × 4 = 4^{3}. - -The cube of four comes with the material; but it can be reproduced by -placing four loose squares one on top of the other. Looking at this cube -we see that it has all its edges of four. Multiplying the area of a -square by the number of units contained in the side gives the volume of -the cube: 4^{2} × 4. - -In this way the child receives his first intuitions of the processes -necessary for finding a surface and volume. - -With this material we should not try to teach a great deal but should -leave the child free to ponder over his own observations--observing, -experimenting, and meditating upon the easily handled and attractive -material. - - *** - -Little by little we shall see the slates and copybooks filled with -exercises of numbers raised to the square or cube independently of the -rich series of objects which the material itself offers the child. In -his exercises with the square and cube of the numbers he easily will -discover that to multiply by ten it suffices to change the position of -the figures--that is to say, to add a zero. Multiplying unity by ten -gives 10; ten multiplied by ten is equal to 100; one hundred multiplied -by ten is equal to 1,000, etc. - -Before arriving at this point the child will often either have -discovered this fact for himself or have learned it by observing his -companions. - -Some of the fundamental ideas acquired only through laborious lessons by -our common school methods are here learned intuitively, naturally, and -spontaneously. An interesting study which completes that already made -with the "hundred chain" and the "thousand chain" is the comparison of -the respective square chain and cube chain. Such differing relations -showing the increasing length are most illustrative and make a marked -impression upon the child. Furthermore, they prepare for knowledge that -is to be used later. Some day when the child hears of "geometric -progressions" or "linear squares" he will understand immediately and -clearly. - -It is interesting to build a small tower with the bead cubes. Though it -will resemble the pink tower, this tower, which seems to be built of -jewels, gives a profound notion of the relations of quantity. By this -time these cubes are no longer recognized superficially through -sensorial impressions, but their minutest details are known to the child -through the progressively intelligent work which they have occasioned. - - - - -PART IV - -GEOMETRY - - - - -I - -PLANE GEOMETRY - - -The geometric insets used for sensorial exercises in the "Children's -House" made it possible for the child to become familiar with many -figures of plane geometry: the square, rectangle, triangle, polygon, -circle, ellipse, etc. By means of the third series of corresponding -cards, where the figures are merely outlined, he formed the habit of -recognizing a geometric figure represented merely by a line. -Furthermore, he has used a series of iron insets reproducing some of the -geometric figures which he previously had learned through the use of -wooden geometric insets. He used these iron insets to draw the outline -of a figure, which he then filled in with parallel lines by means of -colored pencils (an exercise in handling the instruments of writing). - -The geometric material here presented to the elementary classes -supplements that used in the "Children's House." It is similar to the -iron insets; but in this material each frame is fastened to an iron -foundation of exactly the same size as the frame. Since each piece is -complete in itself, no rack is needed to hold them. - -The frame of the inset is green, the foundation is white, and the inset -itself--the movable portion--is red. When the inset is in the frame, the -red surface and the green frame are in the same plane. - -This material further differs from the other in that each inset is -composed not of a single piece, as in the first material, but of many -pieces which, when put together on the white foundation, exactly -reproduce the geometric figure there designated. - -The use to which these modified insets may be put is most varied. The -main purpose is to facilitate the child's auto-education through -exercises in geometry and often through the solution of real problems. -The fact of being able actually to "handle geometric figures," to -arrange them in different ways, and to judge of the relations between -them, commands the child's absorbed attention. The putting together of -the insets, which deal with equivalent figures, reminds one of the -"games of patience"--picture puzzles--which have been invented for -children but which, while amusing them, have no definite educational -aim. Here, however, the child leaves the exercises with "clear concepts" -and not merely with general "notions" of the principles of geometry, a -thing which is very hard to accomplish by the methods common to the -older schools. The difference between like figures, similar figures, and -equivalent figures, the possibility of reducing every regular plane -figure to an equivalent rectangle, and finally the solution of the -theorem of Pythagoras--all these are acquired eagerly and spontaneously -by the child. The same may be said about work in fractions, which is -made most interesting by the exercises with the circular insets. The -real meaning of the word _fraction_, operations in fractions, the -reduction of common fractions to decimal fractions--all of this is -mastered and becomes perfectly clear in the child's mind. - -These are formative conquests and at the same time a dynamic part of the -child's intellectual activity. A child who works spontaneously and for a -long period of time with this material not only strengthens his -reasoning powers and his character but acquires higher and clearer -cognitions, which increase his mental capacity. In his succeeding -spontaneous flights into the abstract he will show ability for -surprising progress. While a high school child is still wasting his -mental effort in trying to understand the relation between geometrical -figures, which it seems impossible for him to comprehend, our child in -the primary grades is "finding it out for himself" and is so elated by -his discovery that he immediately begins the search for other -geometrical relations. Our children gallop freely along over a smooth -road, urged on by the inner energy of their growing psychic organism, -while many other children plod on barefooted and in shackles over stony -paths. - -Every positive conquest gained through objects with our method of -freedom--allowing the child to exercise himself at the time when he is -most ready for the exercise and permitting him to complete this -exercise--results in spontaneous abstractions. How is it possible to -lead a child to perform abstractions if his mind is not sufficiently -mature and he is without adequate information? These two points of -support are, as it were, the feet of the psychic man who is traveling -toward his highest mental activities. We shall always see the repetition -of this phenomenon. Every ulterior exercise of inner development, every -ulterior cognition, will lead the child to new and ever higher flights -into the realm of the abstract. It is well, however, to emphasize this -principle: that the mind, in order to fly, must leave from some point of -contact, just as the aeroplane starts from its hangar, and that it must -have reached a certain degree of maturity, as is the case with the small -bird when it tries its wings and starts on its first flight from the -nest where it was born and gained his strength. An aeroplane of -perpetual flight without a means of replenishing its supplies, and a -bird with only an "instinct of flight" without the process of -development that takes place from the egg to the first flight, are -things that do not exist. - -A machine flying perpetually without need of replenishing the fuel for -its propelling energy, and an instinct without a corresponding organism, -are pure fancies. The same is true of the flight of man's imagination, -which soars through space and creates. Though this is the mind's "manner -of being," its "highest instinct," yet it also needs to find support in -reality, to organize its inner forces from time to time. The longer a -material can claim and hold a child's attention, the greater promise it -gives that an "abstract process," an "imaginative creation" will follow -as the result of a developed potentiality. This creative imagination, -which is ever returning to reality to gain inspiration and to acquire -new energies, will not be a vain, exhaustible, and fickle thing, like -the so-called imagination which our ordinary schools are trying to -develop. - -Without positive replenishment in reality there never will be a -spontaneous flight of the mind; this is the unsurmountable difficulty of -the common schools in their attempt to "develop the imagination" and to -"lead to education." The child who without any impelling force from -within is artificially "borne aloft" by the teacher, who forces him into -the "abstract," can at most learn only how to descend slowly like a -parachute. He can never learn to "lift himself energetically to dizzy -heights." This is the difference; hence the necessity for considering -the positive basis which holds the mind of the child to systematic -auto-exercises of preparation. After this it suffices merely to grant -freedom to the child's genius in order that it may take its own flight. - -I need not repeat that even in the period of replenishing, freedom is -the guide in finding the "particular moment" and the "necessary time"; -for I already have spoken insistently and at length concerning this. It -is well, however, to reaffirm here even more clearly that a material for -development predetermined by experimental research and put into relation -with the child (through lessons) accomplishes so complete a work by the -psychic reactions which it is capable of stimulating that marvelous -phenomena of intellectual development may be obtained. These geometric -insets furnish rich materials for the application of this principle and -respond wonderfully to the "instinct for work" in the child mind. - -The exercises with this material not only are exercises of composition -with the pieces of an inset or of the substitution of them into their -relative metal plates; they are also exercises in drawing which, because -of the labor they require, allow the child to take cognizance of every -detail and to meditate upon it. - -The designing done with these geometric insets, as will be explained, is -of two kinds: geometric and artistic (mechanical and decorative). And -the union of the two kinds of drawings gives new ways of applying the -material. - -The geometric design consists in reproducing the figure outlined by the -corresponding insets. In this way the child learns to use the different -instruments of drawing--the square, the ruler, the compass, and the -protractor. In these exercises he acquires, with the aid of the special -portfolio which comes with the material, actual and real cognitions in -geometry. - -Artistic designs are made by combining the small pieces of the various -geometric insets. The resulting figures are then outlined and filled in -with colored pencils or watercolors. Such combinations on the part of -the child are real esthetic creations. The insets are of such reciprocal -proportions that their combination results in an artistic harmony which -facilitates the development of the child's esthetic sense. With our -insets we were able to reproduce some of the classic decorations found -in our masterpieces of art, such as decorations by Giotto. - -A combination of geometric design and artistic design is formed by -decorating the different parts of the geometric figure--as the center, -the sides, the angles, the circumference, etc.; or by elaborating with -free-hand details the decorations which have resulted from the -combination of the insets. But a far better concept of all this will be -gained as we pass on to explain our didactic material. - - - - -II - -THE DIDACTIC MATERIAL USED FOR GEOMETRY - - -EQUIVALENT, IDENTICAL AND SIMILAR FIGURES - -FIRST SERIES OF INSETS: _Squares and Divided Figures._ This is a series -of nine square insets, ten by ten centimeters, each of which has a white -foundation of the same size as the inset. - -One inset consists of an entire square; the others are made up in the -following manner: - - A square divided into two equal rectangles - " " " " four equal squares - " " " " eight equal rectangles - " " " " sixteen equal squares - " " " " two equal triangles - " " " " four equal triangles - " " " " eight equal triangles - " " " " sixteen equal triangles - -The child can take the square divided into two rectangles and the one -divided into two triangles and interchange them: that is, he can build -the first square with triangles and the second with rectangles. The two -triangles can be superimposed by placing them in contact at the under -side where there is no knob, and the same can be done with the -rectangles, thus showing their equivalence by placing one on the other. -But there also is a certain relation between the triangles and the -rectangles; indeed, they are each half of the same square; yet they -differ greatly in form. Inductively the child gains an idea of -equivalent figures. The two triangles are identical; the two rectangles -also are identical; whereas the triangle and the rectangle are -equivalents. The child soon makes comparisons by placing the triangle on -the rectangle, and he notices at once that the small triangle which is -left over on the rectangle equals the small triangle which remains -uncovered on the larger triangle, and therefore that the triangle and -the rectangle, though they do not have the same form, have the same -area. - -[Illustration] - -This exercise in observation is repeated in a like manner with all the -other insets, which are divided successively into four, eight, and -sixteen parts. The small square which is a fourth of the original -square, resulting from the division of this latter by two medial lines, -is equivalent to the triangle which was formed by dividing this same -original square into four triangles by two diagonal lines. And so on. - -By comparing the different figures the child learns the difference -between _equivalent_ figures and _identical_ figures. The two rectangles -are the result of dividing the large square by a medial line and are -identical; the two triangles are formed by dividing the original square -by a diagonal line, etc. _Similar_ figures, on the other hand, are those -which have the same form but differ in dimension. For example, the -rectangle which is half of the original square and the one which is half -of the smaller square--that is, an eighth of the original square--are -neither identical nor equivalent but they are _similar_ figures. The -same may be said of the large square and of the smaller ones which -represent a fourth, a sixteenth, etc. - -Through these divisions of the square an idea of fractions is gained -intuitively. However, this is not the material used for the study of -fractions. For this purpose there is another series of insets. - -SECOND SERIES OF INSETS: _Fractions._ There are ten metal plates, each -of which has a circular opening ten centimeters in diameter. One inset -is a complete circle; the other circular insets are divided respectively -into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 equal parts. - -[Illustration] - -The children learn to measure the angles of each piece, and so to count -the degrees. For this work there is a circular piece of white -card-board, on which is drawn in black a semicircle with a radius of the -same length as that of the circular insets. This semicircle is divided -into 18 sectors by radii which extend beyond the circumference on to the -background; and these radii are numbered by tens from 0° to 180°. Each -sector is then subdivided into ten parts or degrees. - -[Illustration] - -The diameter from 0° to 180° is outlined heavily and extends beyond the -circumference, in order to facilitate the adjustment of the angle to be -measured and to give a strict exactness of position. This is done also -with the radius which marks 90°. The child places a piece of an inset in -such a way that the vertex of the angle touches the middle of the -diameter and one of its sides rests on the radius marked 0°. At the -other end of the arc of the inset he can read the degrees of the angle. -After these exercises, the children are able to measure any angle with a -common protractor. Furthermore, they learn that a circle measures 360°, -half a circle 180°, and a right angle 90°. Once having learned that a -circumference measures 360° they can find the number of degrees in any -angle; for example, in the angle of an inset representing the seventh of -the circle, they know that 360° ÷ 7 = (approximately) 51°. This they can -easily verify with their instruments by placing the sector on the -graduated circle. - -These calculations and measurements are repeated with all the different -sectors of this series of insets where the circle is divided into from -two to ten parts. The protractor shows approximately that: - - 1/3 circle = 120° and 360° ÷ 3 = 120° - - 1/4 " = 90° " 360° ÷ 4 = 90° - - 1/5 " = 72° " 360° ÷ 5 = 72° - - 1/6 " = 60° " 360° ÷ 6 = 60° - - 1/7 " = 51° " 360° ÷ 7 = 51° - - 1/8 " = 45° " 360° ÷ 8 = 45° - - 1/9 " = 40° " 360° ÷ 9 = 40° - - 1/10 " = 36° " 360° ÷ 10 = 36° - -In this way the child learns to write fractions: - - 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 - -He has concrete impressions of them as well as an intuition of their -arithmetical relationships. - -The material lends itself to an infinite number of combinations, all of -which are real arithmetical exercises in fractions. For example, the -child can take from the circle the two half circles and replace them by -four sectors of 90°, filling the same circular opening with entirely -different pieces. From this he can draw the following conclusion: - -1/2 + 1/2 = 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4. - -He also may say that two halves are equal to four fourths, and write -accordingly: - -2/2 = 4/4. - -[Illustration] - -This is merely the expression of the same thing. Seeing the pieces, he -has done an example mentally and then has written it out. Let us write -it according to the first form, which is, in reality, an analysis of -this example: - -1/2 + 1/2 = 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4. - -When the denominator is the same, the sum of the fractions is found by -adding the numerators: - -1/2 + 1/2 = 2/2; 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 = 4/4. - -The two halves make an entire circle, as do the four fourths. - -Now let us fill a circle with different pieces: for example, with a half -circle and two quarter circles. The result is 1 = 1/2 + 2/4. And in the -inset itself it is shown that 1/2 = 2/4. If we should wish to fill the -circle with the largest piece (1/2) combined with the fewest number of -pieces possible, it would be necessary to withdraw the two quarter -sectors and replace them by another half circle; result: - -1 = 1/2 + 1/2 = 2/2 = 1. - -Let us fill a circle with three 1/5 sectors and four 1/10 sectors: - -1 = 3/5 + 4/10. - -If the larger pieces are left in and the circle is then filled with the -fewest number of pieces possible, it would necessitate replacing the -four tenths by two fifths. Result: - -1 = 3/5 + 2/5 = 5/5 = 1. - -Let us fill the circle thus: 5/10 + 1/4 + 2/8 = 1. - -Now try to put in the largest pieces possible by substituting for -several small pieces a large piece which is equal to them. In the space -occupied by the five tenths may be placed one half, and in that occupied -by the two eighths, one fourth; then the circle is filled thus: - -1 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2 + 2/4. - -We can continue to do the same thing, that is to replace the smaller -pieces by as large a sector as possible, and the two fourths can be -replaced by another half circle. Result: - -1 = 1/2 + 1/2 = 2/2 = 1. - -All these substitutions may be expressed in figures thus: - -5/10 + 1/4 + 2/8 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/4 = - -1/2 + 2/4 = 1/2 + 1/2 = 2/2 = 1. - -This is one means of initiating a child intuitively into the operations -used for the reduction of fractions to their lowest terms. - -Improper fractions also interest them very much. They come to these by -adding a number of sectors which fill two, three, or four circles. To -find the whole numbers which exist under the guise of fractions is a -little like putting away in their proper places the circular insets -which have been all mixed up. The children manifest a desire to learn -the real operations of fractions. With improper fractions they originate -most unusual sums, like the following: - - [8 + (7/7 + 18/9 + 24/2) + 1] = - ------------------------------ - 8 - - [8 + (1 + 2 + 12) + 1] - ---------------------- = - 8 - - 8 + 15 + 1 - ---------- = 24/8 = 3. - 8 - -We have a series of commands which may be used as a guide for the -child's work. Here are some examples: - - --Take 1/5 of 25 beads - - --Take 1/4 " 36 counters - - --Take 1/6 " 24 beans - - --Take 1/3 " 27 beans - - --Take 1/10 " 40 beans - - --Take 2/5 " 60 counters - -In this last there are two operations: - -60 ÷ 5 = 12; 12 X 2 = 24; or 2 X 60 = 120; 120 ÷ 5 = 24, etc. - -REDUCTION OF COMMON FRACTIONS TO DECIMAL FRACTIONS: The material for -this purpose is similar to that of the circular insets, except that the -frame is white and is marked into ten equal parts, and each part is then -subdivided into ten. In these subdivisions the little line which marks -the five is distinguished from the others by its greater length. Each of -the larger divisions is marked respectively with the numbers, 10, 20, -30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 0. The 0 is at the top and there is a -raised radius against which are placed the sectors to be measured. - -[Illustration] - -To reduce a common fraction to a decimal fraction the sector is placed -carefully against the raised radius, with the arc touching the -circumference of the inset. Where the arc ends there is a number which -represents _the hundredths_ corresponding to the sector. For example, if -the 1/4 sector is used its arc ends at 25; hence 1/4 equals 0.25. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Page 275 shows in detail the practical method of using our material to -reduce common fractions to decimal fractions. In the upper figure the -segments correspond to 1/3, 1/4, and 1/8 of a circle are placed within -the circle divided into hundredths. Result: - - 1/3 + 1/4 + 1/8 = 0.70. - -The lower figure shows how the 1/3 sector is placed: 1/3 = 0.33. - -If instead we use the 1/5 sector we have: 1/5 = 0.20, etc. - -Numerous sectors may be placed within the circle; for example: - - 1/4 + 1/7 + 1/9 + 1/10. - -In order to find the sum of the fraction reduced to decimals, it is -necessary to read only the number at the outer edge of the last sector. - -[Illustration] - -Using this as a basis, it is very easy to develop an arithmetical idea. -Instead of 1, which represents the whole circle, let us write 100, which -represents its subdivisions when used for decimals, and let us divide -the 100 into as many parts of a circle as there are sectors in the -circle, and the reduction is made. All the parts which result are so -many hundredths. Hence: - - 1/4 = 100 ÷ 4 = 25 hundredths: that is, 25/100 or 0.25. - -The division is performed by dividing the numerator by the demoninator: - - 1 ÷ 4 = 0.25. - -THIRD SERIES OF INSETS: _Equivalent Figures._ Two concepts were given by -the squares divided into rectangles and triangles: that of fractions and -that of equivalent figures. - -There is a special material for the concept of fractions which, besides -developing the intuitive notion of fractions, has permitted the solution -of examples in fractions and of reducing fractions to decimals; and it -has furthermore brought cognizance of other things, such as the -measuring of angles in terms of degrees. - -For the concept of equivalent figures there is still another material. -This will lead to finding the area of different geometric forms and also -to an intuition of some theorems which heretofore have been foreign to -elementary schools, being considered beyond the understanding of a -child. - - -MATERIAL: Showing that a triangle is equal to a rectangle which has one -side equal to the base of the triangle, the other side equal to half of -the altitude of the triangle. - -In a large rectangular metal frame there are two white openings: the -triangle and the equivalent rectangle. The pieces which compose the -rectangle are such that they may fit into the openings of either the -rectangle or the triangle. This demonstrates that the rectangle and the -triangle are equivalent. The triangular space is filled by two pieces -formed by a horizontal line drawn through the triangle parallel to the -base and crossing at half the altitude. Taking the two pieces out and -putting them one on top of the other the identity of the height may be -verified. - -[Illustration] - -Already the work with the beads and the squaring of numbers has led to -finding the area of a square by multiplying one side by the other; and -in like manner the area of a rectangle is found by multiplying the base -by half other. Since a triangle may be reduced to a rectangle, it is -easy to find its area by multiplying the base by half the height. - -MATERIAL: Showing that a rhombus is equal to a rectangle which has one -side equal to one side of the rhombus and the other equal to the height -of the rhombus. - -The frame contains a rhombus divided by a diagonal line into two -triangles and a rectangle filled with pieces which can be put into the -rhombus when the triangles have been removed, and will fill it -completely. In the material there are also an entire rhombus and an -entire rectangle. If they are placed one on top of the other they will -be found to have the same height. As the equivalence of the two figures -is demonstrated by these pieces of the rectangle which may be used to -fill in the two figures, it is easily seen that the area of a rhombus is -found by multiplying the side or base by the height. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - * * * * * - -MATERIAL: To show the equivalence of a trapezoid and a rectangle having -one side equal to the sum of the two bases and the other equal to half -the height. - -The child himself can make the other comparison: that is, a trapezoid -equals a rectangle having one side equal to the height and the other -equal to one-half the sum of the bases. For the latter it is only -necessary to cut the long rectangle in half and superimpose the two -halves. - -The large rectangular frame contains three openings: two equal -trapezoids and the equivalent rectangle having one side equal to the sum -of the two bases and the other side equal to half the height. One -trapezoid is made of two pieces, being cut in half horizontally at the -height of half its altitude; the identity in height may be proved by -placing one piece on top of the other. The second trapezoid is composed -of pieces which can be placed in the rectangle, filling it completely. -Thus the equivalence is proved and also the fact that the area of a -trapezoid is found by multiplying the sum of the bases by half the -height, or half the sum of the bases by the height. - -[Illustration] - -With a ruler the children themselves actually calculate the area of the -geometrical figures, and later calculate the area of their little -tables, etc. - -MATERIAL: To show the equivalence between a regular polygon and a -rectangle having one side equal to the perimeter and the other equal to -half of the hypotenuse. - -[Illustration: The analysis of the decagon.] - -In the material there are two decagon insets, one consisting of a -whole decagon and the other of a decagon divided into ten triangles. - -Page 281 shows a table taken from our geometry portfolio, representing -the equivalence of a decagon to a rectangle having one side equal to the -perimeter and the other equal to half the hypotenuse. - -[Illustration: The bead number cubes built into a tower.] - -The photograph shows the pieces of the insets--the decagon and the -equivalent rectangle--and beneath each one there are the small equal -triangles into which it can be subdivided. Here it is demonstrated that -a rectangle equivalent to a decagon may have one side equal to the whole -hypotenuse and the other equal to half of the perimeter. - -Another inset shows the equivalence of the decagon and a rectangle which -has one side equal to the perimeter of the decagon and the other equal -to half of the altitude of each triangle composing the decagon. Small -triangles divided horizontally in half can be fitted into this figure, -with one of the upper triangles divided in half lengthwise. - -Thus we demonstrate that the surface of a regular polygon may be found -by multiplying the perimeter by half the hypotenuse. - - -SOME THEOREMS BASED ON EQUIVALENT FIGURES - -_A._ All triangles having the same base and altitude are equal. - -This is easily understood from the fact that the area of a triangle is -found by multiplying the base by half the altitude; therefore triangles -having the same base and the same altitude must be equal. - -For the inductive demonstration of this theorem we have the following -material: The rhombus and the equivalent rectangle are each divided -into two triangles. The triangles of the rhombus are different, for they -are divided by opposite diagonal lines. The three different triangles -resulting from these divisions have the same base (this can be actually -verified by measuring the bases of the different pieces) and fit into -the same long rectangle which is found below the first three figures. -Therefore, it is demonstrated that the three triangles have the same -altitude. They are equivalent because each one is the half of an -equivalent figure. - -[Illustration: The decagon and the rectangle can be composed of the same -triangular insets.] - -[Illustration: The triangular insets fitted into their metal plates.] - -[Illustration] - -_B._ THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS: In a right-angled triangle the square of -the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides. - -MATERIAL: The material illustrates three different cases: - - First case: In which the two sides of the triangle are - equal. - - Second case: In which the two sides are in the - proportion of 3:4. - - Third case: General. - -_First case:_ The demonstration of this first case affords an impressive -induction. - -In the frame for this, shown below, the squares of the two sides are -divided in half by a diagonal line so as to form two triangles and the -square of the hypotenuse is divided by two diagonal lines into four -triangles. The eight resulting triangles are all identical; hence the -triangles of the squares of the two sides will fill the square of the -hypotenuse; and, vice versa, the four triangles of the square of the -hypotenuse may be used to fill the two squares of the sides. The -substitution of these different pieces is very interesting, and all the -more because the triangles of the squares of the sides are all of the -same color, whereas the triangles formed in the square of the hypotenuse -are of a different color. - -[Illustration] - -_Second case:_ Where the sides are as the proportion of 3:4. - -In this figure the three squares are filled with small squares of three -different colors, arranged as follows: in the square on the shorter -side, 3^{2} = 9; in that on the larger side, 4^{2} = 16; in that on the -hypotenuse, 5^{2} = 25. - -[Illustration: Second Case] - -The substitution game suggests itself. The two squares formed on the -sides can be entirely filled by the small squares composing the square -on the hypotenuse, so that they are both of the same color; while the -square formed on the hypotenuse can be filled with varied designs by -various combinations of the small squares of the sides which are in two -different colors. - -_Third case:_ This is the general case. - -The large frame is somewhat complicated and difficult to describe. It -develops a considerable intellectual exercise. The entire frame measures -44 × 24 cm. and may be likened to a chess-board, where the movable -pieces are susceptible of various combinations. The principles already -proved or inductively suggested which lead to the demonstration of the -theorem are: - -(1) That two quadrilaterals having an equal base and equal altitude are -equivalent. - -(2) That two figures equivalent to a third figure are equivalent to each -other. - -In this figure the square formed on the hypotenuse is divided into two -rectangles. The additional side is determined by the division made in -the hypotenuse by dropping a perpendicular line from the apex of the -triangle to the hypotenuse. There are also two rhomboids in this frame, -each of which has one side equal respectively to the large and to the -small square of the sides of the triangle and the other side equal to -the hypotenuse. - -The shorter altitude of the two rhomboids, as may be seen in the figure -itself, corresponds to the respective altitudes, or shorter sides, of -the rectangles. But the longer side corresponds respectively to the side -of the larger and of the smaller squares of the sides of the triangle. - -It is not necessary that these corresponding dimensions be known by the -child. He sees red and yellow pieces of an inset and simply moves them -about, placing them in the indentures of the frame. It is the fact that -these movable pieces actually fit into this white background which -gives the child the opportunity for reasoning out the theorem, and not -the abstract idea of the corresponding relations between the dimensions -of the sides and the different heights of the figures. Reduced to these -terms the exercise is easily performed and proves very interesting. - -This material may be used for other demonstrations: - -DEMONSTRATION A: _The substitution of the pieces._ Let us start with the -frame as it should be filled originally. First take out the two -rectangles formed on the hypotenuse; place them in the two lateral -grooves, and lower the triangle. Fill the remaining empty space with the -two rhomboids. - -The same space is filled in both cases with: - - A triangle plus two rectangles, and then - A triangle plus two rhomboids. - -Hence the sum of the two rectangles (which form the square of the -hypotenuse) is equal to the sum of the two rhomboids. - -In a later substitution we consider the rhomboids instead of the -rectangles in order to demonstrate their respective equivalence to the -two squares formed on the sides of the triangle. Beginning, for example -with the larger square, we start with the insets in the original -position and consider the space occupied by the triangle and the larger -square. To analyze this space the pieces are all taken out and then it -is filled successively by: - - The triangle and the large square in their original positions. - The triangle and the large rhomboid. - -[Illustration: Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two -rectangles.] - -DEMONSTRATION B: _Based on Equivalence_. In this second demonstration -the relative equivalence of the rhomboid, the rectangles, and the -squares is shown outside the figure by means of the parallel indentures -which are on both sides of the frame. These indentures, when the pieces -are placed in them, show that the pieces have the same altitude. - -This is the manner of procedure: Starting again with the original -position, take out the two rectangles and place them in the parallel -indentures to the left, the larger in the wider indenture and the -smaller in the narrower indenture. The different figures in the same -indenture have the same altitude; therefore the pieces need only to be -placed together at the base to prove that they are equal--hence the -figures are equal in pairs: the smaller rectangle equals the smaller -rhomboid and the larger rectangle equals the larger rhomboid. - -Starting again from the original position you proceed analogously with -the squares. In the parallel indentures to the right the large square -may be placed in the same indenture with the large rhomboid, which, -however, must be turned in the opposite direction (in the direction of -its greatest length); and the smaller square and the smaller rhomboid -fit into the narrower indenture. They have the same altitude; and that -the bases are equal is easily verified by putting them together; -therefore here is proof that the squares and the rhomboids are -respectively equivalent. - -Rectangles and squares which are equivalent to the same rhomboids are -equivalent to each other. Hence the theorem is proved. - - . . . . . . . . - -[Illustration: Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two -squares.] - -This series of geometric material is used for other purposes, but they -are of minor importance. - -FOURTH SERIES OF INSETS: _Division of a Triangle_. This material made up -of four frames of equal size, each containing an equilateral triangle -measuring ten centimeters to a side. The different pieces should fill -the triangular spaces exactly. - -One is filled by an entire equilateral triangle. - -One is filled by two rectangular scalene triangles, each equal to half -of the original equilateral triangle, which is bisected by dropping a -line perpendicularly to the base. - -[Illustration] - -The third is filled by three obtuse isosceles triangles, formed by lines -bisecting the three angles of the original triangle. - -The fourth is divided into four equilateral triangles which are similar -in shape to the original triangle. - -With these triangles a child can make a more exact analytical study than -he made when he was observing the triangles of the plane insets used in -the "Children's House." He measures the degrees of the angles and learns -to distinguish a right angle (90°) from an acute angle (<90°) and from -an obtuse angle (>90°). - -Furthermore he finds in measuring the angles of any triangle that their -sum is always equal to 180° or to two right angles. - -He can observe that in equilateral triangles all the angles are equal -(60°); that in the isosceles triangle the two angles at the opposite -ends of the unequal side are equal; while in the scalene triangle no two -angles are alike. In the right-angled triangle the sum of the two acute -angles is equal to a right angle. A general definition is that those -triangles are similar in which the corresponding angles are equal. - -MATERIAL FOR INSCRIBED AND CONCENTRIC FIGURES: In this material, which -for the most part is made up of that already described, and which is -therefore merely an application of it, inscribed or concentric figures -may be placed in the white background of the different inset frames. For -example, on the white background of the large equilateral triangle the -small red equilateral triangle, which is a fourth of it, may be placed -in such a way that each vertex is tangent to the middle of each side of -the larger triangle. - -There are also two squares, one of 7 centimeters on a side and the other -3.5. They have their respective frames with white backgrounds. The 7 -centimeters square may be placed on the background of the 10 centimeters -square in such a way that each corner touches the middle of each side of -the frame. In like manner the 5 centimeters square, which is a fourth of -the large square, may be put in the 7 centimeters square; the 3.5 -centimeters square in the 5 centimeters square; and finally the tiny -square, which is 1/16 part of the large square, in the 3.5 centimeters -square. - -There is also a circle which is tangent to the edges of the large -equilateral triangle. This circle may be placed on the background of the -10 centimeters circle, and in that case a white circular strip remains -all the way round (concentric circles). Within this circle the smaller -equilateral triangle (1/4 of the large triangle) is perfectly inscribed. -Then there is a small circle which is tangent to the smallest -equilateral triangle. - -Besides these circles which are used with the triangles there are two -others tangent to the squares: one to the 7 centimeters square and the -other to the 3.5 centimeters square. The large circle, 10 centimeters in -diameter, fits exactly into the 10 centimeters square; and the other -circles are concentric to it. - -These corresponding relations make the figures easily adaptable to our -artistic composition of decorative design (see following chapter). - -Finally, together with the other material, there are two stars which are -also used for decorative design. The two stars, or "flowers," are based -on the 3.5 centimeters square. In one the circle rests on the side as a -semi-circle (simple flower); and in the other the same circle goes -around the vertex and beyond the semi-circle until it meets the -reciprocal of four circles (flower and foliage). - - - - -III - -SOLID GEOMETRY - - -Since the children already know how to find the area of ordinary -geometric forms it is very easy, with the knowledge of the arithmetic -they have acquired through work with the beads (the square and cube of -numbers), to initiate them into the manner of finding the volume of -solids. After having studied the cube of numbers by the aid of the cube -of beads it is easy to recognize the fact that the volume of a prism is -found by multiplying the area by the altitude. - -In our didactic material we have three objects for solid geometry: a -prism, a pyramid having the same base and altitude, and a prism with the -same base but with only one-third the altitude. They are all empty. The -two prisms have a cover and are really boxes; the uncovered pyramid can -be filled with different substances and then emptied, serving as a sort -of scoop. - -These solids may be filled with wheat or sand. Thus we put into practise -the same technique as is used to calculate capacity, as in anthropology, -for instance, when we wish to measure the capacity of a cranium. - -It is difficult to fill a receptacle completely in such a way that the -measured result does not vary; so we usually put in a scarce measure, -which therefore does not correspond to the exact volume but to a smaller -volume. - -One must know how to fill a receptacle, just as one must know how to do -up a bundle, so that the various objects may take up the least possible -space. The children like this exercise of shaking the receptacle and -getting in as great a quantity as possible; and they like to level it -off when it is entirely filled. - -The receptacles may be filled also with liquids. In this case the child -must be careful to pour out the contents without losing a single drop. -This technical drill serves as a preparation for using metric measures. - -By these experiments the child finds that the pyramid has the same -volume as the small prism (which is one-third of the large prism); hence -the volume of the pyramid is found by multiplying the area of the base -by one-third the altitude. The small prism may be filled with clay and -the same piece of clay will be found to fill the pyramid. The two solids -of equal volume may be made of clay. All three solids can be made by -taking five times as much clay as is needed to fill the same prism. - - . . . . . . . . - -Having mastered these fundamental ideas, it is easy to study the rest, -and few explanations will be needed. In many cases the incentive to do -original problems may be developed by giving the children definite -examples: as, how can the area of a circle be found? the volume of a -cylinder? of a cone? Problems on the total area of some solids also may -be suggested. Many times the children will risk spontaneous inductions -and often of their own accord proceed to measure the total surface area -of all the solids at their disposal, even going back to the materials -used in the "Children's House." - -The material includes a series of wooden solids with a base measurement -of 10 cm.: - - A quadrangular parallelopiped (10 X 10 X 20 cm.) - A quadrangular parallelopiped equal to 1/3 of above - A quadrangular pyramid (10 X 10 X 20 cm.) - A triangular prism (10 X 20 cm.) - A triangular prism equal to 1/3 of above - The corresponding pyramid (10 X 20 cm.) - A cylinder (10 cm. diameter, 20 altitude) - A cylinder equal to 1/3 of above - A cone (10 cm. diameter, 20 altitude) - A sphere (10 cm. diameter) - An ovoid (maximum diameter 10 cm.) - An ellipsoid (maximum diameter 10 cm.) - Regular Polyhedrons - Tetrahedron - Hexahedron (cube) - Octahedron - Dodecahedron - Icosahedron - -(The faces of these polyhedrons are in different colors.) - - -APPLICATIONS: _The Powers of Numbers_. - - -MATERIAL: Two equal cubes of 2 cm. on a side; a prism twice the size of -the cubes; a prism double this preceding prism; seven cubes 4 cm. on a -side. - -The following combinations are made: - - The two smaller cubes are placed side by side = 2. - - In front of these is placed the prism which is twice - as large as the cube = 2^{2}. - - On top of these is placed the double prism, making a - cube with 4 cm. on a side = 2^{3}. - - One of the seven cubes is put beside this = 2^{4}. - -In front are placed two more of the seven cubes = 2^{5}. - -On top are put the remaining four equal cubes = 2^{6}. - -In this way we have made a cube measuring 8 cm. on a side. From this we -see that: - - 2^{3}, 2^{6} have the form of a cube. - 2^{2}, 2^{5} have the form of a square. - 2, 2^{4} have a linear form. - -_The Cube of a Binomial:_ (a + b)^{3} = a^{3} + b^{3} + 3a^{2}b + -3b^{a}. - -MATERIAL: A cube with a 6 cm. edge, a cube with a 4 cm. edge; three -prisms with a square base of 4 cm. on a side and 6 cm. high; three -prisms with a square base of 6 cm. to a side and 4 cm. high. The 10 cm. -cube can be made with these. - -These two combinations are in special cube-shaped boxes into which the -10 cm. cube fits exactly. - - . . . . . . . . - -_Weights and Measures:_ All that refers to weights and measures is -merely an application of similar operations and reasonings. - -The children have at their disposal and learn to handle many of the -objects which are used for measuring both in commerce and in every-day -life. In the "Children's House" days they had the long stair rods which -contain the meter and its decimeter subdivisions. Here they have a -tape-measure with which they measure floors, etc., and find the area. -They have the meter in many forms: in the anthropometer, in the ruler. -Then, too, they use the metal tape, the dressmaker's tape measure, and -the meterstick used by merchants. - -[Illustration: Hollow geometric solids, used for determining equivalence -by measuring sand, sugar, etc.] - -The twenty centimeter ruler divided into millimeters they use constantly -in design; and they love to calculate the area of the geometric figures -they have designed or of the metal insets. Often they calculate the -surface of the white background of an inset and that of the different -pieces which exactly fit this opening, so as to verify the former. As -they already have some preparation in decimals it is no task for them to -recognize and to remember that the measures increase by tens and take on -new names each time. The exercises in grammar have greatly facilitated -the increase in their vocabulary. - -They calculate the reciprocal relations between length, surface, and -volume by going back to the three sets which first represented "long," -"thick," and "large." - -The objects which differ in length vary by 10's; those differing in -areas vary by 100's; and those which differ in volume vary by 1000's. - -The comparison between the bead material and the cubes of the pink tower -(one of the first things they built) encourages a more profound study of -the sensory objects which were once the subject of assiduous -application. - -By the aid of the double decimeter the children make the calculations -for finding the volume of all the different objects graded by tens, such -as the rods, the prisms of the broad stair, the cubes of the pink tower. - -By taking the extremes in each case they learn the relations between -objects which differ in one dimension, in two dimensions, and in three -dimensions. Besides, they already know that the square of 10 is 100, and -the cube of 10 is 1000. - - . . . . . . . . - -[Illustration: Designs formed by arranging sections of the insets within -the frames.] - -The children make use of various scientific instruments: thermometers, -distillers, scales, and, as previously stated, the principal measures -commonly used. - -By filling an empty metal cubical decimeter, which like the geometric -solids is used for the calculation of volume, they have a liter measure -of water, which may be poured into a glass liter bottle. All the decimal -multiples and subdivisions of the liter are easily understood. Our -children spent much time pouring liquids into all the small measures -used in commerce for measuring wine and oil. - -They distil water with the distiller. They use the thermometer to -measure the temperature of water in ebullition and the temperature of -the freezing mixture. They take the water which is used to determine the -weight of the kilogram, keeping it at the temperature of 4°C. - -The objects which serve to measure capacity also are at the disposal of -the children. - -There is no need to go into more details upon the multitudinous -consequences resulting from both a methodical preparation of the -intellect and the possibility of actually being in contact with real -objects. - -A great number of problems given by us, as well as problems originated -by the children themselves, bear witness to the ease with which external -effects may he spontaneously produced when once the inner _causes_ have -been adequately stimulated. - - - - -PART V - -DRAWING - - - - -I - -LINEAR GEOMETRIC DESIGN DECORATION - - -I already have mentioned the fact that the material of the geometric -insets may be applied also to design. - -It is through design that the child may be led to ponder on the -geometric figures which he has handled, taken out, combined in numerous -ways, and replaced. In doing this he completes an exercise necessitating -much use of the reasoning faculties. Indeed, he reproduces all of the -figures by linear design, learning to handle many instruments--the -centimeter ruler, the double decimeter, the square, the protractor, the -compass, and the steel pen used for line ruling. For this work we have -included in the geometric material a large portfolio where, together -with the pages reproducing the figures, there are also some illustrative -sheets with brief explanations of the figures and containing the -relative nomenclature. Aside from copying designs the child may copy -also the explanatory notes and thus reproduce the whole geometry -portfolio. These explanatory notes are very simple. Here, for example, -is the one which refers to the square: - -"SQUARE: The side or base is divided into 10 cm. All the other sides are -equal, hence each measures 10 cm. The square has four equal sides and -four equal angles which are always right angles. The number 4 and the -identity of the sides and angles are the distinguishing characteristics -of the square." - -The children measure paper and construct the figure with attention and -application that are truly remarkable. They love to handle the compasses -and are very proud of possessing a pair. - -One child asked her mother for a Christmas gift of "one _last_ doll and -a box of compasses," as if she were ending one epoch of her life and -beginning another. One little boy begged his mother to let him accompany -her when she went to buy the compass for him. When they were in the -store the salesman was surprised to find that so young a child was to -use the compass and gave them a box of the simplest kind. "Not those," -protested the little fellow; "I want an engineer's compass;" and he -picked out one of the most complicated ones. This was the very reason -why he was so anxious to go with his mother. - -As the children draw, they learn many particulars concerning the -geometric figures: the sides, angles, bases, centers, median lines, -radii, diameters, sectors, segments, diagonals, hypotenuses, -circumferences, perimeters, etc. They do not, however, learn all this as -so much dry information nor do they limit themselves to reproducing the -designs in the geometry portfolio. Each child adds to his own portfolio -other designs which he chooses and sometimes originates. The designs -reproduced in the portfolio are drawn on plain white drawing paper with -China inks, but the children's special designs are drawn on colored -paper with different colored inks and with gildings (silver, gold). The -children reproduce the geometric figures and then they fill them in with -decorations made either with pen or water-colors. These decorations -serve especially to emphasize, in a geometric analysis, the various -parts of the figure, such as center, angles, circumference, medians, -diagonals, etc. - -The decorated motif is selected or else invented by the child himself. -He is allowed the same freedom of choice in his backgrounds as he enjoys -for his inks or water-colors. The observation of nature (flowers and -their different parts--pollen, leaves, a section of some part observed -under the microscope, plant seeds, shells, etc.) serves to nourish the -child's æsthetic imagination. The children also have access to artistic -designs, collections of photographs reproducing the great masterpieces, -and Haeckel's famous work, _Nature's Artistic Forms_, all of which -equipment is so interesting and delightful to a child. - -The children work many, many hours on drawing. This is the time we seize -for reading to them (see above p. 197) and almost all their history is -learned during this quiet period of copy and simple decoration which is -so conducive to concentration of thought. - -Copying some design, or drawing a decoration which has been directly -inspired by something seen; the choice of colors to fill in a geometric -figure or to bring out, by small and simple designs, the center or side -of the figure; the mechanical act of mixing a color, of dissolving the -gildings, or of choosing one kind of ink from a series of different -colors; sharpening a pencil, or getting one's paper in the proper -position; determining through tentative means the required extension of -the compass--all this is a complex operation requiring patience and -exactitude. But it does not require great intellectual concentration. It -is, therefore, a work of application rather than of inspiration; and the -observation of each detail, in order to reproduce it exactly, clarifies -and rests the mind instead of rousing it to the intense activity -demanded by the labor of association and creation. The child is busy -with his hands rather than with his mind; but yet his mind is -sufficiently stimulated by this work as not easily to wander away into -the world of dreams. - -These are quiet hours of work in which the children use only a part of -their energies, while the other part is reaching out after something -else; just as a family sits quietly by the fireside in long winter -evenings engaged in light manual labors requiring little intelligence, -watching the flames with a sense of enjoyment, willing to pass in this -way many peaceful hours, yet feeling that a certain side of their needs -is not satisfied. This is the time chosen for story telling or for light -reading. Similarly this is the best time for our little children to -listen to reading of all kinds. - -During these hours they listened to the reading of books like _The -Betrothed_ (of Manzoni), psychological books like Itard's _Education of -the Savage of Aveyron_, or historical narratives. The children took a -deep interest in the reading. Each child may be occupied with his own -design as well as with the facts which he is hearing described. It seems -as though the one occupation furnishes the energy necessary for -perfection in the other. The mechanical attention which the child gives -to his design frees his mind from idle dreaming and renders it more -capable of completely absorbing the reading that is going on; and the -pleasure gained from the reading which, little by little, penetrates his -whole being seems to give new energy to both hand and eye. His lines -become most exact and the colors more delicate. - -When the reading has reached some point of climax we hear remarks, -exclamations, applause or discussions, which animate and lighten the -work without interrupting it. But there are times when, with one accord, -our children abandon their drawing so as to act out some humorous -selection or to represent an historical fact which has touched them -deeply; or, indeed, as happened during the reading of the _Savage of -Aveyron_, their hands remained almost unconsciously raised in the -intensity of their emotion, while on their faces was an expression of -ecstasy, as if they were witnessing wonderful unheard-of things. Their -actions seemed to interpret the well-known sentiment: "Never have I seen -woman like unto this." - - * * * * * - -ARTISTIC COMPOSITION WITH THE INSETS: Our geometric insets, which are -all definitely related to one another in dimensions and include a series -of figures which can be contained one within the other, lend themselves -to very beautiful combinations. With these the children make real -creations and often follow out their artistic ideas for days and even -weeks. By moving the small pieces or by combining them in different ways -on the white background, these very insets produce various decorations. -The ease with which the child may form designs by arranging the little -pieces of iron on a sheet of paper and then outlining them, and the -harmony which is thus so easily obtained, affords endless delight. -Really wonderful pieces of work are often produced in this way. - -During these periods of creative design, as indeed during the periods of -drawing from life, the child is deeply and wholly concentrated. His -entire intellect is at work and no kind of instructive reading would be -at all fitting while he is engaged in drawing or designing of this -nature. - -With the insets, as we have said, we have reproduced some of the classic -decorations so greatly admired in the Italian masterpieces; for -instance, those of Giotto in Florentine Art. When the children try with -the insets to reproduce these classic decorations from photographs they -are led to make most minute observations, which may be considered a real -study of art. They judge the relative proportions of the various figures -in such a way that their eye learns to appreciate the harmony of the -work. And thus, even in childhood, a fine æsthetic enjoyment begins to -engage their minds on the higher and more noble planes. - - - - -II - -FREE-HAND DRAWING--STUDIES FROM LIFE - - -All the preceding exercises are "formative" for the art of drawing. They -develop in the child the manual ability to execute a geometric design -and prepare his eye to appreciate the harmony of proportions between -geometric figures. The countless observations of drawings, the habit of -minute examination of natural objects, constitute so many preparatory -drills. We can, however, say that the whole method, educating the eye -and the hand at the same time and training the child to observe and -execute drawings with intense application, prepares the mechanical means -for design, while the mind, left free to take its flight and to create, -is ready to produce. - -It is by developing the individual that he is prepared for that -wonderful manifestation of the human intelligence, which drawing -constitutes. The ability _to see reality_ in form, in color, in -proportion, to be master of the movements of one's own hand--that is -what is necessary. Inspiration is an individual thing, and when a child -possesses these formative elements he can give expression to all he -happens to have. - -There can be no "graduated exercises in drawing" leading up to an -artistic creation. That goal can be attained only through the -development of mechanical technique and through the freedom of the -spirit. That is our reason for not teaching drawing directly to the -child. We prepare him indirectly, leaving him free to the mysterious and -divine labor of reproducing things according to his own feelings. Thus -drawing comes to satisfy a need for expression, as does language; and -almost every idea may seek expression in drawing. The effort to perfect -such expression is very similar to that which the child makes when he is -spurred on to perfect his language in order to see his thoughts -translated into reality. This effort is spontaneous; and the real -drawing teacher is in the inner life, which of itself develops, attains -refinement, and seeks irresistibly to be born into external existence in -some empirical form. Even the smallest children try spontaneously to -draw outlines of the objects which they see; but the hideous drawings -which are exhibited in the common schools, as "free drawings" -"characteristic" of childhood, are not found among our children. These -horrible daubs so carefully collected, observed, and catalogued by -modern psychologists as "documents of the infant mind" are nothing but -monstrous expressions of intellectual lawlessness; they show only that -the eye of their child is uneducated, the hand inert, the mind -insensible alike to the beautiful and to the ugly, blind to the true as -well as to the false. Like most documents collected by psychologists who -study the children of our schools, they reveal not the soul but the -errors of the soul; and these drawings, with their monstrous -deformities, show simply what the uneducated human being is like. - -Such things are not "free drawings" by children. _Free drawings_ are -possible only when we have a _free child_ who has been left free to grow -and perfect himself in the assimilation of his surroundings and in -mechanical reproduction; and who when left free to create and express -himself actually does create and express himself. - -The sensory and manual preparation for drawing is nothing more than an -alphabet; but without it the child is an illiterate and cannot express -himself. And just as it is impossible to study the writing of people who -cannot write, so there can be no psychological study of the drawings of -children who have been abandoned to spiritual and muscular chaos. All -psychic expressions acquire value when the inner personality has -acquired value by the development of its formative processes. Until this -fundamental principle has become an absolute acquisition we can have no -idea of the psychology of a child as regards his creative powers. - -Thus, unless we know how a child should develop in order to unfold his -natural energies, we shall not know how drawing as a natural expression -is developed. The universal development of the wondrous language of the -hand will come not from a "school of design" but from a "school of the -new man" which will cause this language to spring forth spontaneously -like water from an inexhaustible spring. To confer the gift of drawing -we must create an eye that sees, a hand that obeys, a soul that feels; -and in this task the whole life must cooperate. In this sense life -itself is the only preparation for drawing. Once we have lived, the -inner spark of vision does the rest. - -[Illustration: Designs formed by the use of the geometry squares, -circles, and equilateral triangle, modified by free-hand drawing. In the -design on the right the "flower" within the cross is made with -compasses: the decorative detail in the arms of the cross and the circle -in the center are free-hand. The design on the left is similar to a -decoration in the Cathedral at Florence, in the windows round the apse.] - -Leave to man then this sublime gesture which transfers to the canvas the -marks of creative divinity. Leave it free to develop from the very time -when the tiny child takes a piece of chalk and reproduces a simple -outline on the blackboard, when he sees a leaf and makes his first -reproduction of it on the white page. Such a child is in search of -every possible means of expression, because no one language is rich -enough to give expression to the gushing life within him. He speaks, he -writes, he draws, he sings like a nightingale warbling in the -springtime. - - * * * * * - -Let us consider, then, the "elements" which our children have acquired -in their development with reference to drawing: they are observers of -reality, knowing how to distinguish the _forms_ and _colors_ they see -there. - -[Illustration: Decorations formed by the use of the geometry insets. -That on the right is a copy of the design by Giotto shown below the -picture of the Madonna in the Upper Church of St. Francis d'Assisi -(Umbria).] - -[Illustration: Making decorative designs with the aid of geometric -insets. (_The Washington Montessori School, Washington, D. C._)] - -Children are peculiarly sensitive in their appreciation of color. This -sensibility began to grow in the sensory exercises in the early years. -Their hands have been trained to the most delicate movements and the -children have been masters of them since the days of the "Children's -House." When they begin to draw outlines they copy the most diverse -objects--not only flowers but everything which interests them: vases, -columns and even landscapes. Their attempts are spontaneous; and they -draw both on the blackboard and on paper. - -As regards colors, it should be recalled that while still in the -"Children's House" the children learned to prepare the different shades, -mixing them themselves and making the various blends. This always held -their eager interest. Later the care with which they seek to get shades -corresponding exactly to natural colorings is something truly -remarkable.[8] Over and over again the children try to mix the most -diverse colors, diluting or saturating them until they have succeeded in -reproducing the desired shade. It is surprising also to see how often -their eye succeeds in appreciating the finest differences of color -and in reproducing them with striking accuracy. - -[Illustration: Water-color paintings from nature, showing spontaneous -expression resulting from work in natural science.] - -The study of natural science proved to be a great help in drawing. Once -I tried to show some children how a flower should be dissected, and for -this purpose I provided all the necessary instruments: the botanist's -needle, pincers, thin glass plates, etc., just as is done at the -university for the experiments in natural science. My only aim was to -see whether the preparations which university students make for -botanical anatomy were in any way adaptable to the needs of little -children. Even at the time when I studied in the botanical laboratory at -the university I felt that these exercises in the preparation of -material might be put to such use. Students know how difficult it is to -prepare a stem, a stamen, an epithelium, for dissection, and how only -with difficulty the hand, accustomed for years exclusively to writing, -adapts itself to this delicate work. Seeing how skilful our children -were with their little hands I decided to give them a complete -scientific outfit and to test by experiment whether the child mind and -the characteristic manual dexterity shown by children were not more -adapted to such labors than the mind and hand of a nineteen-year-old -student. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -My suspicion proved correct. The children with the keenest interest -dissected a section of the violet with remarkable accuracy, and they -quickly learned to use all the instruments. But my greatest surprise was -to find that they did not despise or throw away the dissected parts, as -we older students used to do. With great care they placed them all in -attractive order on a piece of white paper, as if they had in mind some -secret purpose. Then with great joy they began to draw them; and they -were accurate, skilled, tireless, and patient, as they are in -everything else. They began to mix and dilute their colors to obtain the -correct shades. They worked up to the last minute of the school session, -finishing off their designs in watercolor: the stem and leaves green, -the individual petals violet, the stamens--all in a row--yellow, and the -dissected pistil light green. The following day a little girl brought me -a charmingly vivacious written composition, in which she told of her -enthusiasm over the new work, describing even the less noticeable -details of the little violet. - -These two expressions--drawing and composition--were the spontaneous -manifestations of their happy entrance into the realms of science. - -Encouraged by this great success, I took some simple microscopes to -school. The children began to observe the pollen and even some of the -membrane coverings of the flower. By themselves they made some splendid -cross-sections of the stems, which they studied most attentively. - -They "drew everything they saw." Drawing seemed to be the natural -complement of their observation work. - -In this way the children learned to draw and paint _without a drawing -teacher_. They produced works which, in geometric designs as well as in -studies from life, were considered far above the average drawings of -children. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[8] We give to the children first only tubes containing the three -fundamental colors, red, yellow, and blue; and with these they produce a -large number of shades. - - - - -PART VI - -MUSIC - - - - -I - -THE SCALE - - -Since the publication of my first volume on the education of small -children, considerable progress has been made in the matter of musical -education. Miss Maccheroni, who came to Rome to work with me on -experiments looking to the continuation of the methods used with primary -classes, was successful in establishing a number of tests which -constituted our first steps into this important field of education. We -are under great obligations to the Tronci firm of Pistoja, which took -charge of the manufacture of materials and gave us the most sympathetic -cooperation. - -We had already prepared at the time of that first publication an -equipment of bells to be used in training the ear to perceive -differences between musical sounds. The methods of using this material -were considerably modified and perfected again after the publication of -my _Own Handbook_ (New York, Stokes, 1914), in which for the first time -appeared a treatise on musical method. The foundation of the system -consists of a series of bells representing the whole tones and -semi-tones of one octave. The material follows the general -characteristics of that used in the sensorial method, that is, the -objects differ from each other in one and only one quality, the one -which concerns the stimulation of the sense under education. The bells, -for instance, must be _apparently identical_ in dimensions, shape, -etc., but they must _produce different sounds_. The basic exercise is to -have the child recognize "identities." He must pair off the bells which -give the same sound. - -[Illustration] - -The bell system is constructed as follows: We have a very simple -support, made of wood (of course any other material might be used) 115 -cm. long and 25 cm. wide. On this the bells rest. The board is wide -enough to hold two bells placed lengthwise and end to end across it. The -board is marked off into black and white spaces, each wide enough to -hold one bell. The white spaces represent whole tones, the black spaces -semi-tones. Though the apparent purpose of this board is to serve as a -support, it is in reality a _measure_, since it indicates the regular -position of the notes in the simple diatonic scale. The combination of -white and black rectangles indicates the interval between the various -notes in the scale: in other words, a semi-tone between the third and -fourth and between the seventh and eighth, and a whole tone between the -others. Bells showing the value of each rectangle are fixed in proper -order in the upper portion of the support. These bells are not all of -the same size, but vary in dimension regularly from the bottom to the -top of the scale. This permits considerable saving in manufacture; for, -to get a different sound from bells of the same size, different -thicknesses are required, and this entails more labor for construction -and consequently greater cost. But in addition the child here sees a -material variation corresponding to the differences in quality of sound. -On the other hand, the other bells on which the child is to perform his -critical exercises are of _identical dimensions_. - -In the exercise the child strikes with a small mallet one of the bells -fixed on the support. Then, from among the others scattered at random on -the table, he finds one which gives the same sound and places it on the -board in front of the fixed bell corresponding to it. In the most -elementary exercises, only the whole tone bells corresponding to the -white spaces are used. Later, the semi-tones are brought in. This first -exercise in sense perception corresponds to the pairing practised in -other sensory exercises (color, touch, etc.) The next step is for the -child to distinguish differences, and at the same time, gradations of -stimuli (like the exercises with the color charts, hearing, etc.) In -this case the child mixes at random the eight bells, all of the same -size, which give the whole tones of the scale. He is to find _do_, then -_re_, and so on through the octave one note after the other, placing the -bells in order in their proper places. Nomenclature is taught step by -step as in the other sensorial exercises. To familiarize the child with -the names, _do_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _si_, we use small round -disks, the circular form serving to suggest the head of the written -note. On each disk the name of the note is written. The disks are to be -placed on the bases of the bells that correspond to them. The exercises -in naming the notes may be begun with the fixed bells, in order (with -children who already know how to read) to associate the sounds with -their names in the first exercise of pairing. Later, when the child -comes to the exercise of putting the bells in gradation, he can place -the corresponding disk on each bell as he finds it. - -Some individuals, commenting on this material, have solemnly protested -their native inability to understand music, insisting that music reveals -its secrets only to a chosen few. We may point out in reply that, so -far, our principal object is simply to distinguish notes so widely -different from each other that the different number of vibrations can -easily be measured with instruments. It is a question of a material -difference which any normal ear can naturally detect without any -miraculous aptitude of a musical character. One might as well claim that -it is the privilege only of genius to distinguish one color from another -somewhat like it. Particular aptitude for music is determined by -conditions of a quite different and a much higher order, such as -intuition of the laws of harmony and counterpoint, inspiration for -composition, and so on. - -In actual practise, we found that when the material was used with some -restrictions by forty children between three and six years of age, only -six or seven proved capable of filling out the major scale by ear. But -when the material was freely placed at their disposal, they all -progressed along the same lines and showed about the same rate of -improvement, as was the case in our experiments with reading, writing, -etc. When individual differences appeared, it was by no means due to the -_possibility_ of performing these tasks, but rather to the amount of -_interest_ taken in the exercises, for which some children showed actual -enthusiasm. Eagerness for surmounting difficulties and for high -attainment is much more frequently found in children than we, judging by -our own experience as adults, easily suspect. In any event, actual -performance is the only guide to the revelation of particular aptitude, -of personal calling. - -When one of the larger children spreads on the table the eight bells of -similar size to make up the scale by ear, the little ones pick up a -single bell, sometimes reaching out for it with the greatest eagerness. -They beat it with the mallet for a long time, they feel of it, examining -it carefully, making it ring more and more slowly. The older children -take special interest in the pairing, often repeating the same exercise -many times; but an unusual charm is found in the successive sounds of -the eight bells when placed in order; in other words, in hearing the -scale. Nennella, one of the children of the "Children's House" of Via -Giusti, played the scale over two hundred times in succession, one -hundred for the ascending scale and one hundred back again. The whole -class is sometimes interested in listening, the children following with -absolute silence the classic beauty of this succession of sounds. -Another child, Mario, used to go to the very end of the table--as far -away as possible, and resting his elbows on the table with his head in -his hands, he would remain without stirring in the silence of the -darkened room, showing his extraordinary interest in the exercise in -every detail of demeanor and facial expression. - -At a certain, moment, interest in reproducing the note vocally appears. -The children accompany the scale with their voices. They strive for the -exact reproduction of the sound which the bell gives. Their voices -become soft and musical in this exercise, showing nothing of that -shrillness, so characteristic of children's voices in the usual popular -songs. In the classes of Via Trionfale it happened that some children -asked permission to accompany vocally the scale that a child was playing -softly on the bells. The interest taken in this exercise was of a -higher order than that shown by children in the singing of songs. It was -easy to see that songs with their capricious intervals between widely -separated notes and calling for pronunciation of words, musical -expression, differences in time, etc., are unadapted to the most -elementary exercises in singing. - -It was possible to test the absolute memory of the child for the -different notes without any set exercise. After a long series of -experiments in pairing, the children begin to make scales, using only -one series of bells, and they repeat this exercise many times and in -different ways. Sometimes, for instance, a child always looks for the -lowest note, _do_, then for the next above it, _re_, etc. Again, a child -will take any bell at random, looking next for the note immediately -above or immediately below, and so on. It also happens that on picking -up some bell or other, the child will exclaim on hearing its sound, this -is _mi_, this is _do_, and so on. One child had made a splendid -demonstration of the use of the bells before her Majesty, the Queen -Mother. This was in the month of May. Although he had had no further -access to the materials in his "Children's House" of Via Giusti, in the -November following he was asked to use some musical pipes,[9] which he -had hardly seen before, and which happened to be in great disorder since -they had just arrived from the factory. There were sixteen pipes mixed -at random, comprising a double diatonic scale. He took one of the pipes, -struck it and said, "This is _si_," and immediately hung it on the -appropriate hook of the support. On ringing the next one, he said, this -is _mi_, and again put the pipe in the right place. So he went on and -arranged the sixteen pipes in accurate order on the two parallel frames. -He had had a good deal of exercise during the preceding year and had -preserved an absolutely accurate memory of the notes. - -As is the case with colors, geometrical shapes, etc., the children begin -at this point to explore the environment. One will come to the teacher -at the piano and say, striking a key, "This is _stee_," meaning that the -note corresponds to the first syllable of the first word in some song he -knows (Stella, Stellina). It happens that the key struck by the child is -a _do_, the very note corresponding to the syllable _ste_ in the song. -We had many touching examples of this musical exploration of the -environment. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[9] The pipes are an equipment parallel to the bells. They are to be -recommended for schools, which can afford a more sumptuous outlay. - - - - -II - -THE READING AND WRITING OF MUSIC - - -MATERIAL: In "The Children's House" the musical staff is introduced by -means of a board painted green with the lines in bas relief. On each -line and in each space representing the octave to which the sounds of -the bells respectively correspond, is a small circular indenture, or -socket, into which the disk for each note may be inserted. Inside each -indenture is written a number: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The disks used in -this exercise have a number written on the lower face and the name of a -note on the upper: for instance, 1, _do_; 2, _re_; 3, _mi_; 4, _fa_; 5, -_sol_; 6, _la_; 7, _si_: - - _do--re--mi--fa--sol--la--si--do._ - -[Illustration] - -This device enables the child to place the notes on their respective -lines without making any mistakes and to examine their relative -positions. The indentures are so arranged as to show an empty space -wherever a semi-tone appears: - - _do_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _si_, _do_. - -In the semi-tone spaces black counters are to be placed. At a later -stage of this exercise the staff is represented by a wooden board -similar to the one described above, but without the indentures. The -child has at his disposal a great many disks with the notes written out -in full on one face. He can arrange thirty or forty of these disks at -random on the board, keeping them, however, in their places according to -the names of the notes; but each time the surface showing the name of -the note should be placed downward on the board, so that on the line -only disks without names are visible. When a child has finished this -exercise, he is to turn the disks over without disarranging them and so -determine from their names whether he has placed them properly. All the -disks on a given line or in a given space should have the same names. -Should any doubt arise as to the proper place of a note, the other board -with the numbered indentures can be used as a check. - -[Illustration] - -When a child has reached this stage of development, he can practice -reading the musical script, ringing the bells according to the notes he -is interpreting. The musical staffs are prepared on oblong cards about -seventeen centimeters broad. The notes are about two centimeters in -diameter. The cards are variously colored--blue, violet, yellow, red. - -The next step is for the children to write notes themselves. For this -purpose we have prepared little sheets which can be bound together into -a book or album. - -We offer also a few songs employing two or three notes so simple in -character that the child can make them out by ear on his bells. When, -after some practise, he is certain he can copy the song, he writes the -notes on his staff and so becomes the editor of his own music. - - -TREBLE AND BASS CLEFS - -_Arrangement of the notes in the form of a rhombus:_ All the exercises -thus far have been in reference to the higher _clef_. However, no -representation of this key has as yet been given the child. His first -task is to learn the relative position of the notes on the two staffs. -To supply this want, following the system of the Musical Conservatory of -Milan, we have adopted the double staff. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: A sheet on which the child writes his own music.] - -[Illustration: The notes written by the child.] - -The broken line (p. 328) indicates the position of _do_, the point of -departure for the scale. In fact, as the notes pass from line to space -and space to line, they form the natural series: - - _do_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _si_, _do_. - -The same situation develops as they go down the scale: - - _do_, _si_, _la_, _sol_, _fa_, _mi_, _re_, _do_. - -When the position of _do_ has been determined, the other notes above and -below it are easily found. From the _do_ on the left the child can find -his way to the _do_ on the next octave higher and come down again. -Likewise from the same point on the right (_do_) he can go down to the -_do_ of the lower octave and then go up the scale again. When these -notes are represented on the combined staffs with the counters, the -resulting design is a rhombus. - -[Illustration] - -Separating the two staffs, the arrangement of the notes in the higher -and lower key (the C scale and bass) becomes apparent and the different -significance of the two series can be emphasized by placing to the left -of the staff the two clef signs, which have been prepared as special -portions of our material. - -[Illustration] - -In this way the children have learned the scale in _do major_ in the two -keys. The arrangement of the black and white spaces puts them in a -position to recognize these notes even on the piano. Our material, in -fact, includes a diminutive keyboard where the keys are small enough to -fit the size of a child's hand. It can be used as an exercise for the -finger muscles. As each key is touched it raises a hammer marked with -the name of the note struck, which the child can see through a glass. -Thus while the child is practising his finger movements, he fixes his -acquaintance with the arrangement of the notes on the keyboard. This -small piano makes no noise. However, a sort of organ-pipe mechanism can -be fitted on above the hammers in such a way that each stroke, as the -hammer rises, connects with a reed which gives a corresponding sound. - -All the exercises thus far have been based upon sensory experience as -the point of departure. The child's ear has recognized the fundamental -sounds and initiated him into real musical education. All the rest, such -as the music writing, etc., _is not music_. - - - - -III - -THE MAJOR SCALES - - -We have developed additional material for the teaching of the scales. -Here we show a chart somewhat suggesting the arrangement of the bell -material used in the first exercises. That is, the relative intervals -between the various notes of the scale are clearly indicated. The -_scale_ is, in fact, a series of eight sounds, the intervals between -each being as indicated by the black marks in the design: whole tone, -whole tone, semi-tone, whole tone, whole tone, whole tone, semi-tone. - -In the _do major_ scale the intervals are indicated as follows: a whole -tone between _do_ and _re_; _re_ and _mi_; _fa_ and _sol_; _sol_ and -_la_; _la_ and _si_; and a semi-tone between _mi_ and _fa_ and _si_ and -_do_. If, however, instead of beginning with _do_, the scale starts from -some other note, the mutual intervals characterizing the scale remain -unchanged. It is as though the whole scale with its characteristic -construction as regards tone differences were moved along. Accordingly, -as our plate shows, under the figure of the two octaves there is another -figure. This latter is a movable piece of cardboard which shows the -construction of the octave in black and white. This movable card is -fastened to the large chart by a ribbon. Supposing now we slide this -movable piece, as indicated in the figure, to the level of _mi_. The -intervals between the tones of the _mi_ scale are the same as in all the -other scales. In other words, they remain as indicated on the small -movable card. It is necessary, accordingly, to strike on the grand scale -the notes corresponding to the white spaces of the movable slip: viz., - - _mi_, _fa_ diesis, _sol_ diesis, _la_, _si_, _do_ diesis, _re_ diesis. - -This process may be repeated by sliding the movable card to all the -notes in succession. In this way all the scales are gradually -constructed. This becomes an interesting theoretical exercise, since the -child discovers that he is able to build _all possible scales_ by -himself. - -[Illustration: The monocord. In the first instrument the notes are -indicated by frets. On the monocord in the foreground the child places -the frets as he discovers the notes by drawing the bow across the -string.] - -[Illustration: Material for indicating the intervals of the major scale -and its transposition from one key to another.] - -We have, however, for this purpose a real musical material, as appears -from our design. Here on a wooden form like that used for the bells, but -two octaves instead of one octave long, we have arranged prisms of equal -dimensions but painted black and white according to the tones they -represent. Each prism shows a rectangular plate exposed to view. The -plates are identical in appearance on all the prisms. They are, however, -really of different lengths according to the different prisms. When -these plates are struck, they give the notes of two octaves, the prisms -acting as sounding boards. The sounds are soft and mellow and unusually -clear, so that we do not exaggerate in describing this mechanism as -really a musical instrument (resembling the Xylophone). In our design -each piece is arranged in its proper position in the _do major_ scale. - -Since the intervals between the tones are the same for all the scales -without distinction, if the group of prisms is moved as a whole from -right to left, sliding along the wooden form, some of the prisms will -fall. The resulting effect is the same as that produced when the small -card was moved over the larger chart (see above). No matter how far -the group of prisms is moved, the scale can be obtained by striking all -the prisms corresponding to the white spaces on the wooden form. - -[Illustration: The upper cut shows the music bars arranged for the scale -of C major. The lower cut shows the transposition of the scale, -preserving, however, the same intervals.] - -For instance, let us take away the two first prisms, _do_ and _do -diesis_ on the left, and push the whole group of prisms from right to -left until _re_ reaches the point formerly occupied by _do_. If, now, we -strike the plates which correspond to the notes of the major scale, we -obtain the major scale in _re_. On examining the notes which make up -this scale, we find: _re_, _mi_, _fa diesis_, _sol_, _la_, _si_, _do -diesis_, _re_. - -This brief description will indicate how interesting this instrument is. -It contains in very simple form and expresses in a clear and delightful -way the fundamental principles of harmony. Its use can be made apparent -to teachers by the three following tables. - -As the children derive in this way all the possible scales, they should -transfer them to their copy books, making use of all the symbols of -musical notation. The copying of the scales should be developed -progressively: first the scale with one _diesis_, next the scale with -two, then the one with three _dieses_, etc. Fine opportunities for -observation are here offered. A child may see for instance that a scale -with two _dieses_ has the same _diesis_ which appeared in the preceding -scale; a scale with three _dieses_ has the two _dieses_ of the preceding -scales, and so on. The _dieses_ recur at intervals of five notes. - -Since in using the first material, by changing the third and sixth bell, -the child was taught to recognize the harmonic minor scale, to construct -it and listen to it, it is now an obviously simple matter for him to -make up all the minor scales. - -We have thus developed exercises which prepare for the recognition of -the major and minor tones as well as for the recognition of the -different tones. It also becomes an easy matter to play a simple _motif_ -in different keys. It is sufficient to move the series of plates, as has -been indicated, and play them over according to the indications of the -white and black spaces of the wooden form. - -With all the plates in position. - -[Illustration] - -With two plates removed. Scale of D. - -[Illustration] - -With four plates removed. Scale of E. - -[Illustration] - -With five plates removed. Scale of F. - -[Illustration] - -With seven plates removed. Scale of G. - -[Illustration] - -With nine plates removed. Scale of A. - -[Illustration] - -With eleven plates removed. Scale of B. - -[Illustration] - -Scale of C[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -With one plate removed. Scale of D[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -Scale of C[sharp]. - -[Illustration] - -With three plates removed. Scale of E[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -With six plates removed. Scale of G[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -Scale of F[sharp]. - -[Illustration] - -With eight plates removed. Scale of A[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -With ten plates removed. Scale of B[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -Here is a specimen of key transposition: - -[Illustration] - -At this point children usually develop great keenness for producing -sounds and scales on all kinds of instruments (stringed instruments, -wind instruments, etc.) - -One of the instruments which brings the child to producing and -recognizing notes is the _monochord_. It is a simple, resonant box with -one string. The first - -Scale of C. - -[Illustration] - -Scale with sharps. Scale with flats. - -[Illustration] - -exercise is in tuning. The string is made to correspond with one of the -resonant prisms (_do_). This is made possible by a key with which the -string can be loosened or tightened. The child may now be taught to -handle the violin bow or mandolin plectrum, or he may be instructed in -the finger thrumming used for the harp or banjo. On one of our -monochords, the notes are indicated by fixed transversal frets, the name -of each note being printed in the proper space. These notes are, -however, not written on the other monochord, where the child must learn -to discover by ear the proper distances at which the notes are -produced. In this case the child has at his disposal movable frets with -which he can indicate the points he has discovered as producing a given -note. These frets should be left in position by the child to serve as a -check on his work. The children have shown considerable interest also in -little pitchpipes, which give very pleasing tones. - - . . . . . . . . - -Thus in composing the scales and in listening to them the child performs -real exercises in musical education. A given melody in the major scale -is repeated in various keys. In listening to it carefully, in repeating -it, in observing the notes which make it up, the child has an exercise -similar to the audition of the note, but an exercise of a far more -advanced character. - -C Pitch. - -[Illustration] - -D Pitch. - -[Illustration] - -E Pitch. - -[Illustration] - -F Pitch. - -[Illustration] - -This exercise is to be the starting point for _understanding_ melody. To -make the hearing of music an intelligent act and not like the mechanical -process which appears when children read, in loud monotone, books which -they cannot understand and of the meaning of which they have no idea, -preparatory exercises are required. We get this preparation through -various exercises in the audition of various scales for the recognition -of key, and in exercises on the interpretation of rhythm. - - - - -IV - -EXERCISES IN RHYTHM - - -One of our most successful exercises has proved to be that originally -conceived as a help in teaching children to walk, viz., "walking the -line." It will be remembered that among the exercises in motor education -used at the outset of our method, appeared that of walking with one foot -in front of the other on a line drawn on the floor, much as do -tight-rope-walking acrobats. The purpose of this exercise was to -stabilize equilibrium, to teach erect carriage and to make movement -freer and more certain. - -Miss Maccheroni began her exercises in rhythm by accompanying this -walking of the children with piano music. In fact, the sound of the -piano came to be the call signal for the children to take up this -exercise. The teacher starts to play and immediately the children come -of their own accord, and almost without exception, to take up their -positions on the line. At the very beginning the music seems to be -purely a signal, at best a pleasant accompaniment to the motor exercise. -There is no apparent adaptation of the child's movements to the musical -rhythm. However, as the same measure is repeated for a considerable -period, the rudiments of this adaptation begin to appear. One of the -children begins to keep step with the rhythm of the music. Individual -differences in adaptation persist for some time; but if the same musical -rhythm is kept up, almost all the children finally become sensible to -it. In fact, these little people begin to develop general attitudes of -body, in relation to the music, which are of the greatest interest. -First of all, the children change their gait according to the music: the -light walk, the war-like march, the run, develop on the impulse of the -rhythmic movement. It is not that the teacher "teaches" the child to -change his walk according to the music: the phenomenon arises of its own -accord. The child begins to interpret the rhythm by moving in harmony -with it. But to obtain this result the teacher must play perfectly, -carefully noting all the details of musical punctuation. The creation of -musical feeling in the children depends upon the teacher's own feeling -and the rigorous accuracy of her own execution. - -It will be useful to give here a few details on the execution of these -first rhythmic exercises. The children begin, as we have said, by -learning to walk on the line. They develop a passion for walking on that -line, yielding to a fascination which grown-up people cannot conceive. -They seem to put their whole souls into it. This is the moment for the -teacher to sit down at the piano and without saying anything to play the -first melody in our series. The children smile, they look at the piano -and continue to walk, becoming more and more concentrated on what they -are doing. The melody acts as a persuading voice; the children begin to -consider the time of the music and little by little their tiny feet -begin to strike the line in step with it. Some of our three-year-olders -begin to keep step as early as the first or second trial. After a very -few attempts a whole class of forty children will be walking in time. We -must warn against the error of playing with special emphasis on the -measure; in other words, of striking more loudly than is required the -note (thesis) which marks the inception of the rhythmic period. The -teacher should be careful simply to bring out all the expression that -the melody requires. She may be sure that the rhythmic cadence will -become apparent from the tune itself. The playing of one note more -loudly than the others, thus to emphasize the rhythmic accent (thesis), -is to deprive the selection of all its value as melody and therefore of -its power to cause the motory action corresponding to rhythm. It is -necessary to play accurately and with feeling, giving an interpretation -as real as possible. We get thus a "musical time" which, as every one -knows, is not the "mechanical time" of the metronome. If it is certainly -absurd to play a _Nocturne_ of Chopin on the metronome, it is hardly -less absurd and certainly quite as disagreeable to play a piece of dance -music on that instrument. Even those people who have a great aptitude -for feeling "time" and who play with special attention to exactness of -measure, know that they cannot follow the metronome without positive -discomfort. Children feel the rhythm of a piece of music if it is played -with _musical feeling_; and not only do they follow the time with their -footsteps, but, as the rhythmic periods vary, they adapt the whole -attitude of their bodies to the melodic period, which is developed -around the beats constituting the rhythm as around points of support. -There is a vast difference between this exercise and that of having -children march to the clapping of hands or to the time of _one_, _two_, -_three_, etc., counted in a tone of command. - -A child of ten years was dancing to the music of a Chopin waltz played -with most generous concessions to the different colorations indicated in -the text. She put into her movements a certain fullness of swing, to -bring out the effect which a marked _rallentando_ gives the notes. Of -course this method of dancing demands on the part of the children a -perfect and intimate identification of spirit with the music; but this -is something which children, even when they are small, possess in a very -special way, and which they develop in their long and uninterrupted -walks on the line to the sounds of a tune often repeated. It is curious -to see them assume a demeanor entirely in harmony with the expression of -the music they are following. A little boy of three, during the playing -of our first melody, held the palms of his hands turned parallel with -the floor and as he walked he bent his knees slightly with each step. On -passing from our first to our second tunes, he changed not only the -rapidity of his footsteps, but the attitude of his whole body. -Considered as something external this may be of slight importance, but -considered as evidence of a mental state, the change in demeanor bears -witness to a distinct artistic experience. The composer of the tune -could well be proud of such a sincere response to his work, if the test -of musical beauty be regarded as successful communication of feeling. - -Our second tune is a rapid _andante_ somewhat _staccato_. The first was -slow and blending (_legato_). The children feel the _legato_, answering -it with very reserved movements. The _staccato_ lifts them from the -floor. The _crescendo_ makes them hurry and stamp their feet. The -_forte_ sometimes brings them to clap their hands, while _calando_ -restores them to the silent march, which turns, during the _piano_, to -perfect silence. The completion of the musical period brings them to a -halt and they stand there expectant until it is taken up again; or if it -be the end of the whole tune, they suddenly stop. - -Beppino, a little boy of three, used to keep time with the extended -forefinger of his right hand. The music was a song in two parts repeated -alternately, the one in _legato_ and the other in _staccato_; with the -_legato_ he used a uniform regular movement; he followed the _staccato_ -with sudden spasmodic beats. - -To-day forty children may be seen walking as softly as possible during a -tune played _pianissimo_. These same children on the day when they first -heard the _piano_ kept calling to the teacher "play louder; we can't -hear" and yet at that time the teacher was playing not _pianissimo_, but -_mezzo forte_! - -At first the children interested in the first tune are deaf to any -other. The children in the St. Barnaba School in Milan got in step with -the first tune. They did not notice that the teacher had changed to the -second and kept their step so well that when the first tune was resumed, -the teacher found them in perfect time, while on the faces of the -children appeared a smile of recognition, as it were, of an old friend. - -If the teacher is sufficiently cautious, she can discover without -disturbing the children the moment when they have caught a new tune; and -even if only a few succeed in following both of the first two melodies, -the teacher can satisfy these few by alternating the tunes. This does -not disturb the others who come, little by little, to notice the change -in the music and to fall in with the new movement. In a public -kindergarten at Perugia an attempt of this nature was made without -warning by a lady, who, being a visitor, felt free to take this liberty. -The children were invited into the large hall and left to themselves -while the lady was playing on the piano our third melody, a march. The -older children caught the movement at once. After they had been -marching for some time a _galop_ was played. Some hesitation appeared in -a few pupils while others apparently were not aware of the change in the -music. Suddenly two or three began to run, as though swept away by the -rhythmic wave, as though borne along by the music. They hardly seemed to -touch that floor to which, but a few moments previously, the march -seemed to have glued them at every step! A portion of the children in -this class had taken seats in the sloping auditorium around the room. -They were the youngest children; and when the victorious charge broke -out to the tune of the _galop_, they began to clap their hands -enthusiastically. Some of the teachers felt alarmed, but certainly the -spectacle was an inspiring one. - -It follows that if we are to _tell_ the children to "hop," "run," or -"march," there is no use in our giving them music. We must take our -choice: either _music_ or _commands_. Even in our reading lessons with -the slips, we do not tell the child the word that he must read. We must -do without commands, without false accentuation of notes, without -enforced positions. Music, if it be in reality an expressive language, -suggests everything to children if they are left to themselves. Rhythmic -interpretation of the musical thought is expressed by the attitude and -movement of body and spirit. - -Nannina, a girl four years old, would gracefully spread her skirt, and -relax her arms along her body. She would bend her knees slightly, throw -her head back and turning her pretty little face to one side, smile at -those behind her as though extending her amiability in all directions. - -Beppino, four and a half years old, stood with his feet together -motionless at the center of the ellipse drawn on the floor, on which the -children were walking. He beat the time of the first tune with an -outstretched arm, bowing from the waist in perfectly correct form at -every measure. The time consumed in this bow of Beppino exactly filled -the interval between one _thesis_ and the next and was in perfect accord -with the movement of the tune. - -Nannina, the same pretty girl we mentioned above, always grew stiff when -a military march was played; she would frown and walk heavily. - -On the other hand, the intervention of the teacher to give some apposite -lesson, tending to perfect certain movements, is something which gives -the children extraordinary delight. Five of our little girls embraced -each other rapturously and smothered the teacher with kisses when they -had learned a few new movements of a rhythmic dance. - -Otello, Vincenzino and Teresa had been taught to get a better effect -from their tambourines, their steps and gestures. Each of them thanked -the teacher for the profitable lesson in a special way. Vincenzino gave -her a beaming smile whenever he marched past her; Teresa would furtively -touch her with her hand; Otello was even more demonstrative--as he went -by her he would leave the line, run to her and embrace her for a second -or two. - -If the spontaneity of every child has been respected; if, in other -words, every child has been able to grow in his or her own way, -listening to the tunes, following them with the footsteps and with free -movements--interpreting them; if each child has been able to penetrate, -without being disturbed by any one, into the heart of the beautiful fact -which the understanding of music constitutes; then it is easy for the -teacher who has forty children (between three and five and a half years -of age) only one assistant, and preferably perhaps a whole apartment -instead of a closed room, to sit down at the piano and teach eight -children a long and intricate dance,--the lanciers in five parts. And -then just like the orchestra leader who has prepared his pupils, the -teacher with a minimum of effort gets the very effect in dancing, etc., -which teachers generally are so anxious to obtain. Then we can get -marches, counter marches, simultaneous movements, alternate movements, -interweaving lines,--anything in fact, that we wish, and with perfect -accuracy besides; since every movement in the children corresponds -exactly with the development of the tune. - -For instance, the children are marching two by two, holding each other's -hand, during the playing of a short tune. At the end of this melody they -slowly kneel, but in such a way that on the sound of the last note they -are touching the floor very gently with their knees. There is something -sweet about the accuracy and the perfect simultaneousness attained by -the children, under the guidance of the tune. The effect of these -exercises on them is to bring repose to their whole body and a sense of -peace to their little souls. - -On one occasion in a school just opened in Milan, 1908, the children -re-acted to the piano by jumping about in confusion, waving their arms, -moving their shoulders and legs. This was really an attempt to represent -by a sort of chaos the complexity of the rhythmic movements they were -hearing. They were actually making, without any assistance from others, -a spontaneous attempt at musical interpretation. They soon grew tired of -this, saying that "the thing was ugly." They had, however, divined the -possibilities of an orderly motory action; and when they had become -quiet again, they began to listen to the music with great interest -waiting for the revelation of its deep secret. Then suddenly they began -to walk again, this time regularly and according to the real measure. - -One of the children, whose graph was somewhat as follows: - -[Illustration] - -(pauses, that is, on the line of quiescence, with frequent excursions -into the negative field), took no part in these rhythmic exercises. On -the contrary, he was always breaking them up by pushing the other -children out of line or making a noise. Finally, however, he did learn -not to disturb others; in other words, to stay _quiet_, something which -he had never known how to do before. It is a great conquest for a -disorderly child to gain the ability to become quite motionless, in a -gently placid state of mind. His next step was to learn to move -delicately, with respect for other people; and he came to have a certain -sensitiveness about his relations with his schoolmates. For example, he -used to blush when they smiled at him and even when he took no part in -what they were doing, he shared their activities with an affectionate -attention. From this point on Riziero (that was the child's name) -entered on a higher plane of existence--one of order, labor and -politeness. - -The fact also that children at times listen to the music, while -remaining seated comfortably around the room, watching the other -children dance and march, is in itself a pretty thing. The children who -are seated become very self-controlled. They watch their schoolmates or -exchange a few words cautiously with each other. At times, even, they -let themselves go in interesting expressions of movement with their -arms. The manifestations of placidity and interest here seen cannot be -disjoined from a healthful, spiritual upbuilding--a beautiful -orderliness, which is being established within them. Obviously, a -wonderful harmony springs up between the teacher, who plays with -enthusiastic feeling and with all possible skill of hand and abundance -of spirit simply because she feels the musical phenomena around her in -the children, and the pupils who, little by little, are transformed -under this influence, and show an understanding of the music, which -becomes for them something more and more intimate, more and more -complete. It is no longer a question of the _step_, but of the position -of the whole body: arms, heads, chests _are moved_ by the music. - -Finally, many of the children beat time with their hands, and interpret -correctly without ever having been taught distinctions between 3 and 4 -time, etc. When a keen interest in "guessing" the time is awakened in -them, the children look about for various objects--wands, tambourines, -castagnettes, etc., and the class exercise is developed to perfection. -The child comes to be "possessed" by the music. He obeys the musical -command with his whole body and becomes more and more perfect in this -obedience shown by his muscles. - -Here is a pretty story which will show to what extent children can feel -themselves dependent on the music which "makes them move." Once my -father went into a room where a little Parisian girl whom he was very -fond of was passionately marching to the rhythm of a tune played on the -piano. The child usually ran to meet the old gentleman; but that day the -moment she saw him she began to shout to Miss Maccheroni, who was -playing, "_Arrête, arrête!_" She wanted to go and shake hands with my -father, something she could not do as long as the music was continuing -to _command_ her to move with the rhythm. And in fact, it was not until -Miss Maccheroni stopped playing that the little girl was able to run and -deliver her greeting. - - . . . . . . . . - -We have prepared a series of tunes for this work and I think it will be -useful to give here three which we finally selected because they have -succeeded, whenever they were tried, in arousing in the children the -phenomena above described. There are eight movements chosen from -repeated over and over again and played with all possible accuracy, will -surely, sooner or later, be felt in every rhythm by the children. - -The transition from following the time by ones (that is, one beat for -every rhythmic element) to the indication of simply the beginning of the -measure (that is, one beat on the _thesis_) appeared for the first time -in a "Children's House" directed by Miss Maccheroni. There, one morning -when the children were following the music with great pleasure, marching -about and beating on tambourines, it was a girl who first caught the -strong beat (_thesis_). A little boy behind her made the conquest a -second later; but while the little girl lost what she had gained almost -immediately, the little boy developed it to perfection. Shortly after -other children made the same progress, apparently as a saving of effort; -they began, that is, by beating once on every step. This required a -rapid movement and an endless succession of beats. All of a sudden they -began to beat on the first note of a measure. - -[Illustration: The children using the music bells and wooden keyboards. -(_The Washington Montessori School, Washington, D. C._)] - -Here, for instance, is a case of 4/4 time: - - |_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _ - | | | | | | | | | | | | - -The children at first marked the time without regard to the measure, -thus: - - | | | | | | | | | | | | - -But the moment comes suddenly when they catch the measure: then they -beat it as follows: - - | · · · | · · · | · · · - -In other words, their beats fall only on the first note at the measure. - -Maria Louise, a little under four years of age, was walking to the sound -of a 2/4 march, played rather lightly. Suddenly she called to the -teacher: "_Regarde, regarde, comme je fais!_" She was making little -skips, gracefully raising her arms on the first beat of the measure. Her -invention was extraordinarily happy and graceful. - -Usually in teaching the divisions of musical time, it has been the -custom to play _forte_ the time called theoretically _tempo forte_: in -other words, to strike hard on the first note of every rhythmic measure. -In fact, teachers of children or young people can often be heard playing -a tune with special emphasis on the first note of every measure and -playing the successive notes _pianissimo_. Naturally the motory action -corresponds to this: it will be tense for the strong beats and light for -the weak beats. But what value has all this in relation to the feeling -of the rhythmic measure? What is called theoretically _tempo forte_ -has no relation to the meaning of the words "strong" and "weak" in their -ordinary sense. It is a question of _emphasis_ and _expression_, which -derive their nature from the laws of musical time and melodic -composition and certainly not from the wrist muscles of the person -playing. If this were not so, a person could play the first, second or -third note of a measure as _forte_, whereas, in reality, it is the first -that is always "strong." - -[Illustration: Analyzing the beat of a measure while walking on a line. -(_A Montessori School in Italy._)] - -In practise, children, to whom the six tunes we proposed for the -beginning of this study were played--and played always with rigorous -musical interpretation and with expressiveness--succeeded in recognizing -the first beat of the measure as "strong," and went on thus to divide -into measures some thirty pieces of music of varied rhythm. Even the -following year, after the summer vacation, they kept asking for new -pieces of music just for the "fun" of working out the measure in them. -They would stand at the side of the teacher at the piano and either with -their hands or with soft playing on the castagnettes or tambourines, -accompany their new piece of music. In general they would listen in -silence to the first measure and then fall in with their little beats -like any well-trained orchestra. They took the trouble no longer to -march to the music: they were interested in this new form of study; -while the smaller tots, delighted with the new music, were still walking -undisturbed along the elliptical line on the floor which was to guide -them to such great conquests! - -The strong beat (_thesis_) is the key that opens to the higher laws of -music. Sometimes it is played, for reasons of expression, very softly -and always possesses the solemnity of the note which dominates the -rhythm. It may even be syncopated or lacking entirely, just as when the -orator on reaching his climax pronounces in a very low voice the phrase -which is to produce the great effect, or even pauses and is silent: this -sentence rings powerfully in the ears of those who listen. - -The same error which leads to heavy stress, in playing, on the first -beat of every measure in order to attract the attention of the children -to it, also leads to suggesting secondary movements in addition to the -one which marks the _thesis_. The children, for instance, must make four -movements for a 4/4 time: movements in the air for the secondary beats, -and a more energetic movement for the _thesis_. The result is that -interest in the succession of movements replace attention to the fact of -most importance, which is _to feel_ the value of the first beat. -Children who feel the first note because it is played "strong" and who -proceed from one strong beat to the following strong beat guided by a -succession of movements, are not, it is obvious, following the tune. One -little girl who had been prepared by this method found herself, on -having mistaken the beat, constantly persisting in her mistake under the -guidance of her four movements. It is like presenting a cube or a -triangle to children of three years with the teacher enumerating the -sides, the angles, the apexes, etc. In reality the children do not get -any notion of the triangle or the cube. - -Our children come ultimately to represent the secondary beats with the -slight movements, as follows: - - |_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - -and then they count them. When we have, gone thus far we reach the point -which is exactly the _point of departure_ for ordinary methods, namely, -counting _one! two! three! four!_ to keep step in time. - - . . . . . . . . - -As a practical application of the information already acquired in the -division of time into measures, we next pass to the exercise of playing -the scales in 2/4, 3/4 and 4/4 time and with the triplets. The scale, -the classic type of the melody, lends itself beautifully to these -interpretations of various measures. Every one must have passed hours at -the piano playing simple scales and finding a delicious variety in the -exercise. The _do_ scale itself may be played, for instance, thus: - -[Illustration] - -or thus: - -[Illustration] - -or thus: - -[Illustration] - -Our little piano may be of use in this exercise; but it is better first -to use an exercise more easy for finger movement and for the position of -the hand: - - . . . . . . . . - -Children who have succeeded in identifying and dividing the melody into -measures and the measure itself into 2, 3, 4, understand very easily -the time values of the notes. It is sufficient to let the child _hear_ -each exercise _first_ and he will repeat it with precision. Thus all -kinds of dry explanation of musical _values_ disappear. - -[Illustration] - -The following notation - -[Illustration] - -presents no special difficulty if the child has once heard it. - -Our next step is to use some exercises for the analysis of the measure, -for instance: - -[Illustration] - -The children follow these exercises, marching so as to put one step on -every note. Even children of four years when prepared with the preceding -exercises succeed in following these with the very greatest interest. -They are especially delighted with the long note which keeps them -hanging in position with one foot in front of them on the line and the -other one behind them also on the line. The position is that of a person -who stops before bringing up the foot which is still behind him. - -Since the children already know how to _read_ music, there is hung up -before them a green chart (similar in dimensions to the musical staffs -already familiar to them) on which is written the exercise which is -being played at the piano by the teacher and which they execute on the -floor-line. - -Examples: - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Here is another: - -[Illustration] - -We even give a simple time like this one (composed by Professor Jean -Gibert of the Montessori Primary School of Barcelona): - -[Illustration] - -Of course, sooner or later children fix their attention on the varying -form of the notes and discover that this difference in form bears a -relation to differences in time-value of the notes: - -[Illustration] - -This is the time to give in very brief explanation the lesson on the -value of the notes. Thereafter the child may write from memory a simple -melody which the teacher has first played on the piano. Almost always -the child writes this down with accuracy, showing that he has control -over the musical values appearing in the melody in question. The child -uses for this purpose a large green chart containing various musical -staffs on which movable notes may be fixed at pleasure. These notes are -equipped with a pin which may be pushed into the wood. The simple -exercises given for the analysis of the measures, transferred into -various keys, can after some practise in playing them on the system of -plates be put into their copy books by the children. These exercises for -measure-analysis are so simple that the children themselves have -sometimes learned to play them on the piano. It then has happened that -the class went of its own accord into the piano room; one child began to -play and the others followed the music on the floor-line. The children -as they walk ultimately come to sing the scales and the easy tunes (of -which they have recognized the notes) pronouncing the names of the -notes; but in so pronouncing them they soften, their voices to the point -of attaining an expression which may be called even artistic. When the -teacher plays, the music gains the added charm of harmony, since the -teacher can give not only the simple scale, but the relative chords, and -this gives the scale a vigorous and very sweet fullness. - -These exercises in measure analysis have also been particularly useful -in their application to gymnastic exercises. The children follow them -with gymnastic movements, using especially the movements of Dalcroze, -which are admirably adapted to the measures of 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, etc., and -which have a real beauty. We discovered that these exercises proved to -be complexly difficult for the children who had not practised -sufficiently in the interpretation of the different note values. On the -other hand, they were very easy for those who had come to have a clear -feeling for these different values. This was proof to us that sensorial -preparation must precede these exercises, and furthermore, that the only -difficulty Dalcroze movements encounter in children arises from -insufficient sensory preparation in the children themselves. - -In the same way we illustrate the different details of of musical -writing: the dotted note, - -[Illustration] - -the triplet: - -[Illustration] - -the _legato_, the _staccato_, etc. - -Here is an example of a _legato_ effect: - -[Illustration: (Sonnambula. Quintet)] - -This example which derives all its expressive value from the ties, also -brings out the value of the note: - -[Illustration] - -We need, accordingly, a collection of musical selections in which the -value of the notes is obvious and clear to such an extent that the -children come to recognize the different values. This recognition must -be obtained by ear through listening to the music, not by eye looking at -the symbols while the teacher explains. - -The 1/4 note always has a different musical content from the 1/16 note. -A musical piece made up of the 16th or 32d notes has a character of its -own (joy or agitation); and a piece made up of half or whole notes has -likewise its peculiar character (religious, sad, impressive). - -The same may be said of every musical symbol, the value of which is -brought out by the note being played with that value and in reference -to that symbol. It has been held that in playing for children and in -copying music for the use of children the expression-symbols should be -suppressed. We should observe that these signs of expression bear to the -music the relation that punctuation bears to the written sentence; their -suppression takes away all value from the notes. For example, the -_legato_ and symbols which indicate that difference ([image] and ·) have -therefore the greatest value. - -The children succeed quite easily in using and reading the accessory -symbols of music. They already know their meaning through having heard -them. We have not found it necessary to use such signs as _sense -objects_, such as bars (to be placed on the wooden staff to divide -measure from measure), time fractions, parentheses and so on. Although -we had these manufactured, we ultimately abandoned them because we found -that they were simply in the way. - -On the other hand, we found considerable utility in our large colored -cards with a single staff already described. On these are written -various measures which the children read with a special pleasure and -execute on their bells. - - . . . . . . . . - -With all this a way has been opened to a really musical education. Once -Miss Maccheroni, while executing her customary rhythmic tunes, -reproduced a melodious religious movement, "_O Sanctissima_," which the -children heard for the first time. The children all left the line and -gathered around the piano to listen. Two or three little girls kneeled -on the floor and others remained motionless executing plastic poses -with their arms. This revealed to us their sensitiveness to melody; they -felt moved not to march but to pray and assume various poses. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -We have not yet been able to push our experiments far enough precisely -to define the musical material adapted to children of various ages. We -have, however, made a very great number of successful attempts to bring -children to enjoy melody and sentimental expression in music. The -practicableness and utility of musical auditions, or, if you wish, of -concerts for children, graduated in difficulty, executed on various -instruments, but on one instrument at a time, are beyond all question; -this applies above all to songs reproduced by the human voice, when a -well-trained voice is available. - -If a real artist should take up the task of analyzing for children the -language of music, bringing them to enjoy it phrase by phrase and under -different _timbres_ (voice, strings, etc.), his new and scientific -application of the art would be produced in the future from these groups -of little ones, so intelligent in music, who follow the most expressive -tunes with so much passion and in a silence more absolute than any -celebrated artist can dream of attaining in a meeting of adults! No one -among these little hearers is cold, far away in thought. But on the -faces of the children appears the interior working of a spirit, tasting -a nectar essential to its very live. - -How many times a plastic pose, a kneeling posture, an ecstatic face, -will move the heart of the artist to a sense of joy greater than that -which any applause of a throng of people often indifferent or -inattentive, can possibly give him! Usually only those wounded at heart -by the difficulty of being understood by others, or discouraged by the -coldness or rudeness of other people, or oppressed by disillusion, or -filled with a sense of painful loneliness or need of expansion in some -other way, feel in music the voice which opens the doors of the heart -and causes a health-giving flood of tears or raises the spirit to a -lofty sense of peace. Only they can understand how necessary a companion -for humanity music is. We know, of course, to-day that music is an -indispensable stimulant for soldiers rushing forth to die. How much more -truly would it then become a stimulant for all who are to live! - -This conviction is already in the hearts of many people. In fact, -attempts have already been made to reach the populace by concerts in the -public squares and by making concert halls accessible to people of every -class; but after all, do such attempts amount to more than putting the -cheap editions of the classics into circulation among illiterates? -Education is the prime requisite; without such education we have a -people of deaf mutes forever barred from any music. The ear of the -uneducated man cannot perceive the sublime sounds which music would -bring within his reach. That is why though the music of Bellini and -Wagner is being played in public squares, the saloons are just as full -as before. - -If, however, from these pupils of ours a whole people could grow up, it -would be sufficient to go through the streets with a good piece of music -and everybody would come out to hear. All those places where the rough -and abandoned wrecks of humanity seek enjoyment, like homeless dogs -looking for food in our ash-cans, would be emptied as if by magic. We -would have an actual realization of the Allegory of Orpheus; for hearts -which are to-day of stone would then be stirred and brought to life by a -sublime melody. - - -SINGING - -Singing began with the scale. The singing of a scale, first in -accompaniment with the bells and later with the piano is a first and -great delight to the children. They sing it in various ways, now in a -low voice, now very loud, now all together in unison, now one by one. -They sing divided into two groups, sharing the notes alternately between -them. Among the songs which we offer to the children, the greatest -favorite proved to be the syllabic Gregorian Chant. It is something like -a very perfect form of speech. It has a conversational intonation, the -softness of a sentence well pronounced, the full roundness of the -musical phrase. The examples given here have almost the movement of the -scale. - -Many other verses of the Gregorian Chant have, like these, proved to be -the delight of the Montessori Elementary School of Barcelona. There the -children are especially keen about this very simple music which they -like to play on the piano, on their plates (Xylophones) or on their -monochords. - -[Illustration: Music - - Rorate Coeli de super et nubes pluant justum - Puer natus in Bethlehem, alleluia. - Unde gaudet Jerusalem - Alleluia Alleluia - In Cordis jubilo - Christum natum adoremus, - Cum novo Cantico.] - - -MUSICAL PHRASES FOR THE INITIAL RHYTHMIC EXERCISES - -We give here in complete form the musical phrases used by us for the -first rhythmic exercises. They are adequate for giving the sensation of -rhythm and for suggesting the motory actions associated with the rhythm. -This musical material now forms in our schools part of the material -which is experimentally established. - - _Works from which Selections are Taken_ _Motor Reactions Provoked_ - - 1. "Ancora un bacio," mazurka, Bastianelli Slow walk. - 2. "Si j'étais roi," Adolphe Adam Accelerated walk. - 3. "Eagle March," Wagner March step. - 4. "Galop," Strauss Run. - 5. "Italian folk-song" Hop. - 6. "Pas des patineurs" Sedate walk. - - -ANCORA UN BACIO - -[Illustration: Music] - - -SI J'ÉTAIS ROI - -[Illustration: Music] - - -EAGLE MARCH - -[Illustration: Music] - - -GALOP - -[Illustration: Music] - - -ITALIAN FOLK SONG - -[Illustration: Music] - - -PAS DES PATINEURS - -[Illustration: Music] - - -O SANCTISSIMA - -[Illustration: Music] - - - - -V - -MUSICAL AUDITIONS - - -The movement entitled "O Sanctissima," played by Miss Maccheroni one day -by chance among the rhythmic exercises, is regarded by us as an -introduction to _musical audition_. It will be recalled that the -children had been accustomed to alter their style of marching on the -floor-line according to changes in the music. It had never, however, -occurred to them to leave the line. When this piece was played they all -crowded around the piano, motionless, thoughtful, absorbed; while two or -three little ones fell to their knees and assumed various poses. This -experience suggested to us the idea of "musical auditions," if you wish -"concerts for children." - -Children, little by little to be sure, but no less admirably, enter into -the spirit of music. After the numerous rhythmic exercises, as soon, -that is, as they have mastered the problem of measure, almost any -_sonata_ is within their reach. They can handle not isolated movements -merely, but whole pieces of music. The same is true of the auditions. At -first, of course, it is better to select simple phrases; but gradually -the children come to enjoy "the best music," joyfully recognizing the -feeling which it expresses and which inspired it. Our pupils used to -exclaim, for instance: "This piece is for weeping," "This is for -prayer," "Now we must laugh," "Now we must shout," etc. - -We cannot, however, insist too strongly on the need for the greatest -possible care in the execution of the selections used. A child audience -is a very special one. It demands something more than is expected by the -average "intelligent audience." It is one in which musical intelligence -must be _developed_. Our object must be the creation not merely of -higher and higher grades of understanding but also of higher and higher -grades of _feeling_. In this sense, we can never _do too much_ for the -children. It is a task not beneath the dignity of the greatest -composers, the most accomplished technicians. Indeed, any one of such -might well esteem it a privilege some day to hear it said of his work -that it aroused the first love for music in the hearts of one of these -little ones. For thus music would have been made a companion, a -consoler, a guardian angel of man! It is of course not the lot of all of -us to attain the exalted position of greatness whether as artists or -technicians. We must content ourselves with assuming an obligation: with -_giving_ all the soul and all the skill we possess. We must conceive of -ourselves as transmitters of the largess of music to our children. We -must deeply feel our calling as bestowers of a divine gift. - -The following titles were all used successfully by us in our -experiments. They are supplements to the "O Sanctissima" and a "Pater -Noster." - - - A. NARRATIVES. - - _Trovatore:_ "Tacea la notte placida." - _Lucrezia Borgia:_ "Nella fatal di Rimini e memorabil guerra." - _Lucia di Lamermoor:_ "Regnava nel silenzio." - _Trovatore:_ "Racconto di Azucena." - _Sonnambula:_ "A fosco cielo, a notte bruna." - _Rigoletto:_ "Tutte le frese al tempio." - _Fra Diavolo:_ "Quell'uom dal fiero aspetto." - - - B. DESCRIPTION. - - _Beethoven_: "Moonlight." - _Bohème_: "Nevica; qualcuno passa e parla" (Act II, prelude). - _Aida_, prelude as far as "Cieli azzurri." - _Aida_, "Marcia trionfale" (containing the motive of the scene to - which it belongs). - - C. SENTIMENT AND PASSION: - - _Gaiety:_ - _Traviata_: "Libiam nei lieti celici." - _Sonnambula_: "In Elvezia non v'ha rosa fresca e bella al par - d'Alina." - _Traviata_: "Sempre libera deggi' io folleggiar." - _Faust_: Peasant song, "La vaga pupilla." - - _Contentment:_ - _Aida_: "Rivedrò le foreste imbalsamate." - - _Passion:_ - _Traviata_: "Amami Alfredo." - _Lucrezia Borgia_: "Era desso il figliuol mio." - - _Anguish:_ - _Lucrezia Borgia_: "Mio figlio, ridate a me il mio figlio." - " " "Infelice, il veleno bevesti." - - _Threat:_ - _Cavalleria Rusticana_: "Bada, Santuzza, schiavo non son." - - _Allurement:_ - _Barbiere di Siviglia_: "La calunnia è un venticello." - _Iris_: "La Piovra." - - _Comic:_ - _Barbiere di Siviglia_: "Pace e gioia sia con voi." - _Fra Diavolo_: "Grazie al ciel per una serva." - - _Invitation:_ - _Faust_: "Permetteresti a me." - _Bohème_: song of Rudolph, "Che gelida manina." - - _Anger:_ - _Sonnambula_: "Ah perchè non posso odiarti." - - _Sorrow of sacrifice:_ - _Bohème_: "Vecchia zimarra senti." - - _Meditation:_ - Mendelsohn: Romances. - Mozart. - Chopin. - - D. FOLK SONGS AND DANCES. - - - - -PART VII - -METRICS - - - - -I - -THE STUDY OF METRICS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS - - -One of the novelties included in our experiments was the teaching of -metrics, hitherto reserved for high schools. The love shown by children -for poetry, their exquisite sensitiveness to rhythm, led me to suspect -that the native roots of poetry might be present in little children. I -suggested to Miss Maria Fancello, a teacher of literature in the high -schools and my colleague, to attempt such an experiment. She began with -children of different ages, and, together, we succeeded in discovering a -highly interesting department of education, the object of which might be -to give the mass of the people, prepared for life in the primary -schools, the basic elements of literary appreciation, thus opening a new -source of pleasure calculated also to increase general enlightenment. A -populace capable of enjoying poetry, of judging the beauty of verse, and -hence of coming in contact with the spirits of our greatest poets, would -be something quite different to the masses we new know. To find the like -we have to imagine the people of ancient story, who talked in poetry and -moved their bodies to the rhythm, thus laying the foundations of refined -civilization. - -It is not our intention to describe in detail all we did in these -experiments. It will be sufficient to summarize the results, which may -suggest useful material end methods to others. - -As soon as the children are somewhat advanced in reading, poetry, which -they loved so much in "Children's House," may be included in the -materials offered in partial satisfaction of their insatiable desire to -read. It is best to begin with poems composed of stanzas of different -lengths, the stanzas being printed at easily noticeable intervals from -each other. The lines may be counted, in teaching the two new words -"stanza" and "line." The process involved is a recognition of "objects," -suggesting the first exercise in reading, where the children put _names_ -on things; though here the situation is much simpler. At the same time -we have the exercise of counting the lines. In short, it is a review -exercise of the greatest simplicity. - -The counting of the lines leads at once to the identification of such -groups as the couplet, quatrain, octave, etc. But little time is spent -on such a crude detail. The little ones almost immediately become -interested in the rhyme. The first step is the recognition of rhyming -syllables which are underlined with colored pencils, using a different -color for each rhyme. Seven-year-olders take the greatest delight in -this work, which is too simple to arouse interest in children of eight -or nine. Those of seven do such work about as quickly as those of ten, -the speed of the younger children being due apparently to their -enthusiasm, the slowness of the older to their lack of interest. We may -note in passing that these exercises furnish tests of absolute exactness -as to rapidity of work. Children of eight are able to go one step beyond -marking the rhymes with colored pencils. They can use the more -complicated device of marking lines with the letters of the alphabet: -aa, bb, cc, etc. Marking with numbers to the left the lines in their -order, and the rhymes with letters to the right, we get a specimen -result as follows: - - 1^{o} Rondinella pellegr_ina_ a - - 2^{o} Che ti posi sul ver_one_ b - - 3^{o} Ricantando ogni matt_ina_ a - - 4^{o} Quella flebile canz_one_ b - - 5^{o} Che vuoi dirmi in tua fav_ella_ c - - 6^{o} Pellegrina rondin_ella_? c - -(Translation: "Wandering swallow, as you sit there on my balcony each -morning, singing to me your tearful song, what is it you are trying to -tell me in your language, wandering swallow?") - - * * * * * - -This brings out the difference between the alternating rhyme (a, b, a, -b) and the couplet (c, c), as well as the morphology of the stanza. - - . . . . . . . . - -In reading the lines over and over again to work out the rhyme scheme, -the children spontaneously begin to catch the tonic accents. Their -readiness in this respect is a matter of common observation. In fact, in -ordinary schools, the teachers are continually struggling against the -"sing-song" developed by children in reading poetry. This "sing-song" is -nothing more nor less that stress on the rhythmic movement. - -On one occasion, one of our children, a little boy, had been spending -some time over a number of decasyllabic lines. While waiting in the -corridor for the doors to open at dismissal time, he suddenly began to -walk up and down "right-about-facing" at every three steps and saying -aloud: "tatatá, tatatá, tatatátta," right-about-face, then "tatatá, -tatatá, tatatátta." Each step was accompanied by a gesture in the air -with his little clenched fist. This tot was marching to the verse -rhythm, just as he would have marched to music. It was a case of -perfectly interpretative "gymnastic rhythm." His gestures fell on the -three tonic accents of the Italian decasyllable, the right-about marked -the end of the "verse"--the "turn" in the line, which he indicated by -"turning" himself around to begin over again. - -When the children have reached such a stage of sensory development, they -have no difficulty in recognizing the tonic accents. For this purpose, -we have prepared sheets with poems written in a clear hand. The children -mark with a neatly drawn accent the letter on which the rhythmic accent -falls. The material should be systematically presented. We found from -experience that the children first discover the accents in _long_ lines -made up of _even-numbered_ syllables (parisyllabic lines), where the -accents recur at regular intervals and are clearly called for both by -sense, word accent and rhythm. We were able to establish the following -sequence for various Italian lines, which present a graduated series of -difficulties to the child in recognizing the accents: - -1. Decasyllables: example: - - S'ode a d=é=stra uno squ=í=llo di tr=ó=mba - A sin=í=stra risp=ó=nde uno squ=í=llo: - D'ambo i l=á=ti calp=é=sto rimb=ó=mba - Da cav=á=lli e da f=á=nti il terr=é=n. - Quinci sp=ú=nta per l'=á=ria un vess=í=llo: - Quindi un =á=ltro s'av=á=nza spieg=á=to: - Ecco app=á=re un drapp=é=llo schier=á=to; - Ecco un =á=ltro che inc=ó=ntro gli vi=é=n. - (MANZONI, _La battaglia di Maclodio._) - -(Translation: "A trumpet call sounds to the right; a trumpet calls -answers to the left; all around the earth shakes with the charge of -horses and men. Here a standard is broken out to the breeze; there -another advances waving; here a line of troops appears, there another -rushing against it.") - -2. Dodecasyllables: example: - - Ru=é=llo, Ru=é=llo, div=ó=ra la v=í=a, - Port=á=teci a v=ó=lo, buf=é=re del ci=é=l. - È pr=é=sso alla m=ó=rte la v=é=rgine m=í=a, - Gal=ó=ppa, gal=ó=ppa, gal=ó=ppa Ru=é=l. - (PRATI, _Galoppo notturno_.) - -(Translation: "Ruello, Ruello, as fast as you can! O storm-winds of -heaven, lend us your wings; my loved one is lying near death; onward, -onward, onward, Ruello!") - -3. Eight syllable lines (_ottonario_): example: - - Solit=á=rio bosco ombr=ó=so, - A te vi=é=ne afflitto c=ó=r, - Per trov=á=r qualche rip=ó=so - Fra i sil=é=nzi in quest'orr=ó=r. - (ROLLI, _La lontananza_.) - -(Translation: "O deserted wood! To your shade the sorrowing heart comes -to find some rest in your cool silence.") - -4. Six syllable lines (_senario_): example: - - Pur b=á=ldo di sp=é=me - L'uom =ú=ltimo gi=ú=nto - Le c=é=neri pr=é=me - D'un m=ó=ndo def=ú=nto; - Inc=á=lza di s=é=coli - Non =á=nco mat=ú=ri - I f=ú=lgidi a=ú=g=ú=ri. - (ZANELLA, _La conchiglia fossile_.) - -(Translation: "Radiant with hope, the latest comer treads on the ashes -of a dead world, pursuing the glowing aspirations of ages not yet -ripe.") - -NOTE: In the above selections the vowels in broad-faced type have been -marked with an accent by the child, to indicate the rhythmic beat. - -We found, on the other hand, that greater difficulty is experienced by -the children in lines where the syllables are in odd-numbers -(imparisyllabics), the hardest of the Italian lines being the -hendecasyllable, which is a combination of the seven syllable and the -five syllable line, fused together with all their great varieties of -movement. - -We established the following gradation of difficulties: - -1. Seven syllable line (_settenario_): example: - - Gi=à= ri=é=de Pr=í=mav=é=ra - Col s=ú=o flor=í=to asp=é=tto, - Gi=à= il gr=á=to z=é=ffir=é=tto - Sch=é=rza fra l'=é=rbe e i fi=ó=r. - (METASTASIO, _Primavera_.) - -(Translation: "Now already flowery Spring returns; again the lovely -zephyrs dance amidst the grass and blossoms.") - -2. Five syllable line (_quinario_): example: - - Viv=á=ce s=í=mbolo - D=é= la fam=í=glia, - Le di=è= la tr=é=mula - M=á=dre a la f=í=glia, - Le di=è= la su=ó=cera - Bu=ó=na a la nu=ó=ra - Ne l'=ú=ltim' =ó=ra. - (MAZZONI, _Per un mazzo di chiavi_.) - -(Translation: "As a vivid symbol of the home, they were passed on by the -dying mother to her daughter or to her son's wife.") - -3. Nine syllable line (_novenario_): example: - - Te tr=í=ste! Che a v=á=lle t'asp=é=ttano - I gi=ó=rni di c=á=ntici pr=í=vi; - Ah n=ó=, non dai m=ó=rti che t'=á=mano, - Ti gu=á=rda, frat=é=llo, dai v=í=vi. - (CAVALLOTTI, _Su in alto_.) - -(Translation: "Alas, for thee, O brother! Yonder, songless days await -thee. Ah no, have no fear of the dead: they love thee! The living only -shouldst thou fear!") - -4. Hendecasyllable: example: - - Per me si v=á= nella citt=á= dol=é=nte, - Per me si v=á= nell'et=é=rno dol=ó=re, - Per me si v=á= tra la perd=ú=ta g=é=nte. - (DANTE, _Divina Commedia, Inferno_.) - -(Translation: "Through me ye enter the city of sorrow; through me ye -enter the realm of eternal grief; through me ye enter the regions of the -damned"). - - * * * * * - -The typical ending of these various lines is the trochee (-- U, _verso -piano_). The iambic (U --, _verso tronco_) and the dactyllic (-- U U, -_verso sdrucciolo_) endings (requiring respectively one syllable less -and one syllable more than the _verso piano_) constitute occasional -variations. We have found that these rarer lines are recognized rather -as curiosities than as difficulties by the children who easily refer -them to their respective normal types. They are accordingly presented in -our material along with the common verses of trochaic endings. Our -illustration of the five syllable line given above showed specimens of -the dactyllic ending (_sdrucciolo_, -- U U). Here is another example of -alternating trochaic (_piano_) and dactyllic endings: - - In c=í=ma a un =á=lbero - C'=é= un uccell=í=no - Di nu=ó=vo g=é=nere.... - Che s=í=a un bamb=í=no? - (L. SCHWARZ, _Uccellino_.) - -(Translation: "There's a very strange little bird up in that tree! Why, -it's a little child!") - - * * * * * - -In the following decasyllables, the trochaic ending alternates with the -iambic (_tronco_): - - Lungi, l=ú=ngi, su l'=á=li del c=á=nto - Di qui l=ú=ngi rec=á=re io ti v=ó=' - Là, ne i c=á=mpi fior=í=ti del s=á=nto - Gange, un lu=ó=go bell=í=ssimo, io s=ó=. - (CARDUCCI, _Lungi, lungi_.) - -(Translation: "I will take thee far, far away on the wings of my song: -there, among the flowery fields of the sacred Ganges, I know of a -beautiful spot"). - - * * * * * - -Some difficulty arose, however, when we came to lines with alternations -of parisyllables and imparisyllables; though this new movement aroused -real enthusiasm among the children, who greeted it as a new and strange -music. It often happened that after the pleasurable effort of analyzing -a poem with lines alternating in this way, the pupils would choose as -"recreation" the study of lines of even-numbered syllables. Here is an -example of the new type: - - Eran trec=é=nto, eran gi=ó=vani e f=ó=rti, - E s=ó=no m=ó=rti! - Me ne and=á=vo al matt=í=no a spigol=á=re - Quando ho v=í=sto una b=á=rca in mezzo al m=á=re: - Era una b=á=rca che and=á=va a vap=ó=re, - E alz=á=va una bandi=é=ra tricol=ó=re. - All'=í=sola di P=ó=nza s'è ferm=á=ta, - È stata un p=ó=co e p=ó=i si è ritorn=á=ta; - S'è ritorn=á=ta ed è ven=ú=ta a t=é=rra: - Sceser con l'=á=rmi, e a noi non f=é=cer gu=é=rra. - (PRATI, _La spigolatrice di Sapri_.) - -(Translation: "There were three hundred, young and strong! And now they -are dead! That morning I was gleaning in the fields; I saw a boat at -sea,--a steamer flying the white, red and green. It stopped at Ponza, -remained a while and then came back--came back and approached the shore. -They came ashore in arms, but to us they did no harm"). - - * * * * * - -While the rhythmic accents were being studied, we found that the -discovery of the cæsura (interior pause) formed an interesting -recreative diversion. In fact this work aroused so much enthusiasm that -the children went from exercise to exercise, continuing at study for -extended periods, and far from showing signs of weariness, actually -increased their joyous application. One little girl, in the first six -minutes of her work, marked the cæsura of seventy-six ten-syllable lines -without making a mistake. An abundant material is necessary for this -exercise. Example: - - Dagli atri muscosi, | dai fori cadenti, - Dai boschi, dall'arse | fucine stridenti, - Dai solchi bagnati | di servo sudor, - Un volgo disperso | repente si desta, - Intende l'orecchio, | solleva la testa, - Percosso da novo | crescente rumor. - (MANZONI, _Italiani e Longobardi_.) - -(Translation: "From the damp atria, from the ruined squares, from the -forests, from the hissing forges, from the fields bathed with the sweat -of slaves, a scattered horde of men suddenly is roused. They listen, -lift their heads, startled at this strange increasing roar"). - - * * * * * - -The step forward to the perception of the syllabic units of the line is -a purely sensory phenomenon: it is analogous to marking the time of -music without taking account of the measure divisions. Syllabiating -according to rhythm and beating on the table with the fingers solve -even the subtler difficulties such as dieresis and synalepha, in -recognizing the rhythmic syllables. Examples: - - La | so | mma | sa | pi | en | za e'l | pri | mo A | mo | re - -We print this verse in the above form, because it was thus divided by a -child in his very first spontaneous effort at syllabiation. As a matter -of fact, we present the material normally according to graded -difficulties, using over again for this purpose the materials used in -the study of accents. At this point also the accents themselves suddenly -acquire a new interest, for the child is able to observe on "what -syllable they fall." Thus his metrical study approaches completion, for -now he can readily acquire the nomenclature of metrics and -versification: _dodecasyllable_, _hendecasyllable_, etc. Then, combining -his knowledge of the numbers of syllables and the location of the -rhythmic accents, the child is at the point of discovering the rhythmic -laws of verse construction. We were expecting the children to begin -producing definitions like the following: "The dodecasyllable line has -twelve syllables and four accents which fall on the second, fifth, -eighth and eleventh syllables," etc. The spontaneous impulse of the -pupils led instead to the construction of "mirrors" or "checkerboards" -like the following: - - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | |1| 2| 3|4| 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |10| 11 |12|13| - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - |Decasyllable _piano_ | | |3d| | |6th| | |9th| | | | | - | (trochaic) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | " _tronco_ (iambic)| | |3d| | |6th| | |9th| | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - |Eight syllable _piano_ | | |3d| | | |7th| | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | " " _tronco_ | | |3d| | | |7th| | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - |Dodecasyllable _piano_ | |2d| | |5th| | |8th| | |11th| | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | " _tronco_ | |2d| | |5th| | |8th| | |11th| | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - -The additional step to using the symbols of metrics was an easy one, and -a graphic diagram resulted much as follows: - - - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Eight syllable | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 12| 13| - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | (Title of | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| U | | | | | | - | Poem) +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | e.g. | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| | | | | | | - | "Il ritorno in +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Italia" | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| U | | | | | | - | "Return to +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Italy" | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| U | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | "Solitude" | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| U | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Decasyllable | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 12| 13| - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | (Title of +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Poem) | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | "Passion" +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | "The Oath of +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Pontida" | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | "The Battle +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | of Macloud" | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | "Far, far +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | away" | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - -The next development is a complete study of the stanza or strophe in the -form of a summary; the number of lines, the rhymes, the accents, number -and location of the syllables. To _distinguish_ between the stanzas is -also to classify them, which becomes a pleasing task for the children. - -One little girl, who was making a summary study of four terzets of -Dante, suddenly called the teacher to inform her with an expression of -complete surprise: "See, the rhyme always begins at the last accent!" -She had before her: - - Per me si va nella città dol_ente_; - Per me si va nell'eterno dol_ore_; - Per me si va tra la perduta g_ente_. - Giustizia mosse il mio alto fatt_ore_; - Fecemi la divina potest_ate_, - La somma sapienza e il primo am_ore_. - Dinanzi a me non fur cose cre_ate_.... - (Dante: Inscription over Gate of Hell.) - -So in metrics also the children, following the natural inclinations of -their growth, pass from sensory discipline, to intelligent cognition, -and graphic representation. Then they become the "explorers of their -environment," the "discoverers" of general laws. - - * * * - -Translator's Note: The basis of Italian verse is in the syllable count, -and the rhythmic accent. In English verse, however, the question of the -syllable count is dependent on a much more complex consideration: -syllable length; and syllable length, in its turn, is conditioned not -only by the phonetic situation in and around the syllable, but by -rhetorical stress as well. It is clear that Signora Montessori's -experiments on the simpler Italian line have little direct bearing, save -as an illustration of method, on the pedagogy of English Metrics. For -whereas, the principal classifications of Italian lines involve merely -the problem of syllabiation (complicated by dieresis and synalepha), -with a numerical terminology (_quinario_, _ottonario_, _decasillabo_, -etc.), the study of English versification demands an analysis of measure -(feet) and of number of feet, with a terminology relative to each: -trochee, iambus, dactyl, spondee, anapest, etc., hexameter, pentameter, -etc., to mention only the most obvious elements of a science which, -applied even to simple English verse, soon becomes extremely -complicated. How much, then, of the study of English metrics, beyond the -elementary concepts of stanza and rhyme, should be included in the -Montessori Advanced Method, and what order of presentation of facts -should be followed, still remains to be experimentally determined. - -However, the most illuminating fact, as regards method, which detaches -from Signora Montessori's experiments with metrical forms, is that _long -parisyllables_ are more readily analyzed by children than -imparisyllables; and secondly that _short_ imparisyllables prove easier -than long imparisyllables. We might wish more explicit evidence that the -hardest parisyllable is easier, therefore more _natural_, than the -easiest imparisyllable--implied in Signora Montessori's presentation of -this subject. Even so, her conclusions are interesting, and from more -than one point of view. It will be recalled that the most ancient and -the most fortunate of the meters used in French, Spanish, and Provençal -poetry is precisely the decasyllable (_Song of Roland_, the Provençal -_Boecis_, etc.), whereas the favorite line of old Italian popular poetry -was the octo-syllabic verse. These are both parisyllables, though the -succession of _theses_, or rhythmic beats, is not quite analogous to -that of the modern Italian verses used in this experiment. It would -seem, in fact, as though the children initiated by Signora Montessori -into metrical studies, were actually traversing the earlier experiences -of their Latin race. - -Doubtless the reason why the parisyllable submits more readily to -rhythmic analysis than imparisyllables, is that when the syllables are -in even numbers, the line tends to reduce to two simple rhythmic -groups--the decasyllable to groups of 4 and 6, with two rhythmic beats -in each group; the dodecasyllable to groups of 6 and 6 (therefore of 3 -and 3 and 3 and 3); the octosyllables to groups of 4 and 4; the six -syllable to groups of 3 and 3. The imparisyllables on the contrary are -rarely capable of such division--of such _monotony_, if you wish. They -lend themselves to more complex rhythm, especially to "paragraphic" -treatment. They are distinctly the rhythms of erudite, "cultivated," -"literary" poetry. - -We should suspect, accordingly, that what appears in the above -experiments as _length_ is in reality _reducibility_ to simpler forms; -and that lines capable of such reduction should be given first in an -adaptation of Signora Montessori's method. It is, however, highly -improbable that in English, where the only constant element in rhythm is -the stress and not the syllable count, the line compounded of two -simpler rhythmic groups should prove easier for the child than either of -those simpler groups themselves. We see no reason to assume, for -instance, than an eight-stress line, reducible to two four-stress lines, -should be more readily analyzed than a four-stress line; or that a -seven-stress line, reducible to a four-stress and a three-stress line, -should be easier than either one of these. In fact, the predominance of -these simpler elements in the English feeling for these longer groups is -indicated by the fact that such compound lines are commonly broken into -their constituent parts when printed (cf. _The Ancient Mariner_), even -in cases where the isolation of these parts is not emphasized and -rendered natural by rhyme. It will be observed that in the Montessori -experiment the order of presentation was first, three-stress -(anapestic), then four-stress (iambic), then two-stress (iambic) lines. -This situation happens to correspond to that found in the commonest -popular English verse, which gives undoubted preference, as witness our -nursery rimes, to three-stress and four-stress iambics. Two-stress lines -constitute in reality four-stress lines divided by rhyme; just as, in -poems of distinctly literary savor, the two-stress line is further -reducible by interior rhyme to two one-stress lines. - -THREE-STRESS LINES (TRIMETER) - - -_Iambic:_ - - O l=é=t the s=ó=lid gr=oú=nd - Not f=aí=l ben=eá=th my f=eé=t - Bef=ó=re my l=í=fe has f=oú=nd - What s=ó=me have f=oú=nd so sw=eé=t. - TENNYSON. - - The m=oú=ntain sh=eé=p are sw=eé=ter, - But the v=á=lley sh=eé=p are f=á=tter; - We th=é=refore d=eé=med it m=eé=ter - To c=á=rry =ó=ff the l=á=tter. - We m=á=de an =é=xped=í=tion; - We m=é=t an h=ó=st and qu=é=lled it; - We f=ó=rced a str=ó=ng pos=í=tion, - And k=í=lled the m=é=n who h=é=ld it. - PEACOCK. - - -_Trochaic:_ - - Ha=í=l to the=é= blithe sp=í=rit! - B=í=rd thou n=é=ver w=é=rt, - Th=á=t from he=á=ven or ne=á=r it - Po=ú=rest th=ý= full he=á=rt.... - SHELLEY. - - -_Anapestic:_ - - I am m=ó=narch of =á=ll I surv=é=y; - My r=í=ght there is n=ó=ne to disp=ú=te; - From the c=é=ntre all ro=ú=nd to the se=á= - I am l=ó=rd of the f=ó=wl and the br=ú=te. - COWPER. - - -_Dactyllic:_ - - Th=í=s is a spr=á=y the bird cl=ú=ng to, - M=á=king it bl=ó=ssom with ple=á=sure, - =È=re the high tre=é=-tops she spr=ú=ng to, - F=í=t for her n=é=st and her tre=á=sure.[10] - BROWNING. - - -FOUR-STRESS LINES (TETRAMETER) - - -_Iambic:_ - -Examples: Byron, _The Prisoner of Chillon_; Scott, _The Lady of the -Lake_; Milton, _Il pensieroso_. - - We co=ú=ld not m=ó=ve a s=í=ngle p=á=ce, - We co=ú=ld not se=é= each =ó=ther's f=á=ce - But w=í=th that p=á=le and l=í=vid l=í=ght - They m=á=de us str=á=ngers =í=n our s=í=ght.... - BYRON. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Examples: Longfellow, _Hiawatha_; George Eliot, _The Spanish Gipsy_. - - W=é=stward, w=é=stward, H=í=aw=á=tha - Sa=í=led int=ó= the fi=é=ry s=ú=nset, - Sa=í=led int=ó= the p=ú=rple v=á=pors, - Sa=í=led int=ó= the d=ú=sk of =é=vening. - - -This line is much more common in its catalectic form: - - H=á=ste thee n=ý=mph and br=í=ng with th=é=e - J=é=st and yo=ú=thful j=ó=llit=ý=, - Qu=í=ps and cr=á=nks and w=á=nton w=í=les, - N=ó=ds and b=é=cks and wre=á=thed sm=í=les.... - MILTON, _L'Allegro._ - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Examples: Goldsmith, _Retaliation_; Byron, _The Destruction of -Sennacherib_. - - The sm=á=ll birds rejo=í=ce in the gre=é=n leaves ret=ú=rning, - The m=ú=rmuring stre=á=mlet winds cle=á=r through the v=á=le. - BURNS. - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Examples: Byron, _Song of Saul_; Dryden, _An Evening's Love_. - - =Á=fter the p=á=ngs of a d=é=sperate l=ó=ver, - Wh=é=n day and n=í=ght I have s=í=ghed all in va=í=n, - =Á=h what a ple=á=sure it =í=s to disc=ó=ver - =Í=n her eyes p=í=ty, who ca=ú=ses my p=á=in. - DRYDEN. - - -TWO-STRESS LINES - - -_Iambic:_ - -Examples: Herrick, _To the Lark_; Shakespeare, _Midsummernight's Dream_ -(Bottom's Song). - - The r=á=ging r=ó=cks - And sh=í=vering sh=ó=cks - Shall bre=á=k the l=ó=cks - Of pr=í=son g=á=tes. - SHAKESPEARE. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Examples: George Eliot, _The Spanish Gipsy_; Campion, _Art of Poesie_. - - Co=ú=ld I c=á=tch that - N=í=mble tra=í=tor, - Sc=ó=rnful La=ú=ra, - Sw=í=ft-foot La=ú=ra, - So=ó=n then wo=ú=ld I - Se=é=k av=é=ngement. - CAMPION. - - -_Anapestic_: - -Examples: Shelley, _Arethusa_; Scott, _The Lady of the Lake_ (Coronach). - - He is g=ó=ne on the mo=ú=ntain, - He is l=ó=st to the f=ó=rest, - Like a s=ú=mmer-dried fo=ú=ntain, - When our ne=é=d was the s=ó=rest. - SCOTT. - -_Dactyllic_: - -Examples: Tennyson, _Charge of the Light Brigade_; Longfellow, _Saga of -King Olaf_. - - C=á=nnon to r=í=ght of them, - C=á=nnon to l=é=ft of them, - C=á=nnon in fr=ó=nt of them, - V=ó=lleyed and th=ú=ndered. - - -ONE-STRESS LINE - - -_Iambic_: - -Example: - - Thus Í - Pass b=ý= - And d=í=e - As =ó=ne - Unkn=ó=wn - And g=ó=ne. - HERRICK. - - -SEVEN-STRESS LINES (HEPTAMETER) - - -_Iambic_: - -Examples: Howe, _Battle Hymn of the Republic_; Byron, _Stanzas for -Music_; Kipling, _Wolcott Balestier_; Coleridge, _The Ancient Mariner_. - - Mine ey=é=s have se=é=n the gl=ó=ry =ó=f the c=ó=ming =ó=f the L=ó=rd. - HOWE. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Example: Swinburne, _Clear the Way_. - - Cle=á=r the w=á=y, my l=ó=rds and l=á=ckeys, yo=ú= have h=á=d your - d=á=y. - H=é=re you h=á=ve your =á=nswer, Éngland's ye=á= aga=í=nst your n=á=y. - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Example: Swinburne, _The Birds_. - - Come =ó=n then ye dw=é=llers by n=á=ture in d=á=rkness and l=í=ke to - the le=á=ves' gener=á=tions. - - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Example: Anonymous. - - - Out of the k=í=ngdom of Chr=í=st shall be g=á=thered by =á=ngels - o'er S=á=tan vict=ó=rious, - All that off=é=ndeth, that li=é=th, that f=á=ileth to h=ó=nor his - n=á=me ever gl=ó=rious. - - -SIX-STRESS LINES (HEXAMETER) - - -_Iambic_ (alexandrine): - -Example: Wordsworth, _The Pet Lamb_. - - The d=é=w was f=á=lling f=á=st, the st=á=rs beg=á=n to bl=í=nk; - I he=á=rd a vo=í=ce: it sa=í=d, "Drink, pr=é=tty cre=á=ture, dr=í=nk!" - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Example: Swinburne, _The Last Oracle_. - - K=í=ng, the w=á=ys of he=á=ven bef=ó=re thy fe=é=t grow g=ó=lden; - G=ó=d, the so=ú=l of e=á=rth is k=í=ndled w=í=th thy gr=á=ce. - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Examples: Tennyson, _Maud_; Swinburne, _The Garden of Cymodoce_. - - And the r=ú=shing b=á=ttle-bolt s=á=ng from the thre=é=-decker - o=ú=t of the fo=á=m. - TENNYSON. - - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Examples: Swinburne, _Hesperia_; Longfellow, _Evangeline_. - - Th=í=s is the f=ó=rest prim=é=val; the m=ú=rmuring p=í=nes and the - h=é=mlocks - Be=á=rded with m=ó=ss and with g=á=rments gre=é=n, indist=í=nct in - the tw=í=light. - LONGFELLOW. - - -EIGHT-STRESS LINES - - -_Iambic:_ - -Example: William Webbe, _Discourse of English Poetrie_. - - Where v=í=rtue w=á=nts and v=í=ce abo=ú=nds, there we=á=lth is b=ú=t - a ba=í=ted ho=ó=k. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Examples: Tennyson, _Locksley Hall_; Poe, _The Raven_. - - =Ó=pen th=é=n I fl=ú=ng the sh=ú=tter, wh=é=n with m=á=ny a fl=í=rt - and fl=ú=tter, - =Í=n there st=é=pped a st=á=tely r=á=ven =ó=f the sa=í=ntly d=á=ys - of y=ó=re. - POE. - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Example: Swinburne, _March_. - - Ere fr=ó=st-flower and sn=ó=w-blossom f=á=ded and f=é=ll, and the - spl=é=ndor of w=í=nter had p=á=ssed out of s=í=ght, - The wa=ý=s of the wo=ó=dlands were fa=í=rer and str=á=nger than - dre=á=ms that fulf=í=l us in sle=é=p with del=í=ght. - - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Example: Longfellow, _Golden Legend_, 4. - - Ónward and =ó=nward the h=í=ghway r=ú=ns to the d=í=stant c=í=ty, - imp=á=tiently be=á=ring - T=í=dings of h=ú=man j=ó=y and dis=á=ster, of l=ó=ve and h=á=te, - of d=ó=ing and d=á=ring. - - -FIVE-STRESS LINES (PENTAMETER) - - -_Iambic_ (Heroic pentameter): - -Examples: Milton, _Paradise Lost_; Bryant, _Thanatopsis_, etc., etc. - - Sweet A=ú=burn, l=ó=veliest v=í=llage =ó=f the pla=í=n - Where he=á=lth and bea=ú=ty che=é=r the l=á=boring swa=í=n ... - GOLDSMITH. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Examples: Browning, _One word more_; Tennyson, _The Vision of Sin_. - - Th=é=n metho=ú=ght I he=á=rd a m=é=llow so=ú=nd, - G=á=thering =ú=p from =á=ll the l=ó=wer gro=ú=nd. - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Examples: Browning, _Saul_; Tennyson, _Maud_. - - We have pr=ó=ved we have he=á=rts in a ca=ú=se: we are n=ó=ble - st=í=ll. - TENNYSON. - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Very rare in English. - - . . . . . . . . - -While the remainder of the exercises in syllabication and graphic -transcription, as described by Dr. Montessori, would seem to follow -naturally on the above exercises in the analysis of line stress, it is -clear that additional attention must be given to questions of -terminology. For the metrical syntheses performed in the tables at the -end of the preceding section will not be possible for English poetry -unless the child is able to identify the kinds of feet and the kinds of -lines. We suggest accordingly two supplementary drills with the card -system familiar to the child from his exercises in grammar. The first -consists of a list of words, each on a separate card, with the tonic -accent marked. Each word with its accent represents a foot (iambus, -trochee, anapest, dactyl), indicated on the card in graphic -transcription beneath the word: - - wóndering - -- U U - -Corresponding to each word is another card bearing simply the graphic -transcription and the name of the foot. The exercise, of the greatest -simplicity, is to pair off the cards, arranging the words in a column on -the table, putting after each the card that describes it. The cards, -when properly arranged, read as follows: - - betweén U -- iambus - U -- - - móther -- U trochee - -- U - - disrepúte U U -- anapest - U U -- - - wónderful -- U U dactyl - -- U U - -A second stage of this exercise consists in offering a similar series of -cards where, however, the word-cards are without the indication of the -tonic accent and without the graphic transcription of the measure: - - suggest U -- iambus - accent -- U trochee - underneath U U -- anapest - metrical -- U U dactyl - -An identical exercise is possible for whole lines. The first stage -consists of naming the lines accompanied by the metrical transcription -with cards containing simply the transcription and the name of the -meter; in the second stage, the same lines are given but on cards -without the graphic transcription: for example: - - -1ST STAGE - - Go where glory waits thee Trochaic trimeter - -- U -- U -- U -- U -- U -- U - - The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold - U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- - - Anapestic tetrameter - U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- - - Venus thy mother in years when the world was a water at rest - -- U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- - - Dactyllic hexameter - -- U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- - - -2D STAGE - - Go where glory waits thee Trochaic trimeter - -- U -- U -- U - - It was but John the Red and I Iambic Tetrameter - U -- U -- U -- U -- - - etc., etc. - -When these fundamental notions have been acquired the child is ready for -the more difficult problems of anacrusis, catalexis, irregular feet and -irregular pauses, which he can recognize in almost any poem of -considerable length by comparing the transcription of a given foot with -specimen transcriptions of regular lines, which are always accessible to -him. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[10] Most of our examples of various types and combinations of verse are -taken from Alden, _English Verse_, New York, Henry Holt. - - - - -APPENDICES - - - - -APPENDIX I - -CHART FOR THE STUDY OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD - - -Copies of this Chart (pages 409-422) will be supplied, in convenient -form, by the publishers, Frederick A. Stokes Company, 443-449. Fourth -Avenue, New York, at 20 cents for the set. Diary pads are 10 cents -additional. - - - __________________SCHOOL DATA_______________________ - - - _School Year 191_.............................. - - _Hours of Sessions_............................ - - _Vacations_.................................... - - _Subjects Taught_.............................. - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - _Meals_........................................ - - _Teaching Staff_............................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - _Address of School_............................ - - _Rooms_........................................ - - _Consultations with Parents and Public_........ - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - - ________________DATA ON THE CHILD___________________ - - - _Family Name_.........._Names_............ - - _Date of Birth_................................ - - _Date of Entrance_............................. - - _Age of Parents: Father_....._Mother_..... - - - _Occupations of Parents:_ - - _Father_......................... - - _Mother_......................... - - _Home Address_................................. - - _Personal History of the Child_................ - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - _Personal Appearance of the Child_............. - - _Notes on Child's Family_...................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - - _____________SCHOOL YEAR 191.. 191..________________ - - _Name_.............._Date of Birth_....... - - .................................................... - - _Date of Entering School_................ - - - ---------------+-------+-------------+-----+--------------------------+ - | |Cephalic | | NOTES ON CHILD'S PHYSICAL - | |Index |.....| DEVELOPMENT - | +-------------+-----+ - | |Transversal | | .......................... - | HEAD |Diameter |.....| - | (mm.) +-------------+-----+ .......................... - | |Antero-post. | | - | |diameter |.....| .......................... - | +-------------+-----+ - | |Circumference|.....| .......................... - +-------+-------------+-----+ - | Index | | .......................... - | of Weight |.....| - +---------------------+-----+ .......................... - | Index of | | - ANTHROPOLOGICAL| Stature |.....| .......................... - NOTES +---------------------+-----+ - | Stature | | .......................... - | (sitting) |.....| - | (m.) | | .......................... - +---------------------+-----+ - | Thoracic | | .......................... - | circum. |.....| - | (m.) | | .......................... - +---------------------+-----+ - | Weight | | .......................... - | (Kg.) |.....| - +---------------------+-----+ .......................... - | Stature | | - | (standing) |.....| .......................... - | (m.) | | - - - _______________SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191..______________ - - _Name_........_Date of birth_............. - - .................................................... - ------------+--------------------+----------- - | STATURE IN METERS | NOTES - MONTH +----------+---------+ - | Standing | Sitting | - ------------+----------+---------+ - _September_ |..........|..........| ........... - +----------+---------+ - _October_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _November_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _December_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _January_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _February_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _March_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _April_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _May_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _June_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _July_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _August_ |..........|..........|............ - - - SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191.. - - _Name_......................................... - - _Date of Birth_................................ - - ------------+-------------------------------------------- - MONTH | WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS - ------------+----------+----------+----------+----------- - | 1st week | 2nd week | 3rd week | 4th week - | | | | - _September_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _October_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _November_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _December_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _January_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _February_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _March_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _April_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _May_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _June_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _July_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _August_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - - - (_Family Name_) (_Names_) - - NAME IN FULL.............................................. - -SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191.. - - - - - - - - - -PSYCHOLOGICAL DIARY - - - - - - - ----------------------------------------------------------- - - - - _Diary_ | _Name of_ | _Page Number_ - | _Child_ | - --------+-----------------+------------------- - | - 191.. | Month.............Day............... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -GUIDE FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION - - -WORK. - - NOTE: - - When a child begins to show constant application to a - piece of work. - - What this work is and how long he remains at it (speed - or slowness he shows in completing it, the number of - times he repeats the same exercise). - - Individual peculiarities in application to particular - tasks. - - To what tasks the child successively applies himself - on the same day and with how much persistency to each. - - Whether he has periods of spontaneous activity at work - and on how many days. - - How the child's need of progress is manifested by him. - - What tasks he chooses and the order in which he - chooses them; the persistency he shows in each. - - His power of application in spite of distractions - about him that might tend to divert him from his work. - - Whether after a compulsory distraction he takes up - again the task that has been interrupted. - - -CONDUCT. - - NOTE: - - Orderliness or disorderliness in the actions of the - child. - - The nature of his disorderliness. - - Whether there are any changes in conduct as his - working ability develops. - - Whether, as his activities become more orderly, the - child gives evidence of: accesses of joy; periods of - placidity; expressions of affection. - - The part the children take and the interest they show - in the progress of their schoolmates. - - -OBEDIENCE. - - NOTE: - - Whether the child answers readily when he is called. - - Whether and at what times the child begins to show - interest in what others are doing and to make - intelligent effort to join in their work. - - The progress of his obedience to _calls_. - - The progress of his obedience to _commands_. - - What eagerness and enthusiasm the child shows in his - obedience. - - The relation between the various phenomena of - obedience and (a) the development of his working - capacity; (b) changes in conduct, - - ----------------------------------------------------------- - -School Year 191..-191.. - - - - - - - - - -PERSONAL HISTORY OF THE CHILD - - - - - - - - - - - ----------------------------------------------------------- - - - SCHOOL YEAR 191..--191.. - - BIOLOGICAL HISTORY - - PARENTS: - - _Age of parents at marriage_........................ - - _Are the parents related to each other?_............ - - _Sickness and diseases of the parents?_............. - - .................................................... - - CHILD: - - _Were pregnancy and parturition normal?_............ - - .................................................... - - _Was the nursing done by the mother, or artificially?_..... - - _The child's health during the first year:_.......... - - .................................................... - - _Subsequent sicknesses of the child:_............... - - .................................................... - - _Date of teething, learning to walk, and learning to speak:_..... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - - SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191.. - - SOCIAL HISTORY - - FATHER: - - _Age, education and occupation:_.................... - - .................................................... - MOTHER: - - _Age, education and occupation:_.................... - - .................................................... - - ---------------------------------------------------- - - _Are accounts kept in the family?_.................. - - .................................................... - - _Family habits (amusements, home life)_............. - - _Number of persons in the family (how many adults, how many - children)_............................................ - - .................................................... - - _Does the family employ servants?_.................. - - _How many wage earners in the family?_.............. - - _Does the family have income from property?_........ - - _Does the family keep roomers or boarders?_......... - - _Is the housekeeping satisfactory?_................. - - - SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191.. - - ETHICAL EXAMINATION - - QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MORAL HISTORY - - - CRITERIA OF PRAISE AND PRIDE IN THE FAMILY - - NOTE: - - What is commended in the family, e.g., devoutness, - patriotism, or their opposites, affectionateness, - honesty, modest, neatness, generosity, kindness, - independence, etc. The social relationships between - husband and wife (rights, privileges, or equality). - Special distinctions of family members (public honors, - acts of courage, etc.). - - - CRITERIA OF BLAME AND EXCUSE IN THE FAMILY - - NOTE: - - What complaints are made in the home against members of the - family, e.g., drinking, lack of affectionateness, gambling, irreligion, - disorderliness, lawlessness, extravagance, laziness, etc. - - - EDUCATIONAL CRITERIA IN THE FAMILY - - NOTE: - - What concept do the parents have of education? e.g., severity - gentleness, rewards, punishments, understanding of children, the - freedom accorded the children, etc. - - - MOTHER'S OPINION OF HER CHILDREN - - NOTE: - - What care is taken of the child and what rights are recognized by - the family as belonging to him. - - - - -APPENDIX II - - SUMMARY OF THE LECTURES ON PEDAGOGY DELIVERED IN HOME - AT THE _SCUOLA MAGISTRALE ORTOFRENICA_ IN 1900 - - -This appendix contains a summary of a few of my lectures delivered in -1900 in the Scuola Magistrate Ortofrenica in Rome and published in -pamphlet form for the benefit of the teacher-students who were attending -that course. A number of distinguished physicians were at the same time -lecturing in the school on various subjects--such as Psychology, -Esthesiology, Anatomy of the Nerve Centres, etc. I had reserved for -myself the teaching, or rather the development, of a special pedagogy -for defective children, along the lines previously laid down by Itard -and Séguin. - -In the summary of these old lectures of mine are included some of my -experiments with certain subjects taught in the elementary grades. They -show that the origin of my present work with older children is to be -sought in my teaching of defectives. - -I still possess, as documentary relics of this course, a hundred copies -of a pamphlet entitled: _Riassunte delle lezioni di didattica della -Prof^{ssa} Montessori, anno 1900, Stab. Lit. Romano, via Frattina 62, -Roma._ More than three hundred teachers followed my course, and are able -to bear witness to the work done there. - -I republish the following excerpts not because I consider my work so -important as to merit the preservation of all the documents touching on -its origin, but to prevent the giving of undue prominence to those -remnants of my earlier attempts and studies which are still to be found -in the Scuola Magistrale Ortofrenica in Rome. - - "The child should be led from the education of the - muscular system to that of the nervous end sensory - systems; from the education of the senses to concepts; - from concepts to general ideas; from general ideas to - morality. This is the educational method of Séguin." - - However, before we begin education, we must prepare - the child to receive it by another education which is - to-day regarded as of the very first importance. This - preparatory education is the foundation on which all - subsequent education must be based, and the success we - obtain in it will determine the success of our - subsequent efforts. by preparatory education I here - mean _hygienic education_, which in defective children - sometimes includes medical treatment. That is why the - educational method for defectives is sometimes - described as _medico-pedagogical_. - - Those who realize that importance of feeling and - internal sensation in education will understand that - the bodily organism must function properly in order to - respond to our educational efforts. We must preserve - good health where good health exists: we must restore - it where it is lacking. - - We are therefore under strict obligation to pay close - attention to nutrition and to the condition of the - vital organs. Every one is aware of the close relation - existing between general sensibility and morality. - Criminals and prostitutes show very scant - sensitiveness to pain and to tactile stimuli. The same - situation is frequently apparent in defectives; hence - the necessity of restoring the tactile sense with - adequate attention to hygiene. - - We cannot educate the muscles to perform a given - coordinate movement if they have lost their power of - functioning (as in paresis, etc.). Education, properly - so-called, must be preceded by a medical treatment to - restore the muscles, if possible, to good health. - -It will be impossible to educate, for example, the sense of hearing, if -some pathological situation has produced partial deafness. We cannot -educate the sense of smell if the excessive excretion of mucus prevents -external stimuli from acting on the ends of the sensory nerves. -Obviously, we need a medical treatment to remove these diseased -conditions. - - -MEDICAL EDUCATION - - _General baths:_ When not too prolonged they develop - the sensibility of the nervous papillæ. They give tone - to the cellular and muscular tissues, especially to - the skin. - - _Hot and cold baths_ given alternately are a powerful - educational instrument in attracting the attention of - a child to his external environment. - - _Local hot baths_ may be given to areas deficient in - sensibility. For instance, try bathing the hands if - tactile education proves impossible, or bathe the feet - if the defect in standing upright or in walking comes - from the insensitiveness of the soles. - - _Local cold baths:_ Given to the head while the - patient is entirely covered in warm water are a tonic - to the scalp; they facilitate the knitting of the - bones of the skull and the formation of wormian bones, - preventing also cerebral congestion. They stimulate - and regularize the cerebral circulation. Such baths - are particularly useful for hydro-cephalics and - micro-cephalics, but all patients are benefited by - such baths, which are the most generally useful of - all. - - _Steam baths_ develop perspiration which at times is - completely absent or partial in defectives, causing - serious physical disturbances. These baths, - furthermore, predispose the nerve ends to the most - intense sensitiveness. - - Such baths are, however, not to be used on epileptics - or on children suffering from rickets, weak - circulation or general debility. - - In general, _local steam baths_ are used especially - for hands and feet, and also for the tongue. - - _General cold baths_ are used in cases of - super-excitation, motor-hyperactivity, excessive - sensitiveness to pain and touch. These baths must be - accompanied by constant cold lotions on the head. - - Baths may be accompanied, with good results, by - _massage_ and _rubbing_. - - _Rubbings_ may be given dry or with water, alcohol, - aromatic creams or ointments. - - Local rubbings may be applied: (a) _To the spine_, - carefully avoiding the lumbar region so as not to - excite the sexual sensibilities. Dry rubbings should - be made with a piece of flannel and continued until - the skin reddens. They are especially useful after hot - baths followed by cold douches. (b) _To the chest_ to - stimulate respiration. (c) _To the abdomen_ to - correct various internal disorders (here, however, - massage is more efficacious). (d) _To the joints_ - (rubbings with aromatic creams and with alcohol are - very effective). - - A brief rubbing with alcohol or creams can be followed - with good effect by massage in the case of abdomen and - joints. Massage on the abdomen stimulates circulation - in the intestines and intensifies and regularizes the - movements of the muscular walls. - - Massage has a surprising effect on the muscles of the - joints; it shocks the muscular fibers in their - innermost parts and sets them in motion; it - regularizes the functioning of the muscles by reducing - excessive contraction and restoring deficient - contractibility. Emaciated muscles are regenerated, - the muscular bulk is vigorously augmented, while the - fat tissues are absorbed. - - The repetition several times a day of bathing, rubbing - and massage has produced real miracles of physical - regeneration. - - -FEEDING - - Intestinal disturbances have a direct influence on the - functional power of the central nervous system. They - merit, therefore, special consideration. For in - defectives an intestinal inflammation may produce - symptoms of meningitis, and a disorder in digestion - even unattended by fever may occasionally give rise to - convulsions. - - The hygiene of feeding which is almost the same as - that for normal children must therefore be rigorously - observed. - - The general rule is list the children should have - regular meals and be allowed nothing whatever to eat - between meals. It is commonly believed that a piece of - candy or a bit of fruit given between meals has no bad - effect. This is a common error of many mothers, who by - allowing such slight irregularities in diet, become - the unwitting cause of serious illnesses in their - children. When we say that children should be fed at - mealtimes, we mean that _nothing_ should be given them - _except_ at meal times; nothing, not even the most - innocent confection; not a crumb of bread, not a drop - of milk. This severity has the quantity and quality of - food allowed in each. - - _Number:_ For children between 2 and 7 years: 4 meals - a day; for children between 8 and 14 years: 3 meals a - day. These meals should be at regular hours, and - followed without exception by a period of mental rest, - which must be provided for in making up the daily - program of lessons. - - We need special researches as to what type of activity - may be allowed children during digestion and what - organs may be active without damage to the child while - the stomach is taxed with the labor of digestion. A - few things are clear. The children should be sent out - of closed rooms where their play raises more or less - dust, and kept in well-ventilated places, if possible, - in a garden or in a woods well supplied with aromatic - trees. The best thing a child can do immediately after - a meal is to take a short walk in the open air without - much exertion. - - _Quantity:_ In the case of children between 2 and 7 - years of age, there should be two full meals and two - luncheons. After the age of 7 there should be one - lunch and two full meals. We cannot be more specific. - - _Quality:_ In the case of defectives it would be - useful for the doctor to order a diet day by day after - having examined the diaries of the nurses as is done - in hospitals. For it may be possible to introduce into - the food elements which constitute an actual cure for - certain diseased conditions and preventives of certain - kinds of attacks. In food we should realize the - distinctions between the elements which build - tissues--true food substances, and others whose - function is purely stimulatory--alcohol, coffee, tea, - etc., which should be used only occasionally. - - Among the food substances properly so-called are the - albuminoids (proteins), fats, and carbo-hydrates - (sugars, starches, wheat and potato flours, etc.). The - fats are the least digestible foods, but they produce - the greatest number of calories. - - The proportion of the different elements in the food - should be determined by the amount of albumin, which - constitutes the real food element. Albumin is of both - vegetable and animal origin. Its animal forms are more - nutritious, more easily digestible, and products more - calories than the vegetable forms. The foods which - produce animal-albumin are milk, eggs, and meats. - Vegetables themselves furnish what is known as - vegetable-albumin. Children up to 8 years of age are - supplied usually with the following albuminous foods: - eggs, milk and vegetables. For children between 6 and - 8: eggs, milk, fish and vegetables may be provided. - Older children may be given chicken, veal, and finally - beef. - - Though for normal children a restricted meat diet is - desirable, in the case of defectives a rich supply of - meat as well as of albuminoids in general is to be - sought. Their treatment resembles that of weak - convalescent patients whose strength is to be - restored. The meats best adapted to such children are - those containing large amounts of mucilaginous - substances and sugar (veal, lamb and young animals in - general). Vegetable _purées_, fat gravies, butter, - etc., are to be recommended in these cases. - - For _nervous children_, fats, oils, acids, and flours - should be avoided. - - For _apathetic children_, who experience difficulty in - digestion, tonics and rich seasonings should be used, - such as spices, which have come to be almost excluded - from ordinary cooking, especially for children. Spices - may well be restored to the diet of institutions for - defectives, since they have the additional advantage - of permitting mixture with irons, of which they - neutralize the taste. - - Questions of food depend largely upon the individual - condition of the children. The important thing is to - avoid "the school ration." This is all the more true - of beverages. - - _Beverages:_ While stimulants are usually to be - excluded from the diet of normal children of 7 or - under, it is often desirable to introduce tea, coffee, - etc., into the meals of defectives. This should be - done, however, only in the daily diets ordered by the - physician for individuals. - - _Nervous children_ should be restricted to milk and - water for their meals with some moderately sweet drink - (orange juice, weak lemonade, etc.) after eating. - - _Apathetics_, showing atonic digestion, may have - coffee either before eating or during their meals. - - Special education is necessary to accustom the - children to complete mastication. Such practice in the - use of the organs of mastication assists also in the - later development of speech. - - -EXCRETION - - Among the physiological irregularities that appear - among children special importance attaches to - excretions. - - _Defecation:_ Among defectives especially, so-called - "dirty children" are often so numerous that special - sections have to be made for them in institutions. - Such children show involuntary losses of fæces and - urine, as in the case of infants. Most frequently the - defecations are of liquid consistency though sometimes - the reverse is true. Our remedial effort should be in - two directions: we should try to regularize the - operation of the intestines by giving solidity to the - excretions; secondly, we should endeavor to strengthen - the sphincter muscles. - - A strict observance of the diet hygiene outlined - above, especially as concerns regularity of meals and - mastication of food, will assist in the attainment of - the first object. We should try in addition to - regularize defecation by stimulating it at regular - intervals (to be gradually increased in length) - through light massages and hot rubbings on the - abdomen. - - To strengthen the sphincters general tonics (iron, - strychnine), and local tonics (such as cold - "sitz-baths," cold showers and electric baths) may be - used. Suppositories may also be used to advantage in - stimulating sphincter contractions and accustoming the - muscles to constrictive action. - - _Urine:_ some defectives show involuntary loss of - urine, especially at night, up to very advanced ages. - Epileptics are particularly predisposed to this. The - treatment is analogous to that just described. - Beverages should be carefully supervised. Diuretics - and excessive drinking in general should be avoided. - - _General recommendations:_ Local baths, and rigorous - cleanliness to avoid any stimulus to onanism. - - Education can do much in the treatment of this - situation. Urination should be regularly suggested to - the child before he goes to bed and when he wakes in - the morning. In special cases it might be well to - waken the child once or twice during the night for the - same purpose. This defect is often associated in a - child with some abnormality in the phenomena of - perspiration. - - _Perspiration:_ The sweat has almost the same - composition as urine, and perspiration is a process - supplementary to the action of the kidneys. It has - been observed that often in defective children - perspiration is either entirely lacking or limited to - certain areas (the palms of the hands, the nose, - etc.). It is absolutely necessary to stimulate and - regularize perspiration over the whole surface of the - body. This may be done by hot and steam baths, by dry - rubs with flannels (long sustained if necessary), by - woolen garments constantly worn next to the skin, and - other similar mechanical devices. We must, however, - absolutely avoid the use of special diaphoretic drugs, - which often bring about a fatal weakening of the - organs of perspiration. The treatments we have - suggested above are, first of all, harmless, but - besides they contribute to the general toning and - sensitizing of the skin. - - _Nasal mucus and tears:_ Tears are often lacking in - defectives. On the other hand nasal excretion is very - abundant and replaces the tears, which are often so - rare that some children reach a relatively advanced - age without having wept. In such cases there is a - predisposition to certain diseases of the eyes; and - excessive nasal excretion prevents the functioning of - the olfactory organs. - - For this we recommend inhaling of hot vapors and of - fragrant irritants, which correct the excessive - excretion of mucus and exercise the olfactory sense. - Usually the regular secretion of tears follows as a - matter of course. - - _Saliva:_ One of the most unpleasant abnormalities in - defectives is the continuous loss of saliva from - "hanging lips." But the effects are not only - unesthetic. The continuous over-excretion of saliva - makes the inner organs of the mouth flabby and - swollen. The tongue and the organs of speech in - general gradually lose their contractive power, and - articulation is ultimately rendered impossible. Taste - and tactile ability often disappear altogether. - Mastication becomes difficult and deglutition - irregular. The secondary effects on the digestive - organs are bad. We possess a variety of efficient - curatives and educational treatments for this defect: - _first_, general tonics; _second_, local cold douches - on the lip muscles, electric massage of the lips; - _third_, the use of licorice sticks, large at first - but gradually reducing in diameter, to be introduced - between the lips to stimulate the sucking activity - and the exercise of the contractive muscles. This will - ultimately give the necessary muscular tone. The lips - of the child should be closed mechanically from time - to time to force him to swallow the saliva and to - create the habit of deglutition. - - -CLOTHING AND ENVIRONMENT - - The principles of hygiene must be extended to the - dress of the child and to the environment in which it - lives. - - _Clothing:_ The child's clothes should be so made as - to be easily put on and off. They should not hinder - normal functioning of the body (breathing). They - should afford no opportunity for dangerous vices - (onanism). If the child can dress and undress without - difficulty, it will learn the more readily to look - after itself even in those little necessities of daily - life where partial undressing is necessary. Special - attention should be given to stockings, which affect - the development of sensitiveness in the soles of the - feet and also concern the process of learning to walk. - - _Environment:_ Just a few reminders: for defectives - perfect ventilation of course; but the walls and - furniture should be upholstered in the case of - impulsive defectives or of defectives who do not know - how to walk. There is danger in furniture with sharp - projections and in toys which may be thrown about. A - "child's room," the luxury of which consists in it - hygienic location, its elastic walls, and its very - emptiness, is the best gift a rich family can make to - the education of a defective child. - - -MUSCULAR EDUCATION - - Muscular education has for its object the bringing of - the individual to some labor useful for society. This - labor must always be executed by means of the muscles, - whether it be manual labor, speaking or writing. In a - word, the intelligence must subject the muscles to its - own purposes and, that the muscles may be equipped for - such obedience, it is necessary to prepare them by - some education which will reduce them to coordination. - Muscular education in defectives accordingly has for - its object the stimulation and coordination of useful - movements. - - It prepares: for exercise; for the activities of - domestic service (washing, dressing, preparing food, - setting and clearing the table, etc.); for manual - labor (trades); for language (use of the vocal - organs). The preparation consists in bringing the - child to _tonic quiescence_ in standing posture. The - child must learn first to stand still with head erect - and with his eyes fixed on the eyes of the teacher. - From this position of _tonic quiescence_ we must pass - to exercises in _imitation_. We obtain _tonic - quiescence_ by a variety of procedures, the variation - depending upon individual cases. We must stimulate the - apathetic and the sluggish; we must moderate the - hyperactive; we must correct paresis, tics, etc. In - other words, medical education must precede pedagogy - itself. It may be a question of applying medical - gymnastics both for active and passive movements, - alternating this treatment with massage, electric - baths, etc. - - Let us note one or two motor abnormalities which are - easy to detect in defectives. _Atony_: the child does - not move; he cannot stand; he cannot sit upright nor - execute any movement whatever. _Hyperactivity_: this - is characterized by almost constant _incoordinated_ or - disorganized movements which have no useful purpose, - e.g., jumping, beating, tearing up of objects within - reach and so on. Such patients are dangerous to - themselves and to others. - - -MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS - - (A).--_Movements executed upon the person of the - child_: sucking of the fingers; biting of the nails; - constant stroking of some part of the body. These - movements are caused by imperfectly developed - sensibility; the children stroke or caress, for - example, that area of the skin which possesses - greatest tactile sensitiveness, etc. - - (B).--_Movements executed upon surrounding objects_: - rapping on tables; constant and careful tearing of - pieces of paper into small bits, etc. This too is - associated with some sensory pleasure on the part of - the patient. - - _Rocking_: (a) _with patient reclining_: the head is - nodded from left to right, from right to left; (b) - _with patient sitting_: the trunk is rocked backward - and forward; (c) _with patient standing_: the whole - bod; rocks from left to right, the whole weight - resting now on one foot and now on the other. - Difficulty and hesitation are experienced in walking. - These motory defects proceed from the difficulty - experienced by the child in finding his center of - gravity, his equilibrium. - - _Inability to perform local movements:_ (a) Inability - to move certain of the fingers, the tongue, the lips, - etc. From such defects arises the impossibility of - performing certain simple manual exercises (bringing - the finger tips of the two hands together; taking hold - of objects, e.g., inability to button, etc.) and the - inability to pronounce certain words; (b) Inability to - contract the lip and sphincter muscles (loss of - saliva, involuntary defecation). - - _Atony_ and _hyperactivity_ may be overcome by - appropriate educational remedies which we will now - discuss. Local agitations disappear with the general - education of the senses; while rocking is cured by - exercises in balancing. - - (A).--_Stimulate active movements in the atonic child - until he is able to stand erect in tonic quiescence._ - - Begin by stimulating the simple movements, gradually - working up to the most complicated. We have a sure - guide for this education in the spontaneous - developments of movements in the normal child: he - begins with the easiest spontaneous movements and - gradually arrives at the harder ones. - - The first movement which develops in the child is the - _prehensile_ act (grasping). Next comes the movements - of the lower joints used in creeping and walking; next - the ability to stand; and finally the ability to walk - alone. _Grasping_: if no external stimulation is - capable of interesting the defective of low type, - grasping cannot be stimulated merely by presenting to - the child some object or other which might seem to be - interesting for color taste or some other quality. In - such a case we must have recourse to the instinct of - self-preservation, to that innate fear of void which - defectives almost always have. The child feeling - himself fall will instinctively grasp at some support - within his reach. This is the simplest point of - departure for our possible development of the grasping - faculty in the defective child. - - _Method:_ The hands of the child am mechanically fixed - around the rung of a ladder suspended to the ceiling. - Then the child in left to himself. Since his fingers - are already around the support he needs only to clench - his hands to find support. He may not succeed even in - this simple act the first time. The teacher must - patiently repeat the exercise, always being ready, of - course, to catch the child if he should fall. In this - exercise the defective is very much alarmed as a rule - and all his muscles are as a result more or less - stimulated. - - Likewise based on the instinct of self-preservation is - the _swing_, where the defective must cling to some - support with his hands to keep from falling. - - Finally a _ball_ is hung from the ceiling and swung in - such a way as continually to strike the child in the - face. To protect himself he must keep it away by - seizing it. - - In still lower types we must have recourse to the - instinct for nutrition which exists even in such - children. - - _Standing:_ Under this heading we include also the - movements which precede the actual attainment of the - standing posture. To overcome the sinking of the - knees, which impedes standing, the _swinging chair_ - may be used. The seat must reach nearly to the child's - feet and the knees are tied to the seat. The child's - foot, as he swings, strike against a board. This - exercise prepares the lower joints to hold themselves - in position when resting on a plane surface. Next the - child is placed on _parallel bars_. The bars pass - under the arm-pits and support the child while his - feet rest on the floor. In these exercises we try to - stimulate the movements which appear in walking - (exercises of the lower joints). Next we exercise the - muscles which support the spinal column. The child is - made to sit down: first the spine in upright against - the back of the chair; finally it remains upright when - the support is removed. Little by little walking can - be produced if the child is taken away from the bars - and supported with a simple _gymnastic belt_. The - exercise is continued until he can be left entirely - without support. - - When the child has learned to walk we can _command_ - him to stop in the position of _tonic quiescence_. - - (B).--_Moderation of hyperactivity by forced - quiescence._ - - In hyperactive children the arms must first be - restrained by holding them tight in our hands. The - movements of the lower limbs may be checked by holding - the child's legs tight between our knees. Finally the - child may be kept entirely quiescent with his legs - held between the teacher's knees, his arms in the - teacher's hands, with the trunk pushed back and held - firmly against the wall. By a similar process he can - be kept quiet while standing; then later in a position - of _tonic quiescence_. - - _General Rule:_ Exercises of the limbs beginning with - the arms should precede those specifically directed - toward the spinal column. Séguin says "_tonic - quiescence_ is necessarily the first step from _atonic - quiescence_; or if you wish, from a disordered - activity to an activity which represents harmony - between the muscular system and the mind." - - We noted above that the posture of _tonic quiescence_ - involves a fixity of gaze on the part of the child. - This is the point of departure for the development of - coordinative movements and _imitation_ of what the - child sees the teacher do. - - -EDUCATION OF THE FIXED GAZE - - If the child is kept in the dark for some time and is - suddenly shown a bright light he will experience the - sensation of _red_. - - Keeping the child in a dark room for a shorter time a - sudden light will attract his gaze. - - Move the light along the wall until the child's gaze - follows it. - - Next, in a light room, the child is shown a red cloth - kept in motion; a red balloon hung from the ceiling - keeps striking him in the face. - - After these preparatory exercises the teacher can try - to get the child to fix its eyes on his own and to - maintain the fixed gaze. Here use may be made also of - the sense of hearing (words of command, encouragement, - etc.). - - Finally to obtain complete fixity of gaze, one may use - the large mirror, before which lights may be passed. - There the child can gaze at his own face and at the - face of the teacher, which will be kept motionless and - which the child may come to imitate. - - _Exercises of imitation:_ (1) The child is taught to - become acquainted with himself. The various parts of - his body are pointed out to him and he is made to - touch them. This continues up to the point of - distinguishing right from left. Begin with the larger - members of the body (arms, legs, trunk, head) to be - named in connection with movements of the whole body. - Then pass to the smaller members (the fingers, - knuckles, the organs of the mouth), to be referred to - respectively in the education of the hand and in the - teaching of speech. - - (2) The child is taught coordinative movements - relating to gymnastics (walking, running, jumping, - pushing, etc.). - - (3) Movements relating: (a) to the simpler forms of - manual labor (exercises of practical life: washing, - dressing, picking up and laying down various objects, - opening and closing drawers); (b) to more complex - kinds of manual labor (elements of various trades; - weaving, Froebel exercises, etc.). - - (4) Movements relating to articulate language. For - this educational process the following general rules - are to be followed: first, movements of the whole body - must precede movements of specific parts; second, only - by analyzing complex movements in their successive - stages and by working out their details point by point - can we arrive at the execution of a perfect complex - movement. - - This latter rule applies especially to manual - education and the teaching of language. When movements - of the whole body have been obtained it will often be - necessary, before going on to movements of particular - members, to alternate the educational cure with the - medical: (1) to overcome the weakness of some of the - muscles (perhaps of some finger), use local electric - baths, passive gymnastics, etc.; (2) for retractions, - retarded development of aponeurosis of the palms, - etc., use orthopedic treatment. - - Gymnastics, manual labor, trades and speaking are - special branches of teaching, that usually require - specially trained teachers. - - -EDUCATION OF THE SENSES - - Outline for examination. - - _Sight:_ Sense of color. It is necessary to call the - attention of the child several times to the same color - by presenting it to him under different aspects and in - different environments. The stimulus should be strong. - Other senses tend to associate themselves with the - chromatic sense, for example, the stereognostic and - gustatory senses. Whenever the teacher gives an - _idea_ she should unite with it the _word_, the only - word which is related to the idea. The words should be - emphatically and distinctly pronounced. - - (1) _Pedagogical aprons:_ The colors are presented on - a large moving surface, as for instance, an apron worn - by the teacher; e.g., a red apron. The teacher points - to it, touches it, lifting it with noticeable - movements of the arms, continually calls the attention - of the child to it. "_Look! See here! Attention!_" and - so on; then saying in a low voice and slowly, "_This - is_ (and then in a louder voice), _red, red, red!!!_" - Now take two aprons, one red, the other blue; repeat - the same process for the blue. There are three stages - in the process of distinguishing between colors: (a) - "This is ... _red_!" (b) "Your apron is _red_!" (c) - "What color is this?" Then try three aprons, red, - blue, and yellow, bordered with white and black. - - (2) _Insets_--color and form. The red circle, the blue - square. There are three stages: (a) "This is _red, - red, red_! Touch it! Do you feel? Your finger goes - _all the way around, all the way around_. It is - _round_, it is _round, all round_. Put it in its - place!" (b) "Give me the _red_ one!" (c) "What color - is this circle?" - - (3) The dark room. A Bengal red color is shown: "It is - _red_!" The color appears behind a circular disc: "It - is _red_!" The blue is shown behind a square window: - "It is _blue, blue, blue_," etc. - - (4) The child is given a circular tablet of red sugar - to eat and a square lump of blue sugar. He is made to - smell a red piece of cloth strongly scented with musk; - or a blue piece of cloth scented with asafetida, etc. - - (5) The color chart. - - (6) The first game of Froebel. - - The first pedagogical material given should contain - the color already taught. The notion of color should - be associated with its original environment. - - _Shapes: Solids, Insets:_ The procedure is always in - the three stages mentioned. (1) Show the object to the - child. (2) Have him recognize it. (3) Have him give it - its name. - - _Dimensions:_ Rods of the same thickness, but of - graduated length. First the longest and the shortest - are shown. The child is made to touch them and - interchange them "Pick up the _longest_!" "Place it on - the table!" etc. Repeat this exercise, adding some - intermediate lengths; again finally, with all the - rods. Next the rods may be disarranged; the child is - to put them back in order of length. Notice whether - the child makes an accurate choice in the confused - pile of the graduated dimensions; or whether it is - only by placing two rods together that he comes to - notice the difference between them. Notice how long it - is before the child makes an accurate choice in the - pile and of what degrees of difference in length he is - accurately aware. - - Try the same exercise for _thickness_: prisms of equal - length, but of graduated thickness, using the same - procedure in analogous exercises. Games may be used - for the estimation of distances. - - _The tactile sense proper:_ One board with a - corrugated surface (like a grater) and one smooth. - Another board with five adjacent surfaces of graduated - roughness. Similar exercises may be used in the - feeling of cloths (guessing games). - - Games: The child is blindfolded and lightly tickled. - He must seize what is tickling him, putting his hand - rapidly to the irritant. ("Fly catching," a game for - the localization of stimulants.) - - { Astringents - Liquids { Glues - { Oils - - _Tactile muscular sense:_ - - Elastic bodies { { Rubber - { Balls { - Non-resilient bodies { { Wooden - - Use skins, leather gloves, and various kinds of cloths - for feeling. - - _The muscular sense:_ Balls of the same appearance, - but of graduated weights. Differentiation of coins by - weight. - - _The stereognostic sense:_ Recognition of elementary - forms, of rare objects, of coins. - - _Thermal senses:_ Hot liquids, iced liquids; relative - warmth of linen and wool, wood, wax, metal. - - _Olfactory sense:_ Asafetida, oil of rose, mint, etc., - - { Tobacco smoke - { Burned sugar - Odors of { Incense - { Burned maple - - { Wood } - Odors of burning { Straw } - substances { Paper } Various applications - { Wool } to practical life. - Guessing games { Cotton } - { Edibles } - - Odors of foods (practical life): fresh milk, sour - milk, fresh meat, stale meat, rancid butter, fresh - butter, etc. - - _Taste:_ The four fundamental tastes (guessing games). - Instructive applications to practise in the kitchen - and at meals. - - Tastes of various food substances: - - { milk gruel (milk and flour); - { diluted wine; - Exercises of practical life { sweet wine; - { turned wine (vinegar), etc. - - The practise of the senses begins in the lower classes - in the form of guessing games; in the higher classes - the education of the senses is applied to exercises of - practical life. - - _Hearing:_ Empirical measurement of the acuteness of - the sense of hearing. Specimen game: the teacher about - 35 feet away from the blindfolded children and - standing where an object has been hidden, whispers the - words "_Find it!_" Those who have heard her will be - able to find the object. Having removed from the line - the children who have heard, the teacher steps to - another place about a yard nearer and repeats the - experiment to the children who are left over, etc. - - _Intensity of sound:_ - - Throw to the floor metal blocks of various sizes, - coins of graduated weight. - - Strike glasses one after the other according to size. - - Bells of graduated size. - - _Quality of sound:_ Produce different sounds and - noises. - - { of metal - Bells { - { of terracotta - - Open Bells. - - Closed Bells. - - Strike with a wooden stick on tin plates, glasses, - etc. - - Identify various musical instruments. - - Identify different human voices (of different people). - - Identify the voice of a man, a woman, a child. - - Recognize different people by their step, etc., etc. - - _Pitch:_ Intervals of an octave, of a major triad, and - so on; major and minor chords. However, musical - education requires a separate chapter. - - _Sound projection, localization of sound in space:_ - The child is blindfolded. The sound is produced; (1) - in front of him; behind him; to the right; to the - left; above his head; (2) the blindfolded child - recognizes the relative distance at which the sounds - are produced; (3) the child decides from which side of - the room the sounds come; he is made to follow some - one who is speaking. - - _The horizontal plane:_ This is the first notion - imparted to the child concerning his relationship to - the objects about him. Almost all the objects the - child may perceive around him with his senses rest on - the horizontal plane: his table, his chair, and so on. - The very objects on which the child sits or puts his - toys are horizontal planes. If the plane were not - horizontal, the objects would fall, but they would - strike on the floor which, again, is a horizontal - plane. Place an object on the child's table and tip - one end of the table to show him that the object - falls. - - _Guessing game for the plane surface:_ This game - serves to fix the notion of the plane surface and at - the same time trains the eye and the attention of the - child. - - 1. Under one of three aluminum cups is placed a small - red ball, a cherry or a piece of candy. The child must - remember under which cup the object is hidden. The - teacher tries herself and fails, always raising the - empty cups and returning them to their places. The - child, however, finds the object immediately. - - 2. The teacher now begins to move the three cups about - on the plane surface. The child has to keep his eye on - _his_ cup and never loses sight of it. - - 3. Repeat this exercise with six cups. - - _Checkerboard game:_ This serves to teach the child - the limits and the various divisions of a plane. The - squares are large and in black and white. The whole - board should be surrounded by a border in relief. - Various points are indicated on the plane: forward, - backward, right, left, center, by placing a tin - soldier at each point indicated. The soldiers may be - moved about by the child in obedience to directions of - the teacher: "The officer on horseback to _the - center_": "Standard-bearer _to the right_, etc.!" - Finally, make all the soldiers advance toward the - center of the board over the black squares only; then - over the white squares only, etc. - - These notions may be applied to exercises of practical - life. The children already know how to set the table - without thinking of what they are doing. From now on, - the teacher may say: "Put the plates on the _plane - surface_ of the tables!" "Put the bottle _to the - left_! _In the center!_" etc. Have a small table set - with little dishes, having the objects arranged in - obedience to commands of the teacher. After this, we - may proceed to the Froebel games on the plane surface - with the cubes, blocks, and so on. - - _Inset game as a preparation for reading, drawing, and - writing:_ After the child knows the different colors - and shapes in the inset, the color tablets of the big - inset can be put in place: (1) on a piece of cardboard - where the figures have been drawn in shading in the - respective colors; (2) on a cardboard where the same - figures have been drawn merely in colored outline - (linear abstraction of a regular figure). - - _Inset of shapes where the pieces are all of the same - color (blue):_ The child recognizes the shape and puts - the pieces in place: (1) on a cardboard where the - figure is shaded; (2) on a cardboard where the figure - is merely outlined (linear abstraction of regular - geometrical figures). Meanwhile, the child has been - touching the pieces: "The tablet is smooth. It turns - round and round and round. It is a _circle_. Here we - have a _square_. You go this way and there is a - _point_; this way, and there is another point, and - another, and another; there are _four points_! In the - _triangle_ there are _three points_!" Then the child - follows with his finger the figures outlined on the - cardboard. "This one is entirely round: it is a - _circle_! This one has four points: it is a _square_! - This one has three points: it is a _triangle_!" The - child runs over the same figures with a small rod of - wood (skewer), etc. - - -SIMULTANEOUS READING AND WRITING - - At this point, we may bring in the chart with the - vowels, painted red. The child sees "irregular figures - outlined in color." Give the child the vowels made of - red wood. He is to place them on the corresponding - figures of the chart. He is made to touch the wooden - vowels, running his finger around them in the way they - are written. They are called by their names. The - vowels are arranged according to similarity in shape - (reading): - - o e a - i u - - Then the child is commanded: "Show me the letter _o_! - Put it in its place!" Then he is asked: "What letter - is this?" It will be found at this point that many - children make a mistake, if they merely look at the - letter, but guess rightly when they touch it. It is - possible accordingly to distinguish the various - individual types, visual, motory, etc. - - Next the child is made to touch the letter outlined on - the chart, first with his forefinger only, then with - the fore and middle fingers, finally with a little - wooden skewer to be held like a pen. The letter must - always be followed around in the way it is written. - - The consonants are drawn in blue and arranged on - various charts, according to similarity in shape - (reading, writing). The movable alphabet in blue wood - is added to this. The letters are to be superimposed - on the chart as was done for the vowels. Along with - the alphabet we have another series of charts, where, - beside the consonant identical with the wooden letter - there are painted one or more figures of objects, the - names of which begin with the letter in question. - Beside the long-hand letter, there is also painted in - the same color a smaller letter in print type. The - teacher, naming the consonants in the phonic method, - points to the letter, then to the chart, pronouncing - the name of the objects which are painted there, and - stressing the first letter: e.g., "m ... man ... m: - Give me _M_!" "Put it where it belongs!" "Follow - around it with your finger!" Here the linguistic - defects of the children may be studied. - - The tracing of the letters in the way they are written - begins the muscular education preparatory to writing. - One of our little girls of the motory type when taught - by this method reproduced all the letters in pen and - ink long before she could identify them. Her letters - were about eight millimetres high and were written - with surprising regularity. This same child was - generally successful in her manual work. - - The child, in looking at the letters, identifying - them, and tracing them in the way they are written, is - preparing himself both for reading and writing at the - same time. The two processes are exactly - contemporaneous. Touching them and looking at them - brings several senses to bear on the fixing of the - image. Later the two acts are separated: first looking - (reading), then touching (writing). According to their - respective type, some children learn to read first, - others to write first. - - _Reading:_ As soon as the child has learned to - identify the letters and also to write them, he is - made to pronounce them. Then the alphabet is arranged - in phonetic order. This order is to be varied - according to individual defects made apparent while - the child is pronouncing spontaneously the sounds of - the consonants or vowels, or the words illustrating - the consonants on the charts. We begin by showing the - child and having him pronounce, first, syllables and, - then, words which contain the letters he is able to - pronounce well. Then we go on to the sounds he has - trouble with, finally to those he cannot pronounce at - all (linguistic correction). The phonomimic correction - of speech requires special discussion. In primary - schools speech correction should be in the hands of a - specially trained teacher, like gymnastics, manual - training and singing. Should no defects in speech - appear in the child, the letters of the alphabet - should be taught in the order of physiological - phonetics. - - Beside the big long-hand letters should be placed the - small letters in print type. The letter is taught; - then recognition is prompted by asking as each large - letter is reached: "I want the little one like it." - The two types of letter appear also on the illustrated - charts. Next the printed letter is shown, with the - request: "Give me the big letter that goes with it." - Finally: "What letter is it?" The little letters are - not "touched," because they are never to be written. - - -DRAWING AND WRITING - - The child is given a sheet on which appear a circle - and a square in outline. The circle is filled in with - a red pencil, the square with blue (insets). Smaller - and smaller circles are next given, also circles and - triangles. They are variously disposed on the page. - They are to be filled in with colored pencils. Then - comes the tracing. The black lines are followed around - with colored pencils: the circle, the triangle, the - square. This comes easily to the child who has been - taught to trace with the wooden skewer the figures - outlined on the inset-charts. Writing follows - immediately on the exercises in tracing with the - skewer on the charts of the written alphabet. Some - help can be given the child by having him darken with - a black pencil the letter written on the copy book by - the teacher. As the child writes, his attention should - be directed to the fact that he is writing on a - _limited plane surface_; that he begins at the top, - moving from left to right and little by little coming - down the page. - - Séguin's method began with shafts and curves. His - copybooks for the shafts were prepared as follows: the - shaft to be executed by the child was delimited by two - points, connected by a very light line. In the margin - of the pages appear two shafts to be executed by the - teacher. Similarly for the curves: ( ( ( (. He has the - printed capitals drawn as combinations of shafts and - curves: B, D, etc. - - -SIMULTANEOUS READING AND WRITING OF WORDS - - The child, through sensory education, has acquired - some notions of color, shape, surface (smooth and - rough), smell, taste, etc. At the same time, he has - learned to count (one, two, three, four points). - Uniting all possible notions concerning a single - object, we arrive at his first concrete idea of the - object itself: the object lesson. To the idea thus - acquired, we give the word which represents the - object. Just as the concrete idea results from the - assembling of acquired notions, so the word results - from the union of known sounds, and perceived symbols. - - _Reading lesson:_ On the teacher's table is the large - stand for the movable alphabet in black printed - letters. The teacher arranges on it the vowels and a - few consonants. Each child, in his own place, has the - small movable alphabet in the pasteboard boxes. The - children take from the box the same letters they see - on the large stand, and arrange them in the same - order. The teacher takes up some object which has a - simple word for a name, e.g., _pane_ ("bread"). She - calls the attention of the child to the object, - reviewing an objective lesson already learned, thus - arousing the child's interest in the object. "Shall we - write the word _pane_?" "_Hear_ how I say it!" "_See_ - how I say it!" The teacher pronounces separately and - distinctly the sounds of the letters which make up the - word, exaggerating the movements of the vocal organs - so that they are plainly visible to the children. As - the pupils repeat the word they continue their - education in speaking. - - A child now comes to the teacher's desk to choose the - letters corresponding to the sounds and tries to - arrange them in the order in which they appear in the - word. The children do the same with the small letters - at their seats. Every mistake gives rise to a - correction useful to the whole class. The teacher - repeats the word in front of each one who has made a - mistake, trying to get the child to correct himself. - When all the children have arranged their letters - properly, the teacher shows a card (visiting-card - size) on which is printed (in print-type letters about - a centimeter high) the word "_pane_." All the children - are made to read it. Then some child is asked to put - the card where he finds the word written before him; - next, on the _object_ the word stands for. The - process is repeated with two or three other objects, - with their respective names: _pane_ (bread), _lume_ - (lamp), _cece_ (peas). Then the teacher gathers up the - cards from the various objects, shuffles them and - calls on some child: "Which object do you like best?" - "_Lume!_" "Find me the card with the word _lume_!" - When the card has been selected, all the children are - asked to read it: "Is Mary right in saying that this - is the word _lume_?" "Put the card back where it - belongs!" (i.e., on its object). In the subsequent - lessons, the old cards, with the objects they stand - for removed, should be mixed with the new ones. From - the entire pack the children are to select the new - cards and place them on their objects. A primary - reading book ought to present these words next to a - picture of the object for which they stand. - - In this way the children are brought to unite the - individual symbol into words. When they have been - taught to make the syllable, the reading lesson may be - continued without the use of objects, though it is - still preferable to use words which will, if possible, - have a concrete meaning for the children. - - _Writing:_ The children are already able to use the - cursive (writing) alphabet which corresponds to the - small letter (print-type) that is neither "touched" - nor written, but is merely _read_. They must now write - in hand writing, and place close together, the little - letters which they have assembled in the movable - alphabet to compose words. As each word is read or - written for every object lesson, for every action, - printed cards are being assembled which will later be - used to make clauses and sentences with movable words - that may be moved about just as the individual letters - were moved about in making the _words_ themselves. - Later on, the simple clauses or sentences should refer - to actions performed by the children. The first step - should be to bring two or more words together: e.g., - _red-wool_, _sweet-candy_, _four-footed dog_, etc. - Then we may go on to the sentence itself: _The wool is - red_; _The soup is hot_; _The dog has four feet_; - _Mary eats the candy_, etc. The children first compose - the sentences with their cards; then they copy them in - their writing books. To facilitate the choice of the - cards, they are arranged in special boxes: for - instance, one box is labeled _noun_: or its - compartments are distinguished thus: _food_, - _clothing_, _animals_, _people_, etc. There should be - a box for _adjectives_ with compartments for _colors_, - _shapes_, _qualities_, etc. There should be another - for _particles_ with compartments for _articles_, - _conjunctions_, _prepositions_, etc. A box should be - reserved for _actions_ with the label _verbs_ above; - and then in a compartment should be reserved for the - _infinitive_, _present_, _past_ and _future_ - respectively. The children gradually learn by practice - to take their cards from the boxes and put them back - in their proper places. They soon learn to know their - "word boxes" and they readily find the cards they want - among the _colors_, _shapes_, _qualities_, etc., or - among _animals_, _foods_, etc. Ultimately the teacher - will find occasion to explain the meaning of the big - words at the top of the drawers, _noun_, _adjective_, - _verb_, etc., and this will be the first step into the - subject of _grammar_. - - -GRAMMAR - - -NOUN LESSON - - We may call persons and objects by their _name_ (their - _noun_). People answer if we call them, so do animals. - Inanimate objects, however, never answer, because they - cannot; but if they could answer they would; for - example, if I say _Mary_, Mary answers; if I say - _peas_, the peas do not answer, because they cannot. - You children _do_ understand when I call an object and - you bring it to me. I say for example, _book_, - _beans_, _peas_. If I don't tell you the name of the - object you don't understand what I am talking about; - because every object has a different name. This name - is the word that stands for the object. This name is a - _noun_. When I mention a noun you understand - immediately the object which the noun represents: - _tree_, _chair_, _pen_, _book_, _lamb_, etc. If I do - not give this noun, you don't know what I am talking - about; for, if I say simply, _Bring me ... at once, I - want it_, you do not know what I want, unless I tell - you the name of the object. Unless I give you the - _noun_, you do not understand. Thus every object is - represented by a word which is its _name_ and this - name is a _noun_. To understand whether a word is a - noun or not, you simple ask "Is it a thing?" "Would it - answer if I spoke to it!" "Could I carry it to the - teacher?" For instance, _bread_. Yes, _bread_ is an - object; _table_, yes, it is an object; _conductor_, - yes, the conductor would answer, if I were to speak to - him. - - Let us look through our cards now. I take several - cards from different boxes and shuffle them. Here is - the word _sweet_. Bring me _sweet_. Is there anything - to answer when I call _sweet_? But you are bringing me - a piece of candy! I didn't say _candy_: I said - _sweet_! And now you have given me sugar! I said - _sweet_. If I say _candy_, _sugar_, then you - understand what I want, what object I am thinking - about, because the words _candy_, _sugar_, stand for - objects. Those words are _nouns_. Now let us look - through the noun cards. Let us read a couple of lines - in our reading books and see whether there are any - nouns there. Tell me, are there any nouns? How are we - to find some nouns? Look around you! Look at yourself, - your clothes, etc.! Name every object that you see! - Every word you thus pronounce will be a noun: Teacher, - clothing, necktie, chair, class, children, books, etc. - Just look at this picture which represents so many - things! The figures represent persons and objects. - Name each of these figures! Every word you pronounce - will be a noun! - - -VERB: ACTION - - Mary, rise from your seat! Walk! Mary has performed a - number of _actions_. She has _risen_. She has - performed the _action_ of rising. She has _walked_. - _Walk_ stands for an action. Now write your name on - the blackboard! _Writing_ is an action. Erase what you - have written. _Erasing_ is an action. When I spoke to - Mary, I performed the action of speaking. (Just as the - noun was taught with objects, here we must have - actions. Objects represented in pictures will be of no - use, since actions cannot be portrayed by pictures.) - - The next step will be to suggest a little exercise of - imagination. Look at all these objects! Try to imagine - some action which each might perform! A _class_, for - instance; what actions might a class perform? _Store_: - what actions might take place in a store? Let us now - look through our cards after we have shuffled them. - Next try our reading book. Show me which of the words - are verbs. Give me some words which are verbs - (infinitive). - - -NOUN - - Persons, things (proper and common nouns). Singular, - plural, masculine and feminine. The articles: "Choose - the article that goes with this noun!" etc. - - -VERB - - Present, past, future. I am performing an action now. - Have I performed it before? Did I do it yesterday? - Have I always done it in the past? When I walk now, I - say I _am walking_, I _walk_. When I mean the action - that I performed yesterday, I say: I _was walking_, I - _walked_. The same action performed at different times - is described differently. How strange that is! The - word referring to an object never changes. The beads - are beads to-day. They were beads yesterday. - _Actions_, however, are represented by words which - change according to the time in which they are - performed. To-day I _walk_. Yesterday I _walked_. - To-morrow I _shall walk_. It is always _I_ who do the - walking, _I_ who perform the _action_ of walking; and - I walk always in the same way, putting one foot in - front of the other. The objects you see perform an - action always perform it. Do you see that little bird - which is flying--which is performing the _action_ of - flying? It was flying yesterday. It flew at some time - in the past. To-morrow also, that is, at some _future_ - time, if the little bird lives, it will fly and it - will fly always in the same way, beating its wings to - and fro. You see what a strange thing a verb is! It - changes its words according to the _time_ in which the - action is performed. It is different according as it - represents action in _present_ time, or action in - _past_ time, or action in _future_ time. Now, see! I - am going to take out some of my cards and make up a - little sentence: - - +-----+ +--------+ +------+ +----+ +-------+ - | Now | | George | | eats | | an | | apple | - +-----+ +--------+ +------+ +----+ +-------+ - - Now I am going to change the word which stands for the - time when the action takes place. In place of the card - _now_ I am going to use this one: - - +-----------+ - | yesterday | - +-----------+ - - Is this a good sentence? No! Supposing we change the - time of the verb: _Yesterday George ate an apple_. - This makes good sense. Put these cards back now in the - boxes where they belong. - - -ADJECTIVE - - Every object possesses certain _qualities_. Tell me - what you can about this apple. It is red, it is round, - it is sweet. What qualities can you find in this - chair? It is hard, it is brown, it is wooden. What - about your school-mates, the children? Are they good, - are they pretty, are they polite, are they obedient, - or are they naughty, impolite, disobedient, - disorderly? Let us look through our cards to see - whether we can find words which stand for the - qualities of objects. Supposing we select some from - the drawer of the adjective and some from the drawer - of the noun. Now let us place beside each noun a card - which makes sense with it: here, for instance, I have - _Charles_, _red_, _quadruped_, _transparent_. Does - that mean anything? Well then find me some adjectives - which will go well with _Charles_. Adjectives are - words which stand for qualities of a given object. - They must go well with their noun. Find me some - adjectives which fit well with the noun _dog_. They - must be words which stand for some quality of the dog. - Now put all the cards back in the compartments where - they belong. (This latter exercise is very - instructive.) - - In this method of teaching grammar we make use of - objects and actions directly relating to life. Such - lessons may be made more attractive with story - telling, etc. The teaching of grammar at this period - should be extended as far as is possible without - forcing the pupil. - - -OBJECT LESSONS - - There should be concise and vivid descriptions of some - object. The attention of the child should be sustained - by changing the tone of voice, by exclamations - calculated to excite the child's curiosity, by praise, - etc. Never begin with the _word_, but always with the - _object_. All the notions possessed by the child - should be as far as practicable in a given case - applied to his study of the object. First it should be - described as to its qualities; next as to its uses, - then as to its origin; for example, Here is an - _object_! What color is it? What is its shape? Feel of - it! Taste of it! etc. If possible, have the child - _see_ the use of the object and its origin in every - possible way. Just as the concrete idea of the object - is imparted by verbal description and by various - appeals to the senses of the child, so the different - uses of the object should be brought out in - _describing actions_ which the child _sees_ performed - with it before him. This, of course, is an ideal which - the teacher should try to realize as far as possible. - The object should be shown the child in different - circumstances and under different aspects so as to - give it always the appearance of something new and - something to excite and hold the attention of the - child. Take, for instance, a lesson on the word _hen_. - Show a paper model of the hen, the live hen in the - courtyard, the stereopticon slide of the hen; the - print of the hen in the reading book; the hen alive - among other domestic fowls; pictures of the hen among - pictures of other birds, etc. Each new step should be - taken on a different day and each time the word should - be connected with the object. Write the word on the - blackboard; make up the printed card for the card file - and put it in its proper box. "Who wants to take the - blackboard out-doors? We are going to write some words - in the yard. Now in your reading books there is the - figure of the hen. Next to it is the word _hen_. Write - this word in your copy books. Who can repeat what we - have said about the hen? Write down what you know - about the hen." The amount of information given about - a particular object will depend, of course, upon the - class. The simplest description should be followed by - one more minute, passing thus to speak of uses, - habits, origin, etc. The writing of a simple word may - be developed into a written description. But the - lessons on the given object should always be short, - and they should be repeated on different days. For the - lessons on trees, plants, and vegetables, a garden is - necessary: the children should see the seeds planted, - a growing vegetable, a picture of the fruit, etc. If - possible the domestic use of the garden products - should be demonstrated. This applies also to flowers. - The blackboard with crayon should never be lacking in - the garden. For object lessons we need toys to - represent furniture, dishes, various objects used in - the home, tools of different trades, rooms and the - furniture that goes in each, houses, trees, a church - (to build villages), etc.; dolls equipped with all the - necessaries for dressing. There should be a shelf for - bottles containing specimens of different drinks; - various kinds of cloths (for tactile exercises); the - raw materials out of which they are made, - demonstrations of the way they are manufactured, etc. - Show also specimens of the various minerals, etc. - - -HISTORY - - History is taught first on a little stage with living - tableaux, gradually advancing to action; second, by - descriptions of large illustrations and colored - pictures; third, by story-telling based on - stereopticon views. The teacher should strive for - brevity, conciseness, and vivacity in descriptions. - Historical story telling should, as in the case of all - other lessons, bring about additions of printed cards - to the word boxes. Various information of the seasons, - months of the year, etc., should be imparted by - illustrations and pictures. Every morning the child - should be asked: "What day is it? What day was - yesterday? What day will to-morrow be?" and "What day - of the month is it?" - - -GEOGRAPHY - - 1. Exercises on the plane for the cardinal points, - with various gymnastic and guessing games. 2. Building - games out of doors. Make a lake, an island, a - peninsula, a river. 3. Carry the houses and church - into the yard and construct a small village. Put the - church on the north; the schoolhouse on the east; the - mountain on the west; in front of the school place the - national flag. 4. In the classroom fit out a room with - its proper furniture to be placed on a map of the room - outlined on a large chart. As the furniture is - removed, make a mark on the map to indicate where each - article was. Make a little village in the same way, - houses, church, etc. Take away the church, etc.; mark - the place of each object on the map as it is removed. - Then identify each spot. "Where was the church?" "What - was over here?" etc. Thus we get a conception of the - geographical map. Read the map, making use of the - cardinal points. 5. Physical characteristics of - regions may be shown by clay modeling to represent - hills, etc. Draw outlines around each model, remove - the clay and read the _geographical map_ resulting. - - -ARITHMETIC - - The children are to count: 1 nose; 1 mouth; 1, 2 - hands; 1, 2 feet; 1, 2, 3, 4 points in the insets; 1, - 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 soldiers on the plane. How many blocks - did they use in the building? 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, - 9. Thus for the elementary steps in counting. - - -COMPUTATION - - Computation should be taught practically in the store - from the very beginning. The shopkeeper sells 1 cherry - for 1c. The children have 2c and get two cherries. - Next they get two nuts for 1c. Place 1c on the counter - and place 2 nuts beside it. Then count all the nuts - and there are 2 for 1c, etc. The child must give him - 1c in change (2 + 2 = 4; 2 - 1 = 1). In money changing - it will be observed that at first some children - recognize the coins more easily by touch than by sight - (motor types). - - -WRITTEN NUMBERS - - Charts with the nine numbers: one for each number. - Each chart has picture representing quantities of the - most varied objects arranged around the number, which - is indicated by a large design on the chart. For - instance: on the _1_ card there is one cherry, one - dog, one ball, etc. Yesterday the shopkeeper sold one - cherry for 1c. Is the cherry here? Yes, there is the - cherry! And what is this? _One_ church! And this? - _One_ cent! etc. What is this figure here? It is the - number _one_. Now bring out the wooden figure: What is - this? Number _one_! Put it on the figure on the chart! - It is _one_. - - Now take the charts to the store. Who has 1c? Who has - 2c? etc. Let us look for the number among the charts. - The shopkeeper is selling three peas for 1c. Let us - look for number _3_ among the charts! Numbers should - be taught in the afternoon lesson in the store. The - designs representing the figures should be shown the - following morning. Next time the charts with the - figures previously taught should be taken to the shop - to be recognized again. Other numbers are brought out - in the new computations. The figures for the new - numbers then taught in the store should be shown the - following day, etc. To make the store interesting, the - topic lesson on the objects offered for sale should be - frequently repeated. The child should be taught to buy - only perfect objects, so that on receiving them he may - examine them carefully, observing them in all their - parts. He should give them back if they are not - perfect or if mistakes are made by the shopkeeper in - giving them out. For instance: A spoiled apple should - not be accepted. "I refuse to buy it!" Beans should - not be accepted for peas. Again the child refuses to - buy them. He must pay only when he is sure he has been - served properly (exercise in practical life). - - The storekeeper will make mistakes: first, in _kinds_ - of objects, to sharpen the observation of _qualities_ - by the children who purchase; second, in the _number_ - of objects given, to accustom the child to purchasing - proper _quantities_. - - -ODD AND EVEN NUMBERS - - Even numbers are red. Odd numbers are blue. There are: - movable figures in wood; red and blue cubes in numbers - corresponding to the figures on them; finally, charts - with numbers drawn in color. Under each design are - small red and blue squares arranged in such a way as - to emphasize the divisibility of _even_ numbers by 2 - and similarly the indivisibility by 2 of _odd_ - numbers. In the latter case one square is always left - by itself in the center. - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The child places the movable numbers and the cubes on - the figures on the charts. The teacher then makes two - equal rows of cubes to correspond to the even numbers - (red). The division is easy! But try to separate the - odd numbers (blue). It is not possible! A block is - always left in the middle! The child takes the figures - and the blocks and arranges them on his table, - imitating the design on the chart. He tries to make - two equal rows of cubes for the even numbers. He - succeeds. He does not succeed in doing so with the odd - numbers. The numbers which can be divided thus are - _even_; those which cannot be so divided are _odd_. - - _Number boxes_: On these boxes are designed red and - blue figures identical with those on the charts. The - child puts into each box the number of cubes called - for by the figure on the box. This exercise follows - immediately the work on odd and even numbers described - above. As the child transfers each series of cubes - from his table to the boxes, he pronounces the number - and adds _odd_ or _even_. - - _Exercises in attention and memory_: A chart of odd - and even numbers in colors is placed on the teacher's - desk in view of all the children. The red and blue - cubes are piled on the teacher's desk. The teacher - passes the wooden figures to the children and tells - them to examine them. Immediately afterwards the - children leave their seats, go to the teacher's desk, - and get the numbers which correspond to their own - figures. On going back to their places they fit the - cubes under the corresponding figure in the - arrangement just learned. The teacher is to observe - - 1. Whether the child has remembered the color of his - figure (frequently a child with a red number takes the - blue cubes). - - 2. Whether he has remembered his _number_. - - 3. Whether he remembers the proper arrangement. - - 4. Whether the child remembers that the chart from - which he _can copy_ is before him on the stand and - whether he thinks of looking at it. - - When mistakes are made, the teacher has the child - correct himself by calling his attention to the chart. - - -COUNTING BY TENS - -(_For more advanced classes_) - - In the store ten objects are sold for one cent, e.g.: - - (10 beans), one cent for each _ten_. - - One ten = ten, 10. - - Two tens = twenty, 20. - - Three tens = thirty, 30, etc. - - From forty on (in English from sixty on) the numbers - are more easily learned because their names are like - simple numbers with the ending -_ty_ (Italian - -_anta_). - - Charts should be prepared (rectangular in shape) on - which nine tens appear arranged one under the other; - then nine cards where each ten is repeated nine times - in a column; finally, numerous cards with the unit - figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, to be fitted on the - zeros on the cards where the tens are repeated nine - times. - - 10--10--20 - 20--10--20 - 30--10--20 - 40--10--20 - 50--10--20 - 60--10--20 - 70--10--20 - 80--10--20 - 90--10--20 - - Some difficulty will be experienced with the tens - where the names do not correspond to the simple - numbers: 11, 12, 13, etc. The other tens, however, - will be very easy. When a little child is able to - count to 20, he can go on to 100 without difficulty. - The next step is to superimpose the little cards on - the first chart of the tens series, having the - resultant numbers read aloud. - - _Problems_: Problems are, at first, simple memory - exercises for the children. In fact the problems are - solved practically in the store in the form of a game; - buying, lending, sharing with their schoolmates, - taking a part of what is bought and giving it to some - other child, etc. The store exercises should be - repeated in the form of a problem on the following - morning. The children have simply to remember what - happened and reproduce it in writing. _Problems are - next developed contemporaneously_ with the various - arithmetical operations and computations (addition, - multiplication, etc.). The teacher explains the - operations starting with the problem, which becomes - for the children a very amusing game. The problem, - finally, becomes an imaginative exercise: "Suppose you - are going to the store to buy," etc., etc. We can - ultimately arrive at real problems that require - reasoning. In the store the teacher illustrates the - various operations on the blackboard, using simple - marks at first: "You have bought 2c worth of beans, at - three for a cent. Let us write that down: III--III. - Then let us count. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. There are six. - Well, then, 3 + 3(III III) = 6. We can also say: 2 - groups of III equals 6; twice, three, six; two times - three, six; 2 × 3 = 6. How much is 3 + 3? How much is - 2 × 3? How much is 3 × 2?" - - The following morning, when the written problem is - given, the child should have before him for reference - the computation charts with all the combinations - possible. - - The transition to mental computation will come after - this and not before. - -SAMPLE CARDS - -(Addition) - - 1 + 1 = 2 2 + 1 = 3 3 + 1 = 4 - 1 + 2 = 3 2 + 2 = 4 3 + 2 = 5 - 1 + 3 = 4 2 + 3 = 5 3 + 3 = 6 - 1 + 4 = 5 2 + 4 = 6 3 + 4 = 7 - -(Multiplication) - - 1 × 1 = 1 2 × 1 = 2 3 × 1 = 3 - 1 × 2 = 2 2 × 2 = 4 3 × 2 = 6 - 1 × 3 = 3 2 × 3 = 6 3 × 3 = 9 - - Subtraction in the same way. The development of these - various operations followed logically on the practical - exercise in the store, where multiplication proved to - be a product of sums, division, a process of - successive subtractions. - - In our classes we have arithmetic lessons every day. - The afternoon practice in the store prepares for the - theoretical lesson of the following morning. - Accordingly, on the day when the practical exercise - occurs, there is no theoretical lesson and vice versa. - - The decimal metric system applied to weights, measures - and coinage is taught in the same way. The store - should be equipped with scales, weights, dry and - liquid measures, etc. All kinds of coins should be - available, including bills up to $20 (100 francs). - Work in the store should continue to be not only a - help toward arithmetical computation but also toward - the preparation for practical life. For instance, when - cloth is sold, some attention should be given to its - actual market value; its qualities should be - emphasized by feeling, etc.; and the child should be - taught to observe whether the storekeeper has given - him the right amount and the right quality. Money - changing should be made ready and easy. The money - which the children spend at the store should be earned - by them as a reward for their application to study and - their good behavior. - - -GENERAL RULES - - To attract the attention of defective children strong - sensory stimulants are necessary. The lessons, - therefore, should be eminently practical. Every lesson - should begin with the presentation of the object to be - illustrated by the teacher in a few words distinctly - pronounced with continual modulations of the voice and - accompanied by vivid imitative expression. The lessons - should be made as attractive as possible and, as far - as practicable, presented under the form of games, so - as to arouse the curiosity of the child: guessing - games, blindman's buff, store-keeping, the sleep - walker, the blind store-keeper, etc. But however - amusing the game may be, the lesson should always be - stopped while the child is still willing to continue. - His attention, which is easily fatigued, should never - be exhausted. To fix ideas, lessons should be - repeated many times. Each time, however, the same - objects should be presented under different forms and - in a different environment, so that it will always be - interesting by appearing as something new: - story-telling, living tableaux, large illustrations; - colored pictures; stereopticon views, etc. In case - individual teaching is necessary, as happens in the - most elementary classes, care should be exercised to - keep all the other children busy with different toys: - insets, lacing-and-buttoning-frames, hooks and eyes, - etc. When children refuse to take part in their - lessons it is better not to use coercion, but to aim - at obtaining obedience indirectly through the child's - imitation of his schoolmates. Glowing praise of the - pupils who are showing good will in their work almost - always brings the recalcitrants to time. When a child - shows he has understood the point under discussion, it - is better not to ask for a repetition. His attention - is easily fatigued, and the second time he may say - badly what at first he gave successfully; and the - failure may discourage him. It is well to be satisfied - with the first good answer, bestow such praise as will - afford the child a pleasant memory of what he has been - doing; and go back to the subject on the following - day, or, at the earliest, several hours later. - - In manual training, however, the situation is - different. The lesson in this subject can be a whole - hour long and should take the form of serious work and - not of play. The child should be set early at some - useful task, even if a little hard work, not - unattended with risk, be involved (wood-cutting, - boring, etc.). From the outset, thus, the child will - become familiar with the difficulties of bread-winning - effort and will learn to overcome them. - - Interest in work may be stimulated by appropriate - rewards. The child may earn during work-hours the - money for his purchases at the store, for his tickets - to the theater and the stereopticon lecture. The child - who does not work may be kept away from the more - attractive lessons, such as dancing and music, which - come immediately after the work hour. As a matter of - fact, these children take to manual training very - readily, provided the tasks assigned are adapted to - the natural inclinations of the individual child in - such a way that he may take in his work the greatest - possible satisfaction and thus by natural bent attain - a skill useful to himself and society. - - -MORAL EDUCATION - - By the expression "moral education" we mean an - education which tends to make a social being of an - individual who is by nature extra- or anti-social. It - presents two aspects which may be paralleled with the - education thus far treated and which we call - "intellectual education." - - In this latter training of the mind, we began by an - appropriate hygienic cure of all those physical - defects which could stand in the way of successful - mental education. In moral education, likewise, we try - to eliminate such defects as arise from some passing - physical ailment. We should carefully consider the - apparently causeless "naughtiness" of children, to see - whether it may not be due to some intestinal - disturbance, or to the early stages of some infectious - disease. The symptoms of such diseases should be known - to the teacher. I have been told that English mothers - use the empirical method of administering purgatives - or cold shower baths to "naughty children," often with - good correctional effect. I suggest that such - empiricism is hardly prudent where science is able to - prescribe much safer and more efficacious methods. - Child hygiene must be well known to the educator and - should be the pivotal point of every educational - system. - - In mental education, we began by reducing the child to - _tonic quiescence_; here we must begin by reducing the - child to _obedience_. - - In mental education, to give the child his first - notions of his physical person (personal imitation: - touching of the parts of the body) and of his - relations to environment (personal imitation: moving - of objects, etc.) we had recourse to _imitation_; - here, to instil in the child elementary notions of his - duties, we must throw around the child an atmosphere - morally correct, an environment in which, after - attaining obedience, he can _imitate_ persons who act - properly. - - In mental education we went on to the training of the - senses; here we pass to the education of _feelings_. - Our next step, in the one case, was to the education - proper of the mind; here it is to the training of the - will. - - The parallel is perfect: - - hygienic training: hygiene; - _tonic quiescence_: obedience; - imitation: imitation (environment); - sensory education: education of the feelings (sensibilities); - mental education proper: education of the will. - - -OBEDIENCE - - In a command the will of the teacher is imposed upon - the defective child who is lacking in will. The will - of the teacher is substituted for the child's will in - impelling to action or inhibiting the child's - impulses. From the very first the child must feel this - will, which is imposed upon him and is irrevocably - destined to overcome him. The child must understand - that against this will he cannot offer any resistance. - The teacher's command must be obeyed at whatever cost, - even if coercive measures must be resorted to. No - consideration should ever lead the teacher to desist - from enforcing her command. The child _must_ submit - and obey. The teacher accordingly, should be careful - at first to command the child to move; since, if - necessary she can _force_ him to move. She may command - the child to stand motionless because, if necessary, - she can tie him or put him in a straight-jacket. She - should never, on the other hand, command the child to - "beg pardon," because the child may refuse, and in the - face of this refusal the teacher may find herself - helpless and lose her authority. To acquire authority - in command, the teacher must possess a considerable - power of suggestion; and this she can partially - acquire. The teacher should be physically attractive, - of an "imposing personality." She should have a clear - musical voice, and some power of facial expression and - gesture. These things may be in large part acquired by - actual study of declamation and imitation, subjects in - which the perfect teacher should be proficient. The - artistic study of _command_, which the teacher may - undertake, presents itself under three aspects: voice - study, gesture, facial expression. - - _Voice and speech:_ The voice should be clear and - musical, word articulation perfect. Any defect in - pronunciation should effectually bar a teacher from - the education of defective children. On days when the - teacher has a cold and her voice is likely to assume - false or ridiculous intonations, she should not think - of correcting or _commanding_ a defective child. The - teacher's voice must be impressive and suggestive to - the child. If shouting and declamatory tirades have - gone out of fashion in the education of normal - children, they may serve very well in the education of - defectives. Whereas, in the mental education of these - unfortunates, we are to pronounce a few words, but - very distinctly, here there is no objection to a - veritable flood of speech, provided such lectures be - free from monotony, the voice passing from tones of - reproof to tones of sorrow, pathos, tenderness, etc. A - few words are to receive special emphasis--those which - we intend shall convey to the child what we wish him - to understand. The rest of all we say will constitute - for the child merely modulated, musical or painful - sound. It is in the music of the human voice that the - elements of the education of the feelings reside; - whether in the prohibition against doing something - wrong, we introduce the corrective command, or, in the - order to perform some action, we include - encouragement, menace, or promise of reward. - - Often the command is very simple. When the child is - told to do something, he does not refuse. Nevertheless - he is not easily persuaded. He must try to understand, - first of all, what we want of him. The technique of - such a simple command falls into two parts. We may - call the first _incitement_, and the second - _explanation_. The whole command should be repeated - several times with varied intonations and with stress - on different words until each word in its order has - been emphasized. "James, put that book on the table." - In the first instance the command will be _incitive_ - in character, calling the attention of the child to - the action and urging him to perform it. Here the - accent should fall on the name of the child and on the - imperative. The tone should be that of absolute - command. "_James_, _put_ that book on the table." As - we pass from the command to the explanation, the tone - should be changed and somewhat softened. The first - word should be clear and impelling, followed by slow, - insistent words--"James, put _that book_ on the - table": "James, put that book on the _table_": "James, - put that book _on_ the table." Thus the voice both in - commanding and in describing what was commanded, while - urging the child to perform the required action and - guiding him to do it, was also affording us help in - its suggestive power and by explanation. - - _Gesture:_ The teacher must study particularly - expressive gesture. She must always accompany what she - says with gestures serving both to impel the child to - actions and which suggest imitation and explain the - command. Gestures should be expressive enough to be - readily intelligible even without words; for example, - if it is desirable to bring the child to perfect - quiescence, as the command is given, the teacher - should stop, become almost rigid, looking sharply at - the child in such a way that he may be impressed by - that rigid fixity which he sees before him and be - brought by suggesting to imitate it. Then to keep the - child motionless, the teacher may attract his - attention by a slight almost continuous hypnotizing - sort of whistle. To excite an apathetic child to - movement the teacher should herself move, accompanying - the stress of her voice with motion in her whole body. - - In the _simple command_, arm gesture only should be - used and as follows: - - - For _Incitement_: rapid movement in straight line. - - For _Explanation_: slow movement in curve. - - Command of _quiescence_: gesture up and down, from - without toward the body. - - Command of _movement_: gesture from down, up, from - within, out from the body. - - - _Facial expression and gaze_: The gaze has a powerful - effect on the child. It is the same gaze which - impressed the child and brought him to the first steps - in his education (see our chapter on the _Education of - the Gaze_). All the expressions of the eye are useful - provided the teacher employs them properly. It is not - a question of scowling at the child to frighten him, - as might be supposed; but rather of bringing the eye - as well as the whole face to express all those - emotions which the teacher must herself actually feel - in the presence of an obedient or rebellious, a - patient or angry child; and of giving to this - expression such clearness that the child cannot - possibly be mistaken as to its meaning (Séguin, page - 679). The teacher's face must be expressive, mobile, - hence in harmonious relationship with what is to be - expressed (calmness, gaiety, effort). The expression - must never vary momentarily on account of any - extraneous diversion which may occur; otherwise the - children will soon learn to provoke such distractions - of the teacher's attention. Such commands, which - demand on the teacher's part so much artistic study, - will, of course, not be necessary during the whole - period of the child's education. - - THE END - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's Notes: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Varied hyphenation was retained. - -Page 29, the translations for "il lavoratore" and "l'italiano" were -reversed. This was corrected. - -Page 29, order of feminine column of list from "la santa" down were out -of order. The original read: - - il santo la tagliatrice the saint - il tagliatore la donna the cutter - l'uomo la vecchia the man - il vecchio la visitatrice the old man - il visitatore la zia the visitor - lo zio la santa the uncle - -This was repaired. - -Page 30, "visitor" changed to "visitors" ("le visitatrici the visitors) - -Page 78, "vincino" changed to "vicino" (vicino a, accosto a) - -Page 90, "ziz-zag" changed to "zig-zag" (straight, zig-zag) - -Page 93, repeated word "a" deleted. Original read (into a a new kind of -activity) - -Page 122, "oihmè" changed to "ohimè" (ahi! ohi! ohimè!) - -Page 156, "casual" changed to "causal" (causal clause) - -Page 198, "promesai" changed to "promessi" (I promessi sposi) - -Page 231, "discription" changed to "description" (Although this -description may) - -Page 277, "demonator" changed to "denominator" (by the denominator) - -Page 366, song, "Bethleem" changed to "Bethlehem" (Puer natus Bethlehem) - -Page 378, "passe" changed to "passa" (qualcuno passa e parla) - -Page 386, "spunta" changed to "spúnta" (Quinci sp=ú=nta per l'=á=ria) - -Page 394, the symbols used were "U" and "--" in the tables as the -figures used were not available. Starting with this table, the original -puts an acute accent above the "--". - -Page 403, "In" changed to "Ín" (=Í=n there st=é=pped) - -Page 437, "processs" changed to "process" (in the process of -distinguishing) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Montessori Elementary Materials, by -Maria Montessori - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIALS *** - -***** This file should be named 42869-8.txt or 42869-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/8/6/42869/ - -Produced by Alicia Williams, Emmy and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was -produced from scanned images of public domain material -from the Google Print project.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Montessori Elementary Materials - The Advanced Montessori Method - -Author: Maria Montessori - -Translator: Arthur Livingston - -Release Date: June 4, 2013 [EBook #42869] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIALS *** - - - - -Produced by Alicia Williams, Emmy and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was -produced from scanned images of public domain material -from the Google Print project.) Music files created by Linda -Cantoni. - - - - - - -</pre> @@ -27383,376 +27344,7 @@ above the "—".</p> -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Montessori Elementary Materials, by -Maria Montessori - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIALS *** - -***** This file should be named 42869-h.htm or 42869-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/8/6/42869/ - -Produced by Alicia Williams, Emmy and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was -produced from scanned images of public domain material -from the Google Print project.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Montessori Elementary Materials - The Advanced Montessori Method - -Author: Maria Montessori - -Translator: Arthur Livingston - -Release Date: June 4, 2013 [EBook #42869] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIALS *** - - - - -Produced by Alicia Williams, Emmy and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was -produced from scanned images of public domain material -from the Google Print project.) Music files created by Linda -Cantoni. - - - - - - - - -[Transcriber's Notes: Bold text is surrounded by =equal signs= and -italic text by _underscores_. Superscripted text will be precede by a ^ -and surrounded by {braces}. - -Two symbols were used to show stressed and unstressed syllables. These -have been represented by U and --.] - - -THE MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL - -[Illustration: The first Montessori Elementary Class in America, opened -in Rivington Street, New York, May, 1916.] - - - - -_THE ADVANCED MONTESSORI METHOD_ - -THE MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL - -BY - -MARIA MONTESSORI - - AUTHOR OF "THE MONTESSORI METHOD," "PEDAGOGICAL - ANTHROPOLOGY," ETC. - - TRANSLATED FROM THE ITALIAN BY - ARTHUR LIVINGSTON - ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ITALIAN AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - - _WITH FORTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS - AND WITH NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS_ - -[Illustration] - - NEW YORK - FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY - PUBLISHERS - - - - - _Copyright, 1917, by_ - FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY - - _All rights reserved, including that of translation into - foreign languages._ - - - - -ACKNOWLEDGMENT - - -The patent rights in the Montessori apparatus and material are -controlled, in the United States and Canada, by The House of Childhood, -Inc., 16 Horatio Street, New York. The publishers are indebted to them -for the photographs showing the Grammar Boxes. - - - - -TRANSLATOR'S NOTE - - -So far as Dr. Montessori's experiments contain the affirmation of a new -doctrine and the illustration of a new method in regard to the teaching -of Grammar, Reading and Metrics, the following pages are, we hope, a -faithful rendition of her work. But it is only in these respects that -the chapters devoted to these subjects are to be considered a -translation. It will be observed that Dr. Montessori's text is not only -a theoretical treatise but also an actual text-book for the teaching of -Italian grammar, Italian reading and Italian metrics to young pupils. -Her exercises constitute a rigidly "tested" material: her Italian word -lists are lists which, in actual practise, have accomplished their -purpose; her grammatical categories with their relative illustration are -those actually mastered by her Italian students; her reading selections -and her metrical analyses are those which, from an offering doubtless -far more extensive, actually survived the experiment of use in class. - -It is obvious that no such value can be claimed for any "translation" of -the original material. The categories of Italian grammar are not exactly -the categories of English grammar. The morphology and, to a certain -extent, the syntax of the various parts of speech differ in the two -languages. The immediate result is that the Montessori material offers -much that is inapplicable and fails to touch on much that is essential -to the teaching of English grammar. The nature and extent of the -difficulties thus arising are more fully set forth in connection with -specific cases in our text. Suffice it here to indicate that the -English material offered below is but approximately "experimental," -approximately scientific. The constitution of a definitive Montessori -material for English grammar and the definitive manner and order of its -presentment must await the results of experiments in actual use. For the -clearer orientation of such eventual experiments we offer, even for -those parts of Italian grammar which bear no relation to English, a -virtually complete translation of the original text; venturing meanwhile -the suggestion that such studies as Dr. Montessori's treatise on the -teaching of Italian noun and adjective inflections--entirely foreign to -English--may prove valuable to all teachers of modern languages. While -it might seem desirable to isolate such superfluous material from the -"English grammar" given below, we decided to retain the relative -paragraphs in their actual position in the Italian work, in order to -preserve the literal integrity of the original method. Among our -additions to the text we may cite the exercises on the possessive -pronouns--identified by Dr. Montessori with the possessive -adjectives--the interrogatives and the comparison of adjectives and -adverbs. - -Even where, as regards morphology, a reasonably close adaptation of the -Italian material to English uses has been possible, it by no means -follows that the pedagogical problems involved remain the same. The -teaching of the relative pronoun, for instance, is far more complicated -in English than in Italian; in the sense that the steps to be taken by -the child are for English more numerous and of a higher order. Likewise -for the verb, if Italian is more difficult as regards variety of forms, -it is much more simple as regards negation, interrogation and -progressive action. We have made no attempt to be consistent in adapting -the translation to such difficulties. In general we have treated the -parts of speech in the order in which they appear in the Italian text, -though actual experiment may prove that some other order is desirable -for the teaching of English grammar. The English material given below is -thus in part a translation of the original exercises in Italian, in part -new. In cases where it proved impossible to utilize any of the Italian -material, an attempt has been made to find sentences illustrating the -same pedagogical principle and involving the same number and character -of mental processes as are required by the original text. - -The special emphasis laid by Dr. Montessori upon selections from Manzoni -is due simply to the peculiar conditions surrounding the teaching of -language in Italy, where general concepts of the national language are -affected by the existence of powerful dialects and the unstable nature -of the grammar, vocabulary and syntax of the national literature. We -have made no effort to find a writer worthy of being set up as a like -authority, since no such problem exists for the American and English -public. Our citations are drawn to a large extent from the "Book of -Knowledge" and from a number of classics. Occasionally for special -reasons we have translated the Italian original. The chapter on Italian -metrics has been translated entire as an illustration of method; whereas -the portion relating to English is, as explained below, entirely of -speculative character. - -To Miss Helen Parkhurst and Miss Emily H. Greenman thanks are due for -the translation of the chapters on Arithmetic, Geometry, and Drawing. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PART I - - GRAMMAR - - TRANSLATOR'S NOTE vii - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. The Transition from the Mechanical to the Intellectual - Development of Language 3 - - II. WORD STUDY 12 - Suffixes and Prefixes 13 - Suffixes 13 - Prefixes 17 - Compound Words 18 - Word-Families 20 - - III. ARTICLE AND NOUN 22 - Singular and Plural 25 - Masculine and Feminine 27 - Singular and Plural in English 33 - - IV. LESSONS--COMMANDS 39 - Nouns 40 - Commands on Nouns 48 - - V. ADJECTIVES 51 - Analyses 51 - Descriptive Adjectives 51 - Permutations 55 - Inflection of Adjectives 56 - Logical and Grammatical Agreement of Nouns and Adjectives 59 - Descriptive Adjectives 61 - Adjectives of Quantity 63 - Ordinals 64 - Demonstrative Adjectives 64 - Possessive Adjectives 65 - Comparison of Adjectives 65 - - VI. VERBS 66 - Analyses 66 - Permutations 68 - Lessons and Commands on the Verb 69 - Lessons with Experiments 74 - - VII. PREPOSITIONS 77 - Analyses 77 - Permutations 80 - Lessons and Commands on Prepositions 81 - - VIII. ADVERBS 85 - Analyses 85 - Permutations 87 - Lessons and Commands on Adverbs 90 - A Burst of Activity: the Future of the Written Language in - Popular Education 93 - Commands Improvised by the Children 96 - - IX. PRONOUNS 98 - Analyses 98 - Personals 98 - Demonstratives 99 - Relatives and Interrogatives 99 - Possessives 101 - Permutations 101 - Lessons and Commands on the Pronoun 102 - Paradyms 106 - Agreement of Pronoun and Verb 108 - Conjugation of Verbs 110 - - X. CONJUNCTIONS 113 - Analyses 113 - Coordinates 113 - Subordinates 114 - Permutations 115 - Lessons and Commands on the Conjunction 115 - Comparison of Adjectives 117 - - XI. INTERJECTIONS 120 - Analyses 120 - Classification 122 - - XII. SENTENCE ANALYSIS 124 - Simple Sentences 124 - The Order of Elements in the Sentence: Permutations 132 - Compound and Complex Sentences 136 - Test Cards 140 - The Order of Clauses in the Sentence: Sentence Forms - in Prose and Verse 144 - Permutations 147 - Test Cards 151 - Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions 155 - Sequence of Tenses 157 - Punctuation 160 - - XIII. WORD CLASSIFICATION 164 - Kinds of Words 164 - Classified According to Formation 164 - Classified According to Inflection 165 - Classified According to Their Use 165 - - - PART II - - READING - - I. EXPRESSION AND INTERPRETATION 171 - Mechanical Processes 171 - Analysis 173 - Experimental Section: Reading Aloud 179 - Interpretations 182 - Audition 196 - The Most Popular Books 198 - - - PART III - - ARITHMETIC - - I. ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS 205 - Numbers 1-10 205 - Tens, Hundreds and Thousands 208 - Counting-frames 210 - - II. THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE 217 - - III. DIVISION 223 - - IV. OPERATIONS IN SEVERAL FIGURES 225 - Addition 225 - Subtraction 227 - Multiplication 228 - Multiplying on Ruled Paper 235 - Long Division 237 - - V. EXERCISES WITH NUMBERS 241 - Multiples, Prime Numbers and Factoring 241 - - VI. SQUARE AND CUBE OF NUMBERS 251 - - - PART IV - - GEOMETRY - - I. PLANE GEOMETRY 259 - - II. DIDACTIC MATERIAL USED FOR GEOMETRY 265 - Squares and Divided Figures 265 - Fractions 267 - Reduction of Common Fractions to Decimal Fractions 273 - Equivalent Figures 277 - Some Theorems Based on Equivalent Figures 282 - Division of a Triangle 289 - Inscribed and Concentric Figures 290 - - III. SOLID GEOMETRY 292 - The Powers of Numbers 294 - The Cube of a Binomial 295 - Weights and Measures 295 - - - PART V - - DRAWING - - I. LINEAR GEOMETRIC DESIGN DECORATION 301 - Artistic Composition with the Insets 305 - - II. FREE-HAND DRAWING: STUDIES FROM LIFE 307 - - - PART VI - - MUSIC - - I. THE SCALE 319 - - II. THE READING AND WRITING OF MUSIC 326 - Treble and Bass Clefs 328 - - III. THE MAJOR SCALES 333 - - IV. EXERCISES IN RHYTHM 341 - Singing 365 - Musical Phrases for Rhythmic Exercises 367 - - V. MUSICAL AUDITIONS 376 - - - PART VII - - METRICS - - I. THE STUDY OF METRICS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 383 - Stanza and line 384 - Rhyme 384 - Tonic accents (stresses) 385 - Parisyllabic lines 386 - Imparisyllabic lines 388 - The caesura 391 - Metrical analyses 392 - Translator's note on English metrics 395 - Material for nomenclature 404 - - APPENDIX I 409 - - APPENDIX II 423 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FACING - PAGE - The first Montessori Elementary Class in America _Frontispiece_ - - One of the first steps in grammar 24 - - Grammar Boxes, showing respectively two and three parts of - speech 25 - - Grammar Boxes, showing respectively four and five parts of - speech 78 - - Grammar Boxes, showing respectively six and seven parts of - speech 79 - - Grammar Boxes, showing respectively eight and nine parts of - speech 114 - - The children working at their various occupations in complete - freedom 115 - - Interpreted reading: "Smile and clap your hands" 174 - - Interpreted reading: "Take off your hat and make a low bow" 175 - - Interpreted reading: "Whisper to him" 188 - - Interpreting the pose and expression of a picture 189 - - Interpreted reading: "She was sleepy; she leaned her arms on - the table, her head on her arms, and went to sleep" 200 - - Exercises in interpreted reading and in arithmetic 201 - - The bead material used for addition and subtraction 214 - - Counting and calculating by means of the bead chains 214 - - The bead chain, square, and cube 215 - - The first bead frame 215 - - The second counting-frame used in arithmetic 226 - - Working out problems in seven figures 227 - - Solving a problem in long division 238 - - Bead squares and cubes; and the arithmetic-board for - multiplication and division 239 - - The bead number cubes built into a tower 282 - - The decagon and the rectangle composed of the same - triangular insets 283 - - The triangular insets fitted into their metal plates 283 - - Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two rectangles 288 - - Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two squares 289 - - Hollow geometric solids 296 - - Designs formed by arranging sections of the insets within the - frames 297 - - Making decorative designs with the aid of geometric insets 312 - - Water-color paintings from nature 313 - - The monocord 334 - - Material for indicating the intervals of the major scale 334 - - The music bars 335 - - The children using the music bells and the wooden keyboards 352 - - Analyzing the beat of a measure while walking on a line 353 - - - - -PART I - -GRAMMAR - - - - -MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL - - - - -I - -THE TRANSITION FROM THE MECHANICAL TO THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF -LANGUAGE - - -In the "Children's Houses" we had reached a stage of development where -the children could write words and even sentences. They read little -slips on which were written different actions which they were to -execute, thus demonstrating that they had understood them. The material -for the development of writing and reading consisted of two alphabets: a -larger one with vowels and consonants in different colors, and a smaller -one with all the letters in one color. - -(In English, to diminish the phonetic difficulties of the language, -combinations of vowels and consonants, known as phonograms, are used. -The phonograms with few exceptions have constant sounds and little -attention is paid to the teaching of the separate values of the -different letters: not until the child has built up his rules -inductively does he realize the meaning of separate vowel symbols.) - -However, the actual amount of progress made was not very precisely -ascertained. We could be sure only that the children had acquired the -mechanical technique of writing and reading and were on the way to a -greater intellectual development along these lines. Their progress, -however extensive it may have been, could be called little more than a -foundation for their next step in advance, the elementary school. What -beyond all question was accomplished with the little child in the first -steps of our method was to establish the psycho-motor mechanism of the -written word by a slow process of maturation such as takes place in the -natural growth of articulate speech; in other words, by methodically -exercising psycho-motor paths. - -Later on the child's mind is able to make use of the successive -operations performed with the written language which has been thus built -up by the child as a matter of mechanical execution (writing) and to a -certain extent of intelligent interpretation (reading). Normally this is -an established fact at the age of five. When the child begins to think -and to make use of the written language to express his rudimentary -thinking, he is ready for elementary work; and this fitness is a -question not of age or other incidental circumstance but of mental -maturity. - -We have said, of course, that the children stayed in the "Children's -House" up to the age of seven; nevertheless they learned to write, to -count, to read, and even to do a certain amount of simple composition. -It is clear, accordingly, that they had gone some distance in the -elementary grade as regards both age and educational development. -However, what they had actually accomplished beyond the mechanical -technique of writing was more or less difficult to estimate. We can now -say that our later experiments have not only clarified this situation, -but enabled us to take the children much farther along than -before. - -This only proves, however, that on beginning elementary grade work we -did not depart from the "Children's House" idea; on the contrary we -returned to it to give distinct realization to the nebulous hopes with -which our first course concluded. Hence the "Children's House" and the -lower grades are not two distinct things as is the case with the Froebel -Kindergarten and the ordinary primary school--in fact, they are one and -the same thing, the continuation of an identical process. - -Let us return then to the "Children's House" and consider the child of -five and one-half years. To-day in those "Children's Houses" which have -kept up with the improvements in our method the child is actually -started on his elementary education. From the second alphabet of the -"Children's House" we go on to a third alphabet. Here the movable -letters are a great deal smaller and are executed in model hand-writing. -There are twenty specimens of each letter, whereas formerly there were -but four; furthermore, there are three complete alphabets, one white, -one black, and one red. There are, therefore, sixty copies of each -letter of the alphabet. We include also all the punctuation marks: -period, comma, accents (for Italian), apostrophe, interrogation and -exclamation points. The letters are made of plain glazed paper. - -The uses of this alphabet are many; so before we stop to examine them -let us look somewhat ahead. Everybody has recognized the naturalness of -the exercise, used in the "Children's House," where the children placed -a card bearing the name of an object on the object referred to. This was -the first lesson in reading. We could see that the child knew how to -read as soon as he was able to identify the object indicated on the -card. In schools all over the world a similar procedure would, I -imagine, be considered logical. I suppose that in all the schools where -the objective method is used much the same thing is done; and this is -found to be not a hindrance but a help to the child in learning the -names of objects. As regards the teaching of the noun, accordingly, we -have been using methods already in use--the objective method, with -practical exercises. But why should we restrict such methods to the -noun? Is the noun not just as truly a _part of speech_ as the adjective, -or the verb? If there is a method by which the knowledge of a noun is -made easy, may there not be similar ways of facilitating the learning of -all the other parts of speech (article, adjective, verb, pronoun, -adverb, interjection, conjunction, and preposition)? - -When a slip with the interpreted word is placed on the object -corresponding to it, the children are actually distinguishing the noun -from all the other parts of speech. They are learning intuitively to -define it. The first step has thus been taken into the realm of grammar. -But if this "reading" has brought the child directly into word -_classification_, the transition has not been for him so abrupt as might -at first appear. The child has built _all_ his words with the movable -alphabet, and he has, in addition, _written_ them. He has thus traversed -a two-fold preparatory exercise involving, first, the analysis of the -sounds and, second, the analysis of the words in their meaning. In fact, -we have seen that, as the child reads, it is his discovery of the tonic -accent that brings him to recognize the word. The child has begun to -analyze not only the sounds and accent but also the form of the word.[1] - - -How absurd it would seem to suggest a study of phonology and morphology -in a nursery with four-year-old children as investigators! Yet our -children have accomplished this very thing! The analysis was the means -of attaining the word. It was what made the child able to write without -effort. Why should such a procedure be useful for single words and not -so for connected discourse? Proceeding to the classification of words by -distinguishing the noun from all other words, we have really advanced -into the analysis of connected speech, just as truly as, by having the -sand-papered letters "touched" and the word pronounced, we took the -first step into the analysis of words. We have only to carry the process -farther and perhaps we shall succeed in getting the analysis of whole -sentences, just as we succeeded in getting at the composition of -words--discovering meanwhile a method which will prove efficacious in -leading the child to write his thoughts more perfectly than would seem -possible at such a tender age. - -For some time, then, we have been actually in the field of grammar. It -is a question simply of continuing along the same path. The undertaking -may indeed seem hazardous. Never mind! That "awful grammar," that -horrible bugaboo, no less terrible than the frightful method, once in -use, of learning to read and write, may perhaps become a delightful -exercise, a loving guide to lead the child along pleasant pathways to -the _discovery_ of things he has _actually performed_. Yes, the child -will suddenly find himself, one day, in possession of a little -composition, a little "work of art," that has issued from his own pen! -And he will be as happy over it as he was when for the first time words -were formed by his tiny hands! - -How different grammar will seem to the young pupil, if, instead of being -the cruel assassin that tears the sentence to pieces so that nothing can -be understood, it becomes the amiable and indispensable help to "the -construction of connected discourse"! It used to be so easy to say: "The -sentence is written! Please leave it alone!" Why put asunder what God -has joined? Why take away from a sentence its meaning, the very thing -which gave it life? Why make of it a mere mass of senseless words? Why -spoil something already perfect just for the annoyance of plunging into -an analysis which has no apparent purpose? Indeed, to impose upon people -who can already read the task of reducing every word to its primal -sounds, would be to demand of them an effort of will so gigantic that -only a professional philologist could apply himself to it with the -necessary diligence, and then only because he has his own particular -interests and aims involved in such work. Yet the four-year-old child, -when he passes from those meaningless sounds to the composition of a -whole, which corresponds to an idea and represents a useful and -wonderful conquest, is just as attentive as the philologist and perhaps -even more enthusiastic. He will find the same joy in grammar, if, -starting from analyses, it gains progressively in significance, -acquiring, step by step, a greater interest, working finally up to a -climax, up to the moment, that is, when the finished sentence is before -him, its meaning clear and _felt_ in its subtlest essences. The child -has created something beautiful, full grown and perfect at its birth, -not now to be tampered with by anybody! - -The analysis of sounds which, in our method, leads to spontaneous -writing, is not, to be sure, adapted to all ages. It is when the child -is four or four and a half, that he shows the characteristically -childlike passion for such work, which keeps him at it longer than at -any other age, and leads him to develop perfection in the mechanical -aspect of writing. Similarly the analytical study of parts of speech, -the passionate lingering over words, is not for children of all ages. It -is the children between five and seven who are the _word-lovers_. It is -they who show a predisposition toward such study. Their undeveloped -minds can not yet grasp a complete idea with distinctness. They do, -however, understand _words_. And they may be entirely carried away by -their ecstatic, their tireless interest in the _parts_ of speech. - -It is true that our whole method was born of heresy. The first departure -from orthodoxy was in holding that the child can best learn to write -between the ages of four and five. We are now constrained to advance -another heretical proposition: children should begin the study of -grammar between the ages of five and a half and seven and a half, or -eight! - -The idea that analysis must be preceded by construction was a matter of -mere prejudice. Only things produced by nature must be analyzed before -they can be understood. The violet, for instance, is found perfect in -nature. We have to tear off the petals, cut the flower into sections to -see how it grew. But in making an artificial violet we do just the -opposite. We prepare the stems piece by piece; then we work out the -petals, cutting, coloring, and ironing them one by one. The preparation -of the stamens, even of the glue with which we put the whole together, -is a distinct process. A few simple-minded people, with a gift for -light manual labor, take unbounded delight in these single operations, -these wonderfully varied steps which all converge to the creation of a -pretty flower; the beauty of which depends on the amount of patience and -skill applied to the work on the individual parts. - -Analysis, furthermore, is involved quite as much in building as in -taking to pieces. The building of a house is an analytical process. The -stones are treated one by one from cellar to roof. The person who puts -the house together knows it in its minutest details and has a far more -accurate idea of its construction than the man who tears it down. This -is true, first, because the process of construction lasts much longer -than that of demolition: more time is spent on the study of the -different parts. But besides this, the builder has a point of view -different from that of the man who is destroying. The sensation of -seeing a harmonious whole fall into meaningless bits has nothing in -common with the alternating impulses of hope, surprise or satisfaction -which come to a workman as he sees his edifice slowly assuming its -destined form. - -For these and still other reasons, the child, when interested in words -at a certain age, can utilize grammar to good purpose, dwelling -analytically upon the various parts of speech according as the processes -of his inner spiritual growth determine. In this way he comes to own his -language perfectly, and to acquire some appreciation of its qualities -and power. - -Our grammar is not a book. The nouns (names), which the child was to -place on the objects they referred to as soon as he understood their -meaning, were written on cards. Similarly the words, belonging to all -the other parts of speech, are written on cards. These cards are all of -the same dimensions: oblongs (5 x 3-1/2 cmm.) of different colors: black -for the noun; tan for the article; brown for the adjective; red for the -verb; pink for the adverb; violet for the preposition; yellow for the -conjunction; blue for the interjection. - -These cards go in special boxes, eight in number. The first box has two -compartments simply; the second, however, three; the third, four; and so -on down to the eighth, which is divided into nine. One wall in each -section is somewhat higher than the others. This is to provide space for -a card with a title describing the contents of the section. It bears, -that is, the name of the relative part of speech. The title-card, -furthermore, is of the same color as that used for the part of speech to -which it refers. The teacher is expected to arrange these boxes so as to -provide for the study of two or more parts of speech. However, our -experiments have enabled us to make the exercises very specific in -character; so that the teacher has at her disposal not only a thoroughly -prepared material but also something to facilitate her work and to check -up the accuracy of it. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[1] The process of learning to read has been more fully set forth in -_The Montessori Method_; the child at first pronounces the sounds -represented by the individual letters (phonograms), without -understanding what they mean. As he repeats the word several times he -comes to read more rapidly. Eventually he discovers the tonic accent of -the word, which is then immediately identified. - - - - -II - -WORD STUDY - - -When a little child begins to read he shows a keen desire to learn -words, words, words! Indeed in the "Children's House" we had that -impressive phenomenon of the children's tireless reading of the little -slips of paper upon which were written the names of objects. - -The child must acquire his word-store for himself. The peculiar -characteristic of the child's vocabulary is its meagerness. But he is -nearing the age when he will need to express his thoughts and he must -now acquire the material necessary for that time. Many people must have -noticed the intense attention given by children to the conversation of -grown-ups when they cannot possibly be understanding a word of what they -hear. They are trying to get hold of _words_, and they often demonstrate -this fact by repeating joyously some word which they have been able to -grasp. We should second this tendency in the child by giving him an -abundant material and by organizing for him such exercises as his -reactions clearly show us are suitable for him. - -The material used in our system not only is very abundant, but it has -been dictated to us by rigid experimentation on every detail. However, -the same successive choices of material do not appear among the children -as a whole. Indeed their individual differences begin to assert -themselves progressively at this point in their education. The -exercises are easy for some children and very hard for others, nor is -the order of selection the same among all the children. The teacher -should know this material thoroughly. She should be able to recognize -the favorable moment for presenting the material to the child. As a -matter of fact, a little experience with the material is sufficient to -show the teacher that the educational facts develop spontaneously and in -such a way as to simplify the teacher's task in a most surprising -manner. - - -SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES - -Here we use charts with printed lists of words which may be hung on the -wall. The children can look at them and also take them in their hands. - -LIST I - -SUFFIXES: AUGMENTATIVES, DIMINUTIVES, PEGGIORATIVES, ETC. - - _buono_ (_good_): buonuccio, buonino, buonissimo - - _casa_ (_house_): casona, casetta, casettina, - casuccia, casaccia, casettaccia - - _formica_ (_ant_): formicona, formicuccia, formicola, - formichetta - - _ragazzo_ (_boy_): ragazzone, ragazzino, ragazaccio, - ragazzetto - - _lettera_ (_letter_): letterina, letterona, - letteruccia, letteraccia - - _campana_ (_bell_): campanone, campanello, - campanellino, campanino, campanaccio - - _giovane_ (_youth_): giovanetto, giovincello, - giovinastro - - _fiore_ (_flower_): fioretto, fiorellino, fioraccio, - fiorone - - _tavolo_ (_board_): tavolino, tavoletta, tavolone, - tavolaccio - - _seggiola_ (_chair_): seggiolone, seggiolina, - seggiolaccia - - _pietra_ (_stone_): pietruzza, pietrina, pietrone, - pietraccio - - _sasso_ (_rock_): sassetto, sassolino, sassettino, - sassone, sassaccio - - _cesto_ (_basket_): cestino, cestone, cestello, - cestellino - - _piatto_ (_plate_): piattino, piattello, piattone - - _pianta_ (_plant_ or _tree_): piantina, pianticella, - pianticina, pianterella, piantona, piantaccia - - _fuoco_ (_fire_): fuochetto, fuochino, fuocherello, - fuocone, fuochettino - - _festa_ (_festival_): festicciola, festona, festaccia - - _piede_ (_foot_): piedino, piedone, pieduccio, - piedaccio - - _mano_ (_hand_): manina, manona, manaccia, manuccia - - _seme_ (_seed_): semino, semetto, semone, semaccio, - semettino - - _semplice_ (_simple person_): semplicino, semplicetto, - sempliciotto, semplicione - - _ghiotto_ ("_sweet-tooth_"): ghiottone, ghiottoncello, - ghiottaccio, ghiottissimo - - _vecchio_ (_old man_): vecchietto, vecchione, - vecchiaccio, vecchissimo - - _cieco_ (_blind_): ciechino, ciechetto, ciecolino, - ciecone, ciecaccio - -Note:--The role of augmentative and diminutive suffixes in English is -vastly less important than in Italian. Here are a few specimens: - - _lamb_--lambkin - _duck_--duckling - _bird_--birdling - _nest_--nestling - _goose_--gosling - _mouse_--mousie - _girl_--girlie - _book_-booklet - _brook_--brooklet - _stream_--streamlet - _poet_--poetaster - -The child's exercise is as follows: he composes the first word in any -line with the alphabet of a single color (e.g., black). Next underneath -and using the alphabet of the same color, he repeats the letters in the -second word which he sees also in the first. But just as soon as a -letter changes he uses the alphabet of another color (e.g., red). In -this way the root is always shown by one color, the suffixes by another; -for example:-- - - buono - buon_uccio_ - buon_ino_ - buon_issimo_ - -_For English:_ - - stream - stream_let_ - lamb - lamb_kin_ - -Then the child chooses another word and repeats the same exercise. Often -he finds for himself words not included in the list which is given him. - -In the following chart the suffixes are constant while the root varies. -Here the suffix changes the meaning of the word. From the original -meaning is derived the word for a trade, a place of business, an action, -a collective or an abstract idea. Naturally, the child does not realize -all this at first but limits himself merely to building the words -mechanically with the two alphabets. Later on, however, as grammar is -developed, he may return to the reading of these charts, which are -always at his disposal, and begin to realize the value of the -differences. - -LIST II - - macello (slaughter) macellaio (butcher) - sella (saddle) sellaio (saddler) - forno (oven) fornaio (baker) - cappello (hat) capellaio (hatter) - vetro (glass) vetreria (glaziery) - calzolaio (shoe-maker) calzoleria (shoe-shop) - libro (book) libreria (book-store) - oste (host) osteria (inn) - pane (bread) panetteria (bakery) - cera (wax) cereria (chandler's shop) - dente (tooth) dentista (dentist) - farmacia (pharmacy) farmacista (druggist) - elettricita (electricity) elettricista (electrician) - telefono (telephone) telefonista (telephone operator) - arte (art) artista (artist) - bestia (beast) bestiame (cattle) - osso (bone) ossame (bones, _collective_) - corda (string) cordame (strings, _collective_) - foglia (leaf) fogliame (foliage) - pollo (chicken) pollame (poultry) - grato (grateful) gratitudine (gratitude) - beato (blessed) beatitudine (blessedness) - inquieto (uneasy) inquietudine (uneasiness) - grano (grain) granaio (barn) - colombo (dove) colombaio (dove-cote) - paglia (straw) pagliaio (hay-stack) - frutto (fruit) frutteto (orchard) - canna (reed) canneto (brake) - oliva (olive) oliveto (olive-grove) - quercia (oak) querceto (oak-grove) - -ENGLISH EXAMPLES - - teach teacher - sing singer - work worker - cater caterer - wring wringer - conduct conductor - direct director - launder laundry - seam seamstress - song songstress - priest priestess - mister mistress - cow cowherd - piano pianist - art artist - pharmacy pharmacist - drug druggist - physic physician - prison prisoner - house household - earl earldom - king kingdom - count county - real reality - modern modernness - good goodness - sad sadness - aloof aloofness - -The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as follows: - - frutto frutt_eto_ - canna cann_eto_ - oliva oliv_eto_ - quercia querc_eto_ - -_For English_: - - song song_ster_ song_stress_ - art art_ist_ art_less_ art_ful_ - -LIST III - -PREFIXES - - _nodo_ (_knot_): annodare, snodare, risnodare - - _scrivere_ (_write_): riscrivere, trascrivere, - sottoscrivere, descrivere - - _coprire_ (_cover_): scoprire, riscoprire - - _gancio_ (_hook_): agganciare, sganciare, riagganciare - - _legare_ (_bind_): collegare, rilegare, allegare, - slegare - - _bottone_ (_button_): abbottonare, sbottonare, - riabbottonare - - _macchiare_ (_spot_): smacchiare, rismacchiare - - _chiudere_ (_close_): socchiudere, schiudere, - richiudere, rinchiudere - - _guardare_ (_look at_): riguardare, traguardare, - sogguardare - - _vedere_ (_see_): travedere, rivedere, intravedere - - _perdere_ (_lose_): disperdere, sperdere, riperdere - - _mettere_ (_put_, _place_): smettere, emettere, - rimettere, permettere, commettere, promettere, - sottomettere - - _vincere_ (_overcome_): rivincere, avvincere, - convincere, stravincere - -_For English:_ - - _cover_: uncover, discover, recover - - _pose_: impose, compose, dispose, repose, transpose - - _do_: undo, overdo - - _place_: displace, replace, misplace - - _submit_: remit, commit, omit, permit - - _close_: disclose, foreclose, reclose - - _arrange_: rearrange, disarrange - -The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as follows: - - coprire - _s_coprire - _ri_coprire - -_For English:_ - - place - _dis_place - _re_place - -LIST IV - -COMPOUND WORDS - - cartapecora (parchment) - cartapesta (papier mache) - falsariga (guide) - madreperla (mother-of-pearl) - melagrana (pomegranate) - melarancia (orange) - biancospino (hawthorn) - ficcanaso (busybody) - lavamano (wash-stand) - mezzogiorno (noon) - passatempo (pastime) - ragnatela (cobweb) - madrevite (vine) - guardaportone (doorkeeper) - capoluogo (capital) - capomaestro ("boss") - capofila (pivot-soldier) - capopopolo (demagogue) - caposquadra (commodore) - capogiro (dizziness) - capolavoro (masterpiece) - giravolta (whirl) - mezzaluna (half-moon) - mezzanotte (midnight) - palcoscenico (stage) - acchiappacani (dog-catcher) - cantastorie (story-teller) - guardaboschi (forester) - lustrascarpe (boot-black) - portalettere (letter-carrier) - portamonete (pocketbook) - portasigari (cigar-case) - portalapis (pencil-case) - portabandiera (standard bearer) - guardaroba (wardrobe) - asciugamano (towel) - cassapanca (wooden bench) - arcobaleno (rainbow) - terrapieno (rampart, terrace) - bassorilievo (bas-relief) - granduca (grand-duke) - pianoforte (piano) - spazzacamino (chimney-sweep) - pettorosso (redbreast) - -_For English:_ - - sheepskin - cardboard - shoestring - midnight - midday - noontime - redbreast - appletree - afternoon - moonlight - starlight - doorknob - bedtime - daytime - springtime - flagstaff - rainbow - workman - housekeeper - pastime - chimneysweep - sheepfold - barnyard - sidewalk - snowshoe - shoeblack - firefly - steamboat - milkman - bathroom - streetcar - lifelike - pocketbook - inkwell - tablecloth - courtyard - honeycomb - beehive - flowerpot - buttonhole - hallway - midway - storekeeper - horseman - masterpiece - bookcase - -The children read one word at a time and try to reproduce it from -memory, distinguishing through the two alphabets the two words of which -each one is composed: - - carta _pecora_ - bianco _spino_ - piano _forte_ - spazza _camino_ - lava _mano_ - -_For English:_ - - moon _light_ - work _man_ - -In the following chart the words are grouped in families. This chart may -be used by children who are already well advanced in the identification -of the parts of speech. All the words are derived from some other more -simple word which is a root and of which the other words, either by -suffix or prefix, are made up. All these roots are primitive words which -some day the child may look for in a group of derivatives; and when he -finds them he will realize that the primitive word is a noun, -adjective, or a verb, as the case may be, that it is the word which -contains the simplest idea, and so the derivatives may be nouns, -adjectives, verbs or adverbs. - -On these charts appear various word-families. The teacher is thus spared -the trouble of looking them up. Furthermore the child will some day be -able to use them by himself. The exercises based on these are still -performed with two different alphabets of different color so that the -child can tell at a glance which is the root word. - -WORD-FAMILIES - - _terra_ (_earth_): terrazzo, terremoto, terrapieno, - atterrare, terreno, terriccio, terricciola, - territorio, conterraneo, terreo, terroso, - dissotterrare - - _ferro_ (_iron_): ferraio, ferriera, ferrata, - ferrigno, ferrugginoso, ferrare, sferrare, inferriata - - _soldo_ (_penny_): assoldare, soldato, soldatesca, - soldatescamente - - _grande_ (_great_): ingrandire, grandiosita, - grandioso, grandiosamente, grandeggiare - - _scrivere_ (_write_): scrittura, scritto, scritturare, - scrittore, inscrizione, trascrivere, sottoscrivere, - riscrivere - - _beneficio_ (_benefit_): beneficare, benefattore, - beneficato, beneficenza, beneficamente - - _benedizione_ (_benediction_): benedire, benedicente, - benedetto, ribenedire - - _felicita_ (_happiness_): felice, felicemente, - felicitare, felicitazione - - _fiamma_ (_flame_): fiammante, fiammeggiante, - fiammeggiare, fiammelle, fiammiferi, infiammare - - _bagno_ (_bath_): bagnante, bagnino, bagnarola, - bagnatura, bagnare, ribagnare - - _freddo_ (_cold_): freddolose, infreddatura, - freddamente, raffreddore, raffreddare, sfreddare - - _polvere_ (_dust_): spolverare, impolverare, - polverino, polverizzare, polverone, polveroso, - polveriera, polverizzatore - - _pesce_ (_fish_): pescare, pescatore, ripescare, - pescabile, ripescabile - - _opera_ (_work_): operaio, operare, operazione, - operoso, operosamente, cooperare, cooperazione, - inoperare - - _canto_ (_song_): cantore, cantante, cantare, - cantarellare, cantiochiare ricantare - - _gioco_ (_game_): giocare, giocattolo, giocarellare, - giocatore, giocoso, giocosamente - - _dolore_ (_pain_): doloroso, dolorosamente, dolente, - addolorare, dolersi, condolersi, condoglianza, - addolorato - - _pietra_ (_stone_): pietrificare, pietrificazione, - pietroso, impietrire, pietraio - - _sole_ (_sun_): assolato, soleggiante, soleggiare - - _festa_ (_festival_): festeggiare, festino, - festeggiatore, festeggiato, festaiolo, festante, - festevole, festevolmente, festosamente - - _allegro_ (_happy_): allegria, allegramente, - rallegrare, rallegramento - - _seme_ (_seed_): semina, semenze, seminare, semenzaio, - seminatore, riseminare, seminazione, disseminare, - seminatrice - -_For English:_ - - _wood_: wooden, woodworker, woody, woodsman, woodland - - _earth_: earthen, earthy, earthly, earthborn, - earthward, earthquake, earthling - - _fish_: fishing, fisherman, fishery, fishy, - fishmonger, fishnet - - _well_: welcome, wellmeaning, wellknit - - _war_: warrior, warlike, warship, warhorse, war-whoop, - warsong, war-cry - - _play_: player, playful, playhouse, playmate - - _politic_: politics, politician, political, polity, - politically - - _hard_: hardly, harden, hardness, hardship, hardy, - hardihood, hardware - - _turn_: return, turner, turnstile - - _close_: disclose, closet, unclose, closure, foreclose - -The child sees that the mother word is always the shortest. The _root_ -remains in one color. - - - - -III - -ARTICLE AND NOUN - - [Note:--The English language presents a far simpler - situation than the Italian as regards the agreement of - article and adjectives. Gender itself being, in the - case of English nouns, more a matter of logical theory - than of word-ending, adjectival agreement in the - formal sense in practically unknown to English - grammar. Likewise the formation of the plural is much - simpler in English than in Italian, where the singular - and plural word-endings are closely associated with - gender. It is a question, in fact, whether the whole - subject of the gender of English nouns should not be - taken up somewhat later in connection with the - pronouns, where English shows three singular forms - masculine, feminine, neuter (him, her, it) as against - the Italian two, masculine and feminine (_lo_, _la_, - plural _li_, _le_, etc.). Signora Montessori's - discussion of the situation in Italian still remains - instructive to the teacher of English as an - illustration of method. We retain her text, - accordingly, in its entirety.--TR.] - - -As we have already said, the words chosen for grammatical study are all -printed on small rectangular pieces of cardboard. The little cards are -held together in packages by an elastic band and are kept in their -respective boxes. The first box which we present has two compartments. -In the holders at the back of each compartment are placed the cards -which show the part of speech to be studied, in this case _article_ and -_noun_. The article cards are placed in the article compartment and the -nouns in the noun compartment. When the children have finished their -exercise they replace the cards--the nouns in the place for the nouns -and the articles in the place for the articles. If the words _article_ -and _noun_ are not a sufficient guide for the child, the color at least -will make the task easy. In fact the child will place the black cards -for the noun in the compartment indicated by the black guide-card -(marked _noun_); the tan cards for the article with the tan guide-card -(marked _article_). This exercise recalls the child's experience with -the alphabet boxes, where one copy of each letter is pasted to the -bottom of the box as a guide for the child in replacing the other -letters. The child begins to speak of the _article-section_, the -_noun-section_, and the _article-cards_ and _noun-cards_. In so doing he -begins to _distinguish_ between the parts of speech. The material must -be prepared very accurately and in a definitely determined quantity. For -the first exercise, the children are given boxes with the articles and -nouns shuffled together in their respective compartments. But there must -be just enough articles of each gender to go with the respective nouns. -The child's task is to put the right article in front of the right -noun--a long and patient research, which, however, is singularly -fascinating to him. - -We have prepared the following words. We should recall, however, that -the cards are not found in the boxes in this order, but are mixed -together--the articles shuffled in their box-section and the nouns in -theirs. - - il fazzoletto (the handkerchief) - il libro (the book) - il vestito (the dress) - il tavolino (the little table) - lo specchio (the mirror) - lo zucchero (the sugar) - lo zio (the uncle) - lo stivale (the boot) - i colori (the colors) - i fiori (the flowers) - i disegni (the drawings) - i compagni (the companions) - gli zoccoli (the wooden shoes) - gli uomini (the men) - gli articoli (the articles) - le sedie (the chairs) - la stoffa (the cloth) - la perla (the pearl) - la piramide (the pyramid) - la finestra (the window) - le scarpe (the shoes) - le addizioni (the sums) - le piante (the plants, the trees) - l'occhio (the eye) - l'amico (the friend) - l'acqua (the water) - l'albero (the tree) - gl'invitati (the guests) - gl'incastri (the insets) - gl'italiani (the Italians) - gl'insetti (the insects) - -(We suggest as a corresponding English exercise the introduction of the -_indefinite_ article. This substitution involves four processes against -the eight of the Italian exercise. The use of _an_ before a vowel is -quite analogous to the problem of the Italian _l'_ and _gl'_. However -the theoretical distinction between the definite and indefinite article, -as regards meaning, is reserved by Signora Montessori to a much later -period, though the practical distinction appear in the earliest _Lessons -and Commands_.--Tr.) - - the handkerchief - the book - the dress - the table - the mirror - the sugar - - the colors - the flowers - the drawings - the children - the shoes - the men - - a man - a pearl - a prism - a card - a window - a chair - a tree - - an orange - an apple - an uncle - an eye - an insect - an American - an aunt - -[Illustration: One of the first steps in grammar. The children are -deeply interested in placing the correct articles and nouns together. -(_A Montessori School in Italy._)] - -The child tries to combine article and noun and puts them side by side -on his little table. In this exercise he is guided by sound just as -he was in building words with the movable alphabet. There the child's -first step was to find relationships between real objects and the -linguistic sounds corresponding to them. Now he sees suddenly revealed -to him hitherto unsuspected relationships between these sounds, these -words. To have an empirical way of demonstrating and testing these -relationships, to practise very thoroughly on two kinds of words, -suddenly brought forth into systematic distinctness from the chaos of -words in his mind, offers the child not only a necessary exercise but -the sensation of relief which comes from satisfying an inner spiritual -need. With the most intense attention he persists to the very end of the -exercise and takes great pride in his success. The teacher as she passes -may glance about to see if all the cards are properly placed, but the -child, doubtless, will call her to admire or verify the work that he has -done, before he begins to gather together, first, all the articles, -then, all the nouns, to return them to their boxes. - -[Illustration: Grammar Boxes. The one on the left is for articles and -nouns only; the one on the right, for articles, nouns, and adjectives.] - -This is the first step; but he proceeds with increasing enthusiasm to -set the words in his mind "in order," thereby enriching his vocabulary -by placing new acquisitions in an already determined place. Thus he -continues to construct, with respect to exterior objects, an inner -spiritual system, which had already been begun by his sensory exercises. - - -SINGULAR AND PLURAL - -The exercises on the number and gender of nouns are done without the -help of the boxes. The child already knows that those words are articles -and nouns, so we give him now small groups of forty cards (nouns and -articles) held together by an elastic band. In each one, the group -(tied separately) of the ten singular nouns serves as the guide for the -exercise. These nouns are arranged in a column on the table, one beneath -the other, and the other cards, which are shuffled, must be placed -around this first group in the right order. There are two more cards of -different colors on which the words _singular_ and _plural_ respectively -are written; and these are placed at the top of the respective columns. -We have prepared four series of ten nouns in alphabetical order. In this -way four children may do the exercise at the same time and by exchanging -material they come in contact with a very considerable number of words. - -This is the way the cards should finally be arranged in the four -different exercises: - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il bambino i bambini the child the children, etc. - il berretto i berretti the cap - la bocca le bocche the mouth - il calamaio i calamai the inkstand - la calza le calze the stocking - la casa le case the house - il cappello i cappelli the hat - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - la maestra le maestre the teacher the teachers, etc. - la mano le mani the hand - la matita le matite the pencil - il naso i nasi the nose - il nastro i nastri the ribbon - l'occhio gli occhi the eye - l'orologio gli orologi the clock (watch) - il panchetto i panchetti the bench - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il dente i denti the tooth the teeth, etc. - l'elastico gli elastici the elastic - il fagiolo i fagioli the bean - la fava le fave the bean - la gamba le gambe the leg - il gesso i gessi the plaster - la giacca le giacche the coat - il grembiale i grembiali the apron - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il piede i piedi the foot the feet, etc. - il quaderno i quaderni the copy book - la rapa i rape the turnip - la scarpa le scarpe the shoe - la tasca le tasche the pocket - il tavolino i tavolini the table - la testa le teste the head - l'unghia le unghie the nail (finger) - -Like material has been prepared for the masculine and feminine forms: -The masculine group is kept by itself, while the feminines are shuffled. - - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - - il conte la contessa the count the countess, etc. - l'amico l'amica the friend - l'asino l'asina the donkey - il babbo la mamma the father - il benefattore la benefattrice the benefactor - il bottegaio la bottegaia the shop-keeper - il cugino la cugina the cousin - il cuoco la cuoca the cook - il cacciatore la cacciatrice the hunter - il cavallo la cavalla the horse - - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - - il duca la duchessa the duke the duchess, etc. - il canarino la canarina the canary - il dottore la dottoressa the doctor - il dattilografo la dattilografa the stenographer - l'elefante l'elefantessa the elephant - il figlio la figlia the son - il fratello la sorella the brother - il gallo la gallina the cock - il gatto la gatta the cat - - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - - il leone la leonessa the lion the lioness, etc. - l'ispettore l'ispettrice the inspector - il lupo la lupa the wolf - il lettore la lettrice the reader - il maestro la maestra the schoolmaster - il marchese la marchesa the marquis - il mulo la mula the mule - il nonno la nonna the grandfather - il nemico la nemica the enemy - l'oste l'ostessa the host the hostess, etc. - l'orologiaio l'orologiaia the watch-maker - il poeta la poetessa the poet - il pellicciaio la pellicciaia the furrier - il padre la madre the father - il re la regina the king - il ranocchio la ranocchia the frog - lo sposo la sposa the husband - il servo la serva the man-servant - il somaro la somara the ass - -Finally there are three series of nouns in four forms: Singular and -Plural, Masculine and Feminine. Each group has eighty cards counting -both nouns and articles, and the ten singular masculines in the guiding -group are kept together, apart from the others. The title cards (twelve -in number) are _singular_ and _plural_ and for each of them is a card -marked _masculine_ and a card marked _feminine_. The following is the -order of the material when properly arranged by the child: - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - l'amico l'amica the friend the friend, etc. - il bambino la bambina the child - il burattinaio la burattinaia the puppet-player - il contadino la contadina the peasant - il cavallo la cavalla the horse - il compagno la compagna the companion - il disegnatore la disegnatrice the designer - il dattilografo la dattilografa the stenographer - l'ebreo l'ebrea the Jew - il fanciullo la fanciulla the boy - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - gli amici le amiche the friends the friends, etc. - i bambini le bambine the children - i burattinai le burattinaie the puppet-players - i contadini le contadine the peasants - i cavalli le cavalle the horses - i compagni le compagne the companions - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i disegnatori le disegnatrici the designers - i dattilografi le dattilografe the stenographers - gli ebrei l'ebree the Jews - i fanciulli le fanciulle the boys - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - il gatto la gatta the cat the cat, etc. - il giardiniere la giardiniera the gardener - il giovinetto la giovinetta the youth - l'infermiere l'infermiera the nurse - l'italiano l'italiana the Italian - il lavoratore la lavoratrice the worker - il medico la medichessa the physician - il materassaio la materassaia the mattress-maker - l'operaio l'operaia the workman - il pittore la pittrice the painter - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i gatti le gatte the cats the cats, etc. - i giardinieri le giardiniere the gardeners - i giovinetti le giovinette the youths - gl'infermieri le infermiere the nurses - gl'italiani le italiane the Italians - i lavoratori le lavoratrici the workers - i medici le medichesse the physicians - i materassai le materassaie the mattress-makers - gli operai le operaie the workmen - i pittori le pittrici the painters - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - il ragazzo la ragazza the boy the girl, etc. - il romano la romana the Roman - lo scolare la scolara the scholar - il sarto la sarta the tailor - il santo la santa the saint - il tagliatore la tagliatrice the cutter - l'uomo la donna the man - il vecchio la vecchia the old man - il visitatore la visitatrice the visitor - lo zio la zia the uncle - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i ragazzi le ragazze the boys the girls, etc. - i romani le romane the Romans - gli scolari le scolare the scholars - i sarti le sarte the tailors - i santi le sante the saints - i tagliatori le tagliatrici the cutters - gli uomini le donne the men - i vecchi le vecchie the old men - i visitatori le visitatrici the visitors - gli zii le zie the uncles - -Occasionally class exercises are used in our schools for the four forms -of the Italian noun, masculine and feminine, singular and plural. They -take the form almost of a game, which the children find amusing. A child -for instance distributes around the class all the plural nouns. Then he -reads aloud a noun in the singular. The child who holds the -corresponding plural answers immediately. The same thing is next done -for masculine and feminine, and, finally, for all four forms at once. - -When these exercises have become familiar to the child, others somewhat -more difficult may be presented. These new ones comprise: nouns which -change form completely as they change gender and of which, so far, only -the most familiar examples (_babbo_, "father," _mamma_, "mother," etc.) -have been given (Series A); nouns in which the form is the same in the -singular of both genders (Series B); those in which both genders have a -common form in the singular and a common form in the plural (Series C); -nouns which have only one form for both singular and plural (Series D); -nouns where the same form appears in both genders but with a different -meaning (Series E); finally, nouns which change gender as they pass from -the singular to the plural (Series F). - - -SERIES A - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - il babbo la mamma the father the mother - il becco la capra the he-goat the she-goat - il frate la suora the friar the nun - il fratello la sorella the brother the sister - il genero la nuora the son-in-law the daughter-in-law - il montone la pecora the ram the ewe - il maschio la femmina the male the female - il marito la moglie the husband the wife - il padre la madre the father the mother - il padrino la madrina the godfather the godmother - il porco la scrofa the hog the sow - il toro la vacca the bull the cow - l'uomo la donna the man the woman - il re la regina the king the queen - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i babbi le mamme the fathers the mothers, etc. - i becchi le capre the he-goats - i frati le suore the friars - i fratelli le sorelle the brothers - i generi le nuore the sons-in-law - i montoni le pecore the rams - i maschi le femmine the males - i mariti le mogli the husbands - i padri le madri the fathers - i padrini le madrine the godfathers - i porci le scrofe the hogs - i tori le vacche the bulls - gli uomini le donne the men - i re le regine the kings - - -SERIES B - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - l'artista l'artista the artist the artist, etc. - il collega la collega the colleague - il dentista la dentista the dentist - il pianista la pianista the pianist - il telefonista la telefonista the telephone operator - il telegrafista la telegrafista the telegraph operator - il violinista la violinista the violinist - gli artisti le artiste the artists the artists, etc. - i colleghi le colleghe the colleagues - i dentisti le dentiste the dentists - i pianisti le pianiste the pianists - i telefonisti le telefoniste the telephone operators - i telegrafisti le telegrafiste the telegraph operators - i violinisti le violiniste the violinists - - -SERIES C - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - il consorte la consorte the husband the wife, etc. - il custode la custode the keeper - il cantante la cantante the singer - l'erede l'erede the heir - il giovane la giovane the youth - l'inglese l'inglese the Englishman - il nipote la nipote the nephew - (grandson) - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i consorti le consorti the husbands the wives, etc. - i custodi le custodi the guards - i cantanti le cantanti the singers - gli eredi l'eredi the heirs - i giovani le giovani the youths - gl'inglesi le inglesi the Englishmen - i nipoti le nipoti the nephews - (grandsons) - - -SERIES D - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il bazar i bazar the bazaar the bazaars, etc. - il caffe i caffe the coffee - il gas i gas the gas - la gru le gru the crane - il lapis i lapis the pencil - la liberta le liberta the liberty - l'omnibus gli omnibus the omnibus - la virtu le virtu the virtue - - SERIES E - - SINGOLARE SINGULAR - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculinr_ _Feminine_ - il melo la mela the apple tree the apple - il pesco la pesca the peach tree the peach - l'ulivo l'uliva the olive tree the olive - il pugno la pugna the blow (punch) the battle - il manico la manica the handle the sleeve - il suolo la suola the floor the sole - - PLURALE PLURAL - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - i meli le mele the apple tree the apples - i peschi le pesche the peach tree the peaches - gli ulivi le ulive the olive trees the olives - i pugni le pugne the blows (punches) the battles - i manichi le maniche the handles the sleeves - i suoli le suole the floors the soles - - SERIES F - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ - il centinalo le centinala the hundred the hundreds, etc. - il dito le dita the finger - la eco gli echi the echo - il paio le paia the pair - il riso le risa the smile (laugh) - l'uovo le uova the egg - - -THE SINGULAR AND PLURAL IN ENGLISH - -TRANSLATOR'S NOTE:--While the formation of the English plural does not -present the complications of gender that appear in Italian, the phonetic -adaptations required by the plural ending -s along with certain -orthographical caprices and historical survivals of the language, result -in a situation somewhat more complex than treated by Signora Montessori. -In fact, her analysis of the Italian plural requires eight word-lists, -while English requires at least fourteen, not including the question of -foreign nouns. The special stress on the article is hardly necessary in -English. An analogous treatment for English would be somewhat as -follows: - - -SERIES I - -(Simple plurals in _-s_) - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - book books - bed beds - desk desks - street streets - tree trees - card cards - prism prisms - lamp lamps - cow cows - cat cats - train trains - ticket tickets - car cars - floor floors - chairs chairs - pin pins - shoe shoes - wagon wagons - bean beans - counter counters - - -SERIES II - -(Plurals in _-es_, including _-s_ pronounced like _-es_) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - house houses - horse horses - prize prizes - judge judges - cage cages - case cases - sausage sausages - wedge wedges - edge edges - ledge ledges - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - - bush bushes - church churches - box boxes - fox foxes - glass glasses - watch watches - topaz topazes - class classes - wretch wretches - - -SERIES III - -(Plurals of Nouns in _-o_) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - potato potatoes - negro negroes - volcano volcanoes - tomato tomatoes - - -SERIES III - -(Plurals of Nouns in _-o_) - - LIST A - - hero heroes - mosquito mosquitoes - motto mottoes - domino dominoes - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - piano pianos - soprano sopranos - zero zeros - banjo banjos - halo halos - dynamo dynamos - canto cantos - solo solos - memento mementos - chromo chromos - - -SERIES IV - -(Nouns in _-f_ or _-fe_) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - calf calves - elf elves - half halves - loaf loaves - wolf wolves - shelf shelves - thief thieves - leaf loaves - self selves - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - knife knives - wife wives - life lives - - LIST C - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - staff staffs - wharf wharfs - puff puffs - cliff cliffs - scarf scarfs - chief chiefs - fife fifes - - -SERIES V - -(Nouns in _-y_) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - body bodies - sky skies - gipsy gipsies - berry berries - penny pennies - soliloquy soliloquies - sty sties - Mary Maries - ferry ferries - country countries - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - boy boys - valley valleys - day days - derby derbys - - -SERIES VI - -(Plurals in _-en_) - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - child children - ox oxen - brother brethren (brothers) - - -SERIES VII - -(Plurals with internal change (umlaut)) - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - foot feet - tooth teeth - goose geese - louse lice - mouse mice - man men - woman women - - -SERIES VIII - -(Singular and Plural identical) - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - sheep sheep - fish fish - deer deer - swine swine - - -SERIES IX - -(Compound words) - - LIST A - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - black-bird black-birds - steamboat steamboats - redcoat redcoats - redbreast redbreasts - forget-me-not forget-me-nots - spoonful spoonfuls - mouthful mouthfuls - - LIST B - - _Singular_ _Plural_ - brother-in-law brothers-in-law - mother-in-law mothers-in-law - court-martial courts-martial - attorney-general attorneys-generals - general-in-chief generals-in-chief - Knight-Templar Knights-Templar - -All these groups of words in their order are reproduced in special -booklets which the children may take home and read. In actual practise -such books have proved both convenient and necessary. The children -generally spend much time on them and delight in reading the words over -and over in the order in which they themselves have discovered them in -the card exercise. This recalls and fixes their own ideas, inducing a -sort of inner maturation which is often followed by the spontaneous -discovery of grammatical laws on the relations of nouns, or by a lively -interest which throws the children into exclamations or laughter as they -observe what great differences of meaning are sometimes caused by a very -slight change in the word. At the same time these simple exercises, so -fruitful in results, may be used for work at home and well meet the -demands for something to do with which children are continually -assailing their parents. For homework we have prepared alphabets where -the letters are printed in type-writing order. With them the child can -compose words, or later, sentences, at the same time becoming familiar -with the alphabet arrangement of standard typewriters. - - - - -IV - -LESSONS--COMMANDS - - -The first lessons in grammar which I gave to children go back fully -sixteen years. I first attempted the education of defectives in the -"Scuola Magistrale Ortofrenica" in Rome in the year 1899 following a -course of lectures I had given to teachers in the normal school of our -capital. In this experiment I went far enough with primary work to -prepare some of the defective children for successful examinations in -the public schools. A very brief and incomplete summary of my -pedagogical studies delivered in the teacher's courses is given in the -appendix to this volume. - -The teaching of grammar was not at that time so complete as it has since -been made in my work with normal children; even so it was a marked -success. Grammar was actually _lived_ by the children, who became deeply -interested in it. Even those wretched children who came, like rubbish -thrown out of the public schools, directly off the street or from the -insane asylums, passed delightful half hours of joyous laughter over -their exercises in grammar. Here are some excerpts from the old pamphlet -of 1900 giving an idea of the didactic material which was then used and -some notion of a lesson on nouns. "As each word is read or written for -every object-lesson, for every action, printed cards are being assembled -which will later be used to make clauses and sentences with words that -may be moved about just as the individual letters were moved about in -making the words themselves. The simple clauses or sentences should -refer to actions performed by the children. The first step should be to -bring two or more words together: e.g., _red-wool_, _sweet-candy_, -_four-footed dog_, etc. Then we may go on to the sentence itself: _The -wool is red_; _the soup is hot_; _the dog has four feet_; _Mary eats the -candy_, etc. The children first compose the sentences with their cards; -then they copy them in their writing books. To facilitate the choice of -the cards, they may be arranged in special boxes: for instance, one box -may be labeled _noun_; or the boxes may be distinguished thus: _food_, -_clothing_, _animals_, _people_, etc. There should be a box for -_adjectives_ with compartments for colors, shapes, qualities, etc. There -should be another for _particles_, with compartments for articles, -conjunctions, prepositions, etc. A box should be reserved for _actions_, -with the label _verbs_ above it, containing compartments for the -infinitive, present, past and future. The children gradually learn by -practise to take their cards from the boxes and put them back in their -proper places. They soon learn to know their "word boxes" and they -readily find the cards they want among the _colors_, _shapes_, -_qualities_, etc., or among _animals_, _foods_, etc. Ultimately the -teacher will find occasion to explain the meaning of the big words -written at the top of the drawers, _noun_, _adjective_, _verb_, etc., -and this will be the first step into the subject of _grammar_. - - -NOUNS - -We may call persons and objects by their _name_, their _noun_. People -answer if we call them, so do animals. Inanimate objects, however, -never answer, because they cannot; but if they could they would. For -example, if I say _Mary_, Mary answers; if I say _peas_, the peas do not -answer, because they cannot. You children _do_ understand when I call an -object and you _bring_ it to me. I say, for example, _book_, _beans_, -_peas_. If I don't tell you the name of the object, you don't understand -what I am talking about; because every object has a different name. This -_name_ is the word that stands for the object. This name is a _noun_. - -Whenever I mention a noun to you, you understand immediately the object -which the noun represents: tree, chair, pen, book, lamb, etc. If I do -not give this noun, you don't know what I am talking about; for, if I -say simply _bring me ... at once, I want it_, you do not know what I -want, unless I tell you the name of the object. Unless I give you the -_noun_, you do not understand. Thus every object is represented by a -word which is its _name_; and this name is a _noun_. To understand -whether a word is a noun or not, you simply ask: _Is it a thing? Would -it answer if I spoke to it?_ or _Could I carry it to the teacher?_ For -instance, _bread_: yes, bread is an object; _table_: yes, it is an -object; _conductor_: yes, the conductor would answer, if I were to speak -to him. - -Let us look through our cards now. I take several cards from different -boxes and shuffle them. Here is the word _sweet_. Bring me _sweet_! Is -there anything to answer when I call _sweet_? But you are bringing me a -piece of candy! I didn't say _candy_: I said _sweet_. And now you have -given me _sugar_! I said _sweet_! _Sweet_, you see, is not an object You -cannot guess what I have in mind when I say _sweet_. If I say _candy_, -_sugar_, then you understand what I want, what object I am thinking -about, because the words _candy_, _sugar_, stand for objects. Those -words are _nouns_."[2] - -This summary, however, fails to give a real idea of the success of these -lessons. When I said with a tone of decision, as if I could not think of -the necessary word, "Bring me--bring me--bring me--," the children would -gather round me, looking fixedly at my lips, like so many little dogs, -waiting for me to throw something for them to fetch. They were in fact -ready to run and get what I wanted. But the word refused to come. "Bring -me--, bring me--." Finally in great impatience I cried, "But bring it to -me quick--I want it." Then their faces lit up and they would laughingly -cry, "But bring you what? What is it you want? What shall we bring you?" - -This was the real lesson on the noun, and when, after great difficulty, -the word "_sweet_" came out, the children would run and bring me every -possible object that was sweet. I would refuse each one in turn. "No, I -didn't ask for candy! No, I didn't ask for sugar!" The children would -look at the object they had in their hands, half laughing, half puzzled -and beginning to realize that _sweet_ was not a _name_, that it was not -a _noun_. These first lessons, which seemed something like commands that -needed the help of the children to express themselves, brought the -children to understand some part of speech, while evoking, at the same -time, vivid and interesting scenes. They furnished the original impulse -to the development we have reached to-day in our lessons on grammar. For -such lessons we have adopted the term "commands." But with normal -children these "commands" were gradually multiplied and evolved. They -are no longer entrusted to the teacher's ingenuity; nor are they -dependent solely upon her dramatic sense--something essential if she is -to stimulate the weak nervous reactions of little defectives and so gain -and hold their attention. The "commands" to-day are written and may be -read. They are combined with the card-exercises where the cards are read -in silence and interpreted through actions--a method which grew -spontaneously and with such great success from the work in the -"Children's House." That is why, to-day, we speak in the elementary -courses of "reading commands" or even of "writing commands." - -The study of grammar has finally been arranged in a methodical series of -exercises and the material has been prepared after careful and rigid -experiment. Those who read this method will get a clear idea of the -teacher's task. She has a material ready for use. She need not bother to -compose a single sentence nor to consult a single program. The objects -at her disposal contain all that is necessary. She need know simply what -they are and how they are to be used. The lessons which she must give -are so simple, and require so few words, that they become lessons rather -of gesture and action than of words. It must be borne in mind, further, -that the work is not as uninteresting as would appear from this arid -summary. The actual school is a real intellectual laboratory, where the -children work all the time and by themselves. After the material has -been presented to them, they _recognize_ it and like to hunt for it. -They know how to find for themselves the precious objects which they -want to use. They often exchange materials and even lessons with other -children. The few lessons the teacher gives connect, as it were, a -system of live wires, which set in motion activities quite -disproportionate to the energy expended in the simple act she performs. -She pushes, so to speak, a button and here a bell rings, there a light -goes on, there a machine begins to buzz. Very often the teacher sees a -whole week go by without any need of intervention on her part. - -And yet what delicacy and tact are necessary properly to "offer" this -material, to give in an interesting way a lesson calculated to exert a -direct action upon the child's spiritual activity! How skilful we must -be to leave all the child's spontaneous impulses free to develop -themselves, to keep careful watch over so many different individual -impulses! This we must do if we are to "keep the lamp burning"! When, -for example, on passing a table where the child has analyzed a sentence -with the colored cards, the teacher shifts about, as if in play, one of -the little slips, not only must she be possessed of the psychological -insight necessary for intervening in this child's work at the proper -time, but she must also have in mind the grammatical rule of which she -wishes to give the child his first intuition. It follows that every -single act of the teacher, however insignificant apparently, is, like -the acts of the priest in the service, of the greatest importance, and -should come from a consciousness thoroughly awake, and full of -potentiality. Instead of giving out what she has in herself, the teacher -must bring out the full possibilities of the children. - -The teacher's extrinsic preparation is a matter of thorough acquaintance -with the material. It should be so much a part of her that she knows at -once what is needed for each individual case as soon as it arises. -Actual practise soon develops this skill. - -The exercises are performed with these little packages of specially -prepared cards. The most important problem (for Italian grammar) is in -the _agreements_; the agreement of article and noun, as we have already -shown, the agreement of noun and adjective, and later on of pronoun and -verb, and pronoun and noun. There are two kinds of exercises, which we -have termed respectively "analyses" and "commands." - -The _commands_ involve both work done by the teacher and exercises -performed by the children. The purpose here is to clarify the meanings -of words and often to suggest a _practical_ interpretation of them. This -_explanation_ is followed by an exercise of the children themselves, who -in turn practically interpret the meaning of one or more sentences -written on a card which they read just as they did in the first -exercises of reading in the "Children's House." On this card are the -words which the teacher has just explained. In our experiments we gave -these lessons immediately after "silence" just as we did for reading in -the "Children's House." All the children, however, do not necessarily -take part in these executions--oftenest it is only a group of children, -sometimes one child alone, again, at other times, almost all of them. If -possible the commands are given in another room, while the other -children continue their work in the large hall. If this is not possible -it takes place in the same room. These commands might be called "an -introduction to dramatic art," for right there little dramatic scenes -full of vivacity and interest are "acted out." The children are -singularly delighted in working for the one exact "interpretation" which -a given word requires. - -The _analyses_, on the other hand, are of quite different character. -"Analysis" is done at the table. It is work which requires quiet and -concentration. While the command gives the _intuition_, the analysis -provides for the _maturation_ of the idea. The grammar boxes are used -in these exercises. In a larger compartment which each box contains, -are placed several slips bearing a printed sentence; for example, _Throw -down your handkerchief_. The child draws a slip and places it to one -side on the table. Then he takes from the different boxes the colored -slips corresponding to the different words in the sentence and places -them side by side one after the other. In this way he composes the -entire sentence: _Throw down your handkerchief_. The child is actually -doing here a very simple thing: he is merely translating into colored -cards the sentence which is printed on his slip. He composes this -sentence in the same way in which he has already composed words with the -moveable alphabet. But here the exercise is even more simple because the -child need not remember the sentence, for it is there right before his -eyes. His attention must be concentrated on other facts, so that all -intellectual effort in the composition of the sentence itself is -eliminated. The child has to note the colors and the position of the -cards in the different boxes, since he must take the cards now from the -noun box, now from the adverb box, now from that of the preposition, -etc.; and the colors together with the position (each section has a -title, as we have already seen) strengthen his consciousness of a -_classification_ of words according to _grammar_. - -But what really makes this exercise in analysis so interesting is the -teacher's repeated permutation of the different cards. As she goes by a -table she changes, as though in fun, the position of a card, and in this -way provokes the intuition of grammatical rules and definitions. Indeed, -when she takes out the card, which refers to some new part of the -exercise, the remaining sentence with its changed meaning emphasizes the -function of the part of speech which has been moved. The effect shows a -distant analogy to the light that pathology and vivisection throw on -physiology. An organ which fails in its function illustrates exactly -that function, for never does one realize the precise use of an organ -more clearly than when it has lost its power of functioning. Furthermore -the removal of the words demonstrates that the meaning of the sentence -is not given by the word alone but by the _order_ of the word in the -sentence, and this makes a great impression on the child. He sees the -same cards first in a chaotic mass and then in an orderly arrangement. -What was first a collection of meaningless words has suddenly become the -expression of a _thought_. - -From now on the child begins to experience a keen interest in the -_order_ of words. The meaning, the only thing the child is after, is no -longer hidden in confusion. He begins to enjoy subtle permutations, -changes which, without destroying the expression of a thought, obscure -its clarity, complicate it, or make it "sound wrong." It is here that -the teacher must have at her fingertips the rules governing the position -of the various parts of speech. This will give her the necessary -"lightness of touch," perhaps even the opportunity of making some -brilliant little explanation, some casual observation, which may -suddenly develop in the child a profound "grammatical insight." When the -child has understood this he will become a deep "strategist" in -mobilizing, disposing and moving about these cards which express -_thought_; and if he really succeeds in mastering this secret, he will -not be easily satiated with so fascinating an exercise. No one but a -child would ever have the patience to study grammar so profoundly and at -such length. This subtle work is, after all, not so easy for the -teacher. That is why the material must be such as to suggest each step -in detail. The teacher should be relieved as much as possible of the -labor of preparation and research: for her delicate work of -_intervention_ is a task hard enough in itself. In preparing this -material we have worked for her: we have acted as the workmen who -produce the various objects necessary to life; she has but to "live" and -"make live." This will show still more clearly how far from truth is the -modern conception of pedagogy which attempts to realize its desire for -freedom in the school by saying to the teacher, "Try to respond to the -needs of the pupils without being conscious of your authority over -them." When we ask a teacher to respond to the needs of the inner life -of man, we are asking a great deal of her. She will never be able to -accomplish it, unless we have first done something for her by giving her -all that is necessary to that end. Here is our material:-- - - -COMMANDS ON NOUNS - -"CALLING" - - Call loudly: - Mary! Lucy! Ethel! - - Later call again: - Blonde! Beautiful! Good! - - Call: - Peter! bring a chair. - George! bring a cube. - Louis! get a frame. - Charles! Charles! quick! bring me the ... bring it to me, - quick, quick. - - Call slowly this way: - Come! Come! give me a kiss--please, come! - - Then say: - Mary! come! give me a kiss! - -These commands lend themselves to a little dramatic scene. It is really -a sort of play, which the children recite. - -The tendency to recitation and to imitation is very strong and often -well developed at the age of five years. Little children experience a -singular fascination in pronouncing the words with sentiment and in -accompanying them with gestures. One can hardly imagine the simplicity -of the little dramatic acts which interest the five year old child. -Nothing but actual experiment could possibly have revealed it to us. One -day, in fact, our little children were invited to be present at a -dramatic entertainment given by the older children of the Public -Schools. They followed it with really surprising interest. However, they -remembered only three words of the play they had heard; but with these -three words they made up a little dramatic action of their own, which -they repeated over and over again the following day. - -The commands of these "call" cards are, accordingly, real plays for our -little ones. The child calls, pronouncing the name with a sort of -sustained drawl; the child who is called comes forward; then the same -thing is done with the other names, and each child obeys as he is -called. Then the incomplete calls begin: _blonde!_ _blonde!_ -_beautiful!_ And no one moves! This makes a great impression on the -children. Imperative commands, like requests, lend themselves to active -dramatic action. Peter has been called and has brought his chair; George -has brought the cube; Louis has taken out a frame; but Charles sits -there intent, expectant, while the child calls out,--_But bring it to -me, bring it to me quickly!_ And how expressive we found the vain -request,--_Come, come! please give me a kiss,--come, come!_ At last the -cry,--_Mary! come!_ brings the resulting action and Mary runs to give -the kiss which has been so long invoked! - -These little "plays" require a real study of the parts, and the children -rehearse their different roles over and over again. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[2] See pp. 446-448. - - - - -V - -ADJECTIVES - - -ANALYSES - - MATERIAL: _Grammar box._ - _Various objects already familiar to the children._ - _New objects._ - -The material for word analysis consists of small cards for articles -(tan), nouns (black) and adjectives (brown). There is one box with three -compartments, each section marked with a card bearing the respective -title: _article_, _noun_, _adjective_. At the front of the box is a -space for other cards containing printed sentences to be analyzed. - - -DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES - -The child is to read the sentences, find the objects described in them, -and finally build the sentences with his cards as follows: suppose the -card reads: - - il colore verde the green color - il colore turchino the blue color - il colore rosso the red color - -The child finds the three colored tablets used in the familiar exercise -of the "Children's House" for the education of the sense of color. He -places these tablets on his table. Then he builds the phrases out of his -word cards: - - - +----+ +--------+ +-------+ +-----+ +-------+ +-------+ - | il | | colore | | verde | | the | | green | | color | - +----+ +--------+ +-------+ +-----+ +-------+ +-------+ - -Beside the completed expression he places the green color-tablet. -Passing to the next phrase, he does not disturb the words _the_ and -_color_. He removes only the word _green_ and substitutes for it the -adjective _blue_, at the same time removing the green tablet and -substituting for it the blue. Similarly, for the third phrase, he -changes the adjective, putting the red tablet at the end. Thus the -_three different objects_ were distinguished _only_ by the adjective: - - { verde { green} - _il colore_ { turchino _the_ { blue } _color_ - { rosso { red } - -All the phrases and sentences refer to objects used in the previous -educational material. Occasionally the teacher will have to prepare -something herself (e.g., hot, cold, warm, or iced water; clear water; -colored water). For this exercise on _water_, the box contains six slips -with the six printed phrases. In the box-sections, the child finds the -corresponding word-cards which are exactly in the number needed for the -exercise (not corresponding, that is, to the number of words in the -phrases, since the articles and nouns are not repeated). There are five -groups of such exercises, dealing with various kinds of sensation. - - A. SENSO CROMATICO SENSE OF COLOR - - il colore rosa the pink color - il colore rosa scuro the dark pink color - il colore rosa chiaro the light pink color - - il prisma azzurro the blue prism - il prisma marrone the brown prism - - il colore verde the green color - il colore turchino the blue color - il colore rosso the red color - - i lapis neri the black pencils - i lapis colorati the colored pencils - - l'acqua colorata the colored water - l'acqua incolora the clear water - - il colore giallo the yellow color - il colore arancione the orange color - - B. SENSO VISIVO: DIMENSIONI SENSE OF SIGHT: SIZE - - l'asta lunga the long staff - l'asta corta the short staff - - il cubo grande the large cube - il cubo piccolo the small cube - - il cilindro alto the tall cylinder - il cilindro basso the short cylinder - - il prisma marrone grosso the thick brown prism - il prisma marrone fino the thin brown prism - - il rettangolo largo the broad rectangle - il rettangolo stretto the narrow rectangle - - l'incastro solido the solid inset - l'incastro piano the plane inset - - C. SENSO VISIVO: FORMA SENSE OF SIGHT: SHAPE - - il triangolo equilatero the equilateral triangle - il triangolo isocele the isoceles triangle - il triangolo scaleno the scalene triangle - - il triangolo acutangolo the acute-angled triangle - il triangolo ottusangolo the obtuse-angled triangle - il triangolo rettangolo the right-angled triangle - - l'incastro circolare the circular inset - l'incastro quadrato the square inset - l'incastro rettangolare the rectangular inset - - la piramide quadrangolare the quadrangular pyramid - la piramide triangolare the triangular pyramid - il prisma azzurro rettangolare the blue rectangular prism - il prisma azzurro quadrangolare the blue quadrangular prism - - la scatola cilindrica the cylindrical box - la scatola prismatica the prismatic box - - D. SENSO TATTILE: MUSCOLARE SENSE OF TOUCH: MUSCULAR SENSE - - la superfice piana the flat surface - la superfice curva the curved surface - - la stoffa ruvida the rough cloth - la stoffa liscia the smooth cloth - - l'acqua calda the hot water - l'acqua fredda the cold water - l'acqua tiepida the warm water - - l'acqua fredda the cold water - l'acqua ghiacciata the iced water - - la tavoletta pesante the heavy black-board - la tavoletta leggera the light black-board - - la stoffa morbida the soft cloth - la stoffa dura the hard cloth - - E. SENSO UDITIVO; SENSES OF HEARING; - OLFATTIVO; GUSTATIVO SMELL; TASTE - il rumore forte the loud noise - il rumore leggero the faint noise - - il suono acuto the sharp sound - il suono basso the deep sound - - l'acqua odorosa the fragrant water - l'acqua inodora the odorless water - - l'odore buono the good smell - l'odore cattivo the bad smell - - il sapore amaro the bitter taste - il sapore dolce the sweet taste - - il sapore acido the sour taste - il sapore salso the salty taste - -The teacher who is observing notices whether the child has taken the -right objects; if so, she proceeds to the permutations. - - -PERMUTATIONS - -At this point, the teacher should recall (in dealing with Italian) the -grammatical rules for the position of adjectives, some of which (the -fundamental ones) will certainly be very useful to her in executing -these first permutations:-- - -I. In general, the adjective follows the noun. If placed before the -noun, it is less conspicuous; if placed after, it assumes more -importance and has a different force. - -II. When the adjective is used to signify the exclusive superlative of a -quality, it is not only placed after the noun, but is preceded by the -article. (_Umberto il buono_, "Humbert the Good.") - -Example:--The child has composed the following phrase with his cards: -_il triangolo rettangolo_ "the right-angled triangle." The teacher can -interchange the words thus: _il rettangolo triangolo_, "the triangle -right-angled." Similarly also, for other phrases:-- - - il prisma rettangolare azzurro the rectangular blue prism - il rettangolare azzurro prisma the prism, rectangular, blue - i lapis neri the black pencils - i neri lapis the pencils black - il colore rosso the red color - il rosso colore the color red - -Both the meaning and the child's habits show him the normal position of -the adjective. In some phrases, such as, - - il rumore leggero the faint sound - il sapore dolce the sweet taste - -the placing of the adjective before the noun renders the meaning vague, -figurative, emotional, or generic, whereas it would be clearly -descriptive and precise were the adjective in its normal position: - - il dolce sapore the taste sweet - il leggero rumore the noise faint - -(In English the normal position of the adjective is before the noun. The -permutation develops a strong rhetorical flavor, of which the child will -become conscious later in his studies on poetic inversions.--Tr.) - -After the teacher has made these changes, if they have interested the -child, she may say for example: "The adjective comes after its noun" -(for Italian); "The adjective comes before its noun" (for English). In -this way she will have given a lesson in _theoretical_ grammar. - - -INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES - -(Exclusively for the Italian language) - -Another exercise to be done at the table deals with the formation of the -singular and plural of adjectives in the two genders. This exercise -brings the child in contact with a great many adjectives of quality. Two -series, one of twenty masculine, the other of twenty feminine adjectives -(in the two numbers) and two other series, twenty singulars and twenty -plurals (in the two genders), form four groups of cards, one-half of -which (tied separately) serves to direct the placing of the other half. -Here are the words in their groups: - - _Singolare_ _Plurale_ - acuto acuti sharp - allegro allegri joyous - attenta attente careful, attentive - basso bassi low - buona buone good - caldo caldi hot - cattiva cattive bad - dolce dolci sweet - duro duri hard - educata educate educated, well mannered - felice felici happy - fredda fredde cold - grande grandi large - grazioso graziosi graceful, pretty - gioiosa gioiose merry - gentile gentili kind - italiano italiani Italian - rabbioso rabbiosi angry - largo larghi broad - lento lenti slow - malata malate ill - odorosa odorose fragrant - arioso ariose airy - prezioso preziosi precious - piena piene full - pesante pesanti heavy - pulito puliti clean - rozza rozze rough, uncouth - rosso rossi red - robusta robuste robust - sincero sinceri sincere - studioso studiosi studious - stretto stretti narrow - stupida stupide stupid - vecchia vecchie old - morbido morbide soft - leggiera leggiere light (weight) - lunga lunghe long - grosso grossi thick - colorita colorite colored - - _Maschile_ _Femminile_ - alti alte tall - bello bella beautiful - brevi brevi short, brief - biondo bionda blonde - chiaro chiara clear, light (of color) - corto corta short - coraggiosi coraggiose courageous - disordinato disordinata disorderly - dolce dolce sweet - debole debole feeble - esatto esatta accurate - freddo fredda cold - grazioso graziosa graceful - grande grande large - garbati garbate polite - gentili gentili kind - italiani italiane Italian - inglese inglese English - lento lenta slow - svelto svelta lithe - ottimo ottima best, excellent - ordinato ordinata orderly - pigri pigre lazy - pallido pallida pale - piccolo piccola small - ruvidi ruvide rough - serio seria serious, honest - suo sua his, her, your - sgarbato sgarbata rude - tuo tua thy - timido timida timid - ultimo ultima last - vostro vostra yours - zoppi zoppe lame - zitto zitta silent - carino carina dear - liscio liscia smooth - obbediente obbediente obedient - contenti contente content, happy - allegro allegra joyous - -Here, just as with the four noun forms (masculine, feminine, singular -and plural), class games may be found useful. The plural forms may be -dealt out to the class, while one child reads aloud the singulars, one -after the other. The child, who, in a given case, has the proper plural, -reads his card in answer. Similarly, for masculine and feminine. - - -LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL AGREEMENT OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES - -(For Italian Exclusively) - -Another table exercise consists in arranging two groups of fifty cards, -of which twenty-five are nouns (constituting the directing group), while -the other twenty-five are adjectives. The nouns are put in a row and the -child looks among the adjectives (which have been thoroughly shuffled) -for those which are best suited to the different nouns. As he finds them -he places them by the nouns with which they belong. Sometimes the nouns -and adjectives placed together cause a great deal of merriment by the -amusing contrasts that arise. The children try to put as many adjectives -as possible with the same noun and develop in this way the most -interesting combinations. Here are two groups which come prepared with -the material: - - _Nome_ _Aggettivo_ _Adjective_ _Noun_ - contadina allegra happy peasant-girl - casa bella beautiful house - zia brava good aunt - mamma cara dear mother - professore alto tall professor - meastra magra thin (lean) teacher - lavandaia pulita neat washerwoman - marinaio robusto strong sailor - carrettiere abbronzato sunburnt wagon-driver - bambino buono good child - lavagnetta rettangolare square slate - foglio bianco white paper (sheet of) - panchetto basso low bench - prisma grosso thick prism - vaso largo broad vase - foglia verde green leaf - circolo perfetto perfect circle - pizzicagnolo grosso fat butcher - testa unta oily (dirty) head - gomma densa hard, dense rubber - fanciullo stizzito cross, angry child - figlio obbediente obedient son - pietra nera black rock, stone - latte bianco white milk - formaggio tenero soft, tender cheese - carne fresca fresh meat - vino rosso red wine - disegno grazioso pretty drawing - perla lucente shining pearl - vetro trasparente transparent glass - ragazzina impertinente impertinent lass - asino paziente patient donkey - gallina grassa fat hen - topo agile quick, nimble mouse - acqua limpida clear water - saponetta odorosa perfumed, fragrant soap - medico bravo good doctor - giardiniere bizzarro surly gardener - cane arrabbiato mad dog - manicotto morbido soft muff - gatto arruffato ruffled cat - colombo viaggiatore travelling (carrier) pigeon - uomo brontolone grumbling man - ragno pericoloso dangerous spider - serpente velenoso poisonous snake - medicina amara bitter medicine - nonna indulgente indulgent, kind grandmother - babbo severo strict father - vespa maligna cruel wasp - cassetto ordinato orderly box - -For a class game with these lists, the nouns may be placed on one table -and the adjectives on another. Moving as during the "silence" lesson, -each child selects first a noun, and then an adjective. When the -selections have all been made, the pairs are read one after the other -amid general enthusiasm. - - -DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES - -COMMANDS (_Individual Lessons_) - -The study of the adjective may furnish occasion for giving the child a -knowledge of physical properties (of substances) so far unknown to him. -For example, the teacher may present a piece of transparent glass; a -piece of black glass (or any opaque screen); a sheet of white paper with -an oil stain. The child will see that through the _transparent_ glass -objects may be seen distinctly; that through the oil stain only the -light is visible; that nothing at all can be seen through the _opaque_ -screen. Or she may take a small glass funnel and put into it a piece of -filter paper, then a sponge, then a piece of waterproof cloth. The child -observes that the water passes through the filter paper, that the sponge -absorbs water, and that the water clings to the surface of the -waterproof. Or take two glass graduators and fill them with water to -different heights. In the case of the graduator filled to the very top, -the surface of the water is _convex_; in the other, it is _concave_. - -The commands are printed on little slips of paper which are folded and -all held together by an elastic band with a series of brown cards -containing the adjectives used in the commands. Here is the material -prepared: - - --Fill one graduator with water to the point of - over-flowing, and another not so full. Notice the form - assumed by the surface of the water in each case and - apply the proper adjective: _convex_, _concave_. - - --Take various objects such as filter paper, cloth, a - sponge, and see whether water can pass through them, - applying the adjectives: _permeable_, _impermeable_, - _porous_. - - --Take a piece of clear glass, a sheet of black paper, - a sheet of oiled paper; look at the light through - them, applying the adjectives: _transparent_, - _opaque_, _translucent_. - -Object lessens demonstrating comparative weights may also be given by -putting successively into a glass of water, oil, alcohol colored with -aniline, a piece of cork, a little leaden ball (to be dropped). Then the -command would be: - - --Compare the weights of water and of colored alcohol; - water and oil; water and cork; and water and lead. - Then tell which is _heavier_ and which is _lighter_ - than the other. - -As an answer the child should give a little written exercise something -like the following: _Water is heavier than oil_, etc. The children -actually perform these little experiments, learning to handle -graduators, funnels, filters, etc., and to pour the last drops of water -very carefully so as to obtain the concave and convex surfaces. They -acquire a very delicate touch in pouring the colored alcohol and oil on -the water. Thus they take the first step into the field of practical -science. - -To continue the study of adjectives of quality, there is a series of -commands relating to the comparative and superlative. An example of the -comparative crept into these experiments on weight. Here are additional -commands where the little slip and the brown cards are kept together. - - --Take the blue stairs or any other objects and put - with each object the proper adjectives from the - following list: _thick_, _thin_, _thickest_ (Ital. - grossissimo), _thinnest_ (Ital. finissimo). - - --Take the eight tablets of the color you like best, - arrange them according to shades and apply the proper - adjectives of quality from the following: _light_, - _lightest_, _dark_, _darkest_. - - --Take the series of circles in the plane insets, and - pick out the circles which correspond to these - adjectives: _large_, _small_, _intermediate_. - - --Take the cloths or other objects adapted to these - adjectives: _smooth_, _smoothest_, _rough_, - _roughest_, _soft_, _softest_. - - --Take the cubes of the pink tower or any other - objects adapted to these adjectives: _large_, - _largest_, _small_, _smallest_. - - --Grade a number of objects according to weight so as - to fit these adjectives to them: _heavy_, _heaviest_, - _light_, _lightest_. - - -ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY - -COMMANDS (_Individual Lessons_) - -Just as above, the slip is tied with the series of brown cards by an -elastic band. Thus a group is formed. In our material the following -three groups are available: - - --Take the counters and make little piles which - correspond in quantity to these adjectives: _one_, - _two_, _three_, _four_, _five_, _six_, etc. - - --Take the beads and make little piles of them to fit - these adjectives: _few_, _none_, _many_, _some_. - - --Decide first of all on some definite number of beads - (two) and then make other little piles to fit these - adjectives: _double_, _triple_, _quadruple_, - _quintuple_, _sextuple_, _tenfold_, _half_, _equal_. - - -ORDINALS - -(_Individual Commands_) - - --Build the blue stair and on each step place the - proper adjective from the following: _first_, - _second_, _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_, _sixth_, - _seventh_, _eighth_, _ninth_, _tenth_. - - --Place the following adjectives on the different - drawers of the cabinet, beginning with the top drawer: - _first_, _second_, _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_. - - --Differentiate between the drawers of the cabinet by - the following adjectives, beginning with the lowest: - _first_, _second_, _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_. - - -DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES - -(_Class Lessons_) - -As occasion may offer, the teacher may assemble a group of children and -give them a few simple explanations on the meaning of certain words: -_questo_, "this" (near us); _cotesto_, "that" (near you); _quello_, -"that" (over there away from both of us). (Note: English lacks the -demonstrative of the second person.) - -Then she can distribute these commands which require collective actions -of the class:-- - - --Gather in _that_ (codesto) corner of the room near - you; then all of you come over to _this_ (questo) - corner near me; then all of you run over to that - (_quello_) corner over there. - - --Choose one of your school-mates and tell him to put - a box on _this_ (questo) table; a small plate on - _that_ (quello) table over there. - - --Tell one of your companions, pointing at the place, - to put a green bead in _this_ (questo) vase; a blue - one in _that_ (codesto) vase; a white one in _that_ - (quello) vase over there. - -Arrange the children in groups in three different places in the room, -and then give this command: - ---Let _that_ (quello) group over there take the place of _this_ (questo) -group. Let _that_ (codesto) group break up, the children going back to -their tables. - - -POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES - -(_Class Lessons_) - -In like manner the teacher explains the meaning of the words _my_, -_your_, _his_, _her_, etc. She may do this with a simple gesture. Here -are the commands: - - --Point out various objects saying: This is _my_ - slate; that is _your_ slate; that (over there) is - _her_ slate. - - --Point at the different seats, saying: That (over - there) is _his_ place, that is _your_ place, and this - is _my_ place. - - --Pass around the little baskets, saying: This is _my_ - basket. Whose is that other basket? Is it _your_ - basket? And this one? Ah, this one is _his_ basket. - - --Let us take a turn around the room and then return - to _our_ seats. _You_ go to _your_ seat and _they_ - will go to _their_ seats. Then we will divide up our - things. Let us put _our_ things here and _their_ - things there. We will go to _your_ seats and you go to - _their_ seats. Meanwhile they will get up and then - come over here to take _our_ places. - -[Signora Montessori does not differentiate between the possessive -_adjective_ and the possessive _pronoun_; perhaps because there is in -Italian no characteristic pronominal form. Strictly speaking the Italian -predicate form _mio_ (e.g., _Questo libra e mio_) is adjectival, while -the form _il mio_ (i.e., with the definite article) is pronominal (e.g., -_Questo e il mio_). English has, however, the pronominal possessives: -_mine_, _yours_ (thine), _his_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, used -also as predicate adjectives. The above exercise should therefore he -repeated later under the subject of pronouns in a slightly different -form.--TR.] - - - - -VI - -VERBS - - -When I gave the first grammar lessons to defective children I put -special emphasis on nouns and verbs. The noun (= object), and the verb -(= action) were distinguished with the greatest clearness, much as we -distinguish matter from energy, chemistry from physics. _Condition_ and -_motion_, as potential and kinetic energy, are both expressed by verbs. -Whereas formerly the child took the objects in his hands and studied -their name and attributes, here he must _perform_ actions. In the -execution of actions he must necessarily receive some help, for he is -not always capable of interpreting the word with the precise action -which corresponds to it. On the contrary, the study of the verb is -necessary to initiate him into a series of "object lessons" upon the -different actions he must perform. The teacher therefore must give -individual lessons teaching the child to interpret the verb. - - -ANALYSES - -In the usual manner we present a box which has four compartments, for -the article, the noun, the adjective, and the verb. The sections are -designated by the usual title cards: tan, black, brown, and red. In the -compartment at the back of the box there are six slips for each -exercise, and for every written word there is a card, except for such -words as are repeated in successive sentences. For example: if the -following sentences are written on the cards: - - Close the door! - Lock the door! - -on the corresponding cards will be found the words: - - Lock } - Close } the door. - -And so the child after he has composed his first sentence needs to -change only one card (_lock_ for _close_) for the second sentence. This -brings out the force of the verb, showing that one sentence may be -changed into another by indicating an entirely different action. The -child performs the action and then on his table he builds the sentences -with the cards. In the series we have prepared, the verbs are either -synonyms or antonyms. Here is the material: - -SERIES A - - --Close the door - Lock the door - - --Tie a knot - Untie a knot - - --Spread your beads - Collect your beads - - --Fold the paper - Unfold the paper - - --Open the book - Shut the book - - --Speak a word - Whisper a word - - -SERIES B - - --Raise your hands - Lower your hands - - --Toss the ball - Throw the ball - - --Show your right hand - Hide your right hand - - --Touch the velvet - Feel the velvet - - --Write a short word - Erase a short word - - --Draw a circle - Fill a circle - - -SERIES C - - --Bring a chair - Drag a chair - - --Lace a frame - Unlace a frame - - --Raise your head - Bow your head - - --Fill a glass - Empty a glass - - --Arrange the brown cards - Mix the brown cards - - --Roll the white handkerchief - Twist the white handkerchief - - -SERIES D - - --Embrace your nearest schoolmate - Kiss your nearest schoolmate - - --Gather your prisms - Separate your prisms - - --Borrow a black pencil - Lend a black pencil - - --Cover your face - Uncover your face - - --Lift the red counter - Drop the red counter - - --Smooth the white paper - Crumple the white paper - - -SERIES E - - --Clench your two hands - Open your two hands - - --Spread the large carpet - Fold the large carpet - - --Bend your left arm - Straighten your left arm - - --Rub the table - Scratch the table - - --Pour the water - Spill the water - - --Comb your hair - Part your hair - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The teacher should have in mind the grammatical rules for the position -of the verb in the sentence, to give the child a clear idea of its -normal location before the direct object: "first the verb, then the -object upon which it acts." - -Example: - - Smooth the white paper. - -The verb should, for the first permutation, be transferred to the end: - - the white paper smooth. - -Or, if you wish, - - Arrange the brown cards. - the brown cards arrange. - -When the verb is taken away entirely the action vanishes: - - Lift } the red counter. - Drop } - the red counter. - -Making all possible permutations, the child sees that only one order of -words is capable of bringing a meaning out of the confusion: - - Roll the white handkerchief. - the white handkerchief roll. - white the handkerchief roll. - white roll handkerchief the. - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE VERB - -The children take considerable delight in our verb lessons which develop -through interpretations of actions. We use packs of red cards, tied with -an elastic, each pack containing ten cards. The child executes the -actions indicated on each card, one after the other. He may afterward -copy the cards--an exercise specially attractive to very young children. - -Examples: - - --walk, sing, jump, dance, bow, sit, sleep, wake, - pray, sigh. - - --write, erase, weep, laugh, hide, draw, read, speak, - listen, run. - - --arrange, clean, dust, sweep, button, lace, tie, - hook, greet, brush. - - --comb, wash, wipe, embrace, kiss, smile, yawn, scowl, - stare, breathe. - -These are fairly common words, representing actions more or less -familiar to the pupils. But this exercise is only an introduction to the -real verb-lessons. For these the teacher selects, as subject for a -lesson, a series of synonymous verbs. Their shades of meaning are -taught to the children by translating them into action, the teacher -executing the action herself. She then distributes around the class -commands making use of the verbs in question. There may be several -copies of a given command if the pupils are very numerous. The child -reads by himself the card he has received, executing the action from -memory of what he has seen the teacher do. We have tested experimentally -the Italian material (_i.e._, the verbs in parentheses), as follows: - -Subject: - - lay, throw, toss, hurl (posare, gettare, lanciare, - scagliare). - -Commands:-- - - --Take a counter and _lay_ it on the floor. Pick it up - again and _throw_ it on the floor. - - --Roll your handkerchief into a ball. _Toss_ it into - the air. Pick it up again and _hurl_ it against the - wall. - - --_Lay_ your handkerchief carefully, very carefully, - on the floor. Pick it up again and _throw_ it on the - floor. Make a ball of it and _hurl_ it across the - room. Pick it up and _toss_ it into the air. - -Subject: - - lie, crouch, sit, rise (sollevare, alzare, levare). - -Commands:-- - - --Go to the sofa and _lie_ with your face to the wall. - Now _rise_, go to your table and _sit_ with head - erect. - - --_Rise_ from your chair and _crouch_ behind the - table, as though you were playing hide-and-seek. - _Rise_ and go back to the sofa. - -Subject: - - open, close, lock, unlock (aprire, spalancare, - chiudere, socchiudere, serrare, disserrare). - -Commands:-- - - --Go to a window and _open_ it a little; wait a moment - and then _close_ it again. _Open_ the window as wide - as you can and _close_ it immediately. - - --Go to the door and _open_ it wide. Then _close_ the - door gently. If the key is in the key-hole _lock_ the - door; but before you go away, _unlock_ it again, so - that everything is left just as you found it. - -Subject: - - breathe, inhale, exhale (respirare, sospirare, - inspirare, espirare). - -Commands:-- - - --Go to the window, open it, and _inhale_ and _exhale_ - the fresh air five times. Then after a moment _inhale_ - once and hold your breath as long as you can. When you - can hold your breath no longer, _exhale_ as slowly as - you can. - - --Take a hand mirror and _breathe_ upon the glass. - What happens? - -Subject: - - hang, attach (appendere, affiggere, sospendere). - -Commands:-- - - --_Hang_ one of your best drawings on a hook in the - room. - - --_Attach_ the drawing you like best with two pins to - the wall near the door. - -Subject: - - cover, wrap, tie, undo (avvolgere, involgere, - svolgere). - -Commands:-- - - --Take a book, a string and a large piece of cloth. - Lay the book on your table and _cover_ it with the - cloth. - - --Take the cloth and _wrap_ it around the book so that - the book cannot be seen. - - --_Tie_ a string around the cloth so that the book - will not fall out. - - --_Undo_ the bundle, and return each object to the - place where you found it. - -Subject: - - turn, invert, revolve, whirl, reverse (volgere, - capovolgere, rovesciare). - -Commands:-- - - --_Turn_ a picture toward one of your school-mates so - that he can see it clearly. - - --_Invert_ the picture, so that it will be upside - down. - - --_Reverse_ the picture so that the back only can be - seen by your school-mate. - - --_Revolve_ the seat of the piano-stool as rapidly as - you can. - - --Stand with your back to the window and _turn_ slowly - on your heel till you face the window. _Whirl_ on your - heel completely around till you again face the window. - -Subject: - - breathe, blow, puff, pant (sbuffare, soffiare, - alitare). - -Commands:-- - - --Tear a large piece of paper into tiny bits on your - table. _Blow_ steadily upon the table till the pieces - of paper are all on the floor. - - --Pick up the pieces of paper and place them on the - table. _Puff_ three times upon them and see if they - all fall to the floor. Gather up the pieces and throw - them into the waste-basket. - - --_Breathe_ softly upon the back of your hand. What do - you feel? - - --_Blow_ upon the back of your hand. What do you feel? - - --_Puff_ upon the back of your band. What do you feel? - - --_Pant_ noisily as though you had been running a long - way. - -Subject: - - murmur, mutter, whisper, speak, grumble (mormorare, - sussurrare, brontolare). - -Commands:-- - - --Ask one of your school-mates to listen carefully to - what you say; then _murmur_ a short sentence as though - you were speaking to yourself. - - --_Mutter_ the same words in a louder voice and see - whether he understands. - - --_Whisper_ the same words in the ear of one of two - children. Then ask the other whether he has heard. - - --_Grumble_ the same words and watch how the two - children look at you. - - --_Speak_ the same words aloud and as distinctly as - you can. Do the children understand? - -Subject: - - touch, rub, graze (toccare, tastare, palpare, - sfiorare). - -Commands:-- - - --Go to your table and with your eyes shut _touch_ it - as though to recognize it. - - --_Rub_ the table with the tips of your fingers, - bearing down as hard as you can. What do you feel? - - --_Graze_ the table with the tips of your fingers, - trying not to touch it. - -Subject: - - spread, sprinkle, collect, scatter (spargere, - spruzzare, aspergere). - -Commands:-- - - --Take a box full of beads and _spread_ them evenly - around the center of your table. Then _collect_ them - in a pile in the center of the table. - - --Take a handful of the beads and _scatter_ them over - the table. Return all the beads to the box. - - --Take a glass of water and _sprinkle_ two or three - handfuls on a plant in the room. - -Subject: - - walk, stagger, march (barcollare, dondolare, - erigersi). - -Commands:-- - - --_Walk_ naturally to the end of the room farthest - from your table. - - --_March_ back to your seat as though you were keeping - time to music. - - --_Stagger_ across the room as though you were very - dizzy. - -Subject: - - take, seize, catch (acchiappare, acciuffare, - afferrare). - -Commands:-- - - --Walk to the cabinet and _take_ a box of counters in - your hands. - - --Run to the sofa, _seize_ the sofa-pillow, and run - around the room with it, holding it in your arms. - - --Roll your handkerchief into a ball, toss it into the - air and try to _catch_ it before it falls to the - floor. - - -LESSONS WITH EXPERIMENTS - -The function of the verb can be still more interestingly emphasized by -suggesting actions designed to increase the child's knowledge in the -direction of elementary science. Here the teacher, instead of executing -simple movements, performs experiments, which on the same day or on -succeeding days the child can imitate guided by the directions in the -commands. - -Subject: - - stir, mix, beat, flavor (mescolare, emulsionare, - stemperare). - -Commands:-- - - --Take a bowl half full of water and drop into it a - half cup of flour; _stir_ with a spoon until the - mixture is thick. - - --Place a table-spoonful of vinegar and a - table-spoonful of olive-oil in a clean bowl; _beat_ - them together until an emulsion is formed. - - --Place a tea-spoonful of chocolate and a tea-spoonful - of sugar in a cup and _mix_ them thoroughly. What - color was the chocolate? What color was the sugar? - What color is the mixture? - - --Take a little milk in a cup and taste of it; add a - drop of vanilla extract. Then taste of the milk again. - Do you taste the vanilla? In the same way _flavor_ a - glass of water with the vanilla. _Flavor_ another - glass of water with vinegar. - -Subject: - - dissolve, saturate, be in suspension (sciogliere, fare - la sospensiona, saturare). - -Commands:-- - - --Place a spoonful of sugar in a glass of warm water - and _dissolve_ the sugar by stirring with a spoon. Is - the water still clear? - - --_Saturate_ the water with sugar by continuing to add - sugar and stirring till you can see the sugar at the - bottom of the glass. Allow the water to rest a moment. - Is the water still clear? - - --Mix a spoonful of starch in the water. The water - becomes white, since the starch does not _dissolve_ - but remains _in suspension_ in the water. - -Subject: - - strain, filter (decantare, filtrare). - -Commands:-- - - --Take the glass containing the water saturated with - sugar and the one with the starch in suspension, and - allow the starch and sugar to settle for some time, - until the water is clear. Taste the water in each - glass, and then _strain_ each glass of water - separately. - - --_Filter_ the water saturated with sugar and the - water with the suspended starch. Then taste of each. - -By the time all these commands have been executed, the child will have -developed a keen desire to go on, becoming so interested in the meaning -of verbs as not to require further commands to stimulate his study of -these words. The most frequent question now is "How many verbs are there -in the language?" "Are there more in other languages?" etc. To satisfy -this new curiosity of the children we have dictionaries of synonyms and -antonyms, and word-charts. But meantime they have been building their -own dictionaries. One by one they begin to own copy books (rubrics) with -illuminated letters of the alphabet. Under the proper letter the child -copies his words as fast as he learns them. We are still experimenting -on the question of the exact amount of information that may successfully -be offered to elementary school children of various ages and stages of -development, with the word material required for the notions of natural -history, physics and chemistry they may be expected to acquire. We can -say, at this moment, simply that each experiment involves the use of a -certain number of new words (nouns, adjectives and verbs), which are -copied into the word-books (rubrics) as fast as they occur. - - - - -VII - -PREPOSITIONS - - -ANALYSES - -Here also the first exercise is to compose sentences analyzed with the -colored cards. This grammar box has five compartments, each with a small -title card of the color corresponding to the different parts of speech, -red for the verb, black for the noun, brown for the adjective, tan for -the article and _violet_ for the _preposition_. In the compartment at -the rear of the box are six cards with printed sentences. The colored -cards do not correspond exactly to the number of words used in the -sentences because the words of one sentence which are repeated in the -next are not duplicated in the cards. In this case it is the change in -preposition only which alters the meaning of the sentence. Here are the -series of sentences, some of which the teacher may have used already in -previous lessons (commands). - - -SERIES A - -(Prepositions of space relations) - - --Take the box _with_ the colored beads. (con, senza, - insieme con). Take the box _without_ the colored - beads. Take the box _together_ with the colored beads. - - --Place the prism _under_ the cylinder. (sotto a, - sopra a). Place the prism _upon_ the cylinder. - - --Lay the pen _in front of_ the ink-well. (avanti a, - dietro a, a lato di). Lay the pen _behind_ the - ink-well. Lay the pen _beside_ the ink-well. - - --Put the green bead _into_ the box. (in, dentro). Put - the green bead _inside_ the box. - - --Arrange a few beads _between_ the red counters. (in - mezzo a, tra). Arrange a few beads _among_ the red - counters. - - --Set one chair _opposite_ another chair. (dirimpetto - a, accanto a). Set one chair _next_ to another chair. - -[Illustration: Grammar Boxes, showing respectively four and five parts -of speech. (Note: The cards forming the sentence, "Place the blue cone -against the pink cube," should have been arranged in one continuous -line, not in two lines.)] - - -SERIES B - -(Space relations continued) - - --Lay the counter _inside_ the box. (dentro, fuori, - di). Lay the counter _outside_ the box. - - --Place a chair _on this side of_ the door. (di la da, - di qua da, oltre). Place a chair _on that side of_ the - door. Place a chair _beyond_ the door. - - --Stand _in front of_ the blackboard. (di fronte a, di - fianco a). Stand _to one side of_ the blackboard. - Stand _to the other side of_ the blackboard. - - --Arrange the chairs _along_ the wall. (lungo, - contro). Arrange the chairs _against_ the wall. - - --Place the blue cone _near_ the pink cube. (vicino a, - accosto a). Place the blue cone _against_ the pink - cube. - - -SERIES C - -(Possession, material, use, purpose) - -[NOTE:--Such relationships are expressed in English preferably by -adjectives: _cloth of cotton_ = _cotton cloth_; or by the possessive -inflection with _-s_: _the drawing of George = George's drawing_. In -Italian they are expressed by the prepositions _di_, _per_, _da_, etc.: -_stoffa di cotone_ "cotton cloth," _piattino di vetro_ "glass saucer." -For Signora Montessori's simple exercise we suggest for English the -following definitions (TR.)]. - -[Illustration: Grammar Boxes, containing respectively six and seven -parts of speech. (Note: In the sentence on the right, the cards should -be in one line, not two.)] - - --Cotton cloth is cloth _of_ cotton. Woollen cloth is - cloth _of_ wool. Silk cloth is cloth _of_ silk. - - --The iron triangle is a triangle _of_ iron. The - wooden triangle is a triangle _of_ wood. - - --The glass saucer is a saucer _of_ glass. The china - saucer is a saucer _of_ china. - - --A shoe-brush is a brush _for_ shoes. A clothes-brush - is a brush _for_ clothes. - - --George's hat is the hat _of_ George; George's hat - belongs _to_ George. Mary's hat is the hat _of_ Mary; - Mary's hat belongs _to_ Mary. - - --A drinking-cup is a cup _for_ drinking. A copy-book - is a book _for_ copying. - - -SERIES D - -(Direction and source of motion) - - --Turn _from_ the right _to_ the left. (da ... a, a ... da) - Turn _from_ the left _to_ the right. - - --Draw a line _from_ the bottom of the paper _to_ the top. - Draw a line _from_ the top of the paper _to_ the bottom. - - --Go _from_ your seat _to_ the cabinet. - Go _from_ the cabinet _to_ your seat. - - --Change the pen _from_ your right hand _to_ your left hand. - Change the pen _from_ your left hand _to_ your right hand. - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The child has built the first sentences on each of the slips with his -cards, and he has reproduced the others by changing simply the -preposition cards. In this way he has seen how the position of objects -relative to each other is determined wholly and only by the use of the -preposition. The preposition, therefore, determines the _relation of -words_, the relation of a _noun_ to some other word, here to another -_noun_ or to a _verb_. In the phrase, - -Set one chair opposite another chair, - -if we take away the preposition, leaving, - -Set one chair another chair, - -the relation that formerly existed between the words _chair_ and -_another chair_ is lost. The teacher must not forget the rules for the -position of the preposition. The preposition must always precede its -object and no other word can come between it and the word or words it -controls. - -Here are some examples of sentences in the above exercises from which -the preposition has been taken away by the teacher: - -Go from your seat the cabinet. - -Place a chair the door. - -Lay the counter the box. - -Place the prism the cylinder. - -The china saucer is made china. - -To give the child an idea of the normal position of prepositions a -series of permutations may be made leaving the preposition and its -object in their normal positions. In this case some meaning is still -left to the sentence: - -Stretch a string from the door to the window. - -From the door to the window stretch a string. - -Stretch from the door a string to the window. - -From the door to the window a string stretch. - -From the door stretch to the window a string. - -But the child will recognize that the right sentence is the simplest and -the clearest: - -Stretch a string from the door to the window. - -On the other hand if we separate the preposition from its object or -invert their normal position, the meaning is entirely lost: - -Stretch a string the door from the window to. - -Stretch a string from the door window to the. - -String from the stretch door to the a window. - - -And likewise with these other sentences: - -Run from the wash-stand to the table. - -Run wash-stand table (_definition of motion lacking_). - -Run wash-stand from the table to the. - -From the run wash-stand to the table. - -Wash-stand from the to the run table. - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON PREPOSITIONS - -The teacher may also take groups of children and give them short lessons -on the preposition to explain the meaning, selecting if possible two or -three synonyms or antonyms each time. The lessons should always he -practical and full of action. The child should come to understand in -this case the relationship established by this or that preposition -between the object (noun) and the action (verb) to be performed. As soon -as this has been made clear by the teacher the commands are distributed -to the children who put them into execution. Here is the material that -we use: - -Subject: - -Of (di). - -Command:-- - ---Go and get a boxful _of_ counters. Go and get a glass _of_ water. -Bring me a piece _of_ cloth. - -Subject: - -near (to), next (to), beside, far away from (vicino, accosto, lontano). - -Command:-- - ---One of you boys stand in the middle of the room. Now you others go and -stand _near_ him. One of you stand _next_ to him on the right, another -_beside_ him on the left. Now all go _far away from_ him. - -Subject: - -in, into, inside, out of (in, dentro, fuori). - -Command:-- - ---Rise from your chairs and go _into_ the next room. Stay _in_ that room -a moment and then come back _into_ this one. Go back on tip-toe and lock -yourselves _inside_ the next room. Come _out of_ the next room _into_ -this one. - -Subject: - -On this side of, on that side of, beyond (di la da, di qua da, oltre). - -Command:-- - ---Leave your places and form a circle _on that side of_ the door; form a -circle then _on this side of_ the door. All of you go and stand -somewhere _beyond_ the door. - -Subject: - -except, save (tranne, eccetto). - -Command:-- - ---All the children, _except_ George and Mary, walk on tip-toe around the -room. - ---All the children, _save_ George and Mary, walk on tip-toe around the -room. - -Subject: - -side by side with, opposite, in front of, along (di fianco, di fronte, -avanti). - -Command:-- - ---Form a line _side by side_ with each other. - ---Form a line _along_ the wall _opposite_ the door. - ---Form two lines _in front of_ the piano. - -Subject: - -before, behind (dirimpetto, dietro). - -Command:-- - ---Two of you come and stand _before_ me. - ---The rest of you go and stand _behind_ me. - -Subject: - -on, about, along (su, secondo, lungo). - -Command:-- - ---Each of you place one counter on the table. Now arrange the same -counters _along_ the far edge of the table. Now scatter the same -counters _about_ the center of the table. - -Subject: - -between, among (fra, in mezzo a). - -Command:-- - ---One of you go and stand _between_ the door and the piano. - ---Place ten white counters on the table. Now go and scatter two or three -red counters _among_ the white ones. - -Subject: - -from, to, as far as (da, a, fino a). - -Command:-- - ---Rise and walk _from_ your places _to_ the piano; wait a moment and -then continue _as far as_ the door of the next room. - -Subject: - -around, about (attorno, intorno). - -Command:-- - ---Walk in couples, arm in arm, _around_ the room twice; when you reach -the piano on the second round, form a circle _about_ the piano. - -Subject: - -toward, against (verso, contro). - -Command:-- - ---Take your chairs and move them three steps _toward_ the wall in front -of you. Next, arrange your chairs in a row with their backs _against_ -the wall behind you. - -Subject: - -across, through (attraverso, per). - -Command:-- - ---Roll your handkerchiefs into balls and throw them _across_ the room. - ---Pick them up as they lie and try to throw them _through_ the door into -the hall. - -Subject: - -With, without (con, senza). - -Command:-- - ---Walk around the room _with_ your chairs in your hands. - ---Walk around the room _without_ your chairs. - -Subject: - -to, in order to, so as to (per). - -Command:-- - ---Wash your hands _in order_ not _to_ soil the cloth. Then close your -eyes and feel this cloth _so as to_ recognize it. - - - - -VIII - -ADVERBS - - -ANALYSES - -Again the exercise consists of sentences analyzed by means of colored -cards and commands. The grammar box contains six compartments having, -like the others, the names of the different parts of speech on title -cards of proper color. The card for the adverb is pink. In the rear -compartment are six slips for each exercise, and in the sections the -usual number of corresponding colored cards for the necessary words. - -GROUP A - -(Adverbs of Manner) - - --Walk _slowly_ to the window. - Walk _rapidly_ to the window. - - --Rise _silently_ from your seat. - Rise _noisily_ from your seat. - - --Speak _softly_ into the ear of your nearest comrade. - Speak _loudly_ into the ear of your nearest comrade. - - --Take five steps toward the door; turn _abruptly_ to the left. - Take five steps toward the door; turn _gradually_ to the left. - - --Take your nearest comrade _lightly_ by the arm. - Take your nearest comrade _roughly_ by the arm. - - --Look _smilingly_ into the mirror. - Look _scowlingly_ into the mirror. - - -GROUP B - -(Adverbs of place and time) - - --Place your pencil _there_. - Place your pencil _here_. - - --Lay your book _somewhere_ on the table. - Lay your book _elsewhere_ on the table. - - --Walk to the window _constantly_ clapping your hands. - Walk to the window _occasionally_ clapping your hands. - - --Drink the water in the glass _now_. - Drink the water in the glass _by and by_. - - --Carry the pink tower _upstairs_. - Carry the pink tower _downstairs_. - - --Write a word on the blackboard _immediately_. - Write a word on the blackboard _soon_. - - -GROUP C - -(Adverbs of quantity, comparison) - - --Walk along the hall swinging your arms _somewhat_. - Walk along the hall swinging your arms _a great deal_. - - --Bend your head a _little_. - Bend your head _much_. - - --Walk _slowly_ to the window. - Walk _less slowly_ to the window. - Walk _more slowly_ to the window. - - --Place on the table your _most_ beautiful drawing. - --Place on the table your beautiful drawing. - - --Make a broad mark on the blackboard. - Make a _very_ broad mark on the blackboard. - - -GROUP D - -(Adverbs of comparison, correlative adverbs) - - --Look for a piece of cloth softer _than_ velvet. - --Look for a piece of cloth _as_ soft as velvet. - - --Find among your colors a shade _as_ black _as_ the blackboard. - --Find a piece of cloth _not so_ shiny _as_ satin. - --Find among the plane insets a rectangle _as_ broad _as_ half - the square. - --Bring a rod longer _than_ your copy-book. - --Bring a rod _as_ long _as_ your copy-book. - --Bring a rod _not so_ long _as_ your copy-book. - --Find a piece of cloth _less_ rough _than_ the canvas. - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The sentences to be analyzed are reproduced as usual by building the -first sentence on each slip; and then, by changing the adverb, the child -gets the second or third sentence. One of the first permutations is to -remove the adverb from those sentences where it performs the function of -an _adjective to the verb_, thereby causing one action to be changed -into another. For example take the two sentences: - - Walk slowly to the window. - Walk rapidly to the window. - -Taking away the adverb we have: - - Walk to the window. - -The child can perform the action which, now, is a simple one. The -adverb, however, changes, _modifies_, the action. If the teacher in play -puts the two adverbs together in the same sentence the child has the -problem of interpreting two contrary movements. That is, he is to go to -the window _slowly_ and _rapidly_ at the same time. Taking away the -adverb cards the sentence left is _Go to the window_. This action the -child can perform. But how shall he perform it, in what way? With the -help of adverbs! Similarly in the following sentences: - - Bend your head _a little_. - Bend your head _much_. - -Written without the adverb they indicate one action. What slight changes -in the position of the head can be brought about by these adverbs! It is -the _adverb_ which really shows fine differentiations in movement! - -In other sentences also where the adverb is, so to speak, an _adjective_ -to an _adjective_ and therefore really affects the object (noun), -similar permutations may be made. - - Make a broad mark on the blackboard. - Make a _very_ broad mark on the blackboard. - -Here by the use of an adverb two different _objects_ (nouns) are -distinguished which, though they have the same quality (breadth) differ -in degree (broad, very broad). Take, for instance, two objects belonging -to the same series: - - Place on your table the prism which is most thick. - Place on your table the prism which is least thick. - -If the adverbs are taken away the factor determining the degree of -quality (thickness) disappears and we have sentences which are far less -precise in their meaning: - - Place on your table the prism which is thick. - -As the teacher proceeds to make permutations in the different sentences -she should remember (for Italian) that the normal position of the adverb -is after the verb (in the compound tenses it comes between the auxiliary -and the participle). - -(Note: In English the position of the adverb is much freer than in -Italian; it often stands at the end of the sentence and even between -subject and verb,--something quite foreign to normal Italian usage. We -retain the text entire.) - -In the sentences analyzed by the child it is sufficient to recall that -the adverb modifies the verb and follows the verb it modifies. Take the -sentence: - - Bend your head a little as you write. - -If the adverb is placed after the second verb the meaning changes: - - Bend your head as you write a little. - -The same is true in the following: - - Walk along the hall swinging your arms somewhat. - Walk somewhat along the hall swinging your arms. - -General shifting of position would give results as follows: - - Bend a little your head as you write. - A little bend your head as you write, etc., etc. - Somewhat walk along the hall swinging your arms. - Walk along somewhat the hall swinging your arms, etc., etc. - -The child is quick to recognize by ear the accurate, the normal position -of the adverb. - -On the other hand, adverbs of quantity and comparison precede the -adjective: - - Make a very broad mark on the blackboard. - Place on your table the prism that is least thick. - -Permutation gives the following results: - - Make a broad very mark on the blackboard. - Place on your table the prism which thick least is, etc., etc. - -Adverbs of time and place often ring like trumpet calls to attention at -the beginning of the sentence: - - Drink the water in the glass now. - Now drink the water in the glass. - -(Note: In English the adverb of time, placed at the end of the sentence, -gains quite as much emphasis. So for adverbs of place.) - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON ADVERBS - -Subject: - - straight, zig-zag (diritto, a zig-zag). - -Command:-- - - --Run _straight_ into the other room; return to your place - walking _zig-zag_. - -Subject: - - lightly, heavily, sedately (leggermente, gravemente, - pesantemente). - -Command:-- - - --Walk _lightly_ into the other room; return to your - place walking _sedately_ as though you were a very - important person; walk across the room and back again - resting _heavily_ on each step as though it were - hurting you to walk. - -Subject: - - suddenly, gradually (ad un tratto, gradatamente). - -Command:-- - - --Form in line and walk forward beginning _suddenly_ - to stamp with your left foot. Return to your places - letting the stamping _gradually_ cease. - -Subject: - - meanwhile, frequently, occasionally (sempre, spesso, raramente). - -Command:-- - - --Form in line and march slowly into the next room, stopping - _frequently_. Return to your places stopping - _occasionally_. - --Walk into the next room and back again, _meanwhile_ keeping - your eyes closed. - -Subject: - - back, forward, to and fro (avanti, indietro, su e giu). - -Command:-- - - --Form in line and walk _forward_ to the other side of the - room; then come _back_ to your places. - --Walk _to and fro_ across the room with your heads lowered - and your hands behind your back. - -Subject: - - forwards, backwards. - -Command:-- - - --Stand in the middle of the room; then walk - _backwards_ to the window, being careful to walk in a - straight line. Return to your places walking - _forwards_. - -Subject: - - slowly, abruptly (lentamente, bruscamente). - -Command:-- - - --Rise _slowly_ from your seats. - --Rise _abruptly_ from your seats. - -Subject: - - politely, cordially (gentilmente, garbatamente). - -Command:-- - - --Offer your chair _politely_ to your nearest neighbor. - --Shake hands _cordially_ with your nearest neighbor. - -Subject: - - alternately, in succession, simultaneously (successivamente, - alternativamente, simultaneamente). - -Command:-- - - --Raise your two hands _alternately_ above your heads. - --Raise your two hands _simultaneously_ above your heads. - --One of you children walk around the room bowing to each pupil - _in succession_. - -Subject: - - Well, badly, fairly, best, worst (bene, male, meglio, peggio, - cosi cosi, benino, maluccio, benissimo, malissimo). - -Command:-- - - --One of you call the children to the end of the room, - carefully observing how they walk; judge their - carriage without speaking and distribute the following - cards where they belong: _well_, _badly_, _fairly_, - _best_, _worst_. - -Subject: - - away, back (via). - -Command:-- - - --One of you stand in the center of the room; the - others gather round him. Suddenly all of you run - _away_ from him. Then come _back_ to him again. - -Subject: - - here, there, somewhere, elsewhere (qui, qua, costi, costa, - li, la, altrove). - -Command:-- - - --Form in line and the first four children come to me - _here_; the rest go and stand _there_ by the window. - Now go and stand _somewhere_ in the other room. Remain - where you are a moment, then go and stand _elsewhere_. - Finally all come back _here_ to me. - -Subject: - - thus, likewise (cosi). - -Command:-- - - --One of you walk around the room holding his arms in a certain - position. The rest of you do _likewise_. - --All of you hold your hands _thus_, as I am doing. - -Subject: - - up, down, upward, downward. - -Command:-- - - --Roll your handkerchiefs into balls and throw them _up_ - to the ceiling. - --Pick them up and throw them _down_ again to the floor. - --Look _upward_ to the ceiling. Now look _downward_ to - the floor. - -Subject: - - crosswise, lengthwise. - -Command:-- - - --Lay two rods _crosswise_ on the table. Then lay them - _lengthwise_ on the table. - -Subject: - - sharply, sullenly, gently, kindly. - -Command:-- - - --_Sharply_ order your nearest neighbor to rise from his seat. - --Ask him _gently_ to sit down again. - --Sit _sullenly_ in your chair with your eyes lowered. - --Smile _kindly_ at your nearest neighbor. - - -A BURST OF ACTIVITY: - -THE FUTURE OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE IN POPULAR EDUCATION - -In our own private experiments when we reached the adverb there occurred -among the children a veritable explosion into a new kind of activity. -They insisted on making up commands themselves. They invented them and -then read them aloud to their companions or had their companions -interpret the slips which they had written. All were most enthusiastic -in performing these commands and they were rigorously scrupulous in -acting them out down to the minutest detail. The executions came to be a -literal, intensely real dramatisation: if a word was inexact or -incorrect, the interpretation of the command threw the error into noisy -relief, and the child who has written it saw before him an action quite -different from what he had in mind. Then he realized that he had -expressed his thought wrongly or inadequately and immediately set to -work to correct his mistake. The revelation seemed to redouble his -energy. He would hunt among his numerous words for the one necessary to -translate his idea into a living scene before his eyes. Suppose a child -had written the following sentence involving the use of the adverb -_sempre_ "always": - - Walk about the room (sempre) _always_ on tip-toe. - -meaning that the child should _all the while_ go on tip-toe; if the -child began to walk on tip-toe and continued to do so for a long time, -trying to express _sempre_ (always--forever) he would find himself -facing a serious problem. Hence the spontaneous query: "What must I do -to express myself correctly?" - -A little girl once wrote "Walk around the tables," meaning that the -children should form a line and walk in and out around each table. -Instead she saw her companions form a line and walk round the entire -group of tables. Red in the face and out of breath she kept calling: -"Stop, stop. That isn't the way," just as if this difference between the -thought she actually had in mind and the way it was being executed were -hurting her intolerably. - -This is only a passing suggestion of something which, I think, will -merit much further development later on, after more thorough experiment. -It will suffice, however, to bring to the teacher a notion of a most -fertile field for the development of the written language in its most -rigorous purity. It is evident that the experiment shows the possibility -not only of having spontaneous compositions without grammatical errors -(just as the mechanical writing was spontaneous and without errors), but -of developing a love for clearness and purity of speech which will be a -potent factor in improving the literary appreciation of the masses, and -popular culture generally. - -When the children are seized with this passion for accurate expression -of their thoughts in writing, when, spontaneously, clearness becomes the -goal of their efforts, they follow the hunt for words with the keenest -enthusiasm. They feel that there are never too many words to build with -exactness the delicate edifice of thought. Problems of language come to -them as a revelation. "How many words are there?" they ask. "How many -nouns, how many verbs, how many adjectives? Is there any way for us to -learn them all?" They are no longer content with their little copy-books -of words. They ask for a wealth of word material which they now enjoy -with all the delight of attractive and orderly interpretation. They -never get tired of it. - -These developments in our work suggested to us the idea of giving the -children a large vocabulary comprising a sufficient number of nouns, -verbs, and adjectives and containing _all_ the words of the other parts -of speech. The difference in bulk between the real content of language -(substance and modification, that is, nouns with their adjectives, and -verbs with their adverbs) and the other words which serve to establish -relations and consolidate this content, is something very impressive to -children of eight. It is for them that we tried to prepare our word -charts and the dictionaries of synonyms for nouns, verbs, and -adjectives. Here, meanwhile, are some of the commands which the children -wrote themselves--things which they improvised all of a sudden, by an -explosion of energy, as it were, developed as the result of inner -maturity. Compare the aridity and uniformity of the commands we invented -ourselves with the variety and richness of ideas appearing in the -children's commands! We very evidently show the weariness the -preparation of the material caused us. They, on the contrary, reveal an -ardent, vivacious spirit, a life full of exuberance. - - -COMMANDS IMPROVISED BY THE CHILDREN - - --Build the pink tower very _badly_. - - --Make _accurately_ a pose for each of the pictures in - the room. - - --Pretend you were two old men: speak _softly_ as if - you were very sad; and one of you say this: "Too bad - poor Pancrazio is dead!" And the other say: "Shall we - have to wear our black clothes to-morrow?" Then walk - along _silently_. - - --Walk along limping _heavily_; then _suddenly_ fall - _prostrate_ on your faces as though you were - exhausted. Return tripping _lightly_ to your places, - without falling and without limping. - - --Walk _slowly_ with lowered heads as though you were - very sad; return then _joyfully_ and walking - _lightly_. - - --Take a flower and run _eagerly_ and give it to the - lady. - - --Go half way round the room limping; the rest of the - way _on all fours_. - - --Silence _immediately_; _silently_ act out poses for - the pictures in the room. - - --Go from your seats to the door _on all fours_; - _then_ rise and limp _lightly_ half way round the - room; do the other half back to the door _on all - fours_; _there_ rise and run _lightly back_ to your - seats. - - --Walk _silently_ into the next room; walk three times - around the big table and _then_ return to your places. - - --Go into the next room running _quite fast_; come - back _gradually_ reducing speed until you reach your - places. - - --Go to the cabinet _immediately_; take a - letter-chart, and walk twice around the room with the - chart on your head, trying _never_ to let it fall; go - back to your places _in the same way_. - - --Walk around the large hall, walking _wearily_; sit - down, as though you were tired, and fall asleep; wake - up _shortly after_ and go back to your places. - - --Form in line and march forward till you reach a - clear space; _there_ form a circle; _next_ a rhombus; - _then_ a square; _finally_ a trapezium. Go into the - big hall conversing _softly_; _suddenly_ fall to the - floor _lightly_ and go to sleep; then wake up and look - around, saying, "Where are we?" Then go back to your - seats. - - - - -IX - -PRONOUNS - -ANALYSES - - -Material:--The box has seven compartments marked with the colored title -slips; tan for the article, black for the noun, brown for the adjective, -red for the verb, violet for the preposition, pink for the adverb, and -_green_ for the _pronoun_. In the rear space are the slips for the -sentences to be analyzed. There are, as usual, fewer cards than words. -The exercise is to substitute the pronouns for nouns. - - -GROUP A - -(Personal Pronouns) - - --George's sister was weeping. George soothed his sister with a - kiss. - George's sister was weeping. _He_ soothed _her_ with a kiss. - - --The book fell to the floor. Emma replaced the book on the table. - The book fell to the floor. _She_ replaced _it_ on the table. - - --The children gave their mother a surprise. The children wrote a - letter to their mother. - The children gave their mother a surprise. _They_ wrote _her_ a - letter. - - --The teacher said: The drawing is beautiful! Will _you_ give the - drawing to the teacher? - The teacher said: _It_ is beautiful! Will _you_ give _it_ to - _me_? - - --Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find Charles? - Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find _him_? - - -GROUP B - -(Demonstratives (questo, cotesto, quello) "this, that, these, those, -this one, that one) - -(As already noted for the adjective English lacks the demonstrative of -the second person: that _near you_.) - - --Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; _this_ prism is - thicker than _that_ prism; _that_ prism is thinner than - _these_ prisms. - Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; _this_ is thicker - than _that_; _that_ is thinner than _these_. - - --Let us look at the children: _this_ child is taller than _that_ - child; _that_ child is shorter than _this_ child. - Let us look at the children: _this one_ is taller than _that - one_; _that one_ is shorter than _this one_. - - --Here is a cone on top of a cylinder: try to put the cylinder on - top of the cone. - Here is a cone on top of a cylinder: try to put _this_ on top - of _that_. - - --Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl: _this_ - cube is the largest; _those_ cubes are the smallest of the - series. - Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl: _this - one_ is the largest; _those_ are the smallest of the - series. - - -GROUP C - -(Relatives and Interrogatives: (che, il quale, cui, chi? quale?) who, -whom, whose, which, that, who? whose? whom? what? which? where, when?) - - Note: The situation with the relatives is different in - English: _who_ refers to persons; _which_ to things; - _that_ to either persons or things; whereas _che_ and - _il quale_ are interchangeable referring to both - persons and things, _il quale_ having special - rhetorical advantages over _che_, in addition to - showing gender and number. _Cui_ is used after - prepositions; and, for the possessive Italian has _il - cui_, _la cui_, etc., "whose". - - --Ask the children: Which child wants to see my drawing? - Ask the children: _Who_ wants to see my drawing? - - --Ask Charles for the pencil; Charles put the pencil into the - drawer. - Ask Charles for the pencil _which_ Charles put into the drawer. - Ask Charles for the pencil _that_ he put into the drawer. - - --Thank Charles. Charles gave you the pencil. - Thank Charles _who_ gave you the pencil. - - --Look at the children. You hear the children in the next room. - Look at the children _whom_ you hear in the next room. - - --Yesterday you put the flowers into a vase: change the water in - the vase. - Change the water in the vase into _which_ you put the flowers - yesterday. - Change the water in the vase _where_ you put the flowers - yesterday. - Change the water in the vase _that_ you put the flowers into - yesterday. - - --Choose among the pieces of cloth the cloth most like your dress. - Choose among the pieces of cloth _the one which_ is most like - your dress. - Choose among the pieces of cloth _the one that_ is most like - your dress. - - --Here is the little girl. We found her pocketbook. - Here is the little girl _whose_ pocketbook we found. - - --Here is the boy. We saw him yesterday. - Here is the boy _whom_ we saw yesterday. - - --Select an inset from the insets used for drawing. - Select an inset from _those which_ are used for drawing. - Select an inset from _those that_ are used for drawing. - - -GROUP D - -(Possessives: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs) - - --This book is my book - This book is _mine_ - - --This book is your book - This book is _yours_ - - --Those pencils are his pencils - Those pencils are _his_ - - --Those pencils are her pencils - Those pencils are _hers_ - - --That house is our house - That house is _ours_ - - --This money is your money - This money is _yours_ - - --Those seats are their seats - Those seats are _theirs_ - - --This place is its place - This place is _its_ - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The function of the pronoun as a substitute for a noun has been made -clear in the analysis of the above sentences. After the children -themselves have composed the first sentence with the colored cards they -form the second sentence by taking away the noun card and substituting -the corresponding pronoun. In the work done by the teacher to give the -child an idea of the normal position of the pronoun, let her remember -that in Italian personal pronouns precede the verb except in -interrogation (where the subject may follow) and in cases where the -subject is specially emphasized and where the pronouns appear as a -suffix (infinitive, participle and imperative). - - He soothed her with a kiss. - He her soothed with a kiss, etc., etc. - -[It will become apparent that in English the personal pronoun takes the -position of the noun, whereas for Italian the pronoun shifts to a -position in front of the verb. Considerable variety develops in English -when the noun is replaced by a relative pronoun. However, the different -problems arising in connection with pronouns generally are so complex -that we return to this subject, especially to the question of subject -and object forms, in dealing with sentence-analysis later.] - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE PRONOUN - -Subject: - - Subjective Personal Pronouns: I, you, he, she, we, you, they - (io, tu, egli, essa, noi, voi, loro, etc.). - -Explain these pronouns as briefly and practically as possible from the -point of view of speaker and listener, etc., one child commanding the -others while they _execute_ the command along with him. Example: The -teacher, named for instance Anna Fedeli, explains in this way: "I don't -say _Anna Fedeli_; I say _I_." "To Carlino here I don't say Carlino; I -say, _you_." "Of Gigino, over there, I don't say Gigino; I say _he_," -etc., etc. - -Command:-- - - The command is given by a child; but he himself - executes the first personal form along with the other - children: - - --_I_ walk around the table - --_You_ walk around the table - --_She_ walks around the table - --_He_ walks around the table - --_We_ walk around the table - --_You_ walk around the table - --_They_ walk around the table - - --_I_ raise my arms - --_You_ raise your arms - --_She_ raises her arms - --_He_ raises his arms - --_We_ raise our arms - --_You_ raise your arms - --_They_ raise their arms - - --_I_ lift the chair - --_You_ lift the chair - --_He_ lifts the chair, etc., etc. - - --_I_ take the ink-stand - --_You_ take the ink-stand - --_He_ takes the ink-stand, etc., etc. - - --_I_ wave my handkerchief - --_You_ wave your handkerchief, etc., etc. - -From these exercises the notion gradually develops that: - - the _first person_ is the one who _speaks_; - the _second person_ is the one who _listens_; - the _third person_ is the one spoken of. - -Other commands may be dramatized by small groups as follows: - - --The first person must put a question the second must - answer, and the third from a distance must try to hear - both of them. - - --Let the first one write, the second one watch, and - the third one say "That is not right." - -The following commands may be read aloud by the child: - - --_I_ ask you a question very softly. _You_ answer - _me_; and _he_, over there, must try to hear both of - us. - - --_I_ shall write; _you_ must act as if you were - trying to read what I am writing; and then _he_, over - there, will call out: "That is not right." - -Subject: - - Direct Objective Personal Pronouns: me, you, him, her, - us, you, them (mi, ti, si, lo, la, ci, vi, si, li, - le). - - Reflexives and reciprocals: myself, yourself, etc., - each other. - -Command:-- - - (Here too one child commands executing the first - personal forms, while the others act out the second - and third): - - --I touch the oil-cloth on the table; I touch - _myself_; I touch _you_; you touch _yourself_; I touch - _him_; you touch _her_; let us touch _each other_; you - touch _me_. - - --Charles, take the whisk-broom and brush the table; - Charles, brush _me_; Charles, brush _him_; Charles, - brush _her_; Charles, brush _yourself_. - - --Mary and I bow to the teacher; now we bow to _you_; - now we bow to _him_; now we bow to _her_; now we bow - to _each other_. - - --I lead George by the hand to the window; I lead - _you_ by the hand to the window; I lead _him_ by the - hand to the window; he leads _us_ by the hand to the - window; we lead _her_ by the hand to the window. - -Subject: - - Indirect object personal pronouns: me, te, se, mi, ti, - si, le, gli, lui, lei, noi, voi, ci, vi, loro (the - disjunctive pronouns, used after prepositions, etc., - do not differ in English from the simple direct object - forms). - - (The commands are still executed as above): - -Commands:-- - - --I am going to distribute these pencils: one to - _you_, one to _him_, one to _her_; one to _myself_. - - --Louis, give _me_ a command; give _him_ a command; - give _her_ a command; give _yourself_ a command. - - --Attention! Charles, give _her_ a blue bead! Mary, - give _him_ a red bead! - - --Alfred, give a white bead to _me_; give _me_ also a - yellow bead! - -Subject: - - Demonstratives for persons (questi, costui, colui; the - second person, "that one near you," is lacking in - English, which also fails to distinguish between - persons and things and between genders). - -When the distinctions in space represented by these pronouns have been -taught as above the children read and execute as follows: - -Commands:-- - - Distribute the pronouns to different children in the - class; _questi_, "this one (near me)," _costei_ - (feminine); _costui_, "that one (near you)," _costei_ - (fem.); _colui_, "that one (over there)," _colei_ - (fem.); when the children are in their proper places, - give to each child a different command. - - --Call to you a boy and a girl, and then command: - _that one_ (_costui_) go and get a case; _that one_ - (_costei_) go and get a counter; _those_ (_costoro_) - keep far away and preserve complete silence. - - --Point to two children, one standing near you and one - far away; then command: _that one_ (_colui_) go and - fetch an armchair for _that one_ (fem. _costei_) and a - chair for _this one_ (_questo_); then have him return - to his place. Then have all the children execute the - commands which _those_ (_costoro_) will now give. - -In case the class is made up entirely of girls or entirely of boys, the -children find considerable amusement in trying to imitate the manners of -whichever opposite sex is missing. - -Subject: - - Demonstratives of things (questo, cotesto, quello, - cio, ne); here also English has no pronoun of the - second person (_that near you_), nor does it possess - the general indefinite _cio_ (referring to a general - idea: _that_ (cio) _is true_). - - When the meaning of these words, in terms of space - location, has been taught, the children execute as - follows: - -Commands:-- - - --You children divide into three groups; then go and - occupy three different places; change places as - follows: you leave _that_ (_cotesto_) and occupy - _that_ over there; the others leave _that_ (_quello_) - and occupy this (_questo_). - -Subject: - - Possessives: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs. - -Commands:-- - - --Point out various objects, saying: This is my slate; - that one is _yours_, that is _hers_, and this one is - _his_. - - --Point at the different seats, saying: Here are our - places, that is _mine_ and this is _yours_. Those over - there are _theirs_. - - --Pass around little baskets, saying: This is my - basket. Whose is that? Is that _yours_? Is this - _hers_? Are these _ours_? Is this one _his_? - -We dealt with the relatives only incidentally in the analyses (Group C -above); we do not treat them here, postponing the study of them in -detail to the chapter on sentence-analysis. - - -PARADYMS - -In teaching the declension of the pronouns we use the method employed by -us in teaching all inflections: bundles of cards, of which one group is -tied separately and serves as a guide. The child arranges the cards on -the table, working first on the guiding group and putting the pronouns -in order of persons: first, second, third. - - -GROUP A - -(Personal Pronouns) - - _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - I we io noi io noi - you, thou you tu voi tu voi - he they egli loro ella loro - she they esso essi essa esse - it they lo li la le - me us lui lei - you, thee you gli le - him them - her them - it them - - -GROUP B - -(Demonstratives of Person) - - _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - this these questi costei - that those costui costei - this one these colui colei - that one those costoro costoro - coloro coloro - - -GROUP C - -(Demonstratives of Things) - - _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - this these questo questi questa queste - that those cotesto cotesti cotesta coteste - this one these quel(lo) quegli, quei quella quelle - that one those cio cio - ne ne - - -GROUP D - -(Relatives) - - _Persons_ _Persons and Things_ - _Masculine_ _Feminine_ - who il quale i quali la quale le quali - whose che che - whom chi chi - that cui cui - - _Things_ - which chi (compound = "he who") - that - - what (compound = that which) - - -GROUP E - -(Possessives) - - mine its - yours (thine) ours - his yours - hers theirs - - -GROUP F - -(Interrogatives) - - _Persons_ _Persons_ - who? chi? - whose? - whom? quale? - - which? - - _Things_ _Things_ - - che? - what? cosa? - che cosa? - - which? quale? - - -AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND VERB - -The cards given to the child for this work are green for the personal -pronoun subjects, and red for the verb forms of the three simple tenses, -present, past, and future. There are, for Italian, three groups -corresponding to the three conjugations: _amare_, _temere_, _sentire_. -The child's work is to place the pronouns in the proper order of person -(first, second, third, singular and plural) and to put after each -pronoun the corresponding verb form. Each child corrects his work by his -own sense of the language; however, the teacher looks it over to verify -it. The resulting exercises when correctly performed are as follows: - - -GROUP A - - io amo ("I love" Io amavo ("I was io amero ("I shall - etc.) loving") love") - tu ami tu amavi tu amerai - egli ama egli amava egli amera - noi amiamo noi amavamo noi ameremo - voi amate voi amavate voi amerete - essi amano essi amavano essi ameranno - - -GROUP B - - io temo ("I fear") io temevo ("I was io temero ("I shall - fearing") fear") - tu temi tu temevi tu temerai - egli teme egli temeva egli temera - noi temiamo noi temevamo noi temeremo - voi temete voi temevate voi temerete - essi temono essi temevano essi temeranno - - -GROUP C - - io sento ("I hear") io sentivo ("I was io sentiro ("I shall - hearing") hear") - tu senti tu sentivi tu sentirai - egli sente egli sentiva egli sentira - noi sentiamo noi sentivamo noi sentiremo - voi sentite voi sentivate voi sentirete - essi sentono essi sentivano essi sentiranno - - -FOR ENGLISH - -GROUP A - -(Simple Tenses) - - I love I loved I shall love - you love you loved you will love - he loves he loved he will love - we love we loved we shall love - you love you loved you will love - they love they loved they will love - - -GROUP B - -(Progressive Forms) - - I am loving I was loving I shall be loving - you are loving you were loving you will be loving - he is loving he was loving he will be loving - we are loving we were loving we shall be loving - you are loving you were loving you will be loving - they are loving they were loving they will be loving - - -GROUP C - -(Interrogative Forms) - - do I love? did I love? will I love? - do you love? did you love? shall you love? - does he love? did he love? will he love? - do we love? did we love? will we love? - do you love? did you love? shall you love? - do they love? did they love? will they love? - - -GROUP D - -(Intensive and Negative Forms) - - I do (not) love I did (not) love I shall (not) love - etc. etc. etc. - -The child can shuffle his cards in various ways, mixing the verb forms -of the three different Italian verbs, or the four tense forms of the -English verb; passing then to a reconstruction of the different tenses -according to the pronouns, the order of which has by this time become -familiar to him. - -The next step is to conjugate properly. - - -CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS - -MATERIAL - -In our material we offer (for Italian) the conjugation of the two -auxiliary verbs (_essere_ "to be," _avere_ "to have") and the model -verbs of the first, second and third conjugations. The colors used for -the five verbs are all different, yellow for _essere_ "to be," black for -_avere_ "to have," pink for _amare_ "to love," green for _temere_ "to -fear," light blue for _sentire_ "to hear." Each card has both pronoun -and verb form. This is not only to simplify and expedite the exercise -but also to make sure of auto-exercise, since the pronoun guides the -order of the forms in each tense. These verb forms of a given verb -preceded by the pronouns are, accordingly, made into a little package. -Here, however, the groups are not so simple as in other cases. For the -verb, the cards are kept in a sort of red envelope tied with a ribbon. -The infinitive of the verb is written on the outside of the envelope, -which, though very simple, is most attractive. When the whole verb is -wrapped in its package and tied with the ribbon, it forms a small red -prism of the following dimensions: cmm. 35 X 4 X 5.5. On untying the -ribbon and opening the envelope the child finds inside ten little -"volumes" with red covers. These volumes represent the _moods_ of the -verb and they have the following titles inscribed on the first page: - - Indicative Mood - Conditional Mood (for Italian) - Subjunctive Mood - Imperative Mood - Verbals - -To facilitate replacing these materials in an orderly way and to be sure -that this order is recognized, the child finds in the corner of each -envelope a Roman numeral (I, II, III, IV, V); and besides that, an -Arabic numeral indicating the number of tenses in the given mood. On -opening the little volume and taking off the cover we find many other -tiny volumes with red covers. These are the tenses. In the middle of -each cover is written the name and, to one side, the number indicating -the relative position of the tenses in the following manner: the -_simple_ tense is marked with the letter _S_ and the _compound_ tense -with the letter _C_. The titles, then, of the eight booklets contained -in the little volume for a given mood are: - - Present Tense 1s - Past Tense 2s - Future Tense 3s - Perfect Tense 1c - Pluperfect Tense 2c - Future Perfect Tense 3c - -(For Italian the tenses are: Present, 1s, Imperfect 2s, Remote Past 3s, -Future 4s, Perfect 1c, Pluperfect 2c, Past Anterior 3c, Future Perfect -4c.) - -Finally, on opening each of these little booklets (which, by the way, -are 3.5 X 4 cmm. and only a bare millimeter thick) we have the cards -with the verb forms preceded by the corresponding pronoun. - -This rather resembles the famous egg in which a number of smaller and -smaller eggs were enclosed. For this beautiful package forming as a -whole the entire conjugation of the verb contains the booklets of the -different moods, which in their turn contain the smaller booklets of the -tenses. The orderly enumeration of the moods and tenses, together with -the pronouns which serve to show the order of the verb forms, allows the -child to conjugate the entire verb by himself and to study the -classification of the different forms that make it up. In fact the -children need no help in this exercise. Once they have this attractive, -complicated, and mysterious little red package, they evolve on their -little tables in an orderly way the entire conjugation of the verb. -Having learned the verb forms little by little they shuffle the cards of -the different tenses in various ways and then try to put them in their -regular order. At length they are able to shuffle all the cards in the -entire verb as the children in the "Children's House" did with the -sixty-four colors; and to reconstruct correctly the whole conjugation by -tense and by mood. They themselves finally ask to write the verb and -they prepare of their own accord new booklets writing out the new verbs -as they meet them. - -For this purpose we have included in our materials many booklets -likewise covered in red and filled with _blank_ cards of a variety of -colors. The children themselves fill out these cards in conjugating -their new verbs. - -The exercises both of working out the conjugation of the verb and of -writing out new verbs may be performed at home. - - - - -X - -CONJUNCTIONS - -ANALYSES - - -Material: This box has eight compartments for the title cards, which are -tan (article), black (noun), brown (adjective), red (verb), violet -(preposition), pink (adverb), green (pronoun), and _yellow_ -(_conjunction_). It also has the usual place for the sentences that are -to be analyzed. These again are given in groups. - - -GROUP A - -Coordinate Conjunctions - -(Copulative, Disjunctive, Illative, Adversative) - - --Put away the pen _and_ the ink-stand. - Put away the pen _or_ the ink-stand. - Put away _neither_ the pen _nor_ the ink-stand, _but_ the paper. - - --The table, therefore, is bare _and_ in order. - _For_ all your things are in their places. - - --Do not leave the objects you use here and there about the room, - _but_ put them all back in their places. - - --Speak to your nearest school-mate not aloud _but_ in a whisper. - - --Move your table forward a little, _but_ only a little _and_ - without making any noise. - -[Illustration: Grammar Boxes, showing respectively eight and nine parts -of speech.] - - -GROUP B - -Subordinate Conjunctions - -(Time, condition, cause, purpose) - - --You can push down a key of the piano without making - any sound _if_ you push it down slowly. - - --You could write with your left hand _if_ you - "touched" the letters with that hand. - - --You will get silence from the children _as soon as_ - you write "silence" on the blackboard. - - --That child is happy: he always sings _while_ he - works. - - --Always shut the door _when_ you go from one room to - another. - - --Everybody must be orderly _in order that_ the - "Children's House" may look neat. - - -GROUP C - -Subordinate conjunctions, _continued_ - -(Cause, concession, alternative) - - --The "Children's House" is attractive _because_ it is - pretty and _because_ it is so easy to keep busy all - the time. - - --I shall give it to you _since_ you have asked me for - it very politely. - - --We shall go to walk in the park rather _than_ in the - crowded streets. - - --I shall give you that toy _although_ I should have - preferred to let you have a beautiful book. - - --You may promise to go and visit him to-morrow - _provided_ you keep your promise. - -[Illustration: The children are permitted to work at their various -occupations in complete freedom. (_The Lenox School, Montessori -Elementary Class, New York._)] - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The removal of the conjunction destroys the relationship between the -words, and this brings out its function in the sentence: - - Put away the pen and the ink-stand. - Put away the pen the ink-stand. - - Put away the pen or the ink-stand. - Put away the pen the ink-stand. - - You could write with your left hand if you touched the letters - with that hand. - You could write with your left hand you touched the letters with - that hand. - -The conjunction must be placed between the words it connects: otherwise -the meaning is changed or destroyed: - - Put away the pen and the ink-stand. - Put and away the pen the ink-stand. - - The "Children's House" is attractive because it is pretty. - The "Children's House" is attractive it is pretty. - - -LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE CONJUNCTIONS - -Subject: - - Coordinate conjunctions: and, or, neither, nor (e, o, - ne). - -Commands:-- - - --Come to "silence" where you are _and_ move only at - my call. - - --Come to "silence" where you are _or else_ move - silently among the chairs. - - --Walk on tip-toe about the room, being careful - _neither_ to meet _nor_ to follow one another. - -Subject: - - Declarative: that (che). - -Command:-- - - --Tell two of your schoolmates _that_ you know a - conjunction. - -Subject: - - Adversatives: but, however, instead (ma, invece). - -Command:-- - - --Form two lines; now one line face about turning from - left to right; the other line, _instead_, turn in - opposite direction. - - --Form in one long line and advance; when you reach - the end of the room, do not stop, _but_ turn to the - left. - -Subject: - - Condition: if (se). - -Command:-- - - --You will be able to hear this drop of water fall, - _if_ you remain for a moment in absolute silence. - -Subject: - - Time: while, when, as soon as (mentre, quando, - appena). - -Command:-- - - --A few of you walk about among the tables; then stop - in the center of the room, _while_ the others gather - round you and try to cover your eyes with their hands. - - --One of you start to leave the room. _When_ you are - about to cross the threshold, the others will block - the way compelling you to stop. - - --All of you ready! _As soon as_ I say "Go!" run to - the other end of the room. - -Subject: - - Purpose: so that, in order that (affinche, perche). - -Command:-- - - --One of you stand in the middle of the room; the - others try to pass near him quickly _so that_ he - cannot touch you. - - --I am going to whisper a command: listen in perfect - silence _in order that_ you may hear what I command. - -Subject: - - Alternative: rather than (piuttostoche, anziche). - -Command:-- - - --Those children who would _rather_ work _than_ go out - of doors rise from their places. - -Subject: - - Cause: because, since (perche, poiche). - -Command:-- - - --Before beginning to work let us become entirely - quiet, _because_ then we can think about what we are - going to do. - -Subject: - - Exception: except, save (fuorche, salvoche). - -Command:-- - - --Get the counters and place one on every table in the - room _except_ on this one. Gather up all the counters - _save_ the red ones. Return all the counters to their - box. - - -COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES - -SERIES A - - --Of these two long rods, this one is the _longer_. - Of these three rods, which is the _longest_? - - --This rod is _longer_ than that. - That rod in the _longest_ of the three. - Which is the _longest_ of the series? - - --This cloth is _smoother_ than that. - This cloth is _smoothest_ of all. - - --Of these two shades of red which is the _darker_? - Of all these shades of red which is the _darkest_? - - --Of these two prisms which is the _thicker_? - This prism is _thicker_ than that. - Of these three prisms, which is _thickest_? - - --Which of these two children is the _taller_? - Which is the _tallest_ child in the room? - -SERIES B - - --Which of these two pictures is the _more_ beautiful? - This picture is _more_ beautiful than that. - - --Which of these three pictures is _most_ beautiful? - Which is the _most_ beautiful picture in the room? - - --Which of these two games is the _more_ amusing? - This game is _more_ amusing than that. - This game is _most_ amusing of all. - - --This drawing is good. - That drawing is _better_. - That drawing is _best_. - - --There are some beads on this table. - There are _more_ beads on that table. - There are _most_ beads on that table. - - --There is a little water in this glass. - There is _less_ water in that glass. - There is _least_ water in that glass. - - --Of these two children John is the _elder_. - Of these three children Mary is the _eldest_. - Mary is _older_ than John. - John is _older_ than Laura. - -A set of exercises may be arranged to bring out the paradymns of -comparison by means of suffixes (_-er_, _-est_) and of adverbs (_more_, -_most_). Here the series of cards for the positive adjectival forms are, -as usual, brown, the phonograms for _-er_ and _-est_ in lighter and -darker shades of brown respectively. The cards for _more_ and _most_ as -adverbs are colored pink. When properly arranged, the cards appear as -follows: - - long tall thick smooth - long _er_ tall _er_ thick _er_ smooth _er_ - long _est_ tall _est_ thick _est_ smooth _est_ - - short dark light rough - short _er_ dark _er_ light _er_ rough _er_ - short _est_ dark _est_ light _est_ rough _est_ - - beautiful amusing interesting - _more_ beautiful _more_ amusing _more_ interesting - _most_ beautiful _most_ amusing _most_ interesting - -A second exercise contains cards for each of the forms for these same -words. There are three colors: brown, light brown and dark brown -(superlative). There are in addition similar cards for the adjectives of -irregular comparisons, and three title cards: _Positive_, _Comparative_, -_Superlative_. The exercise results as follows: - - _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ - long longer longest - tall taller tallest - thick thicker thickest - smooth smoother smoothest - short shorter shortest - dark darker darkest - light lighter lightest - rough rougher roughest - beautiful more beautiful most beautiful - amusing more amusing most amusing - interesting more interesting most interesting - old elder eldest - many more most - good better best - bad worse worst - little less least - - - - -XI - -INTERJECTIONS - - -Since this is the last part of speech to be studied the children are now -able to recognize _all_ the different parts of speech and it is no -longer necessary to make sentences containing only parts of speech which -the children know. Therefore in our Italian lessons we choose henceforth -sentences from the classic authors (mostly from Manzoni). Since the -interjection is really a thought expressed in an abbreviated form it -lends itself readily to dramatic interpretation. With the same sentence -the children accordingly can now perform the two-fold exercise of -general analysis and "interpretative reading." They now recite sentences -which they have picked out and studied instead of the commands. At this -time also they are given a chart containing the complete classification -of interjections. The children read them, interpreting each as they go -along by voice and gesture. This is the first table of classification to -be presented. Later on all the parts of speech will be given on charts -with their definitions and classification. - - -ANALYSES - -Material: The grammar box is complete. It now has nine separate -compartments for the colored cards, article (tan), noun (black), -adjective (brown), verb (red), preposition (violet), adverb (pink), -pronoun (green), conjunction (yellow), and _interjection_ (_blue_). In -the compartment for the sentence slips are groups of cards which -correspond exactly to the number of the words contained in the -sentences. - - -GROUP A - -(Per amor del cielo! oibo! addio! ehm! misericordia! ah!) - - _Please!_ Don't make so much noise! - - _Shame on you!_ exclaimed Henry, much shocked at those - words. - - _Good-by!_ We shall see you to-morrow. - - _Look out!_ If you drop that vase, you will break it. - - _Mercy on us!_ What is the matter with the poor man? - - _Aha!_ now I understand! - - -GROUP B - -(Eh via! bravo! bene! ehi! poh! per carita! oh!) - - _Come, come!_ Do you think I am going to believe all - that nonsense? - - _Goodness!_ I hope the child is not going to fall. - - _Thanks!_ It was kind of you to help me put my objects - away. - - _Cockadoodledoo!_ sang the rooster in the yard! - - _Ding-dong, ding-dong!_ The engines were passing by. - There was a fire! - - _Cheer up!_ There is no harm done! - - -GROUP C - -(Ohe! ih! toh! poveretto! ahi! ohi! eh! animo! uh! ton!) - - _Farewell!_ The ship gradually drew away from the - shore! The houses faded from view one by one. The - hills formed a low line on the horizon. _Farewell!_ It - would be months, years perhaps, before George would - see the old familiar town again. _Farewell!_ - - _Help! Help!_ came a voice through the fog! A man was - drowning. - - _Hush!_ Do you hear that bird singing in the distance? - - _Alas!_ It was too late! When the doctor came, the - poor man was dead! - - _Hurrah! Hurrah!_ The soldiers were now almost at the - top of the hill. _Hurrah! hurrah!_ The - red-white-and-blue was waving at last where the enemy - had held out so long! - - _Bang!_ In the still night the sound of a gun roused - the sleeping inhabitants. - - -CHART OF CLASSIFIED INTERJECTIONS - -(For interpretative reading) - -ITALIAN INTERJECTIONS: - - _Pain_: ahi! ohi! ohime! ahime! ah! oh! poveretto! - - _Prayer_: deh! merce! aiuto! per carita! per amor di - Dio! - - _Surprise_, _wonder_: Oh! ih! nientedimeno! poh! toh! - eh! corbezzoli! bazzecole! caspita! cospetto! uh! - oooh! misericordia! diavolo! bubbole! - - _Threat_: ehm! guai! - - _Disgust_, _horror_: puh! puah! brr! - - _Anger_: oibo! vergogna! - - _Doubt_: uhm! - - _Weariness_: auf! auff! - - _Calls_, _silence_: ehi! ohe! ola! alto la! pss! st! - psst! - - _Demonstratives_: ecco! riecco! eccomi! eccoci! - - _Encouragement_: orsu! via! suvvia! animo! coraggio! - arri la! hop hop! - - _Greeting_: salve! vale! addio! arrivederci! ave! - ciao! - - _Applause_: bene! bravo! viva! evviva! gloria! osanna! - alleluja! - - _Onomatapoetic_: crac! patatrac! piff paff! din don! - ton ton! zum zum! bum bum! - - _Animal sounds_: gnau! chicchirichi! coccode! cra cra - cra! ue ue ue! glu glu glu! pi pi pi! cri cri! fron - fron! bu bu! - - _Curses_: accidenti! accidempoli! perbacco! canchero! - malanaggia! - - -ENGLISH INTERJECTIONS: - - _Pain_: oh! alas! ah! ouch! my! - - _Joy_: oh! ah! oh my! good! splendid! - - _Surprise_: ha! aha! oh! really! you don't say! - indeed! well, well! upon my word! - - _Contempt_: fudge! pshaw! fie! nonsense! bother! - - _Hesitation_: hum! - - _Resolution_: by Jove! - - _Silence_: hush! hist! listen! shh! - - _To animals_: whoa! gee! haw! geddap! kitty-kitty! - puss-puss! - - _Onomatapoetic_: ding-dong! bang! whiz! bing! crack! - snap! etc., etc. - -(In general the use of interjections, especially of capricious -character, is much more characteristic of the best Italian writing and -speech than it is of English.) - - - - -XII - -SENTENCE ANALYSIS - - -I - -SIMPLE SENTENCES - -The material for logical analysis consists of little rolls of fairly -stiff paper, on which are printed simple, compound and complex -sentences, in carefully prepared series. - -There is also a chart, divided into two columns of rectangular spaces, -with the name of one sentence element printed in each space. The -sentence read on the roll can be torn off part by part, and each of -these parts is placed in one of the rectangles, according to the name -printed on it. This is another application of the compartment box method -used to analyze first the alphabet, then the sounds which go to make up -the word, finally the words as parts of speech. Here, the compartments -are reduced to a simple design. - -The charts for logical analysis are on colored paper and are -artistically drawn and decorated. We have charts of four different kinds -as regards ornament and color, for such details exert a considerable -influence upon the work of the children. On the following page is a -sample of the charts with its "sections." - - -CHART A - - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | VERB | Who is it that? | - | | What is it that? | - | (The verbal or nominal | | - | predicate.) | SUBJECT | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | Who? What? | To whom? To what? | - | (Direct object.) | (Indirect object.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | By Whom? By What? | Of whom? Of what? | - | (Agent.) | (Possessive, material.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | When? | Where? | - | (Time.) | (Place.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | Whence? | How? | - | (Source.) | (Manner.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | Why? | What for? | - | (Cause.) | (Purpose.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | By means of whom? | With whom? | - | By means of what? | With what? | - | (Instrument.) | (Accompaniment.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - | (Attributive (phrases).) | (Vocative.) | - +--------------------------+----------------------------+ - -The two spaces at the top, subject and predicate, are somewhat larger -and are more conspicuously decorated than the other rectangles below. -The words _subject_ and _verb_ are printed entirely in large capitals. -The other spaces, however, are much more simply decorated and the -words are in small letters. This helps to distinguish the principal from -the secondary elements in the sentences. The names of the parts of -speech, and the questions which bring out the meaning of these names, -are in different colors: for instance, the names may be black and the -questions red, or the names may be in red and the questions in green. -And the letters of the questions are larger than the letters of the -names, except in the two upper spaces, where the words _subject_ and -_verb_ are in the largest type. - -The child begins to see what a sentence is: that is, he begins to -_concentrate_ on this particular question. How many times he has read -sentences, pronounced sentences, composed sentences! But now he is -examining them in detail, _studying_ them. The simple sentence is a -short proposition, with completed meaning, which expresses an action or -a situation, organizing its different parts around a _verb_. - -The first exercise for the child must be to find the verb, a task not -very difficult after the preceding exercises on the parts of speech have -been performed. When he has found the verb, it becomes essential for him -to find the subject. The subject may be found by asking the question: -_Who is it that_--? For example: - - The child reads. - -The word _reads_ is the verb. The section of the roll where the word -_reads_ appears is torn off and placed in the space marked _Verb_. Then -ask: "_Who is it that_ reads?" The answer is, "_The child_ reads." The -section containing the word _the child_ is torn off and placed in the -space marked _Subject_. - -Another sentence: on the roll the child finds written: - - _The glass is broken._ - -The teacher can briefly explain that the verb taken by itself, has no -special meaning. _Is_ means nothing! "_Is?_ Is _what_?" Some attribute -must be added: "Is _broken_!" Here we get a _nominal predicate_. When -the verb contains some definite meaning in terms of action, for instance -_reads_, we get a _verbal predicate_. The section of the roll containing -_is broken_ is torn off, accordingly, and placed in the space of the -verb. But _what_ is broken? _The glass!_ The section containing the -words _the glass_ is placed in the space of the subject. All of this can -be copied off by the child by hand, as follows: - - Simple sentence: The child reads. - The child: Subject. - Reads: Predicate (verbal). - -SERIES I - -(Simple Sentences) - -The first roll contains the following simple sentences without modifiers -of any kind: - - --The child reads. - --The glass is broken. - --Charles is tall. - --The trees are blossoming. - --The blackboard is clean. - --Who has come? - --The pencil is broken. - --The sky is blue. - --I am reading. - --I am studying. - --The children are playing. - --Time flies. - --The teacher sings. - - -SERIES II - -(Simple Sentences, containing a few modifiers) - -The roll contains the following sentences, written one after another: - - --The mother loves her child dearly. - --Johnny brought his teacher a rose. - --You may keep the book for some days, Louis. - --Mary, give the poor man a penny. - --Where have you been, Mary? - --I will do it, mother. - --Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole - blackboard. - --Who drew the pretty picture? - --Last night I showed the letter to father. - --In the yard a red white and blue flag is waving. - --Did you go to the theater last night? - --The rain was beating against the window panes. - --The dog is barking at the cat. - --The poor deaf-mutes talk with their hands. - -Example of application: The section containing the first sentence, - - The mother loves her child dearly. - -is first torn off from the roll. Then the section containing the word -_loves_ is placed in the space marked _verb_. _Who_ loves?--_the -mother_. The section containing the words _the mother_ is placed in the -space marked _subject_. The mother loved _whom_? _Her child._ The -section containing _her child_ is torn off and placed in the space -marked _direct object_. By thus reading the names printed in the spaces -of the chart the child learns to classify the various kinds of -modifiers. _How_ does the mother love her child? _In what manner?_ -_Dearly._ The section containing the word _dearly_ is placed in the -space marked _Manner_ and the sentence is completed. - -Now the child can copy off these analyses immediately or make others, as -he thinks best. The copy may be as follows: - - The mother loves her child dearly. - The mother: Subject. - Loves: Predicate (verbal). - Her child: Direct object. - Dearly: Adverb, manner. - -In classifying the vocatives and attributives, a little help from the -teacher may be required. Example: - - You may keep the book for some days, Louis. - -The word _Louis_ can be dramatized somewhat into a kind of invocation, -as--_O Louis, you may keep the book_ and so on. Vocatives can almost -always be identified by trying the exclamatory _O_ before them. - -In the sentence, - - Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the - whole blackboard. - -_only three years old_ is an attributive of Harry. It should be torn off -and placed in the space marked _Attributive_. - - -SERIES III - -(Simple sentences with two or more modifiers of the same kind) - -The roll contains the following sentences in sections which may be read -and torn off one after the other as the child unrolls the strip: - - --The child sleeps and dreams. - --Everybody likes fruit and flowers. - --He took paper, pen and ink to write to his friends. - --Charles opened and closed the book. - --The doctor and the father left the sick child's room. - --The women recommended calmness, patience and prudence. - --In the beginning God created heaven and earth. - --He will always have money and friends. - --In the street we could see crowds of men and a few women. - - -SERIES IV - -(Elliptical sentences with subject understood) - -[This situation does not however arise in English, which, save in the -imperative, always requires at least a pronominal subject for the verb.] - -Here, the child interprets the sentence, completing it and finding the -element that is lacking. - - --La ringrazio (_I_ thank you). - --Verrete? (Will _you_ come?) - --Sono stanco (_I_ am tired). - --Non mi sento bene oggi (_I_ don't feel well to-day). - --Com'e andata? (How did _it_ turn out?) - --Dico la verita (_I_ will tell you all about it). - --Siamo contentissimi (_We_ are delighted). - --Vi saluto (_I_ bid you good-by). - --Vado a casa (_I_ am going home). - --Lampeggia (_It_ is lightening). - --M'impose silenzio (_He_ told me to say nothing). - --Ascolto (_I_ am listening). - - -SERIES V - -(Elliptical sentences where the predicate is understood) - - --Silence! - --Why all this noise? - --After me, the deluge! - --The sooner the better! - --Good luck to you, sir! - --What nasty weather! - --What an attractive school! - --O for a calm, a thankful heart! - --A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse! - --Away with him! - --Fire! Fire! - --Here, here, quick! - --Honor to the brave! - - -SERIES VI - -(Elliptical sentences where the direct object is understood: _incomplete -predication_) - - --They drove away. - --He spends like a millionaire. - --He drinks like a fish. - --The farmer's boy had just milked. - --Do you understand? - --The cavalry spurred across the field at full speed. - --Did you see? - --The child did not hear. - - -SERIES VII - -(Sentences with numerous modifiers and of increased difficulty) - - --The poor boy came home that night, all tired out, covered - with mud from head to foot, with his coat torn and - with a black and blue lump on his forehead. - --Ethel hurried home as fast as possible. - --We heard the clatter of horse's hoofs on the pavement. - --And so through the night went his cry of alarm - To every Middlesex village and farm. - --The beautiful child with the black hair is here on the lawn. - --And yet through the gloom and the night - The fate of a nation was riding that night. - --The woman walked along in front of me with the child in her - arms. - --The girl's voice sounded distinctly above all the others. - --To-morrow I shall come to town on foot. - --He spent the summer every year with his parents in their old - home on the mountain side. - --That evening the old house was more lonely than ever. - --They are very busy this morning. - --I never did such a thing in my life! - --Every now and then a group of people hurriedly crossed the - street. - --The doctor whispered something into the Mayor's ear. - --Just then some one knocked at the door. - --Here I am back again at my work. - --Mary had a little lamb - With fleece as white as snow. - - -THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE: PERMUTATIONS - -Rules: - -The English (the Italian) language tends to follow the direct order in -prose, inversion being very rare. - -In poetry, inversion is very common. - -The direct order consists in placing: first, the subject, then the -predicate, then the objects, direct and indirect; then the modifiers -follow according to the importance they derive from the meaning of the -sentence. - -These ideas are after all so simple and clear that the child rarely has -any difficulty in understanding them. Nevertheless, it is much easier to -give the child a vivid impression of them by the permutation of parts -than by explanation. This permutation is made very convenient by the -sentences being printed in sections which may be moved about and -combined at will. Just as the sequence of the various parts of speech -was made clear by transposing the parts, here the same result can be -accomplished by transposing the sections of the printed slip. Example: - - We heard the clatter of the horse's hoofs - (subject) (predicate) (direct object) (attribute) - - on the pavement. - (place: adverb) - -The following combinations are possible results of permutation: - - We--heard--the clatter--of the horse's hoofs--on the - pavement. - - We--the clatter--heard--on the pavement--of the - horse's hoofs. - - We--of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--the - clatter--heard. - - Of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--heard--the - clatter--we, etc., etc. - - -SERIES VIII - -(The inverted order) - -The effect of direct and inverted order can be shown in every sentence. -But it is better to try examples of inversion from poetic language. In -this series, all the sentences show inversion of one type or another: - - --Meanwhile, impatient to mount and ride, - Booted and spurred, with a heavy stride - On the opposite shore walked Paul Revere. - - --Upon the roof we sat that night! - The noise of bells went sweeping by; - Awesome bells they were to me. - - --Still sits the school-house by the road. - - --Before them under the garden-wall - Forward and back - Went drearily singing the chore-girl small. - - --And day by day more holy grew - Each spot of the sacred ground. - - --There thronged the citizens with terror dumb. - -Exercises on the putting together of sentence elements can lead to -practise in the identification and use of grammatical forms as parts of -speech, which the study of single words would not at first permit; as -for instance, forms of the verbs used as nouns (infinitive and gerund as -subject and object), the difference between personal pronouns used as -direct or indirect objects, and so on. - - -SERIES IX - -(The forms of the verb) - -The roll contains the two forms of the verb, active and passive, in -sections. The analysis is conducted on the chart for the simple -sentence: - - ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE REFLEXIVE - - (Action performed by (Action performed by (_Middle Voice_) - subject) agent) (Subject is direct - object) - - Mary dresses the little The little girl is The little girl - girl. dressed by Mary. dresses herself. - - The teacher praised Charles was praised Charles praised - Charles for the by the teacher for himself for the - drawing. the drawing. drawing. - - The little girl excused George was excused George excuses - George for his for his roughness by himself for his - roughness. the little girl. roughness. - - The janitor accused The boy was accused The boy accused - the boy. by the janitor. himself. - - The old man liked Albert Albert was very much Albert liked himself - very much. liked by the old man. very much. - - The nurse tucked the The child was tucked The child tucked - child into the warm into the warm bed himself into the - bed. by the nurse. warm bed. - - The girl rocked her The little friend was Her little friend - little friend to sleep rocked to sleep in rocked herself to - in the rocking-chair. the rocking-chair by sleep in the - the little girl. rocking-chair. - - The teacher saw Henry Henry was seen in the Henry saw himself in - in the large mirror. large mirror by the the large mirror. - teacher. - - The angry boy hurt Louis was hurt by the Louis hurt himself. - Louis. angry boy. - - -SERIES X - -(Use of the personal pronoun) - -The sentences previously given for analysis in teaching the personal -pronouns can be used over again at this point for analysis on the -sentence-chart. - - --The children wrote a letter to their mother - The children wrote her a letter - They wrote it to her - - --They gave their mother a surprise - They gave her a surprise - - --I told father all about it - I told him all about it - - --Charles soothed his sister with a kiss - He soothed her with a kiss - - --Will you give your drawing to the teacher? - Will you give her your drawing? - Will you give it to her? - - --Don't think badly of your schoolmates - Don't think badly of them - - --Show those dirty hands to the teacher - Show her those dirty hands - Show them to her - - --Tell the story to the children in the other room - Tell it to the children in the other room - Tell it to them there - -The exercise in permutation brings out the relative positions of the -direct and indirect objects; as also the conditions under which the -preposition _to_ is required before the indirect object. - - -II - -COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES - -Here we are dealing with a number of propositions (clauses) which -combine into one complete meaning. The clauses fit together in the -sentences just as did the various elements in the simple sentence. The -material for the analysis is therefore analogous to that used in the -analysis of the simple sentence: strips of paper in rolls on which are -written the sentences to be analyzed, and a chart with spaces where the -detached pieces may be placed, according to the designation of these -spaces. - -The principal space on the chart is reserved for the main clause, around -which the other clauses are arranged, as coordinate or subordinate. - -Since the work of logical analysis of the complex sentence is -sufficiently interesting to attract the attention of the child to -various forms of study, the material contains in addition to the rolls -and the chart, a number of test-cards where the analysis is completed -and logically demonstrated. These cards serve as tests of the accuracy -of the work done by the children, and as actual charts for analytical -study. Of course, when the child is doing his exercise with the strips -of paper and the chart, he does not have these test-cards before him. He -should, however, always have free access to them. His interest in the -game is to succeed by himself in placing the different propositions -where they belong. - - -CHART B - - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | PRINCIPAL CLAUSE | - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | INCIDENTAL CLAUSES (Parenthetical clauses) | - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | SUBORDINATE ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE (Adjective or Relative clauses) | - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | who is it that...? | whom...? what...? | - | | | - | subordinate _subject_ clause | subordinate _object_ clause | - | (subject clause) | (object clause) | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - | when...? | where...? | - | | | - | subordinate clause of _time_ | subordinate clause of _place_ | - | (temporal clause) | (locative clause) | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - | for what purpose...? | why...? for what cause? | - | | | - | subordinate clause of _purpose_| subordinate clause of _cause_ | - | (purpose clause) | (causal clause) | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - | how...? than what? | on what condition...? | - | | | - | subordinate clause of _manner_ | subordinate clause of _condition_| - | or comparison | (conditional clause) | - | (modal clauses) | | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - | in spite of what...? | with what result...? | - | subordinate clause of | | - | _concession_ | subordinate clause of _result_ | - | (concessive clause) | (result clause) | - +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ - - -SERIES I - -(Compound Sentences) - -The clauses are independent of each other. Each contains a complete -meaning, and each therefore could stand alone. It is a question of -simple sentences _coordinated_ with each other. - - --I hunted carefully everywhere and at last I found it. - --She started in fear, lifted her face and shaded it from the - strong sun. - --The bees hummed in the warm sunshine and the cat sat purring - at her side. - --She dropped her sewing and went to the door. - --The girl covered her eyes with her hands and wept. - --They looked into each other's faces: each of them had a question - to ask and neither dared to speak. - --I am a lowly peasant and you are a gallant knight. - --They all looked at the speaker, and crowded round him and waited - for his next word to attack him. - --Then he began to weep and he tore his hair in anguish. - --Louis clapped his hands for joy and began to dance around the - room. - --He looked into the mirror, straightened his tie, smoothed his - hair and went out to greet his two friends. - --She went to the window and looked out over the stormy sea. - -The child divides these sentences into clauses, analyzing each -separately. Then, placing one under the other, he is impressed by the -fact that each has a complete meaning and can stand by itself; save that -in English the subject of the first clause is often carried over to the -second: - - I hunted carefully everywhere. - And at last I found it. - - I am a lowly peasant. - And you are a gallant knight. - - Louis clapped his hands for joy. - began to dance around the room. - - He looked into the mirror. - straightened his tie. - smoothed his hair. - _and_ went out to meet his two friends. - - The bees hummed in the warm sunshine. - And the cat sat purring at her side. - - Then he began to weep. - And he tore his hair in anguish. - - The girl covered her face with her hands. - _and_ wept. - - They looked at the speaker. - crowded around him. - _and_ waited for his next word to attack him. - - -SERIES II - -(The Complex Sentence) - -Here only the main clause has a complete meaning. The other clauses make -sense only when they are united with the main clause. On this roll, the -subordinate clauses are attributes of one of the elements of the main -clause (relative clauses). - - --The gold ring which you found yesterday on the stairs belongs - to my mother. - --The man who brought me to school this morning was my uncle. - --He was educated by his sister who taught him many beautiful - things. - --The colors which Aunt Anna gave me Christmas are very good. - --A little girl who was at a party sat looking with longing eyes - at a plate of sandwiches. - --The knife with which you sharpened my pencil was very dull. - --Bees don't care about the snow! - I can tell you why it's so: - Once I caught a little bee - Who was much too warm for me.--(F. D. SHERMAN) - --We have at home the prettiest cat you ever saw. - --Here are the pennies my mother gave me. - --The children I play with did not come to school to-day. - --The house we live in is beautiful and airy. - --Stars are the little daisies white - That dot the meadow of the night.--(SHERMAN) - - -TEST CARDS - - PRINCIPAL CLAUSE ATTRIBUTIVE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE - (The words modified by the relative (Relative or Adjective Clauses) - clause are in _italics_). (The clause has no meaning until - united with some noun in the - main clause). - - The gold _ring_ belongs to which you found on the stairs - mother yesterday - - The _man_ was my uncle who brought me to school this - morning - - He was educated by his _sister_ who taught him many beautiful - things - - The _colors_ are very good which Aunt Anna gave me - Christmas - - A little _girl_ sat looking with who was at a party - longing eyes at a plate of - sandwiches - - Once I caught a little _bee_ who was much too warm for - me - - Stars are the little _daisies_ that dot the meadow of the - white night - - -RELATIVE OMITTED - - _What word is omitted?_ - - Here are the _pennies_ --my mother gave me - - The _children_ did not come to with--I play - school to-day - - The _house_ is beautiful and in--we live - airy - - -SERIES III - -In the preceding roll, the subordinate clauses completed the meaning and -constituted an attribute of _one word_ of the principal clause. Here, -however, the subordinate clauses refer to the whole content of the main -clause and complete _the whole thought_ of the main clause. They have, -therefore, a logical dependence on the main clause. The child will be -guided in finding the place of the different subordinate clauses and in -classifying them according to the designations of the spaces by the -questions which appear in the analytical chart. It is presupposed that -he can readily identify the main clause itself. - -The following sentences come one after the other on the rolled strip of -paper: - - --Do not forget that your objects are not in their places. - --Will you play with me when you have finished your work? - --When the sun is low our shadows are longer. - --I hope that you will write me a long letter as soon as you - arrive in Europe. - --The little girl stood on tiptoe so that she could see the queen - as the procession went by. - --Brer Rabbit thought it was the worst time he had had in all his - life. - --All is well that ends well, says the proverb. - --The people mourned when the good President died. - --It is not right that the big boys should have all the candy. - --As she sat there reading, a beautiful red bird flew in through - the window. - --They could not play in the yard because the ground was too wet. - --Remember that you must thank the lady who gave you the book. - - -TEST CARD - - PRINCIPAL AND INCIDENTAL QUESTION SUBORDINATE AND ATTRIBUTIVE - CLAUSES CLAUSES - - Do not forget what? that your objects are not - in their places. - - Will you play with me when? when you have finished - your work? - - Our shadows are longer when? when the sun is low. - - I hope what? that you will write me a - long letter. - - when? as soon as you arrive in - Europe. - - The little girl stood on tip-toe why? so that she could see the - queen - - when? as the procession went by. - - Brer Rabbit thought what? (that) it was the worst - _time_ he had had in all - his life (_attributive, - relative pronoun - omitted_) - - All is well that ends well - says the proverb (incidental (_attributive_). - clause) - - The people mourned when? the good President died. - - It is not right what? that the big boys should - have all the candy. - - A beautiful red bird flew when? as she sat there - in through the window reading. - - They could not play in the why? because the ground was - yard too wet. - - Remember what? that you must thank the - _lady_ who gave you the - book (_attributive_). - - -SERIES IV - -Here we have sentences both compound and complex, containing both -coordinate and subordinate clauses. - - --As he said this, he rose from his chair and left the room. - --The two friends shook hands and said they would always be - faithful to each other. - --When the wolf came out, Brer Rabbit threw the stone on him and - laughed. - --When the lady knocked on the door, a smiling old man appeared - and asked what he might do for her. - --The children walked along in the forest and became very hungry - because they had had nothing to eat since morning. - --The king's face grew very red and he angrily ordered that the - deceitful general be put to death. - --Since the wind was blowing hard, the captain told the children - to keep off the deck and a sailor carried them to their - state-rooms. - --The dogs began to bark and the people all ran out into the - streets as the uproar of the combat increased. - --Where that tree now stands, there was once a beautiful house - and a fine road led up to it. - --He had left the village and mounted the steep, - And under the alders that skirt its edge, - Now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge, - Is heard the tramp of his steed as he rides. - -TEST CARD - - SUBORDINATE AND - PRINCIPAL CLAUSE COORDINATE CLAUSE QUESTION ATTRIBUTIVE - CLAUSES - - He rose from his and left the when? as he said this - chair room - - The two friends and said what? that they would - shook hands always be faithful - to each other - - Brer Rabbit threw and laughed when? when the wolf came - the stone on him out - - A smiling old man and asked what? what he might do for - appeared her - - when? when the lady - knocked on the - door - - The children walked and became very why? because they had had - along in the hungry nothing to eat - forest since morning - - The king's face grew and he angrily what? that the deceitful - very red ordered general be put to - death - - The captain told the and a sailor why? because the wind was - children to keep carried them blowing hard - off the deck to their - state-rooms - - The dogs began to and the people when? as the uproar of the - bark all ran into combat increased - the streets - - There was once a and a fine road where? where that tree now - beautiful house led up to it stands - - He had left the and mounted the - village steep - - under the that skirt its edge - _alders_ now (attributive). - soft on the - sand, now loud - on the ledge, - is heard the - tramp of his - steed when? as he rides - - -SERIES V - -(Correlative Sentences) - -The clauses are here dependent upon each other: - - --The flowers were so beautiful that we picked them all. - --That day he was so lazy that he did not get his work done. - --She sings much better than she plays. - --The more one studies, the more one learns. - --Either you return your objects to their places or some one - else must do it. - --Not only was the man very cross, but he actually punished - the little boy. - - -TEST CARD - - PRINCIPAL CLAUSE QUESTION SUBORDINATE CLAUSE - - The flowers were so with what result? that we picked them all. - beautiful - - That day he was so with what result? that he did not get his - lazy work done. - - She sings much than what? than she plays. - better - - The more one with what result? the more one learns. - studies - - Either you return with what result? or some one else must do - your objects to it. - their places - - Not only was the man with what result? but he actually punished - very cross the little boy. - - -SERIES VI - -(The Order of Clauses in Sentences: Sentence Forms in Prose and Verse) - -Our material makes it very easy for the children to understand the -mutual dependence of the subordinate clauses. We take the commonest -cases within easy reach of the children. There are clauses of the first -degree of subordination, dependent directly on the principal clause. -There are others of the second degree of subordination which depend on a -subordinate clause (clause subordinate to a subordinate). We have the -same situation in coordinates. We have the first degree of coordination -when the clause is parallel with the principal clause, and the second -degree when the clause is parallel with a subordinate clause. - -Since the slips have as many sections as there are clauses, the clauses -may be arranged on the table in the order of their subordination, -keeping, for example, the principal clause to the left, and arranging -the subordinate clauses downward and downward to the right. Take, for -instance, the sentence: - - --The old man liked to tell stories; and he would - laugh heartily when the women were frightened at the - terrible things that he had to relate. - -As the different clauses are torn off they are placed on a chart marked -into sections by vertically placed arrows: the principal clause to the -right of the first arrow; the first subordinate clause to the right of -the second; the subordinate to the subordinate to the right of the -third, and so on. The above sentence results as follows: - - Principal and Coordinate 1st subordinate subordinate to - subordinate - - The old man liked to - tell stories - and he would laugh - heartily - - when the women were - frightened at the - terrible things - - that he had to tell. - - -CHART C - - - /|\ Principal and 1st subordinate subordinate to - | coordinate and its coordinates subordinate - | (incidental) - | - | I shall feel - | better /|\ if you will let me sit - | | next to the window - | | /|\ where there is more - | | | air. - -Here is another example: - - --I often sit and wish that I - Could be a kite up in the sky, - And ride upon the breeze, and go - Whatever way it chanced to blow. - - /|\ Principal and 1st subordinate and subordinate to - | Coordinates coordinate subordinate - | - | I often sit - | and wish - | /|\ that I could be a kite - | | up in the sky - | | and ride upon the - | | breeze - | | and go whatever way - | | /|\ it chanced to blow. - | | | - -Here, finally, is another: - --- I was a bad boy, I admit, but no one ever paid any attention to me, -unless I was to be blamed for something wrong that I had done, or was -accused of doing. - - /|\ I was a bad boy - | I admit (incidental) - | but no one ever paid - | any attention to me - | /|\ unless I was to be - | | blamed - | | for something wrong - | | /|\ that I had done, - | | | or was accused of - | | | doing. - | | | (coordinate of second - | | | subordinate) - -In using this material, the child tears off the clause-slips using the -analytical sentence-chart (Chart B). This gives him the classification -of the clauses. The strips are then to be placed on the dependence chart -(Chart C) according to the indications of the arrows. This brings out -the mutual relation of the clauses. - - -PERMUTATIONS - -The preceding exercises have created in the child a notion of sentence -construction and of the position of the clauses which make it up. Our -material permits, of course, as an exercise supplementary to the -analyses, dislocations and translocations of parts just as was true with -the simple sentence. To derive the full benefit of this possibility, the -teacher should have in mind the general rules for location of clauses: - -Adjective clauses (relative, attributive) always follow, and most often -directly, the noun they modify. - -Subject subordinate clauses may stand either before or after the -principal clause. If the subject clause follows, it is usually -anticipated before the verb by the pronoun it (just as a following noun -subject is anticipated by _there_). - -(In Italian, if the object clause precedes the main clause, it is -usually repeated before the noun by a conjunctive object personal -pronoun.) - -The position of the other clauses depends on considerations of emphasis. - -The direct order for complex sentences is in general similar to that for -simple sentences: - - subject clause - principal clause - object clause - adverbial clauses. - -Coordination is possible with subordinate as well as with principal -clauses. - -The special exercises on the complex sentence conclude with some -practise in turning simple inversions as found in poetry into direct -sentence order. - - -SERIES VII - -The detachable strips are used here also. The exercise should be -conducted with reference to the sentence charts. - - -1 - - --Just where the tide of battle Old John Burns stood, erect and - turns, lonely just where the tide of - Erect and lonely stood old battle turns.... - John Burns ... A bright blue coat, with a rolling - And buttoned over his manly collar, was buttoned over his - breast manly breast. - Was a bright blue coat with a - rolling collar. - - -2 - - --It was terrible: on the right It was terrible: the deadly - Raged for hours the deadly fight raged for hours on the - fight, right; the battery's double bass - Thundered the battery's double thundered,--difficult music for - bass, men to face; while round shot - Difficult music for men to face; ploughed the upland glades on - While on the left, where now the left, where now the graves - the graves undulate like the living waves - Undulate like the living waves that swept unceasing all that - That all that day unceasing day up to the pits the rebels - swept kept. - Up to the pits the rebels kept, - Round shot ploughed the upland - glades. - BRET HARTE.--_John Burns - of Gettysburg._ - - -3 - - --Merrily rang the bridle reins, The bridle reins rang merrily - and scarf and plume steamed and scarf and plume streamed - gay, gay, as the riders, held their - As fast beside her father's way fast by her father's gate. - gate the riders held their - way ... - - "Now break your shield asunder Now break your shield asunder - and shatter your sign and shatter across your knightly - and boss, knee your sign and boss unmeet - Unmeet for peasant-wedded for peasant-wedded arms. - warms, your knightly - knee across. - WHITTIER.--_King Volmer._ - - -4 - - The breaking waves dashed high The breaking waves dashed - On a stern and rock bound coast; high on a stern and rock-bound - And the woods against a stormy coast; and the woods tossed their - sky giant branches against a stormy - Their giant branches tossed. sky. - And the heavy night hung dark The heavy night hung dark - The hills and waters o'er, over (o'er) the hills and waters, - When a band of Pilgrims moored when a band of Pilgrims moored - their bark their bark on the wild New England - On the wild New England shore. shore. - - Not as the conqueror comes They, the true hearted, came - They the true hearted came, not as the conqueror comes, not - Not with the roll of the stirring with the roll of the stirring - drums drums and the trumpet that - And the trumpet that sings of sings of fame. - fame. - MRS. HEMANS. - - -5 - - My golden spurs now bring to me Bring to me now my golden - And bring to me my richest mail, spurs and bring to me my richest - For tomorrow I go over land and mail; for I go in search of the - sea Holy Grail tomorrow over land - In search of the Holy Grail. and sea; a bed shall never be - Shall never a bed for me be spread for me, nor shall a pillow - spread. be under my head till I begin to - Nor shall a pillow be under my keep my vow; I will sleep here - head, on the rushes, and perchance a - Till I begin my vow to keep; true vision will come _before_ (ere) - Here on the rushes will I sleep. day creates the world anew. - And perchance there may come a - vision true - Ere day create the world anew. - LOWELL. - - -6 - - Glad tidings of great joy I bring I bring to you and all mankind - To you and all mankind: glad tidings of great joy. The - To you, in David's town this day Saviour, who is Christ the Lord, - Is born of David's line is born to you this day in David's - The Saviour, who is Christ the town, of David's line; and this - Lord, shall be the sign: you shall find - And this shall be the sign: the heavenly Babe there displayed - The heavenly Babe you there to human view, all meanly wrapt - shall find in swaddling clothes and laid in - To human view displayed, a manger. - All meanly wrapt in swaddling - bands - And in a manger laid. - TATE.--_While Shepherds - Watched._ - - -7 - - The harp that once through The harp, that once shed the - Tara's halls soul of music through Tara's - The soul of music shed, halls, now hangs on Tara's walls, - Now hangs on Tara's walls as though that soul were fled. - As if that soul were fled. So the pride of former days - So sleeps the pride of former sleeps, so glory's thrill is over, - days, and hearts that once beat high - So glory's thrill is o'er, for praise now feel that pulse no - And hearts that once beat high more. The harp of Tara swells - for praise no more to chiefs and bright ladies: - Now feel that pulse no more. the chord alone, that breaks - at night, tells its tale of ruin. - No more to chiefs and ladies Thus Freedom now wakes so seldom - bright (that) the only throb she - The harp of Tara swells; gives is when some indignant - The chord alone that breaks at heart breaks to show that she - night still lives. - Its tale of ruin tells. - Thus Freedom now so seldom - wakes, - The only throb she gives, - Is when some heart indignant - breaks - To show that still she lives. - THOMAS MOORE. - - -8 - - Childhood is the bough where Childhood is the bough where - slumbered many numbered birds and blossoms - Birds and blossoms many numbered; slumbered; Age encumbered - Age that bough with snow encumbered. that bough with snow. - LONGFELLOW. - - -TEST CARDS - - -1 - - Just where the tide of battle subordinate of place (locative) - turns - Erect and lonely stood old John principal - Burns - And, buttoned over his manly (verbal attributive phrase) - breast, - Was a bright blue coat with a coordinate of principal - rolling collar - -2 - - It was terrible principal - on the right - raged for hours the deadly fight coordinate of principal - - thundered the battery's double coordinate of principal - bass - Difficult music for men to face (verbal attributive phrase in - apposition) - While on the left (round shot subordinate of time (temporal) - ploughed, etc.) begun - where now (_While_ may be considered as - the graves adversative coordinate) - Undulate like the living waves subordinate to subordinate - (locative) 2d degree - That all that day unceasing - swept attributive subordinate (relative - up to the pits adjectival clause modifying - _waves_) of 3d degree - the rebels kept attributive subordinate (relative - pronoun omitted) of 4th degree - Round shot ploughed the upland subordinate of time (concluded). - glades - - -3 - - Merrily rang the bridle reins principal - - and scarf and plume coordinate - streamed gay - - As fast beside her father's gate - the riders held their way subordinate of time - - Now break your shield asunder principal - - and shatter - your sign and boss coordinate - Unmeet for peasant-wedded arms - your knightly knee across - - -4 - - The breaking waves dashed high - On a stern and rock-bound coast principal - - And the woods against a stormy - sky - Their giant branches tossed coordinate - - And the heavy night hung dark - The hills and waters o'er principal (coordinated in - paragraph) - When a band of pilgrims moored - their bark - On a wild New England shore subordinate temporal - - Not principal begun - as the conqueror comes subordinate of manner (modal) - They the true hearted came principal concluded - Not with the roll of the stirring - drums - and the trumpet coordinate (elipsis of verb _they_ - _came_ continued from principal) - that sings of fame attributive (relative) - subordinate to coordinate. - - -5 - - My golden spurs now bring to me principal - - And bring to me my richest mail coordinate - - For tomorrow I go over land and subordinate of cause (causal): - sea may be considered coordinate - In search of the Holy Grail of _reason_ - - Shall never a bed for me be - spread principal - - Nor shall a pillow be under my - head coordinate - - Till I begin my vow to keep subordinate of time (temporal) - - Here on the rushes will I sleep principal - - And perchance there may come a - vision true coordinate - - Ere day create the world anew subordinate temporal. - - -6 - - Great tidings of great joy I - bring - To you and all mankind principal - - To you in David's town this day - Is born of David's line - The Saviour principal - - who is Christ the Lord attributive (relative) subordinate - - And this shall be the sign coordinate - - The heavenly Babe you there - shall find - To human view displayed - All meanly wrapped in swaddling - bands - And in a manger laid. simple sentence with three - coordinate verbal phrases. - - -7 - - The harp principal begun - that once through - Tara's hall - The soul of music shed attributive subordinate (relative) - - Now hangs on Tara's walls principal concluded - - As if that soul were fled subordinate of manner (modal) - - So sleeps the pride of former - days principal - - So glory's thrill is o'er coordinate - - And hearts coordinate begun - that once beat high attributive relative subordinate - for praise - - Now feel that pulse no more coordinate concluded. - - No more to chiefs and ladies - bright - The harp of Tara swells principal - - The chord alone coordinate begun - - that breaks at night attributive relative subordinate - - Its tale of ruin tells coordinate concluded. - - Thus freedom now so seldom - wakes principal - - The only throb subordinate result begun - (conjunction _that_ omitted) - - she gives subordinate to subordinate (2d - degree; relative omitted) - - Is when some heart indignant - breaks - To show subordinate result concluded - - that still she lives subordinate object (noun) clause - of 2d degree. - - -8 - - Childhood is the bough principal - where slumbered - Birds and blossoms many-numbered subordinate locative (of place) - - Age that bow with snows encumbered coordinate. - -(Note: the best English poetry makes far less use of inversion than does -Italian. Such exercises as the above could be profitably applied to the -analysis of the different kinds of phrases (adjective, adverbial, etc.). -It should be noted that Dr. Montessori in her own exercises treats -verbal phrases (participles and infinitives) as subordinate -clauses.--TR.) - - -COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS - -This study of the complex sentence leads the child to a more precise -comprehension of the values of certain parts of speech as, notably, the -conjunction. We have found, in fact, that little difficulty is -experienced in realizing the distinction between the terms -_coordinating_ and _subordinating_ as applied to conjunctions which -_unite_ clauses but in different ways. The following charts serve to -cover the vast majority of cases that the child is likely to meet. We -may add that at this point it may be found useful to have the child -analyze the complex sentences which appeared in the commands and -readings already familiar to him (see below under _Reading_). - - -COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS - -_Copulatives_: and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, furthermore, -nor. - -_Disjunctives_: or else, otherwise, rather. - -_Adversatives_: but, nevertheless, however, notwithstanding, yet, still, -while, only, instead. - -_Declaratives_: namely, in other words, that is. - -_Asseverative_: in fact, assuredly, really. - -_Illative_: hence, therefore, then, accordingly, so. - - -PRINCIPAL AND COORDINATE CLAUSES MAY BEGIN WITH ONE OF THESE -CONJUNCTIONS - -CHART D - -THE CONJUNCTIONS IN THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE - - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | PRINCIPAL CLAUSE | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Incidental (parenthetical) clause | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Adjective (relative, attributive) clause | - | who, which, that, whose, whom | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Subordinate subject clause | Subordinate object clause | - | that | that | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - | Subordinate clause of time | Subordinate clause of place | - | (temporal) | (locative) | - | when, while, as soon as, | where, whence, wherever, whither | - | before, after, till, until | | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - | Subordinate clause of purpose | Subordinate clause of cause | - | (final, purpose clause) | (casual clause) | - | that, in order that, so that | as, because, for, since, | - | | in as much as | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - | Subordinate clause of | Subordinate clause of condition | - | manner and comparison | | - | (modal clause) | (conditional clause) | - | as (manner), than (comparison) | if, unless, provided, | - | | provided that | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - | Subordinate clause of | Subordinate clause of | - | concession | result and correlatives | - | (concessive clause) | that, so that (result) | - | though, although, even if, | so ... as, so ... that | - | however, notwithstanding that | (correlative, degree) | - +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - - -SEQUENCE OF TENSES - -A special series of exercises on the relations of the subordinate to the -principal clause brings out the changes in tense made necessary in the -subordinate clause as the tense of the principal clause varies. - - -SERIES VIII - -Sequence of Tenses - -GROUP A - -(Causal Clauses) - - --I am writing to you because I have some important news. - " wrote " " " " had " " " - - --I shall not go because I must attend to my work. - " did " " " " had to " " " " - - --I am glad that you have done so well. - " was " " " had " " " - - --I will give it to you since you insist on having it. - " gave " " " " " insisted " " " - - --He does not answer because your letter is insulting. - " did " " " " " was " - - -GROUP B - -(Miscellaneous Clauses) - - --I shall be proud of you if you become a fine scholar. - " should " " " " " " became " " " - - --I believe that only the rich can be happy. - " believed " " " " could " " - - --I am waiting here till my father returns from town. - " waited " " " " returned " " - - --They expect that something will happen before long. - " expected " " would " " " - - --He is doing that for you, in order that you may go to school. - " did " " " " " " " might " " " - - --He will let you know where he has been. - " let " " " " had " - - -GROUP C - -(Object Clauses) - - --They are telling me what they have been doing. - " were " " " " had " " - - --I promise you that I will do everything punctually. - " promised " " " would " " " - - --I think he will not be back before Wednesday. - " thought " would " " " " " - - --Do you know that your friend has gone away? - Did " " " " " had " " - - --I assure you that I will take good care of it. - " assured " " " would " " " " " - - --I repeat that you ought to be ashamed of yourself. - " repeated " " " " have been " " " - - -GROUP D - -(Conditional Sentences) - - --I would read this book too, if I could. - " " have read " " " " " had been able. - - --If I see him, I shall tell him what you say. - " " saw " " should " " " " said. - - --I will finish this work, if you can wait. - " would " " " " " could " - - --I shall come sooner if I can. - " should " " " " could. - - --He would give it to you if you asked him for it. - " " have given " " " " " had asked " " " - - --He would give it to you if you should ask him for it. - - --I shall go there if I have time. - " should " " " " had " - " shall " " " " should have " - " should have gone " " " had had " - - - - -XIII - -PUNCTUATION - - -The permutations of clauses permitted by our materials give empirical -evidence of the pauses and accordingly of the functions of the -orthographical signs of suspense in the sentence. These signs are -included also in our alphabets. All the exercises hitherto given require -more or less spontaneous attention to punctuation. We offer, however, in -addition, several series of sentences for analysis in illustration of -the principal rules for the use of punctuation points. Almost all of our -Italian sentences are taken from Manzoni, a writer especially noteworthy -for his care in punctuation. (The majority of the sentences below are -taken from the _Book of Knowledge_, by special permission of the -publishers.) - - -SERIES I - -The comma may separate coordinate elements. - - --The mother took a glowing pride in the beauty of her - children's faces, the grace and strength of their - bodies, their reckless daring and unflinching courage. - - --The little star fell plump into the middle of a big - puddle, and there it lay sad and shaken and quaking - with fright. - - --It was dumb and half blind, it had a soiled face, - and could give no more light. - - --A mouse was just then peeping from its hole to see - whether it was going to rain, and whether it would be - safe to cross the fields. - - --The mouse started running again, and ran until it - was tired out and had to sit down. - - --The little star poured a flood of bright light over - the poor woman, and made her bright and cheerful and - strong again, and then the little girl became very - happy. - - -SERIES II - -A comma isolates vocatives and incidental clauses. - - --"Caesar, let your men go forward," said the guide. - - --Why do you want to find your father, Mora? - - --"No," said he, "I shall be very well presently." - - --"Boys," said our host, "I know whose hand it is." - - --That, excuse me for saying so, is not the way to - speak to a friend. - - --"Come with us, you handsome young huntsman," he - cried. - - -SERIES III - -A comma separates clauses, especially for clearness, when the elements -of one clause might seem to apply equally well to another clause, and -when one clause is interpolated between the essential elements of -another. - - --Mohammed taught that men should pray at stated - times, wherever they are. - - --George, who was only five years old, could not go - with his father to fight. - - --The tribemen, after quarreling a long time, decided - to march away. - - --He went that evening, as he had planned, to the - doctor's house. - - --The poor Indian had been kept moving, ever since he - was born, to regions farther and farther north. - - --The child crept to the bed, and, taking his little - fan, stood over his father all night fanning him. - - -SERIES IV - -A comma indicates a pause caused by the ellipsis of some word or idea -(in such cases longer suspense can be indicated by a colon or a -semi-colon). - - --Very well, what of it? - - --Good-by, all you nice people! - - --Just what I wanted: a plate of wild strawberries - with real cream! - - --Please, mother, just a little more, a very little - more! - - --Silence, obedience, and everybody at work! - - --Enough said; I know exactly what the matter is! - - -SERIES V - -A semi-colon marks a considerable halt between clauses. In some special -cases, a colon is used. The dash. Quotations. - - --The knight mounted a superb steed; the old huntsman - did the same. - - --Some carriages opened at the back, with the driver - sitting perched high above the door; others had the - driver's seat at the side, and in all sorts of queer - positions. - - --The first trams were drawn, usually, by horses; - though many people can remember when London - street-cars were drawn by mules--two big ones or three - little ones for each car. - - --The letter began: "I hope you will let me know if - this letter does not reach you." - - --Patrick Henry said: "Give me liberty, or give me - death!" - - --The boy's mind was full of love and romance but not - of sadness for-- - - Singing he was and fluting all the day: - He was as fresh as in the month of May. - - --The king will ask you three questions: "How old are - you?" "How long have you been in his service?" "Are - you satisfied with your food and lodgings?" - - --How happy they were: all kinds of toys to play with; - all sorts of good things to eat; and a kind old father - to satisfy their every want! - - --Slowly one of the dialects of English--the language - of London--came to be regarded as standard English. - - --Washington is called "the Father of his Country." - - --When he got home, he said to his wife: "See, I have - brought you a present." - - --He shouted gleefully: "I am a lion--a terrible - lion." - - -SERIES VI - -(Other Punctuation Points) - -The period, the question mark, exclamation point and other signs of -punctuation: - -In this series should be given dialogues, interesting stories, passages -which express emotional states of mind vividly portrayed. Such -selections, as is true also of our shorter passages, ought to be taken -from the best writers, distinguished by the naturalness and vivacity of -their style and the use of an accurate orthographical technique. At this -point we make use of the selections used for our "interpretations," -since the question of punctuation coincides with the problems of text -interpretation itself. - - - - -XIV - -WORD CLASSIFICATION - - -THE KINDS OF WORDS - -In doing the work outlined thus far, the children have acquired -considerable resources in vocabulary. They have seen all the articles, -prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, many of the -adverbs; and they know many nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which will be -increased in number as their culture is widened. They know something -also of the use of the parts of speech and their functions in the -expression of thought. This is the natural place for a classification in -retrospect of those words which the children have in writing before them -on the cards and slips of different colors. Separate tables should be -used for these exercises in word grouping. - -This new step is preparatory to a _theoretical study_ of language to be -developed in later courses in the second period of their education. - - -WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORMATION - - Root } - Derived[3] } words - Compound[4] } - - - -CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO INFLECTION - -There are two kinds of words, thus considered: variable and invariable: - - / / - | preposition | They may be simple or - INVARIABLES: < conjunction < compound, made up, - | interjection | that is, of one word or more. - \ \ - - / / may be of masculine, - | \ | feminine, neuter or - | in gender | | common gender. - | and number > nouns < form their plurals by - | | | adding -s or by - | / | changing the root - | \ vowel (umlaut) - | - | \ / have special - | | | words for - | in gender, number > pronouns < each form: e.g. he, - | person and case | | him, who, whom, I, - | / \ me, etc. - | - | } adjectives { -er for comparative - | in degree } adverbs { -est for superlative - | - | / show third person - | | singular by adding -s, - VARIABLES < | and old second person - | | singular by adding - | | -st - | | show moods by adding - | | -ing, -ed or by vowel - | in person, number,} verbs < change for participles: - | tense and mood } | or by special - | | forms (I be, he be, - | | etc.) for subjunctive. - | | show tense by suffix - | | -ed, -t: or by vowel - | | change (I go, I - | | went). - | \ show irregular forms. - | - | / _the_ has two - | \ definite | pronunciations - | for | article < according to - | phonetic reasons > | the following word. - | | \ - | | { _a_ becomes _an_ before - \ / indefinite { a vowel. - - -CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE - -(Parts of Speech) - - Article Verb Pronoun - Noun Adverb Conjunction - Adjective Preposition Interjection - -NOTE: In actual usage the parts of speech perform not only their own -functions, but also the functions of other parts of speech, for -instance, the adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, etc., may be used as -nouns. The participles, etc., may be used as adjectives, or as clauses, -etc. - - -THE NOUN - - Proper Common - Concrete Abstract - Collective Individual - - -THE ARTICLE - - Definite--the - Indefinite--a, an - - -THE ADJECTIVE - -Descriptive: Properties, qualities of things and living beings. - - / _cardinal_: one, two, three, four, etc. - | _ordinal_: first, second, third, - / Definite | fourth, last, etc. - | (numeral) < _multiple_: single, double, triple, - | | quadruple, etc. - | \ _fractional_: half, third, etc. - Quantitative: < - | / many, all, some, much, enough, no, - | | more, most, other, little, few, - \ Indefinite <| whatever, each, every, certain, - | several, somewhat, etc. - \ - -Demonstrative (position in space): this, that, these, those, such, same. - -Possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their. - -Interrogative: what? which? - - -VERB - -The verb indicates: - - existence: _to be_. - state or condition: _nominal predicate_ (copular): e.g., She _is_ - beautiful. - action: _verbal predicate_: e.g., I _run_. - - / lay, throw, toss, hurl, roll, raise, - | lower, attach, touch, tie, cover, uncover, - Transitive (action upon | undo, invert, rub, spread, collect, - an object different < scatter, sprinkle, stir, beat, mix, - from subject) | dissolve, flavor, arrange, clean, dust, - | sweep, button, lace, hook, - \ brush, wash, wipe, embrace, etc., etc. - - / grow, die, smile, laugh, stare, walk, stagger, - Intransitive | march, sing, whistle, speak, hum, dance, - (action remains < shout, dine, bark, think, burst, blossom, - in subject) | remain, stand, rise, go, run, breathe, sigh, - \ hesitate, weep, sleep, etc., etc. - - Note: Certain verbs may be by nature both transitive - and intransitive (incomplete predication). - - Impersonals (the / - subject is _it_ | rain, snow, hail, dawn, lighten, thunder, - without reference to a < etc. - specific object): | - \ - - -ADVERBS - - / slowly, rapidly, silently, noisily, abruptly, - | loudly, strongly, weakly, moderately, well, ill, - of Manner: < better, worse, otherwise, differently, thus, so, - | lightly, heavily, etc., etc. - \ - - of Place: { here, there, elsewhere, up, down, forward, - { backward, upstairs, downstairs, etc., etc. - - / - | always, ever, never, again, still, yesterday, - of Time: < tomorrow, today, now, occasionally, before, - | afterwards, soon, etc., etc. - \ - - of Quantity: { much, little, enough, nothing, more, less, - { least, most, about, only, too, very, etc. - - of Comparison: more, less, than, etc. - - of Affirmation: { yes, certainly, precisely, indeed, surely, - { assuredly, truly, even, etc. - - of Negation: no, never, not, at all, etc. - - of Doubt: perhaps, perchance, almost, probably, etc. - - -PREPOSITION - - / - | of, to, by, from, in, with, on, among, above, - Simple: < through, under, around, beside, behind, save, - | except, near, next, like, during, off, etc. - \ - - Compound { in place of, out of, away from, as to, on board, - (preposition { with regard to, etc. - phrases): - - -PRONOUN - - / - | subject: { I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they - | - Personal < { me, thee, him, her, it, us, you, - | object: { them - \ - - / - | definite: { this, this one, that, that one, - | { these, those - Demonstrative < - | / - | | one, ones, some, somebody, - | indefinite: < everyone, each, each one, no one, - \ | nobody, none, nothing, etc. - \ - - / - | / - | | subject: who, that - | of person: < possessive: whose - | | object: whom, that - | \ - | - | of thing: which, that - Relative < - | indefinite: whoever, which ever - | - | compound (antecedent understood): what (that - | which), whereof, wherewith, etc. - \ - - / - | who - / | whose - | of person < whom - | | which - | \ - Interrogative < - | - | of thing { what - \ { which - - Possessive: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. - - -CONJUNCTION - - Disjunctive: or, or else, otherwise, rather. - - Copulative: { and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, - { furthermore, nor, etc. - - Adversative: { but, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still, - { while, however, only, on the contrary, instead, etc. - - Declarative: namely, in other words, that is, etc. - - Relative: that. - - Illative: { hence, therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, so, - { with the result that, etc. - - Temporal: { while, when, as soon as, after, before, until, till, - { hardly, etc. - - Concessive: though, although, even if. - - Purpose (Final): that, in order that, to the end that, etc. - - Conditional: if, unless, provided, provided that, etc. - - Causal: as, because, for, since, seeing that, etc. - - Result: that, so that, etc. - - Locative: where, whence, whither, whereto, wherefrom, etc. - - Degree and Comparison: as, than. - - -INTERJECTION - -See list already given on pp. 122-123. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[3] Under this heading we include all derivations by suffix: some -suffixes change one part of speech into another: _love_ (verb), -_lovable_ (adj.), etc.; others, such as _diminutives_, _peggioratives_, -_augmentatives_, etc., change the quality of a word's meaning. In -adjectives we have suffixes of degree (comparison: _-er_, _-est_). - -[4] Under this heading we include all words formed by the union of two -words or by prefixes. - - - - -PART II - -READING - - - - -I - -EXPRESSION AND INTERPRETATION - - -MECHANICAL PROCESSES - -Reading begins in the "Children's House" as soon as the children -_reread_ the word they have already composed with the movable alphabet. -This early effort is not indeed the true reading of the word, since -interpretation is lacking. The children, it has been seen, know the word -because they have actually put it together. They have not gained an -understanding of it from the simple recognition of the graphic symbols. -What they have done is, nevertheless, an important contribution to real -reading. As one considers all of the details of this period of -development, it is apparent that its mechanism is closely allied with -that of the spoken language. - -When the child's attention has been intensively applied to the -recognition of the written word, it can easily be fixed on the analysis -of the sounds which make up the word. At a certain age the child's -interest was aroused by "touching" the letter. He can now be interested -in hearing the sounds of the word when pronounced by others and in -pronouncing it himself. We have shown that the work on the written -language in the exercises with the alphabet was _necessary_ for -developing and perfecting the spoken language. It is by so doing that we -make it possible to correct defects in speech and to pass naturally over -the period when such defects are formed. - -We now aim at finding an _exercise_ in the actual mechanism of -pronunciation which can be started at the moment of its natural -development in such a way that its growth to perfection will follow as a -matter of course. It is a question of bringing the children rapidly to -pronounce without hesitation. In so pronouncing well, in performing -extensive exercises in hearing words and in the interpretation of them -from graphic signs, the child brings together in a unit of effect the -basic processes of reading and writing. - -A good pronunciation of the word read is of great importance. We may say -that in the elementary schools of our day this is the principal purpose -of reading. Nevertheless, it is very difficult to obtain a good -pronunciation when defects have been allowed to develop and become -habitual in the child's previous work. In fact, the elimination of these -defects, which have been the result of a fundamental error in education, -comes to absorb all of the energies of the reading class in ordinary -primary schools. So far along as the fifth grade we see teachers -struggling to make the children read, that they may acquire a good -"pronunciation," and in our reading books there are graduated exercises -constructed on the basis of "Difficulties in Pronunciation." It is -apparent that all of this stress on the _physiological mechanics_ of -pronunciation is foreign to _true reading_. It is, rather, an impediment -to the development of true reading. Such reading exercises constitute, -as it were, a foreign body, which operates like a disease to prevent the -development of the high intellectual activity which interprets the -mysterious language of written symbols and arouses the child's -enthusiasm with the fascinating revelations they can give. The eagerness -of the child to learn is curbed and cheated when he is compelled to -stop his mind from working because his tongue refuses to act properly -and must be laboriously trained to work right. This training, if begun -at the proper time, when the child's whole psychic and nervous organism -yearns for the perfection of the mechanism of speech, would have been a -fascinating task; and once started along the right path, the pupil would -have continued to follow it with alacrity and confidence. When the time -comes for the intelligence to try its wings, its wings should be ready. -What would happen to a painter, if at the moment of inspiration, he had -to sit down and manufacture his brushes! - - -ANALYSIS - -Our first publication on the methods used in the "Children's House" made -clear two distinct operations involved in reading: the interpretation of -the meaning and the pronunciation aloud of the "word." The stress we -laid on that analysis as a guide to the development of reading was the -result of actual experience. Those who followed this work during its -initial stages saw how the children, when they read for the first time, -interpreting the meaning of the words before them, did so without -speaking,--reading, that is, mentally. Interpretation, in fact, is a -question of mental concentration. Reading is an affair of the -_intelligence_. The pronunciation aloud is quite a different thing, not -only distinguished from the first process, but secondary to it. Talking -aloud is a question of speech, involving first hearing and then the -mechanical reproduction of sounds in articulate language. Its function -is to bring into immediate communication two or more people, who thus -exchange the thoughts which they have already perfected in the secret -places of their minds. - -[Illustration: Interpreted reading: "Smile and clap your hands." The -child reads silently an order written on a slip of paper; then proves -that she understands by acting the direction given. (_A Montessori -School in Italy._)] - -But reading stands in a direct relation with writing. Here there are no -sounds to be heard or pronounced. The individual, all by himself, can -put himself into communication not only with human beings actually alive -on the earth, but also with those who lived centuries and centuries ago -down to the dawn of history. Such communication is made possible not by -sound but by the written symbol. The mind takes in these symbols in -silence. Books are mute, as far as sound is concerned. - -It follows that reading aloud is a combination of two distinct -operations, of two "languages." It is something far more complex than -speaking and reading taken separately by themselves. In reading aloud -the child speaks not to express his own thoughts, but thoughts revealed -by the written symbol. The "word" in this case no longer has that -natural stimulus from within which creation gives it. In fact, it is -something forced and monotonous, something like the language of the -deaf-mute. Words which are the product of the interpretation of -individual alphabetical symbols come with effort, and the meaning which -comes from the interpretation of the entire sentence, as the eye reads -word by word, and translates into sound, is apprehended and reduced to -expression with great difficulty. To give a fairly intelligible -expression to the meaning, the eyes have been obliged rapidly to -traverse the sentence as a whole, while the tongue has been laboriously -and monotonously pronouncing one word after another. Just imagine adding -to such a complex problem for the child of the primary schools the -additional task of correcting his pronunciation! It is no wonder that -reading is one of the rocks on which the rudderless ship of elementary -education inevitably runs aground. - -[Illustration: Interpreted reading: "Take off your hat and make a low -bow." (_A Montessori School in Italy._)] - - / - / | mechanical - | writing < grammatical (controlled by translation - | | into action) - | \ narration and description - | - | - Composition of | - words (with < / - movable | | mechanical - alphabet) | | / - | | | grammatical - | | | (translations - | reading < interpretative < into action)[5] - \ | | declamatory - | | (elocution) - | expressed \ - | (aloud) - \ - -The experiments we have succeeded in conducting on the subject of -reading are perhaps among the most complete we have made. We found the -key to the problem when we discovered that the child passed from the -mental reading of the words written on the cards directly to -interpretation in action. This interpretation, ready and facile, as all -the acts of children are, reveals to us what the child has understood -and accordingly what he is capable of understanding. We have thus been -able to obtain an experimental graduation of passages for reading, which -on being gathered together, show the nature of the difficulties which -successively present themselves to the child. The children have made for -themselves specimen clauses and sentences which an expert grammarian -could not have devised better for facilitating the study of language. As -we went on with this work, we became more and more convinced that the -study of grammar may be made a help in the up-building of the child's -language and that it makes its influence felt in reading and in the -written composition. The table (p. 175) may be useful in showing the -successive steps actually traversed by the child in the phenomena of -reading. - -The fundamental point to realize is that _interpretation_ alone -constitutes true reading. Reading aloud, on the other hand, is a -combination of reading and articulate expression, in other words, a -combination involving the two great mechanisms of the spoken language -and the written language. Reading aloud permits an audience to take part -in the reading communicated to it by means of articulate speech. Even -here, the mental effort required to listen to the voice of a man -passionately interested in the narration of things which he himself has -experienced is not the same as that demanded in listening to a reading -of the same things by a person who has not experienced them, and who, to -narrate them, must perform the rapid and intense effort of -interpretation. In this reading, so to speak, by "transmission," the -most serious difficulties are encountered. We all know by experience how -difficult it is to endure a reading, and how rare an endowment the "gift -of reading" is. However, the person who is thus gifted can get a hearing -almost as well as the person who speaks. The teaching of reading, then, -in this sense, is not merely the teaching of the interpretation of the -meaning,--all that would be necessary, if the sole function of reading -were to gain new ideas for the reader. Reading, thus conceived, -represents really the addition of an _art of expression_ to simple -reading, and since this expressive art is purely dramatic, the _teaching -of reading_ involves the development of _dramatic art_. Only through -dramatic art can the transmission of reading to a group of people be -made possible. - -It is clear that the oftener the exercise of identifying oneself with -what is read is repeated and perfected, the greater the possibility of -expression becomes. It follows that in the perfection of this art we -should be less concerned with _timbre_, with tone of voice and gestures, -all extrinsic aspects of this art, than with intense vivid -_interpretation_ which brings the child to an identification of himself -with what he reads. And this interpretation will realize its objects if -it is practised as a habit and as _a form of reading_. - -The proof of correct interpretation was the child's ability to reproduce -in action what was described in the words he read. Similarly, the proof -of the interpretation in reading aloud is the repetition of the things -heard by means of the spoken language. That is, the children, in order -to prove to us that they have understood something read aloud, should be -able to repeat in narrative form what they have heard. - -The practical results of our efforts in this direction were very -interesting to watch. Some children can say nothing. Others offer to -tell the whole story. Their story is not clear or perhaps it is -defective in some respect. Immediately other children are ready to -correct the ones telling the story: "No, no, that's not what happened, -that's not what happened," or, "Wait, you have forgotten something," and -so on. In fact, to understand and to be able to narrate what has been -understood is not the same thing. In telling a story there is a -successive unfolding of very complex mental activities which are based -on and added to the primal activity of "having understood." It is a -question again of the three different stages noted by us in the first -lessons given to children: - -_First stage_, the causing of the perception: (_That is red, that is -blue_); - -_Second stage_, the perfection of recognition: (_What is red or blue?_); - -_Third stage_, the provocation of expression: (_What about this or -that?_). - -Thus, the child who succeeds in expressing, even in an imperfect way, -what he has understood of the passage he has read, is in a more advanced -state of development than other children who are unable to tell the -story. However, these children who are not able to relate what they have -heard said may very well be in the preceding stage in which they are -capable of "recognition." These latter are the relentless critics, the -constant "hecklers" of those who are trying to relate--"No, no,--that's -not so," "You have forgotten this, or that." Let one of us teachers try -to tell the story in the most perfect and complete manner, and these -tiny impetuous hecklers listen to us in ecstasy, showing their approval -in every form of approbation of which they are capable. By studying such -manifestations in the children, we can get sufficient psychological data -for determining what reading is adapted to children of different ages, -the best ways of reading aloud, and the line of development followed by -each child in that hidden mental world of his which is cut off from our -gaze. But to derive these benefits from reading, it is perfectly clear -that the children must be left absolutely _free_ in the expression of -what goes on in their minds. - -According to the method used in ordinary schools a child is called upon -to read aloud, and the teacher herself continually interrupts, either to -correct the pronunciation, or to assist by explanations and suggestions -in the interpretation of the meaning. This is all useless for -experimental purposes. We have no certain means of determining whether -the pupil has understood either what he has read or the explanations of -the teacher. Furthermore the corrections of pronunciation have centered -the child's attention on this detail which is entirely without relation -to the meaning of the text he is interpreting. Another situation not -infrequently arises. A child is selected at random to tell in his own -words what he has been read. Often the selection is not made at random, -but some pupil is called on because he has shown himself the most -inattentive, the least interested in what is being done--the recitation -thus becoming correctional in character! While the child is telling his -story, there is a constant suppression of interruptions: "Hush, I did -not call on you," "Wait till you are called on," "It is not polite to -interrupt some one who is talking," etc. It is clear that the teacher -will never learn anything about her pupils in this way. - -This explains why, from the psychological point of view, our present-day -schools have not been able to contribute anything new to a reformed -scientific pedagogy of reading. - - -EXPERIMENTAL SECTION: READING ALOUD - -Although we lay all possible stress on interpretative reading, we -nevertheless put into the hands of the child a little reading book which -he can go over by himself first in a low voice, and then, when he has -grasped the meaning, aloud, provided he can express himself clearly and -easily. - -The simplicity of these texts occasions surprise when one observes how -completely and enthusiastically absorbed in them the children become. -They find them so delightful that the books get literally worn out with -the reading and rereading to which they are subjected. Sometimes a book -is read from beginning to end. Again the child opens it by chance and -reads the page he happens on. Some children like to read the whole book -over and over. Others prefer to read some particular page a great many -times. One frequently sees these tiny things suddenly rise with great -decision and read aloud one of the pages which has been so seriously -examined. - -The little book was composed very carefully on the basis of rigid -experimentation. As the book is opened only one page of print appears, -the tergo of the right hand page being always blank. Nor does the text -always cover the entire page. The spaces above and below the print are -decorated with designs. - -The twenty pages of this beginners book are as follows: - - Page 1. My school is the "Children's House." - - Page 2. In the "Children's House" there are ever so - many little chairs and tables for us. - - Page 3. There are also some pretty cabinets. Each - child has his own drawer. - - Page 4. There are green plants and beautiful bouquets - of flowers everywhere about the rooms in our school. - - Page 5. I often stop to look at the pictures which are - hanging on the walls. - - Page 6. We are busy all the time. We wash our faces - and hands. We keep everything where it belongs. We - dust the furniture. We study and try to learn all we - can. - - Page 7. Can you guess how we learned to dress - ourselves? We kept our fingers busy working on the - canvas frames, lacing and unlacing, fastening and - unfastening the hooks and eyes, buttoning and - unbuttoning, tying and untying knots. - - Page 8. Then are ten blocks for this tower, all of - different sizes. First I spread them around on this - carpet. It is great fun to put them together again, - taking one after the other and choosing the largest - each time. - - Page 9. I use the tower too in a balancing game. Just - try to carry the tower around the room without letting - it fall to pieces! Sometimes I succeed and then again - I sometimes fail. - - Page 10. I like the long rods, too! I must put the - rods near each other according to their length. I must - be careful to place the blue sections near the blue - ones and the red ones near the red. Thus, I build some - pretty stairs with red and blue steps. - - Page 11. But to get a real stair case I use the brown - prisms. These prisms are of different size, and I get - some fine stairs with ten steps. - - Page 12. I have also some solid insets of wood into - which I fit little cylinders of different dimensions. - They differ in length and breadth. The game is to put - these cylinders in their places after looking at them - and touching them carefully. - - Page 13. We often make mistakes in working with the - insets. When we put a cylinder where it doesn't - belong, we find that at the end of the game we have - one cylinder left over and it won't fit in anywhere. - Then the exercise becomes very exciting. We look at - the inset carefully; we find the mistake and begin all - over again. The most skilful pupils work the insets - with their eyes closed. - - Page 14. These colors are called: red, black, green, - yellow, blue, brown, pink and violet. - - Page 15. I amuse myself by picking out and pulling - together pieces of the same color from the collection - spread out over my table. I get thus a long strip of - different colors. - - Page 16. We learn to arrange sixty-four different - colors by graduations. We get eight beautiful blends - of colors, each formed by eight tints of different - tones. When we become skilful we can make a pretty rug - with blending strips. - - Page 17. We also have two little chests full of pieces - of cloth. The cloths are of all kinds from the - roughest and hardest to the smoothest and softest: - canvas, cotton, linen, wool, flannel, velvet, etc. If - we keep our hands clean, we can learn to recognize all - sorts of things with the tips of our fingers! - - Page 18. A child is blindfolded. He mixes the pieces - of cloth with his little hands. He feels about among - the pieces of cloth. At last he smiles and holds up - his hands with two pieces of cloth, both alike. Though - he could not see, the child has found out, just by - using his fingers, that the two pieces were of the - same cloth. - - Page 19. These are my plane insets. Here are the blue - tablets. I must fit them into the frames, which have - just enough room for them. I run two fingers, the - fore-finger and the middle-finger, around the edge of - the tablet, and then around the edge of the frames. - Next I fit the tablet into its proper place. After a - little practise I can put the six tablets in their - places even with my eyes blindfolded. - - Page 20. With the plane insets I have learned to - recognize many figures: the square, the circle, the - rectangle, the ellipse, the triangle, the oval, the - pentagon, the hexagon, the heptagon, the octagon, the - enneagon, the decagon. I learned all these hard names - very easily because the insets are so amusing! - - -INTERPRETATIONS - -Reading with the object of interpretation is conducted as in the first -experiments of the "Children's House," with cards. From the graduated -series we have prepared the child selects a card. He reads it mentally -and then executes the action indicated on the card. Our later -experiments became very interesting when they were based upon a more -rigorous method. When we gave a card describing two actions to a child -of five years, he would execute only one of the actions. Take the -following for example: - - --She leaned over the back of a chair. - --She covered her face with her hands and wept. - -The child would act out either the first sentence (_She leaned over the -back of the chair_) or the second (_She covered her face with, her hands -and wept_). In spite of the fact that this child seemed extraordinarily -eager to get the cards into his hands and to interpret them, those -containing two sentences always aroused in him less enthusiasm than -those containing a single sentence or indicating a single action (for -instance, _The boy ran away as fast as he could_). In this latter case -the enthusiasm of the little ones, their care in interpreting the action -vividly, their eagerness to repeat it, their flushed faces and shining -eyes, told us that at last we had the reading adapted to their -psychology. - -Our _first series_ of readings accordingly is entirely "tested" or -_experimental_. It is made up of simple sentences something like those -analyzed in the lessons on grammar (Verb to Pronoun). - - -SERIES I - - --She gazed slowly around the room. - --He looked at them out of the corners of his eyes. - --The boy ran away as fast as he could. - --She threw herself on her knees before him. - --The man paced slowly up and down the room. - --The little girl stood with lowered head. - --The teacher nodded her approval. - --The little child sat with folded arms. - --He started rapidly toward the door. - --He began to walk to and fro about the room. - --His mother tenderly stroked his head. - --She motioned to him to keep away. - --He whispered in her ear. - --She placed her hand on his shoulder. - --They knocked at the door. - --The little girl frowned. - -The children carry out the indicated action after they have read -mentally, but they put what amounts to artistic expression into their -interpretations, which are never executed listlessly. For them it -becomes a real "interpretation." They often "study" the action, trying -it over and over again, as though rehearsing for a play. Their aptitude -for this is something remarkable. Furthermore the words have, for the -most part, already been studied in the grammatical exercises, so that -the meaning of each word is becoming more and more clear. This helps in -the interpretation. For example, the sentence _The little girl stood -with lowered head_ does not mean simply "she lowered her head." If the -child has understood he will stand for some time with lowered head in an -attitude more or less expressive according to the vividness of his -feeling of the situation. In the sentence _She threw herself on her -knees before him_ there will not be a simple act of kneeling, but -something more dramatic. The child will assume the kneeling posture with -some indication of emotion. The children take no end of interest in each -other's interpretations. - -In a _second series_ of readings we have two coordinated clauses, the -children executing two consecutive actions instead of one. - - -SERIES II - - --He opened the door and came in. - --He left the room and locked the door behind him. - --He went on tiptoe to the door and carefully opened it. - --She covered her face with her hands and began to sob violently. - --She gave a cry of joy and ran to the door. - --She burst into a laugh and clapped her hands. - --He took off his cap and made a low bow. - --She shook her head sadly and smiled. - --He threw the window wide open and looked into the garden. - --He hurried to the table and rang the bell. - --With a sigh of relief he stretched himself out on the sofa, and - lay there looking at the ceiling with his mouth open. - --He shut his eyes and fell asleep. - -In the _third series_, there are sentences with one or more coordinate -clauses. - - -SERIES III - - --She opened the door, smoothed her hair slowly and - came in. - - --He went to the window, opened it a little and peered - into the street. - - --He closed the window, went back to his desk and then - began to walk hurriedly up and down the room. - - --The doctor bent over the sick man, felt his pulse - with one hand and placed the other on his forehead. - - --He took a key out of his pocket, opened the door and - came in. - - --She uttered a cry of joy, ran to her mother and sank - on her knees before her. - - --He put his left elbow on his knee, rested his - forehead in his left hand and began to stroke his - beard with his right. - - --She leaned over the back of the chair, covered her - face with her hands and wept. - - --He went to the table, found the picture and joyfully - took it in his hands. - - --She took her handkerchief out of her pocket, - unfolded it and wiped the tears from her eyes. - - --The child was sleepy. He rested his head on his arms - on the table and went to sleep. - - --He looked toward the door fixedly, with an - expression of terror on his face and waited for the - man to come in. - - -SERIES IV - -(Complex sentences with one subordinate clause) - - --While he was making the drawing, he kept examining - the flower very carefully. - - --She covered her eyes with her hands, as if she were - trying to collect her thoughts. - - --She closed her eyes so that she could feel more - intensely the softness of the piece of velvet. - - --She looked tenderly after the little boy, till he - disappeared through the door. - - --When he had succeeded in turning the knob without - making any noise, he stealthily opened the door and - peered into the room. - - --George held the book before his face so that no one - could see him laughing. - - --She walked slowly across the room and with bowed - head, as though she were in great sorrow. - - --The old man stroked the little boy's head as though - he were much amused. - - --After she had motioned to the child to be silent, - the lady smilingly approached and took him by the - hand. - - --They stopped suddenly and listened, as though - wondering what it could be. - - --When Mary opened the door, George went to meet her - with a cheery smile of welcome. - - -SERIES V - -(Sentences somewhat more involved; descriptions more complex; an exact -interpretation sometimes requires the pronunciation of words aloud) - - --The child rose from her seat, and with her face - buried in her handkerchief, walked slowly, sadly, - toward the window. - - --He lay back in his chair, his head sunk between his - shoulders, while his arms were pressed tightly across - his breast, as though he were cold. - - [Illustration: Interpreted reading: "Whisper to him." - (_The Lenox School, Montessori Elementary Class, New - York._)] - - --He dropped wearily into a chair and sat there - looking at the floor, his right elbow on his knee and - his chin resting on his hand. - - --He stood at the open window, with figure erect, and - his hands resting on the window-sill, while in deep - breaths he took into his lungs the delicious fresh air - that was coming into the room. - - --The boy lowered his head, and rubbed his forehead - with his hands as though he were trying to collect his - thoughts. - - --There she knelt, her face turned heavenward, her - hands crossed in her lap, while her body drooped - gently as though she were very, very tired. - - --When he reached the door of his house, he hastily - unlocked the door, opened it, went in, and carefully - locked the door again behind him; and in his eagerness - to confide his secret to some one he could trust, he - went down the hall calling "Mother, Mother!" - - --His eyes filled with tears as he went to the wall - where the picture of his father hung, and there with - his head resting on his arm against the wall, he - sobbed bitterly. - - --Rizpah spread the cloth on the ground at the foot of - the tree, seated herself upon it, and with her arms - resting limp upon her knees, her eyes set in - unutterable woe, watched the birds and thought about - her lost children. - - --The man was lying, sprawling, on the couch, but he - jumped up and ran to the door and angrily motioned to - his servant to come to him. - - --The old lady sat shivering near the stove, holding - out her hands to get the warmth and nervously opening - and closing them so that the tips of her fingers kept - rubbing her palms. - - --"I see," thought the boy as he stood with folded - arms looking fixedly at the floor. - - --He took the handkerchief, examined it a moment and - said: "It doesn't belong to me!" - - --He stooped over and picked up a pencil that was - lying on the floor: "Pshaw," said he, "it is broken!" - - --Pecopin, feeling that all was over, threw himself - face downward on the ground, and moaned: "I shall - never see her again!" - - --On waking, Rip Van Winkle rubbed his eyes and looked - around for his gun; as he rose to walk he found - himself stiff in the joints and wanting in his usual - agility. - - --The clergyman folded his hands before his breast - and, bending his head above them, prayed fervently. - - --The girl knelt beside the fallen soldier, while with - her right hand she waved her handkerchief to and fro - in the air. - - --As the door opened, Florence ran to meet him, - crying, "Oh, dear, dear papa!" and she held out her - arms to him; but, as he paid no attention to her, she - put her handkerchief to her face and burst into tears. - - --Beatrice came through the door holding her skirt - with one beautiful arm, while with the other she held - a candlestick above her head, so that the light shone - upon her face. - - --She advanced holding forward her head as if she - would have him kiss her as he used to when she was a - child; but then remembering herself, she made him a - deep curtsy, sweeping down to the ground almost, - looking up meanwhile with the sweetest smile. - - --She closed the door very carefully behind her, and - then leant back against it, her hands folded before - her, looking at the boy who was kneeling beside his - trunk to pack it. - - --He took the paper and stepped to the window; then - holding the sheet so that the light fell full upon it, - he examined it carefully, folded it as though musing - on its contents and put it into his vest pocket. - - --My Lord was lifting the glass to his lips, when - Esmond entered; but at the sight of the familiar face, - the movement of his arm ceased when the glass was on a - level with his chin; he held it there a moment in - astonishment, then, suddenly setting it on the table - he rushed toward Esmond with outstretched arms, and - would almost have embraced him: "I thought you were in - France," he exclaimed. - - --The Prince was lying on the bed, but at the sound of - the footsteps, he rose on his elbow in alarm, while he - reached under the pillow for his pistols: "Who goes - there?" he shouted sternly. - - [Illustration: In a similar manner, the children set - out or interpret poses and expressions in pictures. - (_A Montessori School in Italy._)] - - --The child playfully drew his cap down over his eyes - as though he were a very fierce bandit, and rushed - into the room holding out his arm and pointing his - fore-finger like a pistol. - - --As the ladies rode up, the old gentleman raised his - hat and stood with bowed head till they had passed. - - --The young man picked up the glove from the floor, - pressed it fervently to his lips and clasped it - tenderly against his bosom, as though it were a - priceless treasure. - - -SERIES VI - -(More difficult interpretations with occasional speaking) - - --Dunsey threw himself into a chair by the window, - drew another chair before him, threw one leg over it, - and began to beat on the window sill with the points - of his fingers. - - --Godfrey stood with his back to the fire, moving his - fingers uneasily among the contents of his - side-pockets and looking at the floor. - - --Aaron replied by rubbing his head against his - mother's skirt, passing the backs of his hands over - his eyes and peeping through his fingers at Master - Marner. - - --Mr. Macey screwed up his mouth, leaned his head - further on one side and twirled his thumbs rapidly, - with his two hands resting on his lap and touching at - the finger-tips. - - --Silas sat with his elbows on his knees, his forehead - pressed rigidly into his two palms, his eyes closed, - deep sighs that were almost groans shaking his slender - frame. - - --The little tot squatted on the coat and spread out - her hands to the fire; but the little eyes refused to - stay open, and finally the golden head sank down upon - the floor fast asleep. - - --Presently the child slipped from his knee and began - to walk about; but suddenly she fell into a sitting - posture and began to pull at her little boots, as - though she were trying to get at her toes. - - --"At last," he said, stretching back in the arm - chair, crossing his legs and joining his hands behind - his head: "I can now have a minute to myself!" - - --"Ssshh," said the boy, frowning, and waving his - right arm with hand outspread towards his companion. - - -SERIES VII - -(Interpretation requiring more than one person) - - --As Rip Van Winkle approached the town, the people - all stared at him with marks of surprise and - invariably stroked their chins, so that Rip was - induced involuntarily to do likewise: his beard was a - foot long. - - --A self-important old gentleman pushed through the - crowd, shoving the people to the right and left with - his elbows as he passed; and planting himself before - Van Winkle, with one hand on his side, the other - resting on his cane, he demanded with an austere tone: - "What are you doing here?" - - --As Rip Van Winkle told his story, the bystanders - began to look at each other, nod, and wink - significantly and tap their fingers against their - foreheads. - - --An old woman came tottering forward, put her hand to - her brow and peering under it into his face for a - moment, exclaimed: "Sure enough, it is Rip Van - Winkle!" - - --As the Emperor stepped into the court-yard, the - ladies were all so busy crowding about the young - prince, holding his hands and counting the kisses, - that they did not see the old gentleman: "What's all - this, what's all this?" he shouted in rage; and they - all scampered off in every direction. - - --Trotty sat down in his chair and beat his knees and - laughed; he sat down in his chair and beat his knees - and cried; he got out of his chair and hugged Med; he - got out of his chair and hugged Richard; he got out of - his chair and hugged them both at once. He was - constantly getting up and sitting down, never stopping - in his chair a single minute, being beside himself - with joy. - - --"Here, little girl, can you tell us the way to - town?" "That's not the way. The town is over in this - direction!" But as the little girl was turning to - point out the road, one of the men seized her by the - waist and lifted her from the ground. Lucia looked - back over her shoulder terrified and gave a shriek. - (Manzoni.) - - (The children were delighted with this little action - and rehearsed it over and over again.) - - --With a start, Evangeline looked wildly about her: - "Where is Gabriel?" she asked dazedly. "Where is - Gabriel? Where is Gabriel?" "He is on that ship that - is just sailing out of the harbor!" some one answered. - For a few moments Evangeline stood shading her eyes - with her palm, gazing after the vessel, fast - disappearing into the horizon. At last she spoke half - aloud: "I will follow you and find you wherever they - may take you, Gabriel," she said, as though taking a - vow. Then she turned to the soldier and said: "Lead on - to the boat, I am coming. I am coming." - - --"Give me the bow," said Tell. Tell chose two arrows: - one he fitted to the bow-string, the other he thrust - into his girdle. Then for a moment he stood, a little - bowed of shoulder, with his eyes downward: he was - praying. You might have heard a leaf fall, so still - was the place. Then Tell raised his head; his eyes - were steady, his hands had become still; his face was - like iron; he brought the cross bow to his shoulder - and laid his eye to the feather of the shaft: "Twang," - the apple fell. A cheer arose from the crowd. Tell - laid his hand upon the arrow in his girdle. "If the - first had hurt my child," he said, "this one by now - would have been through your heart, O Gessler!" - -The children by no means restrict themselves to acting out these little -scenes and poses. In a second stage they read aloud all these slips -which they have interpreted, and in view of the preparation they have -had, their reading shows considerable power of expression. They tend to -read the slips over and over again, many times, and not infrequently -commit them to memory. To take advantage of this new activity we got -together a number of poems, making up a little book of children's verse. -The pupils read them both mentally and aloud, ultimately committing them -to memory and reciting them. Here are some specimens of our Italian -collection: - - IL BACIO THE KISS - - Dormiva nella cuna un bel bambino, "A pretty child was sleeping - E la mamma lo stava a rimirare; in his cradle; its mother was - Voleva dargli il bacio del mattino, looking at it. She wanted to - Ma il bacio lo poteva risvegliare; give it the morning kiss; but the - Svegliarlo non voleva, e con la mano kiss might awaken it. To avoid - Gli butto cento baci da lontano. this, she threw it a thousand - kisses with her hand." - - - UN SOGNO A DREAM - - Vidi una fata un giorno I saw a fairy one day, with - Che avea le trecce d'oro golden hair and a dress of - E un abito di perle pearls, richer than a treasure. - Piu ricco d'un tesoro - - "Vieni con me," mi disse, "Come with me," the fairy - "Che ti faro regina." said, "and I'll make you a - "Non vengo, bella fata; queen." "I cannot, pretty - Io sto con la mammina." fairy," I replied, "I must stay - with mother." - - - LA NEVE THE SNOW - - Lenta la neve fiocca, fiocca, The flakes of snow are falling, - fiocca, falling, falling. Listen, a - Senti, una culla dondola pian cradle is gently, gently - piano. rocking; a baby cries, his - Un bimbo piange, il piccol dito finger in his mouth; the old - in bocca, nurse sings, her chin in her - Canta la vecchia, il mento in hand. - su la mano. - - - LA GALLINA THE HEN - - Io vi domando se si puo trovare I leave it to you: is there a - Un piu bravo animal della gallina. nicer animal than the hen? If - Se non avesse il vizio di raspare only she wouldn't scratch, I - would like to have one with me - Ne vorrei sempre aver una vicina. all the time. Every day, at a - Tutti i giorni a quell'ora: certain hour: - "Coccode!" "Cut-cut-cut-cut-cadakut!" - Corri a guardar nel covo e l'ovo Run and look in the nest, and - "Coccode!" an egg is there! - - - LA POVERA BAMBINA THE POOR ORPHAN CHILD - - Disse: "Mia madre e morta! She said: "My mother is - Io son digiuna dead; I have nothing to eat; the - E la stagion e cruda: weather is cold. There is no one - In terra a me non pensa anima left to think of me. I am a - alcuna: ragged orphan girl." - Sono orfanella e ignuda." - - - IL PESCE THE FISH - - Un di fuor della vasca del giardino One day a little fish jumped - Guizzo imprudentemente un imprudently out of the garden - pesciolino. pool. Gigi saw it and all - Gigi lo vide, e tutto disperato excitedly cried out: "Mamma, - Grido alla mamma: un pesce s'e mamma, a fish has drowned - annegato! himself." - - - QUEL CHE POSSIEDE UN BAMBINO A CHILD'S POSSESSIONS - - Due piedi lesti lesti per correre Two little lively feet to run - e saltare. and jump with. - Due mani sempre in moto per Two busy hands to take and do - prendere e per fare. things. - La bocca piccolina per tutto One little mouth to ask - domandare. questions with. - Due orecchie sempre all'erta Two ears always awake to hear - intente ad ascoltare. everything with. - Due occhioni spalancati per tutto Two bright eyes always open to - investigare. see everything with. - E un cuoricino buono per molto, One little heart to love with. - molto amare. - - - IL BUON ODORE THE FLOWER'S FRAGRANCE - - "Ma, bimbo mio, perche "Why spoil that pretty flower, - Sciupar questo bel fiore?" my child?" - "Cercavo il buon odore, "I was looking for the sweet - Non so capir dov'e." smell and I haven't been able to - LINA SCHWARZ. find it." - - - NINNA-NANNA DI NATALE CHRISTMAS LULLABY - - Ninna-nanna, gelato e il focolare; Lullaby, the fire is out, my - fanciul, non ti svegliare. child, do not awaken. To keep - Per coprirti dal freddo, o mio you warm, my little child, I - bambino, must make you a little dress - Cucio in un vecchio scialle un from this old shawl. - vestitino. - - Ma il lucignolo trema e l'occhio But the lamp is dim and my - e stanco, eyes are tired, O child of the - bimbo dal viso bianco. white face. Who knows if even - Chi sa se per domani avro finito by tomorrow I can have this - Questo che aspetti povero vestito! poor dress for you. - ADA NEGRI. - -A corresponding book of English verse might include something like the -following: - - - THE WHOLE DUTY OF A CHILD - - A child should always say what's true, - And speak when he is spoken to, - And behave mannerly at table-- - At least so far as he is able. - STEVENSON. - - - THE RAIN - - The rain is raining all around, - It falls on field and tree, - It rains on the umbrella here - And on the ships at sea. - STEVENSON. - - - THE COW - - Thank you, pretty cow, that made - Pleasant milk to soak my bread, - Every day and every night - Warm and fresh and sweet and white. - ANN TAYLOR. - - - THE RAIN - - The rain is raining all around, - Kittens to shelter fly, - But human folk wear over-shoes - To keep their hind-paws dry. - O. HERFORD. - - - FISHES - - How very pleasant it must be - For little fishes in the sea! - They never learn to swim at all: - It came to them when they were small. - "Swim out like this," their mother cried, - "Straight through the water, foam and tide." - They waved their fins and writhed their scales, - And steered their little rudder tails. - Already they know what to do-- - I wish that I could do it too! - ALICE FARWELL BROWN. - - - THE LITTLE COCK SPARROW - - A little cock-sparrow sat on a green tree, - And he chirruped, he chirruped, so merry was he; - A naughty boy came with his wee bow and arrow, - Determined to shoot this little cock-sparrow. - - "This little cock-sparrow shall make me a stew, - And his giblets shall make me a little pie too." - "Oh, no!" said the sparrow, "I won't make a stew"; - So he flapped his wings and away he flew. - BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE. - - - THE TREE - - What do we do when we plant the tree? - We plant the houses for you and me; - We plant the rafters, the shingle, the floors, - We plant the studding, the laths, the doors, - The beams and siding--all parts that be! - We plant the house when we plant the tree. - HENRY ABBEY. - - - THE LAMB - - Little lamb, who made thee? - Dost thou know who made thee, - Gave thee life and bade thee feed - By the stream and o'er the mead; - Gave thee clothing of delight, - Softest clothing woolly bright; - Gave thee such a tender voice, - Making all the vales rejoice? - Little lamb who made thee? - Dost thou know who made thee? - W. BLAKE. - - - Let dogs delight to bark and bite, - For God hath made them so; - Let bears and lions growl and fight, - For 'tis their nature too. - But, children, you should never let - Such angry passions rise: - Your little hands were never made - To tear each others' eyes. - WATTS. - - - The sunshine flickers through the lace - Of leaves above my head, - And kisses me upon the face - Like Mother before bed. - - The wind comes stealing o'er the grass - To whisper pretty things; - And though I cannot see him pass - I feel his careful wings. - STEVENSON. - -After this preparation the children are able to "understand" what they -read. All their difficulties in grasping the sentences and their most -complicated constructions have been overcome. They have an insight into -the grammatical form of language; and the construction of a sentence, -as well as the meaning of the words in it, interests them. There has -been created within them a fund of suppressed energy which will very -soon break forth into intense activity. In fact, in our school, after -these exercises the passion for reading began to show itself. The -children wanted "reading, reading, more reading." We got together -hastily a few books but never enough to satisfy the eagerness of the -children. We found a surprising lack of reading for little children in -Italian. The American system of opening special rooms in public -libraries for the use of little readers seems to me an excellent thing. - -But to take full advantage of this awakened enthusiasm for reading and -to cultivate at the same time the art of reading aloud we must not -neglect another element in reading: audition. - - -AUDITION - -When the child has advanced to some extent in the exercises of -interpretation, the teacher may begin reading aloud. This should be done -as artistically as possible. We recommend for the training of teachers -not only a considerable artistic education in general but special -attention to the art of reading. One of the differences between the -traditional teacher of the past and the teachers we should like to -create is that the former used to speak of an "art of teaching," which -consisted of various devices to make the child learn, in spite of -itself, what the teacher wanted to teach. Our teachers, rather, should -be _cultivators_ of the fine arts. For in our method art is considered a -_means to life_. It is beauty in all its forms which helps the inner man -to grow. We have repeatedly emphasized that both in the environment at -school and in the materials used, everything should be carefully -considered in its artistic bearings, to provide ample room for -development for all the phenomena of attention and persistence in work -which are the secret keys of self-education. The Montessori teacher -should be a cultivator of music, drawing and elocution, responsive to -the harmony of things; she must, that is, have sufficient "good taste" -to be able to lay out the school plant and keep it in condition; and -sufficient delicacy of manner--the product of a sensitive nature--to be -alive to all the manifestations of the child spirit. - -In the matter of reading aloud the teacher has an important task to -accomplish. We found the drawing hour best adapted for this work. It was -our experience that it is easier to gain a hearing when the children are -busy with something which does not require great concentration and which -is not sustained by any particular inspiration. During the drawing -lesson, in the placid silence which comes from work, and while the -children are intent on their designs, the teacher may begin her reading -aloud. It sometimes happens that the substance of what she reads will be -sufficient to engage the interest of the whole school. But this is not -always an easy task. It is more often the musical quality of the -teacher's execution which will attract the little ones with a sense for -art and bring them to that motionless attention which is the evidence of -eager enjoyment. Possibly a really perfect reader might be able so to -hold the whole group of children with some absorbing selection. - -The readings we used were numerous and of great variety: fairy tales, -short stories, anecdotes, novels, historical episodes. Specifically -there were the tales of Andersen, some of the short stories of Capuana, -the _Cuore_ of De Amicis, episodes of the life of Jesus, _Uncle Tom's -Cabin_, _The Betrothed_ (_I promessi sposi_ of Manzoni), _Fabiola_, -stories from the Italian wars for independence (Nineteenth Century), -Itard's _Education of the Young Savage of Aveyron_. - - -THE MOST POPULAR BOOKS - -In general the child will listen to anything that is really interesting. -But certainly some surprises will be occasioned by our discovery that -the children liked above everything else the readings on Italian history -and the _Education of the Savage of Aveyron_. The phenomenon is -sufficiently curious to merit further consideration. The history we used -was not one commonly thought adapted to young readers. Quite the -contrary: it was Pasquale de Luca's _I Liberatori_ (_Makers of Freedom_, -Bergamo, 1909), written to arouse a feeling of patriotism among the -Italian emigrants of Argentina. The special feature of this publication -is its contemporary documents reprinted in _fac-simile_. There are, for -instance, telegrams, notices in cipher published on the walls of the -towns on the eve of uprisings, commemorative medals, a receipt given by -an executioner for whipping publicly an Italian patriot, etc. Patriotic -songs are given with the music (these the children learned by heart, -following the piano); there are also copious illustrations. - -This documented history was so absorbing that the children became -entirely possessed by the situations. They started animated discussions -on various subjects, arguing and deciding. They were particularly -outraged at an edict of the king of Naples which was intended to mislead -the public. They raged at unjust persecutions, applauded heroic deeds, -and ended by insisting on acting out some of the scenes. They formed -little companies of three or four and "acted" the episodes with a most -impressive dramatic sense. One little girl was moved to bring to school -a collection of all the Italian patriotic songs. It fascinated many of -the children, who learned several by heart and sang them in chorus. In a -word, the Italian Risorgimento came to live in those little hearts with -a freshness it has long since lost in the souls of their elders. Many of -the children wrote down their impressions of their own accord, often -giving surprisingly original judgments. Finally they began to "take -notes." They asked the teacher to give an outline of the principal -events, which they took down in their copy-books. This whole experience -corrected many of my own ideas on the teaching of history. I had thought -of preparing moving-picture films and giving historical representations. -But that, naturally, being beyond my resources, I had been compelled to -give up the plan. The reading of De Luca's book was a revelation. To -teach history to children it is sufficient to give a _living documented -truth_. We need, not more cinematographs, but different school books. -Children are much more sensible to the true and beautiful than we. They -suggest fact and situation. De Luca, moved by affection for his distant -brothers, tried to write a book flaming both with truth and with love, -which would awaken them and bring them back to live among us as -Italians. Our task is the same. We must be filled with a similarly -intense human zeal: we must call back to us the distant souls of the -children. They too are brothers living far away in a distant country. We -must arouse them, bring them back to us as partners in our own life. - -After our readings from Itard's _Savage_, the parents of the children -kept coming to us with inquiries: "What have you been reading to our -children? We should like to hear it ourselves." The little ones had told -of hearing an extraordinary story about a child who had lived with the -animals, beginning little by little to understand, to feel, to live like -us. All the psychological details of his study, his attempts at -education, seemed to have touched the children deeply. It occurred to us -to take the older of such children to a "Children's House" and show them -our educational method. They took the greatest interest in it, and some -of them are now collaborators in the foundation of other "Children's -Houses." Such children are able to follow the development of the child -mind with extraordinary sympathy. However, if we reflect that the best -teachers for children are children themselves, and that little tots like -the company of another child much better than that of an adult, we need -not be surprised at the downfall of another prejudice. - -[Illustration: Interpreted reading: "She was sleepy; she leaned her arms -on the table, her head on her arms, and went to sleep." Notice the slip -of paper which the child has just read. (_The Lenox School, Montessori -Elementary Class, New York._)] - -We have conceived of children according to a fantastic idea of our own, -making of them a sort of human species distinct from that to which -adults belong. As a matter of fact, they are our children, more purely -human than we ourselves. The beautiful and the true have for them an -intense fascination, into which they plunge as into something actually -necessary for their existence. - -The results here witnessed led us to many a reflection. We succeeded in -teaching history and even pedagogy by means of "reading." And, in truth, -does not reading embrace everything? Travel stories teach geography; -insect stories lead the child into natural science; and so on. The -teacher, in short, can use reading to introduce her pupils to the most -varied subjects; and the moment they have been thus started, they can go -on to any limit guided by the single passion for reading. Our task is -to offer the child the instruments of education, to keep pure within him -the springs of his intellectual growth, of his life of feeling. The rest -follows as a matter of course. As the ancients said: "_Necessary_ -education is the three 'r's': reading, writing and arithmetic," for -these are things which the child cannot discover by himself. We can only -add that "method" must be scientifically determined only at the points -where it becomes necessary to assist the "formation of man," that he may -develop his activities by strengthening them and not by repressing them, -that he may receive essential help without losing any pure freshness of -his interior activities. But this does not mean that "a rigorous method -must guide the child at all times and in every step that he takes." When -he has become strong and is in possession of his tools for discovery, he -will be able to uncover many of life's secrets by himself. We tied the -child to the materials in his sensory exercises, but we left him free to -explore his environment. This must be the method for all his later steps -in advance: he must be given the instrument and the strength to use it, -and then left free to find things out for himself. - -[Illustration: Exercises in interpreted reading and arithmetic. (_The -Rivington Street Montessori School, New York._)] - -The fondness of children for reading and their preference for the "true" -is something already demonstrated by experiments conducted elsewhere. I -may refer here to the investigations on readings for children conducted -by the "Education" section of the Federation for School Libraries of the -province of Emilia (Italy). The questionnaire was as follows: - - Do you remember what books you have read and which you - liked best? - - How did you get them? - - Do you know the title of some book you would like to - read? - - Do you prefer fairy-tales, or rather stories of true - or probable facts? Why? - - Do you prefer sad or humorous stories? - - Do you like poetry? - - Do you like stories of travel and adventure? - - Do you subscribe to any weekly or monthly newspaper? - If so, to which? - - If your mother were to offer you a choice between a - subscription to a weekly or monthly and an illustrated - book, which would you take? And why? - -The answers, very carefully sifted, showed that the vast majority of -children preferred readings which dealt with fact. Here are some of the -reasons alleged by the children in support for their preference for -"truth": "Facts teach me something; fairy-tales are too improbable; true -stories don't upset my thinking; true stories teach me history; true -stories always convey some good idea; fairy-stories give me desires -impossible to satisfy; many good ideas come from actual experiences; -fantastic tales make me think too much about supernatural things"; etc., -etc. In favor of the fairy-tales we find: "They amuse me in hours free -from work; I like to be in the midst of fairies and enchantments"; etc. -Those who preferred sad or serious stories justified themselves as -follows: "I feel that I am a better person, and realize better the wrong -I do; I feel that my disposition becomes more kindly; they arouse in me -feelings of kindness and pity." Many supported their preference for -humorous tales on the ground that "when I read them, I am able to forget -my own little troubles." In general, a great majority denied any -educational value to joy and humor. In this conviction--or rather this -feeling--so widely diffused among children, have we not evidence that -something must be wrong in the kind of education we have been giving -them? - -FOOTNOTE: - -[5] The first readings consist of a special grammar and a dictionary. - - - - -PART III - -ARITHMETIC - - - - -I - -ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS - -NUMBERS: 1-10 - - -The children already had performed the four arithmetical operations in -their simplest forms, in the "Children's Houses," the didactic material -for these having consisted of the rods of the long stair which gave -empirical representation of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. -By means of its divisions into sections of alternating colors, red and -blue, each rod represented the quantity of unity for which it stood; and -so the entrance into the complex and arduous field of numbers was thus -rendered easy, interesting, and attractive by the conception that -collective number can be represented by a _single_ object containing -signs by which the relative quantity of unity can be recognized, instead -of by _a number of different_ units, represented by the figure in -question. For instance, the fact that five may be represented by a -single object with five distinct and equal parts instead of by five -distinct objects which the mind must reduce to a concept of number, -saves mental effort and clarifies the idea. - -It was through the application of this principle by means of the rods -that the children succeeded so easily in accomplishing the first -arithmetical operations: 7 + 3 = 10; 2 + 8 = 10; 10 - 4 = 6; etc. - -The long stair material is excellent for this purpose. But it is too -limited in quantity and is too large to be handled easily and used to -good advantage in meeting the demands of a room full of children who -already have been initiated into arithmetic. Therefore, keeping to the -same fundamental concepts, we have prepared smaller, more abundant -material, and one more readily accessible to a large number of children -working at the same time. - -This material consists of beads strung on wires: i.e., bead bars -representing respectively 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. The beads are -of different colors. The 10-bead bar is orange; 9, dark blue; 8, -lavender; 7, white; 6, gray; 5, light blue; 4, yellow; 3, pink; 2, -green; and there are separate beads for unity.[6] The beads are -opalescent; and the white metal wire on which they are strung is bent at -each end, holding the beads rigid and preventing them from slipping. - -There are five sets of these attractive objects in each box; and so each -child has at his disposal the equivalent of five sets of the long stairs -used for his numerical combinations in the earliest exercise. The fact -that the rods are small and so easily handled permits of their being -used at the small tables. - -This very simple and easily prepared material has been extraordinarily -successful with children of five and a half years. They have worked with -marked concentration, doing as many as sixty successive operations and -filling whole copybooks within a few days' time. Special quadrille paper -is used for the purpose; and the sheets are ruled in different colors: -some in black, some in red, some in green, some in blue, some in pink, -and some in orange. The variety of colors helps to hold the child's -attention: after filling a sheet lined in red, he will enjoy filling one -lined in blue, etc. - -Experience has taught us to prepare a large number of the ten-bead bars; -for the children will choose these from all the others, in order to -count the tens in succession: 10, 20, 30, 40, etc. To this first bead -material, therefore, we have added boxes filled with nothing but -ten-bead bars. There are also small cards on which are written 10, 20, -etc. The children put together two or more of the ten-bead bars to -correspond with the number on the cards. This is an initial exercise -which leads up to the multiples of 10. By superimposing these cards on -that for the number 100 and that for the number 1000, such numbers as -_1917_ can be obtained. - -The "bead work" became at once an established element in our method, -scientifically determined as a conquest brought to maturity by the child -in the very act of making it. Our success in amplifying and making more -complex the early exercises with the rods has made the child's mental -calculation more rapid, more certain, and more comprehensive. Mental -calculation develops spontaneously, as if by a law of conservation -tending to realize the "minimum of effort." Indeed, little by little the -child ceases counting the beads and recognizes the numbers by their -color: the dark blue he knows is 9, the yellow 4, etc. Almost without -realizing it he comes now to count by _colors_ instead of by -_quantities_ of beads, and thus performs actual operations in mental -arithmetic. As soon as the child becomes conscious of this power, he -joyfully announces his transition to the higher plane, exclaiming, "I -can count in my head and I can do it more quickly!" This declaration -indicates that he has conquered the first bead material. - - -TENS, HUNDREDS, AND THOUSANDS - -MATERIAL: I have had a chain made by joining ten ten-bead bars end to -end. This is called the "hundred chain." Then, by means of short and -very flexible connecting links I had ten of these "hundred chains" put -together, making the "thousand chain." - -These chains are of the same color as the ten-bead bars, all of them -being constructed of orange-colored beads. The difference in their -reciprocal length is very striking. Let us first put down a single bead; -then a ten-bead bar, which is about seven centimeters long; then a -hundred-bead chain, which is about seventy centimeters long; and finally -the thousand-bead chain, which is about seven meters long. The great -length of this thousand-bead chain leads directly to another idea of -quantity; for whereas the 1, the 10, and the 100 can be placed on the -table for convenient study, the entire length of the room will hardly -suffice for the thousand-bead chain! The children find it necessary to -go into the corridor or an adjoining room; they have to form little -groups to accomplish the patient work of stretching it out into a -straight line. And to examine the whole extent of this chain, they have -to walk up and down its entire length. The realization they thus obtain -of the relative values of quantity is in truth an event for them. For -days at a time this amazing "thousand chain" claims the child's entire -activity. - -The flexible connections between the different hundred lengths of the -thousand-bead chain permit of its being folded so that the "hundred -chains" lie one next to the other, forming in their entirety a long -rectangle. The same quantity which formerly impressed the child by its -length is now, in its broad, folded form, presented as a _surface_ -quantity. - -Now all may be placed on a small table, one below the other: first the -single bead, then the ten-bead bar, then the "hundred chain," and -finally the broad strip of the "thousand chain." - -Any teacher who has asked herself how in the world a child may be taught -to express in numerical terms quantitative proportions perceived through -the eye, has some idea of the problem that confronts us. However, our -children set to work patiently counting bead by bead from 1 to 100. Then -they gathered in two's and three's about the "thousand chain," as if to -help one another in counting it, undaunted by the arduous undertaking. -They counted on hundred; and after one hundred, what? One hundred one. -And finally two hundred, two hundred one. One day they reached seven -hundred. "I am tired," said the child. "I'll mark this place and come -back tomorrow." - -"Seven hundred, seven hundred--Look!" cried another child. "There are -seven--_seven_ hundreds! Yes, yes; count the chains! Seven hundred, -eight hundred, nine hundred, one thousand. Signora, signora, the -'thousand chain' has ten 'hundred chains'! Look at it!" And other -children, who had been working with the "hundred chain," in turn called -the attention of _their_ comrades: "Oh, look, look! The 'hundred chain' -has ten ten-bead bars!" - -Thus we realized that the numerical concept of tens, hundreds, and -thousands was given by presenting these chains to the child's -intelligent curiosity and by respecting the spontaneous endeavors of his -free activities. - -And since this was our experience with most of the children, one easily -can see how simple a suggestion would be necessary if the deduction did -not take place in the case of some exceptional child. In fact, to make -the idea of decimal relations apparent to a child, it is sufficient to -direct his attention to the material he is handling. The teacher -experienced in this method knows how to wait; she realizes that the -child needs to exercise his mind constantly and slowly; and if the inner -maturation takes place naturally, "intuitive explosions" are bound to -follow as a matter of course. The more we allow the children to follow -the interests which have claimed their fixed attention, the greater will -be the value of the results. - - -COUNTING-FRAMES - -The direct assistance of the teacher, her clear and brief explanation, -is, however, essential when she presents to the child another new -material, which may be considered "symbolic" of the decimal relations. -This material consists of two very simple bead counting-frames, similar -in size and shape to the dressing-frames of the first material. They are -light and easily handled and may be included in the individual -possessions of each child. The frames are easily made and are -inexpensive. - -One frame is arranged with the longest side as base, and has four -parallel metal wires, each of which is strung with ten beads. The three -top wires are equidistant but the fourth is separated from the others by -a greater distance, and this separation is further emphasized by a brass -nail-head fixed on the left hand side of the frame. The frame is painted -one color above the nail-head and another color below it; and on this -side of the frame, also, numerals corresponding to each wire are marked. -The numeral opposite the top wire is 1, the next 10, then 100, and the -lowest, 1000. - -We explain to the child that each bead of the first wire is assumed to -stand for one, or unity, as did the separate beads they have had before; -but each bead of the second wire stands for ten (or for one of the -ten-bead bars); the value of each bead of the third wire is one hundred -and represents the "hundred chain"; and each bead on the last wire -(which is separated from the others by the brass nail-head) has the same -value as a "thousand chain."[7] - -At first it is not easy for the child to understand this symbolism, but -it will be less difficult if he previously has worked over the chains, -counting and studying them without being hurried. When the concept of -the relationship between unity, tens, hundreds, and thousands has -matured spontaneously, he more readily will be able to recognize and use -the symbol. - -Specially lined paper is designed for use with these frames. This paper -is divided lengthwise into two equal parts, and on both sides of the -division are vertical lines of different colors: to the right a green -line, then a blue, and next a red line. These are parallel and -equidistant. A vertical line of dots separates this group of three lines -from another line which follows. On the first three lines from right to -left are written respectively the units, tens, and hundreds; on the -inner line the thousands. - -The right half of the page is used entirely and exclusively to clarify -this idea and to show the relationship of written numbers to the decimal -symbolism of the counting-frame. - -With this object in view, we first count the beads on each wire of the -frame; saying for the top wire, one unit, two units, three units, four -units, five units, six units, seven units, eight units, nine units, ten -units. The ten units of this top wire are equal to one bead on the -second wire. - -The beads on the second wire are counted in the same way: one ten, two -tens, three tens, four tens, five tens, six tens, seven tens, eight -tens, nine tens, ten tens. The ten ten-beads are equal to one bead on -the third wire. - -The beads on this third wire then are counted one by one: one hundred, -two hundreds, three hundreds, four hundreds, five hundreds, six -hundreds, seven hundreds, eight hundreds, nine hundreds, ten hundreds. -These ten hundred-beads are equal to one of the thousand-beads. - -There also are ten thousand-beads: one thousand, two thousands, three -thousands, four thousands, five thousands, six thousands, seven -thousands, eight thousands, nine thousands, ten thousands. The child can -picture ten separate "thousand chains"; this symbol is in direct -relation, therefore, to a tangible idea of quantity. - -Now we must transcribe all these acts by which we have in succession -counted, ten units, ten tens, ten hundreds, and ten thousands. On the -first vertical line to the extreme right (the green line) we write the -units, one beneath the other; on the second line (blue) we write the -tens; on the third line (red) the hundreds; and, finally, on the line -beyond the dots we write the thousands. There are sufficient horizontal -lines for all the numbers, including one thousand. - -Having reached 9, we must leave the line of the units and pass over to -that of the tens; in fact, ten units make one ten. And, similarly, when -we have written 9 in the tens line we must of necessity pass to the -hundreds line, because ten tens equal one hundred. Finally, when 9 in -the hundreds line has been written, we must pass to the thousands line -for the same reason. - -The units from 1 to 9 are written on the line farthest to the right; on -the next line to the left are written the tens (from 1 to 9); and on the -third line, the hundreds (from 1 to 9). Thus always we have the numbers -1 to 9; and it cannot be otherwise, for any more would cause the figure -itself to change position. It is this fact that the child must quietly -ponder over and allow to ripen in his mind. - -It is the nine numbers that change position in order to form all the -numbers that are possible. Therefore, it is not the number in itself but -its _position_ in respect to the other numbers which gives it the value -now of one, now of ten, now of one hundred or one thousand. Thus we have -the symbolic translation of those real values which increase in so -prodigious a way and which are almost impossible for us to conceive. One -line of ten thousand beads is seventy meters long! Ten such lines would -be the length of a long street! Therefore we are forced to have recourse -to symbols. How very important this _position_ occupied by the number -becomes! - -How do we indicate the position and hence the value of a certain number -with reference to other numbers? As there are not always vertical lines -to indicate the relative position of the figure, _the requisite number -of zeros are placed to the right of the figure!_ - -The children already know, from the "Children's House," that zero has no -value and that it can give no value to the figure with which it is used. -It serves merely to show the position and the value of the figure -written at its left. Zero does not give value to 1 and so make it -become 10: the zero of the number 10 indicates that the figure 1 is not -a unit but is in the next preceding position--that of the tens--and -means therefore one ten and not one unit. If, for instance, 4 units -followed the 1 in the tens position, then the figure 4 would be in the -units place and the 1 would be in the tens position. - -[Illustration: The bead material used for addition and subtraction. Each -of the nine numbers is of different colored beads.] - -[Illustration: Counting and calculating by means of the bead chains. (_A -Montessori School in Italy._)] - -The "Children's House" child already knows how to write ten and even one -hundred; and it is now very easy for him to write, with the aid of -zeros, and _in columns_, from 1 to 1000: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 10, -20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90; 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, -900; 1,000. When the child has learned to count well in this manner, he -can easily read any number of four figures. - -Let us now make up a number on the counting-frame; for example, 4827. We -move four beads to the left on the thousands-wire, eight on the -hundreds-wire, two on the tens-wire, and seven on the units-wire; and we -read, four thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven. This number is -written by placing the numbers _on the same line_ and in the mutually -relative order determined by the symbolic positions for the decimal -relations, 4827. - -We can do the same with the date of our present year, writing the -figures on the left-hand side of the paper as indicated: 1917. - -Let us compose 2049 on the symbolic number frame. Two of the -thousand-beads are moved to the left, four of the ten-beads, and nine of -the unit-beads. On the hundreds-wire there is nothing. Here we have a -good demonstration of the function of zero, which is to occupy the -places that are empty on this chart. - -Similarly, to form the number 4700 on the frame, four thousand-beads -are moved to the left and seven hundred-beads, the tens-wire and the -units-wire remaining empty. In transcribing this number, these empty -places are filled by zeros--a figure of no value in itself. - -[Illustration: The bead cube of 10; ten squares of 10; and chains of 10, -of 100, and of 1000 beads.] - -[Illustration: This shows the first bead frame which the child uses in -his study of arithmetic. The number formed at the left on the frame is -1,111.] - -When the child fully understands this process he makes up many exercises -of his own accord and with the greatest interest. He moves beads to the -left at random, on one or on all of the wires, then interprets and -writes the number on the sheets of paper purposely prepared for this. -When he has comprehended the position of the figures and performed -operations with numbers of several figures he has mastered the process. -The child need only be left to his auto-exercises here in order to -attain perfection. - -Very soon he will ask to go beyond the thousands. For this there is -another frame, with seven wires representing respectively units, tens, -and hundreds; units, tens and hundreds of the thousands; and a million. - -This frame is the same size as the other one but in this the shorter -side is used as the base and there are seven wires instead of four. The -right-hand side is marked by three different colors according to the -groups of wires. The units, tens, and hundreds wires are separated from -the three thousands wires by a brass tack, and these in turn are -separated in the same manner from the million wire. - -The transition from one frame to the other furnishes much interest but -no difficulty. Children will need very few explanations and will try by -themselves to understand as much as possible. The large numbers are the -most interesting to them, therefore the easiest. Soon their copybooks -are full of the most marvelous numbers; they have now become dealers in -millions. - -For this frame also there is specially prepared paper. On the -right-hand side the child writes the numbers corresponding to the frame, -counting from one to a million: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 10, 20, 30, -40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90; 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900; -1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000; 10,000, -20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000; 100,000, -200,000, 300,000, 400,000, 500,000, 600,000, 700,000, 800,000, 900,000; -1,000,000. - -After this the child, moving the beads to the left on one or more of the -wires, tries to read and then to write on the left half of the paper the -numbers resulting from these haphazard experiments. For example, on the -counting-frame he may have the number 6,206,818, and on the paper the -numbers 1,111,111; 8,640,850; 1,500,000; 3,780,000; 5,840,714; 720,000; -500,000; 430,000; 35,840; 80,724; 15,229; 1,240. - -When we come to add and subtract numbers of several figures and to write -the results in column, the facility resulting from this preparation is -something astonishing. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[6] At the present time, because of the difficulty of getting beads of -certain colors, owing to war conditions, the following colors have been -approved by Dr. Montessori to replace those originally used: 10 bead -bar, gold; 9, dark blue; 8, white; 7, light green; 6, light blue; 5, -yellow; 4, pink; 3, green; 2, yellow-green; 1, gold. These same colors -are retained for the bead squares and the bead cubes. They will be -supplied by The House of Childhood, 16 Horatio Street, New York. - -[7] It would, perhaps, be better in this first counting-frame to have -the beads not only of different colors, but of different sizes, -according to the value of the wires, as was suggested to me by a -Portuguese professor who had been taking my course. - - - - -II - -THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE - - -MATERIAL: The material for the multiplication table is in several parts. -There is a square cardboard with a hundred sockets or indentures (ten -rows, ten in a row), and into each of these indentures may be placed a -bead. At the top of the square and corresponding to each vertical line -of indentures are printed the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. At -the left is an opening into which may be slipped a small piece of -cardboard upon which are printed in red the numbers from 1 to 10. This -cardboard serves as the multiplicand; and it can be changed, for there -are ten of these slips, bearing the ten different numbers. In the upper -left-hand corner is a small indenture for a little red marker, but this -detail is merely secondary. This arithmetic board is a white square with -a red border; and with it comes an attractive box containing a hundred -loose beads. - -The exercise which is done with this material is very simple. Suppose -that 6 is to be multiplied by the numbers in turn from 1 to 10: 6 x 1; 6 -x 2; 6 x 3; 6 x 4; 6 x 5; 6 x 6; 6 x 7; 6 x 8; 6 x 9; 6 x 10. Opposite -the sixth horizontal line of indentures, in the small opening at the -left is slipped the card bearing the number 6. In multiplying the 6 by -1, the child performs two operations: first, he puts the red marker -above the printed 1 at the top of the board, and then he puts six beads -(corresponding to the number 6) in a vertical column underneath the -number 1. To multiply 6 by 2, he places the red marker over the printed -2, and adds six more beads, placed in a column under number 2. -Similarly, multiplying 6 by 3, the red marker must be placed over the 3, -and six more beads added in a vertical line under that number. In this -manner he proceeds up to 6 x 10. - -The shifting of the little red marker serves to indicate the multiplier -and requires constant attention on the part of the child and great -exactness in his work. - -3 - - ____________________________ - | MULTIPLICATION TABLE | - | | - | COMBINATION OF | - | | - | =THREE= | - | | - | WITH THE NUMBERS 1 TO 10 | - | | - | 3 x 1 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 x 2 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 x 3 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 x 4 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 x 5 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 x 6 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 x 7 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 x 8 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 x 9 = ___________ | - | | - | 3 x 10 = ___________ | - |____________________________| - -While the child is doing these operations he is writing down the -results. For this purpose there is specially prepared paper with an -attractive heading which the child can place at the right of his -multiplication board. There are ten sets of this paper in a series and -ten series in a set, making a hundred sheets with each set of -multiplication material. The accompanying cut shows a sheet prepared for -the multiplication of number 3. - -Everything is ready on the printed sheet; the child has only to write -the results which he obtains by adding the beads in columns of three -each. If he makes no error he will write: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, -27, 30. - -In this way he will work out and write down the whole series from 1 to -10; and as there are ten copies of each sheet, he can repeat each -exercise ten times. - -Thus the child learns by memory each of these multiplications. And we -find that he helps himself to memorize even in other ways. He walks up -and down holding the multiplication sheet, which he looks at from time -to time. It is a sheet which he himself has filled, and he may be -memorizing seven times six, forty-two; seven times seven, forty-nine; -seven times eight, fifty-six, etc. - -This material for the multiplication table is one of the most -interesting to the children. They fill six or seven sets, one after the -other, and work for days and weeks on this one exercise. Almost all of -them ask to take it home with them. With us, the first time the material -was presented a small uprising took place, for they all wished to carry -it away with them. As this was not permitted the children implored their -mothers to buy it for them, and it was with difficulty that we made them -understand that it was not on the market and therefore could not be -purchased. But the children could not give up the idea. One older girl -headed the rebellion. "The Dottoressa wants to try an experiment with -us," she said. "Well, let's tell her that unless she gives us the -material for the multiplication table we won't come to school any -more." - -This threat in itself was impolite, and yet it was interesting; for the -multiplication table, the bug-bear of all children, had become so -attractive and tempting a thing that it had made wolves out of my lambs! - -When the children have repeatedly filled a whole series of these blanks, -with the aid of the material, they are given a test-card by means of -which they may compare their work for verification, and see whether they -have made any errors in their multiplication. Table by table, number by -number, they do the work of comparing each result with the number which -corresponds to it in each one of the ten columns. When this has been -done carefully, the children possess their own series, the accuracy of -which they are able to guarantee themselves. - -MULTIPLICATION TABLE - -PRESENTING THE COMBINATIONS OF NUMBERS IN THE PROGRESSIVE SERIES FROM 1 -TO 10 - - ___________________________________________________________________ - | | - | 1 x 1 = 1 2 x 1 = 2 3 x 1 = 3 4 x 1 = 4 5 x 1 = 5 | - | 1 x 2 = 2 2 x 2 = 4 3 x 2 = 6 4 x 2 = 8 5 x 2 = 10 | - | 1 x 3 = 3 2 x 3 = 6 3 x 3 = 9 4 x 3 = 12 5 x 3 = 15 | - | 1 x 4 = 4 2 x 4 = 8 3 x 4 = 12 4 x 4 = 16 5 x 4 = 20 | - | 1 x 5 = 5 2 x 5 = 10 3 x 5 = 15 4 x 5 = 20 5 x 5 = 25 | - | 1 x 6 = 6 2 x 6 = 12 3 x 6 = 18 4 x 6 = 24 5 x 6 = 30 | - | 1 x 7 = 7 2 x 7 = 14 3 x 7 = 21 4 x 7 = 28 5 x 7 = 35 | - | 1 x 8 = 8 2 x 8 = 16 3 x 8 = 24 4 x 8 = 32 5 x 8 = 40 | - | 1 x 9 = 9 2 x 9 = 18 3 x 9 = 27 4 x 9 = 36 5 x 9 = 45 | - | 1 x 10 = 10 2 x 10 = 20 3 x 10 = 30 4 x 10 = 40 5 x 10 = 50 | - |___________________________________________________________________| - - ___________________________________________________________________ - | | - | 6 x 1 = 6 7 x 1 = 7 8 x 1 = 8 9 x 7 = 9 10 x 1 = 10 | - | 6 x 2 = 12 7 x 2 = 14 8 x 2 = 16 9 x 2 = 18 10 x 2 = 20 | - | 6 x 3 = 18 7 x 3 = 21 8 x 3 = 24 9 x 3 = 27 10 x 3 = 30 | - | 6 x 4 = 24 7 x 4 = 28 8 x 4 = 32 9 x 4 = 36 10 x 4 = 40 | - | 6 x 5 = 30 7 x 5 = 35 8 x 5 = 40 9 x 5 = 45 10 x 5 = 50 | - | 6 x 6 = 36 7 x 6 = 42 8 x 6 = 48 9 x 6 = 54 10 x 6 = 60 | - | 6 x 7 = 42 7 x 7 = 49 8 x 7 = 56 9 x 7 = 63 10 x 7 = 70 | - | 6 x 8 = 48 7 x 8 = 56 8 x 8 = 64 9 x 8 = 72 10 x 8 = 80 | - | 6 x 9 = 54 7 x 9 = 63 8 x 9 = 72 9 x 9 = 81 10 x 9 = 90 | - | 6 x 10 = 60 7 x 10 = 70 8 x 10 = 80 9 x 10 = 90 10 x 10 = 100 | - |___________________________________________________________________| - -The children should write down on the following form, in the separate -columns, their verified results: under the 2, the column of the 2's; -under the 3, the column of the 3's; under the 4, the column of the 4's, -etc. - - _________________________________________________________________ - | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 2 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 3 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 4 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 5 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 6 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 7 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 8 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 9 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - | 10 | | | | | | | | | | - __|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|__ - -Then they get the following table, which is identical with the test -cards included in the material. It is a summary of the multiplication -table--the famous Pythagorean table. - -THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE - - _________________________________________________________ - | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | - | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | - | 3 | 6 | 9 | 12 | 15 | 18 | 21 | 24 | 27 | 30 | - | 4 | 8 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 32 | 36 | 40 | - | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 | 45 | 50 | - | 6 | 12 | 18 | 24 | 30 | 36 | 42 | 48 | 54 | 60 | - | 7 | 14 | 21 | 28 | 35 | 42 | 49 | 56 | 63 | 70 | - | 8 | 16 | 24 | 32 | 40 | 48 | 56 | 64 | 72 | 80 | - | 9 | 18 | 27 | 36 | 45 | 54 | 63 | 72 | 81 | 90 | - | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 |100 | - ___|____|____|____|____|____|____|____|____|____|____|___ - -The child has built up his multiplication table by a long series of -processes each incomplete in itself. It will now be easy to teach him to -read it as a "multiplication table," for he already knows it by memory. -Indeed, he will be able to fill the blanks from memory, the only -difficulty being the recognition of the square in which he must write -the number, which must correspond both to the multiplicand and to the -multiplier. - -We offer ten of these blank forms in our material. When the child, left -free to work as long as he wishes on these exercises, has finished them -all, he has certainly learned the multiplication table. - - - - -III - -DIVISION - - -MATERIAL: The same material may be used for division, except the blanks, -which are somewhat different. - -Take any number of beads from the box and count them. Let us suppose -that we have twenty-seven. This number is written in the vacant space at -the left-hand side of the division blank. - - +---------------+-----------+ - | DIVISION | REMAINDER | - +---------------+-----------+ - | : 2 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 3 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 4 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 5 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - |27 : 6 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 7 = _____ | _________ | - | | | - | : 8 = 3 | 3 | - | | | - | : 9 = 3 | | - | | | - | :10 = 2 | 7 | - +---------------+-----------+ - -Then taking the box of beads and the arithmetic board with the hundred -indentures we proceed to the operation. - -Let us first divide 27 by 10. We place ten beads in a vertical line -under the 1; then in the next row ten more beads under the 2. The beads, -however, are not sufficient to fill the row under the 3. Now on the -paper prepared for division we write 2 on a line with the 10 to the -left of the vertical line, and to the right of the same vertical line we -write the remainder 7. - -To divide 27 by 9, nine beads are counted out in the first row, then -nine in the second row under the 2, and still another nine under the 3. -There are no beads left over. So the figure 3 is written after the -equal-sign (=) on a line with 9. - -To divide 27 by 8 we count out eight beads, place them in a row under -the 1, and then fill like rows under the 2 and the 3; in the fourth row -there are only three beads. They are the remainder. And so on. - -A package of one hundred division blanks comes in an attractive dark -green cover tied with a silk ribbon. The multiplication blanks, with -their tables for comparison and summary tables, come in a parchment -envelope tied with leather strings. - - +---------------+-----------+ - | DIVISION | REMAINDER | - +---------------+-----------+ - | : 2 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 3 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 4 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 5 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 6 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 7 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 8 = | _________ | - | | | - | : 9 = | _________ | - | | | - | :10 = | _________ | - +---------------+-----------+ - - - - -IV - -OPERATIONS IN SEVERAL FIGURES - - -By this time the child can easily perform operations with numbers of two -or more figures, for he possesses all the materials necessary and is -already prepared to make use of them. - -For this work we have for the first three operations, addition, -subtraction, and multiplication, a counting-frame; and for division a -more complicated material which will be described later on. - - -ADDITION - -Addition on the counting frame is a most simple operation, and therefore -is very attractive. Let us take, for example, the following: - - 1320 + - 435 - ____ - = - -First we slide over the beads to represent the first number: 1 on the -thousands-wire, 3 on the hundreds-wire, and 2 on the tens-wire. Then we -place next to them the beads representing the second number: 4 on the -hundreds-wire, 3 on the tens-wire, and 5 on the units-wire. Now there -remains nothing to be done except to write the number shown by the beads -in their present position: 1755. - -[Illustration: This shows the second counting-frame used in arithmetic. -The child is writing the number she has just formed on her frame. (_The -Rivington Street Montessori School, New York._)] - -When the problem is a more complicated one, the beads for any one wire -amounting to more than 10, the solution is still very easy. In that case -the entire ten beads would be returned to their original position and in -their stead one corresponding bead of the next lower wire would be -slipped over. Then the operation is continued. Take, for example: - - 390 + - 482 - ___ - = - -We first place the beads representing 390: that is, 3 on the -hundreds-wire and 9 on the tens-wire; or, vice versa, beginning with the -units, we would first place the 9 tens and then the 3 hundreds. For the -second number we place 4 beads for the hundreds and then we begin to -place the 8 tens. But when we have placed only one ten, the wire is -full; so the ten tens are returned to their original position and to -represent them we move over another bead on the hundreds-wire; then we -continue to place the beads of the tens which now, after having -converted 10 of them into 1 hundred, remain but 7. Or we can begin the -addition by placing the beads for the units before we place those for -the hundreds; and in that case we move on the hundreds-wire first the -bead representing the ten beads on the wire above, and then the 4 -hundreds which must be added. Finally we write down the sum as now -indicated by the position of the beads: 872. - -With a larger counting-frame it is possible to perform in this manner -very complicated problems in addition. - -[Illustration: The two little girls are working out problems in seven -figures. (_The Washington Montessori School, Washington, D. C._)] - - -SUBTRACTION - -The counting-frame lends itself equally well to problems in subtraction. -Let us take, for example, the following: - - 8947 - - 6735 - ____ - = - -We place the beads representing the first number; then from them we take -the beads representing the second number The beads remaining indicate -the difference between the two numbers; and this is written: 2212. - -Then comes the more complicated problem where it is necessary to borrow -from a higher denomination. When the beads of one wire are exhausted, we -move over the entire ten and take to represent them one bead from the -lower wire; then we continue the subtraction. For example: - - 8954 - - 7593 - ____ - = - -We move the beads representing the first number; then we take 3 beads -from the units. Now we begin to subtract the tens. We wish to take away -9 beads; but when we have moved five the wire is empty, and there are -still four more to be moved. We take away one bead from the -hundreds-wire and replace the entire ten on the tens-wire; and then we -continue to move beads on the tens-wire until we have taken a total of -nine--that is, we now move the other four. On the hundreds-wire there -remain but 8 beads, and from them we take the 5, etc. Our final -remainder is 1361. - -It is easy to see how familiar and clear to the child the technique of -"borrowing" becomes. - - -MULTIPLICATION - -When there is a number to be multiplied by more than one figure, the -child not only knows the multiplication table but he easily -distinguishes the units from the tens, hundreds, etc., and he is -familiar with their reciprocal relations. He knows all the numbers up to -a million and also their positions in relation to their value. He knows -from habitual practise that a unit of a higher order can be exchanged -for ten of a lower order. - -To have the child attack this new difficulty successfully one need only -tell him that each figure of the multiplier must multiply in turn each -figure of the multiplicand and that the separate products are placed in -columns and then added. The analytical processes hold the child's -attention for a long period of time; and for this reason they have too -great a formative value not to be made use of in the highest degree. -They are the processes which lead to that inner maturation which gives a -deeper realization of cognitions and which results in bursts of -spontaneous synthesis and abstraction. - -The children, by rapidly graduated exercises, soon become accustomed to -writing the analysis of each multiplication (according to its factors) -in such a way that, once the work of arranging the material is finished, -nothing is left for them to do but to perform the multiplications which -they already have learned in the simple multiplication table. - -Here is an example of the analysis of a multiplication with three -figures appearing in both the multiplicand and the multiplier: 356 X -742. - - { 2 units { 6 units - 742 = { 4 tens 356 = { 5 tens - { 7 hundreds { 3 hundreds - -Each of the first numbers is combined with the three figures of the -other number in the following manner: - - u. 6 } { 12 _units_ u. 6 } { 24 _tens_ - t. 5 } x u. 2 = { 10 tens t. 5 } x t. 4 = { 20 hundreds - h. 3 } { 6 hundreds h. 3 } { 12 thousands - - u. 6 } { 42 _hundreds_ - t. 5 } x h. 7 = { 35 thousands - h. 3 } { 21 tens of thousands - -When this analysis is written down, the work on the counting-frames -begins. Here the operations are performed in the following manner: 2 x 6 -units necessitate the bringing forward of the ten beads on the first -wire. However, even those do not suffice. So they are slid back and one -bead on the second wire is brought forward, to represent the ten -replaced, and on the first wire two beads are brought forward (12). - -Next we take 2 x 5 tens. There is already one bead on the tens-wire and -to this should be added ten more, but instead we bring forward one bead -on the hundreds-wire. At this point in the operation the beads are -distributed on the wires in this manner: - - 2 - 1 - 1 - -Now comes 2 x 3 hundreds, and six beads on the corresponding wire are -brought forward. When the multiplication by the units of the multiplier -is finished, the beads on the frame are in the following order: - - 2 - 1 - 7 - -We pass now to the tens: 4 x 6 = 24 tens. We must therefore bring -forward four beads on the tens-wire and two on the hundreds-wire: - - 2 - 5 - 9 - -4 x 5 = 20 hundreds, therefore two thousands: - - 2 - 5 - 9 - 2 - -4 x 3 thousands = 12 thousands; so we bring forward two beads on the -thousands-wire and one on the ten-thousands-wire: - - 2 - 5 - 9 - 4 - 1 - -Now we take the hundreds: 7 x 6 hundreds are 42 hundreds; therefore we -slide four beads on the thousands-wire and two on the hundreds-wire. But -there already were nine beads on this wire, so only one remains and the -other ten give us instead another bead on the thousands-wire: - - 2 - 5 - - 1 - 9 - 1 - -5 x 7 thousands = 35 thousands, which is the same as five thousands and -three ten-thousands. Three beads on the fifth wire and five on the -fourth are brought forward; but on the fourth wire there already were -nine beads, so we leave only four, exchanging the other ten for one bead -on the fifth wire: - - 2 - 5 - 1 - 4 - 5 - -Finally 7 x 3 ten-thousands = 21 ten-thousands. One bead is brought -forward on the fifth wire and two on the hundred-thousands-wire. - -At the end of the operation the beads will be distributed as follows: - - 2 beads on the first wire (units) - 5 " " " second " (tens) - 1 " " " third " (hundreds) - 4 " " " fourth " (thousands) - 6 " " " fifth " (tens of thousands) - 2 " " " sixth " (hundreds of thousands) - -This distribution translated into figures gives the following number: -264,152. This may be written as a result right after the factors without -the partial products: that is, 742 x 356 = 264,152. - -Although this description may sound very complicated, the exercise on -the counting-frame is an easy and most interesting arithmetic game. And -this game, which contains the secret of such surprising results, not -only is an exercise which makes more and more clear the decimal -relations of reciprocal value and position, but also it explains the -manner of procedure in abstract operations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. The disposition of the beads for the number -49,152.] - -In fact, in the multiplication as commonly performed: - - 356 x - 742 - ______ - 712 - 1424 - 2492 - ______ - 264152 - -the same operations are involved; but the figures, once written down, -cannot be modified as is possible on the frame by moving the beads and -substituting beads of higher value for those of lower value when the -ten beads of one wire, as a mechanical result of the structure of the -frame, are all used. As multiplication is ordinarily written, such -substitutions cannot be made; but the partial products must be written -down in order, placed in column according to their value, and finally -added. This is a much longer piece of work, because the act of writing a -figure is more complicated than that of moving a bead which slides -easily on the metal wire. Again, it is not so clear as the work with the -beads, once the child is accustomed to handling the frame and no longer -has any doubt as to the position of the different values, and when it -has become a sort of routine to substitute one bead of the lower wire -for the ten beads of the upper wire which have been exhausted. -Furthermore, it is much easier to add new products without the -possibility of making a mistake. Let us go back to the point in the -operation where the beads on the frame read thus: - - 2 - 5 - 1 - 9 - 1 - -and it was necessary to add 35 thousands--five beads to the -thousands-wire and three beads to the ten-thousands-wire. The three -beads on the fifth wire can be brought forward without any thought as to -what will happen on the wire above when the five are added to the nine. -Indeed, what takes place there does not make any difference, for it is -not necessary that the operation on the higher wire precede that on the -lower wire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. The disposition of the beads for the number -54,152; after adding 5 thousands to the number 49,152.] - -In adding the five beads to the nine beads only four remain on the -fourth wire, since the other ten are substituted by a bead on the lower -wire; this bead may be brought forward even after the three for the -ten-thousands have been placed. - -By the use of the frame the child acquires remarkable dexterity and -facility in calculating, and this makes his work in multiplication much -more rapid. Often one child, working out an example on paper, has -finished only the first partial multiplication when another child, -working at the frame, has completed the problem and knows the final -product. It is interesting even among adults to watch two compete in the -same problem, one at the frame and the other using the ordinary method -on paper. - -It is very interesting, also, not to work out on the frame the -individual products in the sequence indicated in analyzing the factors, -but to work them out by chance. Indeed, it does not matter whether the -beads are moved in the order of their alignment or at random. The beads -on the ten-thousands-wire may be moved first, then the hundreds, the -units, and finally the thousands. - -These exercises, which give such a deep understanding of the operations -of arithmetic, would be impossible with the abstract operation which is -performed only by means of figures. And it is evident that the exercises -can be amplified to any extent as a pleasing game. - - -MULTIPLYING ON RULED PAPER - -Take, for example, 8640 x 2531. We write the figures of the multiplicand -one under the other but in their relative positions; this also can be -written by filling in the vacant spaces with zeros. - -In this way we repeat the multiplicand as many times as there are -figures in the multiplier; but instead of writing beside these figures -the words units, tens, etc., we indicate this with zeros, which, for the -sake of clearness, we fill in till they resemble large dots. - -The child already knows, from his previous exercises, that zero -indicates the position of a figure and that multiplying by ten changes -this position. Therefore zeros in the multiplier would cause a -corresponding change of position in the figures of the multiplicand. - -The accompanying figure shows clearly what it is not so easy to explain -in words. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -We are now ready for the usual procedure of multiplication. A child of -seven years reaches this stage very easily after having done our -preliminary exercises, and then it does not matter to him how many -figures he has to use. Indeed, he is very fond of working with numbers -of unheard of figures, as is shown in the following example--one of the -usual exercises done by the children, who of themselves choose the -multiplicand and the multiplier; the teacher would never think of giving -such enormous numbers. They can now perform the operation - - 22,364,253 x 345,234,611 - - 22364253 x - 345234611 - ________________ - 22364253 - 22364253 - 134185518 - 89457012 - 67092759 - 44728506 - 111821265 - 89457012 - 67092759 - ________________ - 7720914184760583 - -without analysis of factors and without help from the frames but by the -method commonly used. This may be seen by the way in which the example -is written out and then done by the child. - - -LONG DIVISION - -Not only is it possible to perform long division with our bead material, -but the work is so delightful that it becomes an arithmetical pastime -especially adapted to the child's home activities. Using the beads -clarifies the different steps of the operation, creating almost a -_rational arithmetic_ which supersedes the common empirical methods, -that reduce the mechanism of abstract operations to a simple _routine_. -For this reason, these pastimes prepare the way for the rational -processes of mathematics which the child meets in the higher grades. - -The bead frame will no longer suffice here. We need the square -arithmetic board used for the first partial multiplications and for -short division. However, we require several such boards and an adequate -provision of beads. The work is too complicated to be described clearly, -but in practise it is easy and most interesting. - -It is sufficient here to suggest the method of procedure with the -material. The units, tens, hundreds, etc., are expressed by -different-colored beads: _units_, white; _tens_, green; _hundreds_, red. -Then there are racks of different colors: _white_ for the simple units, -tens, and hundreds; _gray_ for the thousands; _black_ for the millions. -There also are boxes, which on the outside are white, gray, or black, -and on the inside white, green, or red. And for each box there is a -corresponding rack containing ten tubes with ten beads in each. - -Suppose we must divide 87,632 by 64. Five of the boxes are put in a -row, arranged from left to right according to the value of their color, -as follows: two gray boxes--one green inside and the other white--and -three white boxes with the inside respectively red, green, and white. In -the first box to the left we put 8 green beads; in the second box 7 -white beads; in the third, 6 red beads; in the fourth 3 green beads; and -in the fifth box 2 white beads. Back of each box is one of the racks -with ten tubes filled with beads of corresponding colors. These -beads--ten in each tube--are used in exchanging the units of a higher -denomination for those of a lower. - -[Illustration: The child here is solving a problem in long division. (_A -Montessori School, Barcelona, Spain._)] - -There are two arithmetic boards, one next to the other, placed below the -row of boxes. In the one to the left, the little cardboard with the -figure 6 is inserted in the slot we have described, and in the other to -the right the figure 4. - -Now to divide 87,632 by 64, place the first two boxes at the left -(containing 8 and 7 beads respectively) above the two arithmetic boards. -On the first board the eight beads are arranged in rows of six, as in -the more simple division. On the second board the seven beads are -arranged in rows of four, corresponding to the number indicated by the -red figure. The two quotients must be reduced with reference to the -quotient in the first arithmetic board. All the other is considered as a -remainder. The quotient in this case is 1 and the remainders are 2 on -the first board and 3 on the second. - -When this is finished, the boxes are moved up one place and then the -first box is out of the game, its place having been taken by the second -box; so the gray-green box is no longer above the first board but the -gray-white one instead, and above the second board we must place the box -with the red beads. - -[Illustration: The illustration at the top shows the square and the cube -of 4 and of 5. That in the middle shows the arithmetic board being used -for multiplication. In the photograph at the bottom a problem in -division is being worked out on the arithmetic-board: 26 / 4 = 6 and 2 -remainder.] - -Now the beads must be adjusted. The two beads that are left over on the -card marked with the number 6 are green but the box above this card is -the gray-white one. We must therefore change the green beads into white -beads, taking for each one of them a tube of ten white beads. The white -beads which were left over on the other card must be brought to the card -above which the white box is now placed. We have only to arrange the -white beads now in rows of six while the other box of red beads is -emptied on to the second board in rows of four, as in simple division. - -With the material arranged in this way according to color, we proceed to -the reduction, which is done by exchanging one bead of a higher -denomination for ten of a lower. Thus, for example, in the present case -we have twenty-three white beads distributed on the first board in rows -of six, which gives a quotient of three and a remainder of five. On the -second board there are six red beads distributed in rows of four, giving -a quotient of one with a remainder of two. Now the work of reduction -begins. This consists in taking one by one the beads from the board to -the left--in this case the white--and exchanging them for ten red beads, -which in turn are placed in rows of four on the other board until the -quotients on the two cards are alike. What is left over is the -remainder. In this case it is necessary to change only the one white -bead so as to have the other quotient reach three with a remainder of -four. - -The same process is continued until all the boxes are used. - -The final remainder is the one to be written down with the quotient. - -The exercise requires great patience and exactness, but it is most -interesting and might be called an excellent game of solitaire for -children for home use. There is no intellectual fatigue but much -movement and much intense attention. The quotients and remainders may be -written on a prepared sheet of paper, so as to be verified by the -teacher. - -When the child has performed many of these exercises he comes -spontaneously to try to foresee the result of an operation without -having to make the material exchange and arrangement of the beads; hence -to shorten the mechanical process. When at length he can "see" the -situation at a glance, he will be able to do the most difficult division -by the ordinary processes without experiencing any fatigue, or without -having been obliged to endure tiring progressive lessons and humiliating -corrections. Not only will he have learned how to perform long divisions -but he will have become a master of their mechanism. He will realize -each step, in ways that the children of ordinary secondary schools -possibly never will be able to understand, when through the usual -methods of rational mathematics they approach the incomprehensible -operations which they have performed for several years without -considering the reasons for them. - - - - -V - -EXERCISES WITH NUMBERS - - -MULTIPLES, PRIME NUMBERS, FACTORING - -When the child, by the aid of all this material, has had a chance to -grasp the fundamental ideas relating to the four operations and has -passed on to the execution of them in the abstract, he is ready to -continue on the numerical processes which will lead to a more profound -study preparatory to the more complex problems that await him in the -secondary schools. - -These studies are, however, a means of helping him to remember the -things he already knows and to enlarge upon them. They come to him as a -pastime, as an agreeable manner of thinking over either in school or at -home the ideas which he already has gained. - -One of the first exercises is that of continuing the multiplication of -each number by the series of 1 to 10 which was begun by the exercises on -the multiplication tables. This should be done in the abstract: that is, -without recourse to the material. Let us, however, set some limit--we -will stop when each product has reached 100. In order that these series -of exercises may each be in one column the first exercises will stop -with 50 and another can be used for the numbers from 51 to 100. - -The two following tables (A and B) are the result. These are prepared in -this manner in our material so that the child may compare his work with -them. - - -TABLE A - - 2x 1= 2 3x 1= 3 4x 1= 4 5x 1= 5 6x 1= 6 7x 1= 7 8x 1= 8 9x 1= 9 10x 1=10 - 2x 2= 4 3x 2= 6 4x 2= 8 5x 2=10 6x 2=12 7x 2=14 8x 2=16 9x 2=18 10x 2=20 - 2x 3= 6 3x 3= 9 4x 3=12 5x 3=15 6x 3=18 7x 3=21 8x 3=24 9x 3=27 10x 3=30 - 2x 4= 8 3x 4=12 4x 4=16 5x 4=20 6x 4=24 7x 4=28 8x 4=32 9x 4=36 10x 4=40 - 2x 5=10 3x 5=15 4x 5=20 5x 5=25 6x 5=30 7x 5=35 8x 5=40 9x 5=45 10x 5=50 - 2x 6=12 3x 6=18 4x 6=24 5x 6=30 6x 6=36 7x 6=42 8x 6=48 - 2x 7=14 3x 7=21 4x 7=28 5x 7=35 6x 7=42 7x 7=49 - 2x 8=16 3x 8=24 4x 8=32 5x 8=40 6x 8=48 - 2x 9=18 3x 9=27 4x 9=36 5x 9=45 - 2x10=20 3x10=30 4x10=40 5x10=50 - 2x11=22 3x11=33 4x11=44 - 2x12=24 3x12=36 4x12=48 - 2x13=26 3x13=39 - 2x14=28 3x14=42 - 2x15=30 3x15=45 - 2x16=32 3x16=48 - 2x17=34 - 2x18=36 - 2x19=38 - 2x20=40 - 2x21=42 - 2x22=44 - 2x23=46 - 2x24=48 - 2x25=50 - - -TABLE B - - 2x26= 52 3x17=51 4x13= 52 5x11= 55 6x 9=54 7x 8=56 8x 7=56 9x 6=54 10x 6= 60 - 2x27= 54 3x18=54 4x14= 56 5x12= 60 6x10=60 7x 9=63 8x 8=64 9x 7=63 10x 7= 70 - 2x28= 56 3x19=57 4x15= 60 5x13= 65 6x11=66 7x10=70 8x 9=72 9x 8=72 10x 8= 80 - 2x29= 58 3x20=60 4x16= 64 5x14= 70 6x12=72 7x11=77 8x10=80 9x 9=81 10x 9= 90 - 2x30= 60 3x21=63 4x17= 68 5x15= 75 6x13=78 7x12=84 8x11=88 9x10=90 10x10=100 - 2x31= 62 3x22=66 4x18= 72 5x16= 80 6x14=84 7x13=91 8x12=96 9x11=99 - 2x32= 64 3x23=69 4x19= 76 5x17= 85 6x15=90 7x14=98 - 2x33= 66 3x24=72 4x20= 80 5x18= 90 6x16=96 - 2x34= 68 3x25=75 4x21= 84 5x19= 95 - 2x35= 70 3x26=78 4x22= 88 5x20=100 - 2x36= 72 3x27=81 4x23= 92 - 2x37= 74 3x28=84 4x24= 96 - 2x38= 76 3x29=87 4x25=100 - 2x39= 78 3x30=90 - 2x40= 80 3x31=93 - 2x41= 82 3x32=96 - 2x42= 84 3x33=99 - 2x43= 86 - 2x44= 88 - 2x45= 90 - 2x46= 92 - 2x47= 94 - 2x48= 96 - 2x49= 98 - 2x50=100 - - -TABLE C - - _______________________________________________________________ - 1 | || 51 | - 2 | || 52 | - 3 | || 53 | - 4 | || 54 | - 5 | || 55 | - 6 | || 56 | - 7 | || 57 | - 8 | || 58 | - 9 | || 59 | - 10 | || 60 | - 11 | || 61 | - 12 | || 62 | - 13 | || 63 | - 14 | || 64 | - 15 | || 65 | - 16 | || 66 | - 17 | || 67 | - 18 | || 68 | - 19 | || 69 | - 20 | || 70 | - 21 | || 71 | - 22 | || 72 | - 23 | || 73 | - 24 | || 74 | - 25 | || 75 | - 26 | || 76 | - 27 | || 77 | - 28 | || 78 | - 29 | || 79 | - 30 | || 80 | - 31 | || 81 | - 32 | || 82 | - 33 | || 83 | - 34 | || 84 | - 35 | || 85 | - 36 | || 86 | - 37 | || 87 | - 38 | || 88 | - 39 | || 89 | - 40 | || 90 | - 41 | || 91 | - 42 | || 92 | - 43 | || 93 | - 44 | || 94 | - 45 | || 95 | - 46 | || 96 | - 47 | || 97 | - 48 | || 98 | - 49 | || 99 | - 50 | || 100 | - _______________________________________________________________ - - -TABLE D - - 1 || 53 - 2 || 54 = 2x27 = 3x18 = 6x9 = - 3 || 9x6 - 4 = 2x2 || 55 = 5x11 - 5 || 56 = 2x28 = 4x14 = 7x8 = - 6 = 2x3 = 3x2 || 8x7 - 7 || 57 = 3x19 - 8 = 2x4 = 4x2 || 58 = 2x29 - 9 = 3x3 || 59 - 10 = 2x5 = 5x2 || 60 = 2x30 = 3x20 = 4x15 = - 11 || 5x12 = 6x10 = 15x4 - 12 = 2x6 = 3x4 = 4x3 = 6x2 || 61 - 13 || 62 = 2x31 - 14 = 2x7 = 7x2 || 63 = 3x21 = 7x9 = 9x7 - 15 = 3x5 = 5x3 || 64 = 2x32 = 4x16 = 8x8 - 16 = 2x8 = 4x4 = 8x2 || 65 = 5x13 - 17 || 66 = 2x33 = 3x22 = 6x11 - 18 = 2x9 = 3x6 = 6x3 = 9x2 || 67 - 19 || 68 = 2x34 = 4x17 - 20 = 2x10 = 4x5 = 5x4 = || 69 = 3x23 - 10x2 || 70 = 2x35 = 5x14 = 7x10 = - 21 = 7x3 = 3x7 || 10x7 - 22 = 2x11 || 71 - 23 || 72 = 2x36 = 3x24 = 4x18 = - 24 = 2x12 = 3x8 = 4x6 = || 6x12 = 8x9 = 9x8 - 6x4 = 8x3 || 73 - 25 = 5x5 || 74 = 2x37 - 26 = 2x13 || 75 = 3x25 = 5x15 - 27 = 3x9 = 9x3 || 76 = 2x38 = 4x19 - 28 = 2x14 = 4x7 = 7x4 || 77 = 7x11 - 29 || 78 = 2x39 = 3x26 = 6x13 - 30 = 2x15 = 3x10 = 5x6 = || 79 - 6x5 = 10x3 || 80 = 2x40 = 4x20 = 5x16 - 31 || 8x10 = 10x8 - 32 = 2x16 = 4x8 = 8x4 || 81 = 3x27 = 9x9 - 33 = 3x11 || 82 = 2x41 - 34 = 2x17 || 83 - 35 = 5x7 = 7x5 || 84 = 2x42 = 3x28 = 4x21 = - 36 = 2x18 = 3x12 = 4x9 = || 6x14 = 7x12 - 6x6 = 9x4 || 85 = 5x17 - 37 || 86 = 2x43 - 38 = 2x19 || 87 = 3x29 - 39 = 3x13 || 88 = 2x44 = 4x22 = 8x11 - 40 = 2x20 = 4x10 = 5x8 = || 89 - 8x5 = 10x4 || 90 = 2x45 = 3x30 = 5x18 = - 41 || 6x15 = 9x10 = 10x9 - 42 = 2x21 = 3x14 = 6x7 = || 91 = 7x13 - 7x6 || 92 = 2x46 = 4x23 - 43 || 93 = 3x31 - 44 = 2x22 = 4x11 || 94 = 2x47 - 45 = 3x15 = 5x9 = 9x5 || 95 = 5x19 - 46 = 2x23 || 96 = 2x48 = 3x32 = 4x24 = - 47 || 6x16 = 8x12 - 48 = 2x24 = 3x16 = 4x12 = || 97 - 6x8 = 8x6 || 98 = 2x49 = 7x14 - 49 = 7x7 || 99 = 3x33 = 9x11 - 50 = 2x25 = 5x10 = 10x5 || 100 = 2x50 = 4x25 = 5x20 = - 51 = 3x17 || 10x10 - 52 = 2x26 = 4x13 || - -To read over a column of the results of each number is to learn them by -heart, and it impresses upon the child's memory the series of multiples -of each number from 1 to 100. - -With these tables a child can perform many interesting exercises. He has -sheets of long narrow paper. On the left are written the series of -numbers from 1 to 50 and from 51 to 100. He compares the numbers on -these sheets with the same numbers in the tables, series by series, and -writes down the different factors which he thus finds; for example, 6 = -2 x 3; 8 = 2 x 4; 10 = 2 x 5. Then finding the same number in the second -column and the other columns his result will read, 6 = 2 x 3 = 3 x 2; 18 -= 2 x 9 = 3 x 6 = 6 x 3 = 9 x 2. - -In this comparison the child will find that some numbers cannot be -resolved into factors and their line is blank. By this means he gets his -first intuition of prime numbers (Tables C and D). - -When the child has filled in this work from 1 to 50 and from 51 to 100 -and has reduced the numbers to factors and prime numbers he may pass on -to some exercises with the beads. - -The children now meditate, using the material, on the results that they -have obtained by comparing these tables. Let us consider, for example, 6 -= 2 x 3 = 3 x 2. The child takes six beads, and first makes two groups -of three beads and then three groups of two. - - deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - -And so on for each number he chooses. For example: - - 18 = 2 x 9 = deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - - = 9 x 2 = deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - -[Illustration] - - = 6 x 3 = deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - - = 3 x 6 = deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. - -The child will try in every way to make other combinations and he will -try also to divide the prime numbers into factors. - -This intelligent and pleasing game makes clear to the child the -"divisibility" of numbers. The work that he does in getting these -factors by multiplication is really a way of dividing the numbers. For -example, he has divided 18 into 2 equal groups, 9 equal groups, 6 equal -groups, and 3 equal groups. Previously he has divided 6 into 2 equal -groups and then into 3 equal groups. Therefore when it is a question of -multiplying the two factors there is no difference in the result whether -he multiplies 2 by 3 or 3 by 2; for the inverted order of the factors -does not change the product. But in division the object is to arrange -the number in equal parts and any modification in this equal -distribution of objects changes the character of the grouping. Each -separate combination is a different way of dividing the number. - -The idea of division is made very clear to the child's mind: 6 / 3 = 2, -means that the 6 can be divided into three groups, each of which has two -units or objects; and 6 / 2 = 3, means that the 6 also can be divided -into but two equal groups, each group made up of three units or objects. - -The relations between multiplication and division are very evident since -we started with 6 = 3 x 2; 6 = 2 x 3. This brings out the fact that -multiplication may be used to prove division; and it prepares the child -to understand the practical steps taken in division. Then some day when -he has to do an example in long division, he will find no difficulty -with the mental calculation required to determine whether the dividend, -or a part of it, is divisible by the divisor. This is not the usual -preparation for division, though memorizing the multiplication table is -indeed used as a preparation for multiplication. - -From the above exercises (Table D) others might be derived involving -further analysis of the same numbers. For example, one of the possible -factor groups for the number 40 is 2 x 20. But 20 = 2 x 10; and 10 = 2 x -5. Bringing together the smaller figures into which the larger numbers -have been broken, we get 40 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 5; in other words 40 = 2^{3} x -5. - -This is the result for 60: - - 60 = 2 x 30 = 2 x 2 x 15 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 = 2^{2} x 3 x 5 - -For these two numbers we get accordingly the prime factors: 2^{3} x 5; -and 2^{2} x 3 x 5. What then have the two larger numbers, 40 and 60 in -common? The 2^{2} is included in the 2^{3}; the series therefore may be -written: 2^{2} x 2 x 5; and 2^{2} x 3 x 5. The common element (the -greatest common divisor) is 2^{2} x 5 = 20. The proof consists in -dividing 60 and 40 by 20, something which will not be possible for any -number higher than 20. - -We have test sheets where the numbers from 1 to 100 are arranged in rows -of 10, forming a square. Here the child's exercise consists in -underlining, in different squares, the multiples of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, -9, 10. The numbers so underlined stand out like a design in such a way -that the child easily can study and compare the tables. For instance, in -the square where he underlines the multiples of 2 all the even numbers -in the vertical columns are marked; in the multiple of 4 we have the -same linear grouping--a vertical line--but the numbers marked are -alternate numbers; in 6 the same vertical grouping continues, but one -number is marked and two are skipped; and again in the multiples of 8 -the same design is repeated with the difference that every fourth number -is underlined. On the square marked off for the multiples of 3 the -numbers marked form oblique lines running from right to left and all the -numbers in these oblique lines are underlined. In the multiples of 6 the -design is the same but only the alternating numbers are underlined. The -6 therefore, partakes of the type of the 2 and of the 3; and both of -these are indeed its factors. - - -TABLE E - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - | - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - | - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - | - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - | - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 | 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - | - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 | 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - | - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 | 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - | - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 | 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - | - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 | 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - | - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 | 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ________________________________|________________________________ - | - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - | - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - | - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - | - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - | - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 | 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - | - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 | 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - | - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 | 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - | - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 | 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - | - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 | 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - | - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 | 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ________________________________|________________________________ - | - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - | - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - | - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - | - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - | - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 | 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - | - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 | 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - | - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 | 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - | - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 | 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - | - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 | 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - | - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 | 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ________________________________|________________________________ - | - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - | - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - | - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - | - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - | - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 | 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - | - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 | 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - | - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 | 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - | - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 | 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - | - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 | 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - | - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 | 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ________________________________|________________________________ - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - - - 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - - - 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 - - - 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - - - 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 - - - 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 - - - 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 - - - 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 - - - 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 - - - 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - ______________________________ - - - - - -VI - -SQUARE AND CUBE OF NUMBERS - - -Let us take two of the two-bead bars (green) which were used in counting -in the first bead exercises. Here, however, these form part of another -series of beads. Along with these two bars there is a small chain: deg. deg.- deg. deg. -By joining two like bars, the chains represent 2 x 2. There is another -combination of these same objects--the two bars are joined together not -in a chain but in the form of a square: - - deg. deg. - deg. deg. - -They represent the same thing: that is to say, as numbers they are 2 x -2; but they differ in position--one has the form of a line, the other of -a square. It can be seen from this that if as many bars as there are -beads on a bar are placed side by side they form a square. - -In the series in fact we offer squares of 3 x 3 pink beads; 4 x 4 yellow -beads; 5 x 5 pale blue beads; 6 x 6 gray beads; 7 x 7 white beads; 8 x 8 -lavender beads; 9 x 9 dark blue beads; and 10 x 10 orange beads; thus -reproducing the same colors as were used at the beginning in counting. - -For every number there are as many bars as there are beads for the -number, 3 bars for the 3, 4 for the 4, etc.; in addition there is a -chain consisting of an equal number of bars, 3 x 3; 4 x 4; and, as we -have seen, there is a square containing another equal quantity. - -The child not only can count the beads of the chains and squares, but -he can reproduce them by placing the corresponding single bars either in -a horizontal line or laying them side by side in the shape of a square. -The number repeated as many times as the unit it contains is really the -multiplication of the number by itself. - -For example, taking the small square of four the child can count four -beads on each side; multiplying 4 by 4 we have the number of beads in -the square, 16. Multiplying one side by itself (squaring one side) we -have the area of the little square. - -This can be continued for 5, 8, 9, etc. The square of 10 has ten beads -on each side. Multiplying 10 by 10, in other words, "squaring" one side -we get the entire number of beads forming the area of the square: 100. - -However, it is not the form alone which gives these results; for if the -ten bars which formed the square are placed end to end in a horizontal -line, we get the "hundred chain." This can be done with each square; the -chain 5 x 5, like the square 5 x 5, contains the same number of beads, -25. We teach the child to write the numbers with symbol for the square: -5^{2} = 25; 7^{2} = 49; 10^{2} = 100, etc. - -Our material here is manufactured with reference to the numbers 2, 3, 4, -5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. It is "offered" to the child, beginning with the -smaller numbers. Given the material and freedom, the idea will come of -itself and the child will "work" it into his consciousness on them. - -In this same period we take up also the cubes of the numbers, and there -is a similar material for this: that is, the chain of the cube of the -number is made up of chains of the square of that number joined by -several links which permit of its being folded. There are as many -squares for a number as there are units in that number--four squares -for number 4, six squares for 6, ten squares for 10--and a cube of the -beads is formed by placing the necessary number of squares one on top of -the other. - -[Illustration] - -Let us consider the cube of four. There is a chain formed by four chains -each representing the square of four. They are joined by small links so -that the chain can be rolled up lengthwise. The chain of the cube, when -thus rolled, gives four squares similar to the separate squares which, -when drawn out again, for a straight line. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--This shows only part of the entire chain for -4^{3}.] - -The quantity is always the same: four times the square of four. 4 x 4 x -4 = 4^{2} x 4 = 4^{3}. - -The cube of four comes with the material; but it can be reproduced by -placing four loose squares one on top of the other. Looking at this cube -we see that it has all its edges of four. Multiplying the area of a -square by the number of units contained in the side gives the volume of -the cube: 4^{2} x 4. - -In this way the child receives his first intuitions of the processes -necessary for finding a surface and volume. - -With this material we should not try to teach a great deal but should -leave the child free to ponder over his own observations--observing, -experimenting, and meditating upon the easily handled and attractive -material. - - *** - -Little by little we shall see the slates and copybooks filled with -exercises of numbers raised to the square or cube independently of the -rich series of objects which the material itself offers the child. In -his exercises with the square and cube of the numbers he easily will -discover that to multiply by ten it suffices to change the position of -the figures--that is to say, to add a zero. Multiplying unity by ten -gives 10; ten multiplied by ten is equal to 100; one hundred multiplied -by ten is equal to 1,000, etc. - -Before arriving at this point the child will often either have -discovered this fact for himself or have learned it by observing his -companions. - -Some of the fundamental ideas acquired only through laborious lessons by -our common school methods are here learned intuitively, naturally, and -spontaneously. An interesting study which completes that already made -with the "hundred chain" and the "thousand chain" is the comparison of -the respective square chain and cube chain. Such differing relations -showing the increasing length are most illustrative and make a marked -impression upon the child. Furthermore, they prepare for knowledge that -is to be used later. Some day when the child hears of "geometric -progressions" or "linear squares" he will understand immediately and -clearly. - -It is interesting to build a small tower with the bead cubes. Though it -will resemble the pink tower, this tower, which seems to be built of -jewels, gives a profound notion of the relations of quantity. By this -time these cubes are no longer recognized superficially through -sensorial impressions, but their minutest details are known to the child -through the progressively intelligent work which they have occasioned. - - - - -PART IV - -GEOMETRY - - - - -I - -PLANE GEOMETRY - - -The geometric insets used for sensorial exercises in the "Children's -House" made it possible for the child to become familiar with many -figures of plane geometry: the square, rectangle, triangle, polygon, -circle, ellipse, etc. By means of the third series of corresponding -cards, where the figures are merely outlined, he formed the habit of -recognizing a geometric figure represented merely by a line. -Furthermore, he has used a series of iron insets reproducing some of the -geometric figures which he previously had learned through the use of -wooden geometric insets. He used these iron insets to draw the outline -of a figure, which he then filled in with parallel lines by means of -colored pencils (an exercise in handling the instruments of writing). - -The geometric material here presented to the elementary classes -supplements that used in the "Children's House." It is similar to the -iron insets; but in this material each frame is fastened to an iron -foundation of exactly the same size as the frame. Since each piece is -complete in itself, no rack is needed to hold them. - -The frame of the inset is green, the foundation is white, and the inset -itself--the movable portion--is red. When the inset is in the frame, the -red surface and the green frame are in the same plane. - -This material further differs from the other in that each inset is -composed not of a single piece, as in the first material, but of many -pieces which, when put together on the white foundation, exactly -reproduce the geometric figure there designated. - -The use to which these modified insets may be put is most varied. The -main purpose is to facilitate the child's auto-education through -exercises in geometry and often through the solution of real problems. -The fact of being able actually to "handle geometric figures," to -arrange them in different ways, and to judge of the relations between -them, commands the child's absorbed attention. The putting together of -the insets, which deal with equivalent figures, reminds one of the -"games of patience"--picture puzzles--which have been invented for -children but which, while amusing them, have no definite educational -aim. Here, however, the child leaves the exercises with "clear concepts" -and not merely with general "notions" of the principles of geometry, a -thing which is very hard to accomplish by the methods common to the -older schools. The difference between like figures, similar figures, and -equivalent figures, the possibility of reducing every regular plane -figure to an equivalent rectangle, and finally the solution of the -theorem of Pythagoras--all these are acquired eagerly and spontaneously -by the child. The same may be said about work in fractions, which is -made most interesting by the exercises with the circular insets. The -real meaning of the word _fraction_, operations in fractions, the -reduction of common fractions to decimal fractions--all of this is -mastered and becomes perfectly clear in the child's mind. - -These are formative conquests and at the same time a dynamic part of the -child's intellectual activity. A child who works spontaneously and for a -long period of time with this material not only strengthens his -reasoning powers and his character but acquires higher and clearer -cognitions, which increase his mental capacity. In his succeeding -spontaneous flights into the abstract he will show ability for -surprising progress. While a high school child is still wasting his -mental effort in trying to understand the relation between geometrical -figures, which it seems impossible for him to comprehend, our child in -the primary grades is "finding it out for himself" and is so elated by -his discovery that he immediately begins the search for other -geometrical relations. Our children gallop freely along over a smooth -road, urged on by the inner energy of their growing psychic organism, -while many other children plod on barefooted and in shackles over stony -paths. - -Every positive conquest gained through objects with our method of -freedom--allowing the child to exercise himself at the time when he is -most ready for the exercise and permitting him to complete this -exercise--results in spontaneous abstractions. How is it possible to -lead a child to perform abstractions if his mind is not sufficiently -mature and he is without adequate information? These two points of -support are, as it were, the feet of the psychic man who is traveling -toward his highest mental activities. We shall always see the repetition -of this phenomenon. Every ulterior exercise of inner development, every -ulterior cognition, will lead the child to new and ever higher flights -into the realm of the abstract. It is well, however, to emphasize this -principle: that the mind, in order to fly, must leave from some point of -contact, just as the aeroplane starts from its hangar, and that it must -have reached a certain degree of maturity, as is the case with the small -bird when it tries its wings and starts on its first flight from the -nest where it was born and gained his strength. An aeroplane of -perpetual flight without a means of replenishing its supplies, and a -bird with only an "instinct of flight" without the process of -development that takes place from the egg to the first flight, are -things that do not exist. - -A machine flying perpetually without need of replenishing the fuel for -its propelling energy, and an instinct without a corresponding organism, -are pure fancies. The same is true of the flight of man's imagination, -which soars through space and creates. Though this is the mind's "manner -of being," its "highest instinct," yet it also needs to find support in -reality, to organize its inner forces from time to time. The longer a -material can claim and hold a child's attention, the greater promise it -gives that an "abstract process," an "imaginative creation" will follow -as the result of a developed potentiality. This creative imagination, -which is ever returning to reality to gain inspiration and to acquire -new energies, will not be a vain, exhaustible, and fickle thing, like -the so-called imagination which our ordinary schools are trying to -develop. - -Without positive replenishment in reality there never will be a -spontaneous flight of the mind; this is the unsurmountable difficulty of -the common schools in their attempt to "develop the imagination" and to -"lead to education." The child who without any impelling force from -within is artificially "borne aloft" by the teacher, who forces him into -the "abstract," can at most learn only how to descend slowly like a -parachute. He can never learn to "lift himself energetically to dizzy -heights." This is the difference; hence the necessity for considering -the positive basis which holds the mind of the child to systematic -auto-exercises of preparation. After this it suffices merely to grant -freedom to the child's genius in order that it may take its own flight. - -I need not repeat that even in the period of replenishing, freedom is -the guide in finding the "particular moment" and the "necessary time"; -for I already have spoken insistently and at length concerning this. It -is well, however, to reaffirm here even more clearly that a material for -development predetermined by experimental research and put into relation -with the child (through lessons) accomplishes so complete a work by the -psychic reactions which it is capable of stimulating that marvelous -phenomena of intellectual development may be obtained. These geometric -insets furnish rich materials for the application of this principle and -respond wonderfully to the "instinct for work" in the child mind. - -The exercises with this material not only are exercises of composition -with the pieces of an inset or of the substitution of them into their -relative metal plates; they are also exercises in drawing which, because -of the labor they require, allow the child to take cognizance of every -detail and to meditate upon it. - -The designing done with these geometric insets, as will be explained, is -of two kinds: geometric and artistic (mechanical and decorative). And -the union of the two kinds of drawings gives new ways of applying the -material. - -The geometric design consists in reproducing the figure outlined by the -corresponding insets. In this way the child learns to use the different -instruments of drawing--the square, the ruler, the compass, and the -protractor. In these exercises he acquires, with the aid of the special -portfolio which comes with the material, actual and real cognitions in -geometry. - -Artistic designs are made by combining the small pieces of the various -geometric insets. The resulting figures are then outlined and filled in -with colored pencils or watercolors. Such combinations on the part of -the child are real esthetic creations. The insets are of such reciprocal -proportions that their combination results in an artistic harmony which -facilitates the development of the child's esthetic sense. With our -insets we were able to reproduce some of the classic decorations found -in our masterpieces of art, such as decorations by Giotto. - -A combination of geometric design and artistic design is formed by -decorating the different parts of the geometric figure--as the center, -the sides, the angles, the circumference, etc.; or by elaborating with -free-hand details the decorations which have resulted from the -combination of the insets. But a far better concept of all this will be -gained as we pass on to explain our didactic material. - - - - -II - -THE DIDACTIC MATERIAL USED FOR GEOMETRY - - -EQUIVALENT, IDENTICAL AND SIMILAR FIGURES - -FIRST SERIES OF INSETS: _Squares and Divided Figures._ This is a series -of nine square insets, ten by ten centimeters, each of which has a white -foundation of the same size as the inset. - -One inset consists of an entire square; the others are made up in the -following manner: - - A square divided into two equal rectangles - " " " " four equal squares - " " " " eight equal rectangles - " " " " sixteen equal squares - " " " " two equal triangles - " " " " four equal triangles - " " " " eight equal triangles - " " " " sixteen equal triangles - -The child can take the square divided into two rectangles and the one -divided into two triangles and interchange them: that is, he can build -the first square with triangles and the second with rectangles. The two -triangles can be superimposed by placing them in contact at the under -side where there is no knob, and the same can be done with the -rectangles, thus showing their equivalence by placing one on the other. -But there also is a certain relation between the triangles and the -rectangles; indeed, they are each half of the same square; yet they -differ greatly in form. Inductively the child gains an idea of -equivalent figures. The two triangles are identical; the two rectangles -also are identical; whereas the triangle and the rectangle are -equivalents. The child soon makes comparisons by placing the triangle on -the rectangle, and he notices at once that the small triangle which is -left over on the rectangle equals the small triangle which remains -uncovered on the larger triangle, and therefore that the triangle and -the rectangle, though they do not have the same form, have the same -area. - -[Illustration] - -This exercise in observation is repeated in a like manner with all the -other insets, which are divided successively into four, eight, and -sixteen parts. The small square which is a fourth of the original -square, resulting from the division of this latter by two medial lines, -is equivalent to the triangle which was formed by dividing this same -original square into four triangles by two diagonal lines. And so on. - -By comparing the different figures the child learns the difference -between _equivalent_ figures and _identical_ figures. The two rectangles -are the result of dividing the large square by a medial line and are -identical; the two triangles are formed by dividing the original square -by a diagonal line, etc. _Similar_ figures, on the other hand, are those -which have the same form but differ in dimension. For example, the -rectangle which is half of the original square and the one which is half -of the smaller square--that is, an eighth of the original square--are -neither identical nor equivalent but they are _similar_ figures. The -same may be said of the large square and of the smaller ones which -represent a fourth, a sixteenth, etc. - -Through these divisions of the square an idea of fractions is gained -intuitively. However, this is not the material used for the study of -fractions. For this purpose there is another series of insets. - -SECOND SERIES OF INSETS: _Fractions._ There are ten metal plates, each -of which has a circular opening ten centimeters in diameter. One inset -is a complete circle; the other circular insets are divided respectively -into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 equal parts. - -[Illustration] - -The children learn to measure the angles of each piece, and so to count -the degrees. For this work there is a circular piece of white -card-board, on which is drawn in black a semicircle with a radius of the -same length as that of the circular insets. This semicircle is divided -into 18 sectors by radii which extend beyond the circumference on to the -background; and these radii are numbered by tens from 0 deg. to 180 deg. Each -sector is then subdivided into ten parts or degrees. - -[Illustration] - -The diameter from 0 deg. to 180 deg. is outlined heavily and extends beyond the -circumference, in order to facilitate the adjustment of the angle to be -measured and to give a strict exactness of position. This is done also -with the radius which marks 90 deg. The child places a piece of an inset in -such a way that the vertex of the angle touches the middle of the -diameter and one of its sides rests on the radius marked 0 deg. At the -other end of the arc of the inset he can read the degrees of the angle. -After these exercises, the children are able to measure any angle with a -common protractor. Furthermore, they learn that a circle measures 360 deg., -half a circle 180 deg., and a right angle 90 deg. Once having learned that a -circumference measures 360 deg. they can find the number of degrees in any -angle; for example, in the angle of an inset representing the seventh of -the circle, they know that 360 deg. / 7 = (approximately) 51 deg. This they can -easily verify with their instruments by placing the sector on the -graduated circle. - -These calculations and measurements are repeated with all the different -sectors of this series of insets where the circle is divided into from -two to ten parts. The protractor shows approximately that: - - 1/3 circle = 120 deg. and 360 deg. / 3 = 120 deg. - - 1/4 " = 90 deg. " 360 deg. / 4 = 90 deg. - - 1/5 " = 72 deg. " 360 deg. / 5 = 72 deg. - - 1/6 " = 60 deg. " 360 deg. / 6 = 60 deg. - - 1/7 " = 51 deg. " 360 deg. / 7 = 51 deg. - - 1/8 " = 45 deg. " 360 deg. / 8 = 45 deg. - - 1/9 " = 40 deg. " 360 deg. / 9 = 40 deg. - - 1/10 " = 36 deg. " 360 deg. / 10 = 36 deg. - -In this way the child learns to write fractions: - - 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 - -He has concrete impressions of them as well as an intuition of their -arithmetical relationships. - -The material lends itself to an infinite number of combinations, all of -which are real arithmetical exercises in fractions. For example, the -child can take from the circle the two half circles and replace them by -four sectors of 90 deg., filling the same circular opening with entirely -different pieces. From this he can draw the following conclusion: - -1/2 + 1/2 = 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4. - -He also may say that two halves are equal to four fourths, and write -accordingly: - -2/2 = 4/4. - -[Illustration] - -This is merely the expression of the same thing. Seeing the pieces, he -has done an example mentally and then has written it out. Let us write -it according to the first form, which is, in reality, an analysis of -this example: - -1/2 + 1/2 = 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4. - -When the denominator is the same, the sum of the fractions is found by -adding the numerators: - -1/2 + 1/2 = 2/2; 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 = 4/4. - -The two halves make an entire circle, as do the four fourths. - -Now let us fill a circle with different pieces: for example, with a half -circle and two quarter circles. The result is 1 = 1/2 + 2/4. And in the -inset itself it is shown that 1/2 = 2/4. If we should wish to fill the -circle with the largest piece (1/2) combined with the fewest number of -pieces possible, it would be necessary to withdraw the two quarter -sectors and replace them by another half circle; result: - -1 = 1/2 + 1/2 = 2/2 = 1. - -Let us fill a circle with three 1/5 sectors and four 1/10 sectors: - -1 = 3/5 + 4/10. - -If the larger pieces are left in and the circle is then filled with the -fewest number of pieces possible, it would necessitate replacing the -four tenths by two fifths. Result: - -1 = 3/5 + 2/5 = 5/5 = 1. - -Let us fill the circle thus: 5/10 + 1/4 + 2/8 = 1. - -Now try to put in the largest pieces possible by substituting for -several small pieces a large piece which is equal to them. In the space -occupied by the five tenths may be placed one half, and in that occupied -by the two eighths, one fourth; then the circle is filled thus: - -1 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2 + 2/4. - -We can continue to do the same thing, that is to replace the smaller -pieces by as large a sector as possible, and the two fourths can be -replaced by another half circle. Result: - -1 = 1/2 + 1/2 = 2/2 = 1. - -All these substitutions may be expressed in figures thus: - -5/10 + 1/4 + 2/8 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/4 = - -1/2 + 2/4 = 1/2 + 1/2 = 2/2 = 1. - -This is one means of initiating a child intuitively into the operations -used for the reduction of fractions to their lowest terms. - -Improper fractions also interest them very much. They come to these by -adding a number of sectors which fill two, three, or four circles. To -find the whole numbers which exist under the guise of fractions is a -little like putting away in their proper places the circular insets -which have been all mixed up. The children manifest a desire to learn -the real operations of fractions. With improper fractions they originate -most unusual sums, like the following: - - [8 + (7/7 + 18/9 + 24/2) + 1] = - ------------------------------ - 8 - - [8 + (1 + 2 + 12) + 1] - ---------------------- = - 8 - - 8 + 15 + 1 - ---------- = 24/8 = 3. - 8 - -We have a series of commands which may be used as a guide for the -child's work. Here are some examples: - - --Take 1/5 of 25 beads - - --Take 1/4 " 36 counters - - --Take 1/6 " 24 beans - - --Take 1/3 " 27 beans - - --Take 1/10 " 40 beans - - --Take 2/5 " 60 counters - -In this last there are two operations: - -60 / 5 = 12; 12 X 2 = 24; or 2 X 60 = 120; 120 / 5 = 24, etc. - -REDUCTION OF COMMON FRACTIONS TO DECIMAL FRACTIONS: The material for -this purpose is similar to that of the circular insets, except that the -frame is white and is marked into ten equal parts, and each part is then -subdivided into ten. In these subdivisions the little line which marks -the five is distinguished from the others by its greater length. Each of -the larger divisions is marked respectively with the numbers, 10, 20, -30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 0. The 0 is at the top and there is a -raised radius against which are placed the sectors to be measured. - -[Illustration] - -To reduce a common fraction to a decimal fraction the sector is placed -carefully against the raised radius, with the arc touching the -circumference of the inset. Where the arc ends there is a number which -represents _the hundredths_ corresponding to the sector. For example, if -the 1/4 sector is used its arc ends at 25; hence 1/4 equals 0.25. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Page 275 shows in detail the practical method of using our material to -reduce common fractions to decimal fractions. In the upper figure the -segments correspond to 1/3, 1/4, and 1/8 of a circle are placed within -the circle divided into hundredths. Result: - - 1/3 + 1/4 + 1/8 = 0.70. - -The lower figure shows how the 1/3 sector is placed: 1/3 = 0.33. - -If instead we use the 1/5 sector we have: 1/5 = 0.20, etc. - -Numerous sectors may be placed within the circle; for example: - - 1/4 + 1/7 + 1/9 + 1/10. - -In order to find the sum of the fraction reduced to decimals, it is -necessary to read only the number at the outer edge of the last sector. - -[Illustration] - -Using this as a basis, it is very easy to develop an arithmetical idea. -Instead of 1, which represents the whole circle, let us write 100, which -represents its subdivisions when used for decimals, and let us divide -the 100 into as many parts of a circle as there are sectors in the -circle, and the reduction is made. All the parts which result are so -many hundredths. Hence: - - 1/4 = 100 / 4 = 25 hundredths: that is, 25/100 or 0.25. - -The division is performed by dividing the numerator by the demoninator: - - 1 / 4 = 0.25. - -THIRD SERIES OF INSETS: _Equivalent Figures._ Two concepts were given by -the squares divided into rectangles and triangles: that of fractions and -that of equivalent figures. - -There is a special material for the concept of fractions which, besides -developing the intuitive notion of fractions, has permitted the solution -of examples in fractions and of reducing fractions to decimals; and it -has furthermore brought cognizance of other things, such as the -measuring of angles in terms of degrees. - -For the concept of equivalent figures there is still another material. -This will lead to finding the area of different geometric forms and also -to an intuition of some theorems which heretofore have been foreign to -elementary schools, being considered beyond the understanding of a -child. - - -MATERIAL: Showing that a triangle is equal to a rectangle which has one -side equal to the base of the triangle, the other side equal to half of -the altitude of the triangle. - -In a large rectangular metal frame there are two white openings: the -triangle and the equivalent rectangle. The pieces which compose the -rectangle are such that they may fit into the openings of either the -rectangle or the triangle. This demonstrates that the rectangle and the -triangle are equivalent. The triangular space is filled by two pieces -formed by a horizontal line drawn through the triangle parallel to the -base and crossing at half the altitude. Taking the two pieces out and -putting them one on top of the other the identity of the height may be -verified. - -[Illustration] - -Already the work with the beads and the squaring of numbers has led to -finding the area of a square by multiplying one side by the other; and -in like manner the area of a rectangle is found by multiplying the base -by half other. Since a triangle may be reduced to a rectangle, it is -easy to find its area by multiplying the base by half the height. - -MATERIAL: Showing that a rhombus is equal to a rectangle which has one -side equal to one side of the rhombus and the other equal to the height -of the rhombus. - -The frame contains a rhombus divided by a diagonal line into two -triangles and a rectangle filled with pieces which can be put into the -rhombus when the triangles have been removed, and will fill it -completely. In the material there are also an entire rhombus and an -entire rectangle. If they are placed one on top of the other they will -be found to have the same height. As the equivalence of the two figures -is demonstrated by these pieces of the rectangle which may be used to -fill in the two figures, it is easily seen that the area of a rhombus is -found by multiplying the side or base by the height. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - * * * * * - -MATERIAL: To show the equivalence of a trapezoid and a rectangle having -one side equal to the sum of the two bases and the other equal to half -the height. - -The child himself can make the other comparison: that is, a trapezoid -equals a rectangle having one side equal to the height and the other -equal to one-half the sum of the bases. For the latter it is only -necessary to cut the long rectangle in half and superimpose the two -halves. - -The large rectangular frame contains three openings: two equal -trapezoids and the equivalent rectangle having one side equal to the sum -of the two bases and the other side equal to half the height. One -trapezoid is made of two pieces, being cut in half horizontally at the -height of half its altitude; the identity in height may be proved by -placing one piece on top of the other. The second trapezoid is composed -of pieces which can be placed in the rectangle, filling it completely. -Thus the equivalence is proved and also the fact that the area of a -trapezoid is found by multiplying the sum of the bases by half the -height, or half the sum of the bases by the height. - -[Illustration] - -With a ruler the children themselves actually calculate the area of the -geometrical figures, and later calculate the area of their little -tables, etc. - -MATERIAL: To show the equivalence between a regular polygon and a -rectangle having one side equal to the perimeter and the other equal to -half of the hypotenuse. - -[Illustration: The analysis of the decagon.] - -In the material there are two decagon insets, one consisting of a -whole decagon and the other of a decagon divided into ten triangles. - -Page 281 shows a table taken from our geometry portfolio, representing -the equivalence of a decagon to a rectangle having one side equal to the -perimeter and the other equal to half the hypotenuse. - -[Illustration: The bead number cubes built into a tower.] - -The photograph shows the pieces of the insets--the decagon and the -equivalent rectangle--and beneath each one there are the small equal -triangles into which it can be subdivided. Here it is demonstrated that -a rectangle equivalent to a decagon may have one side equal to the whole -hypotenuse and the other equal to half of the perimeter. - -Another inset shows the equivalence of the decagon and a rectangle which -has one side equal to the perimeter of the decagon and the other equal -to half of the altitude of each triangle composing the decagon. Small -triangles divided horizontally in half can be fitted into this figure, -with one of the upper triangles divided in half lengthwise. - -Thus we demonstrate that the surface of a regular polygon may be found -by multiplying the perimeter by half the hypotenuse. - - -SOME THEOREMS BASED ON EQUIVALENT FIGURES - -_A._ All triangles having the same base and altitude are equal. - -This is easily understood from the fact that the area of a triangle is -found by multiplying the base by half the altitude; therefore triangles -having the same base and the same altitude must be equal. - -For the inductive demonstration of this theorem we have the following -material: The rhombus and the equivalent rectangle are each divided -into two triangles. The triangles of the rhombus are different, for they -are divided by opposite diagonal lines. The three different triangles -resulting from these divisions have the same base (this can be actually -verified by measuring the bases of the different pieces) and fit into -the same long rectangle which is found below the first three figures. -Therefore, it is demonstrated that the three triangles have the same -altitude. They are equivalent because each one is the half of an -equivalent figure. - -[Illustration: The decagon and the rectangle can be composed of the same -triangular insets.] - -[Illustration: The triangular insets fitted into their metal plates.] - -[Illustration] - -_B._ THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS: In a right-angled triangle the square of -the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides. - -MATERIAL: The material illustrates three different cases: - - First case: In which the two sides of the triangle are - equal. - - Second case: In which the two sides are in the - proportion of 3:4. - - Third case: General. - -_First case:_ The demonstration of this first case affords an impressive -induction. - -In the frame for this, shown below, the squares of the two sides are -divided in half by a diagonal line so as to form two triangles and the -square of the hypotenuse is divided by two diagonal lines into four -triangles. The eight resulting triangles are all identical; hence the -triangles of the squares of the two sides will fill the square of the -hypotenuse; and, vice versa, the four triangles of the square of the -hypotenuse may be used to fill the two squares of the sides. The -substitution of these different pieces is very interesting, and all the -more because the triangles of the squares of the sides are all of the -same color, whereas the triangles formed in the square of the hypotenuse -are of a different color. - -[Illustration] - -_Second case:_ Where the sides are as the proportion of 3:4. - -In this figure the three squares are filled with small squares of three -different colors, arranged as follows: in the square on the shorter -side, 3^{2} = 9; in that on the larger side, 4^{2} = 16; in that on the -hypotenuse, 5^{2} = 25. - -[Illustration: Second Case] - -The substitution game suggests itself. The two squares formed on the -sides can be entirely filled by the small squares composing the square -on the hypotenuse, so that they are both of the same color; while the -square formed on the hypotenuse can be filled with varied designs by -various combinations of the small squares of the sides which are in two -different colors. - -_Third case:_ This is the general case. - -The large frame is somewhat complicated and difficult to describe. It -develops a considerable intellectual exercise. The entire frame measures -44 x 24 cm. and may be likened to a chess-board, where the movable -pieces are susceptible of various combinations. The principles already -proved or inductively suggested which lead to the demonstration of the -theorem are: - -(1) That two quadrilaterals having an equal base and equal altitude are -equivalent. - -(2) That two figures equivalent to a third figure are equivalent to each -other. - -In this figure the square formed on the hypotenuse is divided into two -rectangles. The additional side is determined by the division made in -the hypotenuse by dropping a perpendicular line from the apex of the -triangle to the hypotenuse. There are also two rhomboids in this frame, -each of which has one side equal respectively to the large and to the -small square of the sides of the triangle and the other side equal to -the hypotenuse. - -The shorter altitude of the two rhomboids, as may be seen in the figure -itself, corresponds to the respective altitudes, or shorter sides, of -the rectangles. But the longer side corresponds respectively to the side -of the larger and of the smaller squares of the sides of the triangle. - -It is not necessary that these corresponding dimensions be known by the -child. He sees red and yellow pieces of an inset and simply moves them -about, placing them in the indentures of the frame. It is the fact that -these movable pieces actually fit into this white background which -gives the child the opportunity for reasoning out the theorem, and not -the abstract idea of the corresponding relations between the dimensions -of the sides and the different heights of the figures. Reduced to these -terms the exercise is easily performed and proves very interesting. - -This material may be used for other demonstrations: - -DEMONSTRATION A: _The substitution of the pieces._ Let us start with the -frame as it should be filled originally. First take out the two -rectangles formed on the hypotenuse; place them in the two lateral -grooves, and lower the triangle. Fill the remaining empty space with the -two rhomboids. - -The same space is filled in both cases with: - - A triangle plus two rectangles, and then - A triangle plus two rhomboids. - -Hence the sum of the two rectangles (which form the square of the -hypotenuse) is equal to the sum of the two rhomboids. - -In a later substitution we consider the rhomboids instead of the -rectangles in order to demonstrate their respective equivalence to the -two squares formed on the sides of the triangle. Beginning, for example -with the larger square, we start with the insets in the original -position and consider the space occupied by the triangle and the larger -square. To analyze this space the pieces are all taken out and then it -is filled successively by: - - The triangle and the large square in their original positions. - The triangle and the large rhomboid. - -[Illustration: Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two -rectangles.] - -DEMONSTRATION B: _Based on Equivalence_. In this second demonstration -the relative equivalence of the rhomboid, the rectangles, and the -squares is shown outside the figure by means of the parallel indentures -which are on both sides of the frame. These indentures, when the pieces -are placed in them, show that the pieces have the same altitude. - -This is the manner of procedure: Starting again with the original -position, take out the two rectangles and place them in the parallel -indentures to the left, the larger in the wider indenture and the -smaller in the narrower indenture. The different figures in the same -indenture have the same altitude; therefore the pieces need only to be -placed together at the base to prove that they are equal--hence the -figures are equal in pairs: the smaller rectangle equals the smaller -rhomboid and the larger rectangle equals the larger rhomboid. - -Starting again from the original position you proceed analogously with -the squares. In the parallel indentures to the right the large square -may be placed in the same indenture with the large rhomboid, which, -however, must be turned in the opposite direction (in the direction of -its greatest length); and the smaller square and the smaller rhomboid -fit into the narrower indenture. They have the same altitude; and that -the bases are equal is easily verified by putting them together; -therefore here is proof that the squares and the rhomboids are -respectively equivalent. - -Rectangles and squares which are equivalent to the same rhomboids are -equivalent to each other. Hence the theorem is proved. - - . . . . . . . . - -[Illustration: Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two -squares.] - -This series of geometric material is used for other purposes, but they -are of minor importance. - -FOURTH SERIES OF INSETS: _Division of a Triangle_. This material made up -of four frames of equal size, each containing an equilateral triangle -measuring ten centimeters to a side. The different pieces should fill -the triangular spaces exactly. - -One is filled by an entire equilateral triangle. - -One is filled by two rectangular scalene triangles, each equal to half -of the original equilateral triangle, which is bisected by dropping a -line perpendicularly to the base. - -[Illustration] - -The third is filled by three obtuse isosceles triangles, formed by lines -bisecting the three angles of the original triangle. - -The fourth is divided into four equilateral triangles which are similar -in shape to the original triangle. - -With these triangles a child can make a more exact analytical study than -he made when he was observing the triangles of the plane insets used in -the "Children's House." He measures the degrees of the angles and learns -to distinguish a right angle (90 deg.) from an acute angle (<90 deg.) and from -an obtuse angle (>90 deg.). - -Furthermore he finds in measuring the angles of any triangle that their -sum is always equal to 180 deg. or to two right angles. - -He can observe that in equilateral triangles all the angles are equal -(60 deg.); that in the isosceles triangle the two angles at the opposite -ends of the unequal side are equal; while in the scalene triangle no two -angles are alike. In the right-angled triangle the sum of the two acute -angles is equal to a right angle. A general definition is that those -triangles are similar in which the corresponding angles are equal. - -MATERIAL FOR INSCRIBED AND CONCENTRIC FIGURES: In this material, which -for the most part is made up of that already described, and which is -therefore merely an application of it, inscribed or concentric figures -may be placed in the white background of the different inset frames. For -example, on the white background of the large equilateral triangle the -small red equilateral triangle, which is a fourth of it, may be placed -in such a way that each vertex is tangent to the middle of each side of -the larger triangle. - -There are also two squares, one of 7 centimeters on a side and the other -3.5. They have their respective frames with white backgrounds. The 7 -centimeters square may be placed on the background of the 10 centimeters -square in such a way that each corner touches the middle of each side of -the frame. In like manner the 5 centimeters square, which is a fourth of -the large square, may be put in the 7 centimeters square; the 3.5 -centimeters square in the 5 centimeters square; and finally the tiny -square, which is 1/16 part of the large square, in the 3.5 centimeters -square. - -There is also a circle which is tangent to the edges of the large -equilateral triangle. This circle may be placed on the background of the -10 centimeters circle, and in that case a white circular strip remains -all the way round (concentric circles). Within this circle the smaller -equilateral triangle (1/4 of the large triangle) is perfectly inscribed. -Then there is a small circle which is tangent to the smallest -equilateral triangle. - -Besides these circles which are used with the triangles there are two -others tangent to the squares: one to the 7 centimeters square and the -other to the 3.5 centimeters square. The large circle, 10 centimeters in -diameter, fits exactly into the 10 centimeters square; and the other -circles are concentric to it. - -These corresponding relations make the figures easily adaptable to our -artistic composition of decorative design (see following chapter). - -Finally, together with the other material, there are two stars which are -also used for decorative design. The two stars, or "flowers," are based -on the 3.5 centimeters square. In one the circle rests on the side as a -semi-circle (simple flower); and in the other the same circle goes -around the vertex and beyond the semi-circle until it meets the -reciprocal of four circles (flower and foliage). - - - - -III - -SOLID GEOMETRY - - -Since the children already know how to find the area of ordinary -geometric forms it is very easy, with the knowledge of the arithmetic -they have acquired through work with the beads (the square and cube of -numbers), to initiate them into the manner of finding the volume of -solids. After having studied the cube of numbers by the aid of the cube -of beads it is easy to recognize the fact that the volume of a prism is -found by multiplying the area by the altitude. - -In our didactic material we have three objects for solid geometry: a -prism, a pyramid having the same base and altitude, and a prism with the -same base but with only one-third the altitude. They are all empty. The -two prisms have a cover and are really boxes; the uncovered pyramid can -be filled with different substances and then emptied, serving as a sort -of scoop. - -These solids may be filled with wheat or sand. Thus we put into practise -the same technique as is used to calculate capacity, as in anthropology, -for instance, when we wish to measure the capacity of a cranium. - -It is difficult to fill a receptacle completely in such a way that the -measured result does not vary; so we usually put in a scarce measure, -which therefore does not correspond to the exact volume but to a smaller -volume. - -One must know how to fill a receptacle, just as one must know how to do -up a bundle, so that the various objects may take up the least possible -space. The children like this exercise of shaking the receptacle and -getting in as great a quantity as possible; and they like to level it -off when it is entirely filled. - -The receptacles may be filled also with liquids. In this case the child -must be careful to pour out the contents without losing a single drop. -This technical drill serves as a preparation for using metric measures. - -By these experiments the child finds that the pyramid has the same -volume as the small prism (which is one-third of the large prism); hence -the volume of the pyramid is found by multiplying the area of the base -by one-third the altitude. The small prism may be filled with clay and -the same piece of clay will be found to fill the pyramid. The two solids -of equal volume may be made of clay. All three solids can be made by -taking five times as much clay as is needed to fill the same prism. - - . . . . . . . . - -Having mastered these fundamental ideas, it is easy to study the rest, -and few explanations will be needed. In many cases the incentive to do -original problems may be developed by giving the children definite -examples: as, how can the area of a circle be found? the volume of a -cylinder? of a cone? Problems on the total area of some solids also may -be suggested. Many times the children will risk spontaneous inductions -and often of their own accord proceed to measure the total surface area -of all the solids at their disposal, even going back to the materials -used in the "Children's House." - -The material includes a series of wooden solids with a base measurement -of 10 cm.: - - A quadrangular parallelopiped (10 X 10 X 20 cm.) - A quadrangular parallelopiped equal to 1/3 of above - A quadrangular pyramid (10 X 10 X 20 cm.) - A triangular prism (10 X 20 cm.) - A triangular prism equal to 1/3 of above - The corresponding pyramid (10 X 20 cm.) - A cylinder (10 cm. diameter, 20 altitude) - A cylinder equal to 1/3 of above - A cone (10 cm. diameter, 20 altitude) - A sphere (10 cm. diameter) - An ovoid (maximum diameter 10 cm.) - An ellipsoid (maximum diameter 10 cm.) - Regular Polyhedrons - Tetrahedron - Hexahedron (cube) - Octahedron - Dodecahedron - Icosahedron - -(The faces of these polyhedrons are in different colors.) - - -APPLICATIONS: _The Powers of Numbers_. - - -MATERIAL: Two equal cubes of 2 cm. on a side; a prism twice the size of -the cubes; a prism double this preceding prism; seven cubes 4 cm. on a -side. - -The following combinations are made: - - The two smaller cubes are placed side by side = 2. - - In front of these is placed the prism which is twice - as large as the cube = 2^{2}. - - On top of these is placed the double prism, making a - cube with 4 cm. on a side = 2^{3}. - - One of the seven cubes is put beside this = 2^{4}. - -In front are placed two more of the seven cubes = 2^{5}. - -On top are put the remaining four equal cubes = 2^{6}. - -In this way we have made a cube measuring 8 cm. on a side. From this we -see that: - - 2^{3}, 2^{6} have the form of a cube. - 2^{2}, 2^{5} have the form of a square. - 2, 2^{4} have a linear form. - -_The Cube of a Binomial:_ (a + b)^{3} = a^{3} + b^{3} + 3a^{2}b + -3b^{a}. - -MATERIAL: A cube with a 6 cm. edge, a cube with a 4 cm. edge; three -prisms with a square base of 4 cm. on a side and 6 cm. high; three -prisms with a square base of 6 cm. to a side and 4 cm. high. The 10 cm. -cube can be made with these. - -These two combinations are in special cube-shaped boxes into which the -10 cm. cube fits exactly. - - . . . . . . . . - -_Weights and Measures:_ All that refers to weights and measures is -merely an application of similar operations and reasonings. - -The children have at their disposal and learn to handle many of the -objects which are used for measuring both in commerce and in every-day -life. In the "Children's House" days they had the long stair rods which -contain the meter and its decimeter subdivisions. Here they have a -tape-measure with which they measure floors, etc., and find the area. -They have the meter in many forms: in the anthropometer, in the ruler. -Then, too, they use the metal tape, the dressmaker's tape measure, and -the meterstick used by merchants. - -[Illustration: Hollow geometric solids, used for determining equivalence -by measuring sand, sugar, etc.] - -The twenty centimeter ruler divided into millimeters they use constantly -in design; and they love to calculate the area of the geometric figures -they have designed or of the metal insets. Often they calculate the -surface of the white background of an inset and that of the different -pieces which exactly fit this opening, so as to verify the former. As -they already have some preparation in decimals it is no task for them to -recognize and to remember that the measures increase by tens and take on -new names each time. The exercises in grammar have greatly facilitated -the increase in their vocabulary. - -They calculate the reciprocal relations between length, surface, and -volume by going back to the three sets which first represented "long," -"thick," and "large." - -The objects which differ in length vary by 10's; those differing in -areas vary by 100's; and those which differ in volume vary by 1000's. - -The comparison between the bead material and the cubes of the pink tower -(one of the first things they built) encourages a more profound study of -the sensory objects which were once the subject of assiduous -application. - -By the aid of the double decimeter the children make the calculations -for finding the volume of all the different objects graded by tens, such -as the rods, the prisms of the broad stair, the cubes of the pink tower. - -By taking the extremes in each case they learn the relations between -objects which differ in one dimension, in two dimensions, and in three -dimensions. Besides, they already know that the square of 10 is 100, and -the cube of 10 is 1000. - - . . . . . . . . - -[Illustration: Designs formed by arranging sections of the insets within -the frames.] - -The children make use of various scientific instruments: thermometers, -distillers, scales, and, as previously stated, the principal measures -commonly used. - -By filling an empty metal cubical decimeter, which like the geometric -solids is used for the calculation of volume, they have a liter measure -of water, which may be poured into a glass liter bottle. All the decimal -multiples and subdivisions of the liter are easily understood. Our -children spent much time pouring liquids into all the small measures -used in commerce for measuring wine and oil. - -They distil water with the distiller. They use the thermometer to -measure the temperature of water in ebullition and the temperature of -the freezing mixture. They take the water which is used to determine the -weight of the kilogram, keeping it at the temperature of 4 deg.C. - -The objects which serve to measure capacity also are at the disposal of -the children. - -There is no need to go into more details upon the multitudinous -consequences resulting from both a methodical preparation of the -intellect and the possibility of actually being in contact with real -objects. - -A great number of problems given by us, as well as problems originated -by the children themselves, bear witness to the ease with which external -effects may he spontaneously produced when once the inner _causes_ have -been adequately stimulated. - - - - -PART V - -DRAWING - - - - -I - -LINEAR GEOMETRIC DESIGN DECORATION - - -I already have mentioned the fact that the material of the geometric -insets may be applied also to design. - -It is through design that the child may be led to ponder on the -geometric figures which he has handled, taken out, combined in numerous -ways, and replaced. In doing this he completes an exercise necessitating -much use of the reasoning faculties. Indeed, he reproduces all of the -figures by linear design, learning to handle many instruments--the -centimeter ruler, the double decimeter, the square, the protractor, the -compass, and the steel pen used for line ruling. For this work we have -included in the geometric material a large portfolio where, together -with the pages reproducing the figures, there are also some illustrative -sheets with brief explanations of the figures and containing the -relative nomenclature. Aside from copying designs the child may copy -also the explanatory notes and thus reproduce the whole geometry -portfolio. These explanatory notes are very simple. Here, for example, -is the one which refers to the square: - -"SQUARE: The side or base is divided into 10 cm. All the other sides are -equal, hence each measures 10 cm. The square has four equal sides and -four equal angles which are always right angles. The number 4 and the -identity of the sides and angles are the distinguishing characteristics -of the square." - -The children measure paper and construct the figure with attention and -application that are truly remarkable. They love to handle the compasses -and are very proud of possessing a pair. - -One child asked her mother for a Christmas gift of "one _last_ doll and -a box of compasses," as if she were ending one epoch of her life and -beginning another. One little boy begged his mother to let him accompany -her when she went to buy the compass for him. When they were in the -store the salesman was surprised to find that so young a child was to -use the compass and gave them a box of the simplest kind. "Not those," -protested the little fellow; "I want an engineer's compass;" and he -picked out one of the most complicated ones. This was the very reason -why he was so anxious to go with his mother. - -As the children draw, they learn many particulars concerning the -geometric figures: the sides, angles, bases, centers, median lines, -radii, diameters, sectors, segments, diagonals, hypotenuses, -circumferences, perimeters, etc. They do not, however, learn all this as -so much dry information nor do they limit themselves to reproducing the -designs in the geometry portfolio. Each child adds to his own portfolio -other designs which he chooses and sometimes originates. The designs -reproduced in the portfolio are drawn on plain white drawing paper with -China inks, but the children's special designs are drawn on colored -paper with different colored inks and with gildings (silver, gold). The -children reproduce the geometric figures and then they fill them in with -decorations made either with pen or water-colors. These decorations -serve especially to emphasize, in a geometric analysis, the various -parts of the figure, such as center, angles, circumference, medians, -diagonals, etc. - -The decorated motif is selected or else invented by the child himself. -He is allowed the same freedom of choice in his backgrounds as he enjoys -for his inks or water-colors. The observation of nature (flowers and -their different parts--pollen, leaves, a section of some part observed -under the microscope, plant seeds, shells, etc.) serves to nourish the -child's aesthetic imagination. The children also have access to artistic -designs, collections of photographs reproducing the great masterpieces, -and Haeckel's famous work, _Nature's Artistic Forms_, all of which -equipment is so interesting and delightful to a child. - -The children work many, many hours on drawing. This is the time we seize -for reading to them (see above p. 197) and almost all their history is -learned during this quiet period of copy and simple decoration which is -so conducive to concentration of thought. - -Copying some design, or drawing a decoration which has been directly -inspired by something seen; the choice of colors to fill in a geometric -figure or to bring out, by small and simple designs, the center or side -of the figure; the mechanical act of mixing a color, of dissolving the -gildings, or of choosing one kind of ink from a series of different -colors; sharpening a pencil, or getting one's paper in the proper -position; determining through tentative means the required extension of -the compass--all this is a complex operation requiring patience and -exactitude. But it does not require great intellectual concentration. It -is, therefore, a work of application rather than of inspiration; and the -observation of each detail, in order to reproduce it exactly, clarifies -and rests the mind instead of rousing it to the intense activity -demanded by the labor of association and creation. The child is busy -with his hands rather than with his mind; but yet his mind is -sufficiently stimulated by this work as not easily to wander away into -the world of dreams. - -These are quiet hours of work in which the children use only a part of -their energies, while the other part is reaching out after something -else; just as a family sits quietly by the fireside in long winter -evenings engaged in light manual labors requiring little intelligence, -watching the flames with a sense of enjoyment, willing to pass in this -way many peaceful hours, yet feeling that a certain side of their needs -is not satisfied. This is the time chosen for story telling or for light -reading. Similarly this is the best time for our little children to -listen to reading of all kinds. - -During these hours they listened to the reading of books like _The -Betrothed_ (of Manzoni), psychological books like Itard's _Education of -the Savage of Aveyron_, or historical narratives. The children took a -deep interest in the reading. Each child may be occupied with his own -design as well as with the facts which he is hearing described. It seems -as though the one occupation furnishes the energy necessary for -perfection in the other. The mechanical attention which the child gives -to his design frees his mind from idle dreaming and renders it more -capable of completely absorbing the reading that is going on; and the -pleasure gained from the reading which, little by little, penetrates his -whole being seems to give new energy to both hand and eye. His lines -become most exact and the colors more delicate. - -When the reading has reached some point of climax we hear remarks, -exclamations, applause or discussions, which animate and lighten the -work without interrupting it. But there are times when, with one accord, -our children abandon their drawing so as to act out some humorous -selection or to represent an historical fact which has touched them -deeply; or, indeed, as happened during the reading of the _Savage of -Aveyron_, their hands remained almost unconsciously raised in the -intensity of their emotion, while on their faces was an expression of -ecstasy, as if they were witnessing wonderful unheard-of things. Their -actions seemed to interpret the well-known sentiment: "Never have I seen -woman like unto this." - - * * * * * - -ARTISTIC COMPOSITION WITH THE INSETS: Our geometric insets, which are -all definitely related to one another in dimensions and include a series -of figures which can be contained one within the other, lend themselves -to very beautiful combinations. With these the children make real -creations and often follow out their artistic ideas for days and even -weeks. By moving the small pieces or by combining them in different ways -on the white background, these very insets produce various decorations. -The ease with which the child may form designs by arranging the little -pieces of iron on a sheet of paper and then outlining them, and the -harmony which is thus so easily obtained, affords endless delight. -Really wonderful pieces of work are often produced in this way. - -During these periods of creative design, as indeed during the periods of -drawing from life, the child is deeply and wholly concentrated. His -entire intellect is at work and no kind of instructive reading would be -at all fitting while he is engaged in drawing or designing of this -nature. - -With the insets, as we have said, we have reproduced some of the classic -decorations so greatly admired in the Italian masterpieces; for -instance, those of Giotto in Florentine Art. When the children try with -the insets to reproduce these classic decorations from photographs they -are led to make most minute observations, which may be considered a real -study of art. They judge the relative proportions of the various figures -in such a way that their eye learns to appreciate the harmony of the -work. And thus, even in childhood, a fine aesthetic enjoyment begins to -engage their minds on the higher and more noble planes. - - - - -II - -FREE-HAND DRAWING--STUDIES FROM LIFE - - -All the preceding exercises are "formative" for the art of drawing. They -develop in the child the manual ability to execute a geometric design -and prepare his eye to appreciate the harmony of proportions between -geometric figures. The countless observations of drawings, the habit of -minute examination of natural objects, constitute so many preparatory -drills. We can, however, say that the whole method, educating the eye -and the hand at the same time and training the child to observe and -execute drawings with intense application, prepares the mechanical means -for design, while the mind, left free to take its flight and to create, -is ready to produce. - -It is by developing the individual that he is prepared for that -wonderful manifestation of the human intelligence, which drawing -constitutes. The ability _to see reality_ in form, in color, in -proportion, to be master of the movements of one's own hand--that is -what is necessary. Inspiration is an individual thing, and when a child -possesses these formative elements he can give expression to all he -happens to have. - -There can be no "graduated exercises in drawing" leading up to an -artistic creation. That goal can be attained only through the -development of mechanical technique and through the freedom of the -spirit. That is our reason for not teaching drawing directly to the -child. We prepare him indirectly, leaving him free to the mysterious and -divine labor of reproducing things according to his own feelings. Thus -drawing comes to satisfy a need for expression, as does language; and -almost every idea may seek expression in drawing. The effort to perfect -such expression is very similar to that which the child makes when he is -spurred on to perfect his language in order to see his thoughts -translated into reality. This effort is spontaneous; and the real -drawing teacher is in the inner life, which of itself develops, attains -refinement, and seeks irresistibly to be born into external existence in -some empirical form. Even the smallest children try spontaneously to -draw outlines of the objects which they see; but the hideous drawings -which are exhibited in the common schools, as "free drawings" -"characteristic" of childhood, are not found among our children. These -horrible daubs so carefully collected, observed, and catalogued by -modern psychologists as "documents of the infant mind" are nothing but -monstrous expressions of intellectual lawlessness; they show only that -the eye of their child is uneducated, the hand inert, the mind -insensible alike to the beautiful and to the ugly, blind to the true as -well as to the false. Like most documents collected by psychologists who -study the children of our schools, they reveal not the soul but the -errors of the soul; and these drawings, with their monstrous -deformities, show simply what the uneducated human being is like. - -Such things are not "free drawings" by children. _Free drawings_ are -possible only when we have a _free child_ who has been left free to grow -and perfect himself in the assimilation of his surroundings and in -mechanical reproduction; and who when left free to create and express -himself actually does create and express himself. - -The sensory and manual preparation for drawing is nothing more than an -alphabet; but without it the child is an illiterate and cannot express -himself. And just as it is impossible to study the writing of people who -cannot write, so there can be no psychological study of the drawings of -children who have been abandoned to spiritual and muscular chaos. All -psychic expressions acquire value when the inner personality has -acquired value by the development of its formative processes. Until this -fundamental principle has become an absolute acquisition we can have no -idea of the psychology of a child as regards his creative powers. - -Thus, unless we know how a child should develop in order to unfold his -natural energies, we shall not know how drawing as a natural expression -is developed. The universal development of the wondrous language of the -hand will come not from a "school of design" but from a "school of the -new man" which will cause this language to spring forth spontaneously -like water from an inexhaustible spring. To confer the gift of drawing -we must create an eye that sees, a hand that obeys, a soul that feels; -and in this task the whole life must cooperate. In this sense life -itself is the only preparation for drawing. Once we have lived, the -inner spark of vision does the rest. - -[Illustration: Designs formed by the use of the geometry squares, -circles, and equilateral triangle, modified by free-hand drawing. In the -design on the right the "flower" within the cross is made with -compasses: the decorative detail in the arms of the cross and the circle -in the center are free-hand. The design on the left is similar to a -decoration in the Cathedral at Florence, in the windows round the apse.] - -Leave to man then this sublime gesture which transfers to the canvas the -marks of creative divinity. Leave it free to develop from the very time -when the tiny child takes a piece of chalk and reproduces a simple -outline on the blackboard, when he sees a leaf and makes his first -reproduction of it on the white page. Such a child is in search of -every possible means of expression, because no one language is rich -enough to give expression to the gushing life within him. He speaks, he -writes, he draws, he sings like a nightingale warbling in the -springtime. - - * * * * * - -Let us consider, then, the "elements" which our children have acquired -in their development with reference to drawing: they are observers of -reality, knowing how to distinguish the _forms_ and _colors_ they see -there. - -[Illustration: Decorations formed by the use of the geometry insets. -That on the right is a copy of the design by Giotto shown below the -picture of the Madonna in the Upper Church of St. Francis d'Assisi -(Umbria).] - -[Illustration: Making decorative designs with the aid of geometric -insets. (_The Washington Montessori School, Washington, D. C._)] - -Children are peculiarly sensitive in their appreciation of color. This -sensibility began to grow in the sensory exercises in the early years. -Their hands have been trained to the most delicate movements and the -children have been masters of them since the days of the "Children's -House." When they begin to draw outlines they copy the most diverse -objects--not only flowers but everything which interests them: vases, -columns and even landscapes. Their attempts are spontaneous; and they -draw both on the blackboard and on paper. - -As regards colors, it should be recalled that while still in the -"Children's House" the children learned to prepare the different shades, -mixing them themselves and making the various blends. This always held -their eager interest. Later the care with which they seek to get shades -corresponding exactly to natural colorings is something truly -remarkable.[8] Over and over again the children try to mix the most -diverse colors, diluting or saturating them until they have succeeded in -reproducing the desired shade. It is surprising also to see how often -their eye succeeds in appreciating the finest differences of color -and in reproducing them with striking accuracy. - -[Illustration: Water-color paintings from nature, showing spontaneous -expression resulting from work in natural science.] - -The study of natural science proved to be a great help in drawing. Once -I tried to show some children how a flower should be dissected, and for -this purpose I provided all the necessary instruments: the botanist's -needle, pincers, thin glass plates, etc., just as is done at the -university for the experiments in natural science. My only aim was to -see whether the preparations which university students make for -botanical anatomy were in any way adaptable to the needs of little -children. Even at the time when I studied in the botanical laboratory at -the university I felt that these exercises in the preparation of -material might be put to such use. Students know how difficult it is to -prepare a stem, a stamen, an epithelium, for dissection, and how only -with difficulty the hand, accustomed for years exclusively to writing, -adapts itself to this delicate work. Seeing how skilful our children -were with their little hands I decided to give them a complete -scientific outfit and to test by experiment whether the child mind and -the characteristic manual dexterity shown by children were not more -adapted to such labors than the mind and hand of a nineteen-year-old -student. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -My suspicion proved correct. The children with the keenest interest -dissected a section of the violet with remarkable accuracy, and they -quickly learned to use all the instruments. But my greatest surprise was -to find that they did not despise or throw away the dissected parts, as -we older students used to do. With great care they placed them all in -attractive order on a piece of white paper, as if they had in mind some -secret purpose. Then with great joy they began to draw them; and they -were accurate, skilled, tireless, and patient, as they are in -everything else. They began to mix and dilute their colors to obtain the -correct shades. They worked up to the last minute of the school session, -finishing off their designs in watercolor: the stem and leaves green, -the individual petals violet, the stamens--all in a row--yellow, and the -dissected pistil light green. The following day a little girl brought me -a charmingly vivacious written composition, in which she told of her -enthusiasm over the new work, describing even the less noticeable -details of the little violet. - -These two expressions--drawing and composition--were the spontaneous -manifestations of their happy entrance into the realms of science. - -Encouraged by this great success, I took some simple microscopes to -school. The children began to observe the pollen and even some of the -membrane coverings of the flower. By themselves they made some splendid -cross-sections of the stems, which they studied most attentively. - -They "drew everything they saw." Drawing seemed to be the natural -complement of their observation work. - -In this way the children learned to draw and paint _without a drawing -teacher_. They produced works which, in geometric designs as well as in -studies from life, were considered far above the average drawings of -children. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[8] We give to the children first only tubes containing the three -fundamental colors, red, yellow, and blue; and with these they produce a -large number of shades. - - - - -PART VI - -MUSIC - - - - -I - -THE SCALE - - -Since the publication of my first volume on the education of small -children, considerable progress has been made in the matter of musical -education. Miss Maccheroni, who came to Rome to work with me on -experiments looking to the continuation of the methods used with primary -classes, was successful in establishing a number of tests which -constituted our first steps into this important field of education. We -are under great obligations to the Tronci firm of Pistoja, which took -charge of the manufacture of materials and gave us the most sympathetic -cooperation. - -We had already prepared at the time of that first publication an -equipment of bells to be used in training the ear to perceive -differences between musical sounds. The methods of using this material -were considerably modified and perfected again after the publication of -my _Own Handbook_ (New York, Stokes, 1914), in which for the first time -appeared a treatise on musical method. The foundation of the system -consists of a series of bells representing the whole tones and -semi-tones of one octave. The material follows the general -characteristics of that used in the sensorial method, that is, the -objects differ from each other in one and only one quality, the one -which concerns the stimulation of the sense under education. The bells, -for instance, must be _apparently identical_ in dimensions, shape, -etc., but they must _produce different sounds_. The basic exercise is to -have the child recognize "identities." He must pair off the bells which -give the same sound. - -[Illustration] - -The bell system is constructed as follows: We have a very simple -support, made of wood (of course any other material might be used) 115 -cm. long and 25 cm. wide. On this the bells rest. The board is wide -enough to hold two bells placed lengthwise and end to end across it. The -board is marked off into black and white spaces, each wide enough to -hold one bell. The white spaces represent whole tones, the black spaces -semi-tones. Though the apparent purpose of this board is to serve as a -support, it is in reality a _measure_, since it indicates the regular -position of the notes in the simple diatonic scale. The combination of -white and black rectangles indicates the interval between the various -notes in the scale: in other words, a semi-tone between the third and -fourth and between the seventh and eighth, and a whole tone between the -others. Bells showing the value of each rectangle are fixed in proper -order in the upper portion of the support. These bells are not all of -the same size, but vary in dimension regularly from the bottom to the -top of the scale. This permits considerable saving in manufacture; for, -to get a different sound from bells of the same size, different -thicknesses are required, and this entails more labor for construction -and consequently greater cost. But in addition the child here sees a -material variation corresponding to the differences in quality of sound. -On the other hand, the other bells on which the child is to perform his -critical exercises are of _identical dimensions_. - -In the exercise the child strikes with a small mallet one of the bells -fixed on the support. Then, from among the others scattered at random on -the table, he finds one which gives the same sound and places it on the -board in front of the fixed bell corresponding to it. In the most -elementary exercises, only the whole tone bells corresponding to the -white spaces are used. Later, the semi-tones are brought in. This first -exercise in sense perception corresponds to the pairing practised in -other sensory exercises (color, touch, etc.) The next step is for the -child to distinguish differences, and at the same time, gradations of -stimuli (like the exercises with the color charts, hearing, etc.) In -this case the child mixes at random the eight bells, all of the same -size, which give the whole tones of the scale. He is to find _do_, then -_re_, and so on through the octave one note after the other, placing the -bells in order in their proper places. Nomenclature is taught step by -step as in the other sensorial exercises. To familiarize the child with -the names, _do_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _si_, we use small round -disks, the circular form serving to suggest the head of the written -note. On each disk the name of the note is written. The disks are to be -placed on the bases of the bells that correspond to them. The exercises -in naming the notes may be begun with the fixed bells, in order (with -children who already know how to read) to associate the sounds with -their names in the first exercise of pairing. Later, when the child -comes to the exercise of putting the bells in gradation, he can place -the corresponding disk on each bell as he finds it. - -Some individuals, commenting on this material, have solemnly protested -their native inability to understand music, insisting that music reveals -its secrets only to a chosen few. We may point out in reply that, so -far, our principal object is simply to distinguish notes so widely -different from each other that the different number of vibrations can -easily be measured with instruments. It is a question of a material -difference which any normal ear can naturally detect without any -miraculous aptitude of a musical character. One might as well claim that -it is the privilege only of genius to distinguish one color from another -somewhat like it. Particular aptitude for music is determined by -conditions of a quite different and a much higher order, such as -intuition of the laws of harmony and counterpoint, inspiration for -composition, and so on. - -In actual practise, we found that when the material was used with some -restrictions by forty children between three and six years of age, only -six or seven proved capable of filling out the major scale by ear. But -when the material was freely placed at their disposal, they all -progressed along the same lines and showed about the same rate of -improvement, as was the case in our experiments with reading, writing, -etc. When individual differences appeared, it was by no means due to the -_possibility_ of performing these tasks, but rather to the amount of -_interest_ taken in the exercises, for which some children showed actual -enthusiasm. Eagerness for surmounting difficulties and for high -attainment is much more frequently found in children than we, judging by -our own experience as adults, easily suspect. In any event, actual -performance is the only guide to the revelation of particular aptitude, -of personal calling. - -When one of the larger children spreads on the table the eight bells of -similar size to make up the scale by ear, the little ones pick up a -single bell, sometimes reaching out for it with the greatest eagerness. -They beat it with the mallet for a long time, they feel of it, examining -it carefully, making it ring more and more slowly. The older children -take special interest in the pairing, often repeating the same exercise -many times; but an unusual charm is found in the successive sounds of -the eight bells when placed in order; in other words, in hearing the -scale. Nennella, one of the children of the "Children's House" of Via -Giusti, played the scale over two hundred times in succession, one -hundred for the ascending scale and one hundred back again. The whole -class is sometimes interested in listening, the children following with -absolute silence the classic beauty of this succession of sounds. -Another child, Mario, used to go to the very end of the table--as far -away as possible, and resting his elbows on the table with his head in -his hands, he would remain without stirring in the silence of the -darkened room, showing his extraordinary interest in the exercise in -every detail of demeanor and facial expression. - -At a certain, moment, interest in reproducing the note vocally appears. -The children accompany the scale with their voices. They strive for the -exact reproduction of the sound which the bell gives. Their voices -become soft and musical in this exercise, showing nothing of that -shrillness, so characteristic of children's voices in the usual popular -songs. In the classes of Via Trionfale it happened that some children -asked permission to accompany vocally the scale that a child was playing -softly on the bells. The interest taken in this exercise was of a -higher order than that shown by children in the singing of songs. It was -easy to see that songs with their capricious intervals between widely -separated notes and calling for pronunciation of words, musical -expression, differences in time, etc., are unadapted to the most -elementary exercises in singing. - -It was possible to test the absolute memory of the child for the -different notes without any set exercise. After a long series of -experiments in pairing, the children begin to make scales, using only -one series of bells, and they repeat this exercise many times and in -different ways. Sometimes, for instance, a child always looks for the -lowest note, _do_, then for the next above it, _re_, etc. Again, a child -will take any bell at random, looking next for the note immediately -above or immediately below, and so on. It also happens that on picking -up some bell or other, the child will exclaim on hearing its sound, this -is _mi_, this is _do_, and so on. One child had made a splendid -demonstration of the use of the bells before her Majesty, the Queen -Mother. This was in the month of May. Although he had had no further -access to the materials in his "Children's House" of Via Giusti, in the -November following he was asked to use some musical pipes,[9] which he -had hardly seen before, and which happened to be in great disorder since -they had just arrived from the factory. There were sixteen pipes mixed -at random, comprising a double diatonic scale. He took one of the pipes, -struck it and said, "This is _si_," and immediately hung it on the -appropriate hook of the support. On ringing the next one, he said, this -is _mi_, and again put the pipe in the right place. So he went on and -arranged the sixteen pipes in accurate order on the two parallel frames. -He had had a good deal of exercise during the preceding year and had -preserved an absolutely accurate memory of the notes. - -As is the case with colors, geometrical shapes, etc., the children begin -at this point to explore the environment. One will come to the teacher -at the piano and say, striking a key, "This is _stee_," meaning that the -note corresponds to the first syllable of the first word in some song he -knows (Stella, Stellina). It happens that the key struck by the child is -a _do_, the very note corresponding to the syllable _ste_ in the song. -We had many touching examples of this musical exploration of the -environment. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[9] The pipes are an equipment parallel to the bells. They are to be -recommended for schools, which can afford a more sumptuous outlay. - - - - -II - -THE READING AND WRITING OF MUSIC - - -MATERIAL: In "The Children's House" the musical staff is introduced by -means of a board painted green with the lines in bas relief. On each -line and in each space representing the octave to which the sounds of -the bells respectively correspond, is a small circular indenture, or -socket, into which the disk for each note may be inserted. Inside each -indenture is written a number: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The disks used in -this exercise have a number written on the lower face and the name of a -note on the upper: for instance, 1, _do_; 2, _re_; 3, _mi_; 4, _fa_; 5, -_sol_; 6, _la_; 7, _si_: - - _do--re--mi--fa--sol--la--si--do._ - -[Illustration] - -This device enables the child to place the notes on their respective -lines without making any mistakes and to examine their relative -positions. The indentures are so arranged as to show an empty space -wherever a semi-tone appears: - - _do_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _si_, _do_. - -In the semi-tone spaces black counters are to be placed. At a later -stage of this exercise the staff is represented by a wooden board -similar to the one described above, but without the indentures. The -child has at his disposal a great many disks with the notes written out -in full on one face. He can arrange thirty or forty of these disks at -random on the board, keeping them, however, in their places according to -the names of the notes; but each time the surface showing the name of -the note should be placed downward on the board, so that on the line -only disks without names are visible. When a child has finished this -exercise, he is to turn the disks over without disarranging them and so -determine from their names whether he has placed them properly. All the -disks on a given line or in a given space should have the same names. -Should any doubt arise as to the proper place of a note, the other board -with the numbered indentures can be used as a check. - -[Illustration] - -When a child has reached this stage of development, he can practice -reading the musical script, ringing the bells according to the notes he -is interpreting. The musical staffs are prepared on oblong cards about -seventeen centimeters broad. The notes are about two centimeters in -diameter. The cards are variously colored--blue, violet, yellow, red. - -The next step is for the children to write notes themselves. For this -purpose we have prepared little sheets which can be bound together into -a book or album. - -We offer also a few songs employing two or three notes so simple in -character that the child can make them out by ear on his bells. When, -after some practise, he is certain he can copy the song, he writes the -notes on his staff and so becomes the editor of his own music. - - -TREBLE AND BASS CLEFS - -_Arrangement of the notes in the form of a rhombus:_ All the exercises -thus far have been in reference to the higher _clef_. However, no -representation of this key has as yet been given the child. His first -task is to learn the relative position of the notes on the two staffs. -To supply this want, following the system of the Musical Conservatory of -Milan, we have adopted the double staff. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: A sheet on which the child writes his own music.] - -[Illustration: The notes written by the child.] - -The broken line (p. 328) indicates the position of _do_, the point of -departure for the scale. In fact, as the notes pass from line to space -and space to line, they form the natural series: - - _do_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _si_, _do_. - -The same situation develops as they go down the scale: - - _do_, _si_, _la_, _sol_, _fa_, _mi_, _re_, _do_. - -When the position of _do_ has been determined, the other notes above and -below it are easily found. From the _do_ on the left the child can find -his way to the _do_ on the next octave higher and come down again. -Likewise from the same point on the right (_do_) he can go down to the -_do_ of the lower octave and then go up the scale again. When these -notes are represented on the combined staffs with the counters, the -resulting design is a rhombus. - -[Illustration] - -Separating the two staffs, the arrangement of the notes in the higher -and lower key (the C scale and bass) becomes apparent and the different -significance of the two series can be emphasized by placing to the left -of the staff the two clef signs, which have been prepared as special -portions of our material. - -[Illustration] - -In this way the children have learned the scale in _do major_ in the two -keys. The arrangement of the black and white spaces puts them in a -position to recognize these notes even on the piano. Our material, in -fact, includes a diminutive keyboard where the keys are small enough to -fit the size of a child's hand. It can be used as an exercise for the -finger muscles. As each key is touched it raises a hammer marked with -the name of the note struck, which the child can see through a glass. -Thus while the child is practising his finger movements, he fixes his -acquaintance with the arrangement of the notes on the keyboard. This -small piano makes no noise. However, a sort of organ-pipe mechanism can -be fitted on above the hammers in such a way that each stroke, as the -hammer rises, connects with a reed which gives a corresponding sound. - -All the exercises thus far have been based upon sensory experience as -the point of departure. The child's ear has recognized the fundamental -sounds and initiated him into real musical education. All the rest, such -as the music writing, etc., _is not music_. - - - - -III - -THE MAJOR SCALES - - -We have developed additional material for the teaching of the scales. -Here we show a chart somewhat suggesting the arrangement of the bell -material used in the first exercises. That is, the relative intervals -between the various notes of the scale are clearly indicated. The -_scale_ is, in fact, a series of eight sounds, the intervals between -each being as indicated by the black marks in the design: whole tone, -whole tone, semi-tone, whole tone, whole tone, whole tone, semi-tone. - -In the _do major_ scale the intervals are indicated as follows: a whole -tone between _do_ and _re_; _re_ and _mi_; _fa_ and _sol_; _sol_ and -_la_; _la_ and _si_; and a semi-tone between _mi_ and _fa_ and _si_ and -_do_. If, however, instead of beginning with _do_, the scale starts from -some other note, the mutual intervals characterizing the scale remain -unchanged. It is as though the whole scale with its characteristic -construction as regards tone differences were moved along. Accordingly, -as our plate shows, under the figure of the two octaves there is another -figure. This latter is a movable piece of cardboard which shows the -construction of the octave in black and white. This movable card is -fastened to the large chart by a ribbon. Supposing now we slide this -movable piece, as indicated in the figure, to the level of _mi_. The -intervals between the tones of the _mi_ scale are the same as in all the -other scales. In other words, they remain as indicated on the small -movable card. It is necessary, accordingly, to strike on the grand scale -the notes corresponding to the white spaces of the movable slip: viz., - - _mi_, _fa_ diesis, _sol_ diesis, _la_, _si_, _do_ diesis, _re_ diesis. - -This process may be repeated by sliding the movable card to all the -notes in succession. In this way all the scales are gradually -constructed. This becomes an interesting theoretical exercise, since the -child discovers that he is able to build _all possible scales_ by -himself. - -[Illustration: The monocord. In the first instrument the notes are -indicated by frets. On the monocord in the foreground the child places -the frets as he discovers the notes by drawing the bow across the -string.] - -[Illustration: Material for indicating the intervals of the major scale -and its transposition from one key to another.] - -We have, however, for this purpose a real musical material, as appears -from our design. Here on a wooden form like that used for the bells, but -two octaves instead of one octave long, we have arranged prisms of equal -dimensions but painted black and white according to the tones they -represent. Each prism shows a rectangular plate exposed to view. The -plates are identical in appearance on all the prisms. They are, however, -really of different lengths according to the different prisms. When -these plates are struck, they give the notes of two octaves, the prisms -acting as sounding boards. The sounds are soft and mellow and unusually -clear, so that we do not exaggerate in describing this mechanism as -really a musical instrument (resembling the Xylophone). In our design -each piece is arranged in its proper position in the _do major_ scale. - -Since the intervals between the tones are the same for all the scales -without distinction, if the group of prisms is moved as a whole from -right to left, sliding along the wooden form, some of the prisms will -fall. The resulting effect is the same as that produced when the small -card was moved over the larger chart (see above). No matter how far -the group of prisms is moved, the scale can be obtained by striking all -the prisms corresponding to the white spaces on the wooden form. - -[Illustration: The upper cut shows the music bars arranged for the scale -of C major. The lower cut shows the transposition of the scale, -preserving, however, the same intervals.] - -For instance, let us take away the two first prisms, _do_ and _do -diesis_ on the left, and push the whole group of prisms from right to -left until _re_ reaches the point formerly occupied by _do_. If, now, we -strike the plates which correspond to the notes of the major scale, we -obtain the major scale in _re_. On examining the notes which make up -this scale, we find: _re_, _mi_, _fa diesis_, _sol_, _la_, _si_, _do -diesis_, _re_. - -This brief description will indicate how interesting this instrument is. -It contains in very simple form and expresses in a clear and delightful -way the fundamental principles of harmony. Its use can be made apparent -to teachers by the three following tables. - -As the children derive in this way all the possible scales, they should -transfer them to their copy books, making use of all the symbols of -musical notation. The copying of the scales should be developed -progressively: first the scale with one _diesis_, next the scale with -two, then the one with three _dieses_, etc. Fine opportunities for -observation are here offered. A child may see for instance that a scale -with two _dieses_ has the same _diesis_ which appeared in the preceding -scale; a scale with three _dieses_ has the two _dieses_ of the preceding -scales, and so on. The _dieses_ recur at intervals of five notes. - -Since in using the first material, by changing the third and sixth bell, -the child was taught to recognize the harmonic minor scale, to construct -it and listen to it, it is now an obviously simple matter for him to -make up all the minor scales. - -We have thus developed exercises which prepare for the recognition of -the major and minor tones as well as for the recognition of the -different tones. It also becomes an easy matter to play a simple _motif_ -in different keys. It is sufficient to move the series of plates, as has -been indicated, and play them over according to the indications of the -white and black spaces of the wooden form. - -With all the plates in position. - -[Illustration] - -With two plates removed. Scale of D. - -[Illustration] - -With four plates removed. Scale of E. - -[Illustration] - -With five plates removed. Scale of F. - -[Illustration] - -With seven plates removed. Scale of G. - -[Illustration] - -With nine plates removed. Scale of A. - -[Illustration] - -With eleven plates removed. Scale of B. - -[Illustration] - -Scale of C[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -With one plate removed. Scale of D[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -Scale of C[sharp]. - -[Illustration] - -With three plates removed. Scale of E[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -With six plates removed. Scale of G[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -Scale of F[sharp]. - -[Illustration] - -With eight plates removed. Scale of A[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -With ten plates removed. Scale of B[flat]. - -[Illustration] - -Here is a specimen of key transposition: - -[Illustration] - -At this point children usually develop great keenness for producing -sounds and scales on all kinds of instruments (stringed instruments, -wind instruments, etc.) - -One of the instruments which brings the child to producing and -recognizing notes is the _monochord_. It is a simple, resonant box with -one string. The first - -Scale of C. - -[Illustration] - -Scale with sharps. Scale with flats. - -[Illustration] - -exercise is in tuning. The string is made to correspond with one of the -resonant prisms (_do_). This is made possible by a key with which the -string can be loosened or tightened. The child may now be taught to -handle the violin bow or mandolin plectrum, or he may be instructed in -the finger thrumming used for the harp or banjo. On one of our -monochords, the notes are indicated by fixed transversal frets, the name -of each note being printed in the proper space. These notes are, -however, not written on the other monochord, where the child must learn -to discover by ear the proper distances at which the notes are -produced. In this case the child has at his disposal movable frets with -which he can indicate the points he has discovered as producing a given -note. These frets should be left in position by the child to serve as a -check on his work. The children have shown considerable interest also in -little pitchpipes, which give very pleasing tones. - - . . . . . . . . - -Thus in composing the scales and in listening to them the child performs -real exercises in musical education. A given melody in the major scale -is repeated in various keys. In listening to it carefully, in repeating -it, in observing the notes which make it up, the child has an exercise -similar to the audition of the note, but an exercise of a far more -advanced character. - -C Pitch. - -[Illustration] - -D Pitch. - -[Illustration] - -E Pitch. - -[Illustration] - -F Pitch. - -[Illustration] - -This exercise is to be the starting point for _understanding_ melody. To -make the hearing of music an intelligent act and not like the mechanical -process which appears when children read, in loud monotone, books which -they cannot understand and of the meaning of which they have no idea, -preparatory exercises are required. We get this preparation through -various exercises in the audition of various scales for the recognition -of key, and in exercises on the interpretation of rhythm. - - - - -IV - -EXERCISES IN RHYTHM - - -One of our most successful exercises has proved to be that originally -conceived as a help in teaching children to walk, viz., "walking the -line." It will be remembered that among the exercises in motor education -used at the outset of our method, appeared that of walking with one foot -in front of the other on a line drawn on the floor, much as do -tight-rope-walking acrobats. The purpose of this exercise was to -stabilize equilibrium, to teach erect carriage and to make movement -freer and more certain. - -Miss Maccheroni began her exercises in rhythm by accompanying this -walking of the children with piano music. In fact, the sound of the -piano came to be the call signal for the children to take up this -exercise. The teacher starts to play and immediately the children come -of their own accord, and almost without exception, to take up their -positions on the line. At the very beginning the music seems to be -purely a signal, at best a pleasant accompaniment to the motor exercise. -There is no apparent adaptation of the child's movements to the musical -rhythm. However, as the same measure is repeated for a considerable -period, the rudiments of this adaptation begin to appear. One of the -children begins to keep step with the rhythm of the music. Individual -differences in adaptation persist for some time; but if the same musical -rhythm is kept up, almost all the children finally become sensible to -it. In fact, these little people begin to develop general attitudes of -body, in relation to the music, which are of the greatest interest. -First of all, the children change their gait according to the music: the -light walk, the war-like march, the run, develop on the impulse of the -rhythmic movement. It is not that the teacher "teaches" the child to -change his walk according to the music: the phenomenon arises of its own -accord. The child begins to interpret the rhythm by moving in harmony -with it. But to obtain this result the teacher must play perfectly, -carefully noting all the details of musical punctuation. The creation of -musical feeling in the children depends upon the teacher's own feeling -and the rigorous accuracy of her own execution. - -It will be useful to give here a few details on the execution of these -first rhythmic exercises. The children begin, as we have said, by -learning to walk on the line. They develop a passion for walking on that -line, yielding to a fascination which grown-up people cannot conceive. -They seem to put their whole souls into it. This is the moment for the -teacher to sit down at the piano and without saying anything to play the -first melody in our series. The children smile, they look at the piano -and continue to walk, becoming more and more concentrated on what they -are doing. The melody acts as a persuading voice; the children begin to -consider the time of the music and little by little their tiny feet -begin to strike the line in step with it. Some of our three-year-olders -begin to keep step as early as the first or second trial. After a very -few attempts a whole class of forty children will be walking in time. We -must warn against the error of playing with special emphasis on the -measure; in other words, of striking more loudly than is required the -note (thesis) which marks the inception of the rhythmic period. The -teacher should be careful simply to bring out all the expression that -the melody requires. She may be sure that the rhythmic cadence will -become apparent from the tune itself. The playing of one note more -loudly than the others, thus to emphasize the rhythmic accent (thesis), -is to deprive the selection of all its value as melody and therefore of -its power to cause the motory action corresponding to rhythm. It is -necessary to play accurately and with feeling, giving an interpretation -as real as possible. We get thus a "musical time" which, as every one -knows, is not the "mechanical time" of the metronome. If it is certainly -absurd to play a _Nocturne_ of Chopin on the metronome, it is hardly -less absurd and certainly quite as disagreeable to play a piece of dance -music on that instrument. Even those people who have a great aptitude -for feeling "time" and who play with special attention to exactness of -measure, know that they cannot follow the metronome without positive -discomfort. Children feel the rhythm of a piece of music if it is played -with _musical feeling_; and not only do they follow the time with their -footsteps, but, as the rhythmic periods vary, they adapt the whole -attitude of their bodies to the melodic period, which is developed -around the beats constituting the rhythm as around points of support. -There is a vast difference between this exercise and that of having -children march to the clapping of hands or to the time of _one_, _two_, -_three_, etc., counted in a tone of command. - -A child of ten years was dancing to the music of a Chopin waltz played -with most generous concessions to the different colorations indicated in -the text. She put into her movements a certain fullness of swing, to -bring out the effect which a marked _rallentando_ gives the notes. Of -course this method of dancing demands on the part of the children a -perfect and intimate identification of spirit with the music; but this -is something which children, even when they are small, possess in a very -special way, and which they develop in their long and uninterrupted -walks on the line to the sounds of a tune often repeated. It is curious -to see them assume a demeanor entirely in harmony with the expression of -the music they are following. A little boy of three, during the playing -of our first melody, held the palms of his hands turned parallel with -the floor and as he walked he bent his knees slightly with each step. On -passing from our first to our second tunes, he changed not only the -rapidity of his footsteps, but the attitude of his whole body. -Considered as something external this may be of slight importance, but -considered as evidence of a mental state, the change in demeanor bears -witness to a distinct artistic experience. The composer of the tune -could well be proud of such a sincere response to his work, if the test -of musical beauty be regarded as successful communication of feeling. - -Our second tune is a rapid _andante_ somewhat _staccato_. The first was -slow and blending (_legato_). The children feel the _legato_, answering -it with very reserved movements. The _staccato_ lifts them from the -floor. The _crescendo_ makes them hurry and stamp their feet. The -_forte_ sometimes brings them to clap their hands, while _calando_ -restores them to the silent march, which turns, during the _piano_, to -perfect silence. The completion of the musical period brings them to a -halt and they stand there expectant until it is taken up again; or if it -be the end of the whole tune, they suddenly stop. - -Beppino, a little boy of three, used to keep time with the extended -forefinger of his right hand. The music was a song in two parts repeated -alternately, the one in _legato_ and the other in _staccato_; with the -_legato_ he used a uniform regular movement; he followed the _staccato_ -with sudden spasmodic beats. - -To-day forty children may be seen walking as softly as possible during a -tune played _pianissimo_. These same children on the day when they first -heard the _piano_ kept calling to the teacher "play louder; we can't -hear" and yet at that time the teacher was playing not _pianissimo_, but -_mezzo forte_! - -At first the children interested in the first tune are deaf to any -other. The children in the St. Barnaba School in Milan got in step with -the first tune. They did not notice that the teacher had changed to the -second and kept their step so well that when the first tune was resumed, -the teacher found them in perfect time, while on the faces of the -children appeared a smile of recognition, as it were, of an old friend. - -If the teacher is sufficiently cautious, she can discover without -disturbing the children the moment when they have caught a new tune; and -even if only a few succeed in following both of the first two melodies, -the teacher can satisfy these few by alternating the tunes. This does -not disturb the others who come, little by little, to notice the change -in the music and to fall in with the new movement. In a public -kindergarten at Perugia an attempt of this nature was made without -warning by a lady, who, being a visitor, felt free to take this liberty. -The children were invited into the large hall and left to themselves -while the lady was playing on the piano our third melody, a march. The -older children caught the movement at once. After they had been -marching for some time a _galop_ was played. Some hesitation appeared in -a few pupils while others apparently were not aware of the change in the -music. Suddenly two or three began to run, as though swept away by the -rhythmic wave, as though borne along by the music. They hardly seemed to -touch that floor to which, but a few moments previously, the march -seemed to have glued them at every step! A portion of the children in -this class had taken seats in the sloping auditorium around the room. -They were the youngest children; and when the victorious charge broke -out to the tune of the _galop_, they began to clap their hands -enthusiastically. Some of the teachers felt alarmed, but certainly the -spectacle was an inspiring one. - -It follows that if we are to _tell_ the children to "hop," "run," or -"march," there is no use in our giving them music. We must take our -choice: either _music_ or _commands_. Even in our reading lessons with -the slips, we do not tell the child the word that he must read. We must -do without commands, without false accentuation of notes, without -enforced positions. Music, if it be in reality an expressive language, -suggests everything to children if they are left to themselves. Rhythmic -interpretation of the musical thought is expressed by the attitude and -movement of body and spirit. - -Nannina, a girl four years old, would gracefully spread her skirt, and -relax her arms along her body. She would bend her knees slightly, throw -her head back and turning her pretty little face to one side, smile at -those behind her as though extending her amiability in all directions. - -Beppino, four and a half years old, stood with his feet together -motionless at the center of the ellipse drawn on the floor, on which the -children were walking. He beat the time of the first tune with an -outstretched arm, bowing from the waist in perfectly correct form at -every measure. The time consumed in this bow of Beppino exactly filled -the interval between one _thesis_ and the next and was in perfect accord -with the movement of the tune. - -Nannina, the same pretty girl we mentioned above, always grew stiff when -a military march was played; she would frown and walk heavily. - -On the other hand, the intervention of the teacher to give some apposite -lesson, tending to perfect certain movements, is something which gives -the children extraordinary delight. Five of our little girls embraced -each other rapturously and smothered the teacher with kisses when they -had learned a few new movements of a rhythmic dance. - -Otello, Vincenzino and Teresa had been taught to get a better effect -from their tambourines, their steps and gestures. Each of them thanked -the teacher for the profitable lesson in a special way. Vincenzino gave -her a beaming smile whenever he marched past her; Teresa would furtively -touch her with her hand; Otello was even more demonstrative--as he went -by her he would leave the line, run to her and embrace her for a second -or two. - -If the spontaneity of every child has been respected; if, in other -words, every child has been able to grow in his or her own way, -listening to the tunes, following them with the footsteps and with free -movements--interpreting them; if each child has been able to penetrate, -without being disturbed by any one, into the heart of the beautiful fact -which the understanding of music constitutes; then it is easy for the -teacher who has forty children (between three and five and a half years -of age) only one assistant, and preferably perhaps a whole apartment -instead of a closed room, to sit down at the piano and teach eight -children a long and intricate dance,--the lanciers in five parts. And -then just like the orchestra leader who has prepared his pupils, the -teacher with a minimum of effort gets the very effect in dancing, etc., -which teachers generally are so anxious to obtain. Then we can get -marches, counter marches, simultaneous movements, alternate movements, -interweaving lines,--anything in fact, that we wish, and with perfect -accuracy besides; since every movement in the children corresponds -exactly with the development of the tune. - -For instance, the children are marching two by two, holding each other's -hand, during the playing of a short tune. At the end of this melody they -slowly kneel, but in such a way that on the sound of the last note they -are touching the floor very gently with their knees. There is something -sweet about the accuracy and the perfect simultaneousness attained by -the children, under the guidance of the tune. The effect of these -exercises on them is to bring repose to their whole body and a sense of -peace to their little souls. - -On one occasion in a school just opened in Milan, 1908, the children -re-acted to the piano by jumping about in confusion, waving their arms, -moving their shoulders and legs. This was really an attempt to represent -by a sort of chaos the complexity of the rhythmic movements they were -hearing. They were actually making, without any assistance from others, -a spontaneous attempt at musical interpretation. They soon grew tired of -this, saying that "the thing was ugly." They had, however, divined the -possibilities of an orderly motory action; and when they had become -quiet again, they began to listen to the music with great interest -waiting for the revelation of its deep secret. Then suddenly they began -to walk again, this time regularly and according to the real measure. - -One of the children, whose graph was somewhat as follows: - -[Illustration] - -(pauses, that is, on the line of quiescence, with frequent excursions -into the negative field), took no part in these rhythmic exercises. On -the contrary, he was always breaking them up by pushing the other -children out of line or making a noise. Finally, however, he did learn -not to disturb others; in other words, to stay _quiet_, something which -he had never known how to do before. It is a great conquest for a -disorderly child to gain the ability to become quite motionless, in a -gently placid state of mind. His next step was to learn to move -delicately, with respect for other people; and he came to have a certain -sensitiveness about his relations with his schoolmates. For example, he -used to blush when they smiled at him and even when he took no part in -what they were doing, he shared their activities with an affectionate -attention. From this point on Riziero (that was the child's name) -entered on a higher plane of existence--one of order, labor and -politeness. - -The fact also that children at times listen to the music, while -remaining seated comfortably around the room, watching the other -children dance and march, is in itself a pretty thing. The children who -are seated become very self-controlled. They watch their schoolmates or -exchange a few words cautiously with each other. At times, even, they -let themselves go in interesting expressions of movement with their -arms. The manifestations of placidity and interest here seen cannot be -disjoined from a healthful, spiritual upbuilding--a beautiful -orderliness, which is being established within them. Obviously, a -wonderful harmony springs up between the teacher, who plays with -enthusiastic feeling and with all possible skill of hand and abundance -of spirit simply because she feels the musical phenomena around her in -the children, and the pupils who, little by little, are transformed -under this influence, and show an understanding of the music, which -becomes for them something more and more intimate, more and more -complete. It is no longer a question of the _step_, but of the position -of the whole body: arms, heads, chests _are moved_ by the music. - -Finally, many of the children beat time with their hands, and interpret -correctly without ever having been taught distinctions between 3 and 4 -time, etc. When a keen interest in "guessing" the time is awakened in -them, the children look about for various objects--wands, tambourines, -castagnettes, etc., and the class exercise is developed to perfection. -The child comes to be "possessed" by the music. He obeys the musical -command with his whole body and becomes more and more perfect in this -obedience shown by his muscles. - -Here is a pretty story which will show to what extent children can feel -themselves dependent on the music which "makes them move." Once my -father went into a room where a little Parisian girl whom he was very -fond of was passionately marching to the rhythm of a tune played on the -piano. The child usually ran to meet the old gentleman; but that day the -moment she saw him she began to shout to Miss Maccheroni, who was -playing, "_Arrete, arrete!_" She wanted to go and shake hands with my -father, something she could not do as long as the music was continuing -to _command_ her to move with the rhythm. And in fact, it was not until -Miss Maccheroni stopped playing that the little girl was able to run and -deliver her greeting. - - . . . . . . . . - -We have prepared a series of tunes for this work and I think it will be -useful to give here three which we finally selected because they have -succeeded, whenever they were tried, in arousing in the children the -phenomena above described. There are eight movements chosen from -repeated over and over again and played with all possible accuracy, will -surely, sooner or later, be felt in every rhythm by the children. - -The transition from following the time by ones (that is, one beat for -every rhythmic element) to the indication of simply the beginning of the -measure (that is, one beat on the _thesis_) appeared for the first time -in a "Children's House" directed by Miss Maccheroni. There, one morning -when the children were following the music with great pleasure, marching -about and beating on tambourines, it was a girl who first caught the -strong beat (_thesis_). A little boy behind her made the conquest a -second later; but while the little girl lost what she had gained almost -immediately, the little boy developed it to perfection. Shortly after -other children made the same progress, apparently as a saving of effort; -they began, that is, by beating once on every step. This required a -rapid movement and an endless succession of beats. All of a sudden they -began to beat on the first note of a measure. - -[Illustration: The children using the music bells and wooden keyboards. -(_The Washington Montessori School, Washington, D. C._)] - -Here, for instance, is a case of 4/4 time: - - |_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _ - | | | | | | | | | | | | - -The children at first marked the time without regard to the measure, -thus: - - | | | | | | | | | | | | - -But the moment comes suddenly when they catch the measure: then they -beat it as follows: - - | . . . | . . . | . . . - -In other words, their beats fall only on the first note at the measure. - -Maria Louise, a little under four years of age, was walking to the sound -of a 2/4 march, played rather lightly. Suddenly she called to the -teacher: "_Regarde, regarde, comme je fais!_" She was making little -skips, gracefully raising her arms on the first beat of the measure. Her -invention was extraordinarily happy and graceful. - -Usually in teaching the divisions of musical time, it has been the -custom to play _forte_ the time called theoretically _tempo forte_: in -other words, to strike hard on the first note of every rhythmic measure. -In fact, teachers of children or young people can often be heard playing -a tune with special emphasis on the first note of every measure and -playing the successive notes _pianissimo_. Naturally the motory action -corresponds to this: it will be tense for the strong beats and light for -the weak beats. But what value has all this in relation to the feeling -of the rhythmic measure? What is called theoretically _tempo forte_ -has no relation to the meaning of the words "strong" and "weak" in their -ordinary sense. It is a question of _emphasis_ and _expression_, which -derive their nature from the laws of musical time and melodic -composition and certainly not from the wrist muscles of the person -playing. If this were not so, a person could play the first, second or -third note of a measure as _forte_, whereas, in reality, it is the first -that is always "strong." - -[Illustration: Analyzing the beat of a measure while walking on a line. -(_A Montessori School in Italy._)] - -In practise, children, to whom the six tunes we proposed for the -beginning of this study were played--and played always with rigorous -musical interpretation and with expressiveness--succeeded in recognizing -the first beat of the measure as "strong," and went on thus to divide -into measures some thirty pieces of music of varied rhythm. Even the -following year, after the summer vacation, they kept asking for new -pieces of music just for the "fun" of working out the measure in them. -They would stand at the side of the teacher at the piano and either with -their hands or with soft playing on the castagnettes or tambourines, -accompany their new piece of music. In general they would listen in -silence to the first measure and then fall in with their little beats -like any well-trained orchestra. They took the trouble no longer to -march to the music: they were interested in this new form of study; -while the smaller tots, delighted with the new music, were still walking -undisturbed along the elliptical line on the floor which was to guide -them to such great conquests! - -The strong beat (_thesis_) is the key that opens to the higher laws of -music. Sometimes it is played, for reasons of expression, very softly -and always possesses the solemnity of the note which dominates the -rhythm. It may even be syncopated or lacking entirely, just as when the -orator on reaching his climax pronounces in a very low voice the phrase -which is to produce the great effect, or even pauses and is silent: this -sentence rings powerfully in the ears of those who listen. - -The same error which leads to heavy stress, in playing, on the first -beat of every measure in order to attract the attention of the children -to it, also leads to suggesting secondary movements in addition to the -one which marks the _thesis_. The children, for instance, must make four -movements for a 4/4 time: movements in the air for the secondary beats, -and a more energetic movement for the _thesis_. The result is that -interest in the succession of movements replace attention to the fact of -most importance, which is _to feel_ the value of the first beat. -Children who feel the first note because it is played "strong" and who -proceed from one strong beat to the following strong beat guided by a -succession of movements, are not, it is obvious, following the tune. One -little girl who had been prepared by this method found herself, on -having mistaken the beat, constantly persisting in her mistake under the -guidance of her four movements. It is like presenting a cube or a -triangle to children of three years with the teacher enumerating the -sides, the angles, the apexes, etc. In reality the children do not get -any notion of the triangle or the cube. - -Our children come ultimately to represent the secondary beats with the -slight movements, as follows: - - |_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _|_ _ _ _ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - -and then they count them. When we have, gone thus far we reach the point -which is exactly the _point of departure_ for ordinary methods, namely, -counting _one! two! three! four!_ to keep step in time. - - . . . . . . . . - -As a practical application of the information already acquired in the -division of time into measures, we next pass to the exercise of playing -the scales in 2/4, 3/4 and 4/4 time and with the triplets. The scale, -the classic type of the melody, lends itself beautifully to these -interpretations of various measures. Every one must have passed hours at -the piano playing simple scales and finding a delicious variety in the -exercise. The _do_ scale itself may be played, for instance, thus: - -[Illustration] - -or thus: - -[Illustration] - -or thus: - -[Illustration] - -Our little piano may be of use in this exercise; but it is better first -to use an exercise more easy for finger movement and for the position of -the hand: - - . . . . . . . . - -Children who have succeeded in identifying and dividing the melody into -measures and the measure itself into 2, 3, 4, understand very easily -the time values of the notes. It is sufficient to let the child _hear_ -each exercise _first_ and he will repeat it with precision. Thus all -kinds of dry explanation of musical _values_ disappear. - -[Illustration] - -The following notation - -[Illustration] - -presents no special difficulty if the child has once heard it. - -Our next step is to use some exercises for the analysis of the measure, -for instance: - -[Illustration] - -The children follow these exercises, marching so as to put one step on -every note. Even children of four years when prepared with the preceding -exercises succeed in following these with the very greatest interest. -They are especially delighted with the long note which keeps them -hanging in position with one foot in front of them on the line and the -other one behind them also on the line. The position is that of a person -who stops before bringing up the foot which is still behind him. - -Since the children already know how to _read_ music, there is hung up -before them a green chart (similar in dimensions to the musical staffs -already familiar to them) on which is written the exercise which is -being played at the piano by the teacher and which they execute on the -floor-line. - -Examples: - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Here is another: - -[Illustration] - -We even give a simple time like this one (composed by Professor Jean -Gibert of the Montessori Primary School of Barcelona): - -[Illustration] - -Of course, sooner or later children fix their attention on the varying -form of the notes and discover that this difference in form bears a -relation to differences in time-value of the notes: - -[Illustration] - -This is the time to give in very brief explanation the lesson on the -value of the notes. Thereafter the child may write from memory a simple -melody which the teacher has first played on the piano. Almost always -the child writes this down with accuracy, showing that he has control -over the musical values appearing in the melody in question. The child -uses for this purpose a large green chart containing various musical -staffs on which movable notes may be fixed at pleasure. These notes are -equipped with a pin which may be pushed into the wood. The simple -exercises given for the analysis of the measures, transferred into -various keys, can after some practise in playing them on the system of -plates be put into their copy books by the children. These exercises for -measure-analysis are so simple that the children themselves have -sometimes learned to play them on the piano. It then has happened that -the class went of its own accord into the piano room; one child began to -play and the others followed the music on the floor-line. The children -as they walk ultimately come to sing the scales and the easy tunes (of -which they have recognized the notes) pronouncing the names of the -notes; but in so pronouncing them they soften, their voices to the point -of attaining an expression which may be called even artistic. When the -teacher plays, the music gains the added charm of harmony, since the -teacher can give not only the simple scale, but the relative chords, and -this gives the scale a vigorous and very sweet fullness. - -These exercises in measure analysis have also been particularly useful -in their application to gymnastic exercises. The children follow them -with gymnastic movements, using especially the movements of Dalcroze, -which are admirably adapted to the measures of 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, etc., and -which have a real beauty. We discovered that these exercises proved to -be complexly difficult for the children who had not practised -sufficiently in the interpretation of the different note values. On the -other hand, they were very easy for those who had come to have a clear -feeling for these different values. This was proof to us that sensorial -preparation must precede these exercises, and furthermore, that the only -difficulty Dalcroze movements encounter in children arises from -insufficient sensory preparation in the children themselves. - -In the same way we illustrate the different details of of musical -writing: the dotted note, - -[Illustration] - -the triplet: - -[Illustration] - -the _legato_, the _staccato_, etc. - -Here is an example of a _legato_ effect: - -[Illustration: (Sonnambula. Quintet)] - -This example which derives all its expressive value from the ties, also -brings out the value of the note: - -[Illustration] - -We need, accordingly, a collection of musical selections in which the -value of the notes is obvious and clear to such an extent that the -children come to recognize the different values. This recognition must -be obtained by ear through listening to the music, not by eye looking at -the symbols while the teacher explains. - -The 1/4 note always has a different musical content from the 1/16 note. -A musical piece made up of the 16th or 32d notes has a character of its -own (joy or agitation); and a piece made up of half or whole notes has -likewise its peculiar character (religious, sad, impressive). - -The same may be said of every musical symbol, the value of which is -brought out by the note being played with that value and in reference -to that symbol. It has been held that in playing for children and in -copying music for the use of children the expression-symbols should be -suppressed. We should observe that these signs of expression bear to the -music the relation that punctuation bears to the written sentence; their -suppression takes away all value from the notes. For example, the -_legato_ and symbols which indicate that difference ([image] and .) have -therefore the greatest value. - -The children succeed quite easily in using and reading the accessory -symbols of music. They already know their meaning through having heard -them. We have not found it necessary to use such signs as _sense -objects_, such as bars (to be placed on the wooden staff to divide -measure from measure), time fractions, parentheses and so on. Although -we had these manufactured, we ultimately abandoned them because we found -that they were simply in the way. - -On the other hand, we found considerable utility in our large colored -cards with a single staff already described. On these are written -various measures which the children read with a special pleasure and -execute on their bells. - - . . . . . . . . - -With all this a way has been opened to a really musical education. Once -Miss Maccheroni, while executing her customary rhythmic tunes, -reproduced a melodious religious movement, "_O Sanctissima_," which the -children heard for the first time. The children all left the line and -gathered around the piano to listen. Two or three little girls kneeled -on the floor and others remained motionless executing plastic poses -with their arms. This revealed to us their sensitiveness to melody; they -felt moved not to march but to pray and assume various poses. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -We have not yet been able to push our experiments far enough precisely -to define the musical material adapted to children of various ages. We -have, however, made a very great number of successful attempts to bring -children to enjoy melody and sentimental expression in music. The -practicableness and utility of musical auditions, or, if you wish, of -concerts for children, graduated in difficulty, executed on various -instruments, but on one instrument at a time, are beyond all question; -this applies above all to songs reproduced by the human voice, when a -well-trained voice is available. - -If a real artist should take up the task of analyzing for children the -language of music, bringing them to enjoy it phrase by phrase and under -different _timbres_ (voice, strings, etc.), his new and scientific -application of the art would be produced in the future from these groups -of little ones, so intelligent in music, who follow the most expressive -tunes with so much passion and in a silence more absolute than any -celebrated artist can dream of attaining in a meeting of adults! No one -among these little hearers is cold, far away in thought. But on the -faces of the children appears the interior working of a spirit, tasting -a nectar essential to its very live. - -How many times a plastic pose, a kneeling posture, an ecstatic face, -will move the heart of the artist to a sense of joy greater than that -which any applause of a throng of people often indifferent or -inattentive, can possibly give him! Usually only those wounded at heart -by the difficulty of being understood by others, or discouraged by the -coldness or rudeness of other people, or oppressed by disillusion, or -filled with a sense of painful loneliness or need of expansion in some -other way, feel in music the voice which opens the doors of the heart -and causes a health-giving flood of tears or raises the spirit to a -lofty sense of peace. Only they can understand how necessary a companion -for humanity music is. We know, of course, to-day that music is an -indispensable stimulant for soldiers rushing forth to die. How much more -truly would it then become a stimulant for all who are to live! - -This conviction is already in the hearts of many people. In fact, -attempts have already been made to reach the populace by concerts in the -public squares and by making concert halls accessible to people of every -class; but after all, do such attempts amount to more than putting the -cheap editions of the classics into circulation among illiterates? -Education is the prime requisite; without such education we have a -people of deaf mutes forever barred from any music. The ear of the -uneducated man cannot perceive the sublime sounds which music would -bring within his reach. That is why though the music of Bellini and -Wagner is being played in public squares, the saloons are just as full -as before. - -If, however, from these pupils of ours a whole people could grow up, it -would be sufficient to go through the streets with a good piece of music -and everybody would come out to hear. All those places where the rough -and abandoned wrecks of humanity seek enjoyment, like homeless dogs -looking for food in our ash-cans, would be emptied as if by magic. We -would have an actual realization of the Allegory of Orpheus; for hearts -which are to-day of stone would then be stirred and brought to life by a -sublime melody. - - -SINGING - -Singing began with the scale. The singing of a scale, first in -accompaniment with the bells and later with the piano is a first and -great delight to the children. They sing it in various ways, now in a -low voice, now very loud, now all together in unison, now one by one. -They sing divided into two groups, sharing the notes alternately between -them. Among the songs which we offer to the children, the greatest -favorite proved to be the syllabic Gregorian Chant. It is something like -a very perfect form of speech. It has a conversational intonation, the -softness of a sentence well pronounced, the full roundness of the -musical phrase. The examples given here have almost the movement of the -scale. - -Many other verses of the Gregorian Chant have, like these, proved to be -the delight of the Montessori Elementary School of Barcelona. There the -children are especially keen about this very simple music which they -like to play on the piano, on their plates (Xylophones) or on their -monochords. - -[Illustration: Music - - Rorate Coeli de super et nubes pluant justum - Puer natus in Bethlehem, alleluia. - Unde gaudet Jerusalem - Alleluia Alleluia - In Cordis jubilo - Christum natum adoremus, - Cum novo Cantico.] - - -MUSICAL PHRASES FOR THE INITIAL RHYTHMIC EXERCISES - -We give here in complete form the musical phrases used by us for the -first rhythmic exercises. They are adequate for giving the sensation of -rhythm and for suggesting the motory actions associated with the rhythm. -This musical material now forms in our schools part of the material -which is experimentally established. - - _Works from which Selections are Taken_ _Motor Reactions Provoked_ - - 1. "Ancora un bacio," mazurka, Bastianelli Slow walk. - 2. "Si j'etais roi," Adolphe Adam Accelerated walk. - 3. "Eagle March," Wagner March step. - 4. "Galop," Strauss Run. - 5. "Italian folk-song" Hop. - 6. "Pas des patineurs" Sedate walk. - - -ANCORA UN BACIO - -[Illustration: Music] - - -SI J'ETAIS ROI - -[Illustration: Music] - - -EAGLE MARCH - -[Illustration: Music] - - -GALOP - -[Illustration: Music] - - -ITALIAN FOLK SONG - -[Illustration: Music] - - -PAS DES PATINEURS - -[Illustration: Music] - - -O SANCTISSIMA - -[Illustration: Music] - - - - -V - -MUSICAL AUDITIONS - - -The movement entitled "O Sanctissima," played by Miss Maccheroni one day -by chance among the rhythmic exercises, is regarded by us as an -introduction to _musical audition_. It will be recalled that the -children had been accustomed to alter their style of marching on the -floor-line according to changes in the music. It had never, however, -occurred to them to leave the line. When this piece was played they all -crowded around the piano, motionless, thoughtful, absorbed; while two or -three little ones fell to their knees and assumed various poses. This -experience suggested to us the idea of "musical auditions," if you wish -"concerts for children." - -Children, little by little to be sure, but no less admirably, enter into -the spirit of music. After the numerous rhythmic exercises, as soon, -that is, as they have mastered the problem of measure, almost any -_sonata_ is within their reach. They can handle not isolated movements -merely, but whole pieces of music. The same is true of the auditions. At -first, of course, it is better to select simple phrases; but gradually -the children come to enjoy "the best music," joyfully recognizing the -feeling which it expresses and which inspired it. Our pupils used to -exclaim, for instance: "This piece is for weeping," "This is for -prayer," "Now we must laugh," "Now we must shout," etc. - -We cannot, however, insist too strongly on the need for the greatest -possible care in the execution of the selections used. A child audience -is a very special one. It demands something more than is expected by the -average "intelligent audience." It is one in which musical intelligence -must be _developed_. Our object must be the creation not merely of -higher and higher grades of understanding but also of higher and higher -grades of _feeling_. In this sense, we can never _do too much_ for the -children. It is a task not beneath the dignity of the greatest -composers, the most accomplished technicians. Indeed, any one of such -might well esteem it a privilege some day to hear it said of his work -that it aroused the first love for music in the hearts of one of these -little ones. For thus music would have been made a companion, a -consoler, a guardian angel of man! It is of course not the lot of all of -us to attain the exalted position of greatness whether as artists or -technicians. We must content ourselves with assuming an obligation: with -_giving_ all the soul and all the skill we possess. We must conceive of -ourselves as transmitters of the largess of music to our children. We -must deeply feel our calling as bestowers of a divine gift. - -The following titles were all used successfully by us in our -experiments. They are supplements to the "O Sanctissima" and a "Pater -Noster." - - - A. NARRATIVES. - - _Trovatore:_ "Tacea la notte placida." - _Lucrezia Borgia:_ "Nella fatal di Rimini e memorabil guerra." - _Lucia di Lamermoor:_ "Regnava nel silenzio." - _Trovatore:_ "Racconto di Azucena." - _Sonnambula:_ "A fosco cielo, a notte bruna." - _Rigoletto:_ "Tutte le frese al tempio." - _Fra Diavolo:_ "Quell'uom dal fiero aspetto." - - - B. DESCRIPTION. - - _Beethoven_: "Moonlight." - _Boheme_: "Nevica; qualcuno passa e parla" (Act II, prelude). - _Aida_, prelude as far as "Cieli azzurri." - _Aida_, "Marcia trionfale" (containing the motive of the scene to - which it belongs). - - C. SENTIMENT AND PASSION: - - _Gaiety:_ - _Traviata_: "Libiam nei lieti celici." - _Sonnambula_: "In Elvezia non v'ha rosa fresca e bella al par - d'Alina." - _Traviata_: "Sempre libera deggi' io folleggiar." - _Faust_: Peasant song, "La vaga pupilla." - - _Contentment:_ - _Aida_: "Rivedro le foreste imbalsamate." - - _Passion:_ - _Traviata_: "Amami Alfredo." - _Lucrezia Borgia_: "Era desso il figliuol mio." - - _Anguish:_ - _Lucrezia Borgia_: "Mio figlio, ridate a me il mio figlio." - " " "Infelice, il veleno bevesti." - - _Threat:_ - _Cavalleria Rusticana_: "Bada, Santuzza, schiavo non son." - - _Allurement:_ - _Barbiere di Siviglia_: "La calunnia e un venticello." - _Iris_: "La Piovra." - - _Comic:_ - _Barbiere di Siviglia_: "Pace e gioia sia con voi." - _Fra Diavolo_: "Grazie al ciel per una serva." - - _Invitation:_ - _Faust_: "Permetteresti a me." - _Boheme_: song of Rudolph, "Che gelida manina." - - _Anger:_ - _Sonnambula_: "Ah perche non posso odiarti." - - _Sorrow of sacrifice:_ - _Boheme_: "Vecchia zimarra senti." - - _Meditation:_ - Mendelsohn: Romances. - Mozart. - Chopin. - - D. FOLK SONGS AND DANCES. - - - - -PART VII - -METRICS - - - - -I - -THE STUDY OF METRICS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS - - -One of the novelties included in our experiments was the teaching of -metrics, hitherto reserved for high schools. The love shown by children -for poetry, their exquisite sensitiveness to rhythm, led me to suspect -that the native roots of poetry might be present in little children. I -suggested to Miss Maria Fancello, a teacher of literature in the high -schools and my colleague, to attempt such an experiment. She began with -children of different ages, and, together, we succeeded in discovering a -highly interesting department of education, the object of which might be -to give the mass of the people, prepared for life in the primary -schools, the basic elements of literary appreciation, thus opening a new -source of pleasure calculated also to increase general enlightenment. A -populace capable of enjoying poetry, of judging the beauty of verse, and -hence of coming in contact with the spirits of our greatest poets, would -be something quite different to the masses we new know. To find the like -we have to imagine the people of ancient story, who talked in poetry and -moved their bodies to the rhythm, thus laying the foundations of refined -civilization. - -It is not our intention to describe in detail all we did in these -experiments. It will be sufficient to summarize the results, which may -suggest useful material end methods to others. - -As soon as the children are somewhat advanced in reading, poetry, which -they loved so much in "Children's House," may be included in the -materials offered in partial satisfaction of their insatiable desire to -read. It is best to begin with poems composed of stanzas of different -lengths, the stanzas being printed at easily noticeable intervals from -each other. The lines may be counted, in teaching the two new words -"stanza" and "line." The process involved is a recognition of "objects," -suggesting the first exercise in reading, where the children put _names_ -on things; though here the situation is much simpler. At the same time -we have the exercise of counting the lines. In short, it is a review -exercise of the greatest simplicity. - -The counting of the lines leads at once to the identification of such -groups as the couplet, quatrain, octave, etc. But little time is spent -on such a crude detail. The little ones almost immediately become -interested in the rhyme. The first step is the recognition of rhyming -syllables which are underlined with colored pencils, using a different -color for each rhyme. Seven-year-olders take the greatest delight in -this work, which is too simple to arouse interest in children of eight -or nine. Those of seven do such work about as quickly as those of ten, -the speed of the younger children being due apparently to their -enthusiasm, the slowness of the older to their lack of interest. We may -note in passing that these exercises furnish tests of absolute exactness -as to rapidity of work. Children of eight are able to go one step beyond -marking the rhymes with colored pencils. They can use the more -complicated device of marking lines with the letters of the alphabet: -aa, bb, cc, etc. Marking with numbers to the left the lines in their -order, and the rhymes with letters to the right, we get a specimen -result as follows: - - 1^{o} Rondinella pellegr_ina_ a - - 2^{o} Che ti posi sul ver_one_ b - - 3^{o} Ricantando ogni matt_ina_ a - - 4^{o} Quella flebile canz_one_ b - - 5^{o} Che vuoi dirmi in tua fav_ella_ c - - 6^{o} Pellegrina rondin_ella_? c - -(Translation: "Wandering swallow, as you sit there on my balcony each -morning, singing to me your tearful song, what is it you are trying to -tell me in your language, wandering swallow?") - - * * * * * - -This brings out the difference between the alternating rhyme (a, b, a, -b) and the couplet (c, c), as well as the morphology of the stanza. - - . . . . . . . . - -In reading the lines over and over again to work out the rhyme scheme, -the children spontaneously begin to catch the tonic accents. Their -readiness in this respect is a matter of common observation. In fact, in -ordinary schools, the teachers are continually struggling against the -"sing-song" developed by children in reading poetry. This "sing-song" is -nothing more nor less that stress on the rhythmic movement. - -On one occasion, one of our children, a little boy, had been spending -some time over a number of decasyllabic lines. While waiting in the -corridor for the doors to open at dismissal time, he suddenly began to -walk up and down "right-about-facing" at every three steps and saying -aloud: "tatata, tatata, tatatatta," right-about-face, then "tatata, -tatata, tatatatta." Each step was accompanied by a gesture in the air -with his little clenched fist. This tot was marching to the verse -rhythm, just as he would have marched to music. It was a case of -perfectly interpretative "gymnastic rhythm." His gestures fell on the -three tonic accents of the Italian decasyllable, the right-about marked -the end of the "verse"--the "turn" in the line, which he indicated by -"turning" himself around to begin over again. - -When the children have reached such a stage of sensory development, they -have no difficulty in recognizing the tonic accents. For this purpose, -we have prepared sheets with poems written in a clear hand. The children -mark with a neatly drawn accent the letter on which the rhythmic accent -falls. The material should be systematically presented. We found from -experience that the children first discover the accents in _long_ lines -made up of _even-numbered_ syllables (parisyllabic lines), where the -accents recur at regular intervals and are clearly called for both by -sense, word accent and rhythm. We were able to establish the following -sequence for various Italian lines, which present a graduated series of -difficulties to the child in recognizing the accents: - -1. Decasyllables: example: - - S'ode a d=e=stra uno squ=i=llo di tr=o=mba - A sin=i=stra risp=o=nde uno squ=i=llo: - D'ambo i l=a=ti calp=e=sto rimb=o=mba - Da cav=a=lli e da f=a=nti il terr=e=n. - Quinci sp=u=nta per l'=a=ria un vess=i=llo: - Quindi un =a=ltro s'av=a=nza spieg=a=to: - Ecco app=a=re un drapp=e=llo schier=a=to; - Ecco un =a=ltro che inc=o=ntro gli vi=e=n. - (MANZONI, _La battaglia di Maclodio._) - -(Translation: "A trumpet call sounds to the right; a trumpet calls -answers to the left; all around the earth shakes with the charge of -horses and men. Here a standard is broken out to the breeze; there -another advances waving; here a line of troops appears, there another -rushing against it.") - -2. Dodecasyllables: example: - - Ru=e=llo, Ru=e=llo, div=o=ra la v=i=a, - Port=a=teci a v=o=lo, buf=e=re del ci=e=l. - E pr=e=sso alla m=o=rte la v=e=rgine m=i=a, - Gal=o=ppa, gal=o=ppa, gal=o=ppa Ru=e=l. - (PRATI, _Galoppo notturno_.) - -(Translation: "Ruello, Ruello, as fast as you can! O storm-winds of -heaven, lend us your wings; my loved one is lying near death; onward, -onward, onward, Ruello!") - -3. Eight syllable lines (_ottonario_): example: - - Solit=a=rio bosco ombr=o=so, - A te vi=e=ne afflitto c=o=r, - Per trov=a=r qualche rip=o=so - Fra i sil=e=nzi in quest'orr=o=r. - (ROLLI, _La lontananza_.) - -(Translation: "O deserted wood! To your shade the sorrowing heart comes -to find some rest in your cool silence.") - -4. Six syllable lines (_senario_): example: - - Pur b=a=ldo di sp=e=me - L'uom =u=ltimo gi=u=nto - Le c=e=neri pr=e=me - D'un m=o=ndo def=u=nto; - Inc=a=lza di s=e=coli - Non =a=nco mat=u=ri - I f=u=lgidi a=u=g=u=ri. - (ZANELLA, _La conchiglia fossile_.) - -(Translation: "Radiant with hope, the latest comer treads on the ashes -of a dead world, pursuing the glowing aspirations of ages not yet -ripe.") - -NOTE: In the above selections the vowels in broad-faced type have been -marked with an accent by the child, to indicate the rhythmic beat. - -We found, on the other hand, that greater difficulty is experienced by -the children in lines where the syllables are in odd-numbers -(imparisyllabics), the hardest of the Italian lines being the -hendecasyllable, which is a combination of the seven syllable and the -five syllable line, fused together with all their great varieties of -movement. - -We established the following gradation of difficulties: - -1. Seven syllable line (_settenario_): example: - - Gi=a= ri=e=de Pr=i=mav=e=ra - Col s=u=o flor=i=to asp=e=tto, - Gi=a= il gr=a=to z=e=ffir=e=tto - Sch=e=rza fra l'=e=rbe e i fi=o=r. - (METASTASIO, _Primavera_.) - -(Translation: "Now already flowery Spring returns; again the lovely -zephyrs dance amidst the grass and blossoms.") - -2. Five syllable line (_quinario_): example: - - Viv=a=ce s=i=mbolo - D=e= la fam=i=glia, - Le di=e= la tr=e=mula - M=a=dre a la f=i=glia, - Le di=e= la su=o=cera - Bu=o=na a la nu=o=ra - Ne l'=u=ltim' =o=ra. - (MAZZONI, _Per un mazzo di chiavi_.) - -(Translation: "As a vivid symbol of the home, they were passed on by the -dying mother to her daughter or to her son's wife.") - -3. Nine syllable line (_novenario_): example: - - Te tr=i=ste! Che a v=a=lle t'asp=e=ttano - I gi=o=rni di c=a=ntici pr=i=vi; - Ah n=o=, non dai m=o=rti che t'=a=mano, - Ti gu=a=rda, frat=e=llo, dai v=i=vi. - (CAVALLOTTI, _Su in alto_.) - -(Translation: "Alas, for thee, O brother! Yonder, songless days await -thee. Ah no, have no fear of the dead: they love thee! The living only -shouldst thou fear!") - -4. Hendecasyllable: example: - - Per me si v=a= nella citt=a= dol=e=nte, - Per me si v=a= nell'et=e=rno dol=o=re, - Per me si v=a= tra la perd=u=ta g=e=nte. - (DANTE, _Divina Commedia, Inferno_.) - -(Translation: "Through me ye enter the city of sorrow; through me ye -enter the realm of eternal grief; through me ye enter the regions of the -damned"). - - * * * * * - -The typical ending of these various lines is the trochee (-- U, _verso -piano_). The iambic (U --, _verso tronco_) and the dactyllic (-- U U, -_verso sdrucciolo_) endings (requiring respectively one syllable less -and one syllable more than the _verso piano_) constitute occasional -variations. We have found that these rarer lines are recognized rather -as curiosities than as difficulties by the children who easily refer -them to their respective normal types. They are accordingly presented in -our material along with the common verses of trochaic endings. Our -illustration of the five syllable line given above showed specimens of -the dactyllic ending (_sdrucciolo_, -- U U). Here is another example of -alternating trochaic (_piano_) and dactyllic endings: - - In c=i=ma a un =a=lbero - C'=e= un uccell=i=no - Di nu=o=vo g=e=nere.... - Che s=i=a un bamb=i=no? - (L. SCHWARZ, _Uccellino_.) - -(Translation: "There's a very strange little bird up in that tree! Why, -it's a little child!") - - * * * * * - -In the following decasyllables, the trochaic ending alternates with the -iambic (_tronco_): - - Lungi, l=u=ngi, su l'=a=li del c=a=nto - Di qui l=u=ngi rec=a=re io ti v=o=' - La, ne i c=a=mpi fior=i=ti del s=a=nto - Gange, un lu=o=go bell=i=ssimo, io s=o=. - (CARDUCCI, _Lungi, lungi_.) - -(Translation: "I will take thee far, far away on the wings of my song: -there, among the flowery fields of the sacred Ganges, I know of a -beautiful spot"). - - * * * * * - -Some difficulty arose, however, when we came to lines with alternations -of parisyllables and imparisyllables; though this new movement aroused -real enthusiasm among the children, who greeted it as a new and strange -music. It often happened that after the pleasurable effort of analyzing -a poem with lines alternating in this way, the pupils would choose as -"recreation" the study of lines of even-numbered syllables. Here is an -example of the new type: - - Eran trec=e=nto, eran gi=o=vani e f=o=rti, - E s=o=no m=o=rti! - Me ne and=a=vo al matt=i=no a spigol=a=re - Quando ho v=i=sto una b=a=rca in mezzo al m=a=re: - Era una b=a=rca che and=a=va a vap=o=re, - E alz=a=va una bandi=e=ra tricol=o=re. - All'=i=sola di P=o=nza s'e ferm=a=ta, - E stata un p=o=co e p=o=i si e ritorn=a=ta; - S'e ritorn=a=ta ed e ven=u=ta a t=e=rra: - Sceser con l'=a=rmi, e a noi non f=e=cer gu=e=rra. - (PRATI, _La spigolatrice di Sapri_.) - -(Translation: "There were three hundred, young and strong! And now they -are dead! That morning I was gleaning in the fields; I saw a boat at -sea,--a steamer flying the white, red and green. It stopped at Ponza, -remained a while and then came back--came back and approached the shore. -They came ashore in arms, but to us they did no harm"). - - * * * * * - -While the rhythmic accents were being studied, we found that the -discovery of the caesura (interior pause) formed an interesting -recreative diversion. In fact this work aroused so much enthusiasm that -the children went from exercise to exercise, continuing at study for -extended periods, and far from showing signs of weariness, actually -increased their joyous application. One little girl, in the first six -minutes of her work, marked the caesura of seventy-six ten-syllable lines -without making a mistake. An abundant material is necessary for this -exercise. Example: - - Dagli atri muscosi, | dai fori cadenti, - Dai boschi, dall'arse | fucine stridenti, - Dai solchi bagnati | di servo sudor, - Un volgo disperso | repente si desta, - Intende l'orecchio, | solleva la testa, - Percosso da novo | crescente rumor. - (MANZONI, _Italiani e Longobardi_.) - -(Translation: "From the damp atria, from the ruined squares, from the -forests, from the hissing forges, from the fields bathed with the sweat -of slaves, a scattered horde of men suddenly is roused. They listen, -lift their heads, startled at this strange increasing roar"). - - * * * * * - -The step forward to the perception of the syllabic units of the line is -a purely sensory phenomenon: it is analogous to marking the time of -music without taking account of the measure divisions. Syllabiating -according to rhythm and beating on the table with the fingers solve -even the subtler difficulties such as dieresis and synalepha, in -recognizing the rhythmic syllables. Examples: - - La | so | mma | sa | pi | en | za e'l | pri | mo A | mo | re - -We print this verse in the above form, because it was thus divided by a -child in his very first spontaneous effort at syllabiation. As a matter -of fact, we present the material normally according to graded -difficulties, using over again for this purpose the materials used in -the study of accents. At this point also the accents themselves suddenly -acquire a new interest, for the child is able to observe on "what -syllable they fall." Thus his metrical study approaches completion, for -now he can readily acquire the nomenclature of metrics and -versification: _dodecasyllable_, _hendecasyllable_, etc. Then, combining -his knowledge of the numbers of syllables and the location of the -rhythmic accents, the child is at the point of discovering the rhythmic -laws of verse construction. We were expecting the children to begin -producing definitions like the following: "The dodecasyllable line has -twelve syllables and four accents which fall on the second, fifth, -eighth and eleventh syllables," etc. The spontaneous impulse of the -pupils led instead to the construction of "mirrors" or "checkerboards" -like the following: - - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | |1| 2| 3|4| 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |10| 11 |12|13| - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - |Decasyllable _piano_ | | |3d| | |6th| | |9th| | | | | - | (trochaic) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | " _tronco_ (iambic)| | |3d| | |6th| | |9th| | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - |Eight syllable _piano_ | | |3d| | | |7th| | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | " " _tronco_ | | |3d| | | |7th| | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - |Dodecasyllable _piano_ | |2d| | |5th| | |8th| | |11th| | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | " _tronco_ | |2d| | |5th| | |8th| | |11th| | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+--+--+-+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+--+--+ - -The additional step to using the symbols of metrics was an easy one, and -a graphic diagram resulted much as follows: - - - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Eight syllable | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 12| 13| - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | (Title of | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| U | | | | | | - | Poem) +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | e.g. | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| | | | | | | - | "Il ritorno in +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Italia" | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| U | | | | | | - | "Return to +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Italy" | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| U | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | "Solitude" | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| U | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | U | --| | | | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Decasyllable | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 12| 13| - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | (Title of +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Poem) | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | "Passion" +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | "The Oath of +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | Pontida" | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | "The Battle +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | of Macloud" | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| U | | | | - | "Far, far +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | away" | U | U | --| U | U | --| U | U | --| | | | | - | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - -The next development is a complete study of the stanza or strophe in the -form of a summary; the number of lines, the rhymes, the accents, number -and location of the syllables. To _distinguish_ between the stanzas is -also to classify them, which becomes a pleasing task for the children. - -One little girl, who was making a summary study of four terzets of -Dante, suddenly called the teacher to inform her with an expression of -complete surprise: "See, the rhyme always begins at the last accent!" -She had before her: - - Per me si va nella citta dol_ente_; - Per me si va nell'eterno dol_ore_; - Per me si va tra la perduta g_ente_. - Giustizia mosse il mio alto fatt_ore_; - Fecemi la divina potest_ate_, - La somma sapienza e il primo am_ore_. - Dinanzi a me non fur cose cre_ate_.... - (Dante: Inscription over Gate of Hell.) - -So in metrics also the children, following the natural inclinations of -their growth, pass from sensory discipline, to intelligent cognition, -and graphic representation. Then they become the "explorers of their -environment," the "discoverers" of general laws. - - * * * - -Translator's Note: The basis of Italian verse is in the syllable count, -and the rhythmic accent. In English verse, however, the question of the -syllable count is dependent on a much more complex consideration: -syllable length; and syllable length, in its turn, is conditioned not -only by the phonetic situation in and around the syllable, but by -rhetorical stress as well. It is clear that Signora Montessori's -experiments on the simpler Italian line have little direct bearing, save -as an illustration of method, on the pedagogy of English Metrics. For -whereas, the principal classifications of Italian lines involve merely -the problem of syllabiation (complicated by dieresis and synalepha), -with a numerical terminology (_quinario_, _ottonario_, _decasillabo_, -etc.), the study of English versification demands an analysis of measure -(feet) and of number of feet, with a terminology relative to each: -trochee, iambus, dactyl, spondee, anapest, etc., hexameter, pentameter, -etc., to mention only the most obvious elements of a science which, -applied even to simple English verse, soon becomes extremely -complicated. How much, then, of the study of English metrics, beyond the -elementary concepts of stanza and rhyme, should be included in the -Montessori Advanced Method, and what order of presentation of facts -should be followed, still remains to be experimentally determined. - -However, the most illuminating fact, as regards method, which detaches -from Signora Montessori's experiments with metrical forms, is that _long -parisyllables_ are more readily analyzed by children than -imparisyllables; and secondly that _short_ imparisyllables prove easier -than long imparisyllables. We might wish more explicit evidence that the -hardest parisyllable is easier, therefore more _natural_, than the -easiest imparisyllable--implied in Signora Montessori's presentation of -this subject. Even so, her conclusions are interesting, and from more -than one point of view. It will be recalled that the most ancient and -the most fortunate of the meters used in French, Spanish, and Provencal -poetry is precisely the decasyllable (_Song of Roland_, the Provencal -_Boecis_, etc.), whereas the favorite line of old Italian popular poetry -was the octo-syllabic verse. These are both parisyllables, though the -succession of _theses_, or rhythmic beats, is not quite analogous to -that of the modern Italian verses used in this experiment. It would -seem, in fact, as though the children initiated by Signora Montessori -into metrical studies, were actually traversing the earlier experiences -of their Latin race. - -Doubtless the reason why the parisyllable submits more readily to -rhythmic analysis than imparisyllables, is that when the syllables are -in even numbers, the line tends to reduce to two simple rhythmic -groups--the decasyllable to groups of 4 and 6, with two rhythmic beats -in each group; the dodecasyllable to groups of 6 and 6 (therefore of 3 -and 3 and 3 and 3); the octosyllables to groups of 4 and 4; the six -syllable to groups of 3 and 3. The imparisyllables on the contrary are -rarely capable of such division--of such _monotony_, if you wish. They -lend themselves to more complex rhythm, especially to "paragraphic" -treatment. They are distinctly the rhythms of erudite, "cultivated," -"literary" poetry. - -We should suspect, accordingly, that what appears in the above -experiments as _length_ is in reality _reducibility_ to simpler forms; -and that lines capable of such reduction should be given first in an -adaptation of Signora Montessori's method. It is, however, highly -improbable that in English, where the only constant element in rhythm is -the stress and not the syllable count, the line compounded of two -simpler rhythmic groups should prove easier for the child than either of -those simpler groups themselves. We see no reason to assume, for -instance, than an eight-stress line, reducible to two four-stress lines, -should be more readily analyzed than a four-stress line; or that a -seven-stress line, reducible to a four-stress and a three-stress line, -should be easier than either one of these. In fact, the predominance of -these simpler elements in the English feeling for these longer groups is -indicated by the fact that such compound lines are commonly broken into -their constituent parts when printed (cf. _The Ancient Mariner_), even -in cases where the isolation of these parts is not emphasized and -rendered natural by rhyme. It will be observed that in the Montessori -experiment the order of presentation was first, three-stress -(anapestic), then four-stress (iambic), then two-stress (iambic) lines. -This situation happens to correspond to that found in the commonest -popular English verse, which gives undoubted preference, as witness our -nursery rimes, to three-stress and four-stress iambics. Two-stress lines -constitute in reality four-stress lines divided by rhyme; just as, in -poems of distinctly literary savor, the two-stress line is further -reducible by interior rhyme to two one-stress lines. - -THREE-STRESS LINES (TRIMETER) - - -_Iambic:_ - - O l=e=t the s=o=lid gr=ou=nd - Not f=ai=l ben=ea=th my f=ee=t - Bef=o=re my l=i=fe has f=ou=nd - What s=o=me have f=ou=nd so sw=ee=t. - TENNYSON. - - The m=ou=ntain sh=ee=p are sw=ee=ter, - But the v=a=lley sh=ee=p are f=a=tter; - We th=e=refore d=ee=med it m=ee=ter - To c=a=rry =o=ff the l=a=tter. - We m=a=de an =e=xped=i=tion; - We m=e=t an h=o=st and qu=e=lled it; - We f=o=rced a str=o=ng pos=i=tion, - And k=i=lled the m=e=n who h=e=ld it. - PEACOCK. - - -_Trochaic:_ - - Ha=i=l to the=e= blithe sp=i=rit! - B=i=rd thou n=e=ver w=e=rt, - Th=a=t from he=a=ven or ne=a=r it - Po=u=rest th=y= full he=a=rt.... - SHELLEY. - - -_Anapestic:_ - - I am m=o=narch of =a=ll I surv=e=y; - My r=i=ght there is n=o=ne to disp=u=te; - From the c=e=ntre all ro=u=nd to the se=a= - I am l=o=rd of the f=o=wl and the br=u=te. - COWPER. - - -_Dactyllic:_ - - Th=i=s is a spr=a=y the bird cl=u=ng to, - M=a=king it bl=o=ssom with ple=a=sure, - =E=re the high tre=e=-tops she spr=u=ng to, - F=i=t for her n=e=st and her tre=a=sure.[10] - BROWNING. - - -FOUR-STRESS LINES (TETRAMETER) - - -_Iambic:_ - -Examples: Byron, _The Prisoner of Chillon_; Scott, _The Lady of the -Lake_; Milton, _Il pensieroso_. - - We co=u=ld not m=o=ve a s=i=ngle p=a=ce, - We co=u=ld not se=e= each =o=ther's f=a=ce - But w=i=th that p=a=le and l=i=vid l=i=ght - They m=a=de us str=a=ngers =i=n our s=i=ght.... - BYRON. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Examples: Longfellow, _Hiawatha_; George Eliot, _The Spanish Gipsy_. - - W=e=stward, w=e=stward, H=i=aw=a=tha - Sa=i=led int=o= the fi=e=ry s=u=nset, - Sa=i=led int=o= the p=u=rple v=a=pors, - Sa=i=led int=o= the d=u=sk of =e=vening. - - -This line is much more common in its catalectic form: - - H=a=ste thee n=y=mph and br=i=ng with th=e=e - J=e=st and yo=u=thful j=o=llit=y=, - Qu=i=ps and cr=a=nks and w=a=nton w=i=les, - N=o=ds and b=e=cks and wre=a=thed sm=i=les.... - MILTON, _L'Allegro._ - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Examples: Goldsmith, _Retaliation_; Byron, _The Destruction of -Sennacherib_. - - The sm=a=ll birds rejo=i=ce in the gre=e=n leaves ret=u=rning, - The m=u=rmuring stre=a=mlet winds cle=a=r through the v=a=le. - BURNS. - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Examples: Byron, _Song of Saul_; Dryden, _An Evening's Love_. - - =A=fter the p=a=ngs of a d=e=sperate l=o=ver, - Wh=e=n day and n=i=ght I have s=i=ghed all in va=i=n, - =A=h what a ple=a=sure it =i=s to disc=o=ver - =I=n her eyes p=i=ty, who ca=u=ses my p=a=in. - DRYDEN. - - -TWO-STRESS LINES - - -_Iambic:_ - -Examples: Herrick, _To the Lark_; Shakespeare, _Midsummernight's Dream_ -(Bottom's Song). - - The r=a=ging r=o=cks - And sh=i=vering sh=o=cks - Shall bre=a=k the l=o=cks - Of pr=i=son g=a=tes. - SHAKESPEARE. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Examples: George Eliot, _The Spanish Gipsy_; Campion, _Art of Poesie_. - - Co=u=ld I c=a=tch that - N=i=mble tra=i=tor, - Sc=o=rnful La=u=ra, - Sw=i=ft-foot La=u=ra, - So=o=n then wo=u=ld I - Se=e=k av=e=ngement. - CAMPION. - - -_Anapestic_: - -Examples: Shelley, _Arethusa_; Scott, _The Lady of the Lake_ (Coronach). - - He is g=o=ne on the mo=u=ntain, - He is l=o=st to the f=o=rest, - Like a s=u=mmer-dried fo=u=ntain, - When our ne=e=d was the s=o=rest. - SCOTT. - -_Dactyllic_: - -Examples: Tennyson, _Charge of the Light Brigade_; Longfellow, _Saga of -King Olaf_. - - C=a=nnon to r=i=ght of them, - C=a=nnon to l=e=ft of them, - C=a=nnon in fr=o=nt of them, - V=o=lleyed and th=u=ndered. - - -ONE-STRESS LINE - - -_Iambic_: - -Example: - - Thus I - Pass b=y= - And d=i=e - As =o=ne - Unkn=o=wn - And g=o=ne. - HERRICK. - - -SEVEN-STRESS LINES (HEPTAMETER) - - -_Iambic_: - -Examples: Howe, _Battle Hymn of the Republic_; Byron, _Stanzas for -Music_; Kipling, _Wolcott Balestier_; Coleridge, _The Ancient Mariner_. - - Mine ey=e=s have se=e=n the gl=o=ry =o=f the c=o=ming =o=f the L=o=rd. - HOWE. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Example: Swinburne, _Clear the Way_. - - Cle=a=r the w=a=y, my l=o=rds and l=a=ckeys, yo=u= have h=a=d your - d=a=y. - H=e=re you h=a=ve your =a=nswer, England's ye=a= aga=i=nst your n=a=y. - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Example: Swinburne, _The Birds_. - - Come =o=n then ye dw=e=llers by n=a=ture in d=a=rkness and l=i=ke to - the le=a=ves' gener=a=tions. - - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Example: Anonymous. - - - Out of the k=i=ngdom of Chr=i=st shall be g=a=thered by =a=ngels - o'er S=a=tan vict=o=rious, - All that off=e=ndeth, that li=e=th, that f=a=ileth to h=o=nor his - n=a=me ever gl=o=rious. - - -SIX-STRESS LINES (HEXAMETER) - - -_Iambic_ (alexandrine): - -Example: Wordsworth, _The Pet Lamb_. - - The d=e=w was f=a=lling f=a=st, the st=a=rs beg=a=n to bl=i=nk; - I he=a=rd a vo=i=ce: it sa=i=d, "Drink, pr=e=tty cre=a=ture, dr=i=nk!" - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Example: Swinburne, _The Last Oracle_. - - K=i=ng, the w=a=ys of he=a=ven bef=o=re thy fe=e=t grow g=o=lden; - G=o=d, the so=u=l of e=a=rth is k=i=ndled w=i=th thy gr=a=ce. - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Examples: Tennyson, _Maud_; Swinburne, _The Garden of Cymodoce_. - - And the r=u=shing b=a=ttle-bolt s=a=ng from the thre=e=-decker - o=u=t of the fo=a=m. - TENNYSON. - - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Examples: Swinburne, _Hesperia_; Longfellow, _Evangeline_. - - Th=i=s is the f=o=rest prim=e=val; the m=u=rmuring p=i=nes and the - h=e=mlocks - Be=a=rded with m=o=ss and with g=a=rments gre=e=n, indist=i=nct in - the tw=i=light. - LONGFELLOW. - - -EIGHT-STRESS LINES - - -_Iambic:_ - -Example: William Webbe, _Discourse of English Poetrie_. - - Where v=i=rtue w=a=nts and v=i=ce abo=u=nds, there we=a=lth is b=u=t - a ba=i=ted ho=o=k. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Examples: Tennyson, _Locksley Hall_; Poe, _The Raven_. - - =O=pen th=e=n I fl=u=ng the sh=u=tter, wh=e=n with m=a=ny a fl=i=rt - and fl=u=tter, - =I=n there st=e=pped a st=a=tely r=a=ven =o=f the sa=i=ntly d=a=ys - of y=o=re. - POE. - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Example: Swinburne, _March_. - - Ere fr=o=st-flower and sn=o=w-blossom f=a=ded and f=e=ll, and the - spl=e=ndor of w=i=nter had p=a=ssed out of s=i=ght, - The wa=y=s of the wo=o=dlands were fa=i=rer and str=a=nger than - dre=a=ms that fulf=i=l us in sle=e=p with del=i=ght. - - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Example: Longfellow, _Golden Legend_, 4. - - Onward and =o=nward the h=i=ghway r=u=ns to the d=i=stant c=i=ty, - imp=a=tiently be=a=ring - T=i=dings of h=u=man j=o=y and dis=a=ster, of l=o=ve and h=a=te, - of d=o=ing and d=a=ring. - - -FIVE-STRESS LINES (PENTAMETER) - - -_Iambic_ (Heroic pentameter): - -Examples: Milton, _Paradise Lost_; Bryant, _Thanatopsis_, etc., etc. - - Sweet A=u=burn, l=o=veliest v=i=llage =o=f the pla=i=n - Where he=a=lth and bea=u=ty che=e=r the l=a=boring swa=i=n ... - GOLDSMITH. - - -_Trochaic:_ - -Examples: Browning, _One word more_; Tennyson, _The Vision of Sin_. - - Th=e=n metho=u=ght I he=a=rd a m=e=llow so=u=nd, - G=a=thering =u=p from =a=ll the l=o=wer gro=u=nd. - - -_Anapestic:_ - -Examples: Browning, _Saul_; Tennyson, _Maud_. - - We have pr=o=ved we have he=a=rts in a ca=u=se: we are n=o=ble - st=i=ll. - TENNYSON. - -_Dactyllic:_ - -Very rare in English. - - . . . . . . . . - -While the remainder of the exercises in syllabication and graphic -transcription, as described by Dr. Montessori, would seem to follow -naturally on the above exercises in the analysis of line stress, it is -clear that additional attention must be given to questions of -terminology. For the metrical syntheses performed in the tables at the -end of the preceding section will not be possible for English poetry -unless the child is able to identify the kinds of feet and the kinds of -lines. We suggest accordingly two supplementary drills with the card -system familiar to the child from his exercises in grammar. The first -consists of a list of words, each on a separate card, with the tonic -accent marked. Each word with its accent represents a foot (iambus, -trochee, anapest, dactyl), indicated on the card in graphic -transcription beneath the word: - - wondering - -- U U - -Corresponding to each word is another card bearing simply the graphic -transcription and the name of the foot. The exercise, of the greatest -simplicity, is to pair off the cards, arranging the words in a column on -the table, putting after each the card that describes it. The cards, -when properly arranged, read as follows: - - between U -- iambus - U -- - - mother -- U trochee - -- U - - disrepute U U -- anapest - U U -- - - wonderful -- U U dactyl - -- U U - -A second stage of this exercise consists in offering a similar series of -cards where, however, the word-cards are without the indication of the -tonic accent and without the graphic transcription of the measure: - - suggest U -- iambus - accent -- U trochee - underneath U U -- anapest - metrical -- U U dactyl - -An identical exercise is possible for whole lines. The first stage -consists of naming the lines accompanied by the metrical transcription -with cards containing simply the transcription and the name of the -meter; in the second stage, the same lines are given but on cards -without the graphic transcription: for example: - - -1ST STAGE - - Go where glory waits thee Trochaic trimeter - -- U -- U -- U -- U -- U -- U - - The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold - U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- - - Anapestic tetrameter - U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- - - Venus thy mother in years when the world was a water at rest - -- U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- - - Dactyllic hexameter - -- U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- U U -- - - -2D STAGE - - Go where glory waits thee Trochaic trimeter - -- U -- U -- U - - It was but John the Red and I Iambic Tetrameter - U -- U -- U -- U -- - - etc., etc. - -When these fundamental notions have been acquired the child is ready for -the more difficult problems of anacrusis, catalexis, irregular feet and -irregular pauses, which he can recognize in almost any poem of -considerable length by comparing the transcription of a given foot with -specimen transcriptions of regular lines, which are always accessible to -him. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[10] Most of our examples of various types and combinations of verse are -taken from Alden, _English Verse_, New York, Henry Holt. - - - - -APPENDICES - - - - -APPENDIX I - -CHART FOR THE STUDY OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD - - -Copies of this Chart (pages 409-422) will be supplied, in convenient -form, by the publishers, Frederick A. Stokes Company, 443-449. Fourth -Avenue, New York, at 20 cents for the set. Diary pads are 10 cents -additional. - - - __________________SCHOOL DATA_______________________ - - - _School Year 191_.............................. - - _Hours of Sessions_............................ - - _Vacations_.................................... - - _Subjects Taught_.............................. - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - _Meals_........................................ - - _Teaching Staff_............................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - _Address of School_............................ - - _Rooms_........................................ - - _Consultations with Parents and Public_........ - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - - ________________DATA ON THE CHILD___________________ - - - _Family Name_.........._Names_............ - - _Date of Birth_................................ - - _Date of Entrance_............................. - - _Age of Parents: Father_....._Mother_..... - - - _Occupations of Parents:_ - - _Father_......................... - - _Mother_......................... - - _Home Address_................................. - - _Personal History of the Child_................ - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - _Personal Appearance of the Child_............. - - _Notes on Child's Family_...................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - - _____________SCHOOL YEAR 191.. 191..________________ - - _Name_.............._Date of Birth_....... - - .................................................... - - _Date of Entering School_................ - - - ---------------+-------+-------------+-----+--------------------------+ - | |Cephalic | | NOTES ON CHILD'S PHYSICAL - | |Index |.....| DEVELOPMENT - | +-------------+-----+ - | |Transversal | | .......................... - | HEAD |Diameter |.....| - | (mm.) +-------------+-----+ .......................... - | |Antero-post. | | - | |diameter |.....| .......................... - | +-------------+-----+ - | |Circumference|.....| .......................... - +-------+-------------+-----+ - | Index | | .......................... - | of Weight |.....| - +---------------------+-----+ .......................... - | Index of | | - ANTHROPOLOGICAL| Stature |.....| .......................... - NOTES +---------------------+-----+ - | Stature | | .......................... - | (sitting) |.....| - | (m.) | | .......................... - +---------------------+-----+ - | Thoracic | | .......................... - | circum. |.....| - | (m.) | | .......................... - +---------------------+-----+ - | Weight | | .......................... - | (Kg.) |.....| - +---------------------+-----+ .......................... - | Stature | | - | (standing) |.....| .......................... - | (m.) | | - - - _______________SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191..______________ - - _Name_........_Date of birth_............. - - .................................................... - ------------+--------------------+----------- - | STATURE IN METERS | NOTES - MONTH +----------+---------+ - | Standing | Sitting | - ------------+----------+---------+ - _September_ |..........|..........| ........... - +----------+---------+ - _October_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _November_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _December_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _January_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _February_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _March_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _April_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _May_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _June_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _July_ |..........|..........|............ - +----------+---------+ - _August_ |..........|..........|............ - - - SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191.. - - _Name_......................................... - - _Date of Birth_................................ - - ------------+-------------------------------------------- - MONTH | WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS - ------------+----------+----------+----------+----------- - | 1st week | 2nd week | 3rd week | 4th week - | | | | - _September_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _October_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _November_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _December_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _January_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _February_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _March_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _April_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _May_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _June_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _July_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - | | | | - _August_ |..........|..........|..........|.......... - - - (_Family Name_) (_Names_) - - NAME IN FULL.............................................. - -SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191.. - - - - - - - - - -PSYCHOLOGICAL DIARY - - - - - - - ----------------------------------------------------------- - - - - _Diary_ | _Name of_ | _Page Number_ - | _Child_ | - --------+-----------------+------------------- - | - 191.. | Month.............Day............... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -GUIDE FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION - - -WORK. - - NOTE: - - When a child begins to show constant application to a - piece of work. - - What this work is and how long he remains at it (speed - or slowness he shows in completing it, the number of - times he repeats the same exercise). - - Individual peculiarities in application to particular - tasks. - - To what tasks the child successively applies himself - on the same day and with how much persistency to each. - - Whether he has periods of spontaneous activity at work - and on how many days. - - How the child's need of progress is manifested by him. - - What tasks he chooses and the order in which he - chooses them; the persistency he shows in each. - - His power of application in spite of distractions - about him that might tend to divert him from his work. - - Whether after a compulsory distraction he takes up - again the task that has been interrupted. - - -CONDUCT. - - NOTE: - - Orderliness or disorderliness in the actions of the - child. - - The nature of his disorderliness. - - Whether there are any changes in conduct as his - working ability develops. - - Whether, as his activities become more orderly, the - child gives evidence of: accesses of joy; periods of - placidity; expressions of affection. - - The part the children take and the interest they show - in the progress of their schoolmates. - - -OBEDIENCE. - - NOTE: - - Whether the child answers readily when he is called. - - Whether and at what times the child begins to show - interest in what others are doing and to make - intelligent effort to join in their work. - - The progress of his obedience to _calls_. - - The progress of his obedience to _commands_. - - What eagerness and enthusiasm the child shows in his - obedience. - - The relation between the various phenomena of - obedience and (a) the development of his working - capacity; (b) changes in conduct, - - ----------------------------------------------------------- - -School Year 191..-191.. - - - - - - - - - -PERSONAL HISTORY OF THE CHILD - - - - - - - - - - - ----------------------------------------------------------- - - - SCHOOL YEAR 191..--191.. - - BIOLOGICAL HISTORY - - PARENTS: - - _Age of parents at marriage_........................ - - _Are the parents related to each other?_............ - - _Sickness and diseases of the parents?_............. - - .................................................... - - CHILD: - - _Were pregnancy and parturition normal?_............ - - .................................................... - - _Was the nursing done by the mother, or artificially?_..... - - _The child's health during the first year:_.......... - - .................................................... - - _Subsequent sicknesses of the child:_............... - - .................................................... - - _Date of teething, learning to walk, and learning to speak:_..... - - .................................................... - - .................................................... - - - SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191.. - - SOCIAL HISTORY - - FATHER: - - _Age, education and occupation:_.................... - - .................................................... - MOTHER: - - _Age, education and occupation:_.................... - - .................................................... - - ---------------------------------------------------- - - _Are accounts kept in the family?_.................. - - .................................................... - - _Family habits (amusements, home life)_............. - - _Number of persons in the family (how many adults, how many - children)_............................................ - - .................................................... - - _Does the family employ servants?_.................. - - _How many wage earners in the family?_.............. - - _Does the family have income from property?_........ - - _Does the family keep roomers or boarders?_......... - - _Is the housekeeping satisfactory?_................. - - - SCHOOL YEAR 191..-191.. - - ETHICAL EXAMINATION - - QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MORAL HISTORY - - - CRITERIA OF PRAISE AND PRIDE IN THE FAMILY - - NOTE: - - What is commended in the family, e.g., devoutness, - patriotism, or their opposites, affectionateness, - honesty, modest, neatness, generosity, kindness, - independence, etc. The social relationships between - husband and wife (rights, privileges, or equality). - Special distinctions of family members (public honors, - acts of courage, etc.). - - - CRITERIA OF BLAME AND EXCUSE IN THE FAMILY - - NOTE: - - What complaints are made in the home against members of the - family, e.g., drinking, lack of affectionateness, gambling, irreligion, - disorderliness, lawlessness, extravagance, laziness, etc. - - - EDUCATIONAL CRITERIA IN THE FAMILY - - NOTE: - - What concept do the parents have of education? e.g., severity - gentleness, rewards, punishments, understanding of children, the - freedom accorded the children, etc. - - - MOTHER'S OPINION OF HER CHILDREN - - NOTE: - - What care is taken of the child and what rights are recognized by - the family as belonging to him. - - - - -APPENDIX II - - SUMMARY OF THE LECTURES ON PEDAGOGY DELIVERED IN HOME - AT THE _SCUOLA MAGISTRALE ORTOFRENICA_ IN 1900 - - -This appendix contains a summary of a few of my lectures delivered in -1900 in the Scuola Magistrate Ortofrenica in Rome and published in -pamphlet form for the benefit of the teacher-students who were attending -that course. A number of distinguished physicians were at the same time -lecturing in the school on various subjects--such as Psychology, -Esthesiology, Anatomy of the Nerve Centres, etc. I had reserved for -myself the teaching, or rather the development, of a special pedagogy -for defective children, along the lines previously laid down by Itard -and Seguin. - -In the summary of these old lectures of mine are included some of my -experiments with certain subjects taught in the elementary grades. They -show that the origin of my present work with older children is to be -sought in my teaching of defectives. - -I still possess, as documentary relics of this course, a hundred copies -of a pamphlet entitled: _Riassunte delle lezioni di didattica della -Prof^{ssa} Montessori, anno 1900, Stab. Lit. Romano, via Frattina 62, -Roma._ More than three hundred teachers followed my course, and are able -to bear witness to the work done there. - -I republish the following excerpts not because I consider my work so -important as to merit the preservation of all the documents touching on -its origin, but to prevent the giving of undue prominence to those -remnants of my earlier attempts and studies which are still to be found -in the Scuola Magistrale Ortofrenica in Rome. - - "The child should be led from the education of the - muscular system to that of the nervous end sensory - systems; from the education of the senses to concepts; - from concepts to general ideas; from general ideas to - morality. This is the educational method of Seguin." - - However, before we begin education, we must prepare - the child to receive it by another education which is - to-day regarded as of the very first importance. This - preparatory education is the foundation on which all - subsequent education must be based, and the success we - obtain in it will determine the success of our - subsequent efforts. by preparatory education I here - mean _hygienic education_, which in defective children - sometimes includes medical treatment. That is why the - educational method for defectives is sometimes - described as _medico-pedagogical_. - - Those who realize that importance of feeling and - internal sensation in education will understand that - the bodily organism must function properly in order to - respond to our educational efforts. We must preserve - good health where good health exists: we must restore - it where it is lacking. - - We are therefore under strict obligation to pay close - attention to nutrition and to the condition of the - vital organs. Every one is aware of the close relation - existing between general sensibility and morality. - Criminals and prostitutes show very scant - sensitiveness to pain and to tactile stimuli. The same - situation is frequently apparent in defectives; hence - the necessity of restoring the tactile sense with - adequate attention to hygiene. - - We cannot educate the muscles to perform a given - coordinate movement if they have lost their power of - functioning (as in paresis, etc.). Education, properly - so-called, must be preceded by a medical treatment to - restore the muscles, if possible, to good health. - -It will be impossible to educate, for example, the sense of hearing, if -some pathological situation has produced partial deafness. We cannot -educate the sense of smell if the excessive excretion of mucus prevents -external stimuli from acting on the ends of the sensory nerves. -Obviously, we need a medical treatment to remove these diseased -conditions. - - -MEDICAL EDUCATION - - _General baths:_ When not too prolonged they develop - the sensibility of the nervous papillae. They give tone - to the cellular and muscular tissues, especially to - the skin. - - _Hot and cold baths_ given alternately are a powerful - educational instrument in attracting the attention of - a child to his external environment. - - _Local hot baths_ may be given to areas deficient in - sensibility. For instance, try bathing the hands if - tactile education proves impossible, or bathe the feet - if the defect in standing upright or in walking comes - from the insensitiveness of the soles. - - _Local cold baths:_ Given to the head while the - patient is entirely covered in warm water are a tonic - to the scalp; they facilitate the knitting of the - bones of the skull and the formation of wormian bones, - preventing also cerebral congestion. They stimulate - and regularize the cerebral circulation. Such baths - are particularly useful for hydro-cephalics and - micro-cephalics, but all patients are benefited by - such baths, which are the most generally useful of - all. - - _Steam baths_ develop perspiration which at times is - completely absent or partial in defectives, causing - serious physical disturbances. These baths, - furthermore, predispose the nerve ends to the most - intense sensitiveness. - - Such baths are, however, not to be used on epileptics - or on children suffering from rickets, weak - circulation or general debility. - - In general, _local steam baths_ are used especially - for hands and feet, and also for the tongue. - - _General cold baths_ are used in cases of - super-excitation, motor-hyperactivity, excessive - sensitiveness to pain and touch. These baths must be - accompanied by constant cold lotions on the head. - - Baths may be accompanied, with good results, by - _massage_ and _rubbing_. - - _Rubbings_ may be given dry or with water, alcohol, - aromatic creams or ointments. - - Local rubbings may be applied: (a) _To the spine_, - carefully avoiding the lumbar region so as not to - excite the sexual sensibilities. Dry rubbings should - be made with a piece of flannel and continued until - the skin reddens. They are especially useful after hot - baths followed by cold douches. (b) _To the chest_ to - stimulate respiration. (c) _To the abdomen_ to - correct various internal disorders (here, however, - massage is more efficacious). (d) _To the joints_ - (rubbings with aromatic creams and with alcohol are - very effective). - - A brief rubbing with alcohol or creams can be followed - with good effect by massage in the case of abdomen and - joints. Massage on the abdomen stimulates circulation - in the intestines and intensifies and regularizes the - movements of the muscular walls. - - Massage has a surprising effect on the muscles of the - joints; it shocks the muscular fibers in their - innermost parts and sets them in motion; it - regularizes the functioning of the muscles by reducing - excessive contraction and restoring deficient - contractibility. Emaciated muscles are regenerated, - the muscular bulk is vigorously augmented, while the - fat tissues are absorbed. - - The repetition several times a day of bathing, rubbing - and massage has produced real miracles of physical - regeneration. - - -FEEDING - - Intestinal disturbances have a direct influence on the - functional power of the central nervous system. They - merit, therefore, special consideration. For in - defectives an intestinal inflammation may produce - symptoms of meningitis, and a disorder in digestion - even unattended by fever may occasionally give rise to - convulsions. - - The hygiene of feeding which is almost the same as - that for normal children must therefore be rigorously - observed. - - The general rule is list the children should have - regular meals and be allowed nothing whatever to eat - between meals. It is commonly believed that a piece of - candy or a bit of fruit given between meals has no bad - effect. This is a common error of many mothers, who by - allowing such slight irregularities in diet, become - the unwitting cause of serious illnesses in their - children. When we say that children should be fed at - mealtimes, we mean that _nothing_ should be given them - _except_ at meal times; nothing, not even the most - innocent confection; not a crumb of bread, not a drop - of milk. This severity has the quantity and quality of - food allowed in each. - - _Number:_ For children between 2 and 7 years: 4 meals - a day; for children between 8 and 14 years: 3 meals a - day. These meals should be at regular hours, and - followed without exception by a period of mental rest, - which must be provided for in making up the daily - program of lessons. - - We need special researches as to what type of activity - may be allowed children during digestion and what - organs may be active without damage to the child while - the stomach is taxed with the labor of digestion. A - few things are clear. The children should be sent out - of closed rooms where their play raises more or less - dust, and kept in well-ventilated places, if possible, - in a garden or in a woods well supplied with aromatic - trees. The best thing a child can do immediately after - a meal is to take a short walk in the open air without - much exertion. - - _Quantity:_ In the case of children between 2 and 7 - years of age, there should be two full meals and two - luncheons. After the age of 7 there should be one - lunch and two full meals. We cannot be more specific. - - _Quality:_ In the case of defectives it would be - useful for the doctor to order a diet day by day after - having examined the diaries of the nurses as is done - in hospitals. For it may be possible to introduce into - the food elements which constitute an actual cure for - certain diseased conditions and preventives of certain - kinds of attacks. In food we should realize the - distinctions between the elements which build - tissues--true food substances, and others whose - function is purely stimulatory--alcohol, coffee, tea, - etc., which should be used only occasionally. - - Among the food substances properly so-called are the - albuminoids (proteins), fats, and carbo-hydrates - (sugars, starches, wheat and potato flours, etc.). The - fats are the least digestible foods, but they produce - the greatest number of calories. - - The proportion of the different elements in the food - should be determined by the amount of albumin, which - constitutes the real food element. Albumin is of both - vegetable and animal origin. Its animal forms are more - nutritious, more easily digestible, and products more - calories than the vegetable forms. The foods which - produce animal-albumin are milk, eggs, and meats. - Vegetables themselves furnish what is known as - vegetable-albumin. Children up to 8 years of age are - supplied usually with the following albuminous foods: - eggs, milk and vegetables. For children between 6 and - 8: eggs, milk, fish and vegetables may be provided. - Older children may be given chicken, veal, and finally - beef. - - Though for normal children a restricted meat diet is - desirable, in the case of defectives a rich supply of - meat as well as of albuminoids in general is to be - sought. Their treatment resembles that of weak - convalescent patients whose strength is to be - restored. The meats best adapted to such children are - those containing large amounts of mucilaginous - substances and sugar (veal, lamb and young animals in - general). Vegetable _purees_, fat gravies, butter, - etc., are to be recommended in these cases. - - For _nervous children_, fats, oils, acids, and flours - should be avoided. - - For _apathetic children_, who experience difficulty in - digestion, tonics and rich seasonings should be used, - such as spices, which have come to be almost excluded - from ordinary cooking, especially for children. Spices - may well be restored to the diet of institutions for - defectives, since they have the additional advantage - of permitting mixture with irons, of which they - neutralize the taste. - - Questions of food depend largely upon the individual - condition of the children. The important thing is to - avoid "the school ration." This is all the more true - of beverages. - - _Beverages:_ While stimulants are usually to be - excluded from the diet of normal children of 7 or - under, it is often desirable to introduce tea, coffee, - etc., into the meals of defectives. This should be - done, however, only in the daily diets ordered by the - physician for individuals. - - _Nervous children_ should be restricted to milk and - water for their meals with some moderately sweet drink - (orange juice, weak lemonade, etc.) after eating. - - _Apathetics_, showing atonic digestion, may have - coffee either before eating or during their meals. - - Special education is necessary to accustom the - children to complete mastication. Such practice in the - use of the organs of mastication assists also in the - later development of speech. - - -EXCRETION - - Among the physiological irregularities that appear - among children special importance attaches to - excretions. - - _Defecation:_ Among defectives especially, so-called - "dirty children" are often so numerous that special - sections have to be made for them in institutions. - Such children show involuntary losses of faeces and - urine, as in the case of infants. Most frequently the - defecations are of liquid consistency though sometimes - the reverse is true. Our remedial effort should be in - two directions: we should try to regularize the - operation of the intestines by giving solidity to the - excretions; secondly, we should endeavor to strengthen - the sphincter muscles. - - A strict observance of the diet hygiene outlined - above, especially as concerns regularity of meals and - mastication of food, will assist in the attainment of - the first object. We should try in addition to - regularize defecation by stimulating it at regular - intervals (to be gradually increased in length) - through light massages and hot rubbings on the - abdomen. - - To strengthen the sphincters general tonics (iron, - strychnine), and local tonics (such as cold - "sitz-baths," cold showers and electric baths) may be - used. Suppositories may also be used to advantage in - stimulating sphincter contractions and accustoming the - muscles to constrictive action. - - _Urine:_ some defectives show involuntary loss of - urine, especially at night, up to very advanced ages. - Epileptics are particularly predisposed to this. The - treatment is analogous to that just described. - Beverages should be carefully supervised. Diuretics - and excessive drinking in general should be avoided. - - _General recommendations:_ Local baths, and rigorous - cleanliness to avoid any stimulus to onanism. - - Education can do much in the treatment of this - situation. Urination should be regularly suggested to - the child before he goes to bed and when he wakes in - the morning. In special cases it might be well to - waken the child once or twice during the night for the - same purpose. This defect is often associated in a - child with some abnormality in the phenomena of - perspiration. - - _Perspiration:_ The sweat has almost the same - composition as urine, and perspiration is a process - supplementary to the action of the kidneys. It has - been observed that often in defective children - perspiration is either entirely lacking or limited to - certain areas (the palms of the hands, the nose, - etc.). It is absolutely necessary to stimulate and - regularize perspiration over the whole surface of the - body. This may be done by hot and steam baths, by dry - rubs with flannels (long sustained if necessary), by - woolen garments constantly worn next to the skin, and - other similar mechanical devices. We must, however, - absolutely avoid the use of special diaphoretic drugs, - which often bring about a fatal weakening of the - organs of perspiration. The treatments we have - suggested above are, first of all, harmless, but - besides they contribute to the general toning and - sensitizing of the skin. - - _Nasal mucus and tears:_ Tears are often lacking in - defectives. On the other hand nasal excretion is very - abundant and replaces the tears, which are often so - rare that some children reach a relatively advanced - age without having wept. In such cases there is a - predisposition to certain diseases of the eyes; and - excessive nasal excretion prevents the functioning of - the olfactory organs. - - For this we recommend inhaling of hot vapors and of - fragrant irritants, which correct the excessive - excretion of mucus and exercise the olfactory sense. - Usually the regular secretion of tears follows as a - matter of course. - - _Saliva:_ One of the most unpleasant abnormalities in - defectives is the continuous loss of saliva from - "hanging lips." But the effects are not only - unesthetic. The continuous over-excretion of saliva - makes the inner organs of the mouth flabby and - swollen. The tongue and the organs of speech in - general gradually lose their contractive power, and - articulation is ultimately rendered impossible. Taste - and tactile ability often disappear altogether. - Mastication becomes difficult and deglutition - irregular. The secondary effects on the digestive - organs are bad. We possess a variety of efficient - curatives and educational treatments for this defect: - _first_, general tonics; _second_, local cold douches - on the lip muscles, electric massage of the lips; - _third_, the use of licorice sticks, large at first - but gradually reducing in diameter, to be introduced - between the lips to stimulate the sucking activity - and the exercise of the contractive muscles. This will - ultimately give the necessary muscular tone. The lips - of the child should be closed mechanically from time - to time to force him to swallow the saliva and to - create the habit of deglutition. - - -CLOTHING AND ENVIRONMENT - - The principles of hygiene must be extended to the - dress of the child and to the environment in which it - lives. - - _Clothing:_ The child's clothes should be so made as - to be easily put on and off. They should not hinder - normal functioning of the body (breathing). They - should afford no opportunity for dangerous vices - (onanism). If the child can dress and undress without - difficulty, it will learn the more readily to look - after itself even in those little necessities of daily - life where partial undressing is necessary. Special - attention should be given to stockings, which affect - the development of sensitiveness in the soles of the - feet and also concern the process of learning to walk. - - _Environment:_ Just a few reminders: for defectives - perfect ventilation of course; but the walls and - furniture should be upholstered in the case of - impulsive defectives or of defectives who do not know - how to walk. There is danger in furniture with sharp - projections and in toys which may be thrown about. A - "child's room," the luxury of which consists in it - hygienic location, its elastic walls, and its very - emptiness, is the best gift a rich family can make to - the education of a defective child. - - -MUSCULAR EDUCATION - - Muscular education has for its object the bringing of - the individual to some labor useful for society. This - labor must always be executed by means of the muscles, - whether it be manual labor, speaking or writing. In a - word, the intelligence must subject the muscles to its - own purposes and, that the muscles may be equipped for - such obedience, it is necessary to prepare them by - some education which will reduce them to coordination. - Muscular education in defectives accordingly has for - its object the stimulation and coordination of useful - movements. - - It prepares: for exercise; for the activities of - domestic service (washing, dressing, preparing food, - setting and clearing the table, etc.); for manual - labor (trades); for language (use of the vocal - organs). The preparation consists in bringing the - child to _tonic quiescence_ in standing posture. The - child must learn first to stand still with head erect - and with his eyes fixed on the eyes of the teacher. - From this position of _tonic quiescence_ we must pass - to exercises in _imitation_. We obtain _tonic - quiescence_ by a variety of procedures, the variation - depending upon individual cases. We must stimulate the - apathetic and the sluggish; we must moderate the - hyperactive; we must correct paresis, tics, etc. In - other words, medical education must precede pedagogy - itself. It may be a question of applying medical - gymnastics both for active and passive movements, - alternating this treatment with massage, electric - baths, etc. - - Let us note one or two motor abnormalities which are - easy to detect in defectives. _Atony_: the child does - not move; he cannot stand; he cannot sit upright nor - execute any movement whatever. _Hyperactivity_: this - is characterized by almost constant _incoordinated_ or - disorganized movements which have no useful purpose, - e.g., jumping, beating, tearing up of objects within - reach and so on. Such patients are dangerous to - themselves and to others. - - -MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS - - (A).--_Movements executed upon the person of the - child_: sucking of the fingers; biting of the nails; - constant stroking of some part of the body. These - movements are caused by imperfectly developed - sensibility; the children stroke or caress, for - example, that area of the skin which possesses - greatest tactile sensitiveness, etc. - - (B).--_Movements executed upon surrounding objects_: - rapping on tables; constant and careful tearing of - pieces of paper into small bits, etc. This too is - associated with some sensory pleasure on the part of - the patient. - - _Rocking_: (a) _with patient reclining_: the head is - nodded from left to right, from right to left; (b) - _with patient sitting_: the trunk is rocked backward - and forward; (c) _with patient standing_: the whole - bod; rocks from left to right, the whole weight - resting now on one foot and now on the other. - Difficulty and hesitation are experienced in walking. - These motory defects proceed from the difficulty - experienced by the child in finding his center of - gravity, his equilibrium. - - _Inability to perform local movements:_ (a) Inability - to move certain of the fingers, the tongue, the lips, - etc. From such defects arises the impossibility of - performing certain simple manual exercises (bringing - the finger tips of the two hands together; taking hold - of objects, e.g., inability to button, etc.) and the - inability to pronounce certain words; (b) Inability to - contract the lip and sphincter muscles (loss of - saliva, involuntary defecation). - - _Atony_ and _hyperactivity_ may be overcome by - appropriate educational remedies which we will now - discuss. Local agitations disappear with the general - education of the senses; while rocking is cured by - exercises in balancing. - - (A).--_Stimulate active movements in the atonic child - until he is able to stand erect in tonic quiescence._ - - Begin by stimulating the simple movements, gradually - working up to the most complicated. We have a sure - guide for this education in the spontaneous - developments of movements in the normal child: he - begins with the easiest spontaneous movements and - gradually arrives at the harder ones. - - The first movement which develops in the child is the - _prehensile_ act (grasping). Next comes the movements - of the lower joints used in creeping and walking; next - the ability to stand; and finally the ability to walk - alone. _Grasping_: if no external stimulation is - capable of interesting the defective of low type, - grasping cannot be stimulated merely by presenting to - the child some object or other which might seem to be - interesting for color taste or some other quality. In - such a case we must have recourse to the instinct of - self-preservation, to that innate fear of void which - defectives almost always have. The child feeling - himself fall will instinctively grasp at some support - within his reach. This is the simplest point of - departure for our possible development of the grasping - faculty in the defective child. - - _Method:_ The hands of the child am mechanically fixed - around the rung of a ladder suspended to the ceiling. - Then the child in left to himself. Since his fingers - are already around the support he needs only to clench - his hands to find support. He may not succeed even in - this simple act the first time. The teacher must - patiently repeat the exercise, always being ready, of - course, to catch the child if he should fall. In this - exercise the defective is very much alarmed as a rule - and all his muscles are as a result more or less - stimulated. - - Likewise based on the instinct of self-preservation is - the _swing_, where the defective must cling to some - support with his hands to keep from falling. - - Finally a _ball_ is hung from the ceiling and swung in - such a way as continually to strike the child in the - face. To protect himself he must keep it away by - seizing it. - - In still lower types we must have recourse to the - instinct for nutrition which exists even in such - children. - - _Standing:_ Under this heading we include also the - movements which precede the actual attainment of the - standing posture. To overcome the sinking of the - knees, which impedes standing, the _swinging chair_ - may be used. The seat must reach nearly to the child's - feet and the knees are tied to the seat. The child's - foot, as he swings, strike against a board. This - exercise prepares the lower joints to hold themselves - in position when resting on a plane surface. Next the - child is placed on _parallel bars_. The bars pass - under the arm-pits and support the child while his - feet rest on the floor. In these exercises we try to - stimulate the movements which appear in walking - (exercises of the lower joints). Next we exercise the - muscles which support the spinal column. The child is - made to sit down: first the spine in upright against - the back of the chair; finally it remains upright when - the support is removed. Little by little walking can - be produced if the child is taken away from the bars - and supported with a simple _gymnastic belt_. The - exercise is continued until he can be left entirely - without support. - - When the child has learned to walk we can _command_ - him to stop in the position of _tonic quiescence_. - - (B).--_Moderation of hyperactivity by forced - quiescence._ - - In hyperactive children the arms must first be - restrained by holding them tight in our hands. The - movements of the lower limbs may be checked by holding - the child's legs tight between our knees. Finally the - child may be kept entirely quiescent with his legs - held between the teacher's knees, his arms in the - teacher's hands, with the trunk pushed back and held - firmly against the wall. By a similar process he can - be kept quiet while standing; then later in a position - of _tonic quiescence_. - - _General Rule:_ Exercises of the limbs beginning with - the arms should precede those specifically directed - toward the spinal column. Seguin says "_tonic - quiescence_ is necessarily the first step from _atonic - quiescence_; or if you wish, from a disordered - activity to an activity which represents harmony - between the muscular system and the mind." - - We noted above that the posture of _tonic quiescence_ - involves a fixity of gaze on the part of the child. - This is the point of departure for the development of - coordinative movements and _imitation_ of what the - child sees the teacher do. - - -EDUCATION OF THE FIXED GAZE - - If the child is kept in the dark for some time and is - suddenly shown a bright light he will experience the - sensation of _red_. - - Keeping the child in a dark room for a shorter time a - sudden light will attract his gaze. - - Move the light along the wall until the child's gaze - follows it. - - Next, in a light room, the child is shown a red cloth - kept in motion; a red balloon hung from the ceiling - keeps striking him in the face. - - After these preparatory exercises the teacher can try - to get the child to fix its eyes on his own and to - maintain the fixed gaze. Here use may be made also of - the sense of hearing (words of command, encouragement, - etc.). - - Finally to obtain complete fixity of gaze, one may use - the large mirror, before which lights may be passed. - There the child can gaze at his own face and at the - face of the teacher, which will be kept motionless and - which the child may come to imitate. - - _Exercises of imitation:_ (1) The child is taught to - become acquainted with himself. The various parts of - his body are pointed out to him and he is made to - touch them. This continues up to the point of - distinguishing right from left. Begin with the larger - members of the body (arms, legs, trunk, head) to be - named in connection with movements of the whole body. - Then pass to the smaller members (the fingers, - knuckles, the organs of the mouth), to be referred to - respectively in the education of the hand and in the - teaching of speech. - - (2) The child is taught coordinative movements - relating to gymnastics (walking, running, jumping, - pushing, etc.). - - (3) Movements relating: (a) to the simpler forms of - manual labor (exercises of practical life: washing, - dressing, picking up and laying down various objects, - opening and closing drawers); (b) to more complex - kinds of manual labor (elements of various trades; - weaving, Froebel exercises, etc.). - - (4) Movements relating to articulate language. For - this educational process the following general rules - are to be followed: first, movements of the whole body - must precede movements of specific parts; second, only - by analyzing complex movements in their successive - stages and by working out their details point by point - can we arrive at the execution of a perfect complex - movement. - - This latter rule applies especially to manual - education and the teaching of language. When movements - of the whole body have been obtained it will often be - necessary, before going on to movements of particular - members, to alternate the educational cure with the - medical: (1) to overcome the weakness of some of the - muscles (perhaps of some finger), use local electric - baths, passive gymnastics, etc.; (2) for retractions, - retarded development of aponeurosis of the palms, - etc., use orthopedic treatment. - - Gymnastics, manual labor, trades and speaking are - special branches of teaching, that usually require - specially trained teachers. - - -EDUCATION OF THE SENSES - - Outline for examination. - - _Sight:_ Sense of color. It is necessary to call the - attention of the child several times to the same color - by presenting it to him under different aspects and in - different environments. The stimulus should be strong. - Other senses tend to associate themselves with the - chromatic sense, for example, the stereognostic and - gustatory senses. Whenever the teacher gives an - _idea_ she should unite with it the _word_, the only - word which is related to the idea. The words should be - emphatically and distinctly pronounced. - - (1) _Pedagogical aprons:_ The colors are presented on - a large moving surface, as for instance, an apron worn - by the teacher; e.g., a red apron. The teacher points - to it, touches it, lifting it with noticeable - movements of the arms, continually calls the attention - of the child to it. "_Look! See here! Attention!_" and - so on; then saying in a low voice and slowly, "_This - is_ (and then in a louder voice), _red, red, red!!!_" - Now take two aprons, one red, the other blue; repeat - the same process for the blue. There are three stages - in the process of distinguishing between colors: (a) - "This is ... _red_!" (b) "Your apron is _red_!" (c) - "What color is this?" Then try three aprons, red, - blue, and yellow, bordered with white and black. - - (2) _Insets_--color and form. The red circle, the blue - square. There are three stages: (a) "This is _red, - red, red_! Touch it! Do you feel? Your finger goes - _all the way around, all the way around_. It is - _round_, it is _round, all round_. Put it in its - place!" (b) "Give me the _red_ one!" (c) "What color - is this circle?" - - (3) The dark room. A Bengal red color is shown: "It is - _red_!" The color appears behind a circular disc: "It - is _red_!" The blue is shown behind a square window: - "It is _blue, blue, blue_," etc. - - (4) The child is given a circular tablet of red sugar - to eat and a square lump of blue sugar. He is made to - smell a red piece of cloth strongly scented with musk; - or a blue piece of cloth scented with asafetida, etc. - - (5) The color chart. - - (6) The first game of Froebel. - - The first pedagogical material given should contain - the color already taught. The notion of color should - be associated with its original environment. - - _Shapes: Solids, Insets:_ The procedure is always in - the three stages mentioned. (1) Show the object to the - child. (2) Have him recognize it. (3) Have him give it - its name. - - _Dimensions:_ Rods of the same thickness, but of - graduated length. First the longest and the shortest - are shown. The child is made to touch them and - interchange them "Pick up the _longest_!" "Place it on - the table!" etc. Repeat this exercise, adding some - intermediate lengths; again finally, with all the - rods. Next the rods may be disarranged; the child is - to put them back in order of length. Notice whether - the child makes an accurate choice in the confused - pile of the graduated dimensions; or whether it is - only by placing two rods together that he comes to - notice the difference between them. Notice how long it - is before the child makes an accurate choice in the - pile and of what degrees of difference in length he is - accurately aware. - - Try the same exercise for _thickness_: prisms of equal - length, but of graduated thickness, using the same - procedure in analogous exercises. Games may be used - for the estimation of distances. - - _The tactile sense proper:_ One board with a - corrugated surface (like a grater) and one smooth. - Another board with five adjacent surfaces of graduated - roughness. Similar exercises may be used in the - feeling of cloths (guessing games). - - Games: The child is blindfolded and lightly tickled. - He must seize what is tickling him, putting his hand - rapidly to the irritant. ("Fly catching," a game for - the localization of stimulants.) - - { Astringents - Liquids { Glues - { Oils - - _Tactile muscular sense:_ - - Elastic bodies { { Rubber - { Balls { - Non-resilient bodies { { Wooden - - Use skins, leather gloves, and various kinds of cloths - for feeling. - - _The muscular sense:_ Balls of the same appearance, - but of graduated weights. Differentiation of coins by - weight. - - _The stereognostic sense:_ Recognition of elementary - forms, of rare objects, of coins. - - _Thermal senses:_ Hot liquids, iced liquids; relative - warmth of linen and wool, wood, wax, metal. - - _Olfactory sense:_ Asafetida, oil of rose, mint, etc., - - { Tobacco smoke - { Burned sugar - Odors of { Incense - { Burned maple - - { Wood } - Odors of burning { Straw } - substances { Paper } Various applications - { Wool } to practical life. - Guessing games { Cotton } - { Edibles } - - Odors of foods (practical life): fresh milk, sour - milk, fresh meat, stale meat, rancid butter, fresh - butter, etc. - - _Taste:_ The four fundamental tastes (guessing games). - Instructive applications to practise in the kitchen - and at meals. - - Tastes of various food substances: - - { milk gruel (milk and flour); - { diluted wine; - Exercises of practical life { sweet wine; - { turned wine (vinegar), etc. - - The practise of the senses begins in the lower classes - in the form of guessing games; in the higher classes - the education of the senses is applied to exercises of - practical life. - - _Hearing:_ Empirical measurement of the acuteness of - the sense of hearing. Specimen game: the teacher about - 35 feet away from the blindfolded children and - standing where an object has been hidden, whispers the - words "_Find it!_" Those who have heard her will be - able to find the object. Having removed from the line - the children who have heard, the teacher steps to - another place about a yard nearer and repeats the - experiment to the children who are left over, etc. - - _Intensity of sound:_ - - Throw to the floor metal blocks of various sizes, - coins of graduated weight. - - Strike glasses one after the other according to size. - - Bells of graduated size. - - _Quality of sound:_ Produce different sounds and - noises. - - { of metal - Bells { - { of terracotta - - Open Bells. - - Closed Bells. - - Strike with a wooden stick on tin plates, glasses, - etc. - - Identify various musical instruments. - - Identify different human voices (of different people). - - Identify the voice of a man, a woman, a child. - - Recognize different people by their step, etc., etc. - - _Pitch:_ Intervals of an octave, of a major triad, and - so on; major and minor chords. However, musical - education requires a separate chapter. - - _Sound projection, localization of sound in space:_ - The child is blindfolded. The sound is produced; (1) - in front of him; behind him; to the right; to the - left; above his head; (2) the blindfolded child - recognizes the relative distance at which the sounds - are produced; (3) the child decides from which side of - the room the sounds come; he is made to follow some - one who is speaking. - - _The horizontal plane:_ This is the first notion - imparted to the child concerning his relationship to - the objects about him. Almost all the objects the - child may perceive around him with his senses rest on - the horizontal plane: his table, his chair, and so on. - The very objects on which the child sits or puts his - toys are horizontal planes. If the plane were not - horizontal, the objects would fall, but they would - strike on the floor which, again, is a horizontal - plane. Place an object on the child's table and tip - one end of the table to show him that the object - falls. - - _Guessing game for the plane surface:_ This game - serves to fix the notion of the plane surface and at - the same time trains the eye and the attention of the - child. - - 1. Under one of three aluminum cups is placed a small - red ball, a cherry or a piece of candy. The child must - remember under which cup the object is hidden. The - teacher tries herself and fails, always raising the - empty cups and returning them to their places. The - child, however, finds the object immediately. - - 2. The teacher now begins to move the three cups about - on the plane surface. The child has to keep his eye on - _his_ cup and never loses sight of it. - - 3. Repeat this exercise with six cups. - - _Checkerboard game:_ This serves to teach the child - the limits and the various divisions of a plane. The - squares are large and in black and white. The whole - board should be surrounded by a border in relief. - Various points are indicated on the plane: forward, - backward, right, left, center, by placing a tin - soldier at each point indicated. The soldiers may be - moved about by the child in obedience to directions of - the teacher: "The officer on horseback to _the - center_": "Standard-bearer _to the right_, etc.!" - Finally, make all the soldiers advance toward the - center of the board over the black squares only; then - over the white squares only, etc. - - These notions may be applied to exercises of practical - life. The children already know how to set the table - without thinking of what they are doing. From now on, - the teacher may say: "Put the plates on the _plane - surface_ of the tables!" "Put the bottle _to the - left_! _In the center!_" etc. Have a small table set - with little dishes, having the objects arranged in - obedience to commands of the teacher. After this, we - may proceed to the Froebel games on the plane surface - with the cubes, blocks, and so on. - - _Inset game as a preparation for reading, drawing, and - writing:_ After the child knows the different colors - and shapes in the inset, the color tablets of the big - inset can be put in place: (1) on a piece of cardboard - where the figures have been drawn in shading in the - respective colors; (2) on a cardboard where the same - figures have been drawn merely in colored outline - (linear abstraction of a regular figure). - - _Inset of shapes where the pieces are all of the same - color (blue):_ The child recognizes the shape and puts - the pieces in place: (1) on a cardboard where the - figure is shaded; (2) on a cardboard where the figure - is merely outlined (linear abstraction of regular - geometrical figures). Meanwhile, the child has been - touching the pieces: "The tablet is smooth. It turns - round and round and round. It is a _circle_. Here we - have a _square_. You go this way and there is a - _point_; this way, and there is another point, and - another, and another; there are _four points_! In the - _triangle_ there are _three points_!" Then the child - follows with his finger the figures outlined on the - cardboard. "This one is entirely round: it is a - _circle_! This one has four points: it is a _square_! - This one has three points: it is a _triangle_!" The - child runs over the same figures with a small rod of - wood (skewer), etc. - - -SIMULTANEOUS READING AND WRITING - - At this point, we may bring in the chart with the - vowels, painted red. The child sees "irregular figures - outlined in color." Give the child the vowels made of - red wood. He is to place them on the corresponding - figures of the chart. He is made to touch the wooden - vowels, running his finger around them in the way they - are written. They are called by their names. The - vowels are arranged according to similarity in shape - (reading): - - o e a - i u - - Then the child is commanded: "Show me the letter _o_! - Put it in its place!" Then he is asked: "What letter - is this?" It will be found at this point that many - children make a mistake, if they merely look at the - letter, but guess rightly when they touch it. It is - possible accordingly to distinguish the various - individual types, visual, motory, etc. - - Next the child is made to touch the letter outlined on - the chart, first with his forefinger only, then with - the fore and middle fingers, finally with a little - wooden skewer to be held like a pen. The letter must - always be followed around in the way it is written. - - The consonants are drawn in blue and arranged on - various charts, according to similarity in shape - (reading, writing). The movable alphabet in blue wood - is added to this. The letters are to be superimposed - on the chart as was done for the vowels. Along with - the alphabet we have another series of charts, where, - beside the consonant identical with the wooden letter - there are painted one or more figures of objects, the - names of which begin with the letter in question. - Beside the long-hand letter, there is also painted in - the same color a smaller letter in print type. The - teacher, naming the consonants in the phonic method, - points to the letter, then to the chart, pronouncing - the name of the objects which are painted there, and - stressing the first letter: e.g., "m ... man ... m: - Give me _M_!" "Put it where it belongs!" "Follow - around it with your finger!" Here the linguistic - defects of the children may be studied. - - The tracing of the letters in the way they are written - begins the muscular education preparatory to writing. - One of our little girls of the motory type when taught - by this method reproduced all the letters in pen and - ink long before she could identify them. Her letters - were about eight millimetres high and were written - with surprising regularity. This same child was - generally successful in her manual work. - - The child, in looking at the letters, identifying - them, and tracing them in the way they are written, is - preparing himself both for reading and writing at the - same time. The two processes are exactly - contemporaneous. Touching them and looking at them - brings several senses to bear on the fixing of the - image. Later the two acts are separated: first looking - (reading), then touching (writing). According to their - respective type, some children learn to read first, - others to write first. - - _Reading:_ As soon as the child has learned to - identify the letters and also to write them, he is - made to pronounce them. Then the alphabet is arranged - in phonetic order. This order is to be varied - according to individual defects made apparent while - the child is pronouncing spontaneously the sounds of - the consonants or vowels, or the words illustrating - the consonants on the charts. We begin by showing the - child and having him pronounce, first, syllables and, - then, words which contain the letters he is able to - pronounce well. Then we go on to the sounds he has - trouble with, finally to those he cannot pronounce at - all (linguistic correction). The phonomimic correction - of speech requires special discussion. In primary - schools speech correction should be in the hands of a - specially trained teacher, like gymnastics, manual - training and singing. Should no defects in speech - appear in the child, the letters of the alphabet - should be taught in the order of physiological - phonetics. - - Beside the big long-hand letters should be placed the - small letters in print type. The letter is taught; - then recognition is prompted by asking as each large - letter is reached: "I want the little one like it." - The two types of letter appear also on the illustrated - charts. Next the printed letter is shown, with the - request: "Give me the big letter that goes with it." - Finally: "What letter is it?" The little letters are - not "touched," because they are never to be written. - - -DRAWING AND WRITING - - The child is given a sheet on which appear a circle - and a square in outline. The circle is filled in with - a red pencil, the square with blue (insets). Smaller - and smaller circles are next given, also circles and - triangles. They are variously disposed on the page. - They are to be filled in with colored pencils. Then - comes the tracing. The black lines are followed around - with colored pencils: the circle, the triangle, the - square. This comes easily to the child who has been - taught to trace with the wooden skewer the figures - outlined on the inset-charts. Writing follows - immediately on the exercises in tracing with the - skewer on the charts of the written alphabet. Some - help can be given the child by having him darken with - a black pencil the letter written on the copy book by - the teacher. As the child writes, his attention should - be directed to the fact that he is writing on a - _limited plane surface_; that he begins at the top, - moving from left to right and little by little coming - down the page. - - Seguin's method began with shafts and curves. His - copybooks for the shafts were prepared as follows: the - shaft to be executed by the child was delimited by two - points, connected by a very light line. In the margin - of the pages appear two shafts to be executed by the - teacher. Similarly for the curves: ( ( ( (. He has the - printed capitals drawn as combinations of shafts and - curves: B, D, etc. - - -SIMULTANEOUS READING AND WRITING OF WORDS - - The child, through sensory education, has acquired - some notions of color, shape, surface (smooth and - rough), smell, taste, etc. At the same time, he has - learned to count (one, two, three, four points). - Uniting all possible notions concerning a single - object, we arrive at his first concrete idea of the - object itself: the object lesson. To the idea thus - acquired, we give the word which represents the - object. Just as the concrete idea results from the - assembling of acquired notions, so the word results - from the union of known sounds, and perceived symbols. - - _Reading lesson:_ On the teacher's table is the large - stand for the movable alphabet in black printed - letters. The teacher arranges on it the vowels and a - few consonants. Each child, in his own place, has the - small movable alphabet in the pasteboard boxes. The - children take from the box the same letters they see - on the large stand, and arrange them in the same - order. The teacher takes up some object which has a - simple word for a name, e.g., _pane_ ("bread"). She - calls the attention of the child to the object, - reviewing an objective lesson already learned, thus - arousing the child's interest in the object. "Shall we - write the word _pane_?" "_Hear_ how I say it!" "_See_ - how I say it!" The teacher pronounces separately and - distinctly the sounds of the letters which make up the - word, exaggerating the movements of the vocal organs - so that they are plainly visible to the children. As - the pupils repeat the word they continue their - education in speaking. - - A child now comes to the teacher's desk to choose the - letters corresponding to the sounds and tries to - arrange them in the order in which they appear in the - word. The children do the same with the small letters - at their seats. Every mistake gives rise to a - correction useful to the whole class. The teacher - repeats the word in front of each one who has made a - mistake, trying to get the child to correct himself. - When all the children have arranged their letters - properly, the teacher shows a card (visiting-card - size) on which is printed (in print-type letters about - a centimeter high) the word "_pane_." All the children - are made to read it. Then some child is asked to put - the card where he finds the word written before him; - next, on the _object_ the word stands for. The - process is repeated with two or three other objects, - with their respective names: _pane_ (bread), _lume_ - (lamp), _cece_ (peas). Then the teacher gathers up the - cards from the various objects, shuffles them and - calls on some child: "Which object do you like best?" - "_Lume!_" "Find me the card with the word _lume_!" - When the card has been selected, all the children are - asked to read it: "Is Mary right in saying that this - is the word _lume_?" "Put the card back where it - belongs!" (i.e., on its object). In the subsequent - lessons, the old cards, with the objects they stand - for removed, should be mixed with the new ones. From - the entire pack the children are to select the new - cards and place them on their objects. A primary - reading book ought to present these words next to a - picture of the object for which they stand. - - In this way the children are brought to unite the - individual symbol into words. When they have been - taught to make the syllable, the reading lesson may be - continued without the use of objects, though it is - still preferable to use words which will, if possible, - have a concrete meaning for the children. - - _Writing:_ The children are already able to use the - cursive (writing) alphabet which corresponds to the - small letter (print-type) that is neither "touched" - nor written, but is merely _read_. They must now write - in hand writing, and place close together, the little - letters which they have assembled in the movable - alphabet to compose words. As each word is read or - written for every object lesson, for every action, - printed cards are being assembled which will later be - used to make clauses and sentences with movable words - that may be moved about just as the individual letters - were moved about in making the _words_ themselves. - Later on, the simple clauses or sentences should refer - to actions performed by the children. The first step - should be to bring two or more words together: e.g., - _red-wool_, _sweet-candy_, _four-footed dog_, etc. - Then we may go on to the sentence itself: _The wool is - red_; _The soup is hot_; _The dog has four feet_; - _Mary eats the candy_, etc. The children first compose - the sentences with their cards; then they copy them in - their writing books. To facilitate the choice of the - cards, they are arranged in special boxes: for - instance, one box is labeled _noun_: or its - compartments are distinguished thus: _food_, - _clothing_, _animals_, _people_, etc. There should be - a box for _adjectives_ with compartments for _colors_, - _shapes_, _qualities_, etc. There should be another - for _particles_ with compartments for _articles_, - _conjunctions_, _prepositions_, etc. A box should be - reserved for _actions_ with the label _verbs_ above; - and then in a compartment should be reserved for the - _infinitive_, _present_, _past_ and _future_ - respectively. The children gradually learn by practice - to take their cards from the boxes and put them back - in their proper places. They soon learn to know their - "word boxes" and they readily find the cards they want - among the _colors_, _shapes_, _qualities_, etc., or - among _animals_, _foods_, etc. Ultimately the teacher - will find occasion to explain the meaning of the big - words at the top of the drawers, _noun_, _adjective_, - _verb_, etc., and this will be the first step into the - subject of _grammar_. - - -GRAMMAR - - -NOUN LESSON - - We may call persons and objects by their _name_ (their - _noun_). People answer if we call them, so do animals. - Inanimate objects, however, never answer, because they - cannot; but if they could answer they would; for - example, if I say _Mary_, Mary answers; if I say - _peas_, the peas do not answer, because they cannot. - You children _do_ understand when I call an object and - you bring it to me. I say for example, _book_, - _beans_, _peas_. If I don't tell you the name of the - object you don't understand what I am talking about; - because every object has a different name. This name - is the word that stands for the object. This name is a - _noun_. When I mention a noun you understand - immediately the object which the noun represents: - _tree_, _chair_, _pen_, _book_, _lamb_, etc. If I do - not give this noun, you don't know what I am talking - about; for, if I say simply, _Bring me ... at once, I - want it_, you do not know what I want, unless I tell - you the name of the object. Unless I give you the - _noun_, you do not understand. Thus every object is - represented by a word which is its _name_ and this - name is a _noun_. To understand whether a word is a - noun or not, you simple ask "Is it a thing?" "Would it - answer if I spoke to it!" "Could I carry it to the - teacher?" For instance, _bread_. Yes, _bread_ is an - object; _table_, yes, it is an object; _conductor_, - yes, the conductor would answer, if I were to speak to - him. - - Let us look through our cards now. I take several - cards from different boxes and shuffle them. Here is - the word _sweet_. Bring me _sweet_. Is there anything - to answer when I call _sweet_? But you are bringing me - a piece of candy! I didn't say _candy_: I said - _sweet_! And now you have given me sugar! I said - _sweet_. If I say _candy_, _sugar_, then you - understand what I want, what object I am thinking - about, because the words _candy_, _sugar_, stand for - objects. Those words are _nouns_. Now let us look - through the noun cards. Let us read a couple of lines - in our reading books and see whether there are any - nouns there. Tell me, are there any nouns? How are we - to find some nouns? Look around you! Look at yourself, - your clothes, etc.! Name every object that you see! - Every word you thus pronounce will be a noun: Teacher, - clothing, necktie, chair, class, children, books, etc. - Just look at this picture which represents so many - things! The figures represent persons and objects. - Name each of these figures! Every word you pronounce - will be a noun! - - -VERB: ACTION - - Mary, rise from your seat! Walk! Mary has performed a - number of _actions_. She has _risen_. She has - performed the _action_ of rising. She has _walked_. - _Walk_ stands for an action. Now write your name on - the blackboard! _Writing_ is an action. Erase what you - have written. _Erasing_ is an action. When I spoke to - Mary, I performed the action of speaking. (Just as the - noun was taught with objects, here we must have - actions. Objects represented in pictures will be of no - use, since actions cannot be portrayed by pictures.) - - The next step will be to suggest a little exercise of - imagination. Look at all these objects! Try to imagine - some action which each might perform! A _class_, for - instance; what actions might a class perform? _Store_: - what actions might take place in a store? Let us now - look through our cards after we have shuffled them. - Next try our reading book. Show me which of the words - are verbs. Give me some words which are verbs - (infinitive). - - -NOUN - - Persons, things (proper and common nouns). Singular, - plural, masculine and feminine. The articles: "Choose - the article that goes with this noun!" etc. - - -VERB - - Present, past, future. I am performing an action now. - Have I performed it before? Did I do it yesterday? - Have I always done it in the past? When I walk now, I - say I _am walking_, I _walk_. When I mean the action - that I performed yesterday, I say: I _was walking_, I - _walked_. The same action performed at different times - is described differently. How strange that is! The - word referring to an object never changes. The beads - are beads to-day. They were beads yesterday. - _Actions_, however, are represented by words which - change according to the time in which they are - performed. To-day I _walk_. Yesterday I _walked_. - To-morrow I _shall walk_. It is always _I_ who do the - walking, _I_ who perform the _action_ of walking; and - I walk always in the same way, putting one foot in - front of the other. The objects you see perform an - action always perform it. Do you see that little bird - which is flying--which is performing the _action_ of - flying? It was flying yesterday. It flew at some time - in the past. To-morrow also, that is, at some _future_ - time, if the little bird lives, it will fly and it - will fly always in the same way, beating its wings to - and fro. You see what a strange thing a verb is! It - changes its words according to the _time_ in which the - action is performed. It is different according as it - represents action in _present_ time, or action in - _past_ time, or action in _future_ time. Now, see! I - am going to take out some of my cards and make up a - little sentence: - - +-----+ +--------+ +------+ +----+ +-------+ - | Now | | George | | eats | | an | | apple | - +-----+ +--------+ +------+ +----+ +-------+ - - Now I am going to change the word which stands for the - time when the action takes place. In place of the card - _now_ I am going to use this one: - - +-----------+ - | yesterday | - +-----------+ - - Is this a good sentence? No! Supposing we change the - time of the verb: _Yesterday George ate an apple_. - This makes good sense. Put these cards back now in the - boxes where they belong. - - -ADJECTIVE - - Every object possesses certain _qualities_. Tell me - what you can about this apple. It is red, it is round, - it is sweet. What qualities can you find in this - chair? It is hard, it is brown, it is wooden. What - about your school-mates, the children? Are they good, - are they pretty, are they polite, are they obedient, - or are they naughty, impolite, disobedient, - disorderly? Let us look through our cards to see - whether we can find words which stand for the - qualities of objects. Supposing we select some from - the drawer of the adjective and some from the drawer - of the noun. Now let us place beside each noun a card - which makes sense with it: here, for instance, I have - _Charles_, _red_, _quadruped_, _transparent_. Does - that mean anything? Well then find me some adjectives - which will go well with _Charles_. Adjectives are - words which stand for qualities of a given object. - They must go well with their noun. Find me some - adjectives which fit well with the noun _dog_. They - must be words which stand for some quality of the dog. - Now put all the cards back in the compartments where - they belong. (This latter exercise is very - instructive.) - - In this method of teaching grammar we make use of - objects and actions directly relating to life. Such - lessons may be made more attractive with story - telling, etc. The teaching of grammar at this period - should be extended as far as is possible without - forcing the pupil. - - -OBJECT LESSONS - - There should be concise and vivid descriptions of some - object. The attention of the child should be sustained - by changing the tone of voice, by exclamations - calculated to excite the child's curiosity, by praise, - etc. Never begin with the _word_, but always with the - _object_. All the notions possessed by the child - should be as far as practicable in a given case - applied to his study of the object. First it should be - described as to its qualities; next as to its uses, - then as to its origin; for example, Here is an - _object_! What color is it? What is its shape? Feel of - it! Taste of it! etc. If possible, have the child - _see_ the use of the object and its origin in every - possible way. Just as the concrete idea of the object - is imparted by verbal description and by various - appeals to the senses of the child, so the different - uses of the object should be brought out in - _describing actions_ which the child _sees_ performed - with it before him. This, of course, is an ideal which - the teacher should try to realize as far as possible. - The object should be shown the child in different - circumstances and under different aspects so as to - give it always the appearance of something new and - something to excite and hold the attention of the - child. Take, for instance, a lesson on the word _hen_. - Show a paper model of the hen, the live hen in the - courtyard, the stereopticon slide of the hen; the - print of the hen in the reading book; the hen alive - among other domestic fowls; pictures of the hen among - pictures of other birds, etc. Each new step should be - taken on a different day and each time the word should - be connected with the object. Write the word on the - blackboard; make up the printed card for the card file - and put it in its proper box. "Who wants to take the - blackboard out-doors? We are going to write some words - in the yard. Now in your reading books there is the - figure of the hen. Next to it is the word _hen_. Write - this word in your copy books. Who can repeat what we - have said about the hen? Write down what you know - about the hen." The amount of information given about - a particular object will depend, of course, upon the - class. The simplest description should be followed by - one more minute, passing thus to speak of uses, - habits, origin, etc. The writing of a simple word may - be developed into a written description. But the - lessons on the given object should always be short, - and they should be repeated on different days. For the - lessons on trees, plants, and vegetables, a garden is - necessary: the children should see the seeds planted, - a growing vegetable, a picture of the fruit, etc. If - possible the domestic use of the garden products - should be demonstrated. This applies also to flowers. - The blackboard with crayon should never be lacking in - the garden. For object lessons we need toys to - represent furniture, dishes, various objects used in - the home, tools of different trades, rooms and the - furniture that goes in each, houses, trees, a church - (to build villages), etc.; dolls equipped with all the - necessaries for dressing. There should be a shelf for - bottles containing specimens of different drinks; - various kinds of cloths (for tactile exercises); the - raw materials out of which they are made, - demonstrations of the way they are manufactured, etc. - Show also specimens of the various minerals, etc. - - -HISTORY - - History is taught first on a little stage with living - tableaux, gradually advancing to action; second, by - descriptions of large illustrations and colored - pictures; third, by story-telling based on - stereopticon views. The teacher should strive for - brevity, conciseness, and vivacity in descriptions. - Historical story telling should, as in the case of all - other lessons, bring about additions of printed cards - to the word boxes. Various information of the seasons, - months of the year, etc., should be imparted by - illustrations and pictures. Every morning the child - should be asked: "What day is it? What day was - yesterday? What day will to-morrow be?" and "What day - of the month is it?" - - -GEOGRAPHY - - 1. Exercises on the plane for the cardinal points, - with various gymnastic and guessing games. 2. Building - games out of doors. Make a lake, an island, a - peninsula, a river. 3. Carry the houses and church - into the yard and construct a small village. Put the - church on the north; the schoolhouse on the east; the - mountain on the west; in front of the school place the - national flag. 4. In the classroom fit out a room with - its proper furniture to be placed on a map of the room - outlined on a large chart. As the furniture is - removed, make a mark on the map to indicate where each - article was. Make a little village in the same way, - houses, church, etc. Take away the church, etc.; mark - the place of each object on the map as it is removed. - Then identify each spot. "Where was the church?" "What - was over here?" etc. Thus we get a conception of the - geographical map. Read the map, making use of the - cardinal points. 5. Physical characteristics of - regions may be shown by clay modeling to represent - hills, etc. Draw outlines around each model, remove - the clay and read the _geographical map_ resulting. - - -ARITHMETIC - - The children are to count: 1 nose; 1 mouth; 1, 2 - hands; 1, 2 feet; 1, 2, 3, 4 points in the insets; 1, - 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 soldiers on the plane. How many blocks - did they use in the building? 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, - 9. Thus for the elementary steps in counting. - - -COMPUTATION - - Computation should be taught practically in the store - from the very beginning. The shopkeeper sells 1 cherry - for 1c. The children have 2c and get two cherries. - Next they get two nuts for 1c. Place 1c on the counter - and place 2 nuts beside it. Then count all the nuts - and there are 2 for 1c, etc. The child must give him - 1c in change (2 + 2 = 4; 2 - 1 = 1). In money changing - it will be observed that at first some children - recognize the coins more easily by touch than by sight - (motor types). - - -WRITTEN NUMBERS - - Charts with the nine numbers: one for each number. - Each chart has picture representing quantities of the - most varied objects arranged around the number, which - is indicated by a large design on the chart. For - instance: on the _1_ card there is one cherry, one - dog, one ball, etc. Yesterday the shopkeeper sold one - cherry for 1c. Is the cherry here? Yes, there is the - cherry! And what is this? _One_ church! And this? - _One_ cent! etc. What is this figure here? It is the - number _one_. Now bring out the wooden figure: What is - this? Number _one_! Put it on the figure on the chart! - It is _one_. - - Now take the charts to the store. Who has 1c? Who has - 2c? etc. Let us look for the number among the charts. - The shopkeeper is selling three peas for 1c. Let us - look for number _3_ among the charts! Numbers should - be taught in the afternoon lesson in the store. The - designs representing the figures should be shown the - following morning. Next time the charts with the - figures previously taught should be taken to the shop - to be recognized again. Other numbers are brought out - in the new computations. The figures for the new - numbers then taught in the store should be shown the - following day, etc. To make the store interesting, the - topic lesson on the objects offered for sale should be - frequently repeated. The child should be taught to buy - only perfect objects, so that on receiving them he may - examine them carefully, observing them in all their - parts. He should give them back if they are not - perfect or if mistakes are made by the shopkeeper in - giving them out. For instance: A spoiled apple should - not be accepted. "I refuse to buy it!" Beans should - not be accepted for peas. Again the child refuses to - buy them. He must pay only when he is sure he has been - served properly (exercise in practical life). - - The storekeeper will make mistakes: first, in _kinds_ - of objects, to sharpen the observation of _qualities_ - by the children who purchase; second, in the _number_ - of objects given, to accustom the child to purchasing - proper _quantities_. - - -ODD AND EVEN NUMBERS - - Even numbers are red. Odd numbers are blue. There are: - movable figures in wood; red and blue cubes in numbers - corresponding to the figures on them; finally, charts - with numbers drawn in color. Under each design are - small red and blue squares arranged in such a way as - to emphasize the divisibility of _even_ numbers by 2 - and similarly the indivisibility by 2 of _odd_ - numbers. In the latter case one square is always left - by itself in the center. - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The child places the movable numbers and the cubes on - the figures on the charts. The teacher then makes two - equal rows of cubes to correspond to the even numbers - (red). The division is easy! But try to separate the - odd numbers (blue). It is not possible! A block is - always left in the middle! The child takes the figures - and the blocks and arranges them on his table, - imitating the design on the chart. He tries to make - two equal rows of cubes for the even numbers. He - succeeds. He does not succeed in doing so with the odd - numbers. The numbers which can be divided thus are - _even_; those which cannot be so divided are _odd_. - - _Number boxes_: On these boxes are designed red and - blue figures identical with those on the charts. The - child puts into each box the number of cubes called - for by the figure on the box. This exercise follows - immediately the work on odd and even numbers described - above. As the child transfers each series of cubes - from his table to the boxes, he pronounces the number - and adds _odd_ or _even_. - - _Exercises in attention and memory_: A chart of odd - and even numbers in colors is placed on the teacher's - desk in view of all the children. The red and blue - cubes are piled on the teacher's desk. The teacher - passes the wooden figures to the children and tells - them to examine them. Immediately afterwards the - children leave their seats, go to the teacher's desk, - and get the numbers which correspond to their own - figures. On going back to their places they fit the - cubes under the corresponding figure in the - arrangement just learned. The teacher is to observe - - 1. Whether the child has remembered the color of his - figure (frequently a child with a red number takes the - blue cubes). - - 2. Whether he has remembered his _number_. - - 3. Whether he remembers the proper arrangement. - - 4. Whether the child remembers that the chart from - which he _can copy_ is before him on the stand and - whether he thinks of looking at it. - - When mistakes are made, the teacher has the child - correct himself by calling his attention to the chart. - - -COUNTING BY TENS - -(_For more advanced classes_) - - In the store ten objects are sold for one cent, e.g.: - - (10 beans), one cent for each _ten_. - - One ten = ten, 10. - - Two tens = twenty, 20. - - Three tens = thirty, 30, etc. - - From forty on (in English from sixty on) the numbers - are more easily learned because their names are like - simple numbers with the ending -_ty_ (Italian - -_anta_). - - Charts should be prepared (rectangular in shape) on - which nine tens appear arranged one under the other; - then nine cards where each ten is repeated nine times - in a column; finally, numerous cards with the unit - figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, to be fitted on the - zeros on the cards where the tens are repeated nine - times. - - 10--10--20 - 20--10--20 - 30--10--20 - 40--10--20 - 50--10--20 - 60--10--20 - 70--10--20 - 80--10--20 - 90--10--20 - - Some difficulty will be experienced with the tens - where the names do not correspond to the simple - numbers: 11, 12, 13, etc. The other tens, however, - will be very easy. When a little child is able to - count to 20, he can go on to 100 without difficulty. - The next step is to superimpose the little cards on - the first chart of the tens series, having the - resultant numbers read aloud. - - _Problems_: Problems are, at first, simple memory - exercises for the children. In fact the problems are - solved practically in the store in the form of a game; - buying, lending, sharing with their schoolmates, - taking a part of what is bought and giving it to some - other child, etc. The store exercises should be - repeated in the form of a problem on the following - morning. The children have simply to remember what - happened and reproduce it in writing. _Problems are - next developed contemporaneously_ with the various - arithmetical operations and computations (addition, - multiplication, etc.). The teacher explains the - operations starting with the problem, which becomes - for the children a very amusing game. The problem, - finally, becomes an imaginative exercise: "Suppose you - are going to the store to buy," etc., etc. We can - ultimately arrive at real problems that require - reasoning. In the store the teacher illustrates the - various operations on the blackboard, using simple - marks at first: "You have bought 2c worth of beans, at - three for a cent. Let us write that down: III--III. - Then let us count. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. There are six. - Well, then, 3 + 3(III III) = 6. We can also say: 2 - groups of III equals 6; twice, three, six; two times - three, six; 2 x 3 = 6. How much is 3 + 3? How much is - 2 x 3? How much is 3 x 2?" - - The following morning, when the written problem is - given, the child should have before him for reference - the computation charts with all the combinations - possible. - - The transition to mental computation will come after - this and not before. - -SAMPLE CARDS - -(Addition) - - 1 + 1 = 2 2 + 1 = 3 3 + 1 = 4 - 1 + 2 = 3 2 + 2 = 4 3 + 2 = 5 - 1 + 3 = 4 2 + 3 = 5 3 + 3 = 6 - 1 + 4 = 5 2 + 4 = 6 3 + 4 = 7 - -(Multiplication) - - 1 x 1 = 1 2 x 1 = 2 3 x 1 = 3 - 1 x 2 = 2 2 x 2 = 4 3 x 2 = 6 - 1 x 3 = 3 2 x 3 = 6 3 x 3 = 9 - - Subtraction in the same way. The development of these - various operations followed logically on the practical - exercise in the store, where multiplication proved to - be a product of sums, division, a process of - successive subtractions. - - In our classes we have arithmetic lessons every day. - The afternoon practice in the store prepares for the - theoretical lesson of the following morning. - Accordingly, on the day when the practical exercise - occurs, there is no theoretical lesson and vice versa. - - The decimal metric system applied to weights, measures - and coinage is taught in the same way. The store - should be equipped with scales, weights, dry and - liquid measures, etc. All kinds of coins should be - available, including bills up to $20 (100 francs). - Work in the store should continue to be not only a - help toward arithmetical computation but also toward - the preparation for practical life. For instance, when - cloth is sold, some attention should be given to its - actual market value; its qualities should be - emphasized by feeling, etc.; and the child should be - taught to observe whether the storekeeper has given - him the right amount and the right quality. Money - changing should be made ready and easy. The money - which the children spend at the store should be earned - by them as a reward for their application to study and - their good behavior. - - -GENERAL RULES - - To attract the attention of defective children strong - sensory stimulants are necessary. The lessons, - therefore, should be eminently practical. Every lesson - should begin with the presentation of the object to be - illustrated by the teacher in a few words distinctly - pronounced with continual modulations of the voice and - accompanied by vivid imitative expression. The lessons - should be made as attractive as possible and, as far - as practicable, presented under the form of games, so - as to arouse the curiosity of the child: guessing - games, blindman's buff, store-keeping, the sleep - walker, the blind store-keeper, etc. But however - amusing the game may be, the lesson should always be - stopped while the child is still willing to continue. - His attention, which is easily fatigued, should never - be exhausted. To fix ideas, lessons should be - repeated many times. Each time, however, the same - objects should be presented under different forms and - in a different environment, so that it will always be - interesting by appearing as something new: - story-telling, living tableaux, large illustrations; - colored pictures; stereopticon views, etc. In case - individual teaching is necessary, as happens in the - most elementary classes, care should be exercised to - keep all the other children busy with different toys: - insets, lacing-and-buttoning-frames, hooks and eyes, - etc. When children refuse to take part in their - lessons it is better not to use coercion, but to aim - at obtaining obedience indirectly through the child's - imitation of his schoolmates. Glowing praise of the - pupils who are showing good will in their work almost - always brings the recalcitrants to time. When a child - shows he has understood the point under discussion, it - is better not to ask for a repetition. His attention - is easily fatigued, and the second time he may say - badly what at first he gave successfully; and the - failure may discourage him. It is well to be satisfied - with the first good answer, bestow such praise as will - afford the child a pleasant memory of what he has been - doing; and go back to the subject on the following - day, or, at the earliest, several hours later. - - In manual training, however, the situation is - different. The lesson in this subject can be a whole - hour long and should take the form of serious work and - not of play. The child should be set early at some - useful task, even if a little hard work, not - unattended with risk, be involved (wood-cutting, - boring, etc.). From the outset, thus, the child will - become familiar with the difficulties of bread-winning - effort and will learn to overcome them. - - Interest in work may be stimulated by appropriate - rewards. The child may earn during work-hours the - money for his purchases at the store, for his tickets - to the theater and the stereopticon lecture. The child - who does not work may be kept away from the more - attractive lessons, such as dancing and music, which - come immediately after the work hour. As a matter of - fact, these children take to manual training very - readily, provided the tasks assigned are adapted to - the natural inclinations of the individual child in - such a way that he may take in his work the greatest - possible satisfaction and thus by natural bent attain - a skill useful to himself and society. - - -MORAL EDUCATION - - By the expression "moral education" we mean an - education which tends to make a social being of an - individual who is by nature extra- or anti-social. It - presents two aspects which may be paralleled with the - education thus far treated and which we call - "intellectual education." - - In this latter training of the mind, we began by an - appropriate hygienic cure of all those physical - defects which could stand in the way of successful - mental education. In moral education, likewise, we try - to eliminate such defects as arise from some passing - physical ailment. We should carefully consider the - apparently causeless "naughtiness" of children, to see - whether it may not be due to some intestinal - disturbance, or to the early stages of some infectious - disease. The symptoms of such diseases should be known - to the teacher. I have been told that English mothers - use the empirical method of administering purgatives - or cold shower baths to "naughty children," often with - good correctional effect. I suggest that such - empiricism is hardly prudent where science is able to - prescribe much safer and more efficacious methods. - Child hygiene must be well known to the educator and - should be the pivotal point of every educational - system. - - In mental education, we began by reducing the child to - _tonic quiescence_; here we must begin by reducing the - child to _obedience_. - - In mental education, to give the child his first - notions of his physical person (personal imitation: - touching of the parts of the body) and of his - relations to environment (personal imitation: moving - of objects, etc.) we had recourse to _imitation_; - here, to instil in the child elementary notions of his - duties, we must throw around the child an atmosphere - morally correct, an environment in which, after - attaining obedience, he can _imitate_ persons who act - properly. - - In mental education we went on to the training of the - senses; here we pass to the education of _feelings_. - Our next step, in the one case, was to the education - proper of the mind; here it is to the training of the - will. - - The parallel is perfect: - - hygienic training: hygiene; - _tonic quiescence_: obedience; - imitation: imitation (environment); - sensory education: education of the feelings (sensibilities); - mental education proper: education of the will. - - -OBEDIENCE - - In a command the will of the teacher is imposed upon - the defective child who is lacking in will. The will - of the teacher is substituted for the child's will in - impelling to action or inhibiting the child's - impulses. From the very first the child must feel this - will, which is imposed upon him and is irrevocably - destined to overcome him. The child must understand - that against this will he cannot offer any resistance. - The teacher's command must be obeyed at whatever cost, - even if coercive measures must be resorted to. No - consideration should ever lead the teacher to desist - from enforcing her command. The child _must_ submit - and obey. The teacher accordingly, should be careful - at first to command the child to move; since, if - necessary she can _force_ him to move. She may command - the child to stand motionless because, if necessary, - she can tie him or put him in a straight-jacket. She - should never, on the other hand, command the child to - "beg pardon," because the child may refuse, and in the - face of this refusal the teacher may find herself - helpless and lose her authority. To acquire authority - in command, the teacher must possess a considerable - power of suggestion; and this she can partially - acquire. The teacher should be physically attractive, - of an "imposing personality." She should have a clear - musical voice, and some power of facial expression and - gesture. These things may be in large part acquired by - actual study of declamation and imitation, subjects in - which the perfect teacher should be proficient. The - artistic study of _command_, which the teacher may - undertake, presents itself under three aspects: voice - study, gesture, facial expression. - - _Voice and speech:_ The voice should be clear and - musical, word articulation perfect. Any defect in - pronunciation should effectually bar a teacher from - the education of defective children. On days when the - teacher has a cold and her voice is likely to assume - false or ridiculous intonations, she should not think - of correcting or _commanding_ a defective child. The - teacher's voice must be impressive and suggestive to - the child. If shouting and declamatory tirades have - gone out of fashion in the education of normal - children, they may serve very well in the education of - defectives. Whereas, in the mental education of these - unfortunates, we are to pronounce a few words, but - very distinctly, here there is no objection to a - veritable flood of speech, provided such lectures be - free from monotony, the voice passing from tones of - reproof to tones of sorrow, pathos, tenderness, etc. A - few words are to receive special emphasis--those which - we intend shall convey to the child what we wish him - to understand. The rest of all we say will constitute - for the child merely modulated, musical or painful - sound. It is in the music of the human voice that the - elements of the education of the feelings reside; - whether in the prohibition against doing something - wrong, we introduce the corrective command, or, in the - order to perform some action, we include - encouragement, menace, or promise of reward. - - Often the command is very simple. When the child is - told to do something, he does not refuse. Nevertheless - he is not easily persuaded. He must try to understand, - first of all, what we want of him. The technique of - such a simple command falls into two parts. We may - call the first _incitement_, and the second - _explanation_. The whole command should be repeated - several times with varied intonations and with stress - on different words until each word in its order has - been emphasized. "James, put that book on the table." - In the first instance the command will be _incitive_ - in character, calling the attention of the child to - the action and urging him to perform it. Here the - accent should fall on the name of the child and on the - imperative. The tone should be that of absolute - command. "_James_, _put_ that book on the table." As - we pass from the command to the explanation, the tone - should be changed and somewhat softened. The first - word should be clear and impelling, followed by slow, - insistent words--"James, put _that book_ on the - table": "James, put that book on the _table_": "James, - put that book _on_ the table." Thus the voice both in - commanding and in describing what was commanded, while - urging the child to perform the required action and - guiding him to do it, was also affording us help in - its suggestive power and by explanation. - - _Gesture:_ The teacher must study particularly - expressive gesture. She must always accompany what she - says with gestures serving both to impel the child to - actions and which suggest imitation and explain the - command. Gestures should be expressive enough to be - readily intelligible even without words; for example, - if it is desirable to bring the child to perfect - quiescence, as the command is given, the teacher - should stop, become almost rigid, looking sharply at - the child in such a way that he may be impressed by - that rigid fixity which he sees before him and be - brought by suggesting to imitate it. Then to keep the - child motionless, the teacher may attract his - attention by a slight almost continuous hypnotizing - sort of whistle. To excite an apathetic child to - movement the teacher should herself move, accompanying - the stress of her voice with motion in her whole body. - - In the _simple command_, arm gesture only should be - used and as follows: - - - For _Incitement_: rapid movement in straight line. - - For _Explanation_: slow movement in curve. - - Command of _quiescence_: gesture up and down, from - without toward the body. - - Command of _movement_: gesture from down, up, from - within, out from the body. - - - _Facial expression and gaze_: The gaze has a powerful - effect on the child. It is the same gaze which - impressed the child and brought him to the first steps - in his education (see our chapter on the _Education of - the Gaze_). All the expressions of the eye are useful - provided the teacher employs them properly. It is not - a question of scowling at the child to frighten him, - as might be supposed; but rather of bringing the eye - as well as the whole face to express all those - emotions which the teacher must herself actually feel - in the presence of an obedient or rebellious, a - patient or angry child; and of giving to this - expression such clearness that the child cannot - possibly be mistaken as to its meaning (Seguin, page - 679). The teacher's face must be expressive, mobile, - hence in harmonious relationship with what is to be - expressed (calmness, gaiety, effort). The expression - must never vary momentarily on account of any - extraneous diversion which may occur; otherwise the - children will soon learn to provoke such distractions - of the teacher's attention. Such commands, which - demand on the teacher's part so much artistic study, - will, of course, not be necessary during the whole - period of the child's education. - - THE END - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's Notes: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Varied hyphenation was retained. - -Page 29, the translations for "il lavoratore" and "l'italiano" were -reversed. This was corrected. - -Page 29, order of feminine column of list from "la santa" down were out -of order. The original read: - - il santo la tagliatrice the saint - il tagliatore la donna the cutter - l'uomo la vecchia the man - il vecchio la visitatrice the old man - il visitatore la zia the visitor - lo zio la santa the uncle - -This was repaired. - -Page 30, "visitor" changed to "visitors" ("le visitatrici the visitors) - -Page 78, "vincino" changed to "vicino" (vicino a, accosto a) - -Page 90, "ziz-zag" changed to "zig-zag" (straight, zig-zag) - -Page 93, repeated word "a" deleted. Original read (into a a new kind of -activity) - -Page 122, "oihme" changed to "ohime" (ahi! ohi! ohime!) - -Page 156, "casual" changed to "causal" (causal clause) - -Page 198, "promesai" changed to "promessi" (I promessi sposi) - -Page 231, "discription" changed to "description" (Although this -description may) - -Page 277, "demonator" changed to "denominator" (by the denominator) - -Page 366, song, "Bethleem" changed to "Bethlehem" (Puer natus Bethlehem) - -Page 378, "passe" changed to "passa" (qualcuno passa e parla) - -Page 386, "spunta" changed to "spunta" (Quinci sp=u=nta per l'=a=ria) - -Page 394, the symbols used were "U" and "--" in the tables as the -figures used were not available. Starting with this table, the original -puts an acute accent above the "--". - -Page 403, "In" changed to "In" (=I=n there st=e=pped) - -Page 437, "processs" changed to "process" (in the process of -distinguishing) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Montessori Elementary Materials, by -Maria Montessori - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIALS *** - -***** This file should be named 42869.txt or 42869.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/8/6/42869/ - -Produced by Alicia Williams, Emmy and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was -produced from scanned images of public domain material -from the Google Print project.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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