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diff --git a/42517-0.txt b/42517-0.txt index 2288498..901a710 100644 --- a/42517-0.txt +++ b/42517-0.txt @@ -1,36 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historic Inventions, by Rupert S. Holland - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Historic Inventions - -Author: Rupert S. Holland - -Release Date: April 12, 2013 [EBook #42517] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORIC INVENTIONS *** - - - - -Produced by Greg Bergquist, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42517 *** [Illustration: GUTENBERG TAKES THE FIRST PROOF] @@ -7730,361 +7698,4 @@ things else to the dramatic in men’s flights through air. End of Project Gutenberg's Historic Inventions, by Rupert S. 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Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Historic Inventions - -Author: Rupert S. Holland - -Release Date: April 12, 2013 [EBook #42517] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORIC INVENTIONS *** - - - - -Produced by Greg Bergquist, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - -[Illustration: GUTENBERG TAKES THE FIRST PROOF] - - - - - Historic Inventions - - By - RUPERT S. HOLLAND - - _Author of "Historic Boyhoods," "Historic Girlhoods," - "Builders of United Italy," etc._ - - - PHILADELPHIA - GEORGE W. JACOBS & COMPANY - PUBLISHERS - - - Copyright, 1911, by - GEORGE W. JACOBS AND COMPANY - _Published August, 1911_ - - _All rights reserved_ - Printed in U.S.A. - - - _To - J. W. H._ - - - - - CONTENTS - - - I. GUTENBERG AND THE PRINTING PRESS 9 - - II. PALISSY AND HIS ENAMEL 42 - - III. GALILEO AND THE TELESCOPE 53 - - IV. WATT AND THE STEAM-ENGINE 70 - - V. ARKWRIGHT AND THE SPINNING-JENNY 84 - - VI. WHITNEY AND THE COTTON-GIN 96 - - VII. FULTON AND THE STEAMBOAT 111 - - VIII. DAVY AND THE SAFETY-LAMP 126 - - IX. STEPHENSON AND THE LOCOMOTIVE 140 - - X. MORSE AND THE TELEGRAPH 168 - - XI. MCCORMICK AND THE REAPER 189 - - XII. HOWE AND THE SEWING-MACHINE 206 - - XIII. BELL AND THE TELEPHONE 215 - - XIV. EDISON AND THE ELECTRIC LIGHT 233 - - XV. MARCONI AND THE WIRELESS TELEGRAPH 261 - - XVI. THE WRIGHTS AND THE AIRSHIP 273 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Gutenberg Takes the First Proof _Frontispiece_ - - Palissy the Potter After an Unsuccessful - Experiment _Facing page_ 46 - - Galileo's Telescope " " 58 - - Watt First Tests the Power of Steam " " 72 - - Sir Richard Arkwright " " 88 - - The Inventor of the Cotton Gin " " 104 - - _The Clermont_, the First Steam Packet " " 120 - - The Davy Safety Lamp " " 136 - - One of the First Locomotives " " 156 - - Morse and the First Telegraph " " 180 - - The Earliest Reaper " " 194 - - Elias Howe's Sewing-Machine " " 210 - - The First Telephone " " 222 - - Edison and the Early Phonograph " " 258 - - Wireless Station in New York City Showing - the Antenna " " 268 - - The Wright Brothers' Airship " " 281 - - - - -I - -GUTENBERG AND THE PRINTING PRESS - -About 1400-1468 - - -The free cities of mediæval Germany were continually torn asunder by -petty civil wars. The nobles, who despised commerce, and the burghers, -who lived by it, were always fighting for the upper hand, and the -laboring people sided now with one party, and now with the other. -After each uprising the victors usually banished a great number of the -defeated faction from the city. So it happened that John Gutenberg, a -young man of good family, who had been born in Mainz about 1400, was -outlawed from his home, and went with his wife Anna to live in the -city of Strasburg, which was some sixty miles distant from Mainz. He -chose the trade of a lapidary, or polisher of precious stones, an art -which in that age was held in almost as high esteem as that of the -painter or sculptor. He had been well educated, and his skill in -cutting gems, as well as his general learning and his interest in all -manner of inventions, drew people of the highest standing to his -little workshop, which was the front room of his dwelling house. - -One evening after supper, as Gutenberg and his wife were sitting in -the room behind the shop, he chanced to pick up a playing-card. He -studied it very carefully, as though it were new to him. Presently -his wife looked up from her sewing, and noticed how much absorbed he -was. "Prithee, John, what marvel dost thou find in that card?" said -she. "One would think it the face of a saint, so closely dost thou -regard it." - -"Nay, Anna," he answered thoughtfully, "but didst thou ever consider -how the picture on this card was made?" - -"I suppose it was drawn in outline, and then painted, as other -pictures are." - -"But there is a better way," said Gutenberg, still studying the -playing-card. "These lines were first marked out on a wooden block, -and then the wood was cut away on each side of them, so that they were -left raised. The lines were then smeared with ink and pressed on the -cardboard. This way is shorter, Anna, than by drawing and painting -each picture separately, because when the block is once engraved it -can be used to mark any number of cards." - -Anna took the playing-card from her husband's hand. It represented a -figure that was known as the Knave of Bells. "It's an unsightly -creature," she said, studying it, "and not to be compared with our -picture of good St. Christopher on the wall yonder. Surely that was -made with a pen?" - -"Nay, it was made from an engraved block, just like this card," said -the young lapidary. - -"St. Christopher made in that way!" exclaimed his wife. "Then what a -splendid art it must be, if it keeps the pictures of the blessed -saints for us!" - -The picture of the saint was a curious colored woodcut, showing St. -Christopher carrying the child Jesus across the water. Under it was an -inscription in Latin, and the date 1423. - -"Yes, thou art right, dear," Gutenberg went on. "Pictures like that -are much to be prized, for they fill to some extent the place of -books, which are so rare and cost so much. But there are much more -valuable pictures in the Cathedral here at Strasburg. Dost thou -remember the jewels the Abbot gave me to polish for him? When I -carried them back, he took me into the Cathedral library, and showed -me several books filled with these engraved pictures, and they were -much finer than our St. Christopher. The books I remember were the -'Ars Memorandi,' the 'Ars Moriendi,' and the 'Biblia Pauperum,' and -the last had no less than forty pictures, with written explanations -underneath." - -"That is truly wonderful, John! And what are they about?" - -"The 'Biblia Pauperum' means 'Bible for the Poor,' and is a series of -scenes from the Old and New Testaments." - -"I think I've heard of it; but I wish you'd tell me more about it." - -John leaned forward, his keen face showing unusual interest. "The -forty pictures in it were made by pressing engraved blocks of wood on -paper, just like the St. Christopher, or this playing-card. The lines -are all brown, and the pictures are placed opposite each other, with -their blank backs pasted together, so they form one strong leaf." - -"And how big are the pictures?" - -"They are ten inches high and seven or eight inches wide, and each is -made up of three small pictures, separated by lines. More than that, -there are four half-length figures of prophets, two above and two -below the larger pictures. Then there are Latin legends and rhymes at -the bottom of each page." - -"And all that is cut on wood first?" said Anna, doubtfully. "It sounds -almost like a miracle." - -"Aye. I looked very closely, and the whole book is made from blocks, -like the playing-card." - -"Art thou sure it's not the pencraft of some skilful scribe?" - -"Assuredly I am. Dost thou see, Anna, how much better these blocks are -than the slower way of copying by hand? When they're once cut many -books can be printed as easily as one." - -"Aye," answered his wife, "and they will be cheaper than the works -written out by the scribes, and still be so costly that whoever can -make them ought to grow rich from the sale. If thou canst do it, it -will make thy fortune. Thou art so ingenious. Canst thou not make a -'Bible for the Poor'?" - -"Little wife, thou must be dreaming!" But John Gutenberg smiled, for -he saw that she had discovered the thought that had been in his mind. - -"But couldst thou not?" Anna persisted. "Thou art so good at inventing -better ways of doing things." - -Gutenberg laughed and shook his head. "I have found new ways to polish -stones and mirrors," said he, "but those are in my line of work. This -is quite outside it, and much more difficult." - -Nothing more was said on the subject that night, but Anna could see, -as day followed day, that her husband was planning something, and she -felt very certain that he was thinking out a way of making books more -quickly than by the old process of copying them word for word by hand. - -A few weeks later the young lapidary surprised his wife by showing her -a pile of playing-cards. "See my handicraft," said he. "Aren't these -as good as the Knave of Bells I gave thee?" - -She looked at them, delight in her eyes. "They are very much better, -John. The lines are much clearer, and the color brighter." - -"Still, that is only a step. It is of little use unless I can cut -letters, and press them on vellum as I did these cards. I shall try -thy name, Anna, and see if I cannot engrave it here on wood." - -He took a small wooden tablet from the work-table in his shop, and -marking certain lines upon it, cut away the wood so that it left a -stamp of his wife's name. Brushing ink over the raised letters he -pressed the wood upon a sheet of paper, and then, lifting it -carefully, showed her her own name printed upon the paper. - -"Wonderful!" she cried. "The letters have the very likeness of -writing!" - -"Aye," agreed Gutenberg, looking at the four letters, "it is not a -failure. I think with patience and perseverance I could even impress a -copy of our picture of St. Christopher. It must have been made from -some manner of engraved block. See." He took the rude print from the -wall, and showed her on the back of it the marks of the stylus, or -burnisher, by which it had been rubbed upon the wood. "Thou mayst be -sure from this that these lines were not produced by a pen, as in -ordinary writing," said he. - -"Well," said Anna, "it would surely be a pious act to multiply -pictures of the holy St. Christopher." - -Encouraged by his wife's great interest, and spurred on by the passion -for invention, Gutenberg now set himself seriously to study the -problem of engraving. First of all he found it very difficult to find -the right kind of wood. Some kinds were too soft and porous, others -were liable to split easily. Finally he chose the wood of the -apple-tree, which had a fine grain, was dense and compact, and firm -enough to stand the process of engraving. Another difficulty was the -lack of proper tools; but he worked at these until his box was -supplied with a stock of knives, saws, chisels, and gravers of many -different patterns. Then he started to draw the portrait of the saint. - -At his first attempt he made the picture and the inscription that went -with it on the same block, but as soon as he had finished it a better -idea occurred to him. The second time he drew the picture and the -inscription on separate blocks. "That's an improvement," he said to -his wife, "for I can draw the picture and the letters better -separately, and if I want I can use different colored inks for -printing the two parts." Then he cut the wood away from the drawings, -and inking them, pressed them upon the paper. The result was a much -clearer picture than the old "St. Christopher" had been. - -He studied his work with care. "So far so good," said he, "but it's -not yet perfect. The picture can't be properly printed without thicker -ink. This flows too easily, and even using the greatest care I can -hardly keep from blotting it." - -He had to make a great many experiments to solve this difficulty of -the ink. At last he found that a preparation of oil was best. He could -vary the color according to the substances he used with this. Umber -gave him lines of a darkish brown color, lampblack and oil gave him -black ink. At first he used the umber chiefly, in imitation of the old -drawings that he was copying. - -When his ink was ready he turned again to his interested wife. "Now -thou canst help me," said he. "Stuff and sew this piece of sheepskin -for me, while I get the paper ready for the printing." - -Anna had soon done as he asked. Then Gutenberg added a handle to the -stuffed ball. "I need this to spread the ink evenly upon the block," -said he. "One more servant of my new art is ready." - -He had ground the ink upon a slab. Now he dipped his printer's dabber -in it, and spread the ink over the wood. Then he laid the paper on it, -and pressed it down with the polished handle of one of his new graving -tools. He lifted it carefully. The picture was a great improvement -over his first attempt. "This ink works splendidly!" he exclaimed in -delight. - -"Now I shall want a picture of St. Christopher in every room in the -house," said Anna. - -"But what shall I do?" said Gutenberg. "I can't afford the time and -money to make these pictures, unless I can sell them in some way." - -"And canst thou not do that?" - -"I know of no way at present; but I will hang them on the wall of the -shop, and perhaps some of my customers will see them and ask about -them." - -The young lapidary was poor, and he had spent part of his savings in -working out his scheme of block-printing. He could give no more time -to this now, but he hung several copies of the "St. Christopher" in -his front room. Several days later a young woman, stopping at -Gutenberg's shop for her dowry jewels, noticed the pictures. "What are -those?" said she. "The good saint would look well on our wall at home. -If thou wilt wrap the picture up and let me take it home I will show -it to my husband, and if he approves I will send thee the price of it -to-morrow." - -Gutenberg consented, and the next day the woman sent the money for the -"St. Christopher." A few days later it happened that several people, -calling at the shop to buy gems, chose to purchase pictures instead. -Anna was very much pleased by the sales, and told her husband so at -supper that evening. But he was less satisfied. "In spite of the sales -I have lost money today," said he. "Those who bought the prints had -meant to buy jewels and mirrors, and if they had done so I should have -made a bigger profit. The pictures take people's attention from the -gems, and so hurt my business." - -"But may it not be that the printing will pay thee better than the -sale of jewels, if thou wilt keep on with it?" suggested the hopeful -wife. "How soon shalt thou go to the Cathedral with the Abbot's -jewels?" - -"As soon as I have finished the polishing. Engraving these blocks has -kept me back even in that." - -"When thou dost go take some of thy prints with thee," begged Anna, -"and see what the Father has to say about them." - -By working hard Gutenberg had the Abbot's jewels finished two days -later, and he took them with several of his prints to the Cathedral. -He was shown into the library, where often a score of monks were -busied in making copies of old manuscripts. He delivered the jewels to -the Abbot, and then showed him the pictures. - -"Whose handiwork is this?" asked the Father. - -But Gutenberg was not quite ready to give away his secret, and so he -answered evasively, "The name of the artisan does not appear." - -"Where didst thou obtain them?" asked the Abbot. - -"I pray thee let me keep that also a secret," answered Gutenberg. - -The Abbot looked them over carefully. "I will take them all," said he. -"They will grace the walls of our library, and tend to preserve us -from evil." - -The young jeweler was very much pleased, and hurried home to tell his -wife what had happened. She was delighted. "Now thou art in a fair way -to grow rich," said she. - -But Gutenberg was by nature cautious. "We mustn't forget," he -answered, "that the steady income of a regular trade is safer to rely -on than occasional success in other lines." - -A few days later a young man named Andrew Dritzhn called at -Gutenberg's shop, and asked if he might come and learn the lapidary's -trade. Theretofore Gutenberg had had no assistants, but, on thinking -the matter over, he decided that if he had a good workman with him he -would have more time to study the art of printing. So he engaged -Dritzhn. Soon after this the new apprentice introduced two young -friends of his, who also begged for the chance to learn how to cut -gems and set them, and how to polish Venetian glass for mirrors and -frame them in carved and decorated copper frames. Gutenberg agreed and -these two others, named Hielman and Riffe, came to work with him. - -The shop was now very busy, with the three apprentices and the master -workman all occupied. But Gutenberg was anxious to keep his new -project secret, and so he fitted up the little back room as a shop, -and spent his evenings working there with Anna. - -On his next visit to the Cathedral he came home with a big package -under his arm. He unwrapped it, and showed Anna a large volume. "See," -said he, "this is the 'History of St. John the Evangelist.' The Abbot -gave it to me in return for some more copies of my St. Christopher. It -is written on vellum with a pen, and all the initial letters are -illuminated. There are sixty-three pages, and some patient monk has -spent months, aye, perhaps years, in making it. But I have a plan to -engrave it all, just as I did the picture." - -"Engrave a whole book! That would be a miracle!" - -"I believe I can do it. And when once the sixty-three blocks are cut, -a block to a page, I can print a score of the books as easily as one -copy." - -"Then thou canst sell books as well as the monks! And when the blocks -are done it may not take more than a day to make a book, instead of -months and years." - -So John Gutenburg set to work with new enthusiasm. He needed a very -quiet place in which to carry out his scheme, and more room than he -had at home. It is said he found such a place in the ruined cloisters -of the Monastery of St. Arbogast in the suburbs of Strasburg. Thither -he stole away whenever he could leave the shop, and not even Anna went -with him, nor even to her did he tell what he was doing. At last he -brought home the tools he had been making, and started to cut the -letters of the first pages of the "History of St. John." Night after -night he worked at it, until a great pile of engraved blocks was done. - -Then one evening there was a knock at the door of the living-room, and -before he could answer it the door was opened, and the two -apprentices, Dritzhn and Hielman, came in. They saw their master -bending over wooden blocks, a pile of tools, and the open pages of the -History. "What is this?" exclaimed Dritzhn. "Some new mystery?" - -"I cannot explain now," said the confused inventor. - -"But thou promised to teach us all thy arts for the money we pay -thee," objected Hielman, who was of an avaricious turn of mind. - -"No, only the trade of cutting gems and shaping mirrors." - -"We understood we paid thee for all thy teaching," objected the -apprentice. "'Tis only fair we should have our money's worth." - -Gutenberg thought a moment. "This work must be done in quiet," said -he, "and must be kept an absolute secret for a time. But I do need -money to carry it on rightly." - -This made Dritzhn more eager than ever to learn what the work was. "We -can keep thy secret," said he, "furnish funds, and perhaps help in the -business." - -Gutenberg had misgivings as to the wisdom of increasing his -confidants, but he finally decided to trust them. First he pledged -each to absolute secrecy. Then he produced his wooden cuts, and -explained in detail how he had made them. Both the apprentices showed -the greatest interest. "Being a draughtsman, I can help with the -figures," said Dritzhn. - -"Yes," agreed Gutenberg, "but just now I am chiefly busy in cutting -blocks for books." - -"Books!" exclaimed the apprentice. - -"Yes. I have found a new way of imprinting them." Then he showed them -what he was doing with the History. - -Dritzhn was amazed. "There should be a fortune in this!" said he. "But -will not this art do away with the old method of copying?" - -"In time it may," agreed the inventor. "That's one reason why we must -keep it secret. Otherwise the copyists might try to destroy what I -have done." - -As a result of this interview a contract was drawn up between -Gutenberg and his apprentices, according to the terms of which each -apprentice was to pay the inventor two hundred and fifty florins. The -work was to be kept absolutely secret, and in case any of the partners -should die during the term of the agreement the survivors should keep -the business entirely to themselves, on payment of one hundred florins -to the heirs of the deceased partner. Riffe, the third apprentice, was -admitted to the business, and after that the four took turns looking -after the jewelry shop and working over the blocks for the History. - -But the pupils were not so well educated as the master. They could not -read, and had to be taught how to draw the different letters. They -were clumsy in cutting the lines, and spoiled block after block. -Gutenberg was very patient with them. Again and again he would throw -away a spoiled block and show them how the letters should be cut -properly. - -In time the blocks were all finished. "Now I can help," said Anna. -"Thou must let me take the impressions." - -"So thou shalt," her husband answered. "To-night we will fold and cut -the paper into the right size for the pages, and grind the umber for -ink. To-morrow we will begin to print the leaves." - -The following day they all took turns making the impressions. Page -after page came out clear and true. Then Anna started to paste the -blank sides of the sheets together, for the pages were only printed -on one side. In a week a pile of the Histories was printed and bound, -and ready to be sold. - -The jewelers had little time to offer the books to the wealthy people -of the city, and so Gutenberg engaged a young student at the -Cathedral, Peter Schoeffer by name, to work for him. The first week -he sold two copies, and one other was sold from the shop. That made a -good beginning, but after that it was more difficult to find buyers, -and the firm began to grow doubtful of their venture. - -The poor people of Strasburg could not read, and could not have -afforded to buy the books in any event, the nobility were hard to -reach, and the clergy, who made up the reading class of the age, were -used to copying such manuscripts as they needed. But this situation -did not prevent Gutenberg from continuing with his work. He knew that -the young men who were studying at the Cathedral had to copy out word -for word the "Donatus," or manual of grammar they were required to -learn. So the firm set to work to cut blocks and print copies of this -book. When they were finished they sold more readily than the History -had done, and the edition of fifty copies was soon disposed of. But by -that time all the scholars of the city were supplied, and it was very -difficult to send the books to other cities. There were no newspapers, -and no means of advertising, and the only practical method of sale was -to show the book to possible purchasers, and point out its merits to -them. So Gutenberg turned to two other books that were used by the -monks, and printed them. One was called the "Ars Memorandi," or "Art -of Remembering," and the other the "Ars Moriendi," or "Art of Knowing -How to Die." - -Whenever he printed a new book Gutenberg took it to the Cathedral to -show the priests. He carried the "Ars Moriendi" there, and found the -Abbot in the library, looking over the manuscripts of several monks. - -"Good-morning, my son," said the Abbot. "Hast thou brought us more of -thy magical books?" - -"It is not magic, Father; it is simply patience that has done it," -said Gutenberg, handing the Abbot a copy of his latest book. - -"Thanks, my son. It is always a pleasure to examine thy manuscripts." - -The monks gathered around the Abbot to look at the new volume. "It is -strange," said one of them, named Father Melchior. "How canst thou -make so many books? Thou must have a great company of scribes." - -Another was turning over the pages of the book. "It is not quite like -the work of our hands," said he. - -"It is certain that none of us can compete with thy speed in writing," -went on Father Melchior. "Every few weeks thou dost bring in twelve or -more books, written in half the time it takes our quickest scribe to -make a single copy." - -"Moreover," said another, "the letters are all so exact and regular. -Thou hast brought two copies, and one has just as many letters and -words on a page as the other, and all the letters are exactly alike." - -The Abbot had been studying the book closely. Now he asked the monks -to withdraw. When Gutenberg and he were alone, he said, "Are these -books really made with a copyist's pen?" He cast a searching glance at -the lapidary. - -Gutenberg, much embarrassed, had no answer for him. - -"It is as I guessed," said the Abbot. "They are made from blocks, like -the St. Christopher." - -The Abbot smiled at the look of dismay on Gutenberg's face. "Have no -fear," he added. "It may be that I can supply thee with better work -for thy skill. We need more copies of the 'Biblia Pauperum' for our -use here, and I have no doubt thou couldst greatly improve on the best -we have." - -"I should like to do it," said Gutenberg, "if there were not too much -expense." - -"The priests will need many copies," the Abbot assured him. "And thou -shalt be well paid for them." - -So the young printer agreed to undertake this new commission. It meant -much to him to have secured the patronage of the Abbot, for this would -set a seal upon the excellence of his work, and bring him to the -notice of the wealthy and cultivated people of the day. - -Gutenberg took the Abbot's copy of the "Biblia" home, and he and the -apprentices started work upon the wooden blocks. There were many cuts -in the book which had to be copied, and so they engaged two wood -engravers who lived in Strasburg to help them. Even so, it took them -months to finish the book. But when it was printed and bound, and a -copy shown to the Abbot, he was delighted with it. "Thou hast done -nobly, my son," said he, "and thy labors will serve the interests of -our Mother Church. Thou shalt be well paid." - -Gutenberg returned home with the money, and showed it delightedly to -his wife. "I knew thou wouldst triumph," said she. "Only to think of a -real 'Biblia Pauperum' made by my John Gutenberg. We shall see -wonderful days!" - -Now fortune grew more favorable. The "Biblia" sold better than the -other books had done, and they next printed the Canticles, or -Solomon's Song. This was impressed, as the others had been, on only -one side of the page, and from engraved wooden blocks. Then Gutenberg -thought he would like to print the entire Bible. Anna favored this, -and he started to figure out how long the work would take. - -"There are seven hundred pages in the Bible," said he. "I cannot -engrave more than two pages a month working steadily, and at such a -rate it would take me fully three hundred and fifty months, or nearly -thirty years, to make blocks enough to print the Holy Book." - -"Why, thou wouldst be an old man before it was done!" cried his wife -in dismay. - -"Yes, and more than that, this process of engraving is dimming to the -eyes. I should be blind before my work was half done." - -"But couldst thou not divide the work with the others?" - -"Yes, if only I could persuade them to attempt so big a work. They -want to try smaller books, for they say my new process is hardly -better for making a large book than the old method of copying. It may -be that I can get them to print the Gospels gradually, one book at a -time." - -Though the workmen were now growing more weary and disheartened with -each new volume they undertook, Gutenberg would not give up. He -persuaded them to start cutting the blocks for the Gospel of St. -Matthew. But as he worked with his knives the apprentices grumbled -about him. At last he had the first block nearly done. Then his hand -slipped, the tool twisted, and the block was split across. - -The other men looked aghast. So much work had gone for nothing. - -Gutenberg sat studying the broken block of wood. As he studied it a -new idea came to him. Picking up his knife he split the wood, making -separate pieces of every letter carved on it. Then he stared at the -pile of little pieces that lay before him like a bundle of splinters. -He realized that he was now on the trail of a greater discovery than -any he had yet made, for these separate letters could be used over and -over again, not only in printing one book but in printing hundreds. - -Taking a fresh block he split it into little strips, and cutting these -down to the right size, he carved a letter on the end of each strip. -This was more difficult than cutting on the solid block, and he -spoiled many strips of wood before he got a letter that satisfied him. -But finally he had made one, and then another, and another, until he -had all the letters of the alphabet. He was careful to cut the sticks -of the proper width, so that the letters would not be too far apart -when they should be used for printing. When they were done he showed -them to the others and called them _stucke_, or type. They soon saw -what a great step forward he had made. - -The first words he printed with type were _Bonus homo_, "a good man." -He took the letters that spelled the first word, and putting them in -their proper order tied them together with a string. He only had one -letter o, so he had to stop and cut two more. Then he made a supply of -each letter of the alphabet, and put type of each letter separately in -little boxes, to keep them from getting mixed. So he made the first -font of movable type known to history. - -As he experimented with these first type he made another improvement. -He found it was hard to keep the letters tight together, so that he -could ink them and print from them. He cut little notches in the edges -of the different type, and by fastening his linen thread about the -notches in the outside letters of each word he found that he could -hold a word as tightly together as if all the letters in it were cut -on a single block. - -The cutting of the type and the studying out of new and better ways of -holding them together took a great deal of time, and meanwhile the -sales of gems and mirrors had fallen off. The apprentices had not the -master's skill in holding the letters together, and they grew -discouraged as time after time the type would separate as they were -ready to print from it. They wanted to go back to the blocks, but -Gutenberg insisted that his new way was the better. At last he hit -upon another idea. He would make a press which would hold the type -together better than a linen thread or a knot of wire. - -After many patient experiments he finished a small model of a press -which seemed to him to combine all the qualifications needed for his -work. He took this to a skilful turner in wood and metal, who examined -it carefully. "This is only a simple wine-press I am to make, Master -John," said he. - -"Yes," answered Gutenberg, "it is in effect a wine-press, but it shall -shortly spout forth floods of the most abundant and marvelous liquor -that has ever flowed to quench the thirst of man." - -The mechanic, paying no heed to Gutenberg's excitement, made the press -for him according to the model. It was set up in the printing-rooms of -Dritzhn's dwelling, and the firm went on with their work of cutting -movable type. But the sale of books was small, and for two years more -the apprentices grumbled, and protested that they should have stuck to -the lapidary's art. - -New troubles soon arose. It was found that the ink softened the type -and spoiled the form of the letters. "We must make more fresh type," -said Gutenberg, "until we can find a way to harden the wood." Then a -bill was sent in of one hundred florins for press-work. The partners -were angry, and said they saw no real advantage in the press. "But -without the frame and press all our labor of making _stucke_ will -prove useless," answered the inventor. "We must either give up the -art, and disband, or make the necessary improvements as they are -called for." - -Gutenberg was made of sterner stuff than his partner Dritzhn. Two -years of small success and great doubt had told upon the latter, and -so one day when Father Melchior of the Cathedral told him he noticed -that he was worried, Dritzhn confessed to him the secret of the -printing shop. "I have put money into the business," said he, "and if -I leave now I fear I shall lose it all." - -"Leave it by all means," advised the Father, "for be sure that no good -will come of these strange arts." - -But when he went back to the shop Dritzhn discovered the others -setting type for a new work, a dictionary, that was called a -"Catholicon." They were all enthusiastic about this, believing it -would have a readier sale than their other works, and so he decided to -stay with them a little longer, in spite of the Father's advice. - -Just as the dictionary was ready to be issued, in the autumn of 1439, -an event occurred which threw the firm into confusion. Dritzhn died -suddenly, and his two brothers demanded that Gutenberg should let them -take his place in the firm. He read over the contract which they had -all signed, and then told them that they could not be admitted as -partners, but should be paid the fifteen florins which the books -showed were due to Dritzhn's heirs. They rejected this with scorn, and -at once started a lawsuit against Gutenberg and his partners. - -There were no such protections for inventions as patents then; rumor -soon spread abroad the news that Gutenberg had discovered a new art -that would prove a gold-mine, and the poor inventor saw that the -lawsuit would probably end in his ruin. The printing-press had stood -in Dritzhn's house, and before Gutenberg could prevent it the two -brothers had stolen parts of it. Then he had what was left of it -carried to his own house; but even here spies swarmed to try to learn -something of his secret. Finally he realized that his invention was -not safe even there, and decided that every vestige of his work must -be destroyed. "Take the _stucke_ from the forms," said he to his -friends, "and break them up in my sight, that none of them may remain -perfect." - -"What, all our labor for the last three years!" cried Hielman. - -"Never mind," answered Gutenberg. "Break them up, or some one will -steal our art, and we shall be ruined." - -So, taking hammers and mallets, they broke the precious forms of type -into thousands of fragments. - -The lawsuit dragged along, and finally ended in Gutenberg's favor. The -firm was ordered to pay Dritzhn's brothers the fifteen florins, and -nothing more. But the type were destroyed, and the partners were -afraid to make new ones, lest the suspicious public should spy upon -them and learn their secret. When the term of the contract between the -partners came to an end it was not renewed. Each of the firm went his -own way, and John Gutenberg opened his lapidary's shop again and tried -to build up the trade he had lost. - -His wife was still Gutenberg's chief encouragement. She was certain -that some day he would win success, and often in the evening she would -urge him not to despair of his invention, but to wait till the time -should be ripe for him to go on with it again. As a matter of fact it -was impossible for him to give it up. Before long he was cutting -_stucke_ again in his spare hours, and then trying his hand at -printing single pages. - -He felt however that it would be impossible for him to resume his -presswork in Strasburg. There was too much prejudice against his -invention there. So he decided to go back to his home town of Mainz, -where many of his family were living. Anna agreed with this decision, -and so they closed their shop, sold their goods, and journeyed to his -brother's home. There one day his brother introduced him to a rich -goldsmith named Faust, and this man said he understood that Gutenberg -had invented a new way of making books. John admitted this, and told -him some details of his process. - -The goldsmith was most enthusiastic, and suggested that he might be -able to help the inventor with money. Gutenberg said he should need -two or three thousand florins. "I will give it to thee," answered -Faust, "if thou canst convince me that it will pay better than -goldsmithing." - -Then the printer confided all his secrets to Faust, and the latter -considered them with great care. At last he was satisfied, and told -Gutenberg that he would enter into partnership with him. "But where -shall we start the work?" he added. "Secrecy is absolutely necessary. -We must live in the house in which we work." - -"I had thought of the Zum Jungen," answered Gutenberg, naming an old -house that overlooked the Rhine. - -"The very place," agreed Faust. "It is almost a palace in size, and -will give us ample room; it is in the city, and yet out of its bustle. -It is vacant now, and I will rent it at once. When canst thou move -there?" - -"At once," said Gutenberg, more pleased than he dared show. - -So the printer and his good wife moved to the Zum Jungen, which was -more like a castle than a tradesman's dwelling-house. Its windows -looked over the broad, beautiful river to the wooded shores beyond. -Faust advanced Gutenberg the sum of 2,020 florins, taking a mortgage -on his printing materials as security. Then Faust moved his family and -servants to the old house, and the firm started work. Hanau, the valet -of Gutenberg's father, and a young scholar named Martin Duttlinger, -joined them at the outset. - -Two well-lighted rooms on the second floor, so placed as to be -inaccessible to visitors, were chosen for the workshops. Here the four -worked from early morning until nearly midnight, cutting out new sets -of type and preparing them for the presswork. They began by printing a -new manual of grammar, an "Absies," or alphabetical table, and the -"Doctrinale." All three of these it was thought would be of use to all -who could read. - -Soon Faust discovered the same defect in the type that the workmen at -Strasburg had discovered. The wooden letters would soften when used, -and soon lose their shape. He spoke to Gutenberg about it, and the -latter studied the problem. At length an idea occurred to him. He -opened a drawer and took out a bit of metal. He cut a letter on the -end of it. "There is the answer," said he. "We will make our type of -lead. We can cut it, and ink cannot soften it as it does wood." - -Faust was very much pleased. Now that he understood Gutenberg's -invention he realized how great a thing it was destined to become, and -was anxious to help its progress in every way he could. One day -Gutenberg told him that they needed a good man to cut the designs for -the engravings. "Dost thou know of one?" asked Faust. "Of only one," -was the answer. "He is Peter Schoeffer, a youth who helped me -before. He is now a teacher of penmanship in Paris." - -"We must send for him," said Faust. - -So Gutenberg sent for Schoeffer, and the printing staff was -increased to five. - -Schoeffer had considerable reputation as a scholar, and soon after -he had joined them Gutenberg asked him what he thought was the most -important book in the world. Schoeffer replied that he was not -sufficiently learned to answer the question. - -"But to the best of thy knowledge," persisted Gutenberg. - -"I remember that when I was in the Cathedral school," said -Schoeffer, "Father Melchior showed us the Gothic Gospels, or Silver -Book, and said that more art and expense had been spent on the Bible -than on any other book he knew. I believe therefore that it is the -most useful and important book in the world." - -"So I believe," agreed Gutenberg, "and I intend to print it in the -best style possible to my art." - -"But what a tremendous undertaking, to print the whole Bible!" -exclaimed Schoeffer. - -"Yes, a stupendous work," Gutenberg agreed. "And so I want to start -upon it at once." - -Schoeffer was amazed when Gutenberg showed him the new press he had -built at the Zum Jungen. He watched the master dab the type with ink, -slide them under the platen, and having pressed it down, take out the -printed page. - -"It is wonderful!" said he. "How many impressions canst thou take from -the press in a day?" - -"About three hundred, working steadily." - -"Then books will indeed multiply! What would the plodding copyists say -to this!" - -When they began printing with the lead type they soon found that the -metal was too soft. The nicest skill had to be used in turning the -screw of the press, and only Gutenberg seemed able to succeed with it. -Schoeffer suggested that they should try iron. - -"We have," said Gutenberg, "but it pierced the paper so that it could -not be used." - -Schoeffer was used to experimenting in metals, and the next day he -brought to the workroom an alloy which he thought might serve. It was -a mixture of regulus of antimony and lead. They tried it, and found it -was precisely the right substance for their use. Gutenberg and Faust -were both delighted, and very soon afterward made Peter Schoeffer a -partner in the firm. - -They now started on the great work of printing the Bible. Duttlinger -was commissioned to buy a Bible to serve for his own use. This was -brought in secret to the workrooms, and the partners inspected it -carefully. They realized what a huge undertaking it would be to print -such a long book, but nevertheless they set out to do it. Each man was -allotted his share in the labor, and the work began. - -The press Gutenberg was using was a very simple affair. Two upright -posts were fastened together by crosspieces at top and bottom. In this -frame a big iron screw was worked by means of a handle. A board was -fastened beneath the screw, and the type, when inked and set in a -wooden frame, were placed on this board. The printing paper was laid -over the type, and the screw forced the platen, which was the board -fixed to it, down upon the paper. Then the screw was raised by the -handle, the platen was lifted with it, and the printed paper was ready -to be taken out. The screw was worked up and down in a box, called a -hose, and the board on which the type were set for the printing was -actually a sort of sliding table. The frame or chase of type was fixed -on this table, and when inked and with the paper laid in place, was -slid under the platen, which was a smooth planed board. The screw was -turned down, the platen was pressed against the sheet of paper, and -the printing was done. - -Each of the workers at the Zum Jungen suggested valuable changes and -additions. Schoeffer proved wonderfully adept at cutting type, and -later at illuminating the initial letters that were needed. The copies -we have of the books published by this first Mainz press bear -striking witness to the rare skill and taste Peter Schoeffer showed -in designing and coloring the large capital letters that were -considered essential at that day. - -The firm had by now prepared several hundred pounds' weight of metal -type for the Bible, had discovered that a mixture of linseed oil and -lampblack made the best ink, and had invented ink-dabbers made of skin -stuffed with wool. Then it occurred to Schoeffer that there must be -some easier way of making type than by cutting it out by hand. After -some study he found it, and the firm began taking casts of type in -plaster moulds. But the success of this method seemed very doubtful at -first, for it was hard to get a good impression of such small things -as type in the soft plaster. Again Schoeffer showed his skill. He -planned the cutting of punches which would stamp the outline of the -type upon the matrix. He cut matrices for the whole alphabet, and then -showed the letters cast from them to Gutenberg and Faust. - -"Are these letters cast in moulds?" exclaimed the astonished Faust. - -"Yes," answered Schoeffer. - -"This is the greatest of all thy inventions then," said Faust. "Thou -art beyond all question a great genius!" - -With type cast in this new way the firm printed the first page of -their Bible in the spring of 1450. The press worked to perfection, and -when they removed the vellum sheet the printed letters were clear, -beautifully formed, and ranged in perfect lines. So began the -printing of what was to become famous as the Mazarine Bible. But it -was not until five years later, in 1455, that the book was finished. - -The Bible was printed, but its cost had been great, and the returns -from its sale were small. Faust was dissatisfied with Gutenberg, and -took occasion to tell Schoeffer one evening that he believed the -firm would do better without the master. "Thou hast devised the ink, -the forms for casting type, and the mixture of metals," he said. -"These are almost all that has been invented. Gutenberg spent 4,000 -florins before the Bible was half done, and I do not see how he can -ever repay me the sums I have advanced." - -Faust played upon young Schoeffer's vanity, he praised him -continually and disparaged Gutenberg, and finally persuaded him they -would be better off without the latter. Peter Schoeffer was, -moreover, in love with Faust's daughter Christiane, and wished to -marry her. This was another inducement for him to side with the rich -goldsmith. - -Then one day Faust asked Gutenberg blankly when he intended to repay -him the money he had advanced. Gutenberg was surprised, and told him -he had nothing but the small profits the firm was making. - -"I will give thee thirty days to pay the debt," said Faust, "and if -thou dost fail to pay within that time I shall take steps to collect -it." - -"But how am I to procure it? Wouldst thou ruin me?" cried Gutenberg. - -"The money I must have, and if thou art honest thou wilt pay me," came -the hard answer. - -The month ended, and Gutenberg had not found the money. He protested -and pleaded with Faust, but the latter was obdurate. He started a -lawsuit at once to recover the sums he had expended, and judgment was -given against Gutenberg, commanding that he should pay what he had -borrowed, together with interest. Gutenberg could not do this, and so -Faust took possession of all the presses, the type, and the copies of -the Bible that were already printed. - -Gutenberg knew that he was ruined. His wife tried to console him. "I -am worse than penniless," said he. "My noble art is at an end. What I -most feared has happened. They have stolen my invention, and I have -nothing left." - -Meantime Schoeffer had married Faust's daughter, and the two men -took up the printing business for themselves. Faust showed the Bibles -to friends, and was advised to carry a supply of them to Paris. He -went to that city, and at first met with great success. He sold the -King a copy for seven hundred and fifty crowns, and private citizens -copies at smaller prices. But soon word spread abroad that this -stranger's stock was inexhaustible. "The more he sells the more he has -for sale," said one priest. Then some one started the report that the -stranger was in league with the devil, and soon a mob had broken into -his lodgings and found his stock of Bibles. Faust was arrested on the -charge of dealing in the black art, and was brought before the court. -He now decided that he would have to tell of the printing press if he -were to escape, and so he made a full confession. So great was the -wonder and admiration at the announcement of this new invention that -he was at once released, loaded with honors, and soon after returned -to Mainz with large profits from his trip. - -But Gutenberg was not entirely left to despair. His brother Friele, -who was well-to-do, came to his aid, and interested friends in -starting John at work on his presses again. He missed Schoeffer's -discoveries as to ink and the casts for type, but although he had not -the means to print another copy of the Bible, he contrived to print -various other books which were bought by the clerical schools and the -monasteries. After a time Faust, realizing perhaps that Gutenberg was -in reality the inventor of the art which he was beginning to find so -lucrative, came to him, and asked his forgiveness. He admitted that he -had been unfair in the prosecution of the lawsuit, and urged Gutenberg -to take his old place in their firm. But Gutenberg could not be -persuaded, he preferred to work after his own fashion, and to be -responsible only to himself. - -For eight years he carried on the business of his new printing shop in -the Zum Jungen, with his brother and Conrad Humery, Syndic of Mainz, -to share the expenses and profits. Then his wife, Anna, died, and he -could not keep on with the work. His brother advised him to leave -Mainz for a time and travel. So he sold his presses and type to the -Syndic, and left Mainz. Wherever he journeyed he was received with -honor, for it was now widely known that he had invented the new art of -printing. The Elector Adolphus of Nassau invited him to enter his -service as one of his gentlemen pensioners, and paid him a generous -salary. Thus he was able to live in peace and comfort until his death -in 1468. - -Meanwhile Faust and Schoeffer had continued to print the Bible and -other works, and had found a prosperous market in France and the -German cities. Schoeffer cast a font of Greek type, and used this in -printing a copy of Cicero's "De Officiis," which was eagerly bought by -the professors and students of the great University of Paris. But as -Faust was disposing of the last copies of this book in the French -capital he was seized with the plague, and died almost immediately. -For thirty-six years Peter Schoeffer continued printing books, -making many improvements, and bringing out better and better editions -of the Bible. - -The capture of Mainz in 1462 by the Elector Adolphus of Nassau gave -the secrets of the printing press to the civilized world. Presses were -set up in Hamburg, Cologne, Strasburg, and Augsburg, two of Faust's -former workmen began printing in Paris, and the Italian cities of -Florence and Venice eagerly took up the new work. Between 1470 and -1480 twelve hundred and ninety-seven books were printed in Italy -alone, an indication of what men thought of the value of Gutenberg's -invention. - -William Caxton, an English merchant, learned the new art while he was -traveling in Germany, and when he returned home started a press at -Westminster with a partner named Wynken de Worde. This was the first -English press, but others were quickly set up at Oxford and York, -Canterbury, Worcester, and Norwich, and books began to appear in a -steady stream. - -The art of printing has seen great changes since Gutenberg's day. The -type is now made by machinery, inked by machinery, set and distributed -again by machinery. The letters, when once set up, are cast in plates -of entire pages, so that they can be kept for use whenever they are -wanted. Stereotyping and electrotyping have made this possible. The -Mergenthaler Linotype machine sets and casts type in the form of solid -lines. The great presses of to-day can accomplish more in twelve hours -than the presses of 1480 in as many months. - -But the great press we have is the direct descendant of the little one -that John Gutenberg built in the Zum Jungen at Mainz, and the letters -we read on the printed page are after all only another form of those -he cut out with so much patient labor on his wooden blocks in -Strasburg. Printing is one of the greatest inventions the world has -ever seen, but it had its beginning in the simple fact that a young -German polisher of gems fell to wondering how a rude playing-card had -been made. - - - - -II - -PALISSY AND HIS ENAMEL - -About 1510-1589 - - -The discovery of a long-sought enamel and the successful manufacture -of a new and beautiful type of pottery can scarcely be ranked among -the great inventions of history, but the story of Bernard Palissy is -far too interesting to need any such excuse. He was a worker in the -fine arts, in a day when objects of beauty were considered of the -first importance, and his success was then regarded as almost as great -a thing as the building of the first McCormick reaper in another age. - -This maker of a new and beautiful porcelain was a Frenchman, born -about 1510 at the little village of La Chapelle Biron, which lies -between the Lot and Dordogne, in Perigord. His parents were poor -peasants, without the means or the opportunity to give Bernard much of -a schooling, but he picked up a very fair knowledge of reading and -writing, and kept his eyes so wide open that he learned much more than -the average country boy. It was the age when the churches of France -were being made glorious with windows of many-colored glass, and -Bernard, watching the glass-workers, dared to ask if they would take -him as apprentice. One of them would, and so the boy of Perigord began -his career of artist, his field covering not only the manufacture of -glass, but its cutting, arranging, and sometimes its painting for the -rose-windows of the Gothic churches. And so skilled were those -glass-workers and so deeply in love with their art that their glass -has been the despair of the later centuries that have tried to copy -them. - -Like a true artist he was very much in earnest. With his spare time -and such money as he could save he studied all subjects that seemed -apt to be of help to him. He learned geometry, and drawing, painting, -and modeling. In his desire for the greatest subjects for his windows -and the finest treatment of them, Bernard turned to Italy, the home of -the great painters, and copied their works. This led his eager mind to -delve into Italian literature, and shortly the young workman was not -only draughtsman and artist, but something of a man of letters as -well. The little village of La Chapelle Biron found that the peasant's -son, without any education in the church schools, was already a man of -many talents and quite remarkable learning. - -He had mastered his profession, and the town in Perigord was somewhat -too small for him. He must see something of that outer world where -many others were making works of art. His skill as a painter of glass, -as a draughtsman, and land-measurer, would earn him a living wherever -he might go. So he set forth on his travels, as many young scholars -and artisans were used to do in those days, working here and there, -collecting new ideas, talking with many men of different minds, and -gaining a first-hand knowledge of the world that lay about him. He -visited the chief provinces of France, saw something of Burgundy and -Flanders, and stayed for a time on the banks of the Rhine. His love of -acquiring knowledge grew as he traveled, and he studied natural -history, geology and chemistry. Where churches were being built he -painted glass, where towns or nobles needed measurers or surveyors of -their lands he worked for them. When he had seen as much of the world -as he wished, he went to the town of Saintes, married, and settled -there as a man of several trades. - -It was in 1539 that Palissy became a citizen of Saintes, and several -years later that chance sent his way a beautiful cup of enameled -pottery. Some have said that the cup came from Italy, and some from -Nuremberg, but it was of a new pattern to Palissy, and the more he -looked at it and handled it the more he wanted to learn the secret of -its making, and duplicate it or improve on it. He had the artist's -wish to create something beautiful, and with it was the belief that he -could provide well for his wife and children, and raise the potter's -art to a new height if he could learn the secret of this enamel. That -thought became his lodestone, and he left all his other work to -accomplish it. Much as he knew about glass, he knew nothing about -enamel. He had no notion of the materials he should need, nor how he -was to combine them. He started to make earthen vessels without -knowing how other men had made them. He knew that he should need a -furnace, and so he built one, although he had never seen a furnace -fired. - -The attempt seemed foolhardy from the start. What he had saved he -spent in his attempts to find the right materials. Soon his savings -were gone, and he had to look about for a new means of living. A -survey and plan of the great salt-marshes of Saintonge was wanted in -1543, and Palissy obtained the work. He finished it, was paid the -stipulated sum, and immediately spent it in fresh experiments to find -the coveted enamel. But he could not find it. One experiment after -another ended in rebuff. He labored day and night, and the result of -all his labors was the same. But the desire to find that enamel had -possessed Palissy's mind, and it was not a mind to veer or change. - -The man was beset by friends who told him he was mad to continue the -chase, and that his undoubted talents in other lines were being -wasted. He was implored, reproached, and belabored by his wife, who -begged him to leave his furnace, and turn to work that would feed and -clothe his growing family. He might well have seemed a fanatic, he -might well have seemed distraught and cruel to his family, but he met -each protest with a simple frankness that disarmed all attacks and -showed his indomitable purpose. Those were days of intense suffering -for Palissy, and later he described them in his own writings in a way -that showed his real depth of feeling and his constant struggle -against what he held to be temptations. - -He borrowed money to build a new furnace, and when this was done he -lived by it, trying one combination of materials after another in his -search for the secret of the enamel. Those were superstitious days, -and some of his more ignorant neighbors thought that Bernard Palissy -must be in league with the devil, since he spent day and night feeding -fuel to his furnace, and sending a great volume of smoke and sparks -into the air. Some said he was an alchemist trying to turn base metals -into gold, some that he was discovering new poisons, some frankly -believed that his learning had turned his mind and made him mad. They -were all certain of one thing, and that was that his great fires were -providing very ill for his family, who became in time a charge on the -town's charity. - -For sixteen years Palissy experimented. For sixteen years he had to -resist the reproaches of wife and children, and the threats of -neighbors. That was an epic struggle, well worth the recording. We can -picture the little mediæval town, surrounded by its salt marshes, the -prosperous burghers, and the strange man, Bernard Palissy, at whom all -others scoffed, whose children played in the streets in rags and -tatters, but who, himself, was always working at his furnace with -demoniac zeal. "Too much learning," says one burgher, shaking his -head. "What business had a simple glass-worker to study those texts -out of Italy?" "Seeking for more learning than other folk have is apt -to league one with the Evil One," says number two. "Bernard has sold -his soul. He will fall in his furnace some day, and go up in smoke." -"Nay," says the third burgher, "he will live forever, to bring shame -to our town of Saintes. He is like one of those plagues the priests -tell us of." And he crosses himself devoutly. - -[Illustration: PALISSY, THE POTTER, AFTER AN UNSUCCESSFUL -EXPERIMENT] - -But Palissy cared for nothing but to learn that secret. At first he -had had a workman to help him; now he let him go. He had no money to -pay him, and so gave him all his clothes except those he had on. He -knew his family were starving, and he dared not go out into the -streets for fear of the maledictions of his neighbors. But he fed that -furnace and he melted his different compositions. When he could get no -other fuel he turned to the scant furnishings of his house. He burned -his bed and chairs, his table, and everything that was made of wood. -He felt that he was now on the verge of his discovery; but he must -have more fire. He tore strips of board from the walls, and piled them -in the furnace. Still he needed more heat, and ran out into the yard -behind his dwelling. There were sticks that supported vines, and a -fence that ran between his land and the next. He took the wood of the -fence, the sticks of the vines, and hurried back with them to the -furnace. He threw them on the blaze, he bent over his composition, and -he found the secret answered for him. After sixteen years he learned -how to make that rare enamel. - -It was a glorious achievement, and it brought Palissy fame and -fortune. With his new knowledge he had soon fashioned pottery, -decorated with rustic scenes, and exquisitely enameled, that all -lovers of works of art desired at any price. The first pieces of his -rustic pottery soon reached the court of France, and Henry II and his -nobles ordered vases and figures from him to ornament the gardens of -their châteaux. Catherine de' Medici became his patron, and the -powerful Constable de Montmorenci sent to Saintes for Palissy to -decorate his château at Ecouen. Fragments of this work have been -preserved, exquisite painted tiles, and also painted glass, setting -forth the story of Psyche, which Palissy prepared for the château. - -The people of Saintes now found that their madman, instead of bringing -obloquy upon their town, was to bring it fame. The Reformation had -made many Protestants in that part of France, and Palissy was one of -them. But when the Parliament of Bordeaux, in 1562, ordered the -execution of the edict of 1559, that had been directed against the -Protestants, the Catholic Duke of Montpensier gave him a special -safeguard, and ordered that his porcelain factory should be exempted -from the general proscription. Party feeling ran very high, however, -and in spite of the Duke's safeguard Palissy was arrested, his -workshop ordered destroyed by the judges at Saintes, and the King -himself had to send a special messenger to the town and claim that -Palissy was his own servant, in order to save his life. The royal -family, in spite of their many faults, were sincere lovers of -beautiful workmanship, and they summoned Palissy to Paris, where they -could insure his safety. Catherine de' Medici gave him a site for his -workshop on a part of the ground where the Palace of the Tuilleries -stood later, and used often to visit him and talk with him about his -art. He made the finest pieces of his porcelain here in Paris. Here he -also resumed his earlier studies, and came to lecture on natural -history and physics to all the great scholars of the day. When the -massacre of St. Bartholomew's Eve deluged France with the blood of -Protestants Catherine saw that Palissy was spared from the general -destruction. - -Palissy had shown the inborn courage of his nature during those -sixteen lean years in Saintes. The perilous ups and downs of life in -sixteenth century France were to show that courage in another light. -In spite of royal favor the Catholic League reached for him, and in -1588, when he was nearly eighty years old, he was arrested by order of -the Sixteen, thrown into the Bastille, and threatened with death. -Henry III, son of Catherine, and in his own way a friend of artists, -went to see Palissy in prison. "My good friend," said the King, "you -have now been five and forty years in the service of my mother and -myself; we have allowed you to retain your religion in the midst of -fire and slaughter. Now I am so pressed by the Guises and my own -people that _I am constrained_ to deliver you up into the hands of -your enemies, and to-morrow you will be burned unless you are -converted." - -"Sire," answered the old man, "I am ready to resign my life for the -glory of God. You have told me several times that you pity me, and I, -in my turn, pity you, who have used the words _I am constrained_. It -was not spoken like a king, sire; and these are words which neither -you nor those who constrain you, the Guisards and all your people, -will ever be able to make me utter, for I know how to die." - -The King, however, admiring Palissy's talents, and remembering his -mother's fondness for the artist, would not give him up to the party -of the League. Instead he let him remain in his dungeon in the -Bastille, where he died in 1589. - -The maker of Palissy ware, as it is called, had many talents, and -among them was that of the writer. During his days in prison he busied -himself in penning his philosophic, religious, and artistic -meditations, as many other illustrious prisoners have done. His -autobiography is curious, and its note of sincerity has given it great -value as a human document. Says Lamartine of the writings of Palissy, -they are "real treasures of human wisdom, divine piety, and eminent -genius, as well as of great simplicity, vigor, and copiousness of -style. It is impossible, after reading them, not to consider the poor -potter one of the greatest writers of the French language. Montaigne -is not more free and flowing, Jean-Jacques Rousseau is scarcely more -graphic; neither does Bossuet excel him in poetical power." - -But Palissy did not explain his art of enamel in detail in any of his -writings, and after the death of his brothers or nephews, who -succeeded to his work, the secret of Palissy ware, like that of -certain other arts of the Renaissance, was lost. - -Palissy did not decorate his porcelain with flat painting. His -figures, which usually dealt with historical, mythological, or -allegorical subjects, were executed in relief, and colored. These -colors were bright, and were generally yellows, blues, and grays, -although sometimes he used greens, violets, and browns. He never -acquired the pure white enamel of Luca della Robbia, nor that of the -faience of Nevers. His enamel is hard, but the glaze is not so fine -as that of Delft. The back of his ware is never all the same color, -but usually mottled with several colors, often yellow, blue, and -brown. - -Palissy's studies in natural history helped him when he came to -decorate his pottery. The figures are strikingly true in form and -color, and seem to have been moulded directly from nature, as they -probably were. Thus the fossil shells which he frequently used in his -border decorations are the shells found in the Paris basin, his fish -are those of the Seine, his plants, usually the watercress, the hart's -tongue, and the maidenhair fern, are those which he found in the -country about Paris. His rustic scenes have that same charm of -fidelity to nature. - -He also made very beautiful tiles to overlay walls, stoves, and -floors. The château at Ecouen has a large room entirely paved with -them, and many are to be seen in the chapel. They bear heraldic -designs, the devices of the Constable de Montmorenci, and the colors -are fresh and bright, due to the artist's unique method of enameling. - -Like so many Renaissance artists Palissy tried his skill in many -lines. If his most remarkable work was his "rustic pieces," as they -are called, great dishes ornamented with fishes, reptiles, frogs, -shells, and plants in relief, intended to be used as ornaments and not -for service, scarcely less interesting were his statuettes, his stands -for fountains, his "rustic figures" for gardens, his candlesticks, -ewers and basins, saltcellars, ink-stands, and baskets. Large -collections of his work are to be found in the Louvre, the Hôtel de -Cluny, and at Sèvres. Many pieces have strayed into the hands of great -private collectors of rare porcelain, and both England and Russia have -many fine examples of his masterpieces. - -He had two assistants, either brothers or nephews, and they knew the -secret of his process. They had worked with him, and they continued -his art into the reign of Henry IV. One of their productions shows -that king surrounded by his family. But these successors had not the -artistic instinct or touch of the master. They had little originality, -and speedily became servile copyists, so that Palissy ware for a time -lost the high place it had held. But these successors did not hand on -the secret, and when no more of the ware was forthcoming good judges -of the potter's art found it easy to distinguish between the work of -Bernard and of his followers, and his own porcelain was again -enthroned among the greatest productions of French art. Connoisseurs -of to-day find it easy to know real Palissy ware. - -Such is the story of a great artist of the Renaissance in France, of a -man born with the love of beauty, who found a new way of giving the -world delight, and who overcame what seemed almost superhuman trials. - - - - -III - -GALILEO AND THE TELESCOPE - -1564-1642 - - -Three days before the death of the great Italian Michael Angelo, in -the year 1564, there was born in Pisa a boy who was given the name of -Galileo Galilei, and who was destined to become one of the greatest -philosophers and inventors the world has ever known. He came of a -noble family of Florence, which had originally borne the name of -Bonajuti, but had later changed it to that of Galilei, and he is -usually known by his baptismal name of Galileo, according to the -Italian custom of that age. His father was a merchant, engaged in -business in Pisa, a man well versed in the Latin and Greek tongues, -and well known for his knowledge of mathematics. He was anxious that -each of his three sons should have a good education, and so he sent -Galileo, his eldest boy, to the famous monastery of Vallombrosa, -situated in a beautiful wooded valley not far from Florence. But the -father did not intend his son to become a priest, and so, when he -found his thoughts tending in that direction, he took him away from -the monastery, planning to make him a merchant like himself. - -But the mind of the young Galileo was already remarkably acute. He was -a good musician, a skilful draughtsman and painter, something of a -poet, and had shown considerable talent in designing and building a -variety of toy machines. His father soon decided that his son's bent -did not lie in the direction of a dealer in cloths, and, casting about -for a scientific career, chose that of medicine for Galileo. So he -took up this study at the University of Pisa. - -One afternoon the youth of eighteen went to the great Cathedral of the -city. He knelt to make his devotions. From the roof of the nave hung a -large bronze lamp, and as the boy watched he saw an attendant draw the -lamp toward him to light it, and then let it swing back again. The -swinging caught his attention, and he watched it with more and more -interest. At first the arc of the swinging lamp was wide, but -gradually it grew less and less. But what struck him as singular was -that the oscillations all seemed to be made in the same time. He had -no watch, so he put his fingers on his wrist in order to note the -pulse-beats. As nearly as he could determine the swings of the lamp as -they lessened were keeping the same times. - -When he went home he began to experiment with this idea of the -swinging lamp, or pendulum as it came to be called, and soon had -constructed an instrument which marked with very fair accuracy the -rate and variation of the pulse-beats. It was imperfect in many -respects, but when he showed it to his teachers at the university they -were delighted with it, and it was soon generally used by the -physicians of the day under the name of the Pulsilogia. - -But, to his father's dismay, the young Galileo did not show great -interest in the study of medicine. Instead he spent his time studying -the mathematics of Euclid, and from them went on to the writings of -Archimedes and the laws of mechanics. These latter absorbed him, and -fresh from reading them he constructed for himself a hydrostatic -balance, the purpose of which was to ascertain accurately the relative -proportions of any two metals in an alloy. He wrote an essay on his -invention, and circulated it among his friends and teachers. This -added to his reputation as a scientist, but brought him no money. His -family were poor, and he needed a means of support, and so he applied -for, and after a time obtained, appointment to the post of Professor -of Mathematics at the University of Pisa. - -For centuries the laws of mechanics as laid down by the Greek -Aristotle had been accepted without much dispute by the civilized -world. But a spirit of new thought and investigation was now rising in -Europe, and more especially in Italy. Galileo determined to study the -laws of mechanics by experiment, and not, as so many earlier -scientists had done, by argument or mere theoretical opinions. -Therefore he undertook to establish definitely the laws relating to -falling bodies. - -Aristotle, almost two thousand years before, had announced that if two -bodies of different weights were dropped from the same height the -heavier would reach the ground sooner than the lighter, according to -the proportion of their weights. Galileo doubted this, and decided to -try it. Accordingly he assembled the teachers and students of the -university one morning about the base of the famous Leaning Tower of -Pisa. He himself climbed to the top, carrying with him a ten-pound -shot and a one-pound shot. He balanced them on the edge of the tower -and let them fall together. They struck the ground together. As a -result of this experiment Galileo declared three laws in relation to -falling bodies. He said that if one neglected the resistance of the -air, or in other words supposed the bodies to fall through a vacuum, -it would be found, first, that all bodies fall from the same height in -equal times; second, that in falling the final velocities are -proportional to the times; and third, that the spaces fallen through -are proportional to the squares of the times. - -The first of these laws was shown by his experiment on the Leaning -Tower. To show the others he built a straight inclined plane with a -groove down its centre. A bronze ball was free to move in the groove -with the least possible friction. By means of this he showed that no -matter how much he inclined the plane, and so changed the time, the -ball would always move down it according to the laws he had stated. - -But in disproving the accuracy of the old laws of Aristotle the young -scientist had raised a hornet's nest about his ears. The men of the -old school would not believe him, a conspiracy was set on foot against -him, and finally the criticism of his new teachings grew so severe -that he was forced to resign his position, and move to Florence. - -In spite of his wide-spread reputation no school or university was -ready to welcome the young scientist. He was known as a man of a very -original turn of mind, and therefore one who would be apt to clash -with those who clung to their belief in the old order of thought. At -last, however, he succeeded in obtaining the chair of Professor of -Mathematics at the University of Padua, then one of the greatest seats -of learning in Italy. Here again he showed the great scope of his -knowledge, and wrote on military architecture and fortifications, the -laws of motion, of the sphere, and various branches of mechanics. He -invented a machine for raising water, and was granted a patent which -secured him his rights in it for twenty years, and he also produced -what he called his Geometrical and Military Compass, but what was -later commonly known as the Sector. - -Galileo's fame as a teacher had now spread widely throughout Europe, -and students began to flock to Padua to study under him. He had a -large house, where a number of his private pupils lived with him, a -garden, in which he delighted, and a workshop. Here he experimented on -his next invention, that of the air thermometer. One of his friends, -Castelli, wrote of this in a letter many years later, dated 1638. "I -remember," he writes, "an experiment which our Signor Galileo had -shown me more than thirty-five years ago. He took a small glass bottle -about the size of a hen's egg, the neck of which was two palms long, -and as narrow as a straw. Having well heated the bulb in his hand, he -inserted its mouth in a vessel containing a little water, and, -withdrawing the heat of his hand from the bulb, instantly the water -rose in the neck more than a palm above its level in the vessel. It -is thus that he constructed an instrument for measuring the degrees of -heat and cold." - -In 1604 the attention of all the astronomers of Europe was attracted -by a new star which suddenly appeared in the constellation -Serpentarius. Galileo studied it, and shortly began to lecture on the -comparatively new science of astronomy. Formerly he had taught the old -system of Aristotle to his classes, now, after a searching -investigation, he declared his belief in the contrary conclusions of -Copernicus. This study led him on and on. He became interested in the -magnetic needle, and its use as a compass in navigation. Columbus' -discovery of its changing its position according to its relation to -the North Pole took place on his first voyage to America, and reports -of this had reached Padua. All educated men were rousing to the fact -that the age was fertile with new discoveries in every branch of -knowledge, and Galileo and those who were working with him gave eager -heed to each month's batch of news. - -Mere chance is said to have brought about the making of the first -telescope. The story goes that an apprentice of Hans Lipperhey, an -optician of Middleburg, in Holland, was, one day in October, 1608, -playing with some spectacle lenses in his master's shop. He noticed -that by holding two of the lenses in a certain position he obtained a -large and inverted view of whatever he looked at. He told Master Hans -about this, and the optician fixed two lenses in a tube, and looking -at the weathercock on a neighboring steeple saw that it seemed much -nearer and to be upside down. He hung the tube in his shop as a -curious toy, and one day the Marquis Spinola examined it and bought it -to present to Prince Maurice of Nassau. Soon a number of Hans -Lipperhey's scientific neighbors were trying to make copies of his -tube, and before very long reports of it were carried to Italy. The -news reached Galileo while on a visit to Venice in June, 1609. This is -his account of what followed, taken from a letter written to his -brother-in-law Landucci, and dated August 29, 1609. - -[Illustration: GALILEO'S TELESCOPE] - -"You must know then that about two months ago a report was spread here -that in Flanders a spy-glass had been presented to Prince Maurice, so -ingeniously constructed that it made the most distant objects appear -quite near, so that a man could be seen quite plainly at a distance of -two miles. This result seemed to me so extraordinary that it set me -thinking, and as it appeared to me that it depended upon the laws of -perspective, I reflected on the manner of constructing it, and was at -length so entirely successful that I made a spy-glass which far -surpasses the report of the Flanders one. As the news had reached -Venice that I had made such an instrument, six days ago I was summoned -before their Highnesses, the Signoria, and exhibited it to them, to -the astonishment of the whole senate. Many of the nobles and senators, -although of a great age, mounted more than once to the top of the -highest church tower in Venice, in order to see sails and shipping -that were so far off that it was two hours before they were seen, -without my spy-glass, steering full sail into the harbor; for the -effect of my instrument is such that it makes an object fifty miles -off appear as large as if it were only five. - -"Perceiving of what great utility such an instrument would prove in -naval and military operations, and seeing that His Serenity the Doge -desired to possess it, I resolved on the 24th inst. to go to the -palace and present it as a free gift." So Galileo did, and as a result -the senate elected him to the Professorship at Padua for life, with a -salary of one thousand florins yearly. - -But what were Galileo's claims to the invention of this great -instrument? Here is what he wrote in 1623. "Perhaps it may be said -that no great credit is due for the making of an instrument, or the -solution of a problem, when one is told beforehand that the instrument -exists, or that the problem is solvable. It may be said that the -certitude of the existence of such a glass aided me, and that without -this knowledge I would never have succeeded. To this I reply, the help -which the information gave me consisted in exciting my thoughts in a -particular direction, and without that, it is possible they may never -have been directed that way; but that such information made the act of -invention easier to me I deny, and I say more--to find the solution of -a definite problem requires a greater effort of genius than to resolve -one not specified; for in the latter case hazard, chance, may play the -greater part, while in the former all is the work of the reasoning and -intelligent mind. Thus, we are certain that the Dutchman, the first -inventor of the telescope, was a simple spectacle-maker, who, handling -by chance different forms of glasses, looked, also by chance, through -two of them, one convex and the other concave, held at different -distances from the eye; saw and noted the unexpected result; and thus -found the instrument. On the other hand, I, on the simple information -of the effect obtained, discovered the same instrument, not by chance, -but by the way of pure reasoning. Here are the steps: the artifice of -the instrument depends either on one glass or on several. It cannot -depend on one, for that must be either convex, or concave, or plain. -The last form neither augments nor diminishes visible objects; the -concave diminishes them, the convex increases them, but both show them -blurred and indistinct. Passing then to the combination of two -glasses, and knowing that glasses with plain surfaces change nothing, -I concluded that the effect could not be produced by combining a plain -glass with a convex or a concave one; I was thus left with the two -other kinds of glasses, and after a few experiments I saw how the -effect sought could be produced. Such was the march of my discovery, -in which I was not assisted in any way by the knowledge that the -conclusion at which I aimed was a verity." - -The telescope that Galileo presented to the Doge of Venice, and which -was later lost, consisted of a tube of lead, with what is called a -plano-concave eye-glass and a plano-convex object glass, and had a -magnifying power of three diameters, which made objects look three -times nearer than they actually were, and as a result nine times -larger. The tube was about seventy centimeters long and about -forty-five millimeters in diameter. It was first used in public from -the top of the campanile in the piazza at Venice on August 21, 1609, -and the most distant object that could be seen through it was the -campanile of the church of San Giustina in Padua, about thirty-five -kilometers away. - -As soon as Galileo returned to his home in Padua he busied himself -with improving his invention. First he constructed a new telescope, -which as he said "made objects appear more than sixty times larger." -Soon he had a still better one, which enlarged four hundred times. He -used this to examine the moon, and said that it brought that body "to -a distance of less than three semi-diameters of the earth, thus making -it appear about twenty times nearer and four hundred times larger than -when seen by the unaided eye." To use the instrument more accurately -he built a support which held it firmly. He had also now learned to -make the lenses adjustable, by fixing the tubes that held them so that -they could be drawn out of, or pushed into the main tube of the -telescope. To see objects not very far distant very clearly he would -push the glasses a little way apart, and to see things very far -distant he drew the glasses together. - -But this last telescope did not altogether satisfy him, and so he -built a still larger one. This brought objects more than thirty times -closer and showed them almost a thousand times larger in size. With -this he discovered the moons of Jupiter, and some of the fixed stars, -and added much to what was already known concerning the Milky Way, a -region of the sky which had long been a puzzle to astronomers. - -He spent a great part of his time now in his workshop, making and -grinding glasses. They were expensive and very difficult to prepare -properly. Out of more than one hundred that he ground at first he -found only ten that would show him the newly found moons of Jupiter. -The object glasses were the more difficult, for it was this glass -which had to bring to a focus as accurately as possible all the rays -of light that passed into the telescope. - -As the voyage of Columbus had brought a new world in the western ocean -to the notice of Europe, so Galileo's discoveries with his telescope -brought forth a new world in the skies. Galileo wrote out statements -of his discoveries, and sent these, with his new telescopes, to the -princes and learned men of Italy, France, Flanders, and Germany. At -all the courts and universities the telescopes were received with the -greatest enthusiasm, and put to instant use in the hope of discovering -new stars. But again the followers of Aristotle, those who were -unwilling to admit that anything new could be learned about the laws -of nature or the universe, arose in wrath. They attacked Galileo and -his discoveries. They would not admit that Jupiter had four attendant -moons, although these satellites could be seen by any one through the -telescope, and a little later, when Galileo stated that the planet -Saturn was composed of three stars which touched each other (later -found to be one planet with two rings) they rose up to denounce him. -But as yet these protests against the discoverer had little effect. -Europe was too much interested in what he was showing it to realize -how deeply he might affect men's views of the universe. - -Fame was now safely his. Men came from all parts of Europe to study -under this wonderful professor of Padua. But teaching gave him too -little time to carry on his own researches. So he looked about for -some other position that would give him greater leisure, and finally -stated his wishes to Cosimo II, Duke of Florence. Galileo had named -the satellites of Jupiter after the house of Medici, to which this -Duke belonged, and Cosimo was much flattered at the compliment. As a -result he was soon after made First Mathematician of the University of -Pisa, and also Philosopher and Mathematician to the Grand Duke's Court -of Florence. - -Settled at last at Florence his work as an astronomer steadily went -forward. He discovered that the planet Venus had a varying crescent -form, that there were small spots circling across the face of the sun, -which he called sun-spots, and later that there were mountains on the -moon. He also visited Rome, where he was received with the greatest -good-will by Pope Paul V and his cardinals, and where he met the -leading scientists of the capital. - -But Galileo's course was no less flecked with light and shade than -were the sun and moon he studied. The envy of rivals soon spread false -reports about him, and the professors at Pisa refused to accept the -results of his studies. Then one of the latter stirred the religious -scruples of the Dowager Grand Duchess by telling her that Galileo's -conclusion that the earth had a double motion must be wrong, since it -was opposed to the statements of the Bible. Galileo heard of this, and -wrote a letter in reply, in which he said that in studying the laws of -nature men must start with what they could prove by experiments -instead of relying wholly on the Scriptures. This was enough to set -the machinery of his enemies in motion. Galileo's teachings were -pointed out as dangerous to the teachings of the Church, and the -officers of the Inquisition began to consider how they might best deal -with him. Certain of his writings were declared false and prohibited, -and he was admonished that he must follow certain lines in his -teachings. He went to Rome himself, and saw the Pope again, but found -that his friends were fewer and his enemies growing more powerful. - -The theory of Copernicus that the earth and planets are in constant -motion was the very foundation of Galileo's scientific studies, and -yet the order of the Church now forbade him to use this theory. He -went back to Florence out of health and despondent. His old students -were falling away from him through fear of the Pope's displeasure, and -he was left much alone. But his thirst for knowledge would not let him -rest. He took up his residence in the fine old Torre del Gallo, which -looks down on Florence and the river Arno, and went on with his work. -He wrote out the results of his discoveries, and made a microscope -from a model he had seen. Soon he had greatly improved upon his model, -and had an instrument, which, as he said, "magnifies things as much as -50,000 times, so that one sees a fly as large as a hen." He sent -copies to some friends, and shortly his microscopes were as much in -demand as his telescopes had been. - -In 1632 he published what he called "The Dialogues of Galileo -Galilei." This divided the world of Italy into two camps, the one -those who believed in Aristotle and the old learning, the other those -who followed Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. The Jesuits took up the -gage he had thrown down, and Galileo found the Church of Rome arrayed -against him. The sale of his book was forbidden, a commission was -appointed to bring charges against him, and he was ordered to go to -Rome for trial. The commission reported that Galileo had disobeyed the -Church's orders by maintaining that the earth moves and that the sun -is stationary, that he had wrongly declared that the movements of the -tides were due to the sun's stability and the motion of the earth, and -that he had failed to give up his old beliefs in regard to the sun and -the earth as he had been commanded. - -Galileo, although he was ill, went to Rome, and was placed on trial -before the Inquisition. After weeks of weary waiting and long -examinations he was ordered to take a solemn oath, forswearing his -belief in his own writings and rejecting the conclusion that the sun -was stationary and that the earth moved. Rather than suffer the pains -of the Inquisition he agreed, and made his solemn declaration. -According to an old story, now discredited, as he rose from his knees -after the ceremony he whispered to a friend "_Eppur si muove_" (It -does move, nevertheless). Whether he said this or not there can be no -doubt but that the great astronomer knew the performance was a farce, -and that the world did move in spite of all the Inquisition could -declare. - -The Inquisition did its work ruthlessly. Notices of the sentence -prohibiting the reading of Galileo's book and ordering all copies of -it to be surrendered, and copies of the declaration he had made -denying his former teachings, were sent to all the courts of Europe -and to many of the universities. In Padua the documents were read to -teachers and students at the university where for so many years -Galileo had been the greatest glory of learning, and in Florence the -Inquisitor read the sentence publicly in the church of Santa Croce, -notices having been sent to all who were known to be friends or -followers of Galileo, ordering them to attend. Thus his humiliation -was spread broadcast, and in addition he was ordered to be held at -Rome as a prisoner. - -After a time he was permitted to go on parole to the city of Siena, -which was at least nearer his home outside Florence. There he stayed -until the Grand Duke Cosimo, who had stood by him, persuaded the -Church that Galileo's health required that he be allowed to join his -friends. At last he reached his home, and again took up his studies. -His eyesight was failing, and eventually he became entirely blind, but -meanwhile his speculations covered the widest fields of science, he -studied the laws of motion and equilibrium, the velocity of light, the -problems of the vacuum, of the flight of projectiles, and the -mathematical theory of the parabola. He wrote another book, dealing -with two new sciences, and was busy with designs for a pendulum clock -at the time of his death in 1642. He was buried in the church of Santa -Croce, the Pantheon of Florence, under the same roof with his great -fellow countryman, Michael Angelo. - -What is known as the modern refracting telescope is based upon a -different combination of lenses than that used by Galileo. Kepler -studied Galileo's instrument, and then designed one consisting of two -convex lenses. The modern telescope follows Kepler's arrangement, but -Galileo's adjustment is still suitable where only low magnifying -powers are needed, and is used to-day in the ordinary field- and -opera-glass. - -Galileo knew nothing of what we call the reflecting telescope. He -found that by using a convex-lens as an object-glass he could bring -the rays of light from any distant object to a focus, and it did not -apparently occur to him that he could achieve the same end by the use -of a concave mirror. James Gregory, a Scotchman, designed the first -reflector in 1663, and described it in a book, but he was too poor to -construct it. Nine years later Sir Isaac Newton, having studied -Gregory's plans, built the first reflecting telescope, which is now to -be seen in the hall of the Royal Society in London. But invention has -gone yet farther in perfecting these instruments with which to study -the skies, and the great telescopes of modern times have in most -instances discarded Newton's reflector for the refracting instrument. -And these are built on a tremendous scale. The Yerkes telescope at -Williams Bay, Wisconsin, has a refractor of forty inches, and the one -built for the Paris Exposition of 1900, one of fifty inches. In -numerous other details they have changed, and yet each is chiefly -indebted to that simple spy-glass of Galileo, by which he was able to -show the nobles and senators of Venice full-rigged ships, which -without it were barely distant specks on the horizon. Or, going still -farther back, the men who make our present telescopes are following -the trail that was first blazed on the day when the Dutch apprentice -of Middleburg chanced to pick up two spectacle lenses and look through -the two of them at once. - -Galileo made many great discoveries and inventions; there was hardly a -field of science that he did not enter and explore; but his greatest -work was to open a new world to men's attention. It was this that -brought him before the Inquisition and that branded him as a dangerous -heretic, and it was this that placed him in the forefront of the -world's discoverers. Men might say that the earth stood still, because -it suited them best to believe so, but Galileo gave the world an -instrument by which it could study the matter for itself, and the -world has gone on using that instrument and that method ever since. - - - - -IV - -WATT AND THE STEAM-ENGINE - -1736-1819 - - -It was no pressing need that drove John Gutenberg to the invention of -his printing press, nor was it necessity that led to Galileo's -discovery of the telescope, but it was a very urgent demand that led -to the building of a steam-engine by James Watt. England and Scotland -found that men and women, even with the aid of horses, could not work -the coal mines as they must be worked if the countries were to be kept -supplied with fuel. The small mines were used up, the larger ones must -be deepened, and in that event it would be too long and arduous a task -for men and women to raise the coal in small baskets, or for horses to -draw it out by the windlass. A machine must be constructed that would -do the work more quickly, more easily, and more cheaply. - -A Frenchman named Denys Papin had built the first steam-engine with a -piston. He had seen certain experiments that showed him how much -strength there was in compressed air. He had noticed that air pressure -could lift several men off their feet. His problem therefore was how -best to compress the air, or, as it appeared to him, how to secure a -vacuum. His experiments proved that he could do this by the use of -steam. He took a simple cylinder and fitted a piston into it. Water -was put in the cylinder under the piston, a fire was lighted beneath -it, and as the water came to the boiling point the piston was forced -upward by the steam. Then the fire was taken away, and as the steam in -the cylinder condensed, the piston was forced down by the air pressure -above. He fastened the upper end of the piston to a rope, which passed -over two pulleys. If a weight were hung to the other end of the rope -it would be raised as the piston was forced down. In that way the air -pressure did the work of lifting the weight, and the necessary vacuum -was obtained by forming steam and then condensing it in the cylinder. -This was a very primitive device, requiring several minutes for the -engine to make one stroke, but it was the beginning of the practical -use of steam as a motive power. - -Thomas Newcomen, an English blacksmith by trade, first put Papin's -idea to use. Instead of the rope and pulleys Newcomen fastened a -walking-beam to the end of the piston, and attached a pump-rod to the -other end of the walking-beam. He used the steam in the cylinder only -to balance the pressure of the air on the piston, and let the pump-rod -descend by its own weight. As the steam condensed the piston fell, and -the pump-rod rose again. By this means he could pump water from a -mine, or lift coal. His first engine was able to lift fifty gallons of -water fifty yards at each stroke, and could make twelve strokes a -minute. At first he condensed his steam by throwing cold water on the -outside of the cylinder, but one day he discovered that the engine -suddenly increased its speed, and he found that a hole had been worn -in the cylinder, and that the water with which he had covered the top -of the piston was entering through this hole. This condensed the steam -more rapidly, and he adopted it as an improvement in his next engine. -A little later a boy named Humphrey Potter, who had charge of turning -the cocks that let the water and steam into the cylinder, found a way -of tying strings to the cocks so that the engine would turn them -itself, and so originated what came to be known as valve-gear. - -Newcomen's engine was a great help to the coal mines of England and -Scotland, but it was very expensive to run, a large engine consuming -no less than twenty-eight pounds of coal per hour per horse-power. -Then it happened that in 1764 a small Newcomen engine that belonged to -the University of Glasgow was given to James Watt, an instrument-maker -at the university, to be repaired. To do this properly he made a study -of all that had been discovered in regard to engines, and then set -about to construct one for himself. - -There are many stories told of the boyhood of James Watt. He lived at -Greenock on the River Clyde in Scotland, and was of a quiet, almost -shy disposition, and delicate in health. He was fond of drawing and of -studying mechanical problems, but rarely had much to say about his -studies. The story goes that as he sat one evening at the tea-table -with his aunt, Mrs. Muirhead, she said reprovingly to him, "James -Watt, I never saw such an idle boy: take a book or employ yourself -usefully; for the last hour you haven't spoken a word, but taken -off the lid of that kettle and put it on again, holding a cup or a -silver spoon over the steam, watching it rise from the spout, and -catching the drops it falls into. Aren't you ashamed of spending your -time in this way?" And history goes on to presume that as the boy -watched the bubbling kettle he was studying the laws of steam and -making ready to put them to good use some day. - -[Illustration: WATT FIRST TESTS THE POWER OF STEAM] - -He picked out the trade of a maker of mathematical instruments, and -went to London to fit himself for it. He was apprenticed to a good -master and made rapid progress, but the climate of London was bad for -his health, and as soon as his term of instruction was finished he -went back to Scotland. There he found it difficult to get employment, -but at last he obtained permission to open a small shop in the -grounds of the University of Glasgow, and to call himself -"Mathematical-instrument-maker to the University." - -When the Newcomen engine was given to Watt to repair he studied it -closely, and soon reached an important conclusion. A great amount of -heat was lost whenever the cold water was let into the cylinder to -condense the steam, and this loss vastly increased the expense of -running the engine, and cut down its power. He saw that to prevent -this loss the cylinder must be kept as hot as the steam that entered -it. This led him to study the nature of steam, and he had soon made -some remarkable discoveries in regard to it. He found that water had a -high capacity for storing up heat, without a corresponding effect on -the thermometer. This hidden heat became known as latent heat. - -It was of course a matter of common knowledge that heat could be -obtained by the combustion of coal or wood. Watt found that heat lay -also in water, to be drawn out and used in what is called steam. If -you change the temperature of water you find that it exists in three -different states, that of a liquid, or water, that of a solid, or ice, -and that of a gas, or steam. If water were turned into steam, and two -pounds of this steam passed into ten pounds of water at the freezing -point the steam would become liquid, or water, again, at 212° of -temperature, but at the same time the ten pounds of freezing water -into which the steam had been passed would also have been raised to -212° by the process. This shows that the latent heat of the two pounds -of steam was sufficient to convert the ten pounds of freezing water -into boiling water. That is the latent heat which is set free to work -when the steam coming in contact with the cold changes the vapor from -its gaseous to a liquid state. The heat, however, is only latent, or -in other words of no use, until the temperature of the water is raised -to 212°, and the vapor rises. - -Mr. Lauder, a pupil of Lord Kelvin, writing of Watt's "Discoveries of -the Properties of Steam," describes his results in this way: "Suppose -you take a flask, such as olive oil is often sold in, and fill it with -cold water. Set it over a lighted lamp, put a thermometer in the -water, and the temperature will be observed to rise steadily till it -reaches 212°, where it remains, the water boils, and steam is produced -freely. Now draw the thermometer out of the water, but leaving it -still in the steam. It remains steady at the same point--212°. Now it -requires quite a long time and a large amount of heat to convert all -the water into steam. As the steam goes off at the same temperature as -the water, it is evident a quantity of heat has escaped in the steam, -of which the thermometer gives us no account. This is latent heat. - -"Now, if you blow the steam into cold water instead of allowing it to -pass into the air, you will find that it heats the water six times -more than what is due to its indicated temperature. To fix your idea: -suppose you take 100 lbs. of water at 60°, and blow one pound of steam -into it, making 101 lbs., its temperature will now be about 72°, a -rise of 12°. Return to your 100 lbs. of water at 60° and add one pound -of water at 212° the same temperature as the steam you added, and the -temperature will only be raised about 2°. The one pound of steam heats -six times more than the one pound of water, both being at the same -temperature. This is the quantity of latent heat, which means simply -hidden heat, in steam. - -"Proceeding further with the experiment, if, instead of allowing the -steam to blow into the water, you confine it until it gets to some -pressure, then blow it into the water, it takes the same weight to -raise the temperature to the same degree. This means that the total -heat remains practically the same, no matter at what pressure. - -"This is James Watt's discovery, and it led him to the use of -high-pressure steam, used expansively." - -Newcomen, in making his steam-engine, had simply made additions to -Papin's model. Watt had already done much more, for in trying to find -how the engine might be made of greater service he had discovered at -the outset the principle of the latent heat of steam. He knew that in -Newcomen's engine four-fifths of all the steam used was lost in -heating the cold cylinder, and that only one-fifth was actually used -in moving the piston. It was easy to see how this loss occurred. The -cylinder was cooled at the top because it was open to the air, and was -cooled at the bottom in condensing the steam that had driven the -piston up so as to create a vacuum which would lower the piston for -another stroke. Watt knew that what he wanted was a plan by which the -cylinder could always be kept as hot as the steam that went into it. -How was he to obtain this? He solved it by the invention of the -"separate condenser." This is how he tells of his discovery. "I had -gone to take a walk on a fine Sabbath afternoon, early in 1765. I had -entered the green by the gate at the foot of Charlotte Street and had -passed the old washing-house, when the idea came into my mind that as -steam was an elastic body it would rush into a vacuum, and if a -communication were made between the cylinder and an exhausted vessel -it would rush into it, and might be there condensed without cooling -the cylinder. I then saw that I must get rid of the condensed steam -and injection-water if I used a jet as in Newcomen's engine. Two ways -of doing this occurred to me. First, the water might be run off by a -descending pipe, if an offlet could be got at the depth of thirty-five -or thirty-six feet, and any air might be extracted by a small pump. -The second was to make the pump large enough to extract both water and -air.... I had not walked farther than the golf-house when the whole -thing was arranged in my mind." - -This was the discovery that gave us practically the modern -steam-engine, with its countless uses in unnumbered fields. Newcomen's -engine was limited to the pressure of the atmosphere, Watt's could use -the tremendous force of steam under higher and higher pressure. He led -the steam out of the cylinder and condensed it in a separate vessel, -thereby leaving the cylinder hot. He closed the cylinder top, and -prevented the loss of steam. The invention may seem simple enough as -we study it, but as a matter of fact it was the attainment of this -result of keeping the cylinder as hot as the steam that enters it that -has given us our steam-engine. - -The morning following that Sunday afternoon on which the idea of the -condenser had occurred to Watt he borrowed a brass syringe from a -college friend, and using this as a cylinder and a tin can as a -condenser tried his experiment. The scheme worked, albeit in a -primitive way, and Watt saw that he was on the track of an engine that -would revolutionize the labor of men. But he saw also that it would -take both time and money to bring his invention to its most efficient -form. - -His instrument-making business had prospered, he had taken in a -partner, and the firm now employed sixteen workmen. About the same -time he married, and rented a house outside the university grounds. -Soon he was busily at work building a working model of his -steam-engine. - -A working model was very hard to make. Watt himself was a skilful -mechanician, but the men who helped him were not. The making of the -cylinder and the piston gave him the chief trouble. The cylinder would -leak. It took him months to devise the tools that would enable him to -make a perfect-fitting cylinder, and when he had accomplished that he -still found that in one way or another a certain amount of steam would -escape. Yet, although imperfect, his model was already many times more -powerful than the Newcomen engine he had started with. - -But before very long Watt found that this work was leading him into -debt. He told his good friend Professor Black, who had discovered the -latent heat of steam before Watt had, that he needed a partner to help -him in his business of building engines. Black suggested Dr. Roebuck, -who had opened the well-known Carron Iron Works near Glasgow. The two -men met, and, after some negotiations, formed a partnership. Roebuck -agreed to pay Watt's debts to the sum of a thousand pounds, to provide -the money for further experiments, and to obtain a patent for the -steam-engine. In return for this he was to become the owner of a -two-third interest in the invention. - -It was more difficult to secure a patent in those days than in later -times, for both the courts and the public considered that the right to -make use of any new invention should belong to the whole world, and -not alone to one man or to a few men. Watt's models had to be very -carefully made, and his designs very accurately drawn if he was to -secure any real protection, and the preparation of these took a vast -amount of time. But Roebuck continued to encourage him, and on January -5, 1769, he was granted his first patent, the very same day on which -another great English inventor, Arkwright, obtained a patent for his -spinning-frame. This first patent covered Watt's invention of the -condenser, but not his next invention, which was the double-acting -engine, or in other words, a method by which the steam should do work -on the downward as well as on the upward stroke. - -With his patent secured Watt spent six months building a huge new -engine, which he had ready for use in September, 1769. In spite of all -his painstaking it was only a partial success. The cylinder had been -badly cast, the pipe-condenser did not work properly, and there was -still the old leakage of steam at the piston. Men began to doubt -whether the new engine could ever be made to accomplish what Watt -claimed for it, but although he realized the difficulties the inventor -would not allow himself to doubt. Unfortunately his way was no longer -clear. Dr. Roebuck met with reverses and had to end the partnership -agreement, and Watt had to borrow money from his old friend Professor -Black to secure his patent. To add to his distress his wife, who had -been his best counselor, died. - -Dr. Roebuck had owed money to a celebrated merchant of Birmingham -named Matthew Boulton. Boulton had heard a great deal about Watt's -engine, and now consented to take Roebuck's interest in Watt's -invention in payment of the debt. At the same time the firm of -Boulton and Watt was formed, and in May, 1774, Watt shipped his trial -engine south, and set out himself for Birmingham. - -Boulton was a business genius, and Watt now found that he could leave -financial matters entirely to his care, and busy himself solely with -his engine. He had better workmen, better appliances, and better -material in Birmingham than he had had in Glasgow, and the engine was -soon beginning to justify his hopes. But the original patent had only -been granted for fourteen years, and six of these had already passed. -Boulton was not willing to put money into the building of a great -factory until he was sure that the engines would be secured to the -firm. Therefore more time had to be spent in obtaining an extension of -the patent. This was finally done, and Watt was granted a term of -twenty-four years. At once Boulton set to work, the first engine -factory rose, and hundreds of men in England turned to Birmingham to -see how much truth there was in the wonderful stories that had been -spread abroad of the new invention. - -Men soon learned that the stories were true. Orders began to flow in, -and Watt had his hands full in traveling about the country -superintending the erection of his steam-engines. The mines of -Cornwall had become unworkable, and as a great deal depended on the -success of the engine in such work, he traveled to Cornwall to make -sure that there should be no faults. The miners, the engineers, and -the owners had gathered to see the new engine. It stood the test -splendidly, making eleven eight-foot strokes per minute, which broke -the record. After that the other mines of Great Britain discarded the -old expensive Newcomen engine, and sent in orders for Watt's. The firm -prospered, and the inventor began to feel some of the material -comforts of success. He had married a second time, and made a home for -his wife and children in Birmingham. Now, when he could spare the time -from superintending the workmen and traveling over the country, he -gave his thoughts to further inventive schemes. - -Watt had not only invented the condenser and the double-acting engine, -he had produced an indicator for measuring the pressure of steam in -the cylinder, and also what was called the fly-ball governor, which -took the place of the throttle-valve he had first used to regulate the -speed of his engines. These improvements had so increased the uses of -the engine that scores of rival inventors were abroad, and therefore -he decided to secure a second patent. This he did in 1781, the patent -being issued "for certain new methods of producing a continued -rotative motion around an axis or centre, and thereby to give motion -to the wheels of mills or other machines." The next year he secured -still another patent, and now he had so perfected his double-acting -engine that it had a regular and easily controlled motion, in -consequence of which, as he said in his specifications, "in most of -our great manufactories these engines now supply the place of water, -wind and horse mills, and instead of carrying the work to the power, -the prime agent is placed wherever it is most convenient to the -manufacturer." This meant that the steam-engine had now reached the -point where it could be made to serve for almost any purpose and -placed in almost any position that might be required. - -There was one further step for Watt to take in the development of his -invention. He wished a more powerful engine than his double-acting -one, and so he produced the "compound" engine. This was really two -engines, the cylinders and condensers of which were so connected that -the steam which had been used to press on the piston of the first -could then be used to act expansively upon the piston of the second, -and in this way the second engine be made to work either alternately -or simultaneously with the first. And this compound engine is -practically the very engine that we have to-day. Improvements have -been made, but they have been made in details. The piston-rings -invented by Cartwright have prevented the escape of steam, and so -permitted the use of a higher pressure than Watt could achieve, and -the cross-head invented by Haswell has provided the piston with a -better bed on which to rest and freed it from a certain friction. - -The firm of Boulton and Watt had a successful career, and in time the -sons of the two partners took the latters' places. Watt had occasion -to protect his patents by a suit at law, but he was victorious in -this, and by the time the patent rights had expired the firm had built -up such a large business that it was safe from rivals. Confident of -his son's ability to carry on the business Watt at length retired, to -busy himself in studying other inventions, to cultivate his garden, -and to revisit familiar scenes in his beloved Scotland. - -The steam-engine had come to take its place in the great onward march -of progress. Men were already at work planning to make it move cars -across the land and ships upon the sea. It was to revolutionize the -manufacture of almost everything; what men and women had done before -by hand it was now to do, and, devised at first because of the great -need of a new way to work the coal mines, it was to provide a motive -power to accomplish all kinds of labor. - -Such is the story of how James Watt took Newcomen's simple piston and -cylinder and so harnessed steam that he could make it do the work he -wanted. - - - - -V - -ARKWRIGHT AND THE SPINNING-JENNY - -1732-1792 - - -All the great English inventors have sprung from families of small -means, and have had to work for their living. Richard Arkwright, born -at Preston, in Lancashire, December 23, 1732, was no exception to this -rule. He was the youngest of thirteen children, and his parents were -as poor as the proverbial church mice. He had no real education, only -such as he could pick up by chance, but he made the most of such -chances as came his way. He was apprenticed to a barber at Bolton, and -later took up that business for himself. It was an occupation in which -he would be apt to glean much gossip and many stray scraps of -information, but little that would tend to broaden his mind. Perhaps -he realized this for himself, and concluded that the hairdressing line -was not to be his destiny, for when he was in the neighborhood of -twenty-eight years of age he retired from his barber-shop, and became -a traveling dealer in hair and dyes. This would at least allow him to -see something more of the world. - -His prospects at this new trade were good. He had come upon a new -method of dyeing hair and preparing it to be made into wigs. Wigs were -the fashion, and Arkwright had an excellent process, and was an -energetic and resourceful dealer. He saw something of the country -world of England, the men and women in it, what they wanted, and what -they needed. Doubtless his inventive mind was already revolving -improvements for them. The dealer in dyes and wigs was a shrewd and -canny man. Carlyle had this to say concerning him and his progress: -"Nevertheless, in stropping of razors, in shaving of dirty beards, and -the contradictions and confusions attendant thereon, the man had -notions in that rough head of his! Spindles, shuttles, wheels, and -contrivances, plying ideally within the same; rather hopeless-looking, -which, however, he did at last bring to bear. Not without difficulty." - -There is always a strain of romance, or at least adventure, in the -life of the itinerant pedlar, something of the free-footedness of the -gypsy, and something of the acumen of those Eastern traders who -traveled in caravans from the Orient. But doubtless we see the charm -more clearly than the traveler himself. It may have been, and most -likely was, a workaday job for Richard Arkwright. But consider the -romance that underlay it! This country vendor of hair was to become -one of the world's great inventors, and to kneel before his sovereign -for the accolade that was to make him knight. Figaro of Seville, famed -as he was, was none superior to the Lancashire barber. - -He traveled much through South Lancashire and Cheshire, and there he -came in daily contact with the cotton-spinners. A weaver of great -ingenuity and tireless purpose, James Hargreaves, had invented what -was known as a spinning-jenny, an arrangement by which many spindles, -fastened in a wooden frame, would work together by the turning of a -fly-wheel. This machine could do the work of many spinners, and in a -much shorter time. The rovings of cotton went under a bar-clasp that -took the place of the spinner's finger and thumb. This bar-clasp could -be moved backward and forward on a rod as the spinner's hand would do -when stretching the thread and winding it on. It had a precision of -action that resulted in a much greater regularity in the spun thread -than by the earlier process. It was a very ingenious device, and -Hargreaves deserved the greatest credit for the skill with which he -solved the problem. - -But the spinners did not take kindly to this improvement. When they -discovered that Hargreaves could do more spinning with less work with -his machine, and could supply his own loom with all the woof that was -needed instead of keeping three or four spinners employed, they grew -highly indignant. They did not realize that the demand for cotton -cloth was far greater than the supply, and that they could all be -profitably employed operating the spinning-jenny. That panic which has -so often come over people when they learn of a new device entering -their field of action struck the cotton-spinners, and Hargreaves was -regarded as a foe rather than a friend. Hargreaves was driven from -Lancashire to Nottingham, and many of his larger jennies were broken -by mobs. A few of the smaller machines were saved, but the people's -mind was very evident. - -Hargreaves' improvement on the old-fashioned spinning-wheel dates -from 1767, though he himself, it is said, had first used such a -machine in 1764. Two men, Wyatt and Paul, of Birmingham, had earlier -built a machine to spin stronger yarn than that usually used, but -their machine had shown many defects, and they had abandoned its use. -Arkwright knew of Hargreaves' jenny, but not of the other machine, and -as he came upon none in use in his travels he cannot be held to have -been under any obligations to this earlier device. - -The manufacture of cotton goods was in a primitive state in England. -Pure cotton fabrics could not be made, and the fustians that were -produced had a warp of linen yarn in them, due to the fact that no way -was known by which cotton yarn of sufficient strength could be spun. -Arkwright soon learned these difficulties that arose from the absence -of cotton warp and the deficiency of cotton weft, and his alert mind -commenced to wonder whether he could not so improve on Hargreaves' -jenny as to overcome these difficulties. He was not a skilled mechanic -himself, and so, when he decided to take up the subject, he employed a -clockmaker, named Kay, to help him. Realizing the hostility to any -improvement on the part of the cotton-spinners, he gave out that he -was engaged in building a machine to solve the world-old problem of -perpetual motion. - -Under this cloak he worked, and soon found that his new occupation was -vastly more interesting than that of dealer in wigs had been. He was a -shrewd man, and therefore, when he withdrew from that trade in 1767, -it is probable that he foresaw that he was on the track of something -better. His idea was that cotton could be spun by rollers, and he said -that this thought occurred to him as he happened to watch a red-hot -iron bar lengthened out by passing between two rollers. But the iron -would necessarily have to be drawn out in such a process, while the -cotton wool could be indefinitely packed together. It would have to be -taken hold of, and forcibly stretched as it passed through the pair of -rollers, if it were to be drawn out, and not merely compressed. His -solution of this problem was a machine that had two pairs of rollers, -which were called drawing-rollers, the first pair of which revolved -slowly in contact with each other, while the second pair revolved more -rapidly in a similar way. One roller of each pair was covered with -leather, and the other was fluted lengthwise. The two were pressed -together by means of weights. In this manner the adhesion of the -cotton wool was safely secured, and there was no chance of the rollers -slipping around without drawing it in. The cotton passed through the -two pairs of rollers, and its extension depended entirely on the -difference in the velocity of the revolutions of the two pairs. When -the proper fineness had been obtained in this way, the cotton, as it -passed from the second pair of rollers, was twisted into a firm strong -thread by spindles attached to the frame. - -Arkwright realized that he must have assistance in order to put his -machines on the market. He applied to a Mr. Atherton, and the latter, -although he considered the venture a hazardous one, sent him two -workmen to help in building his first machine. When this was -finished Arkwright went with it to Preston, and there set up his -spinning-frame and began to use it in a room of the house that -belonged to the Free Grammar School. His experiments convinced him of -its success. Then he thought how he could best introduce his machine -with least risk of rousing the popular fury. John Smalley, a liquor -merchant and painter, had helped him build his machine, and after -consultation, the two men decided to take the spinning-jenny to -Nottingham, which lay in the heart of the frame-work stocking trade. - -[Illustration: SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT] - -Arkwright's great opportunity lay in the fact that the manufacture of -cotton hosiery had hitherto had to be carried on on a limited scale, -owing to the difficulty of obtaining yarn that was sufficiently strong -for the stocking-frames that were then used. At first he and John -Smalley were associated with the Messrs. Wright, Nottingham bankers, -but these bankers, figuring on the experience that had befallen the -inventors of other spinning machines, soon withdrew their aid. But -Arkwright was more fortunate in his next step. Samuel Need, a -Nottingham manufacturer of stockings, and his partner, Jedediah -Strutt, of Derby, who had himself invented a device for making ribbed -stockings, became interested in his machine, tested it carefully, and -with the experience they had already gained as practical -manufacturers, decided in its favor. It was their approval that -started Arkwright on the road to fortune. - -Arkwright took out his first patent in 1769, the same year that Watt -patented his steam-engine with a separate condenser. A little later, -with his partners Need and Strutt, he built a very complete factory at -Cromford, on the Derwent River. He had already shown his power of -originating and perfecting a working machine, now he showed an -additional ability for organizing a great manufactory, and improving -and adding new devices to his original model. This was the test of his -strength, and perhaps the most wonderful part of his character. Many -men have come upon new ideas, and many have sent them forth to improve -the world's work, but only a few have developed them, day in and day -out, until they stand forth as a finished achievement. That is the -gauge, the test that has proved the inventor. Not Watt's first -innovations on the stationary steam-engine, nor Stephenson's building -of his original locomotive, nor Arkwright's discovery that rollers -could be used to draw the cotton, but the years of trial and -improvement Watt spent at Birmingham, and Stephenson in his shops at -Killingworth, and Arkwright in his factory at Cromford, have made the -three men famous in history. They were the years of patience and -perseverance, which must come in the life of every great inventor to -test his strength. - -The country people about Cromford came to see Arkwright's machines, -and wonder at them, and sometimes to buy a dozen pairs of stockings -that had been made of Arkwright's yarn. But the big Manchester -manufacturers refused to trade with him. The fine water-twist that was -being spun on his spinning-frames was perfectly adapted to be used as -warp, and would have supplied the demand for genuine cotton goods, -which otherwise had to be imported from India. But, though they needed -his yarn, the manufacturers would not buy it from him, and he was -forced to find some way of using his large output himself. First he -used it to manufacture stockings, and then, in 1773, to make, for the -first time in England, fabrics entirely of cotton. This was the -turning point in England's trade in cotton goods. Heretofore she had -not been able to meet the demands of her own people, now she was to -commence a campaign that was ultimately to send her cloth to the -farthest ends of the earth. - -His powers of resistance were to be still further tested. An act was -passed, based on the assumption that the English spinners could never -compete with the fine Indian handiwork, that a duty of sixpence a yard -should be levied on all calicoes, which were a variety of cotton goods -originally imported from Calicut, in India. In addition, the sale of -printed calicoes was forbidden. The customs officers immediately began -to levy the duty on the products of Arkwright's mills, claiming that -the goods were in reality calicoes, although they were made in -England. It followed that merchants who had ordered goods from the -Cromford Mill cancelled their orders, rather than pay the duty, and -again Arkwright found his cottons piling up on his hands. - -The act was too unfair to stand, and after a time was repealed. Cotton -and all mixed fabrics were taxed threepence per yard, and the -prohibition on printed cotton goods was withdrawn. The opposition of -rival manufacturers could not in the nature of things long retard -what was to become one of the nation's main industries. - -He took out his second patent in 1775, and it embraced almost the -entire field of cloth manufacture. It contained innumerable devices -that he had worked out during the years he had been experimenting at -his factory. It covered "carding, drawing, and roving machines for use -in preparing silk, cotton, flax, and wool for spinning." The man who -had been a vendor of wigs had now revolutionized the whole spinning -world. He had taught men and women to work at his machines, instead of -in the old way of individual hand labor, he had organized a great -business, and was showing the world that more could be accomplished by -the division of labor and its control by one mind than could ever have -resulted from individual initiative. In this way he was taking a most -vital part in the progress of those new economic ideas that were -dawning into consciousness toward the close of the eighteenth century. - -It is so easy to see the successful result, so difficult to appreciate -the trials that have been undergone. We look at the great picture and -we admire the genius of the artist, but how rarely we realize the no -less wonderful patience, the no less wonderful struggle that underlies -what we see. The creator has not wrought easily, that is certain; and -his greatness consists in what he has overcome. - -Arkwright was ill with asthma during many of the years when he was -fighting for his fortune, and time and again it seemed as if his -strength must fail before the task he had undertaken. But he was a -great fighter, and so he won through. His workmen were offered bribes -to leave his service, and teach his methods to rivals, his patents -were infringed, right and left there was warfare, and he was fighting -a score of enemies single-handed. - -In 1781 he had to bring suit against Colonel Mordaunt, and eight other -manufacturers, for infringing his patent. The influence of all the -Lancashire cotton-spinners was aligned against his claims. They could -not deny the fact that he had invented the spinning-jenny, but they -said that the specifications of his patent were not sufficiently -clear. The court upheld this contention, and declared the patent -invalid. Arkwright withdrew the other suits he had started, and wrote -and published his "Case," in order to set forth to the world the truth -of his claims. - -In 1785 he brought his case again into court, and this time Lord -Loughborough ruled that his patent was valid. On account of this -conflict of decisions the matter was referred to the Court of King's -Bench. Here a Lancashire man named Highs, who had constructed a double -jenny to work fifty-six spindles in 1770, was declared by Arkwright's -opponents to be the real inventor. It was said that Arkwright had -stolen this man's ideas. On such evidence Arkwright's claims were -denied, and his patent overruled. This was the species of constant -warfare with which he had to occupy himself. - -Manchester had fought against the spinning-frame for years, but it was -to receive the chief fruits of its success. Arkwright built a mill -there in 1780, and it prospered exceedingly, in spite of the fact that -he no longer had the protection of his patents. He was such a good -business man, such a splendid organizer, that he could overcome his -enemies without that help, and in time he built up a fortune. - -When he had started his first mill at Nottingham Arkwright had been -obliged to use horse-power, and it was owing to the expense of such a -system that he had soon moved to Cromford, where he could obtain -water-power from the Derwent River. It was this that gave his yarn the -name of water-twist. But in his Manchester Mill he made use of a -hydraulic wheel, supplied with water by a single-stroke atmospheric -steam-engine. Later Boulton and Watt's engines were installed, and -with the most profitable results. As a result of these improvements -the imports of cotton wool, which had averaged less than 5,000,000 -pounds a year in the five years from 1771 to 1775, rose to an average -of more than 25,000,000 pounds in the five years ending with 1790. -England began to export cotton goods in 1781, which was sufficient -evidence that the manufacture of such goods was proceeding more -rapidly than the home demand for them. This was due largely to -Arkwright's invention, to his building up of factories on new methods, -and to the great help furnished to all machinery by the steam-engines -of James Watt. - -This is the romance of the dealer in wigs and dyes. He had won fame -and fortune, and a powerful position in his country. In 1786 he was -appointed High Sheriff in Derbyshire, and the same year was knighted -by George III. He died at Cromford in 1792. - -His personality was strong, aggressive, dominating. Nothing could turn -him from his course when he had made up his mind in regard to it. He -was determined to make a fortune out of cotton-spinning, and he did, -in spite of the loss of his patents, and the rivals who were always -pursuing him. He stands high as inventor, and quite as high as one of -the makers of modern commercial England. - - - - -VI - -WHITNEY AND THE COTTON-GIN - -1765-1825 - - -Cotton-growing has been for a long time the main industry of the -Southern United States, and the exporting of cotton by that part of -the country has largely fed the mills of the world. Yet in 1784 the -customs officers at Liverpool seized eight bags of cotton arriving on -an American vessel, claiming that so much of the raw material could -not have been produced in the thirteen states. In 1793 the total -export of cotton from the United States was less than ten thousand -bales, but by 1860 the export was four million bales. The chief reason -for this marvelous advance was the cotton-gin, for which Eli Whitney -applied for a patent in 1793. - -Wherever cotton grew in the South there the cotton-gin was to be -found. It brought prosperity and ease and comfort, it allowed the -small as well as the large owner to have his share of the profits of -the markets of the world. It gave the cotton country its living, and -yet Whitney struggled for years to win the slightest recognition of -his claims. He wrote to Robert Fulton, "In one instance I had great -difficulty in proving that the machine had been used in Georgia, -although at the same moment there were three separate sets of this -machinery in motion within fifty yards of the building in which the -court sat, and all so near that the rattling of the wheels was -distinctly heard on the steps of the court-house." - -He came to the South from New England, having been born in -Westborough, Worcester County, Massachusetts, December 8, 1765, -educated at Yale College, and going to Georgia as teacher in a private -family. General Greene, of Savannah, took a great interest in him, and -taught him law. Whitney had been a good student, had an attractive -personality, and had already shown a natural knack for mechanics. -While he was teaching at the Greenes' home he noticed that the -embroidery frame that Mrs. Greene used tore the fine threads of her -work. He asked her to let him study it, and shortly had made a frame -on an entirely different plan that would do the same work without -injuring the threads. His hostess was delighted with it, and spread -the word of her young teacher's ingenuity through the neighborhood. - -As in all Southern mansions hospitality was rife at the Greenes', and -it happened that one evening a number of gentlemen were gathered there -who had fought under the General in the Revolution. The subject of the -growing of cotton came under discussion, and some one spoke of the -unfortunate fact that no method had been found for cleaning the cotton -staple of the green seed. If that could be done cotton could be grown -with profit on all the land that was unsuited for rice. To separate a -single pound of the clean staple from the green seed took a whole -day's work for a woman. There was little profit in trying to grow -much cotton at such a rate, and most of the cotton picking was done by -the negroes in the evenings, when the harder labor of the fields was -finished. Then Mrs. Greene pointed to Eli Whitney with a smile. -"There, gentlemen," said she, "apply to my friend Mr. Whitney for your -device. He can make anything." The guests looked at the young man, but -he hastened to disclaim any such abilities, and said that he had never -even seen cotton-seed. - -But in spite of his disclaimer he began to consider whether he could -make a machine that would help to separate the seed from the cotton. -He went to see a neighbor, Phineas Miller, and talked over his plans -with him. Miller became interested, and gave him a room in his house -where he might carry on his experiments. He had to use very primitive -implements, making his own tools and drawing his own wire. He worked -quietly, only Mr. Miller and Mrs. Greene knowing what he was doing. - -Whitney worked on his machine all the winter of 1793, and by spring it -was far enough completed to assure him of success. Mr. Miller, who was -a lawyer with a taste for mechanics, and who was, again like Eli -Whitney, a New Englander and graduate of Yale, married Mrs. Greene -after the General's death. It was he who actually made Whitney's -machine a business possibility by proposing that he should become a -partner with the inventor, and bear all the expenses of manufacturing -it until they should secure their patent. They drew up a legal -agreement to this effect, dated May 27, 1793, and stipulating that -all the profits should be equally divided between them. - -There followed very soon the first dramatic scenes in the long battle -between the owners of the cotton-gin and the public. The Southern -people knew how invaluable such an invention would be to them; it -meant food and shelter and better living all along the line; it would -increase the value of their property a hundredfold. So as soon as it -became bruited abroad that Eli Whitney had such a machine in his -workroom that spot became the Mecca for the countryside. Crowds came -to beg for a look at the wonderful machine, and hung about the house -and plotted to get in. But Whitney and Miller were afraid to let -people see the invention until they had made sure of their patents on -it, and so they refused to let the crowds have a look at it. Then the -more reckless of the crowds threw all sense of fairness to the winds, -and broke into Mr. Miller's house, seized the machine, and carried it -off with them. Soon it was publicly displayed, and before Whitney -could finish his model for the Patent Office a dozen machines, similar -to his, were in use in the cotton fields. - -Whitney's cotton-gin was made of two cylinders of different diameters, -mounted in a strong wooden frame. One cylinder had a number of small -circular saws that were fitted into grooves cut into the cylinder. The -other cylinder was covered with brushes, and so placed that the tips -of the bristles of these brushes touched the saw-teeth. The raw cotton -was put in a hopper, where it was met by the teeth of the saws, and -torn from the seeds. The brushes then swept the cotton clear of the -gin. The seeds were too large to go between the bars through which the -series of saws protruded, and were kept apart by themselves. Of course -many improvements were made upon this machine, but it was found that -even in this original form it would enable one man, using two -horse-power, to clean the seed from five thousand pounds of cotton in -a day. That meant that fortunes could be made in the hitherto -disregarded cotton fields of the South. - -Whitney now went to Connecticut to finish certain improvements on the -machine, to secure his patents, and to begin the manufacturing of as -many gins as his partner Miller should find were needed in Georgia. -The partners' wrote frequently to each other, and their letters show -the fierceness of the struggle they were waging to protect their -rights. "It will be necessary," wrote Miller, "to have a considerable -number of gins in readiness to send out as soon as the patent is -obtained in order to satisfy the absolute demands and make people's -heads easy on the subject; for I am informed of two other claimants -for the honor of the invention of the cotton-gin in addition to those -we knew before." - -The two men did everything in their power to hasten the building of -their gins. They knew their rivals were unscrupulous, and were in fact -already trying their best to prejudice the minds of the more -conservative Georgia cotton-growers against them. But money was very -scarce, and the manufacture of the machines proved so costly that -Whitney found it impossible to furnish as many gins as his partner -wanted. - -Whitney applied for his patent in 1793. The following April he went -back to Georgia, where he found unusually large crops of cotton had -been planted, in expectation of using the gin. As there were not -enough of his gins ready rivals were pushing their inferior machines. -One of these, called the roller-gin, destroyed the seeds by crushing -them between two revolving cylinders, instead of separating them by -teeth. A large part of the crushed seed was, however, apt to stay in -the cotton after it had passed through the machine, and this form of -gin did not therefore produce as satisfactory results as did -Whitney's. Another rival was the saw-gin, which was almost identical -with Whitney's gin, except that the saw-teeth were cut in circular -rings of iron instead of being made of wire. This machine infringed -the partners' patents, and caused them an almost endless series of -expensive lawsuits. - -Two years of conflict in the South proved the superiority of Whitney's -invention over all other machines, but resulted in little actual -profit. In March, 1795, he went north to New York, where he was kept -for several weeks by illness. When he got back to his factory in New -Haven he found that fire had wiped out his workshop, together with all -his gins and papers. He was $4,000 in debt, and virtually bankrupt. -Yet he had great courage, and fortunately his partner Miller had the -same faith. When Whitney sent him the news from New Haven, Miller -replied, "I think we ought to meet such events with equanimity. We -have been pursuing a valuable object by honorable means, and I trust -that all our measures have been such as reason and virtue must -justify. It has pleased Providence to postpone the attainment of this -object. In the midst of the reflections which your story has -suggested, and with feelings keenly awake to the heavy, the extensive -injury we have sustained, I feel a secret joy and satisfaction that -you possess a mind in this respect similar to my own--that you are not -disheartened, that you do not relinquish the pursuit, and that you -will persevere, and endeavor, at all events, to attain the main -object. This is exactly consonant to my own determinations. I will -devote all my time, all my thoughts, all my exertions, and all the -money I can earn or borrow to encompass and complete the business we -have undertaken; and if fortune should, by any future disaster, deny -us the boon we ask, we will at least deserve it. It shall never be -said that we have lost an object which a little perseverance could -have attained. I think, indeed, it will be very extraordinary if two -young men in the prime of life, with some share of ingenuity, and with -a little knowledge of the world, a great deal of industry, and a -considerable command of property, should not be able to sustain such a -stroke of misfortune as this, heavy as it is." - -Whitney attempted to rebuild his factory, but the affairs of the firm -were in extreme jeopardy. He had to pay twelve per cent. a year to -borrow money for his work. Then certain English manufacturers reported -that the cotton that was cleaned by Whitney's gin was not of good -quality. The struggle was a hard one. He wrote to Miller, "The extreme -embarrassments which have been for a long time accumulating upon me -are now become so great that it will be impossible for me to struggle -against them many days longer. It has required my utmost exertions to -exist without making the least progress in our business. I have -labored hard against the strong current of disappointment which has -been threatening to carry us down the cataract, but I have labored -with a shattered oar and struggled in vain, unless some speedy relief -is obtained.... Life is but short at best, and six or seven years out -of the midst of it is to him who makes it an immense sacrifice. My -most unremitted attention has been devoted to our business. I have -sacrificed to it other objects from which, before this time, I might -certainly have gained $20,000 or $30,000. My whole prospects have been -embarked in it, with the expectation that I should before this time -have realized something from it." - -Pirates now filled the field, and the lawsuits which they were -compelled to bring to defend themselves went against them. Miller -wrote to Whitney on May 11, 1797, "The event of the first patent suit, -after all our exertions made in such a variety of ways, has gone -against us. The preposterous custom of trying civil causes of this -intricacy and magnitude by a common jury, together with the -imperfection of the patent law, frustrated all our views, and -disappointed expectations which had become very sanguine. The tide of -popular opinion was running in our favor, the judge was well disposed -toward us, and many decided friends were with us, who adhered firmly -to our cause and interests. The judge gave a charge to the jury -pointedly in our favor; after which the defendant himself told an -acquaintance of his that he would give $2,000 to be free from the -verdict, and yet the jury gave it against us, after a consultation of -about an hour. And having made the verdict general, no appeal would -lie. - -"On Monday morning, when the verdict was rendered, we applied for a -new trial, but the judge refused it to us on the ground that the jury -might have made up their opinion on the defect of the law, which makes -an aggression consist of making, devising, and using or selling; -whereas we could only charge the defendant with using. - -"Thus, after four years of assiduous labor, fatigue, and difficulty, -are we again set afloat by a new and most unexpected obstacle. Our -hopes of success are now removed to a period still more distant than -before, while our expenses are realized beyond all controversy." - -The failure of that patent suit loosed all the pirates, and Whitney -saw the cotton fields flooded with gins, all of which were really -based on his invention, and yet from which he did not receive one -penny. The public had given over paying any attention to his patents. -Every one seemed determined that a machine which meant so much to the -cotton lands should be free to all, irrespective of any legal or moral -rights in the matter. Miller wrote him a little later, "The prospect -of making anything by ginning in this state is at an end. -Surreptitious gins are erected in every part of the country, and the -jurymen at Augusta have come to an understanding among themselves that -they will never give a cause in our favor, let the merits of the case -be as they may." - -[Illustration: WHITNEY, THE INVENTOR OF THE COTTON GIN] - -Affairs could not well have been worse for the partners. They would -have been willing to give up making gins and devote themselves to -selling the rights they had already obtained, but it was difficult to -find purchasers for titles which were so openly disregarded on every -hand. They found it almost impossible to collect payments for the few -machines they did sell, the buyers preferring to be sued, trusting to -a jury of their neighbors deciding for them against the unpopular -manufacturers, who claimed to control such an important machine as the -gin. Whitney tried to sell his patent rights for South Carolina to -that state itself, and had the matter brought before the Legislature. -It met with better success than usual. "I have been at this place," he -writes in a letter, "a little more than two weeks attending the -Legislature. A few hours previous to their adjournment they voted to -purchase for the state of South Carolina my patent-right to the -machine for cleaning cotton at $50,000, of which sum $20,000 is to be -paid in hand, and the remainder in three annual payments of $10,000 -each." To this he added, "We get but a song for it in comparison with -the worth of the thing, but it is securing something. It will enable -Miller & Whitney to pay their debts and divide something between -them." - -This plan of selling the rights to the states seemed to promise better -things for the inventor. In December, 1802, he arranged for the sale -of similar rights to the state of North Carolina, and a little later a -similar agreement was made with Tennessee. But imagine his dismay when -the South Carolina Legislature suddenly annulled its contract with -him, refused to make any further payments, and began suit to recover -what had already been paid him. The current of popular opinion had -again set against this firm of two. It was said that a man in -Switzerland had invented a cotton-gin before Whitney, and that the -main features of his own machine had been taken from others. But there -were some upright and honorable men in the South Carolina Legislature, -and they finally succeeded in convincing their associates that Whitney -had been maligned. In the session of 1804 the Legislature rescinded -its latest act in regard to the gin, and testified to its high opinion -of Whitney. - -The inventor's faithful partner, Miller, died in 1803. He had stood by -Whitney through thick and thin, and had met one buffet after another. -In spite of his splendid spirit the ceaseless war to protect their -claims had somewhat broken him, and he had despaired of ever receiving -justice in the courts. Whitney himself was now receiving some return -from the sales to the states, and these enabled him to keep out of -debt, but the greater part of his earnings had still to go for the -costs of his suits at law. - -In December, 1807, the United States Court in Georgia gave a decision -in Whitney's favor against a man named Fort who had infringed on his -patent. The words of Judge Johnson in this case became celebrated. "To -support the originality of the invention," said he, "the complainants -have produced a variety of depositions of witnesses, examined under -commission, whose examinations expressly prove the origin, progress, -and completion of the machine of Whitney, one of the copartners. -Persons who were made privy to his first discovery testify to the -several experiments which he made in their presence before he ventured -to expose his invention to the scrutiny of the public eye. But it is -not necessary to resort to such testimony to maintain this point. The -jealousy of the artist to maintain that reputation, which his -ingenuity has justly acquired, has urged him to unnecessary pains on -this subject. There are circumstances in the knowledge of all mankind -which prove the originality of this invention more satisfactorily to -the mind than the direct testimony of a host of witnesses. The -cotton-plant furnished clothing to mankind before the age of -Herodotus. The green seed is a species much more productive than the -black, and by nature adapted to a much greater variety of climate, but -by reason of the strong adherence of the fibre to the seed, without -the aid of some more powerful machine for separating it than any -formerly known among us, the cultivation of it would never have been -made an object. The machine of which Mr. Whitney claims the invention -so facilitates the preparation of this species for use that the -cultivation of it has suddenly become an object of infinitely greater -national importance than that of the other species ever can be. Is it, -then, to be imagined that if this machine had been before discovered, -the use of it would ever have been lost, or could have been confined -to any tract or country left unexplored by commercial enterprise? But -it is unnecessary to remark further upon this subject. A number of -years have elapsed since Mr. Whitney took out his patent, and no one -has produced or pretended to prove the existence of a machine of -similar construction or use. - -"With regard to the utility of this discovery the court would deem it -a waste of time to dwell long upon this topic. Is there a man who -hears us who has not experienced its utility? The whole interior of -the Southern states was languishing and its inhabitants emigrating for -want of some object to engage their attention and employ their -industry, when the invention of this machine at once opened views to -them which set the whole country in active motion. From childhood to -age it has presented to us a lucrative employment. Our debts have been -paid off, our capitals have increased, and our lands trebled -themselves in value. We cannot express the weight of the obligation -which the country owes to this invention. The extent of it cannot now -be seen. Some faint presentiment may be formed from the reflection -that cotton is rapidly supplanting wool, flax, silk, and even furs in -manufactures, and may one day profitably supply the use of specie in -our East India trade. Our sister states also participate in the -benefits of this invention, for besides affording the raw material for -their manufacturers, the bulkiness and quantity of the article afford -a valuable employment for their shipping." - -Whitney had fought long and hard, and had at last received at least -partial justice. But it had been so slow in coming that, when his -rights were to a certain extent established, there were only a few -years left his patents to run. He had realized for some time that he -must look elsewhere for financial returns, and so, in 1798, had begun -the manufacture of firearms. He purchased a site for his factory near -New Haven, at a place called Whitneyville now, then known as East -Rock. Oliver Wolcott, Secretary of the Treasury, ordered 10,000 stand -of arms from him, and he contracted to furnish them. At first he met -with many difficulties, owing to lack of proper materials and workmen, -and his own lack of familiarity with the business. But as time went on -the works improved, and Whitney applied his inventive genius to many -important improvements. He received other contracts, and eventually -the national government came to rely upon his factory for a large part -of its war supplies. - -In 1812 Whitney applied for a renewal of his patent for the -cotton-gin. He set forth the facts that he had received almost no -compensation for his invention, that it had made the fortune of many -of the Southern states, that it enabled one man to do the work of a -thousand men before, but that, placing the value of one man's labor at -twenty cents a day, the whole amount he had received was less than the -value of the labor saved in one hour by the use of his machines -throughout the country. But again there was opposition from many -influential Southern planters, and his application was denied. - -The inventor was, however, making money from his factory for firearms, -and his personal fortunes had brightened. In 1817 he married Henrietta -Edwards, the daughter of Judge Pierpont Edwards, of Connecticut. His -home life was ideally happy, he was fond of New Haven, and eventually -he received increasing evidence that the people of the cotton lands -were learning their indebtedness to him, and were anxious to make some -restitution for their earlier disregard of his claims. He died January -8, 1825. - -The material value of Eli Whitney's invention can hardly be estimated. -It opened a new kingdom to the South. It built up countless acres of -hitherto unprofitable land. But in spite of men's recognition of the -value of his cotton-gin, and their instant adoption of it everywhere, -he was for years denied his title to it, and had to wage a warfare -that is almost without parallel in the history of American inventors. - - - - -VII - -FULTON AND THE STEAMBOAT - -1765-1815 - - -There is a peculiar charm attaching to the figure of Robert Fulton, -the attraction that plays about the man who is many-sided, and -picturesque on whatever side one looks at him. He was a man at home on -both shores of the Atlantic, at a time when such men were rare. He had -been taught drawing by Major André, when the latter was a prisoner of -war in the little Pennsylvania town of Lancaster. He had hung out his -sign as Painter of Miniatures at the corner of Second and Walnut -Streets in Philadelphia, under the friendly patronage of Benjamin -Franklin. He had lodged in London at the house of Benjamin West, and -shown his pictures at the Royal Academy. Two great English noblemen -became his allies in scientific studies. Napoleon, as First Consul, -bargained with him over his invention of torpedoes. Finally he sent -the little _Clermont_ up the Hudson under steam. There was a man of -rare ability, one who had many hostages to give to fortune. He was the -artist turned inventor, as many another has done, and if he was not as -great an artist as Leonardo da Vinci neither was Leonardo as great an -inventor as Robert Fulton. - -Fulton invented a machine for cutting marble, one for spinning flax, -a double inclined plane for canal navigation, a machine for twisting -rope, an earth-scoop for canal and irrigation purposes, a -cable-cutter, the earliest French panorama, a submarine torpedo boat, -and the steamboat. Other men had worked over steamboats, but he -reached the goal. He made the steamboat practicable, as Watt had the -steam-engine. Above all, he was very fortunate; he found his -countrymen ready to welcome the _Clermont_, and to fall in with his -plans, an attitude which had not faced certain men in England and in -France who had built similar boats earlier than Fulton. Some engineers -have been tempted to call him a lucky amateur, a talented artist who -happened to become interested in new methods of navigation. If one -grants all this there is still the fact that it was the _Clermont's_ -success that opened the watercourses of the world to steam. - -"Quicksilver Bob" he was called as a boy in Lancaster, because he used -to buy all that metal he could for experiments. Even then he was -many-sided. He made designs for firearms and experimented with guns to -learn the carrying distance of various bores and balls. There was a -factory in Lancaster where arms were being made for the Continental -troops, and "Quicksilver Bob" was given the run of the place. In -addition he painted signs to hang before the village shops and -taverns. - -To simplify his fishing expeditions he made a model of a boat -propelled by paddles, and later he built such a boat and used it on -the Conestoga River. No one could tell what he would turn to next. -When Hessian prisoners were kept in the neighborhood the town boys -would go out to look at them, and Robert would make sketches of them. -These sketches gave him a local reputation, and his friends were not -surprised when at seventeen he left Lancaster to seek his fortune as a -painter of portraits and miniatures in Philadelphia. - -He was well liked in the city. He had a talent for friendship, which, -combined with good looks, more than ordinary intelligence, and most -uncommon industry, carried him far. He drew plans for machinery, he -designed houses and carriages, he worked as professional painter. -Franklin became his patron and adviser. Then illness sent him to the -fashionable hot springs of Virginia, and there he heard so much talk -of England and of France that he decided to see those countries for -himself. Before he left America he bought a farm in Washington County, -Pennsylvania, in order to insure a home for his mother and sisters. -That done, he sailed for England, with a packet of letters of -introduction, in 1786. - -In London Fulton professed himself to be an artist, although his -thoughts were constantly tending toward inventions. He lived at the -house of Benjamin West, and painted, and his portraits were shown at -the Royal Academy and at the Society of Artists. Betimes he enjoyed -himself in society and in trips to the counties. He journeyed into -Devonshire and stayed at Powderham Castle, copying famous pictures -there. Wherever he went he made friends, and their influence was -constantly helping him forward on what must have been a somewhat -precarious career. - -Two of these friends, the Duke of Bridgewater and the Earl of -Stanhope, were scientists of repute. The Duke owned a great estate, of -untold mineral wealth, which had never been properly worked because of -lack of transportation facilities. He had recently built several -canals on this property, and was at the head of a number of companies -which were planning to intersect England with waterways. He interested -Fulton in his schemes and gradually weaned his thoughts away from art -to civil engineering. The Earl of Stanhope corresponded with him over -the possibility of propelling boats by steam, and in these letters -Fulton first gave the outlines of the plans he was later to perfect in -the _Clermont_. The Earl was deeply interested, and encouraged the -young American to persevere, but for the time Fulton left the -steamboat to work out other problems. - -The possibility of a great English canal system appealed to him -strongly, and in 1794 he obtained an English patent for a double -inclined plane for raising and lowering canal boats. Later he took -English patents on a machine for spinning flax, and on a new device -for twisting hemp rope. There followed others for a machine that -should scoop out earth to make canals or aqueducts, for a "Market or -Passage Boat" to use on canals, and for a "Dispatch Boat" that should -travel quickly. He sent drawings of all these inventions to his -influential friends, hoping that they would push them, and he also -wrote and published "A Treatise on Canal Navigation." By this time he -would seem to have given up all thought of the artist's career, and -to have turned his talent with the pen to the aid of his mechanical -drawings. - -The French Revolution was imminent, and Fulton was busy studying the -conditions that were leading to it. He believed that Free Trade would -tend to abolish many of the difficulties that divided nations, and he -wrote a paper on that subject, addressed to the French Directory. He -believed in democracy, but he was strongly of the opinion that the -young American republic should take no part in the struggle for -liberty in Europe. In a letter written in 1794 he says, "It has been -much Agitated here whether the Americans would join the French. But I -Believe every Cool friend to America could wish them to Remain nuter. -The americans have no troublesome Neighbors, they are without foreign -Possessions, and do not want the alliance of any Nation, for this -Reason they have nothing to do with foreign Politics. And the Art of -Peace Should be the Study of every young American which I most -Sincerely hope they will maintain." - -But Fulton himself was in a manner to be drawn into the turmoil. When -France had quieted somewhat England began that policy of aggression on -the sea toward American ships and crews that was to lead to the War of -1812. Fulton's attention was drawn from canal-building to the -possibility of some invention that might tend to subserve peace, and -this in time led him to design and build the first torpedo. - -Again Fulton's talent for friendship stood him in good stead. When he -had left London for Paris he called upon Joel Barlow, poet and -American diplomat, and was urged to take up his residence first at the -hotel where the Barlows were staying, and later at their house. For -seven years Fulton lived with them, busy about the most diverse -matters, and always keenly interested in the struggles of the new and -hot-tempered republic. A rich American had bought a tract of central -real estate in Paris and had built a row of shops arranged on the two -sides of a cloister. Fulton suggested that he add a panorama to the -other buildings, and the idea was adopted. Fulton was given charge, -and by 1800 he had built and opened the first panorama that Paris had -ever seen. The show made money, and the inventor, a perfect -Jack-of-all-trades, added another feather to his varicolored cap. - -In December, 1797, Fulton had interested his friend Barlow in a -machine intended to drive "carcasses" of gunpowder under water. But -his first experiments at exploding the gunpowder at a definite moment -failed. Then he moved to Havre, where he would have greater -opportunity to try out his torpedo-boats, as he christened them. His -idea was that if his invention succeeded war would be made so -dangerous that nations would be obliged to keep peace. Barlow was able -to assist him with money until he had built and actually navigated -some of his torpedoes along the coast. When he had satisfied himself, -he wrote to the French government, the Directory, offering them his -invention for use against their enemies. - -The Directory was pleased with the offer, but the government was in -so much of a turmoil that it was months before any positive action was -taken. At length, on February 28, 1801, Fulton received word from -Napoleon, the First Consul, to send his torpedo-boat against the -English fleet. He set out; but the English fleet did not come his way, -and he spent the summer vainly reconnoitering along the coast. To show -the value of his invention he arranged to attack a sloop. This he -described in his letter to the French Commission on Submarine -Navigation. "To prove this experiment," he wrote, "the Prefect -Maritime and Admiral Villaret ordered a small Sloop of about 40 feet -long to be anchored in the Road, on the 23rd of Thermidor. With a bomb -containing about 20 pounds of powder I advanced to within 200 Metres, -then taking my direction so as to pass near the Sloop, I struck her -with the bomb in my passage. The explosion took place and the sloop -was torn into atoms, in fact, nothing was left but the buye [buoy] and -cable. And the concussion was so great that a column of Water, Smoke -and fibres of the Sloop were cast from 80 to 100 feet in Air. This -simple Experiment at once proved the effect of the Bomb Submarine to -the satisfaction of all the Spectators." - -This exhibition took place in August, 1801, before a crowd of -onlookers, and at once established the value of the torpedo. But, as -he was unable to attack any English ships, the French government lost -interest in his invention, and Napoleon's scientific advisers reported -to him that they regarded the young American as "a visionary." - -At the same time the British government awakened to the great -possibilities of Fulton's device. His old friend, Lord Stanhope, urged -that suitable offers be made him. This was ultimately done, and in -April, 1804, Fulton left France and returned to London. A contract was -drawn up by which he was to put his torpedo at the service of the -English government and receive in return two hundred pounds a month -and one-half the value of all ships that might be destroyed by his -invention. - -This arrangement, however, was of short duration. A change of ministry -dampened his hopes, and in 1806 the government declined to adopt his -invention on his terms. At the same time they tried to suppress this -new method of warfare, and to that end made him another offer. Fulton, -always an ardent patriot, answered, "At all events, whatever may be -your reward, I will never consent to let these inventions lie dormant -should my Country at any time have need of them. Were you to grant me -an annuity of £20,000 a year, I would sacrifice all to the safety & -independence of my Country. But I hope that England and America will -understand their mutual Interest too well to War with each other And I -have no desire to Introduce my Engines into practice for the benefit -of any other Nation." - -He was already eager to return home to work upon his long cherished -plans for a steamboat. He continues, "As I am bound in honor to Mr. -Livingston to put my steamboat in practice and such engine is of more -immediate use to my Country than Submarine Navigation, I wish to -devote some years to it and should the British Government allow me an -annuity I should not only do justice to my friends but it would enable -me to carry my steamboat and other plans into effect for the good of -my Country.--It has never been my intention to hide these Inventions -from the World on any consideration, on the contrary it has been my -intention to make them public as soon as consistent with strict -justice to all with whom I am concerned. For myself I have ever -considered the interest of America [n] free commerce, the interest of -mankind, the magnitude of the object in view and the rational -reputation connected with it superior to all calculations of a -pecuniary kind." - -Satisfactory terms of agreement were reached, and in 1806 Fulton was -free and ready to return to that native land from which he had been -away twenty years. - -The building of a practicable steamboat had long been in his mind. He -had corresponded on the subject with Chancellor Livingston, who had -devoted much time and money to new inventions. Fulton, when in Paris, -had experimented with models of steamboats, and had studied the -records of what had already been done in that line. In 1802 he had -started a course of calculations on the resistance of water, and the -comparative advantages of the known means of propelling vessels. He -had rejected the plan of using paddles or oars, and also of forcing -water out of the stern of the vessel, and had retained the idea of the -paddle-wheel. This he tried successfully on a small model that he -built and used on a river that ran through the village of Plombières. -He then built an experimental boat, sixty-six feet long and eight -feet wide, and this he exhibited to a large audience of Parisians in -August, 1803. His success led him to order certain parts of a -steam-engine from the firm of Boulton and Watt in Birmingham, these to -be shipped to America. Meantime Chancellor Livingston had obtained for -himself and Fulton the exclusive right to navigate the waters of New -York state by vessels propelled by fire or steam. - -As soon as he reached America in December, 1806, Fulton started work -on his boat. He engaged Charles Brownne, a ship-builder on the East -River, to lay down the hull. He decided to name the vessel the -_Clermont_, the name of Chancellor Livingston's country-place on the -Hudson, where Fulton had been a guest. The engine duly arrived from -Birmingham and was carried to the shipyard. As a number of loafers and -hangers-on about the docks threatened injury to "Fulton's Folly," as -the building boat was called, he had to engage watchmen to guard his -property. By August the boat was finished, and was moved by her own -engine from the yards to the Jersey shore. She was one hundred and -fifty feet long, thirteen feet wide, and drew two feet of water. -Before she had gone a quarter of a mile both passengers and observers -on the shore were satisfied that the steamboat was a thoroughly -practicable vessel. - -On Sunday, August 9, 1807, Fulton made a short trial trip of the -_Clermont_, and wrote an account of it to Livingston. "Yesterday about -12 o'clock I put the steamboat in motion first with a paddle 8 inches -broad, 3 feet long, with which I ran about one mile up the East River -against a tide of about one mile an hour, it being nearly high -water. I then anchored and put on another paddle 8 inches wide, 3 feet -long, started again and then, according to my best observations, I -went 3 miles an hour, that is two against a tide of one: another board -of 8 inches was wanting, which had not been prepared, I therefore -turned the boat and ran down with the tide--and turned her round -neatly into the berth from which I parted. She answers the helm equal -to anything that ever was built, and I turned her twice in three times -her own length. Much has been proved by this experiment. First that -she will, when in complete order, run up to my full calculations. -Second, that my axles, I believe, will be sufficiently strong to run -the engine to her full power. Third, that she steers well, and can be -turned with ease." - -[Illustration: "THE CLERMONT," THE FIRST STEAM PACKET] - -It was on August 17, 1807, that the _Clermont_ made her first historic -trip up the Hudson. At one o'clock she cast off from her dock near the -State's Prison, in what was called Greenwich Village, on the North -River. The inventor described the voyage characteristically to a -friend. He wrote, "The moment arrived in which the word was to be -given for the boat to move. My friends were in groups on the deck. -There was anxiety mixed with fear among them. They were silent, sad -and weary. I read in their looks nothing but disaster, and almost -repented of my efforts. The signal was given and the boat moved on a -short distance and then stopped and became immovable. To the silence -of the preceding moment, now succeeded murmurs of discontent, and -agitations, and whispers and shrugs. I could hear distinctly -repeated--'I told you it was so; it is a foolish scheme: I wish we -were well out of it.' - -"I elevated myself upon a platform and addressed the assembly. I -stated that I knew not what was the matter, but if they would be quiet -and indulge me for half an hour, I would either go on or abandon the -voyage for that time. This short respite was conceded without -objection. I went below and examined the machinery, and discovered -that the cause was a slight maladjustment of some of the work. In a -short time it was obviated. The boat was again put in motion. She -continued to move on. All were still incredulous. None seemed willing -to trust the evidence of their own senses. We left the fair city of -New York; we passed through the romantic and ever-varying scenery of -the Highlands; we descried the clustering houses of Albany; we reached -its shores,--and then, even then, when all seemed achieved, I was the -victim of disappointment. - -"Imagination superseded the influence of fact. It was then doubted if -it could be done again, or if done, it was doubted if it could be made -of any great value." - -But the _Clermont_, in spite of all prophecies to the contrary, had -traveled under her own steam from New York to Albany, and the trip was -the crowning event in Fulton's career as inventor. At the time she -made that first voyage the _Clermont_ was a very simple craft, decked -for a short distance at bow and stern, the engine open to view, and -back of the engine a house like that on a canal-boat to shelter the -boiler and provide an apartment for the officers. The rudder was of -the pattern used on sailing-vessels, and was moved by a tiller. The -boiler was of the same pattern used in Watt's steam-engines, and was -set in masonry. The condenser stood in a large cold-water cistern, and -the weight of the masonry and the cistern greatly detracted from the -boat's buoyancy. She was so very unwieldy that the captains of other -river boats, realizing the danger of the steamboat's competition, were -able to run into her, and make it appear that the fault was hers; and -as a result she several times reached port with only a single wheel. - -There were almost as many quaint descriptions of the boat as there -were people who saw it. One described it as an "ungainly craft looking -precisely like a backwoods sawmill mounted on a scow and set on fire." -Others said the _Clermont_ appeared at night like a "monster moving on -the waters defying the winds and tide, and breathing flames and -smoke." Some of the ignorant along the Hudson fell on their knees and -prayed to be delivered from the monster. The boat must have been a -very strange sight; pine wood was used for fuel, and when the engineer -stirred the fire a torrent of sparks went shooting into the sky. - -The boat was clumsy beyond question. The exposed machinery creaked and -groaned, the unguarded paddle-wheels revolved ponderously and splashed -a great deal of water, the tiller was badly placed for steering. -Fulton quickly remedied some of the defects, and the _Clermont_ that -began to make regular runs from New York to Albany a little later was -quite a different boat from that which made her maiden voyage on -August 17th. - -In spite of Fulton's gloomy tone in his letter there were many among -the men and women who made the first trip with him who were not -dubious concerning the invention. As soon as the first difficulties -were overcome and the boat was moving on a steady keel, the -passengers, most of whom were close friends of Fulton and of -Chancellor Livingston, broke into song. As they passed by the -Palisades it is said they sang "Ye Banks and Braes o' Bonny Doon." -Fulton himself could not be overlooked. A contemporary described him: -"Among a thousand individuals you might readily point out Robert -Fulton. He was conspicuous for his gentle, manly bearing and freedom -from embarrassment, for his extreme activity, his height, somewhat -over six feet,--his slender yet energetic form and well accommodated -dress, for his full and curly dark brown hair, carelessly scattered -over his forehead and falling around his neck. His complexion was -fair, his forehead high, his eyes dark and penetrating and revolving -in a capacious orbit of cavernous depths; his brow was thick and -evinced strength and determination; his nose was long and prominent, -his mouth and lips were beautifully proportioned, giving the impress -of eloquent utterance. Trifles were not calculated to impede him or -damp his perseverance." - -Fulton was now forty-two years old, and famous on both sides of the -Atlantic. He asked Harriet Livingston, a near relation of his friend -the Chancellor, to become his wife. She accepted him, and he was -warmly welcomed into that rich and influential family. - -On September 2, 1807, Fulton advertised regular sailings of the -_Clermont_ between New York and Albany. These proved popular, and -other routes were soon planned. That winter he made many changes in -the vessel and worked out certain devices that he wished to patent. -The name of _Clermont_ was changed to the _North River_ the following -spring, and the reconstructed steamboat continued in regular service -on the Hudson for a number of years. In the succeeding year he built -other boats, the _Rariton_, to run from New York to New Brunswick, and -_The Car of Neptune_ as a second Hudson River boat. He was very much -occupied perfecting new commercial schemes, protecting his patents -from a horde of pirates, and planning to introduce his invention into -Europe. Before his death in 1815, eight years after the _Clermont's_ -first trip, he had built seventeen boats, among them the first steam -war frigate, a torpedo boat, and the first steam ferry-boats with -rounded ends to be used for approaching opposite shores. - -A century has not dimmed Fulton's fame, nor set aside his claim to be -the practical inventor of the steamboat. He built the first one to be -used in American waters, and his model was copied in all other -countries. He carried his ideas to completion, and that, with his -talent to observe and improve upon other men's work, gave him his -leading place among the world's pioneers. - - - - -VIII - -DAVY AND THE SAFETY-LAMP - -1778-1829 - - -Humphrey Davy, according to his contemporaries, could have chosen any -one of several roads to fame. Samuel Taylor Coleridge said of him, -"Had not Davy been the first chemist, he probably would have been the -first poet of his age." Among many activities he invented the -safety-lamp, the object of which was to protect miners from the perils -of exploding fire-damp. George Stephenson invented a similar device at -about the same time, or a little earlier, but Davy's lamp was the one -most generally adopted, and his claim as inventor is commonly -recognized, while Stephenson's fame is secure with the perfection of -the steam-locomotive and the railroad. - -Davy was born at Penzance in Cornwall December 17, 1778, the eldest -son in a family of five children. More alert and imaginative than -other boys, and with an uncommonly good memory, he made great headway -at Mr. Coryton's grammar school, where he went when he was six. -Coleridge's opinion of him may have been correct, for history says -that he was a fluent writer of English and Latin verses while still a -schoolboy, and that he could tell stories well enough to hold an -audience of his teachers and neighbors. He liked fine language and -the arts of speech, and, according to his brother, Dr. John Davy, he -cultivated those arts in his walks. Once when he was taking a bottle -of medicine to a sick woman in the country he began to declaim a -stirring speech, and at its climax threw the bottle away. He never -noticed its loss until he reached the patient, and then wondered what -could have become of the vial. The bottle was found next morning in a -hay-field adjoining the path Davy had taken. - -When he was fourteen he left Mr. Coryton's school for the Truro -Grammar School, where he stayed for a year. Here he was famed for his -good-humor and a very original turn of mind. A school friend, -reminiscing about Humphrey, told of a walk several of them took one -hot day. "Whilst others complained of the heat," said he, "and whilst -I unbuttoned my waistcoat, Humphrey appeared with his great-coat -close-buttoned up to his chin, for the purpose, as he declared, of -keeping _out_ the heat. This was laughed at at the time, but it struck -me then, as it appears to me now, as evincing originality of thought -and an indisposition to be led by the example of others." - -This originality of thought and love of experiment for its own sake -were to be chief characteristics of the future scientist. - -His school education was finished when he was fifteen, and he returned -home, where he studied French in a desultory fashion, and devoted most -of his time to fishing, of which he was always very fond. His father's -death made him realize that as the eldest of the sons he must shoulder -the responsibility for the family's support, and, all his natural -tastes lying in that direction, he decided to become a physician. - -A practicing surgeon and apothecary of Penzance, Bingham Borlase, was -willing to take Davy as an apprentice, and the youth began work and -study in his office. But the boy was no ordinary apprentice. He became -almost at once an omnivorous student and writer. He laid out a plan of -study that included theology, astronomy, logic, mathematics, Latin, -Greek, Italian, Spanish, and Hebrew, and he wrote essays, remarkably -mature and well-phrased, in a series of note-books that he kept in the -office. Poetry he wrote also, filled with love of the sea that circled -his native Cornwall, and the great cliffs and moorlands that make that -part of England one of the most picturesque spots in the world. - -His work with Mr. Borlase brought him into the field of chemistry when -he was nineteen. It was a field of magic to him. He read two books, -Lavoisier's "Elements of Chemistry," and Nicholson's "Dictionary of -Chemistry," and rushed from them to experiment for himself. His -bedroom was his laboratory. His tools were old bottles, glasses, -tobacco-pipes, teacups, and such odds and ends as he could find. When -he needed fire he went to the kitchen. The owner of the house, Mr. -Tonkin, was an old friend of the Davy family, and very fond of -Humphrey, but the amateur experiments were almost too much for him. -Said he, after he had watched some more than usually noisy combustion -at the fire, "This boy, Humphrey, is incorrigible. Was there ever so -idle a dog? He will blow us all into the air." But Humphrey minded no -arguments nor objections; he was studying the effects of acids and -alkalies on vegetable colors, the kind of air that was to be found in -the vesicles of common varieties of seaweed, and the solution and -precipitation of metals. The work was all-engrossing; it occupied -every spare moment of his time and thought. - -If any greater stimulus to scientific study had been needed it would -have been supplied to young Davy by his acquaintance with Gregory -Watt, the son of the inventor James Watt. Gregory came to board at -Mrs. Davy's house when he was twenty-one, and Humphrey nineteen. He -was a splendid companion, and possessed of a remarkably brilliant -mind. In a short time the two youths had become inseparable friends, -experimenting together, and taking walks to the mines and quarries in -the neighborhood of Penzance in search of minerals for study. It was -an ideal friendship, incomparably valuable for Davy. But Gregory Watt -died when he was twenty-eight. "Gregory was a noble fellow," Davy -wrote to a friend, "and would have been a great man." - -In the meantime the young physician's apprentice had been lured away -from Penzance. Dr. Beddoes had established what he styled a Pneumatic -Institution at Clifton, the object of which was to try the medicinal -effects of different gases on consumptive patients. Davy, only twenty, -had been offered the position of director, and had accepted. His old -friend Mr. Tonkin, who had thought to see Humphrey become the leading -physician of Penzance, was so much put out with this change of plan -that he altered his will and revoked a legacy he had intended for -Davy. - -Filled with the ardor of research Davy went on with his experiments at -Clifton. He discovered silica in the epidermis of the stems of weeds, -corn, and grasses. He experimented with nitrous oxide (laughing gas) -for ten months until he had thoroughly learned its intoxicating -effects. Often he jeopardized his life, and once nearly lost it, by -breathing carburetted hydrogen. He published the results of his more -important experiments. When he was twenty-one he issued his "Essays on -Heat and Light." He experimented with galvanic electricity, and -increased the powers of Volta's Galvanic Pile. Moreover he outlined -and partly drafted an epic poem on the deliverance of the Israelites -from Egypt. The total is a surprising catalogue of industries for the -young Clifton Director. - -His ardor had worn him out, and he was forced to take a holiday at -Penzance. His reputation as a rising scientist had reached the little -Cornish town, and he was given a hearty welcome. He loved his own -country and never lost his delight in her natural beauties. Nor did he -ever forget his own days in the grammar school, and in his will he -directed that a certain sum of money should be paid to the master each -year "on condition that the boys may have a holiday on his birthday." - -Davy had already made influential friends, and one of them, Dr. Hope, -the professor of chemistry at the University of Edinburgh, was to give -him his next step forward. Dr. Hope knew Davy's works on heat, -nitrous oxide, and galvanic electricity, and he recommended the young -scientist to Count Rumford for the professorship of chemistry in the -Royal Philosophical Institution in London, which Count Rumford had -been instrumental in founding. Davy wrote to his mother that this was -"as honorable as any scientific appointment in the kingdom, with an -income of at least five hundred pounds a year." - -He went to London in 1801, and there he had the great satisfaction of -meeting many scientific men whose names and work were well known to -him. Six weeks after he arrived he began his first course of lectures, -taking for his subject the history of galvanism, and the various -methods of accumulating galvanic influence. The _Philosophical -Magazine_ said of the new lion, "The sensation created by his first -course of lectures at the Institution, and the enthusiastic admiration -which they obtained, is at this period hardly to be imagined. Men of -the first rank and talent,--the literary and the scientific, the -practical and the theoretical,--blue-stockings and women of fashion, -the old and the young, all crowded, eagerly crowded, the lecture-room. -His youth, his simplicity, his natural eloquence, his chemical -knowledge, his happy illustrations and well-conducted experiments, -excited universal attention and unbounded applause. Compliments, -invitations, and presents were showered upon him in abundance from all -quarters; his society was courted by all, and all appeared proud of -his acquaintance." - -Davy was an eloquent, enthusiastic, forceful speaker. He prepared his -lectures with the greatest care, and he delivered them with that -attention to dramatic effect which is instinctive in all really great -speakers. Coleridge said, "I attend Davy's lectures to increase my -stock of metaphors," and there were many others who went to hear the -young chemist for other reasons than a liking for science. He had his -own theories of the arts of public address. "Great powers," said he, -"have never been exerted independent of strong feelings. The rapid -arrangement of ideas from their various analogies to the equally rapid -comparisons of these analogies, with facts uniformly occurring during -the progress of discovery, have existed only in those minds where the -agency of strong and various motives is perceived--of motives -modifying each other, mingling with each other, and producing that -fever of emotion which is the joy of existence and the consciousness -of life." - -In addition to his lectures Davy worked hard in the well-stocked -laboratory of the Institution, where he was supplied with a corps of -capable assistants. His researches covered a very large part of the -field of chemistry, and he was indefatigable in running down any new -idea which his active brain chanced to hit upon. In his vacations from -London he went to the farthest regions of the British Isles, spending -considerable time in the north of Ireland and the Hebrides. Here he -studied the geological structures, and collected all the information -he could in regard to agriculture. Anything to do with natural science -interested him. He sketched a great deal, and he was forever asking -questions of all the countrymen he met. His questions made him famous -in many a hamlet, where such inquisitiveness had never been known -before. - -Shortly after he had moved to London he had been asked to investigate -astringent plants in connection with tanning. To this end he visited -tan-yards and farmers, and in 1802 began to deliver a course of -lectures on "The Connection of Chemistry with Vegetable Physiology." -These lectures proved remarkably popular, and for ten years he -repeated them at the meetings of the Board of Agriculture. They were -later published in book form, and so great was their interest that -they were translated into almost every European language. _The -Edinburgh Review_, that dean of British critics, said, "We feel -grateful for his having thus suspended for a time the labors of -original investigation, in order to apply the principles and -discoveries of his favorite science to the illustration and -improvement of an art which, above all others, ministers to the wants -and comforts of man." - -When his agricultural researches were finished he went back to his -studies with the voltaic pile or battery. He discovered that potash -and soda can be decomposed, with the resultant metals of potassium and -sodium. When he made this discovery he was so delighted that he danced -about the room, and was too excited to finish the experiment for some -time. - -He had worked too hard, and soon after this discovery he fell ill. For -days all London watched for the bulletins of the young chemist's -condition. Fortunately he recovered, and in time went back to the -work which was proving so invaluable for the world of science. - -The Royal Institution now provided him with a voltaic battery that was -four times as powerful as any that had previously been constructed. -With this he made numberless chemical discoveries. The Royal Society -had made him a fellow when he was twenty-five years old, and one of -its secretaries when he was twenty-nine. His London lectures grew -continually more popular. The Dublin Society invited him to lecture in -that city, and his course at once attracted the greatest attention. He -was already the scientific lion of England, but withal a very modest -and unassuming lion. Cuvier said, "Davy, not yet thirty-two, in the -opinion of all who could judge of such labors, held the first rank -among the chemists of this or of any other age." The National -Institute of France awarded him the prize that had been established by -Napoleon for the greatest discovery made by means of galvanism. Then, -in 1812, when he was thirty-three, he was knighted by the Prince -Regent. - -Sir Humphrey Davy, as he now was, married Mrs. Appreece, a woman of -many talents and unusual intelligence. She was rich, and soon after -their marriage Davy was able to resign his professorship at the Royal -Institution, which he had held for twelve years, and devote himself to -original research and to travel. Carrying a portable chemical -apparatus for his studies, Sir Humphrey and Lady Davy went first to -Scotland, and then to France, Italy, and Germany. They met the most -prominent men of the age in those countries. These men found the -famous chemist interested in everything about him, as much of a poet -as a scientist. In Rome he wrote a sonnet to the sculptor Canova, and -the literary circles of Italy proclaimed him a poet after their own -heart. - -Davy was now one of the foremost chemists of the world, but he could -as yet hardly lay claim to the title of inventor. He had been an -ambitious man, and had once said that he had escaped the temptations -that lay in wait for many men because of "an active mind, a deep ideal -feeling of good, and a look toward future greatness." That future -greatness had always been in his thoughts, and had been one of the -compelling powers in his great chemical discoveries. But beyond this -thought of greatness was a very deep and earnest desire to help his -fellow men. So when the chance to do this offered he took advantage of -it at once. - -Explosions of coal-gas were only too common in the mines of England. -They were almost always fatal to the miners, and formed the greatest -peril of those who labored underground. In 1812 a terrible explosion -occurred in a leading English mine, and caused the death of almost a -hundred miners. The mine had caught on fire, and had to be closed at -the mouth, which meant certain destruction to those within. The -catastrophe was so great that the biggest mine-owners met to see -whether some protection against such accidents could not be devised. -After much discussion they appointed a committee to call on Sir -Humphrey Davy and ask him to investigate the possibilities for them. - -Davy realized that here lay his opportunity to be of real service to -men, the goal he had always had in mind. He took up the question, -experimented with fire-damp, and found that it was in reality light -carburetted hydrogen. He visited many mines, and took into careful -consideration the conditions under which the men worked. For months he -investigated and experimented, and at length, in 1815, he constructed -what he called the safety-lamp. This was an oil lamp which had a -chimney or cage of wire gauze. The gauze held the flame of the lamp -from passing through and igniting the fire-damp outside. It was only -possible for a very little of the fire-damp to penetrate the gauze and -such as did was held harmless prisoner. The cage allowed air to pass -and light to escape, and although by the combustion of the fire-damp -the wire gauze might become red hot, it was still efficient as a -safety-lamp. - -Davy's safety-lamp proved exactly what was needed to act as protection -from exploding fire-damp. It was tried under all conditions and served -admirably. George Stephenson had worked out a somewhat similar -safety-lamp at about the same time, and his was used in the collieries -around Newcastle. In the rest of England Davy's lamp was at once -adopted. All miners were equipped with either the Davy lamp or the -"Geordie" lamp, as the other was called, and the mine fatalities from -fire-damp immediately decreased. This lamp is still the main safeguard -of those who have to contend with dangerous explosive gases in mines -all over the world. - -Friends urged Davy to patent his lamp, and thus ensure himself a -very considerable income from its sale. But he said, "I never thought -of such a thing: my sole object was to serve the cause of humanity; -and if I have succeeded, I am amply rewarded in the gratifying -reflection of having done so. I have enough for all my views and -purposes; more wealth could not increase either my fame or my -happiness. It might undoubtedly enable me to put four horses to my -carriage; but what would it avail me to have it said that Sir Humphrey -drives his carriage and four?" - -[Illustration: THE DAVY SAFETY LAMP] - -His fellow men appreciated the great value of this service he had -rendered. At Newcastle, the centre of the mining country, a dinner was -given in his honor, and a service of plate, worth over twelve thousand -dollars, was presented to him. The Emperor of Russia sent him a -magnificent silver-gilt vase, with a letter congratulating him on his -great achievement, and the King of England made him a baronet. - -Davy himself, in spite of his reputation as a chemist, placed this -invention above all his other work. "I value it more than anything I -ever did," said he. "It was the result of a great deal of -investigation and labor; but if my directions be attended to, it will -save the lives of thousands of poor men. I was never more affected -than by a written address which I received from the working colliers -when I was in the north, thanking me on behalf of themselves and their -families for the preservation of their lives." - -Davy's note-books are most interesting reading and show the -philosophic trend of his thoughts. At one time he said, "Whoever -wishes to enjoy peace, and is gifted with great talents, must labor -for posterity. In doing this he enjoys all the pleasures of -intellectual labor, and all the desire arising from protracted hope. -He feels no envy nor jealousy; his mark is too far distant to be seen -by short-sighted malevolence, and therefore it is never aimed at.... -To raise a chestnut on the mountain, or a palm in the plain, which may -afford shade, shelter, and fruit for generations yet unborn, and -which, if they have once fixed their roots, require no culture, is -better than to raise annual flowers in a garden, which must be watered -daily, and in which a cold wind may chill or too ardent a sunshine may -dry.... The best faculties of man are employed for futurity: speaking -is better than acting, writing is better than speaking." - -He was fond of travel, and after he had seen the successful use of his -lamp he went abroad again. When he returned he was made president of -the Royal Society, a position which had been made illustrious by Sir -Isaac Newton. The British navy asked him to discover what could be -done to prevent the corrosion of copper sheathing on vessels, caused -by salt water. He made experiments, and at last succeeded in rendering -the copper negatively electrical by the use of small pieces of tin, -zinc, or iron nails. But shells and seaweed would adhere to the -non-corroded surface, and hence the process was not entirely -successful. This principle of galvanic protection, however, was found -to be applicable to many other purposes. - -These and other experiments in chemistry and electricity, travel, and -his duties as president of the Royal Society filled his days. In 1826 -he was attacked by paralysis, and from then he spent much of his time -on the continent, seeking health and strength. He wrote on fishing and -on travel, and all his writings, on whatever theme he touched, are -filled with the love of nature and of beauty, and permeated with that -philosophic balance that had been characteristic of his whole career. -He died in Geneva, May 29, 1829. - -Davy was not the born inventor, drawn irresistibly to construct -something new. He was the born chemist, and it was only when he was -asked to investigate the nature of the fire-damp that he fell to -studying whether some adequate protection could not be afforded the -miners. Yet he himself said that he was more proud of his safety-lamp -than of all his other discoveries, and although the scientists and -chemists may think of Humphrey Davy as a great experimenter, great -lecturer, and great writer on chemistry and electricity, the world at -large knows him best for his safety-lamp and for the great change for -the better he was able to bring about in the mines of England. - - - - -IX - -STEPHENSON AND THE LOCOMOTIVE - -1781-1848 - - -The need of finding a new way of working the coal mines of England, -and of marketing the coal, which had been such an important factor in -the development of the steam-engine, was a scarcely less important -factor in the building of the earliest practical railway locomotive. -The coal had to be hauled from the pit of the colliery to the shipping -place. It was carried in cars that were pushed or pulled over a rude -line of wooden or iron rails. But it was evident from the time when -James Watt began to build his steam-engines to lift the coal from the -mine that men of inventive minds would soon seek to send the cars over -the level ground by the same power. We owe the railroad chiefly to the -needs of the north of England, and there we find the real birth of the -locomotive. - -About the beginning of the nineteenth century a number of men in -England were experimenting with new means of locomotion, both for -merchandise and for passengers. Their projects varied from cars -running on wheels and drawn by horses to carriages propelled by small -stationary steam-engines, placed at short distances from each other -along the road. In 1802 Richard Trevethick, a captain in a Cornish -tin-mine, took out a patent for a steam-carriage. The machine he built -looked like an ordinary stage-coach on four wheels. It had one -horizontal cylinder, which was placed in the rear of the hind axle, -together with the boiler and the furnace-box. The motion of the piston -was carried to a separate crank-axle, and that in turn gave the motion -to the axle of the driving-wheel. This was in itself a great -invention, being the first really successful high-pressure engine that -was built on the principle of moving a piston by the elasticity of -steam against only the pressure of the air. The steam was admitted -from the boiler under the piston that moved in a cylinder, and forced -it upward. When the motion had reached its limit, the communication -between the piston and the under side of the cylinder was shut off, -and the steam escaped into the atmosphere. Then a passage was opened -between the boiler and the upper end of the piston, which was -consequently pushed downward, and then the steam was again allowed to -escape. As a result the power of the engine was equal to the -difference between the atmosphere's pressure and the elastic force of -the steam in the boiler. - -This steam-carriage of Trevethick was fairly successful, and created a -great sensation in that part of Cornwall where it was built. He -decided to take it to London, and drove it himself to Plymouth, from -which port it was to be carried by sea. On the road it caused -amazement and consternation, and won the name of Captain Trevethick's -dragon. He exhibited it in London, but after a short time gave up -driving it, believing that the roads of England were too badly built -to make the use of a steam-carriage feasible. - -Other men were working on similar lines. Among them was the owner of a -colliery in the north named Blackett, who built a number of engines -for propelling coal-cars and used them at his mines. But these were -very clumsy and heavy, moved slowly, and had to be continually -repaired at considerable expense, so that other miners, after -examining Blackett's engines, decided they were not worth the cost of -manufacture. To make the steam-carriage really serviceable it must be -more efficient and reliable. - -Meantime a young man named George Stephenson, who was working at a -coal mine at Killingworth, seven miles north of Newcastle, was -studying out a new plan of locomotive. His father had been a fireman -in a colliery at Wylam, a village near Newcastle, and there the son -George was born on June 9, 1781. He had lived the life of the other -boys of the village, had been a herd-boy to care for a neighbor's -cows, had been a "picker" in the colliery, and separated stones and -dross from the coal, had risen to assistant fireman, then fireman, -then engineman. He was strong and vigorous, fond of outdoor sports, -and also considerable of a student. In time he moved to Willington -Quay, a village on the River Tyne, where coal was shipped to London. -Here he married, and made his home in a small cottage near the quay. -He was in charge of a fixed engine on Willington Ballast Hill that -drew the trains of laden coal-cars up the incline. - -After he had worked for three years at Willington he was induced to -take the position of brakesman of the engine at the West Moor Colliery -at Killingworth. He had only been settled in his new place a short -time when his wife died, leaving him with a son Robert. Stephenson -thenceforth threw himself into his work harder than ever, studying -with his son as the boy grew older, and spending a great deal of time -over his plans for a steam-engine that should move the coal-cars. He -knew the needs of the colliery perfectly, had acquired a good -knowledge of mechanics, and proposed to put his knowledge to account. - -He had already, as engine-wright of the Killingworth Colliery, applied -the surplus power of a pumping steam-engine to the work of drawing -coal from the deeper workings of the mine, thereby saving a great -amount of manual and horse labor. When the coal was drawn up it had to -be transported to the quays along the Tyne, and to simplify this -Stephenson laid down inclined planes so that a train of full wagons -moving down the incline was able to draw up another train of empty -wagons. But this would only work over a short distance, and was in -itself a small saving in effort. - -The engines that Mr. Blackett had built, using Trevethick's model as a -basis, were working daily near the Killingworth Colliery, and -Stephenson frequently went over to see them. He studied Mr. Blackett's -latest locomotive, nicknamed "Black Billy," with the greatest care, -and then told his friend Jonathan Foster that he was convinced that he -could build a better engine than Trevethick's, one that would work -more effectively and cheaply and draw a train of cars more steadily. - -He also had the advantage of seeing other primitive locomotives that -were being tried at different places near Newcastle. One of these, -known as Blenkinsop's Leeds engine, ran on a tramway, and would draw -sixteen wagons with a weight of seventy tons at the rate of about -three miles an hour. But the Blenkinsop engine was found to be very -unsteady, and tore up the tram-rails, and when its boiler blew up the -owner decided that the engine was not worth the cost of repair. -Stephenson, however, drew some useful points from it, as well as from -each of the other models he saw, and proposed to himself to follow -Watt's example in constructing his steam-engine, namely, to combine -the plans and discoveries of other inventors in a machine of his own, -and so achieve a more complete success. - -Stephenson was now very well regarded at the colliery for the -improvements he had made there. He brought the matter of building a -new "Traveling Engine," as he called it, to the attention of the -lessees of the mine in 1813. Lord Ravensworth, the principal partner, -formed a favorable opinion of Stephenson's plans, and agreed to supply -him with the funds necessary to build a locomotive. - -With his support Stephenson went to work to choose his tools and -workmen. He had to devise and make many of the tools he needed, and to -train his men specially for this business. He built his first engine -in the workshops at the West Moor Mine. It followed to some extent the -model of Blenkinsop's engine. It had a cylindrical boiler, eight feet -long and thirty-four inches in diameter, with an internal flue tube -passing through it. The engine had two vertical cylinders and worked -the propelling gear with cross-heads and connecting-rods. The power of -the two cylinders was carried by means of spur-wheels, which continued -the motive power to the wheels that supported the engine on the rails. -The engine was simply mounted on a wooden frame that was supported on -four wheels. These wheels were smooth, as Stephenson was convinced -that smooth wheels would run properly on an edge-rail. - -This engine, christened the "Blutcher," and taking about ten months to -build, was tried on the Killingworth Railway on July 25, 1814. It -proved to be the most successful working engine that had yet been -built, and would pull eight loaded wagons of about thirty tons' weight -up a slight grade at the rate of four miles an hour. For some time it -was used daily at the colliery. - -But the "Blutcher" was after all a very clumsy machine. The engine had -no springs, and its movement was a series of jolts, that injured the -rails and shook the machinery apart. The important parts of the -machinery were huddled together, and caused friction, and the -cog-wheels soon became badly worn. Moreover the engine moved scarcely -faster than a horse's walk, and the expense of running it was very -little less than the cost of horse-power. Stephenson saw that he must -in some way increase the power of his engine if he was to provide a -new motive power for the mines. - -In this first engine the steam had been allowed to escape into the air -with a loud, hissing noise, which frightened horses and cattle, and -was generally regarded as a nuisance. Stephenson thought that if he -could carry this steam, after it had done its work in the cylinders, -into the chimney by means of a small pipe, and allow it to escape in a -vertical direction, its velocity would be added to the smoke from the -fire, or the rising current of air in the chimney, and would in that -way increase the draught, and as a result the intensity of combustion -in the furnace. He tried this experiment, and found his conjecture -correct; the blast stimulated combustion, consequently the capability -of the boiler to generate steam was greatly increased, and the power -of the engine increased in the same proportion. No extra weight was -added to the machine. The invention of this steam blast was almost the -turning point in the history of the locomotive. Without it the engine -would have been too clumsy and slow for practical use, but with it the -greatest possibilities of use appeared. - -Encouraged by the success of his steam blast Stephenson started to -build a second locomotive. In this he planned an entire change in -mechanical construction, his principal objects being the use of as few -parts as possible, and the most direct possible application of power -to the wheels. He took out a patent for this engine on February 28, -1815. This locomotive had two vertical cylinders that communicated -directly with each pair of the four wheels that supported the engine, -by means of a cross-head and a pair of connecting-rods. "Ball and -socket" joints were used to make the union between the ends of the -cross-heads where they united with the connecting-rods, and between -the rods and the crank-pins attached to each driving-wheel. The -mechanical skill of his workmen was not equal to the forging of all -the necessary parts as Stephenson had devised them, and he was obliged -to make use of substitutes which did not always work smoothly, but he -finally succeeded in completing a locomotive which was a vast -improvement on all earlier ones, and that was notable for the simple -and direct communication between the cylinders and the wheels, and the -added power gained by using the waste steam in the steam blast. This -second locomotive of Stephenson's was in the main the model for all -those built for a considerable time. - -During the time when Stephenson was working on his second locomotive -explosions of fire-damp were unusually frequent in the coal mines of -Northumberland and Durham, and for a space he turned his attention to -the possibility of inventing some pattern of safety-lamp. The result -was his perfection of a lamp that would furnish the miners with -sufficient light and yet preclude risk of exploding fire-damp. This -came to be known as the "Geordie Lamp," to distinguish it from the -"Davy Lamp" that Sir Humphrey Davy was inventing at about the same -time. The lamp was used successfully by the miners at Killingworth, -and was considered by many as superior to Davy's lamp. Disputes arose -as to which was invented first, and long controversies between -scientific societies, most of which sided with the friends of Davy. -Stephenson himself stated his claims firmly, but without rancor, and -when he saw that it prevented the accidents in mines was satisfied -that he had gained his object, and returned to the more absorbing -subject of locomotives. - -He realized that the road and the rails were almost as important as -the engine itself. At that time the railways were laid in the most -careless fashion, little attention was paid to the rails' proper -joining, and less to the grades of the roads. Stephenson laid down new -rails at Killingworth with "half-lap joints," or extending over each -other for a certain distance at the ends, instead of the "butt joints" -that were formerly used. Over these both the coal-cars drawn by horses -and his locomotive ran much more smoothly. To increase this smoothness -of travel he added a system of spring carriage to his engine, and -saved it from the jolting that had handicapped his first model. - -The second locomotive was proving so efficient at the Killingworth -Colliery that friends of the inventor urged him to look into the -possible use of steam in traveling on the common roads. To study this -he made an instrument called the dynamometer, which enabled him to -calculate the resistance of friction to which carriages would be -exposed on railways. His experiments made him doubtful of the -possibility of running such railroads, unless a great amount of very -expensive tunneling and grading were first done. - -All this time George Stephenson continued to study with his son -Robert. The boy was employed at the colliery, and was rapidly learning -the business under the skilful charge of his father. Stephenson had -decided however that Robert should have a better education than had -been his, and in 1820 took him from his post as viewer in the West -Moor Pit, and sent him to the University of Edinburgh. - -News spread slowly in England in that day, and the fact that a steam -locomotive was being successfully used at Killingworth attracted very -little attention in the rest of the country. Even in the neighborhood -of the mines people soon grew used to seeing "Puffing Billy," as the -engine was called, traveling back and forth from the pit to the quay, -and took it quite for granted. Here and there scattered scientific -men, ever since Watt's perfection of the steam-engine, had considered -the possibility of travel by steam, but practical business men had -failed to come forward to build a railway line. At length, however, -Edward Pease, of Darlington, planned a road to run from Stockton to -Darlington, and set about building it. He had a great deal of -difficulty in forming a company to finance it, but he was a man of -much perseverance, and at length he succeeded. While he was doing this -Stephenson was patiently building new locomotives, and trying to -induce the mine-owners along the Tyne to replace their horse-cars with -his engines. In 1819 the owners of the Hetton Colliery decided to make -this change, and asked Stephenson to take charge of the construction -of their line. He obtained the consent of the Killingworth owners, and -began work. On November 18, 1822, the Hetton Railway was opened. Its -length was about eight miles, and five of Stephenson's locomotives -were working on it, under the direction of his brother Robert. In -building this line George Stephenson was thoroughly practical. -Although he knew that his name was becoming more and more identified -with the locomotive engine, he did not hesitate to use stationary -engines wherever he considered that they would be more economical. In -the Hetton Railway, which ran for a part of its distance through rough -country, he used stationary engines wherever he could not secure -grades that would make locomotives practicable. His own steam-engines -traveled over this line at the rate of about four miles an hour, and -each was able to draw a train of seventeen coal wagons, weighing about -sixty-four tons. - -The coal mines of the Midlands and the north of England had been the -original inducement to inventors to build engines that would draw -cars, and the manufacturing needs of Manchester and Liverpool were now -gradually inducing promoters to consider building railroads. The -growth of Manchester and the towns close to it was tremendous, the -cotton traffic between Manchester and Liverpool had jumped to enormous -figures, and men felt that some new method of communication must be -found. Robert Fulton's friend, the Duke of Bridgewater, had been of -some help with his canal system, but the trade quickly outstripped -this service. Then William James, a man of wealth and influence, a -large landowner and coal-operator, took up the subject of a Liverpool -and Manchester Railway with some business friends, and had a survey of -such a line begun. His men met with every possible resistance from the -country people, who had no wish to have "Puffing Billys" racing -through their fields; bogs had to be crossed and hills leveled; and it -soon appeared that the cost of a road would be very expensive. The -local authorities gave James and his associates some encouragement, -but those members of Parliament he approached were more or less -opposed to his plans. The time was not yet quite ripe for the road, -but the needs of trade were growing more and more pressing. - -Meantime Mr. Pease was again growing eager to build his Darlington and -Stockton line. Near the end of the year 1821 two men called at his -house. One introduced himself as Nicholas Wood, viewer at -Killingworth, and then presented his companion, George Stephenson, of -the same place. Stephenson had letters to Mr. Pease, and after a talk -with him, persuaded him to go to the Killingworth Colliery and see his -locomotives. Pease was much impressed with the engines he saw there, -and even more with Stephenson's ability as a practical engineer. The -upshot of the matter was that Pease reported the results of his visit -to the directors of his company, and they authorized him to secure -Stephenson's services in surveying the line they wished to build. He -took up the work, made careful surveys and reports, and was finally -directed to build a railway according to his own plans. This he did, -working with the best corps of assistants and the most efficient -materials he could find. When the line was nearly completed he made a -tour of inspection over it with his son and a young man named John -Dixon. Dixon later recalled that Stephenson said to the two as they -came to the end of their trip, "Now, lads, I will tell you that I -think you will live to see the day, though I may not live so long, -when railways will come to supersede almost all other methods of -conveyance in this country--when mail coaches will go by railway, and -railroads will become the Great Highway for the king and all his -subjects. The time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man -to travel on a railway than to walk on foot. I know there are great -and almost insurmountable difficulties that will have to be -encountered; but what I have said will come to pass as sure as we -live." - -In spite of the powerful opposition that the company encountered, and -the threats of the road trustees and others, the Stockton and -Darlington line was opened for travel on September 27, 1825. A great -concourse of people had gathered to see the opening of this first -public railway. Everything went well. Stephenson himself drove the -engine, and the train consisted of six wagons, loaded with coal and -flour, then a special passenger coach, filled with the directors and -their friends, then twenty-one wagons temporarily fitted with seats -for passengers, and then six wagons of coal, making thirty-four -carriages in all. A contemporary writer says, "The signal being given -the engine started off with this immense train of carriages; and such -was its velocity, that in some parts the speed was frequently twelve -miles an hour; and at that time the number of passengers was counted -to be four hundred and fifty, which, together with the coals, -merchandise, and carriages, would amount to near ninety tons. The -engine, with its load, arrived at Darlington, a distance of eight and -three-quarter miles, in sixty-five minutes. The six wagons loaded with -coals, intended for Darlington, were then left behind; and, obtaining -a fresh supply of water and arranging the procession to accommodate a -band of music, and numerous passengers from Darlington, the engine set -off again, and arrived at Stockton in three hours and seven minutes, -including stoppages, the distance being nearly twelve miles." By the -time the train reached Stockton there were about six hundred people -riding in the cars or hanging on to them, and the train traveled on a -steady average of four to six miles an hour from Darlington. - -This road was primarily built to transport freight, and passengers -were in reality an afterthought. But the directors decided to try a -passenger coach, and accordingly Stephenson built one. It was an -uncouth carriage, looking something like a caravan used at a country -fair. The doors were at the ends, a row of seats ran along each side -of the interior, and a long deal table extended down the centre. -Stephenson called this coach the "Experiment," and in a short time it -had become the most popular means of travel between Stockton and -Darlington. - -With the Stockton and Darlington Railway an assured and successful -fact, the men who had been interested in building a line between -Liverpool and Manchester earlier took up the subject again. Some -improvement in the means of communication between the two cities was -more needed than ever. The three canals and the turnpike road were -often so crowded that traffic was held up for days and even weeks. In -addition the canal charges were excessive. On the other hand the -railway builders had to meet the opposition of the powerful canal -companies and landowners along the line they wished to open, and it -took time and ingenuity to accomplish working adjustments. - -The Liverpool and Manchester Railway bill came up for consideration in -the House of Commons early in 1825. A determined stand was made -against it, and the promoters and their engineers, chief among whom -was Stephenson, had to be very modest in their claims. Stephenson had -said to friends that he was confident that locomotives could be built -that would carry a train of cars at the rate of twenty miles an hour, -but such a claim would have been received by the public as ridiculous, -and the engineer laughed to scorn. His opponents tried to badger him -in every way they could, and ridicule even his modest statements. -"Suppose now," said one of the members of Parliament in questioning -him, "one of these engines to be going along a railroad at the rate of -nine or ten miles an hour, and that a cow were to stray upon the line -and get in the way of the engine; would not that be a very awkward -circumstance?" "Yes," answered Stephenson, with a twinkling eye, "very -awkward--_for the coo_!" - -In fact very few of the members understood Stephenson's invention at -all. A distinguished barrister represented about the general level of -ignorance when he said in a speech, "Any gale of wind which would -affect the traffic on the Mersey would render it _impossible_ to set -off a locomotive engine, either by poking the fire, or keeping up the -pressure of the steam till the boiler was ready to burst." Against -such opposition it was not surprising that the bill failed of passage -that year. - -But the necessities of commerce could not be denied, and the following -year the bill came up again, and was passed. Stephenson, as principal -engineer of the railway, at once began its building. This in itself -was a unique and very remarkable feat. An immense bog, called Chat -Moss, had to be crossed, and Stephenson was the only one of the -engineers concerned who did not doubt whether such a crossing were -really possible. Ditches that were dug to drain the bog immediately -filled up; as soon as one part was dug out the bog flowed in again; it -swelled rapidly in rainy weather, and piles driven into it would sink -down into the mire. But Stephenson finally built his road across it. A -matting of heath and the branches of trees was laid on the bog's -surface, and in some places hurdles interwoven with heather; this -floating bed was covered over with a few inches of gravel, and on this -the road proper was constructed. In addition to the crossing of Chat -Moss a tunnel of a mile and a half had to be cut under part of -Liverpool, and in several places hills had to be leveled or cut -through. The old post-roads had never had to solve such problems, and -George Stephenson deserves to rank as high as a pioneer of railroad -construction as he does as builder of the working locomotive. - -The directors of the railway were anxious to secure the best engine -possible, and opened a general competition, naming certain conditions -the engine must fulfil. Stephenson and Henry Booth built the "Rocket," -and, as this was the only engine that fulfilled all the conditions, -took the prize. The "Rocket" was by far the most perfect locomotive -yet built, having many new improvements that Stephenson had recently -worked out. - -The "Rocket" would make thirty miles an hour, a wonderful achievement, -and was put to work drawing the gravel that was used in building the -permanent road across Chat Moss. With the aid of such a powerful -engine the work went on more rapidly, and in June, 1830, a trial trip -was made from Liverpool to Manchester and back. There was a huge -gathering at the stations at each end of the line. The train was made -up of two carriages, filled with about forty passengers, and seven -wagons loaded with stores. The "Rocket" drew this train from Liverpool -to Manchester in two hours and one minute, and made the return trip in -an hour and a half. It crossed Chat Moss at the rate of about -twenty-seven miles an hour. - -The public opening of the new road occurred on September 15, 1830. By -that time Stephenson had built eight locomotives, and they were all -ready for service. Much of the opposition of the general public had -been overcome, and the opening was considered a great national event. -The Duke of Wellington, then Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, and many -other prominent men were present. George Stephenson drove the first -engine, the "Northumbrian," and was followed by seven other -locomotives and trains, carrying about 600 passengers. Stephenson's -son drove the second engine, and his brother the third. They started -from Liverpool, and the people massed along the line cheered and -cheered again as they saw the eight trains speed along at the rate of -twenty-four miles an hour. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVES] - -Unfortunately an accident occurred about seventeen miles out of -Liverpool. The first engine, with the carriage containing the Duke of -Wellington, had been stopped on a siding so that the Duke might review -the other trains. Mr. Huskisson, one of the members of Parliament for -Liverpool, and a warm friend and supporter of Stephenson and the -railroad, had stepped from his coach, and was standing on the railway. -The Duke called to him, and he crossed over to shake hands. As they -grasped hands the bystanders began to cry, "Get in, get in!" Confused, -Mr. Huskisson tried to go around the open door of the carriage, which -projected over the opposite rail. As he did so he was hit by the -"Rocket," an engine coming up on the other track, was knocked down, -and had one leg crushed. That same night he died in the near-by -parsonage of Eccles. This first serious railway accident, occurring at -the very opening of the line, cast a gloom over the event. It revealed -something of the danger coincident with the new invention. The Duke of -Wellington and Sir Robert Peel both expressed a wish that the trains -should return to Liverpool, but when it was pointed out that a great -many people had gathered from all the neighboring country at -Manchester, and that to abandon the opening would jeopardize the whole -future success of the road, they agreed to go on. The journey was -completed without any further mishap, and the people of Manchester -gave the eight trains a warm welcome. - -With the opening of this line the success of the railroad as a -practical means of conveyance became assured. Singularly enough the -builders of the railroad had based their estimates almost entirely on -merchandise traffic, and had stated to the committee of the House of -Commons that they did not expect their passenger coaches to be more -than half filled. The carriages they planned to use would have carried -400 to 500 persons if full, but the road was hardly open before the -company had to provide accommodations to carry 1,200 passengers daily, -and the receipts from passenger travel immediately far exceeded the -receipts from carrying freight. - -Similarly the directors had expected that the average speed of the -locomotives would be about nine or ten miles an hour, but very soon -the trains were carrying passengers the entire thirty miles between -Liverpool and Manchester in a little more than an hour. Travel by -stage-coach had taken at least four hours, so that the railroad -reduced the time nearly one-fourth. Engineers who came from a distance -to examine the railroad were amazed at the smoothness of travel over -it. Two experts from Edinburgh declared that traveling on it was -smoother and easier than any they had known over the best turnpikes of -Mr. Macadam. They said that even when the train was going at the very -high speed of twenty-five miles an hour they "could observe the -passengers, among whom were a good many ladies, talking to gentlemen -with the utmost _sang froid_." - -Business men were delighted at being able to leave Liverpool in the -morning, travel to Manchester, do business there, and return home the -same afternoon. The price of coal, and the cost of carrying all -classes of goods, was tremendously reduced. Another result, which was -the opposite of what had been expected, was that the price of land -along the line and near the stations at once rose. Instead of the -noise and smoke of the trains frightening people away it seemed to -charm them. The very landlords who had driven the surveyors off their -property and done everything they could to hinder the builders now -complained if the railroad did not pass directly through their -domains, and begged for stations close at hand. Even the land about -Chat Moss was bought up and improved, and all along the line what had -been waste stretches began to blossom into towns and villages. - -Stephenson continued to make improvements to his locomotives. He had -already added the multitubular boiler, the idea of which was to -increase the evaporative power of the boiler by adding to its heating -surface by means of many small tubes filled with water. This increase -of evaporative power increased the speed the engine could attain. In -his new engine, the "Samson," he adopted the plan of coupling the fore -and rear wheels of the engine. This more effectually secured the -adhesion of the wheels to the rails, and allowed the carrying of -heavier loads. He improved the springs of the carriages, and built -buffers to prevent the bumping of the carriage ends, which had been -very unpleasant for the earliest passengers. He also found a new -method of lubricating his carriage axles, his spring frames, the -buffers, and the brakes he had built for the trains. - -The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was to be followed rapidly by -other lines. George Stephenson was a good man of business as well as a -good engineer. He suggested a number of lucrative opportunities to his -Liverpool friends, and he took a financial share in some of them -himself. He thought there should be a line between Swannington and -Leicester, in order to increase the coal supply of the latter town, -which was quite a manufacturing centre. A company was formed, and his -son Robert was appointed engineer. In the course of the work Robert -learned that an estate near the road was to be sold, and decided that -there was considerable coal there. George Stephenson and two other -friends bought the place, and he took up his residence there, at Alton -Grange, in order to supervise the mining operations. The mine was very -successful, and the railroad proved of the greatest value to the -people of Leicester. Stephenson now changed his position from that of -an employee of coal-owners to that of employer of many miners himself. - -The first railroads to be built were principally branches of the -Liverpool and Manchester one, and chiefly located in the mining and -manufacturing county of Lancaster. But before long the great -metropolis of London required railroad communication with the -Midlands, and the London and Birmingham road was projected. Here again -the promoters had to overcome gigantic obstacles, the opposition of -the great landed proprietors who owned vast estates in the -neighborhood of London, the opposition of the old posting companies, -and of the conservative element who were afraid of the great changes -such a method of transportation would bring about. The natural -difficulties of the first lines were increased a hundredfold, greater -marshes had to be crossed, greater streams to be bridged, greater -hills to be tunneled. But the greater the obstacles the greater -Stephenson's resources proved. When some of his tunnels were flooded, -because the workmen had cut into an unexpected bed of quicksand, he -immediately designed and built a vast system of powerful pumps, and -drew off enough water to fill the Thames from London Bridge to -Woolwich, so that his workmen might continue the tunnels and line them -with masonry sufficiently solid to withstand any future inrush of -water. - -The men who were back of this railroad would very probably never have -projected it had they realized that the building of it would cost five -million pounds. But when the road was opened for use the excess in -traffic beyond the estimates was much greater than the excess in cost -had been. The company was able to pay large dividends, and the -builders found that they could have made no better investment. This -London and Birmingham road, 112 miles long, was opened September 17, -1838. The receipts from passenger traffic alone for the first year -were £608,564. Evidently travel by coach had not been as popular in -reality as the conservatives had ardently maintained. - -It is curious to note the many kinds of opposition these first -railways encountered. Said Mr. Berkeley, a member of Parliament for -Cheltenham, "Nothing is more distasteful to me than to hear the echo -of our hills reverberating with the noise of hissing railroad engines -running through the heart of our hunting country, and destroying that -noble sport to which I have been accustomed from my childhood." One -Colonel Sibthorpe declared that he "would rather meet a highwayman, or -see a burglar on his premises, than an engineer; he should be much -more safe, and of the two classes he thought the former more -respectable!" Sir Astley Cooper, the eminent surgeon, said to Robert -Stephenson, when the latter called to see him about a new road, "Your -scheme is preposterous in the extreme. It is of so extravagant a -character as to be positively absurd. Then look at the recklessness of -your proceedings! You are proposing to cut up our estates in all -directions for the purpose of making an unnecessary road. Do you think -for one moment of the destruction of property involved in it? Why, -gentlemen, if this sort of thing is allowed to go on, you will in a -very few years _destroy the noblesse_!" Physicians maintained that -travel through tunnels would be most prejudicial to health. Dr. -Lardner protested against passengers being compelled to put up with -what he called "the destruction of the atmospheric air," and Sir -Anthony Carlisle insisted that "tunnels would expose healthy people to -colds, catarrhs, and consumption." Many critics expected the boilers -of the locomotives to explode at any and all times. Others were sure -that the railways would throw so many workmen out of employment that -revolution must follow, and still others declared that England was -being delivered utterly into the power of a small group of -manufacturers and mine-owners. But in spite of all this the people -took to riding on the railways and England prospered. - -The aristocracy held out the longest. Noblemen did not relish the -thought of traveling in the same carriages with workmen. The private -coach had for long been a badge of station. For a time, therefore, the -old families and country gentility sent their servants and their -luggage by train, but themselves jogged along the old post-roads in -the family chariots. But there were more accidents and more delays in -travel by coach than by train, and so, one by one, they pocketed their -pride and capitulated. The Duke of Wellington, who had seen the -accident to Mr. Huskisson near Liverpool, held out against such travel -for a long time. But when Queen Victoria, in 1842, used the railway to -go from London to Windsor, the last resistance ended, and the Iron -Duke, together with the rest of his order, followed the Queen's -example. Said the famous Dr. Arnold of Rugby, as he watched a train -speeding through the country, "I rejoice to see it, and think that -feudality is gone forever. It is so great a blessing to think that any -one evil is really extinct." - -Stephenson himself was one of the busiest men in the kingdom. He was -engineer of half a dozen lines that were building, and he traveled -incessantly. Many nights the only sleep he had was while sitting in -his chaise riding over country roads. At dawn he would be at work, -surveying, planning, directing, until nightfall. In three years he -surveyed and directed the construction of the North Midland line, -running from Derby to Leeds, the York and North Midland, from -Normanton to York, the Manchester and Leeds, the Birmingham and Derby, -and the Sheffield and Rotherham. And in addition to this he traveled -far and wide to give advice about distant lines, to the south of -England, to Scotland, and to the north of Ireland to inspect the -proposed Ulster Railway. He took an office in London, in order that he -might take part in the railway discussions that were continually -coming before Parliament. His knowledge of every detail relating to -the subject was enormous. He knew both the engineering and the -business sides most intimately. "In fact," he said to a committee of -the House of Commons in 1841, "there is hardly a railway in England -that I have not had to do with." Yet in spite of all this work he -found time to look after his coal mines near Chesterfield, to -establish lime-works at Ambergate, on the Midland Railway, and to -superintend his flourishing locomotive factory at Newcastle. - -King Leopold of Belgium invited him to Brussels, and there discussed -with him his plans for a railway from Brussels to Ghent. The King made -him a Knight of his Order of Leopold, and when the railway was -finished George Stephenson was one of the chief guests of honor at the -opening. Later he went to France, where he was consulted in regard to -the new line that was building between Orleans and Tours. From there -he went to Spain to look into the possible construction of a road -between Madrid and the Bay of Biscay. He found the government of -Spain indifferent to the railway, and there were many doubts as to -whether there would be sufficient traffic to pay the cost of -construction. His report to the shareholders in this proposed "Royal -North of Spain Railway" was therefore unfavorable, and the idea was -shortly after abandoned. - -Stephenson had moved his home from Alton Grange to Tapton House in -1838. The latter place was a large, comfortable dwelling, beautifully -situated among woods about a mile to the northeast of Chesterfield. -Here he lived the life of a country gentleman, free to indulge the -strong love of nature that had always been one of his leading -characteristics. He began to grow fine fruits and vegetables and -flowers, and his farm and gardens and hothouses became celebrated all -over England. He was continually sought out by inventors and -scientific men, who wanted his views on their particular work. He also -spent some time at Tapton in devising improvements for the locomotive. -One of these was a three-cylinder locomotive, and such an engine was -later used successfully on the North Eastern Railway. It was, however, -found to be too expensive an engine for general railroad use. He also -invented a new self-acting brake. He sent a model of this to the -Institute of Mechanical Engineers at Birmingham, of which he was -president, together with a report describing it in full. "Any -effectual plan," he wrote, "for increasing the safety of railway -traveling is, in my mind, of such vital importance, that I prefer -laying my scheme open to the world to taking out a patent for it; and -it will be a source of great pleasure to me to know that it has been -the means of saving even one human life from destruction, or that it -has prevented one serious concussion." - -He also gave great assistance to his son Robert, who was rapidly -becoming a railway engineer second only to his father in fame. George -Stephenson began the line from Chester to Holyhead, which was -completed by Robert. Robert designed the tubular bridge across the -Menai Straits on this line, which was considered a most remarkable -feat. Permission could not be obtained to interfere with the -navigation of the Straits in the slightest degree during the building, -and so piers and arches could not be used. It occurred to Robert -Stephenson that the train might be run through a hollow iron beam. Two -tubes, which were to form the bridge, were made of wrought iron, -floated out into the stream, and raised into position. This new and -original railway bridge proved a success, and convinced England that -Robert had inherited his father's genius for surmounting what seemed -impossible natural difficulties. George Stephenson did not live to see -this line completed. He died August 12, 1848. - -In many respects Stephenson was like Watt. He came from the working -classes, inheriting no special gift for science, and little leisure to -follow his own bent. What he learned he got at first hand, in the coal -mines and the engine shops. What he accomplished was due largely to -indomitable perseverance. Others had built steam-engines that were -almost successful as locomotives, but for one reason or another had -never pushed their invention to that point where the world could -actually use it. When Stephenson had built his locomotive he fought -for it, he made men take an interest in it, and the world accept it. -He always spoke of his career as a battle. "I have fought," said he, -"for the locomotive single-handed for nearly twenty years, having no -engineer to help me until I had reared engineers under my own care." -And again he said, "I put up with every rebuff, _determined_ not to be -put down." - -Stephenson did for the locomotive what Watt did for the condensing -engine. He took the primitive devices of other men, and by the rare -powers of selection, combination, and invention produced a finished -product of wonderful power and efficiency. True it is that neither -Watt nor Stephenson were the first men to conceive of a steam-engine -or a locomotive, nor even the first to build working models, but they -were the first to finish what they began, and add the steam-engine and -the locomotive to the other servants of men. - -Dr. Arnold was doubtless right when he looked upon the railway as -presaging the end of the feudal system. Its value is beyond any -estimate. It has widened man's horizon, and given him all the lands -instead of only the limits of his homestead. - - - - -X - -MORSE AND THE TELEGRAPH - -1791-1872 - - -On the packet ship _Sully_, sailing from the French port of Havre for -New York on October 1, 1832, were Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, -who had been attending certain lectures on electricity in Paris, and -an American artist named Samuel Finley Breese Morse. Dr. Jackson was -intensely interested in electricity, and more especially in some -experiments that Faraday had lately been making in regard to it. He -had an electromagnet in his trunk, and one day, as a number of the -passengers sat at dinner, he began to describe the laws of -electro-magnetism as they were then known. He told how the force of a -magnet could be tremendously increased by passing an electric current -a number of times about a bar of soft iron. One of the diners asked -how far electricity could be transmitted and how fast it traveled. Dr. -Jackson answered that it seemed to travel instantaneously, none of the -experimenters having detected any appreciable difference in time -between the completing of the electric circuit and the appearance of -the spark at any distance. Morse, who had been interested in the study -of electricity at Yale College, said that if the electric current -could be made visible in any part of the circuit he saw no reason why -messages could not be sent instantaneously by electricity. To send a -message would simply require the breaking of the circuit in such -different ways as could be made to represent the letters of the -alphabet. The conversation went on to other subjects, but the artist -kept the conclusion he had just stated in mind. That night he walked -the deck discussing the matter with Dr. Jackson, and for the rest of -the voyage he was busy jotting down suggestions in his note-book and -elaborating a plan for transforming breaks in an electric current into -letters. - -The facts at his disposal, and his first method of dealing with them, -were comparatively simple. The electric current would travel to any -distance along a wire. The current being broken, a spark would appear. -The spark would stand for one letter. The lack of a spark might stand -for another. The length of its absence would indicate another. With -these three indications as a starting-point he could build up an -alphabet. As there was no limit to the distance that electricity would -travel there seemed no reason why these dots and dashes, or sparks and -spaces, should not be sent all around the world. - -Professor Jeremiah Day had taught Morse at Yale that the electric -spark might be made to pierce a band of unrolling paper. Harrison Gray -Dyar, of New York, in 1827, had shown that the spark would decompose a -chemical solution and so leave a stain as a mark, and it was known -that it would excite an electro-magnet, which would move a piece of -soft iron, and that if a pencil were attached to this a mark would be -made on paper. Therefore Morse knew that if he devised his alphabet -he had only to choose the best method of indicating the dots and -dashes by the current. The voyage from Havre to New York occupied six -weeks, and during the greater part of this time he was busy working -out a mechanical sender which would serve to break the electric -current by a series of types set on a stick which should travel at an -even rate of speed. The teeth of the type would complete the circuit -or would break the current as they passed, and so send the letters. At -the receiving end of the line the current as it was sent would excite -the electro-magnet, which would be attached to a pencil, and so make a -mark, and each mark would represent one of the symbols that were to -stand for letters. He worked day and night over these first plans, and -after a few days showed his notes to Mr. William C. Rives, a -passenger, who had been the United States Minister to France. Mr. -Rives made various criticisms, and Morse took these up in turn, and -after long study overcame each one, so that by the end of the voyage -he felt that he had worked out a practical method of making the -electric current send and receive messages. - -At a later date a contest arose as to the respective claims of Samuel -Morse and Dr. Jackson to be considered the inventor of the recording -telegraph, and the evidence of their fellow passengers on board the -_Sully_ was given in great detail. From all that was then said it -would appear that Dr. Jackson knew quite as much, if not more, about -the properties of electro-magnetism than Morse did, but that he was of -a speculative turn of mind, whereas Morse was practical, and capable -of reducing the other's theories to a working basis. The note-books he -submitted, and which were well remembered by many of his fellow -voyagers, showed the various combinations of dots, lines, and spaces -with which he was constructing an alphabet, and also the crude -diagrams of the recording instrument which should mark the dots and -lines on a rolling piece of paper. Captain Pell, in command of the -_Sully_, testified later, that as the packet came into port Morse said -to him, "Well, Captain, should you hear of the telegraph one of these -days as the wonder of the world, remember that the discovery was made -on board the good ship _Sully_." The times were ripe for his great -invention, and although other men, abler scientists and students, had -foreseen the possibilities of such a system, it was Morse who -determined to put it into practice. - -But Samuel Morse was a painter, and all his career thus far had lain -along artistic lines. True, when he was an undergraduate at Yale he -had been much interested in Professor Day's lectures on electricity, -and had written long letters home in regard to them. But when he was -about to graduate, he wrote to his father, a well-known clergyman of -Charlestown, Massachusetts, "I am now released from college, and am -attending to painting. As to my choice of a profession, I still think -I was made for a painter, and would be obliged to you to make such -arrangements with Mr. Allston for my studying with him as you shall -think expedient. I should desire to study with him during the winter; -and, as he expects to return to England in the spring, I should -admire to be able to go with him. But of this we will talk when we -meet at home." - -Washington Allston was at that time the leading influence in the -primitive art life of the country, and Morse was very fortunate to -have won his friendship and interest. Allston took him to England, and -there introduced him to Benjamin West, the dean of painters and a man -who was always eager to aid young countrymen of his who planned to -follow his career. Morse made a careful drawing of the Farnese -Hercules and took it to West. The veteran examined it and handed it -back, saying, "Now finish it." Morse worked over it some time longer, -and returned it to West. "Very well, indeed, sir," said West. "Go on -and finish it." "Is it not finished?" asked Morse. "See," said West, -"you have not marked that muscle, nor the articulation of the -finger-joints." Again Morse worked over it, and again returned, only -to meet with the same counsel to complete the picture. Then the older -man relented. "Well, I have tried you long enough," said he. "Now, -sir, you have learned more by this drawing than you would have -accomplished in double the time by a dozen half-finished beginnings. -It is not many drawings, but the character of one which makes a -thorough draughtsman. Finish one picture, sir, and you are a painter." - -Morse now decided to paint a large picture of "The Dying Hercules" for -exhibition at the Royal Academy. In order to be sure of the anatomy he -first modeled the figure in clay, and this cast was so well done that, -acting on West's advice, he entered it for a prize in sculpture then -offered by the Society of Arts. This entry won, and the young American -was presented with the gold medal of the society before a -distinguished audience. The picture that he painted from this model -was hung at the exhibition of the Royal Academy, and received high -praise from the critics, so that Morse felt he had begun his career as -artist most auspiciously. - -His natural inclination was toward the painting of large canvases -dealing with historical and mythical subjects, which were much in -fashion at that period, and he now set to work on the subject, "The -Judgment of Jupiter in the case of Apollo, Marpessa, and Idas." This -was to be submitted for the prize of fifty guineas and medal offered -by the Royal Academy. It seems to have been a fine piece of work, and -met with West's hearty praise, but before it could be submitted the -artist was obliged to return home at an urgent summons from his -father. - -Boston had already heard of Morse's success in London when he reached -home in October, 1815. His "Judgment of Jupiter" was exhibited, and -became the talk of the town, but when he opened a studio and began to -paint no one offered to buy any of his pictures. He needed money -badly, and he saw none coming his way. After a year's struggle he -closed his studio, and traveled through the country sections of New -England, looking for work as a portrait painter. This he found, and he -wrote to his parents from Concord, New Hampshire, "I have painted five -portraits at $15 each, and have two more engaged and many talked of. I -think I shall get along well. I believe I could make an independent -fortune in a few years if I devoted myself exclusively to portraits, -so great is the desire for good portraits in the different country -towns." - -In Concord he met Miss Lucretia P. Walker, whom he married a few years -later. Meantime he went to visit his uncle in Charleston, South -Carolina, and found his portraits so popular that he received one -hundred and fifty orders in a few weeks. He was also commissioned to -paint a portrait of James Monroe, then President, for the Charleston -Common Council, and the picture was considered a striking masterpiece. -He soon after married, and settled his household goods in New York, -with $3,000 made by his portraits, as his capital. - -He knew what he wanted to do, to paint great historical pictures. But -the public did not appreciate his efforts in that line. He painted a -large exhibition picture for the National House of Representatives, -but it was not purchased by the government. On the other hand the -Corporation of New York commissioned him to paint the portrait of -Lafayette, who was then visiting America. At the same time he became -enthusiastic over the founding of a new society of artists, and was -chosen the first president of the National Academy of Design. - -His small capital was dwindling. His efforts to paint historical -pictures rather than portraits, and his share in paying off certain -debts of his father's, had made great inroads on the money he had -saved. To add to his misfortunes his wife died in February, 1825. In -1829 he went abroad, visited the great galleries of Europe, and tried -to find a more ready market for his historical studies. It was on his -return from France in 1832 that the conversation of Dr. Jackson and -the other passengers turned his thoughts in the direction of an -electric telegraph. - -Now came his gradual transformation from painter to inventor. His -brothers gave him a room with them in New York, and this became his -studio and laboratory at one and the same time. Easels and -plastercasts were mixed with type-moulds and galvanic batteries, and -Morse turned from a portrait to his working model of telegraph -transmitter and back again a dozen times a day. He painted to make his -living, but his interest was steadily turning to his invention. - -He had many friends, and a wide reputation as a man of great -intellectual ability, and in a few years he was appointed the first -Professor of the Literature of the Arts of Design in the new -University of the City of New York. This gave him a home in the -university building on Washington Square, and there he moved his -apparatus. At this time he was chiefly concerned with the question of -how far a message could be sent by the electric current, for it was -known that the current grew feebler in proportion to the resistance of -the wire through which it travels. He had learned that the -electro-magnet at the receiving end would at any great distance become -so enfeebled that it would fail to make any record of the message. His -solution of this difficulty was a relay system. He explained this to -Professor Gale, a colleague at the university, who later testified as -to Morse's work. "Suppose," said the inventor, "that in experimenting -on twenty miles of wire we should find that the power of magnetism is -so feeble that it will not move a lever with certainty a hair's -breadth: that would be insufficient, it may be, to write or print; yet -it would be sufficient to close and break another or a second circuit -twenty miles farther, and this second circuit could be made, in the -same manner, to break and close a third circuit twenty miles farther, -and so on around the globe." Gale proved of great assistance. So far -Morse had only used his recorder over a few yards of wire, his -electro-magnet had been of the simplest make, and his battery was a -single pair of plates. Gale suggested that his simple electro-magnet, -with its few turns of thick wire, should be replaced by one with a -coil of long thin wire. In this way a much feebler current would be -able to excite the magnet, and the recorder would mark at a much -greater distance. He also urged the use of a much more powerful -battery. The two men now erected a working telegraph in the rooms of -the university, and found that they could send and receive messages at -will. - -It is interesting to read Morse's own words in regard to the beginning -of his work at Washington Square. "There," he said, "I immediately -commenced, with very limited means, to experiment upon my invention. -My first instrument was made up of an old picture or canvas frame -fastened to a table; the wheels of an old wooden clock, moved by a -weight to carry the paper forward; three wooden drums, upon one of -which the paper was wound and passed over the other two; a wooden -pendulum suspended to the top piece of the picture or stretching frame -and vibrating across the paper as it passed over the centre wooden -drum; a pencil at the lower end of the pendulum, in contact with the -paper; an electro-magnet fastened to a shelf across the picture or -stretching frame, opposite to an armature made fast to the pendulum; a -type rule and type for breaking the circuit, resting on an endless -band, composed of carpet-binding, which passed over two wooden rollers -moved by a wooden crank. - -"Up to the autumn of 1837 my telegraphic apparatus existed in so rude -a form that I felt a reluctance to have it seen. My means were very -limited--so limited as to preclude the possibility of constructing an -apparatus of such mechanical finish as to warrant my success in -venturing upon its public exhibition. I had no wish to expose to -ridicule the representative of so many hours of laborious thought. -Prior to the summer of 1837, at which time Mr. Alfred Vail's attention -became attracted to my telegraph, I depended upon my pencil for -subsistence. Indeed, so straightened were my circumstances that, in -order to save time to carry out my invention and to economize my -scanty means, I had for many months lodged and eaten in my studio, -procuring my food in small quantities from some grocery and preparing -it myself. To conceal from my friends the stinted manner in which I -lived, I was in the habit of bringing my food to my room in the -evenings, and this was my mode of life for many years." - -Before he devoted all his time to his invention Morse had been -anxious to paint a large historical picture for one of the panels in -the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington. His offer had been rejected, -and this had led a number of his friends to raise a fund and -commission him to paint such a picture. He chose as his subject "The -Signing of the First Compact on Board the _Mayflower_." But he was now -so much engrossed with his experiments that he gave up the plan and -the fund was returned to the subscribers. - -We have already heard in Morse's statement of the arrival of Mr. -Alfred Vail. He was to have much to do with the success of Morse's -invention. He had happened to call at the university building when the -inventor was showing his models to several visiting scientists. -"Professor Morse," said Mr. Vail, "was exhibiting to these gentlemen -an apparatus which he called his Electro-Magnetic Telegraph. There -were wires suspended in the room running from one end of it to the -other, and returning many times, making a length of several hundred -feet. The two ends of the wire were connected with an electro-magnet -fastened to a vertical wooden frame. In front of the magnet was its -armature, and also a wooden lever or arm fitted at its extremity to -hold a lead pencil.... I saw this instrument work, and became -thoroughly acquainted with the principle of its operation, and, I may -say, struck with the rude machine, containing, as I believed, the germ -of what was destined to produce great changes in the conditions and -relations of mankind. I well recollect the impression which was then -made upon my mind.... Before leaving the room in which I beheld for -the first time this magnificent invention, I asked Professor Morse if -he intended to make an experiment on a more extended line of -conductors. He replied that he did, but that he desired pecuniary -assistance to carry out his plans. I promised him assistance provided -he would admit me into a share of the invention, to which proposition -he assented.... The question then arose in my mind, whether the -electro-magnet could be made to work through the necessary lengths of -line, and after much reflection I came to the conclusion that, -provided the magnet would work even at a distance of eight or ten -miles, there could be no risk in embarking in the enterprise. And upon -this I decided in my own mind to sink or swim with it." - -Alfred Vail secured his father's financial assistance, and in -September, 1837, an agreement was executed by which Vail was to -construct a model of Morse's telegraph for exhibition to Congress, and -to secure the necessary United States patents, in return for which he -was to have a one-fourth interest in these patent rights. The patent -was obtained on October 3, 1837, and Vail set to work to prepare the -new models. Almost all the apparatus that was used had to be specially -made for the purpose, or altered from its original use. The first -working battery was placed in a cherry-wood box divided into cells and -lined with beeswax, and the insulated wire was the same as that the -milliners used in building up the high bonnets fashionable at that -day. Vail made certain improvements as he worked on his model. He -replaced the recording pencil with a fountain pen, and instead of the -zigzag signals used the short and long lines that came to be called -"dots" and "dashes." He learned from the typesetters of a newspaper -office what letters occurred most frequently in ordinary usage, and -constructed the Morse or Vail code on the principle of using the -simplest signals to represent those letters that would be most needed. - -By the winter of 1837 many people had seen the telegraph instruments -at the university building, but few of them considered them more than -ingenious toys. Scientific men had talked of the possibilities of an -electric telegraph for a number of years, but the public had seen none -actually installed. Even Vail's father began to doubt the wisdom of -his son's investment. To convince him the young man, on January 6, -1838, asked his father to come to the experimenting shop where Morse -and he were working. He explained how the model operated, and said -that he could send any message to Morse, who was stationed some -distance away at the receiving end. The father took a piece of paper, -and wrote on it, "A patient waiter is no loser." "There," said he, "if -you can send this, and Mr. Morse can read it at the other end I shall -be convinced." The message was sent over the wire, and correctly read -by Morse. Then Mr. Vail admitted that he was satisfied. - -Morse now decided to bring his invention to the attention of Congress. -He was permitted to set up his apparatus in the room of the House -Committee on Commerce at the Capitol. There he gave an exhibition to -the committee, but most of them doubted if his plans for sending -long-distance messages were really feasible. On February 21, 1838, -he worked his telegraph through ten miles of wire contained on a reel, -with President Van Buren and his cabinet as an audience. Then he asked -that Congress appropriate sufficient money to enable him to construct -a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. The chairman of the -Committee on Commerce, Francis O. J. Smith, of Maine, was very much -interested by now, and drafted a bill appropriating $30,000 for this -purpose. But the bill did not come to a vote, and the matter was -allowed to drop. - -[Illustration: MORSE AND THE FIRST TELEGRAPH] - -Meantime rival claimants to the invention were appearing on all sides. -Morse decided that he must try to secure European patents, and went -abroad for that purpose. His claim was opposed in England, and in -France it was finally decided that in the case of such an invention -the government must be the owner. He was well received, and given the -fullest credit for his achievements, but the patents were refused, and -he had to return home with his small capital much depleted and -business prospects at a low ebb. Moreover, the United States -government now seemed to have lost interest in the subject, and his -partners, the Vails, were having financial difficulties of their own. - -While he waited he continued to experiment. He believed that the -electric current could be sent under water as easily as through the -air, and to try this he insulated a wire two miles long with hempen -threads that were saturated with pitch-tar and wrapped with -India-rubber. He unreeled this cable from a small rowboat between -Castle Garden and Governor's Island in New York Harbor on the night -of October 18, 1842. At daybreak Morse was at the station at the -Battery, and began to send a message through his submarine cable. He -had succeeded in sending three or four characters when the -communication suddenly stopped, and although he waited and kept on -with his trials no further letters could be transmitted. On -investigation it appeared that no less than seven ships were lying -along the line of Morse's cable, and that one of these, in getting -under way, had lifted the cable on her anchor. The sailors hauled two -hundred feet of it on deck, and, seeing no end to it, cut it, and -carried part of it away with them. But the test had proved Morse's -theory, and he became convinced that in time messages could be sent -across the ocean as easily as over land. - -When Congress met in December, 1842, Morse again appeared in -Washington to obtain financial help. Congress was not very -enthusiastic over his project, but the House Committee on Commerce -finally recommended an appropriation of $30,000, and a bill to that -effect was passed in the House of Representatives by the small -majority of six votes. The Senate was overcrowded with bills, and -Morse's was continually postponed. In the early evening of the last -day of the session there were one hundred and nineteen bills to come -to vote before his, and it seemed impossible that it should be taken -up. Morse, who had been sitting in the gallery all day, concluded that -further waiting was useless, and went back to his hotel, planning to -leave for New York early the next morning. He found that after paying -his hotel bill he would have less than half a dollar in the world. -But as he came down to breakfast the following morning he was met by -Miss Ellsworth, the daughter of his friend, the Commissioner of -Patents. She held out her hand, saying, "I have come to congratulate -you." - -"Congratulate me! Upon what?" asked Morse. - -"On the passage of your bill," she answered. - -"Impossible! It couldn't come up last evening. You must be mistaken," -said the inventor. - -"No," said Miss Ellsworth, "father sent me to tell you that your bill -was passed. He remained until the session closed, and yours was the -last bill but one acted upon, and it was passed just five minutes -before the adjournment." - -In return for this news Morse promised that Miss Ellsworth should send -the first message when his telegraph line was opened. That same day he -wrote to Alfred Vail that the bill "was reached a few minutes before -midnight and passed. This was the turning point in the history of the -telegraph. My personal funds were reduced to the fraction of a dollar, -and, had the passage of the bill failed from any cause, there would -have been little prospect of another attempt on my part to introduce -to the world my new invention." - -It had been decided to construct an underground line between -Washington and Baltimore, the conductor being a five-wire cable laid -in pipes, but after several miles had been laid from Baltimore the -insulation broke down. A very large part of the government grant had -been spent, and the situation looked very dubious. But after some -discussion it was determined to carry the wire by poles, as this -could be done much more rapidly and at smaller expense. - -The National Whig Convention, to nominate candidates for President and -Vice-President, met at Baltimore on May 1, 1844. The overhead wire had -been started from Washington toward Baltimore, and by that day -twenty-two miles of it were in working order. The day before the -convention met Morse had arranged with Vail that certain signals -should mean that certain candidates had been nominated. Henry Clay was -named for President, and the news was carried by railroad to the point -where Morse had stretched his wire. He signaled it to Washington, and -the Capitol heard it long before the first messages arrived by train. - -On May 24, 1844, the line was completed, and Miss Ellsworth was -invited to send the first message from the room of the United States -Supreme Court to Baltimore. She chose the Biblical words "What hath -God wrought?" and this was sent over the telegraph. Vail received the -message in Baltimore, and the first demonstration was a complete -success. The younger man had added an improvement of his own; instead -of the dots and dashes being indicated by the markings of a pen or -pencil they were embossed on the paper with a metal stylus. - -An incident in connection with the Democratic Convention, which was -then in session in Baltimore for the purpose of nominating -presidential candidates, added to the public interest in Morse's -telegraph. The Democrats had named James K. Polk for President and -Silas Wright for Vice-President. The news was sent by wire to -Washington, and Mr. Wright sent his message declining the honor over -the telegraph. The chairman of the meeting, Hendrick B. Wright, -received the message. In a letter to Benson J. Lossing he says, "As -the presiding officer of the body I read the despatch, but so -incredulous were the members as to the authority of the evidence -before them that the convention adjourned over to the following day to -await the report of the committee sent over to Washington to get -_reliable_ information on the subject." The committee returned with -word that the telegraph message had been correct. Then, all but the -convention committee being excluded from the telegraph room in -Baltimore, message after message was sent over the wire by Vail to -Morse and Silas Wright in Washington. The committee used many -arguments to urge Wright's acceptance; he answered them all, -persisting in his refusal; and finally this decision was reported to -the convention, which nominated Mr. Dallas in his place. The story of -the part the new invention had played quickly spread abroad, and added -to the intense public interest now focussed on it. - -On April 1, 1845, the first telegraph line between Washington and -Baltimore was opened for general use. Congress had appropriated $8,000 -to maintain it for the first year, and placed it under the direction -of the Postmaster-General. The official charge was one cent for every -four characters transmitted. The receipts of the first four days were -one cent, for the fifth day twelve and a half cents, for the seventh -sixty cents, for the eighth one dollar and thirty-two cents, for the -ninth one dollar and four cents. Morse offered to sell his invention -to the government for $100,000, but the Postmaster-General declined -the offer, stating in his report that the service "had not satisfied -him that under any rate of postage that could be adopted its revenues -could be made equal to its expenditures." - -With the public opening of the line between Washington and Baltimore -the practical success of the new electric telegraph was assured. The -Magnetic Telegraph Company was formed to carry a wire from New York to -Philadelphia, and thence another line was run to Baltimore in 1846. -The telegraph being an accomplished fact, pirates of the patent now -appeared, and for a course of years Morse and his partners had to -fight for their rights. Henry O'Reilly, who had been employed in -building the first lines, contracted to construct another from -Philadelphia to St. Louis, and when that was finished he formed a -company known as the People's Line, to run to New Orleans. He claimed -to use instruments entirely different from those patented by Morse, -and so to be free from the payment of royalties. Morse applied for an -injunction, and on appeal the Federal Supreme Court decided in his -favor. Other similar suits followed, and in each one the decision -justified Morse's contention. The conclusion was that even though -other men had known of the possibilities by experiment, it was the -fact that he had first put the matter into practical form directed -toward a specific purpose, and hence was to be regarded in law as the -inventor. - -The telegraph grew with the country. The Western Union Company -followed the stage-coach across the plains to California, and soon the -frontier towns were linked to the large cities of the East. Other men -took up the work in other lines, and in 1854 Cyrus W. Field formed the -Atlantic Telegraph Company to lay a cable between America and Europe. -As Morse had said when he first began seriously to study the subject -on board the _Sully_, "If it will go ten miles without stopping I can -make it go around the globe." - -The inventor found himself universally honored, and at last a very -wealthy man. He married Miss Griswold of Poughkeepsie, and bought an -estate of two hundred acres near that city. He was given degrees by -American and European universities and societies, was made a member of -the French Legion of Honor, received orders of knighthood from the -rulers of Spain and Italy, Denmark, Turkey, and Portugal. In 1858 the -Emperor of the French called a Congress in Paris to honor Morse, and -the Congress awarded him a gift of 400,000 francs as a token of -gratitude. In his eightieth year his statue in bronze was placed in -Central Park, New York, and his countrymen did their utmost to show -him their appreciation of his great achievement. He died in 1872, a -short time after he had unveiled a statue of Benjamin Franklin in New -York's Printing-house Square. - -Morse was the inventor, but his partner Alfred Vail had a great share -in making the present telegraph. He discarded the original porte-rule -and type of the transmitter for the key or lever, moved up and down by -hand to complete or break the circuit. He perfected the dot and dash -code, he invented the device for embossing the message, and replaced -the inking pen by a metal disc, smeared with ink, that rolled the dots -and dashes on the paper. When it was found that the telegraph -operators would read the signals from the clicking of the marking -lever instead of from the paper, he made an instrument which had no -marking device, and in which the signals were sounded by the striking -of the lever of the armature against the metal stops. This "sounder" -soon drove out the old Morse recorder. The present instrument is in -its mechanical form far more the work of Vail than of Morse. - - - - -XI - -McCORMICK AND THE REAPER - -1809-1884 - - -The same sturdy pioneer stock that gave America Daniel Boone and -Lincoln, Robert Fulton and Andrew Jackson, produced the inventor of -the reaper. He came of a line of resourceful, fearless Scotch-Irish -settlers, bone of the bone and sinew of the sinew of those generations -that laid the broad foundations of the United States. His -great-grandfather had been an Indian fighter in the colony of -Pennsylvania, his grandfather had moved to Virginia and fought in the -Revolution, and his father had built a log-house and tilled a farm in -that strip of arable Virginia land that lay between the Blue Ridge and -the Alleghany Mountains. He prospered, and added neighboring farms to -his original holding; he had two grist-mills, two sawmills, a -blacksmith shop, a smelting-furnace, and a distillery; he invented new -makes of farm machinery, and in addition was a man of considerable -reading, able to hold his own in discussion with the lawyers and the -clergymen of the countryside. He was of that same well-developed type -of countryman of whom so many were to be found in the thirteen -original states and the borderlands to the west, that settler type -which was the real backbone of the young country. - -The McCormick house and farm was almost a small village in itself. -There were eight children, and their shoes were cobbled, their clothes -woven, their very beds and chairs and tables built at home. Whatever -was needed could be done, the family were always busy within doors or -without, and the spirit of helpfulness and invention was in the air. -Into such a setting Cyrus Hall McCormick was born in 1809, the same -year that saw the birth of Lincoln. - -He went to one of the Old Field Schools, so called because it was -built on ground that had been abandoned for farm use. He learned what -other boys and girls were learning in simple country schools, but he -studied harder than most of them, because he had a keen desire to -understand thoroughly whatever subject he started. He saw his father -busy in his workshop at all spare moments, and he took him as a -pattern. After weeks of work he brought his teacher a remarkably exact -map of the world, drawn to scale, and outlined in ink on paper pasted -on linen, and fastened on two rollers. The work showed his ingenious -fancy, and perhaps determined his father to have him educated as a -surveyor. At eighteen he began this study, and had soon won a good -reputation in the neighborhood as an engineer. Much of the time he -spent in the fields with his father, and here he soon learned that -reaping wheat was no easy task, and that swinging a wheat cradle under -the summer sun was hard on both the temper and the back. - -Many men had tried to lighten the farmer's labor in cutting grain, and -Cyrus McCormick's father had long had the ambition to invent a -reaper. He had succeeded in building a cumbersome machine that was -pushed at the back by a pair of horses. The plan of the machine was -well enough; it consisted of a row of short curved sickles that were -fastened to upright posts. Revolving rods drove the wheat up against -the sickles. The machine acted properly, but the grain would not. -Instead of standing up straight and separated to be cut the wheat -would more often come in great bunches, twisting about the sickles and -getting tangled in the machinery. Mr. McCormick tried the machine in -the harvesting of 1816, but it would not work, and had to be carted -away to the workshop as an invention gone wrong. But he persevered -with this idea, and from time to time built other models. After a -number of years he brought forth a machine that would cut, but left -the wheat after cutting in a badly tangled shape. He saw that this was -not sufficient. The reaper to be of real use must dispose of the grain -properly as well as shear the stalks. - -Cyrus now took up the work that his father reluctantly abandoned. He -decided to build his reaper on entirely new lines. First he dealt with -the problem of how to separate the grain that was to be cut from that -which was to be left standing. This he finally solved by adding a -curved arm, or divider, to the end of his reaper's blade. In this way -the grain that was to be cut would be properly fed to the knife. - -But the grain was apt to be badly tangled before the reaper reached -it, and his machine must be able to cut that which was pressed down -and out of shape as well as that which was standing straight. To -accomplish this he decided that his knife must have two motions, one a -forward cut, and the other sideways. He tried many plans before he -finally hit upon one that solved this for him. It was a straight knife -blade that moved forward and backward, cutting with each motion. This -idea became known as the reciprocating blade. - -Yet even though the machine could divide the grain properly, and the -knife cut with a double motion, there was the possibility that the -blade might simply press the grain down and so slide over it. This was -especially apt to be the case after a rain, or when the grain had been -badly blown about by the wind. The problem now was how to hold it -upright. He found the solution lay in adding a row of indentations -that projected a few inches from the edge of the knife, and acted like -fingers in catching the stalks and holding them in place to be cut. - -These three ideas, the divider, the reciprocating blade, and the -fingers, were all fundamental devices of the machine Cyrus McCormick -was building. They all met the question of how the grain could be cut. -To these he next added a revolving reel, that would lift any grain -that had fallen and straighten it, and a platform to catch the grain -as it was cut and fell. His idea was that a man should walk along -beside the reaper and rake off the grain as it fell upon the platform. - -Two more devices, and his first machine was completed. One was to have -the shafts placed on the outside of the reaper, or so that the horse -would pull it sideways, instead of having to push it, as had been the -case with his father's model. The other was to have the whole machine -practically operated by one big wheel, which should bear the weight -and move the knife and the reel. - -It had taken young McCormick many months to work out all these -problems, and there were only one or two weeks each year, the harvest -weeks, when he could actually try his machine. He wanted to use it in -the spring of 1831, but he found that the work of finishing all the -necessary details was enormous. He begged his father to leave a small -patch of wheat for him to try to cut, and at last, one day in July of -that year, he drove his cumbersome machine into the field. All his -family watched as the reaper headed toward the grain. They saw the -wheat gathered and swept down upon the knife, they saw the blade move -back and forth and cut the grain, and then saw it fall upon the little -platform. The machine worked with hitches, not nearly so smoothly nor -so efficiently as it should, but it did work; it gathered the grain in -and it left it in good shape to be raked off the platform. The trial -proved that such a machine could be made to do the work, and that was -all that the inventor wanted. - -He drove it back to his workshop and made certain changes in the reel -and the divider. Then, several days later, he drove it over to the -little settlement at Steele's Tavern, and cut six acres of oats in one -afternoon. That was a marvelous feat, and caused great wonder in the -countryside, but the harvesting season had ended, and the inventor -would have to wait a year before he could prove the use of his machine -again. - -By the next year McCormick was ready for a larger audience. The town -of Lexington lay some eighteen miles south of his home, and he made -arrangements with a farmer there, named John Ruff, to give an -exhibition of his reaper in the latter's field. Over a hundred people -were present when McCormick arrived, all curious to see what could be -done with the complicated-looking machine. Many of them were -harvesters themselves, and none too eager to see a mechanical device -enter into competition for their work. The field was hilly and rough, -and the reaper careened about in it like a ship in a gale. The farmer -grew indignant, and protested that McCormick would ruin all his wheat, -and the laborers began to jeer and joke at the machine's expense. The -exhibition gave every sign of proving a failure when one of the -spectators called out that he owned the next field and would be glad -to give McCormick a chance there. This field was level, and the young -man quickly turned his reaper into it. Before sunset he had cut six -acres of wheat, and convinced his audience that his machine was a -great improvement over the old method. That evening he drove the -reaper to the court-house square and explained its working to the -towns people. Very few of them saw how it was to revolutionize the -farmer's labor, but one or two did. Professor Bradshaw, of the local -academy, studied the machine, and then stated publicly that in his -opinion, "This machine is worth a hundred thousand dollars." - -[Illustration: THE EARLIEST REAPER] - -But if Cyrus McCormick had been fortunate in growing up on a farm -where he could study the problem of cutting grain at first hand he was -now to find that he was not so fortunate when it came to building -other reapers and marketing them. His home was four days' travel from -Richmond. He must have money to get the iron for his machines, to -advertise, and to pay agents to try to sell them. He had very little -money. He did advertise in the _Lexington Union_ in September, 1833, -offering reapers for sale at fifty dollars; but there were no answers -to his advertisements. So skeptical were the farmers that it was seven -years before one bought a reaper of him. But he had faith enough in -his invention to take out a patent on it in 1834. - -Until now McCormick had depended on the farm for his livelihood, but -there was little profit in this, and he turned his attention to a -deposit of iron ore in the neighborhood, and built a furnace and began -to make iron. This succeeded until the panic of 1837 reached the -Virginia country and brought debt and lowered prices with it. Cyrus -surrendered his farm and what other property he had to his creditors. -None of them was sufficiently interested in the crude reaper to -consider it worth taking. - -But the inventor hung on to his faith in this machine, although no one -appeared to buy it, and the expense he had gone to in making it had -practically bankrupted him. And his faith met with its reward, for one -day in 1840 a stranger rode up to the door of his workshop and offered -fifty dollars for a reaper. He had seen one of the machines on -exhibition, and had decided to try it. A little later two other -farmers who lived on the James River appeared and gave McCormick two -more orders. He had the satisfaction of knowing that in the harvest of -1840 three of his reapers were having a trying out. - -The next year he was busy trying to perfect a blade that would cut wet -grain. This took him weeks of experimenting, but at last he found that -a serrated edge of a certain pattern would produce the effect he -wanted. He added this to the new machines he was building, fixed the -price of the reaper at one hundred dollars, and in 1842 sold seven -machines, in 1843 twenty-nine, and in 1844 fifty. At last he had -justified himself, and the log workshop had become a busy factory. - -An invention of such great value to the farmer naturally advertised -itself through the country districts. Men who heard of a machine that -would cut one hundred and seventy-five acres of wheat in less than -eight days--as happened in one case--naturally decided that it was -worth investigating. And those who already owned machines saw a chance -to make money by selling to their neighbors. One man paid McCormick -$1,333 for the reaper agency of eight counties, another $500 for the -right in five other counties, and a business man offered $2,500 for -the agency in southern Virginia. Meantime orders were coming in from -the distant states of Illinois, Wisconsin, Missouri, and Iowa, and the -little home factory was being pushed to the utmost. - -But it was not only difficult to obtain the necessary materials for -building reapers on the remote Virginia farm, it was almost impossible -to ship the machines ordered in time for the harvests. Those that went -west had to be taken by wagon to Scottsville, sent down the canal to -Richmond, put on shipboard for the long journey down the James River -to the Atlantic and so by ocean to New Orleans, changed there to a -river steamer that should take them up the Mississippi and by the Ohio -River to the distributing point of Cincinnati. Many delays might -happen in such a long trip, and many delays did happen, and in several -cases the reapers did not reach the farmers who had ordered them until -long after the harvesting season was over. McCormick saw that he must -build his reapers in a more central place. - -At that time labor was very scarce in the great central region of the -country, and the farms were enormous. The wheat was going to waste, -for there were not enough scythes and sickles to cut it. McCormick -started on a trip through the middle West, and what he saw convinced -him that his reaper would soon be an absolute necessity on every farm. -All he needed was to find the best point for building his machines and -shipping them. He studied this matter with the greatest care, and -finally decided that the strategic place was the little town of -Chicago, situated on one of the Great Lakes, and half-way between the -prairies of the West and the commercial depots and factories of the -eastern seaboard. - -Chicago in 1847 was still little more than a frontier town. It had -fought gamely with floods and droughts, with cholera and panics, with -desperadoes and with land thieves. But men saw that it was bound to -grow, for railroads would have to come to bring the wheat and others -to carry it away, and that meant that some day it would be a great -metropolis. McCormick, like most of the other business builders who -were streaming into Chicago, only wanted credit to enable him to build -and sell his goods, and he was fortunate enough to find a rich and -prominent citizen named William B. Ogden, who was ready to give him -credit and enter into partnership with him. - -Ogden gave McCormick $25,000 for a half interest in the business of -making reapers, and started at once to build a factory. At last the -inventor was firmly established. He arranged to sell five hundred -reapers for the harvest of 1848, and as one after another was sent out -into the great wheat belts and set up and tried, the farmers who saw -them decided that the reapers spelled prosperity for them. The -business grew, and at the end of two years, when the partners found it -wiser to dissolve their firm, McCormick was able to tell Ogden that he -would pay him back the $25,000 that he had invested, and give him -$25,000 more for interest and profits. Ogden accepted, and McCormick -became sole owner of the business. - -Cyrus McCormick was not only an inventor, but a business-builder of -the rarest talent, one of the great pioneers in a field that was later -to be cultivated in the United States to a remarkable degree. He knew -he had a machine that would lessen labor and increase wealth wherever -wheat was grown, and he felt that it was his mission to see that the -reaper should do its share in the progress of the world. In that sense -he was more than a mere business man; but in another sense he was a -gigantic business-builder. Just as he had studied the problem of -cutting wheat with the object of producing the most efficient machine -possible, so he now studied the problem of selling his reapers in such -a way that every farmer should own one. He believed in liberal -advertising, and he had posters printed with a picture of the reaper -at the top, and below it a formal guarantee warranting the machine's -performance absolutely. There was a space beneath this for the -signature of the farmer who bought, and the agent who sold, and two -witnesses. The price of the reaper was one hundred and twenty dollars, -and the buyer paid down thirty dollars, and the balance at the end of -six months, provided the reaper would cut one and a half acres an -hour, and fulfil the other requirements. This guarantee, with a chance -to obtain the money back if the purchase was unsatisfactory, was a new -idea, and appealed to every one as a most sincere and honorable way of -doing business. More than this, he sold for a fixed price, which was -in many respects a new method of selling, and he printed in newspapers -and farm journals letters he had received from farmers telling of -their satisfaction with the reaper. In these new ways he laid the -foundation of an enormous business. - -The rush to the gold fields of California in 1849 and the resulting -settlement of the far western country made Chicago even more central -than it had been before. But, although the advertisements of the -McCormick reaper were scattered everywhere, many farmers would put off -buying until the harvesting season had almost come, and when it was -too late to get the machines from the central factory. Therefore -McCormick had agents and built warehouses in every farming district, -and these agents were given a free rein in their own locality, their -instructions being to see that every farmer who needed a reaper was -given the easiest opportunity to get one. The price was a fixed one, -but McCormick was patient with the purchasers. He gave them a chance -to pay for the reapers with the proceeds of their harvests. He held -that it was better that he should wait for the money than that the -farmers should lack the machines that would enable them to make the -most of their fields of grain. "I have never yet sued a farmer for the -price of a reaper," he stated in 1848, and he held to that policy as -steadfastly as he could. As a result he soon gained the farmers' -confidence, and his name became identified with square, and even with -lenient, dealing with all classes of purchasers. He lost little by it, -and in the long run the wide-spread advertising of this policy of -business proved an invaluable asset. - -It is not to be supposed that no rival reapers were put upon the -market. Many were, and to meet some of these McCormick made use of -what became known as the Field Test. He would instruct his agents to -issue invitations to his rivals to meet him in competition. Then the -different makes of reapers would show how many acres of grain they -could cut in an afternoon before an audience of the neighboring -farmers. Judges were appointed to decide as to the merits of the -different machines, and in most of the tests McCormick's reaper -outdistanced all its rivals. In one such meeting it is said that forty -machines competed. Such shows were the best possible form of -advertising, but in time they degenerated into absurd performances. -Trick machines of unwieldy strength were built secretly, and reapers -were driven into growths of young trees, and were fastened together -and then pulled apart to prove which was the stronger. At last it was -realized that the field tests were no longer fair, and McCormick gave -them up. - -So important an invention as the reaper was certain to have many -improvements made to it. For a number of years, however, the only -additions that were made to the original model were seats for the -driver and raker. The machine did the work of the original man with -the sickle or scythe and that of the cradler, and having cut the grain -left it in loose piles on the ground. But it still had to be raked up -and bound, and a number of inventors were busy trying to perfect -mechanical devices that would do this work too. A man named Jearum -Atkins invented a contrivance that was called the "Iron Man," which -was a post fastened to the reaper, having two iron arms that swept -round and round and brushed the grain from the platform as fast as it -was cut and had fallen. This plan was very clumsy, but improvements -were made so rapidly that by 1860 the market was filled with various -patterns of self-raking reapers. - -The problem of binding the grain was more difficult. This had always -been hard labor, taking a great deal of time and requiring three or -four men to every reaper. The first step toward a self-binder was the -addition of a foot-board at the back of the reaper, on which a man -might stand and fasten the grain into sheaves as it fell. This was a -little better than the old method, but only a little. It took less -time, but it was still very hard and slow work. - -McCormick was deep in a study of this matter when one day a man named -James Withington came to him from Wisconsin, and announced that he had -a machine that could automatically bind grain. McCormick had been -working night and day over his own plan, and when the inventor began -to explain he fell asleep. When he woke, Withington had left. -McCormick at once sent one of his men to the inventor's Wisconsin -home, and, with many apologies, begged him to come back. Withington -did, and showed McCormick a wonderful machine, one made of two arms of -steel that would catch each bundle of grain, pass a wire about it and -twist the ends of the wire, cut it loose, and throw it to the ground. -Here was an invention that would more than double the usefulness of -the reaper, and one that seems quite as remarkable as the reaper -itself. McCormick at once contracted with Withington for this binder, -and tried it on an Illinois farm the following July. It worked -perfectly, cutting fifty acres of grain and binding it into sheaves. -At last only one person was needed to harvest the wheat, the one who -sat upon the driver's seat and simply had to guide the horses. A -small boy or girl could do all the work that it had taken a score of -men to accomplish twenty years before. - -Now it seemed as if the reaper was complete, and nothing could be -added to increase its efficiency. McCormick had seen to it that the -whirr of his machine was heard in every wheat field of the United -States, and was busily extending the reign of the reaper to the great -grain districts of Russia, India, and South America. Then, in the -spring of 1880, William Deering built and sold 3,000 self-binding -machines that used twine instead of wire to fasten the sheaves, and as -the news of this novelty spread the farmers declared that the wire of -the old binders had cut their hands, had torn their wheat, had proved -hard to manage in the flour-mills, and that henceforth they must have -twine-binders. - -McCormick realized that he must give the farmers what they demanded, -and he looked about for a man who could invent a new method of binding -with twine. He found him in Marquis L. Gorham, who perfected a new -twine-binder, and added a device by which all the sheaves bound were -turned out in uniform size. By the next year McCormick was pushing his -Gorham binder on the market, and the farmers who had wavered in their -allegience to his reaper were returning to the McCormick fold. - -The battle of rival reapers had been long and costly. From the -building of his factory in Chicago McCormick had been engaged in -continuous lawsuits with competitors. His original patent had expired -in 1848, and he had used every effort to have it extended. The battle -was fought through the lower courts, through the Supreme Court, and in -Congress. The greatest lawyers of the time were retained on one side -of the reaper struggle or the other. His rivals combined and raised a -great fund to defeat his claims. He spent a fortune, but his patents -were not renewed, and competition was thrown wide open. With the -invention of the twine-binder the patent war burst out afresh, and -again the courts were called upon for decisions between the rivals. -But by now the competition had become so keen and the cost of -manufacturing so heavy that the field dwindled quickly. When the war -over the twine-binder ended there were only twenty-two competing firms -left; before that there had been over a hundred. - -The reaper had been primarily necessary in America, because here farm -labor was very scarce, and the wheat fields enormously productive. In -fact the growth of the newly opened Western country must have been -indefinitely retarded if men had had to cut the grain by hand and -harvest it in the primitive manner. The reaper was a very vital factor -in the development of that country, and McCormick deserved the credit -of being one of the greatest profit-builders of the land. - -In Europe and Asia labor was plentiful, and the reaper had to win its -way more slowly. McCormick showed his machine at the great -international exhibitions and gradually induced the large landowners -to consider it. Practical demonstration proved its value, and it made -its appearance in the fields of European Russia and Siberia, in -Germany and France and the Slavic countries, in India, Australia, and -the Argentine, and at last wherever wheat was to be cut. It trebled -the output of grain, and the welfare of the people has proven largely -dependent on their food supply. It has been an invention of the -greatest economic value to the world. - - - - -XII - -HOWE AND THE SEWING-MACHINE - -1819-1867 - - -The needs of his times, and of the people among whom he lives, have -often set the inventor's mind working along the line of his -achievement. It was so with Elias Howe, who built the first -sewing-machine. A hard-working man, and not overstrong, he would -return to his home from the machine-shop where he was employed, and -throw himself on the bed night after night to rest. Each night he -watched his young wife sewing to clothe their three children and add a -little something to the family income. With a strong taste for -mechanics it was natural that he should wonder if there were not some -way of lightening the burden of so much needlework. - -He had been brought up in surroundings that naturally impressed him -with the value of looms and new appliances for spinning and weaving. -He understood the various processes of handling wool and cotton, -although his own work lay outside them. His father had been a miller -in the small Massachusetts town of Spencer, where Elias was born in -1819. New England was already building her textile factories, and when -he was only six the boy joined his brothers and sisters at the work of -sticking wire teeth through the straps of leather that were then used -for cotton-cards. What he learned from books he had to pick up during -a few weeks each summer at the district school. His health was -delicate, and he was lame, unfitted to be a farmer, and his best place -seemed to be in his father's mill. But he was ambitious, and when he -was sixteen, a friend having brought him glowing tales of the great -cotton-mills in the fast-growing city of Lowell, he decided to seek -his fortune there. The panic of 1837 closed the mills, and Howe found -his course deflected to work in a machine-shop in Cambridge. By the -time he came of age he had married and was living in Boston, working -as a mechanic to support his family. Of a speculative turn of mind, he -was constantly suggesting improvements at the shop, and his watching -his wife labor with needle and thread turned his thoughts in the -direction of a machine for sewing. - -The idea was not a new one, but the men who had studied it had decided -that there were too many difficulties to overcome. Howe took up the -matter as a pastime, giving his spare moments to it, and talking it -over with his wife in the evenings when he was not too tired. -Naturally enough what he tried to do was to imitate the action of the -hand in sewing. His idea was to make a machine that would thrust a -needle through the cloth and then push it back again, working up and -down. Therefore his first needle was sharp at both ends, and had its -eye in the middle. He decided that he could only use very coarse -thread, as the constant motion would surely snap any fine thread. But -a year's experimenting convinced him that this simple up-and-down -thrust was too primitive a motion, and that the needle must be made -to form a different sort of stitch. He tried one method after another, -and finally hit upon the idea of making use of two threads, and -forming the stitch by means of a shuttle and a curved needle having -the eye near the point. He made a model, in wood and wire, of this -first sewing-machine, in October, 1844, and found that it would work. - -An early account of Howe's first sewing-machine says, "He used a -needle and a shuttle of novel construction, and combined them with -holding surfaces, feed mechanism, and other devices as they had never -before been brought together in one machine.... One of the principal -features of Mr. Howe's invention is the combination of a grooved -needle having an eye near its point, and vibrating in the direction of -its length, with a side-pointed shuttle for effecting a locked stitch, -and forming with the threads, one on each side of the cloth, a firm -and lasting seam not easily ripped." - -Howe had now decided to give all his time to introducing his -sewing-machine. He gave up his position in the machine-shop, and moved -his family to his father's house in Cambridge. There his father was -employed in cutting palm-leaf for the manufacture of hats. The son had -a lathe put in the garret, and began to make the various parts that -were needed for his sewing-machine. He did any work he could find by -the day to supply his family with food and clothing, but it proved a -very hard battle. His father's shop burned, and the whole family -seemed on the brink of ruin. The young inventor was in a very -difficult situation. He was confident that he had a machine that -should, if properly handled, bring him in a fortune, but he must have -some money to buy the iron and steel that were essential to its -building, and he must devise a way of interesting some capitalist in -it sufficiently to enable him to put it on the market. Meantime he -must contrive to provide for his family, who were now practically -without shelter. - -Fortunately, at this point, a Cambridge dealer in coal and wood, by -the name of Fisher, heard of Howe's machine, and asked to see it. Howe -jumped at the opportunity, explained its mechanism, and told how he -was situated. Mr. Fisher thought the model had possibilities, and -agreed to provide board for the inventor and his family, to give the -young man a workshop in his own house, and to advance him the sum of -$500, which Howe said was absolutely necessary to pay for the -construction of such a machine as could be shown to the public. For -his assistance Fisher was to receive a half-interest in a patent for -the sewing-machine if Howe could obtain one. This arrangement proved -Howe's salvation, and in December, 1844, he moved into his new -friend's house. - -He worked all that winter, meeting the many practical difficulties -that arose as he progressed with his machine, and devising solutions -for overcoming each. He worked all day, and many a time long into the -night. His machine progressed so well that by April, 1845, he found -that it would sew a seam four yards long. The machine was entirely -completed by the latter part of May, and its work proved satisfactory -to both partners. Howe sewed the seams of two woolen suits with it, -one for himself, and one for Fisher, and it was declared that the -mechanical sewing was so well done that it promised to outlast the -cloth. There was no longer any doubt that Howe had invented a machine -that would lighten labor to a very great degree. - -He took out his first patent on the sewing-machine toward the end of -1845. But when he tried to introduce his invention he met the same -difficulties that had faced all men who tried to supplant hand labor -by any mechanical process. The tailors of Boston to whom he showed it -were willing to admit its efficiency, but told him that he could never -secure its general use, as such a proceeding would ruin their -business. Every one admired the sewing-machine and praised Howe's -ingenuity, but no one would buy one. The opposition to the completed -machine seemed insuperable, and Fisher, believing it to be so, at -length withdrew from his partnership with Howe. The latter and his -family had to move back again to his father's house. - -To make a living Howe took a position as a locomotive engineer, -leaving his invention unused at home. This work proved too hard, his -health broke down, and he was compelled to give up the position. In -his enforced idleness he began to devise new ways of selling his -machine, and finally decided to send his brother Amasa to England, and -see if he could not interest some one there in the invention. His -brother was willing to do this, and arrived in London, with a -sewing-machine, in October, 1846. He showed it to a man named William -Thomas, who became interested in it, offered $1,250 for it, and -also offered to employ Elias Howe in his business of umbrella and -corset maker. - -[Illustration: ELIAS HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE] - -Howe decided that this position was preferable to his idleness in -Cambridge, and accepted it. He sailed for England, and entered the -factory of William Thomas. But, although Thomas had taken a very -lively interest in Howe's sewing-machine, he did not treat the -inventor well. For eight months Howe worked for him, and meantime he -had sent for his wife and three children, and they had arrived in -London. But eight months was the limit of his endurance of his new -master's tyranny, and at the end of that time he gave up his position. -Matters seemed tending worse and worse with him, and the situation of -the Howe family in London, almost penniless, grew daily more and more -precarious. - -His family at home sent Howe a little money before his earnings were -entirely spent, and he used this to buy passage for his wife and -children back to the United States. He himself stayed in London, -believing there were better chances for the sale of his machine there -than in America. But his pursuit of fortune in England proved but the -search for the rainbow's pot of gold. There was no market for his -wares, and after months of actual destitution he pawned the model of -his sewing-machine and even his patent papers in order to secure funds -to pay his passage home. Tragedy dogged his footsteps. He reached New -York with only a few small coins in his pocket, and received word that -his wife was lying desperately ill in Cambridge. His own strength was -spent, and he had to wait several days before he had the money to pay -his railroad fare to Boston. Soon after he reached home his wife -died. Blow after blow had fallen on him until he was almost crushed. - -Even his hard-won invention seemed now about to be snatched from him. -Certain mechanics in New England, who had heard descriptions of his -model, built machines on its lines, and sold them. The newspapers -learned of these, and began to suggest their use in a number of -industries. Howe looked about him, saw the sewing-machine growing in -favor, heard it praised, and realized that it had been actually stolen -from him. He bestirred himself, found patent attorneys who were -willing to look into his patents, and when they pronounced them -unassailable, found money enough to defend them. He began several -suits to establish his claims in August, 1850, and at about the same -time formed a partnership with a New Yorker named Bliss, who agreed to -try to sell the machines if Howe would open a shop and build them in -New York. - -Howe's claims to the invention of the sewing-machine were positively -established by the courts in 1854. The machine was now well known, and -its value as a moneymaker very apparent. But the workers in cheap -clothing shops organized to prevent the introduction of the machines, -claiming that they would destroy their livelihood. Labor leaders took -up the slogan, and led the men and women workers in what were known as -the Sewing-machine Riots. In the few shops where the machines were -actually introduced they were injured or destroyed by the workmen. The -pressure became so great that the larger establishments ceased their -use, and only the small shops, that employed a few workers, were able -to continue using the new machine. In spite of its recognized value it -looked as if the sewing-machine could not prove a financial success, -and when Howe's partner Bliss died in 1855 the inventor was able to -buy his share in the business from his heirs for a very small sum. - -Opposition, even of the most strenuous order, has never been able to -retard for long the use of an invention that simplifies industry. If a -machine is made that will in an hour do the work that formerly -required several days' hand labor that machine is certain to displace -that hand labor. The workers may protest, but industrial progress -demands the more economic method. So it was with the sewing-machine. -The riots died away, the labor leaders turned to other fields, and one -by one the clothing factories installed the new machines. Howe had the -patience to wait, and in one way and another obtained the sinews of -war to sue the infringers of his patents. The waiting was worth while. -He ultimately forced all other manufacturers of sewing-machines to pay -him for their products. In six years his royalties increased from $300 -a year to over $200,000 a year. His machine was shown at the Paris -Exposition of 1867, and was awarded a gold medal, and Howe himself was -given the ribbon of the French Legion of Honor. - -The wheel of fortune has turned quickly for many inventors, but -perhaps never more completely than it did for Elias Howe. The man who -had pawned his goods in London, and had reached New York with less -than a dollar in his pocket, had an income of $200,000 a year. He who -had been rebuffed by the tailors of Boston was recognized as one of -the great men of his generation, and one who, instead of taking the -bread from the mouths of poor working men and women, had lightened -their labor a thousandfold. The women, like his own wife, who had -sewed by day and night, were saved their strength and vision, and the -slavery of the clothing factories, notorious in those days, was -inestimably lightened. But it had been a hard fight to make the world -take what it sorely needed. - -Howe's struggle had been so hard that his health was badly broken when -he did succeed. He had several years to enjoy his profits and honors. -He died October 3, 1867, at his home in Brooklyn. - -Many inventors have barely escaped with their lives from the fury of -mobs who thought the inventor would take their living from them. -Papin, and Hargreaves, and Arkwright all learned what such resistance -meant. But as one invention has succeeded another people have grown -wiser, and realized that each has conferred a benefit rather than -taken away a right. Howe was one of the last to find the people he -hoped to benefit aligned against him. The world has moved, since -Galileo's day, and the inventor is now known as the great benefactor. -But Howe's life was a fight, and his triumph that of one of the great -martyrs of invention. - - - - -XIII - -BELL AND THE TELEPHONE - -1847- - - -None of the inventions that have resulted from the study of -electricity have been stumbled upon in the dark. Scientists in both -England and America had realized the possibility of the telegraph -before Morse built his first working outfit in his rooms on Washington -Square. Edison took out a patent covering wireless telegraphy before -Marconi gave his name to the new means of communication. Often a man -who has been following one trail through this new field has come upon -another, glanced down it, and decided to go back and explore it more -thoroughly another day. Meantime the trail is run down by a rival. The -prize has gone to that persevering one who has made that trail his -own, and learned its secret while other men were only glancing at it. -Alexander Graham Bell was by no means the first man to realize that -the sound of the human voice could be sent over a wire. He did not -happen to stumble upon this fact. He worked it out bit by bit, from -what other men had already learned concerning electricity, and his -object was to make the telephone of real use to the world. It so -happened that Elisha Gray and Bell each filed a claim upon the -telephone at the Patent Office on the same day, February 14, 1876. -But it was Bell who was able to place the first telephone at the -public's service. - -He came of a family that had long been interested in the study of -speech. His father, his grandfather, his uncle, and two brothers had -all taught elocution in one form or another at the Universities of -Edinburgh, Dublin, and London. His grandfather had worked out a -successful system to correct stammering, his father, widely known as a -splendid elocutionist, had invented a sign-language that he called -"Visible Speech," which was of help to those learning foreign tongues, -and also a system to enable the deaf to read spoken words by the -movements of the lips. Naturally enough the young inventor started -with a very considerable knowledge of the laws of sound. - -Bell was born in Edinburgh March 1, 1847, and educated there and in -London. When he was sixteen family influence was able to get him the -post of teacher of elocution in certain schools, and he spent his -leisure hours studying the science of sound. Soon after he came of age -he met two well-known Englishmen who were experts in his line of -study, Sir Charles Wheatstone and Alexander J. Ellis. Ellis had -translated Helmholtz's celebrated book on "The Sensations of Tone," -and was able to show Bell in his own laboratory how the German -scientist had succeeded in keeping tuning-forks in vibration by the -power of electro-magnets, and had blended the tones of several -tuning-forks so as to produce approximately the sound of the human -voice. This idea was new to Bell, and led him to wonder whether it -would not be possible to construct what might be called a musical -telegraph, sending different notes over a wire by electro-magnetism, -using a piano keyboard to give the different notes. - -Sir Charles Wheatstone, the leading English authority on the -telegraph, received young Bell with the greatest interest, and showed -him a new talking-machine that had been constructed by Baron de -Kempelin. Bell studied this closely, discussed it with Wheatstone, and -decided that he would devote himself to the problems of reproducing -sounds mechanically. - -The course of his life was then suddenly altered. His two brothers -died in Edinburgh of consumption, and he was told that he must seek a -change of climate. Accordingly his father and mother sailed with him -to the town of Brantford in Canada. There he at once became interested -in teaching his father's system of "Visible Speech" to a tribe of -Mohawk Indians in the neighborhood. - -He had already had very considerable success in teaching deaf-mutes to -talk by visible speech, or sign-language, and this success was -repeated in Canada. Word of it went to Boston, and as a result the -Board of Education of that city wrote to him, offering to pay him five -hundred dollars if he would teach his system in a school for -deaf-mutes there. He was glad to accept, and in 1871 moved to Boston, -which he planned to make his permanent residence. - -Success crowned his teaching almost immediately. Boston University -offered him a professorship, and he opened a "School of Vocal -Physiology," which paid him well. Most of his remarkable skill in -teaching the deaf and dumb to understand spoken words and in a manner -to speak themselves was due to his father's system, which he had -carefully followed, and had in some respects improved upon. - -At this time a resident of Salem, Thomas Sanders, engaged the young -teacher to train his small deaf-mute son, and asked him to make his -home at Sanders' house in Salem. As he could easily reach Boston from -there Bell consented, and in the cellar of Mr. Sanders' house he set -up a workshop, where for three years he experimented with tuning-forks -and electric batteries along the line of his early studies in London. - -At nearly the same time Miss Mabel Hubbard came to him to be taught -his system of speech. He became engaged to her, and some years later -they were married. - -His future wife's father was a well-known Boston lawyer, Gardiner G. -Hubbard. It is related that one evening as Bell sat at the piano in -Mr. Hubbard's home in Cambridge, he said, "Do you know that if I sing -the note G close to the strings of the piano, the G-string will answer -me?" "What of it?" asked Mr. Hubbard. "Why, it means that some day we -ought to have a musical telegraph, that will send as many messages -simultaneously over one wire as there are notes on the piano." - -Bell knew the field of his work in a general way, but he had not yet -decided which path to choose of several that looked as if they might -lead across it. His far-distant goal was to construct a machine that -would carry, not the dots and dashes of the telegraph, but the complex -vibrations of the human voice. This would be much more difficult to -attain than a musical telegraph, and for some time he wavered between -the two ideas. His work with his deaf and dumb pupils was all in the -line of making sound vibrations visible to the eye. He knew that with -what was called the phonautograph he could get tracings of such sound -vibrations upon blackened paper by means of a pencil or marker -attached to a vibrating cord or membrane, and furthermore that he -could obtain tracings of certain vowel sound vibrations upon smoked -glass. He studied the effect of vibrations upon the bones of the ear, -and this led him to experiment with vibrating a thin piece of iron -before an electro-magnet. - -His study of the effect of vibrations on the human eardrum showed Bell -what path he should follow. Sound waves striking the delicate ear-drum -could send thrills through the heavier bones inside the ear. He -thought that if he could construct two iron discs, which should be -similar to the ear-drums, and connect them by an electrified wire, he -might be able to make the disc at one end vibrate with sound waves, -send those vibrations through the wire to the other disc, and have -that give out the vibrations again in the form of sounds. That now -became his working idea, and it was the principle on which the -telephone was ultimately to be built. - -But Bell had been giving so much time and attention to this absorbing -project that his teaching had suffered. His "School of Vocal -Physiology" had had to be abandoned, and he found that his only pupils -were Miss Hubbard and small George Sanders. Both Mr. Sanders and Mr. -Hubbard, who had been helping him with the cost of his experiments, -refused to do so any longer unless he would devote himself to working -out his musical telegraph, in which both had a great deal of faith as -a successful business proposition. - -While he was struggling with these distracting calls of duty and -science he was obliged to go to Washington to see his patent attorney. -There he determined to call upon Professor Joseph Henry, who was the -greatest American authority on electrical science, and who had -experimented with the telegraph in the early years of the century. -Bell, aged twenty-eight, explained his new idea to Henry, then aged -seventy-eight. The theory was new to Henry, but he saw at once that it -had tremendous possibilities. He told Bell so. "But," said Bell, "I -have not the expert knowledge of electricity that is needed." "You can -get it," answered Henry. "You must, for you are in possession of the -germ of a great invention." - -Those few words, coming from such a man, were of the greatest possible -encouragement to Bell. He returned home, determined to get the -knowledge of electricity he needed, and to carry on his work with the -telephone. - -He rented a room at 109 Court Street, Boston, for a workshop, and took -a bedroom in the neighborhood. He studied electricity night and day, -and he gave equal time to the musical telegraph that his friends -favored and to the invention that now claimed his real interest. - -The man from whom Bell rented his workshop was Charles Williams, -himself a manufacturer of electrical supplies. Bell had for his -assistant Thomas A. Watson, who helped him construct the two -armatures, or vibrating discs, at the end of an electrified wire that -stretched from the workshop to an adjoining room. Watson was working -with Bell on an afternoon in June, 1875. Bell was in the workshop, and -Watson in the next room. Bell was stooping down over the instrument at -his end of the wire. Suddenly he gave an exclamation. He had heard a -faint twang come from the disc in front of him. - -He dashed into the next room. "Snap that reed again, Watson," he -commanded. Back at his own end of the wire he waited. In a minute he -caught the light twang again. It was only what he had been expecting -to hear at any time during the months of his work, but nevertheless he -was amazed when he did catch the sound. It proved that a sound could -be carried over a wire, and accurately reproduced at the farther end. -And that meant that the vibrations of the human voice could ultimately -be sent in the same way. - -Bell's enthusiasm had already converted his assistant, Watson; it now -won over Hubbard and Sanders. They began to believe that there might -be something of real value in his strange scheme, and offered to help -him finance it. He went on with his studies in electricity, and -gradually began to learn how he could make it serve him best. - -But it was a far cry from that first faint sound to the actual -transmission of words. For a long time his receiving instruments would -only give out vague rumbling noises. In November, 1875, his -experiments showed him that the vibrations created in a reed by the -human voice could be transmitted in such a way as to reproduce words -and sounds. Then, in January, 1876, he showed a few of the pupils at -Monroe's School of Oratory in Boston an apparatus by which singing -could be carried more or less satisfactorily from the cellar of the -building to a room on the fourth floor. But on March 10, 1876, the new -instrument actually talked. Watson, who was at the basement end of the -wire, heard the disc say, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want you." He -dashed up the three flights of stairs to the room in which Bell was. -"I can _hear_ you!" he cried. "I can _hear the words_!" - -"Had I known more about electricity, and less about sound," Bell is -reported to have said, "I would never have invented the telephone." He -had come upon his discovery by the right path, but it was a path that -very few men could ever have picked out. Other inventors had tried to -make a machine that would carry the voice, but they had all worked -from the standpoint of the telegraph. Bell, inheriting unusual -knowledge of the laws of speech and sound, came from the other -direction. He started with the laws of sound transmission rather than -with the laws of the telegraph. The result was that he had created -something altogether new, basically different from all the other -inventions that made use of electricity, for which there was as yet no -common name even, and which he described in his application for a -patent, as "an improvement in telegraphy." - -Only two months after the day on which the telephone had actually -talked for the first time the Centennial Exposition opened in -Philadelphia. Mr. Hubbard was one of the Commissioners, and he -obtained permission to have Bell's first telephone placed on a small -table in the Department of Education. Bell himself was too poor to be -able to go to Philadelphia, and intended to stay in Boston, and try to -find new deaf-mute pupils. But when Miss Hubbard left for the -Centennial, and begged him to go with her, he could not resist. He -stayed on the train, without a ticket, without baggage, and reached -Philadelphia with the Hubbards. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST TELEPHONE - Reproduced by permission - From "The History of the Telephone" - By Herbert N. Casson - Published by A. C. McClurg & Co.] - -The new instrument had been at the Exposition for six weeks without -attracting serious attention. But Mr. Hubbard arranged that the judges -should examine it for a few minutes on the Sunday afternoon following -Bell's arrival. The afternoon, however, was very warm, and there were -a great many exhibits for the judges to inspect. There was the first -grain-binder, and the earliest crude electric light, and Elisha Gray's -musical telegraph, and exhibits of printing telegraphs. It was seven -o'clock when the judges reached Bell's table, and they were tired and -hungry. One of the judges picked up the receiver, looked at it, and -put it back on the table. The others laughed and joked as they started -to go by. Then they stopped short. A man had come up to the table, -with a crowd of attendants at his heels. He said to the young man at -the table, "Professor Bell, I am delighted to see you again." The new -arrival was the Emperor Dom Pedro of Brazil, who had once visited -Bell's school for deaf-mutes in Boston. The Emperor said he would -like to test Bell's new machine. - -With the judges, a group of famous scientific men, and the Emperor's -suite for audience, Bell went to the transmitter at the other end of -the wire, while Dom Pedro put the receiver to his ear. There was a -moment's pause, and then the Emperor threw back his head, exclaiming, -"_My God--it talks!_" - -The Emperor put down the receiver. Joseph Henry, who had encouraged -Bell in Washington, picked it up. He too heard Bell's own words coming -from the disc. He too showed his amazement. "This comes nearer to -overthrowing the doctrine of the conservation of energy," said he, -"than anything I ever saw." After him came Sir William Thomson, later -known as Lord Kelvin. He had been the engineer of the first Atlantic -Cable. He listened intently. "Yes," said he at last, "it does speak. -It is the most wonderful thing I have seen in America!" - -Until ten o'clock that night the judges spoke into the transmitter and -listened at the receiver of Bell's instrument. Next morning it was -given a place of honor, and every one begged for a chance to examine -it. It became the most wonderful exhibit of the Centennial, and the -judges gave Bell their Certificate of Award. Nothing more opportune -could possibly have happened for the inventor. - -But in spite of this launching at the hands of the most eminent -scientists, business men could see little future for the new machine. -It was very ingenious, they admitted, but it could only be a toy. And -Bell himself was not sufficiently well versed in business affairs to -know how to make the most of his invention. Fortunately Mr. Hubbard -was much better acquainted with business methods. He determined to -promote the telephone, and he did. He talked about it to all his -friends until they could think of nothing else. He began a campaign of -publicity, with the object of making the name of the new instrument a -household word. He had it written up for the newspapers, and -advertised public demonstrations of its powers, and arranged that Bell -should lecture on it in different cities. Bell was a good lecturer, -and his talks became popular. Then news was sent to the _Boston Globe_ -by telephone, and people began to wonder if there were not new -possibilities in its use. - -In May, 1877, a man named Emery called at Hubbard's office, and leased -two telephones for twenty dollars. That encouraged the promoters, and -they issued a little circular describing the business. Then another -man, who ran a burglar-alarm company, obtained permission to hang up -the telephone in a few banks. They proved of use, and the same man -started a service among the express companies. Before long several -other small exchanges were opened, and by August, 1877, it was -estimated that there were 778 telephones in use. Hubbard was very much -encouraged, and he, together with Bell, Sanders, and Watson formed the -"Bell Telephone Association." - -The Western Union Telegraph Company was a great corporation, -controlling the telegraph business of the country. Hubbard hoped that -it would purchase the Bell patents, as it had already bought many -patents taken out on allied inventions. They offered them to President -Orton for $100,000, but he refused to buy them, saying, "What use -could this company make of an electrical toy?" - -But the Western Union had many little subsidiary companies, supplying -customers with printing-telegraphs and dial telegraphs and various -other modifications of the usual telegraph, and one day one of these -companies reported that some of their customers were preferring to use -the new telephone. The Western Union bestirred itself at this sign of -competition, and had shortly formed the "American Speaking-Telephone -Company," with a staff of inventors that included Edison. The war was -on in earnest, for the new company not only claimed to have the best -instrument on the market, but advertised that it had "the only -original telephone." - -That war was actually a good thing for Bell, and Hubbard, and Sanders. -With the Western Union pushing this new invention, and not only -pushing it, but fighting for its claim to it, the public realized that -the telephone was neither a toy nor a scientific oddity, but an -instrument of great commercial value. Sanders' relatives came to the -aid of the Bell Company, and put money into its treasury, and soon -Hubbard was leasing out telephones at the rate of a thousand a month. - -But none of these partners was exactly the man to organize and build -up such a business as this of the telephone should be, and each of -them knew it. Then Hubbard discovered a young man in Washington who -impressed him as having remarkable executive ability. Watson met him, -and his opinion coincided with that of Hubbard. The upshot of the -matter was that the partners offered the post of General Manager at a -salary of thirty-five hundred dollars a year to this man, Theodore N. -Vail, and Vail accepted the offer. Vail himself knew little about the -telephone, but his cousin, Alfred Vail, had been the friend and -assistant of Morse when he was working on his first telegraph. - -Hubbard had advertised Bell's telephone, Sanders had financed it, and -now Vail pushed it on the market. He faced the powerful Western Union -and fought them. He sent copies of Bell's original patent to each of -his agents, with the message, "We have the only original telephone -patents, we have organized and introduced the business, and we do not -propose to have it taken from us by any corporation." - -His plan was to create a national telephone system, and so he confined -each of his agents to one place, and reserved all rights to connect -one city with another. He made short-term contracts, and tried in -every way to keep control of the whole system in the hands of the -parent company. Then the Western Union came out with Edison's new -telephone transmitter, which increased the value of the telephone -tenfold, and which in fact made it almost a new instrument. The Bell -Company was panic-stricken, for their customers demanded a telephone -as good as Edison's. - -Those were hard times for Vail and the partners back of him. The -telephone war had cut the price of service to a point where neither -company could show a profit. Bell, now married, returned from England -with word that he had been unable to establish the telephone business -there, and that he must have a thousand dollars at once to pay his -most pressing debts. He was ill, and he wrote from the Massachusetts -General Hospital, "Thousands of telephones are now in operation in all -parts of the country, yet I have not yet received one cent from my -invention. On the contrary, I am largely out of pocket by my -researches, as the mere value of the profession that I have sacrificed -during my three years' work amounts to twelve thousand dollars." - -At this juncture a young Bostonian named Francis Blake wrote to Vail, -announcing that he had invented a transmitter that was the equal of -Edison's, and offering to sell it for stock in the company. The -purchase was made, and the claim of the inventor proved true. The Bell -telephone was again as good as that of the Western Union Company. A -new company, called the National Bell Telephone Company, was -organized, with a capital of $850,000, and Colonel Forbes of Boston -became its first president. - -There have been few patent struggles to compare with that which was -waged over the telephone. McCormick fought for years to uphold his -rights to the invention of the reaper, but he fought a host of -competitors, and the warfare was of the guerrilla order. The Bell -Company fought alone against the Western Union, and it was a struggle -of giants. The Western Union was certain that it could find patents -antedating Bell's, and it went on that assumption, even after its own -expert had reported, "I am entirely unable to discover any apparatus -or method anticipating the invention of Bell as a whole, and I -conclude that his patent is valid." It claimed that Gray was the -original inventor, and instructed its lawyers to bring suits against -the Bell Company for infringing on Gray's patents. - -The legal battle began in the autumn of 1878, and continued for a -year. Then George Gifford, the leading counsel for the Western Union, -told his clients that their claim was baseless, and advised that they -come to a settlement. The Western Union saw the wisdom of this course, -and went to the Bell Company with an offer of compromise. An agreement -was finally reached, to remain in force for seventeen years, and the -terms were that the Western Union should admit that Bell was the -original inventor, that his patents were valid, and should retire from -the telephone business. On the other side, the Bell Company agreed to -buy the Western Union telephone system, to pay them a royalty of -twenty per cent. on all their telephone rentals, and to keep out of -the telegraph business. - -That ended the great war. It converted a powerful rival into an ally, -it gave the Bell Company fifty-six thousand new telephones in -fifty-five cities, and it made that company the national system of the -United States. In 1881 there was another reorganization; the American -Bell Telephone Company was created, with a capital of six million -dollars. The following year there was such a telephone boom that the -Bell Company's system was doubled, and the gross earnings reached more -than a million dollars. - -The four men who had taken hold of Bell's invention in its infancy and -brought it to maturity were ready to surrender its care into the hands -of the able business men who headed the Bell Company. Sanders sold his -stock in the company for a little less than a million dollars, Watson, -when he resigned his interest, found himself sufficiently rich to -build a ship-building plant near Boston and employ four thousand -workmen to build battle-ships. Gardiner G. Hubbard retired from active -business life, and transferred his remarkable energy to the affairs of -the National Geographical Society. Bell had presented his stock in the -company to his wife on their wedding-day, and he now took up afresh -the work of his boyhood and youth, the teaching of deaf-mutes. But he -was no longer unheeded nor unrewarded. In 1880 the government of -France awarded him the Volta prize of fifty thousand francs and the -Cross of the Legion of Honor. With the Volta prize he founded the -Volta Laboratory in Washington for the use of students. In Washington -he has made his home, and there scientists of all lands call to pay -their respects to the patriarch of American inventors. - -Shortly after the first appearance of the telephone at the Centennial -Exposition men were accustomed to laugh at the new invention, and call -it a freak, a scientific toy. Its mechanism was so incomprehensible to -most people that they refused to regard it seriously. A Boston -mechanic expressed the general ignorance when he stoutly maintained -that in his opinion there must be "a hole through the middle of the -wire." And the telephone is still to most people a mystery, far more -so than the telegraph or the incandescent light or the other uses to -which electricity has been put. It is one thing to send a message by -the mechanical process of dots and dashes made by breaking and joining -a current. It is quite another to reproduce in one place the exact -inflection, tone, and quality of a voice that is speaking hundreds of -miles away, across rivers and mountains. There is real magic in that, -the wonder that might be found in a Genii's spell in the Arabian -Nights. How can people be blamed for laughing at such pretensions, and -believing that even if such a thing were true it was more fit for an -exposition than for public use? - -Yet this thing of magic has outdistanced every other mode of -communication. It is estimated that in the United States as many -messages are sent by telephone as the combined total of telegrams, -letters, and railroad passengers. The telephone wires are eight times -greater than the telegraph wires, and their earnings six times as -great. It is true that the telephone is vastly more used in America -than in other parts of the world, and yet it is figured that in the -world at large almost as many messages are now telephoned as are sent -by post. - -And the mystery of the telephone grows no less the more one studies -it. You speak against a tiny disc of sheet-iron, and the disc -trembles. It has millions and millions of varieties of trembles, as -many as there are sounds in the universe. A piece of copper wire, -connected with an electric battery, stretches from the disc against -which you have spoken to another disc miles and miles away. The -tremble of your disc sends an electric thrill along the wire to that -other disc and makes it tremble exactly as yours did. And that -trembling sounds the very note you spoke, the very note in millions of -possible notes, and as accurately as if the sound wave had only -traveled three feet through clear air. That is what happens when you -telephone, but when you realize it the mystery gains rather than -decreases. - -Scores of men claimed to have invented telephones before Bell did, but -none ever proved their claims. Men who were studying improvements on -the telegraph had glimpses of the ultimate possibility of transmitting -speech by wire, and Elisha Gray filed a caveat on that point later on -the very day that Bell filed his application for a patent. But Gray's -was a caveat, or a declaration that the applicant believes he can -invent a certain device, and Bell's was the statement that he had -already perfected his invention. Bell's claim stood against the world, -and men now recognize that the telephone was born on that afternoon in -June, 1875, when the young teacher of deaf-mutes first caught the -faint twang of a snapping reed sent across a few yards of wire. - - - - -XIV - -EDISON AND THE ELECTRIC LIGHT - -1847- - - -To some men the material world is always presenting itself in the form -of a series of fascinating puzzles, to be solved as one might work out -a game of chess. The astronomer is given certain figures, and from -those he intends to derive certain laws; the scientist knows the -properties of certain materials and from those he is to reach some new -combination that will produce a new result. He is not an inventor as -much as he is a detective; he picks up the clews to certain happenings -and constructs a working theory to fit them. In mechanics this theory -that he constructs usually takes the form of a machine. And this -machine is not so much a new discovery as it is the practical -working-out of certain carefully-selected laws of nature. - -Perhaps there has never been a man whose thoughts were so continually -asking the question why as Thomas Alva Edison. Certainly there has -never been one who has found the answer to that question in so many -lines of scientific study. He has not merely happened on his -discoveries. He has not been as much interested in the result as in -the reasons for it. He belongs to the experimenting age. Once on a -time men took the facts of nature for granted. But if they had always -done so there would have been no telegraph, no telephone, no electric -light, no phonograph. Each of these were achieved by working on a -definite problem, and in no haphazard way. The inventor has become a -scientist and a mechanic, and no longer an amateur discoverer. Chance -has much less to do with the winning of new knowledge than it once -had. - -A visitor to Edison's laboratory tells how he found him holding a vial -of some liquid to the light. After a long look at it he put the vial -down on the table, and resting his head in his hands, stared intently -at it, as if he expected the vial to make some answer. Then he picked -it up, shook it, and held it again to the light. The visitor -introduced himself. Edison nodded toward the bottle. "Take a look at -those filings," said he. "See how curiously they settle when I shake -the bottle. In alcohol they behave one way, but in oil in this way. -Isn't that the most curious thing you ever saw--better than a play at -one of your city theatres, eh?" Again he shook the vial. "What I want -to know is what they mean by it; and I'm going to find out." There is -the man, he wants to know "what they mean by it," he continually asks -the question why, he is the great experimenter among great inventors. - -Edison has shown the calibre of his mind in a score of different ways. -He has been showing it ever since the days when he was a newsboy on -the trains of the Canadian Grand Trunk Railroad and the Michigan -Central. Then he fitted up a corner of the baggage-car of his train as -a miniature laboratory, and filled it with the bottles and retorts -that had been discarded at the railroad workshops. Among his treasures -was a copy of Fresenius's "Qualitative Analysis," engaging reading for -a boy only twelve years old. But he was not only a chemist. When he -was not working on the train he would be hanging about machine shops, -listening and watching and considering. One day the manager of the -_Detroit Free Press_ told him he might have some three hundred pounds -of old type that had been used up. The newsboy found an old hand-press -and began to print a paper himself, called the _Grand Trunk Herald_, -and sold it to the employees and regular passengers on his line. -Usually he would set the type before the train started, and print it -in the spare moments of his trip. Sometimes one of the station-masters -on the run, who was also a telegraph operator, would get a piece of -important news, write it down, and hand the paper to Edison as the -train stopped. Then the boy would go to his shop in the caboose, set -up the item, print it, and sell it, beating the daily newspapers that -might be awaiting the passengers at the end of the ride. - -The new invention of the telegraph, and the great possibilities of its -use, early caught his attention. About the time the Civil War began -the newsboy adopted a new idea in his business. He had always found it -difficult to know how many newspapers to carry on each trip. If he had -too large a stock some would be left on his hands, if he carried too -few he would be sold out early and lose a good profit. He made a -friend of one of the compositors of the _Detroit Free Press_, and got -him to show him the proofs of the paper. That gave him some idea of -the news of the day, and he could judge how many papers he would -probably need. One day the proof-slip told him that there had been a -terrific battle at Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, and that sixty -thousand men had been killed and wounded. He knew that this would sell -the paper. All he needed was to let people get an inkling of what the -news was. - -Edison dashed to the telegraph-operator and asked if he would wire a -message to each of the large stations on the railroad line requesting -the station-masters to chalk up a notice on their train -bulletin-board, giving the fact that there had been a great battle, -and that papers telling about it would reach the station at such an -hour. In return he offered the operator newspaper service for six -months free. The bargain was made, and the boy hurried to the -newspaper office. - -He did not have enough money to buy as many papers as he wanted. He -asked the superintendent to let him have one thousand copies of the -_Press_ on credit. The request was instantly refused. Thereupon he -marched up the stairs to the office of the paper's owner, and asked if -he would give him fifteen hundred copies on trust. The owner looked at -the boy for a moment, and then wrote out an order. "Take that -down-stairs," said he, "and you will get what you want." As Edison -said in telling the story afterward, "Then I felt happier than I have -ever felt since." - -He took his fifteen hundred copies to his storehouse on the train. At -the station where the first stop was made he usually sold two papers. -That day as they ran in to the platform it looked as if a riot had -occurred. All the town was clamoring for papers. He sold a couple of -hundred at five cents each. Another crowd met him at the next stop, -and he raised his price to ten cents a copy. The same thing happened -at each place where they stopped. When he reached Port Huron he put -what was left of his stock in a wagon, and drove through the main -streets. He sold his papers at a quarter of a dollar and more apiece. -He went by a church, and called out the news of the battle. In ten -seconds the minister and all his congregation were clamoring about the -wagon, bidding against each other for copies of the precious issue. He -had made a small fortune for a boy, and felt that he owed it largely -to his use of the telegraph. Quick-witted he was, beyond a doubt, of -an inventive turn, but a shrewd business man on top of all. - -He wanted to be a telegraph-operator. Electricity fascinated him, and -he could watch the machines and listen to the music of their clicking -by the hour. He set up a line of his own in his father's basement at -Port Huron, making his batteries of bottles, old stovepipe wire, nails -and zinc that he could pick up for a trifle. He studied the subject in -his shop in the corner of the baggage-car, during the scant moments -when he was neither printer nor newsboy. Once a bottle of phosphorus -upset and started a fire. The boy was thrashed and his bottles and -wires thrown out. But he was too doggedly persistent to mind any -mishap. He saved the small son of the station-master at Port Clements -from being run down by a train, and in return the father offered to -teach him telegraphy. So little by little he learned his chosen work. - -He obtained a position as night operator at Port Huron. That kept him -busy at night, but he refused to sleep during the daytime as other -night operators did, and used that time to work on his own schemes. To -catch some sleep he kept a loud alarm-clock at his office, and set it -so that he would be waked when trains were due and he was needed. But -sometimes trains were off schedule, and again and again he would -oversleep. At last the train despatcher ordered Edison to signal him -the letter "A" in the Morse alphabet every half hour. The boy -willingly agreed. A few nights later he brought an invention of his -own to the office, and connected it by wires with the clock and the -telegraph. Then he watched it work. Exactly on the half hour a little -lever fell, sending an excellent copy of the Morse "A" to the key of -the telegraph. Another lever closed the circuit. He kept his eyes on -this instrument of his making until he had seen it act faultlessly -again at the next half hour. Then he went to sleep. Night after night -the signal was sent without a mistake, and the despatcher began to -regain some of the confidence he had lost in the young operator. Then -one night the despatcher chanced to be at the next station to -Edison's, and it occurred to him to call the latter up and have a chat -with him. He signaled for fifteen minutes, and received no answer. -Then he jumped on a hand-car and rode to Edison's station. Looking -through the window he saw the youth sound asleep. His eyes took in the -strange instrument upon the table. It was near the half hour, and as -the man watched he saw one lever of the instrument throw open the key -and the other send the signal over the wire. The operator was still -sleeping soundly. The despatcher recognized the young man's ingenuity, -but he also realized that he had been fooled, and so he woke Edison -none too gently, and told him that his services were no longer in -demand on that road. - -Ingenuity, mechanical short-cuts, new devices for doing old work, were -what beset his mind. He was not interested in doing the simple routine -service of a telegrapher, he wanted to see what improvements on it he -could make. Often this keenness for new ideas led him into trouble -with his employers; occasionally it was of real service. At one time -an ice-jam had broken the cable-line between Port Huron, in Michigan, -and Sarnia, over the Canadian line. The river there was a mile and a -half wide. The officers were wondering how they could get their -messages across when they saw Edison jump upon a locomotive standing -in the train-yard. He seized the valve that controlled the whistle. He -opened and closed it so that the locomotive's whistles resembled the -dots and dashes of the telegraph code. He called Sarnia again and -again. "Do you hear this? Do you get this?" he sent by the whistle. -Four and five times he sent the message, and finally the whistle of a -locomotive across the river answered him. In that way communication -was again established. - -A little later, when Edison was employed as operator in the railroad -office at Indianapolis, he practiced receiving newspaper reports in -his spare hours at night. He and a friend named Parmley would take the -place of the regular man, who was glad to have them do it. "I would -sit down," said Edison, "for ten minutes, and 'take' as much as I -could from the instrument, carrying the rest in my head. Then while I -wrote out, Parmley would serve his turn at 'taking,' and so on. This -worked well until they put a new man on at the Cincinnati end. He was -one of the quickest despatchers in the business, and we soon found it -was hopeless for us to try to keep up with him. Then it was that I -worked out my first invention, and necessity was certainly the mother -of it. - -"I got two old Morse registers and arranged them in such a way that by -running a strip of paper through them the dots and dashes were -recorded on it by the first instrument as fast as they were delivered -from the Cincinnati end, and were transmitted to us through the other -instrument at any desired rate of speed. They would come in on one -instrument at the rate of forty words a minute, and would be ground -out of our instrument at the rate of twenty-five. Then weren't we -proud! Our copy used to be so clean and beautiful that we hung it up -on exhibition; and our manager used to come and gaze at it silently -with a puzzled expression. He could not understand it, neither could -any of the other operators; for we used to hide my impromptu automatic -recorder when our toil was over. But the crash came when there was a -big night's work--a presidential vote, I think it was--and copy kept -pouring in at the top rate of speed until we fell an hour and a half -or two hours behind. The newspapers sent in frantic complaints, an -investigation was made, and our little scheme was discovered. We -couldn't use it any more." - -His fortunes rose and fell, for, although he was now becoming a very -expert operator, taking messages with greater and greater speed, he -would continue to stray into new fields of experiment. When he started -to work in the Western Union office in Memphis, which was soon after -the end of the Civil War, he found that all messages that were sent -from New Orleans to New York had to be received at Memphis, sent on -from there to Louisville, taken again, and so forwarded by half a -dozen relays to New York. Many errors might creep in by such a system. -To cure this he devised an automatic repeater, which could be attached -to the line at Memphis, and would of its own accord send the message -on. In this way the signals could go directly from New Orleans to New -York. The device worked, and was highly praised in the local -newspapers. But it happened that the manager of the office had a -relative who was just completing a similar instrument, and Edison had -forestalled him. Consequently he found himself discharged. He got a -railroad pass as far as Decatur, and walked a hundred and fifty miles -from there to Nashville. So by alternate riding and walking he finally -reached Louisville. A little later he was offered a place in the -Boston office. - -He had plenty of nerve, and was not at all put out at the amusement of -the other men when he walked into the Boston office, clad in an old -and shapeless linen duster. "Here I am," he announced to the -superintendent. "And who are you?" he was asked. "Tom Edison. I was -told to report here." - -The superintendent sent him to the operating-room. Shortly after a New -York telegrapher, famed for his speed, called up. Every one else was -busy, and Edison was told to take his message. He sat down, and for -four and a half hours wrote the messages, numbering the pages and -throwing them on the floor for the office boy to gather up. As time -went on the messages came with such lightning speed that the whole -force gathered about to see the new man work. They had never seen such -quickness. At the end of the last message came the words, "Who the -devil are you?" "Tom Edison," the operator ticked back. "You are the -first man in the country," wired the man in New York, "that could ever -take me at my fastest, and the only one who could ever sit at the -other end of my wire for more than two hours and a half. I'm proud to -know you." - -This story may be legendary, but it is known to be a fact that Edison -was at this time the fastest operator in the employ of the Western -Union, and that he could take the messages sent him with a careless -ease which amounted almost to indifference. He had also cultivated an -unusually clear handwriting, which was of great help in writing out -the messages. - -As soon as he was settled at the Boston office he opened a small -workshop, where he might try to complete some of the many devices he -had in mind. He took out his first patent in 1868, when he was -twenty-one years old, and it was obtained for what he called an -electrical vote recorder. This was intended for use in Congress and -the State Legislatures, and to take the place of the slow process of -calling the roll on any vote. It was worked somewhat on the plan of -the hotel indicator. The voter, sitting at his desk, would press one -button if he wanted to vote "aye," and another if he wanted to vote -"no." His vote was then recorded on a dial by the Speaker's desk, and -as soon as each member had pressed one or the other button the total -votes on each side could be known. The machine worked perfectly, and -Edison took it to Washington in high hopes of having it adopted by -Congress. The chairman to whom he was referred examined it carefully. -Then he said, "Young man, it works all right and couldn't be better. -With an instrument like that it would be difficult to monkey with the -vote if you wanted to. But it won't do. In fact, it's the last thing -on earth that we want here. Filibustering and delay in the counting of -the votes are often the only means we have of defeating bad -legislation. So, though I admire your genius and the spirit which -prompted you to invent so excellent a machine, we shan't require it -here. Take the thing away." - -"Of course I was very sorry," said Edison, in speaking of this -interview later, "for I had banked on that machine bringing me in -money. But it was a lesson to me. There and then I made a vow that I -would never invent anything which was not wanted, or which was not -necessary to the community at large. And so far I believe I have kept -that vow." - -It was very evident there was a keen-witted man at work in the Boston -office. The operators there had been much annoyed by an army of -cockroaches that used to march across the table where they put their -lunches and make a raid on the sandwiches and pies. One day Edison -appeared with some tin-foil and four or five yards of fine wire. He -unrolled the tin-foil, and, cutting two narrow strips from the long -sheet, he stretched them around the table, keeping them near together, -but not touching, and fastening them with small tacks. Then he -connected the ribbons of foil with two batteries. - -The leaders of the cockroach army arrived. The advance guard got his -fore-creepers over the first ribbon safely, but as soon as they -touched the parallel ribbon over he fell. In a very short time the -invading army had met its Waterloo, and the lunches were safe from any -further attack. - -At another time the tin dipper that hung by the tank of drinking-water -temporarily disappeared. When it was returned Edison put up a sign, -reading, "Please return this dipper." He also connected the nail on -which the dipper hung with a wire attached to an electric battery. -After that the dipper stayed in its place under penalty of a wrenched -arm for moving it without first disconnecting the battery. - -Edison had now determined to become an inventor, and as soon as he was -able gave up his position in the Boston telegraph office, where his -routine work took too much of his time, and went to New York to look -for other opportunities. It happened that one day soon after his -arrival he was walking through Wall Street and was attracted to the -office of the Law Gold Indicator. The indicators or stock-tickers of -this company were a new device, and were distributed through most of -the large brokerage houses of the city. On the morning when Edison -casually looked in, the machines had stopped work, no one could find -out what was the matter, and the brokers were much disturbed. Edison -watched Mr. Law and his workmen searching for the trouble. Then he -said that he thought he could fix the machines. Mr. Law told him to -try. He removed a loose contact spring that had fallen between the -wheels, and immediately the tickers began to work again. The other -workmen looked foolish, and Mr. Law asked the newcomer to step into -his private office. At the end of the interview the owner had offered -Edison the position of manager at a salary of three hundred dollars a -month, and Edison had accepted. - -He determined to improve this stock-indicator, and set to work at -once. Soon he had evolved a number of important additions. The -president of the company sent for him and asked how much he would take -for these improvements. The inventor said that he would leave that to -the president. Forty thousand dollars was named and accepted. Edison -opened a bank account, and gave more time to working in his own -laboratory. He had got well started up the rungs of the ladder he -planned to climb. - -His work lay along the lines of the telegraph, and he was anxious to -win the support of the Western Union for his new ideas. His chance -came when there was a breakdown of the lines between New York and -Albany. He went to the Western Union president, who had already heard -of him, and said, "If I locate this trouble within two or three hours, -will you take up my inventions and give them honest consideration?" -The president answered, "I'll consider your inventions if you get us -out of this fix within two days." Edison rushed forthwith to the main -office. There he called up Pittsburg and asked for their best -operator. When he had him he told him to call up the best man at -Albany, and get him to telegraph down the line to New York as far as -he could, and report back to him. Inside of an hour he received the -message, "I can telegraph all right down to within two miles of -Poughkeepsie, and there is trouble with the wire there." Edison went -back to the president and told him that if he would send a repair -train to Poughkeepsie they would find a break two miles the other side -of the city and could have it repaired that afternoon. They followed -his directions, and communication was restored before night. After -that the Western Union officials gave the most careful consideration -to every new invention that Edison brought them. - -As soon as he had money in bank Edison carried out a plan he had long -had in mind. He gave up his workshop in New York and opened a factory -and experimenting shop in Newark, New Jersey, where he would have -plenty of room for himself and his assistants. He began by -manufacturing his improved "stock-tickers," and he met with very -considerable success. But he felt that manufacturing was not his -forte. He said of this venture later, "I was a poor manufacturer, -because I could not let well enough alone. My first impulse upon -taking any apparatus into my hand, from an egg-beater to an electric -motor, is to seek a way of improving it. Therefore, as soon as I have -finished a machine I am anxious to take it apart again in order to -make an experiment. That is a costly mania for a manufacturer." - -In his Newark shop Edison now turned his attention to improvements on -the telegraph. His first important invention was the duplex, by which -two messages could be sent over the same wire in opposite directions -at the same time without any confusion or obstruction to each other. -This doubled the capacity of the single wire. Later he decided to -carry this system farther, and perfected the quadruplex device. By -this two messages could be sent simultaneously in each direction, and -two sending and two receiving operators were employed at each end of a -single wire. The principle involved was that of working with two -electric currents that differ from each other in strength or nature, -and which only affect receiving instruments specially adapted to take -such currents, and no others. This invention changed a hundred -thousand miles of wire into four hundred thousand, and saved the -Western Union untold millions of dollars which would otherwise have -had to be expended for new wires and repairs to the old ones. - -Along somewhat similar lines Edison perfected an automatic telegraph, -an harmonic multiplex telegraph, and an autographic telegraph. The -harmonic multiplex used tuning-forks to separate the several different -messages sent at the same time, and the autographic telegraph allowed -of the transmission of an exact reproduction of a message written by -the sender in one place and received in another. And in addition to -all these leading inventions he was continually improving on the main -system, and his improvements were rapidly bought and taken over by the -Western Union Company. - -In almost as many diverse ways Edison improved upon the telephone. He -had left his factory in Newark in charge of a capable superintendent, -and moved his own laboratories to Menlo Park, a quiet place about -twenty-five miles from Newark. His striking discoveries soon earned -for him the nickname of "The Wizard of Menlo Park." Here he -experimented with the new apparatus known as the telephone. He said of -his own connection with it, "When I struck the telephone business the -Bell people had no transmitter, but were talking into the magneto -receiver. You never heard such a noise and buzzing as there was in -that old machine! I went to work and monkeyed around, and finally -struck the notion of the lampblack button. The Western Union Telegraph -Company thought this was a first-rate scheme, and bought the thing -out, but afterward they consolidated, and I quit the telephone -business." As a matter of fact Edison has done a great deal of other -work besides inventing his carbon transmitter in the telephone field, -and the Patent Office is well stocked with applications he has sent -them for receivers and transmitters of different designs. - -Edison has himself told of the main incidents in his perfection of the -electric light. In the _Electrical Review_ he said, "In 1878 I went -down to see Professor Barker, at Philadelphia, and he showed me an arc -lamp--the first I had seen. Then a little later I saw another--I think -it was one of Brush's make--and the whole outfit, engine, dynamo, and -one or two lamps, was traveling around the country with a circus. At -that time Wallace and Moses G. Farmer had succeeded in getting ten or -fifteen lamps to burn together in a series, which was considered a -very wonderful thing. It happened that at the time I was more or less -at leisure, because I had just finished working on the carbon-button -telephone, and this electric-light idea took possession of me. It was -easy to see what the thing needed: it wanted to be subdivided. The -light was too bright and too big. What we wished for was little -lights, and a distribution of them to people's houses in a manner -similar to gas. Grovernor P. Lowry thought that perhaps I could -succeed in solving the problem, and he raised a little money and -formed the Edison Electric Light Company. The way we worked was that I -got a certain sum of money a week and employed a certain number of -men, and we went ahead to see what we could do. - -"We soon saw that the subdivision never could be accomplished unless -each light was independent of every other. Now it was plain enough -that they could not burn in series. Hence they must burn in multiple -arc. It was with this conviction that I started. I was fired with the -idea of the incandescent lamp as opposed to the arc lamp, so I went to -work and got some very fine platinum wire drawn. Experiment with this, -however, resulted in failure, and then we tried mixing in with the -platinum about ten per cent. of iridium, but we could not force that -high enough without melting it. After that came a lot of -experimenting--covering the wire with oxide of cerium and a number of -other things. - -"Then I got a great idea. I took a cylinder of zirconia and wound -about a hundred feet of the fine platinum wire on it coated with -magnesia from the syrupy acetate. What I was after was getting a -high-resistance lamp, and I made one that way that worked up to forty -ohms. But the oxide developed the phenomena now familiar to -electricians, and the lamp short-circuited itself. After that we went -fishing around and trying all sorts of shapes and things to make a -filament that would stand. We tried silicon and boron, and a lot of -things that I have forgotten now. The funny part of it was that I -never thought in those days that a carbon filament would answer, -because a fine hair of carbon was so sensitive to oxidation. Finally, -I thought I would try it because we had got very high vacua and good -conditions for it. - -"Well, we sent out and bought some cotton thread, carbonized it, and -made the first filament. We had already managed to get pretty high -vacua, and we thought, maybe, the filament would be stable. We built -the lamp and turned on the current. It lit up, and in the first few -breathless minutes we measured its resistance quickly and found it was -275 ohms--all we wanted. Then we sat down and looked at that lamp. We -wanted to see how long it would burn. The problem was solved--if the -filament would last. The day was--let me see--October 21, 1879. We sat -and looked, and the lamp continued to burn, and the longer it burned -the more fascinated we were. None of us could go to bed, and there was -no sleep for any of us for forty hours. We sat and just watched it -with anxiety growing into elation. It lasted about forty-five hours, -and then I said, If it will burn that number of hours now, I know I -can make it burn a hundred.' We saw that carbon was what we wanted, -and the next question was what kind of carbon. I began to try various -things, and finally I carbonized a strip of bamboo from a Japanese -fan, and saw that I was on the right track. But we had a rare hunt -finding the real thing. I sent a schoolmaster to Sumatra and another -fellow up the Amazon, while William H. Moore, one of my associates, -went to Japan and got what we wanted there. We made a contract with an -old Jap to supply us with the proper fibre, and that man went to work -and cultivated and cross-fertilized bamboo until he got exactly the -quality we required." - -This is the inventor's own statement, but it gives a very meagre -notion of the many months' experimenting in his workshop while he -hunted for a suitable filament for his electric light. - -As he said, after he had first seen the Brush light, and studied it, -he decided that the main problem was one of distribution, and -thereupon considered whether he should use the incandescent or the -voltaic arc in the system he was planning. At last he decided in favor -of the incandescent light. - -Then began the long months of testing platinum wire. He wanted to find -some way of preventing this hardest of all metals from melting when -the full force of the electric current was turned into it. He worked -out several devices to keep the platinum from fusing, an automatic -lever to regulate the electric current when the platinum was near the -melting-point, and a diaphragm with the same object; but all of them -had to be discarded. Although he was still searching for the right -clue he seems to have had no doubt of his final success. He said at -this time, "There is no difficulty about dividing up the current and -using small quantities at different points. The trouble is in finding -a candle that will give a pleasant light, not too intense, which can -be turned off and on as easily as gas. Such a candle cannot be made -from carbon points, which waste away, and must be regulated constantly -while they do last. Some composition must be discovered which will be -luminous when charged with electricity and that will not wear away. -Platinum wire gives a good light when a certain quantity of -electricity is passed through it. If the current is made too strong, -however, the wire will melt. I want to get something better." - -It was generally known that Edison was working along this line. An -English paper, commenting on the matter, said, "The weak point of the -lamp is this, that in order to be luminous, platinum must be heated -almost to the point of melting. With a slight increase in the current, -the lamp melts in the twinkling of an eye, and in practice the -regulator is found to short-circuit the current too late to prevent -the damage. It is this difficulty which must be overcome. Can it be -done?" - -After long study Edison concluded that pure platinum was not suited to -successful electric lighting. Then he incorporated with it another -material of a non-conducting nature, with the result that when the -electric current was turned on one material became incandescent and -the other luminous. This gave a clear, but not a permanent, light. He -tried many different combinations, and experimented month after month, -but none of his trials produced the result he wanted, and at last he -concluded that he was on the wrong track, and that neither platinum -nor any other metal would give the right light. - -There is something very dramatic about his real discovery. He was -sitting in his laboratory one evening, when his right hand happened to -touch a small pile of lampblack and tar that his assistants had been -using in working on a telephone transmitter. He picked up a little of -it, and began to roll it between his finger and thumb. He was thinking -of other things, and he rolled the mixture absent-mindedly for some -time, until he had formed a thin thread that looked something like a -piece of wire. Glancing at it, he fell to wondering how it would serve -as a filament for his light. It was carbon, and might be able to stand -a stronger current than platinum. He rolled some more of the mixture, -and decided to try it. - -His experiments had already resulted in the production of an almost -absolute vacuum, only one-millionth part of an atmosphere being left -in the tube. Such a vacuum had never been obtained before. With his -assistant, Charles Bachelor, he put a thread of the lampblack and tar -in a bulb, exhausted the air, and turned on the current. There was an -intense glow of light; but it did not last, the carbon soon burned -out. Therefore he started to study the reason why the carbon had -failed to withstand the electric current. His conclusion was that it -was impossible to get the air out of the lampblack. Besides that the -thread became so brittle that the slightest shock to the lamp broke -it. But he felt certain now that a carbon filament, made of something -other than tar and lampblack, was what he wanted. - -He next sent a boy to buy a reel of cotton, and told his assistants he -was going to see what a carbonized thread would do. They looked -doubtful, but began the experiment. A short piece of the thread was -bent in the form of a hairpin, laid in a nickel mould and securely -clamped, and then put in a muffle furnace, where it was kept for five -hours. Then it was taken out and allowed to cool. The mould was opened -and the carbonized thread removed. It instantly broke. Another thread -was put through the same process. As soon as it was taken from the -mould it broke. Then a battle began that lasted for two days and two -nights, the object of which was to get a carbonized thread that would -not break. Edison wanted that thread because it contained no air, and -might stand a greater current than the lampblack. Finally they took -from the mould an unbroken thread, but as they tried to fasten it to -the conducting wire it broke into pieces. Only on the night of the -third day of their work, in all which time they had taken no rest, did -they get a thread safely into the lamp, exhaust the air, and turn on -the current. A clear, soft light resulted, and they knew that they had -solved the problem of the incandescent light. - -Edison and Bachelor watched that light for hours. They had turned on a -small current at the start, to test the strength of the filament, but -as it stood it, they turned on a greater and greater current until the -thread was bearing a heat that would have instantly melted the -platinum wire. The cotton thread glowed for forty-five hours, and then -suddenly went out. The two watchers ended their long vigil, exhausted, -but very happy. They knew that they had found the light that was to be -the main illumination for the world. - -But Edison realized that he had not yet found the ideal filament. The -cotton thread had only lasted forty-five hours, and he wanted one that -would burn for a hundred hours or longer. He wanted a more homogeneous -material than thread, and he began to try carbonizing everything he -could lay his hands on, straw, paper, cardboard, splinters of wood. He -found that the cardboard stood the current better than the cotton -thread, but even that did not burn long enough. Then he happened upon -a bamboo fan, tore off the rim, and tried that. It made a filament -that gave better results than any of the others. - -Now he began his exhaustive study of bamboo. He learned that there -were more than twelve hundred known varieties of bamboo. He wanted to -find the most homogeneous variety. He sent out a number of men to hunt -this bamboo, and it is said that the search cost nearly $100,000. Six -thousand specimens of bamboo were carbonized, and he found three kinds -of bamboo and one of cane that gave almost the result he wanted. All -of these grew in a region near the Amazon, and were hard to get on -account of malarial conditions. But at last he discovered the bamboo -species that suited him, and he was ready to give his new light to the -world. - -The world was waiting for it. Scientists and the press reported his -invention everywhere. He hung a row of lamps from the trees at Menlo -Park, and the thousands who came to see them wondered when they found -they could burn day and night for longer than a week. The lamps were -small and finely made, they could be lighted or extinguished by simply -pressing a button, and the cost of making them was slight. The last -doubters surrendered, and admitted that Edison had given the world a -new light, and one which was not simply a scientific marvel, but was -eminently practical and useful. - -But Edison is never satisfied with what he has done in any line; he -must try to increase the service each invention gives. Therefore he -now conceived the idea of having a central station from which every -one might obtain electric light as they had formerly obtained gas. -There were gigantic difficulties in the way of such an undertaking. -Hardly any one outside of Edison's own laboratory knew anything about -electric lighting, and there were only a few of them who could be -trusted to put a carbon filament in an exhausted globe. - -He went about this new development in the most methodical way. He got -an insurance map of New York City, and studied the business section -from Wall to Canal Streets and from Broadway over to the East River. -He knew where every elevator shaft and boiler and fire-wall was, and -also how much gas each resident used and what he paid for it. This -last he learned by hiring men to walk through the district at two -o'clock in the afternoon and note how many gas lights were burning, -then to make the rounds again at three, and again at four, and so on -into the hours of the next morning. - -With the field carefully examined he formed the New York Edison -Illuminating Company, and had his assistants take charge of factories -for making lamps, dynamos, sockets, and the other parts necessary for -his lights. It was very difficult to get the land he wanted for his -central station, but he finally bought two old buildings on Pearl -Street for $150,000. He had little room space and he wanted to get a -big output of electricity. So he decided to get a high-speed engine. -They were practically unknown then, and when he went to an engine -builder and said that he wanted a 150 horse-power engine that would -run 700 revolutions per minute he was told it was impossible. But he -found a man to build one for him, and set it up in the shop at Menlo -Park. The shop was built on a shale hill, and when the engine was -started the whole hill shook with the high speed revolutions. After -some experimenting and changing they got the power that Edison wanted, -and he ordered six more engines like the first. - -In the meantime workmen had been busy digging ditches and laying mains -through the district that Edison intended to light. The engines were -set up in the central station and tried out. Then the troubles began. -The engines would not run evenly, one would stop and another go -dashing on at a tremendous speed. Edison tried a dozen different plans -before he brought anything like order out of that engine chaos. -Finally he had some engines built to run at 350 revolutions and give -175 horse-power, and these proved what was required. September 4, -1882, he turned the current on to the mains for the needed light -service, and it stayed on with only one short stoppage for eight -years. - -In this way Edison invented the electric light and evolved the central -station that should provide the current wherever it was needed. At the -same time he had worked out countless adjuncts to it, the use of -the fine copper thread to serve as a fuse wire and prevent -short-circuiting, the meter, consisting of a small glass cell, -containing a solution in which two plates of zinc are placed, and -which shows how much current is supplied, the weighing voltameter, and -other instruments for estimating the current, and improvements on the -motors and engines. There was no field remotely connected with -electric lighting that he did not enter. Yet as soon as the invention -was actually before the world business competitors sprang up on -every hand. There was more litigation over this than over any other of -Edison's inventions. "I fought for the lamp for fourteen years," he -said, "and when I finally won my rights there were but three years of -the allotted seventeen left for my patent to live. Now it has become -the property of anybody and everybody." - -[Illustration: EDISON AND THE EARLY PHONOGRAPH] - -Edison had always wanted a model laboratory, one that should be fitted -with the most perfect instruments obtainable, and supplied with all -the materials he could possibly require in any of his extraordinary -experiments. In 1886 he bought a house in Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, -and near the house ten acres of land, on which he built the laboratory -of his dreams. Here he had a large force of skilled workmen constantly -engaged in developing his ideas, and the expenses were paid by the -many commercial companies in which he was interested, and which -profited by the improvements he was continually making in their -machinery. - -Many volumes might be written to tell of the "Wizard's" achievements. -There has been no inventor who has covered such a field, and each step -he takes opens new and fascinating vistas to his ever-inquiring eyes. -Electricity is always his main study, and electricity he expects in -time will revolutionize modern life by making heat, power, and light -practically as cheap as air. But other subjects have concerned him -almost as much. He ranges from new processes for making guns to the -supplying of ready-made houses built of cement. Everything interests -him, every object tempts him to try his hand at improving on it. - -The phonograph is his achievement, and the practical development of -the kinetoscope. He has built electric locomotives and run them, he -has made many discoveries in regard to platinum. His better known -patents include developments of the electric lamp, the telephone, -storage-batteries, ore-milling machinery, typewriters, electric pens, -vocal engines, addressing machines, cast-iron furniture, wire-drawing, -methods of preserving fruit, moving-picture machines, compressed-air -machines, and the manufacture of plate glass. He took out a patent -covering wireless telegraphy in 1891, but other matters were then -absorbing his attention, and he was quite willing to yield that field -to the brilliant Italian, Marconi. He feels no jealousy for other -inventors. He knows how vast the field is, and how many paths -constantly beckon him. - -It is doubtless true that the great inventors are born and not made, -but many of them seem, nevertheless, to have drifted into the work -that gave them fame, or to have hit by chance on their compelling -idea. It was not so with Edison. He was beyond any doubt born an -inventor. With him to see was to ask the question why, and to ask that -question was to start his thoughts on the train that was to bring him -to the answer. - - - - -XV - -MARCONI AND THE WIRELESS TELEGRAPH - -1874- - - -At first sight the wireless telegraph seems the most wonderful of all -inventions and discoveries, the one that is least easy to understand, -and that most nearly approaches that magic which is above all nature's -laws. Even if we do come to understand it it loses nothing of its -wonder, and the last impression is very like the first. We can -understand how an electric current travels through a wire, even if we -cannot understand electricity, but how that current can travel through -limitless space and yet reach its destination strains the imagination. -Yet wireless telegraphy is not a matter of the imagination, but of -exact, demonstrable science. - -On December 12, 1901, a quiet, dark-skinned young man sat, about -noontime, in a room of the old barracks building on Signal Hill, near -St. John's, Newfoundland. On the table in front of him was a -mechanical apparatus, with an ordinary telephone receiver at its side. -The window was partly open, and a wire led from the machine on the -table through the window to a gigantic kite that a high wind kept -flying fully 400 feet above the room. The young man picked up the -receiver, and held it to his ear for a long time. His face showed no -sign of excitement, though an assistant, standing near him, could -barely keep still. Then, suddenly, came the sharp click of the -"tapper" as it struck the "coherer." That meant that something was -coming. The young man listened a few minutes, and then handed the -receiver to his assistant. "See if you can hear anything, Mr. Kemp," -said he. The other man took the receiver, and a moment later his ear -caught the sound of three little clicks, faint, but distinct and -unmistakable, the three dots of the letter S in the Morse Code. Those -clicks had been sent from Poldhu, on the Cornish coast of England, and -they had traveled through air across the Atlantic Ocean without any -wire to guide them. That was one of the great moments of history. The -young man at the table was Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian. - -We know that it is no injustice to a great inventor to say that other -men had imagined what he achieved, and had earlier tried to prove -their theories. It takes nothing from the glory of that other great -Italian, Columbus, to recall that other sailors had planned to cross -the sea to the west of Europe and that some had tried it. So James -Clerk-Maxwell had proved by mathematics the electro-magnetic theory of -light in 1864, and Heinrich Hertz had demonstrated in 1888 by actual -experiment that electric waves exist in the free ether, and Edison had -for a time worked on the problem of a wireless telegraph. Marconi -devised the last link that made the wonder possible, and caught the -first click that came across the sea, and to him belong the palms. -Judge Townsend, in deciding a suit in a United States court in 1905, -declared, "It would seem, therefore, to be a sufficient answer to the -attempts to belittle Marconi's great invention that, with the whole -scientific world awakened by the disclosures of Hertz in 1887 to the -new and undeveloped possibilities of electric waves, nine years -elapsed without a single practical or commercially successful result, -and Marconi was the first to describe and the first to achieve the -transmission of definite intelligible signals by means of these -Hertzian waves." - -Marconi was born at Villa Griffone, near Bologna, in 1874, so that he -was under thirty when he caught that first transatlantic message. He -studied at Leghorn under Professor Rosa, and later at the University -of Bologna with Professor Righi. He was always absorbed in science, -and experimented, holiday after holiday, on his father's estate. He -was precocious to an extraordinary degree, for in 1895, when only -twenty-one, he had produced a wireless transmitting apparatus that he -patented in Italy. Within a year he had taken out patents in England -and in other European countries, and had proposed a wireless telegraph -system to the English Post-Office Department. That Department, through -Sir William Henry Preece, Engineer-in-Chief of Telegraphs, took up the -subject, and reported very favorably on the Marconi System. Marconi -himself, at the House of Commons, telegraphed by wireless across the -Thames, a distance of 250 yards. In June, 1897, he sent a message nine -miles, in July twelve miles, and in 1898 he succeeded in sending one -across the English Channel to France, thirty-two miles. In 1901 he -covered a space of 3,000 miles. - -Let us now see what it was that Marconi had actually done. - -Wireless signals are in reality wave motions in the magnetic forces of -the earth, or, in other words, disturbances of those forces. They are -sent out through this magnetic field, and follow the earth's -curvature, in the same way that tidal waves follow the ocean's -surface. Everywhere about us there is a sea of what science calls the -ether, and the ether is constantly in a state of turmoil, because it -is the medium through which energy, radiating from the sun, is carried -to the earth and other planets. This energy is transmitted through the -free ether in waves, which are known as electromagnetic waves. It was -this fact that Professor Hertz discovered, and the waves are sometimes -called the Hertzian waves. Light is one variety of wave motion, and -heat another. The ether must be distinguished from the air, for -science means by it a medium which exists everywhere and is to be -regarded as permeating all space and all matter. The ether exists in a -vacuum, for, although all the air may have been withdrawn, an object -placed in a vacuum can still be seen from outside, and hence the wave -motions of light are traveling through a space devoid of air. - -Professor Hertz proved in 1888 that a spark, or disruptive discharge -of electricity, caused electro-magnetic waves to radiate away in all -directions through the ether. The waves acted exactly like ripples -that radiate from a stone when it strikes the water. These Hertzian -waves were found to travel with the same velocity as light, and would -circle the world eight times in a second. As soon as the existence of -these waves was known many scientists began to consider whether they -could not be used for telegraphy. But the problem was a very difficult -one. The questions were how to transmit the energy to a distance, and -how to make a receiver that should be sensitive enough to be affected -by it. - -Let us picture a body of still water with a twig floating upon its -surface. If a stone is thrown into the water ripples radiate in all -directions, these waves becoming weaker as the circles they form -become larger, or in other words as they grow more distant from the -point where the stone struck the water. When the waves reach the -floating twig they will move it, and when they cease the twig will be -motionless again. Should there be grasses or rocks protruding up from -the water the motion given to the twig by the waves would be lessened, -or distorted, or changed in many ways, depending on the intervening -object. Whether the waves will actually impart motion to the twig will -depend on the force by which these waves were started and upon the -lightness of the twig, or its sensitiveness to the ripples as they -radiate. If the water were disturbed by some other force than the -stone the twig would be moved by that other force, and the observer -could not tell from what direction the motion had come, or how it had -been caused. Applying this to wireless telegraphy one may say that a -device must be used that will send out waves of a certain length, and -that the receiver must be constructed so that it will respond only to -waves of the length sent by that transmitter. - -There must therefore be accurate tuning of the two instruments. Let a -weight be fastened at the end of a spiral spring and then be struck. -The weight will oscillate at a uniform rate, or so many times a -minute. If this be held so that it strikes the water the movement of -the spring will create a certain number of waves a minute. If now a -second weight, attached to a second spring, be hung down into the -water, the waves caused by the first will reach the second, and if the -springs be alike the movements or oscillations will correspond. But if -the springs were not alike, or if, in other words, the two instruments -were not in tune, the wave motions would not be received and copied -accurately. Therefore in wireless telegraphy the instrument that is to -impart the motion to the electro-magnetic waves that fill the ether -must be tuned in accord with the instrument that is to receive the -motion of those waves. - -The sending of the wireless message requires a source of production of -the electro-magnetic waves. This is obtained by what is known as -capacity, or in other words, the power that is possessed by any metal -surface to retain a charge of electricity, and by inductance, procured -when a constantly changing current is sent through a coil of wire. -This capacity and inductance must be adjusted to give exactly the same -frequency of motion to the waves, or the same oscillations, if the -receiver that is tuned to vibrate to those waves is to receive that -message accurately. The receiving station must have the means to -intercept the waves, and then transform them again into electrical -oscillations that shall correspond to those sent out from the -transmitting station. - -As early as 1844 Samuel F. B. Morse had succeeded in telegraphing -without wires under the Susquehanna River, and in 1854 James Bowman -Lindsay, a Scotchman, had sent a message a distance of two miles -through water without wires. Sir William Henry Preece, by using an -induced current, had telegraphed several miles without a connecting -wire. But the discoveries made in regard to the Hertzian waves placed -the subject on a different footing, and the possibility of an actual -usable wireless telegraph was now looked at from a new view-point. - -Professor Hertz had used a simple form of apparatus to obtain his free -ether waves. A loop of wire, with the ends almost touching each other, -had been his receiver, or detector. When he set his generator, or -instrument to create the oscillations, in operation, and held the -detector near it, he could see very minute electric sparks passing -between the ends of the loop of wire. This proved the existence of the -electro-magnetic waves. - -In 1890 Professor Eduard Branly found that loose metallic filings -became good conductors of electricity when there were electric -oscillations at hand. He demonstrated this by placing the filings -between metal plugs in a glass tube, and connecting this in circuit -with a battery and electric indicator. Professor Oliver Lodge named -this device of Branly's a "coherer," and when he found that it was -more sensitive than the Hertz detector he combined it with the Hertz -oscillator. This was in 1894, and the combination of oscillator and -coherer actually formed the first real wireless set. - -Wireless stations on shore are marked by very tall masts, which -support a single wire, or a set of wires, which are known as the -_antenna_. The antenna has electrical capacity, and when it is -connected with the other apparatus needful to produce the oscillations -it disturbs the earth's magnetic field. For temporary service, as in -the case of military operations, the antenna is frequently attached to -captive balloons or kites, and so suspended high in air. On ships the -antenna is fastened to the masts. The step that led to this addition -was taken by Count Popoff in 1895, when he attached a vertical wire to -one side of the coherer of the receiver of Professor Lodge, and -connected the other side with the ground. He used this to learn the -approach of thunder-storms. - -With a knowledge of electro-magnetic waves, with a high-power -oscillator, and a sensitive coherer, it remained for Marconi to -connect an antenna to the transmitter, and thus secure a wide and -practicable working field for the sending and receiving of his -messages. This he did in 1896, and it was this addition that made the -wireless telegraph of real use to men. Improvements in the transmitter -and receiver have constantly increased the power of the invention, and -have gradually allowed him to employ it over greater and greater -distances. - -With Marconi's successful demonstrations of wireless in England its -use at once began. The Trinity House installed a station at the -East Goodwin Lighthouse, which communicated with shore and proved of -the greatest value in preventing shipwrecks. The Marconi Wireless -Telegraph Company was organized in 1897, and made agreements to erect -coast stations for the Italian, Canadian, and Newfoundland -governments, and for Lloyd's. The great shipping lines established -wireless stations on their vessels, and the antenna were soon to be -seen on points of vantage along every coast. On December 12, 1901, -Marconi in Newfoundland caught the message sent from Cornwall; on -January 19, 1903, President Roosevelt sent the first "official" -wireless message across the Atlantic to Edward VII, and in October, -1905, a message was sent from England across the mountains, valleys -and cities of Europe to the battle-ship _Renown_, stationed at the -entrance to the Suez Canal. - -[Illustration: WIRELESS STATION IN NEW YORK CITY, SHOWING THE ANTENNA] - -The system of operating wireless telegraphy is in some respects -similar to that of the ordinary telegraph. The Morse Code is largely -used in America, and a modification of it, called the Continental -Code, in Europe. When the wireless operator wishes to send a message -to another station he "listens in," as it is called, by connecting his -receiving apparatus with the adjacent antenna and the ground. He has -the telephone receiver attached to his ears. Next he adjusts his -receiving circuits for a number of wave lengths. If he catches no -signals in his telephone receiver he understands that no messages are -being sent within his area. Then he "throws in" the transmitting -apparatus, which automatically disconnects the receiving end. He -gives the letters that stand for the station with which he wants to -communicate, and adds the letters of his own station. He does this a -number of times, to insure the other station picking up the call. Then -he "listens in," and if he receives the clicks that show that the -other station has heard him he is ready to establish regular -telegraphic communication. - -A number of distant stations may be sending messages simultaneously. -In that case the operator tunes his instrument, or in other words -adjusts his apparatus to suit the wave length of the station with -which he wishes to communicate. In this way he "tunes out" the other -messages, and receives only the one he wants. If, however, the -stations that are sending simultaneously happen to be situated near -together, as in the case of several vessels near a shore station, the -operator is often unable to do this "tuning out," and must try to -catch the message he wishes by the sound of the "spark" of the -transmitting station, if he can in any way distinguish it from the -"sparks" of the other messages. - -There are several ways of determining when the two circuits are in -tune. One is to insert a hot-wire current meter between the antenna -and the inductance, which indicates the strength of the oscillatory -current that has been established. A maximum reading can then be made -by manipulating the flexible connections, and this will show whether -the two circuits are in accord. The other method is by using a device -that indicates the wave length. This measures the frequency of one -circuit, and then the other circuit can be adjusted to give a -corresponding wave length. The larger the antenna the longer will be -the wave length and the greater the power of the apparatus. It is -usual to employ a short wave length for low-power, short-distance -equipments, and a long wave length for the high-power, long-distance -stations. - -Wireless telegraphy has already proved itself of the greatest value on -the ocean. It has sent news of storms and wrecks across tossing seas -and brought rescue to scores of voyagers. Ships may now keep in -constant communication with their offices on shore. The great lines -send Marconigrams to each other in mid-ocean, and publish daily papers -giving the latest news of the whole world. Greater distances have so -far been covered over water than over land, but this branch of the -service is being rapidly developed, and it must prove in time of the -greatest value across deserts and wild countries, where a regular -telegraph service would be impracticable. In such a country as Alaska, -where there are constant heavy sleet and snow storms, the wireless -should prove invaluable. - -The telegraph and cable companies did their best to ignore the claims -of the wireless systems, but they have been compelled to acknowledge -them at last. Rival companies have sprung up, using slightly different -varieties of apparatus. Each of the big companies that were ready to -compete with the Marconi Company by 1906, the German Telefunken -Company, the American National Electric Signaling Company, the -American De Forest Company, and the British Lodge-Muirhead Wireless -Syndicate, had certain peculiar advantages over the others. The laws -relating to the uses of wireless, and especially the rights of -governments to the sole use of the systems in case of war, are in a -confused condition, but eventually order must come from this chaos as -it did in the history of the telephone and telegraph. - -Wireless has brought the possibility of communication between any two -individuals, no matter where they may be situated, within the realm of -fact. A severing of communication with any part of the world will be -impossible. Storms and earthquakes that destroy telegraph systems, -enemies that cut submarine cables, cannot prevent the sending of -Marconigrams. The African explorer and the Polar adventurer can each -talk with his countrymen. The use of this agency is still in its -earliest youth, but it has already done so much that it is impossible -to say to what a stature it may grow. It should cut down the rates for -using wire and cable systems, and ultimately place the means of -communicating directly with any one on land or sea within the reach of -every man. All the world's information will be at the instant disposal -of whomsoever needs it, and all this is due to those electro-magnetic -waves that permeate the ether, waiting to be put into service at the -touch of man. - - - - -XVI - -THE WRIGHTS AND THE AIRSHIP - -Wilbur Wright 1867- - -Orville Wright 1871- - - -Men have always wanted to be able to fly. So long as there have been -birds to watch, so long have men of speculative minds wondered at the -secret of their flight. Early in recorded history men built ships to -sail across the seas, but the problem of air navigation has always -baffled them. The balloon came into being, but the balloon for years -was only a toy, dependent on the wind's whim, and of the least -possible service to men. The problem of aerial navigation was to -master the currents of the air as the sailing-vessel and the steamship -had overcome the waves and tides at sea. - -The history of invention often shows that some great thinker, or -school of thinkers, has stated a scientific conclusion that -generations of later men have never dared to question. The laws of -Aristotle in regard to falling bodies were never doubted until Galileo -began to wonder if they could be true. Sir Isaac Newton had stated, -and mathematical computations had proved his words, that a mechanical -flying-machine was an impossibility. Any such machine must be heavier -than the air it flew in. The weight of Newton's authority and the -weight of figures were compelling facts, such as scientists had no -mind to doubt. But in spite of these facts men could see that birds -flew, although they were often a thousand times heavier than the air -they went through. And that sight kept men speculating, in spite of -all the figures and scientific dicta of the ages. - -It was known for centuries that if a kite was held in position by a -string reaching to the ground the wind blowing against it would keep -it supported in the air. Now if the kite, instead of being stationary -in moving air, were to be moved constantly through quiet air it would -also stay up. The motive power might be supplied by a motor and -propellers, but in order to do away with the string which holds the -kite in position the aeroplane, which is only a big kite in principle, -must have some way of balancing itself so that it will stay in the -proper position in the air. - -A German engineer, Otto Lilienthal, made a study of the mechanics of -birds' flights, and determined to learn their secret by actual trial. -He built wings that were similar to those of the hawk and buzzard, the -great soaring birds, and in 1891 he began to throw himself from the -tops of hills, supported by these wings, and glided through the air -into the valleys. In this way he learned new laws of flight, -contradicting many theories of the scientists, and opening a new world -of speculation. But in August, 1896, his wings broke in a sudden gust -of wind, he fell fifty feet, and died of a broken back. - -It was this problem of balancing that had cost Lilienthal his life. He -had tried to balance himself by throwing his weight quickly from side -to side as he held to his "gliding machine." His pupil, Percy S. -Pilcher, an Englishman, continued his experiments, trying the same -method of balancing, but in September, 1899, his wings broke, and he -met the same fate as his teacher. It seemed that men could not shift -their weight quickly enough to meet the gusts of wind. - -Meantime new theories of flight were being worked out in the United -States. Professor S. P. Langley, of the Smithsonian Institution, had -made experiments with plates of metal moved through the air at various -rates of speed and at different angles, and had published his new -conclusions in regard to the support the air would furnish -flying-planes in 1891. In 1896 he built a small steam-aeroplane that -flew a distance of three-quarters of a mile down the Potomac River. -And in the same year Octave Chanute, of Chicago, with the aid of A. M. -Herring, built a multiple-wing machine and tried it successfully on -the banks of Lake Michigan. But the problem of balancing was not yet -solved, and here Wilbur and Orville Wright entered upon the scene. - -The Wrights' home was in Dayton, Ohio, and there they had spent their -boyhood, in no way distinguished from their neighbors. Their father -had been a teacher, an editor, and a bishop of the United Brethren -Church. He had traveled a great deal, and was an unusually -well-educated man. Their mother had been to college. Their two older -brothers and their sister were college graduates, and the younger boys -would have had the same education had their mother not died and they -decided to stay at home and look after affairs for their father, who -was often away. In telling the story of their invention in _The -Century_ for September, 1908, they said, "Late in the autumn of 1878 -our father came into the house one evening with some object concealed -in his hands and, before we could see what it was, tossed it into the -air. Instead of falling to the floor, as we expected, it flew across -the room and struck the ceiling, where it fluttered a while and -finally sank to the floor. It was a little toy known to scientists as -a helicoptere, but which we, with sublime disregard for science, -dubbed a 'bat.' ... It lasted only a short time, but its memory was -abiding." At that time Wilbur was eleven and Orville seven years old. - -These two brothers, scientifically minded, started a bicycle shop, and -bade fair to become ordinarily prosperous citizens of Dayton, much -like their neighbors. They were, however, deeply interested in news -from the world of science and invention, and when they read in 1896 -that Lilienthal had been killed by a fall from his glider they began -to wonder what were the real difficulties that must be overcome in -flying. Further reading awakened a deep interest in the problem of the -airship, and they worked upon it, at first as a scientific pastime, -but soon in all seriousness. They built models in their workshop, and -experimented with them. Then, in 1900, Wilbur wrote to his father that -he was going on a holiday to a place in North Carolina called Kitty -Hawk, to try a glider. - -The Wrights realized in 1900 that the only problem to be solved was -that of equilibrium. Men had made aeroplanes that would support them -in motion, and also engines that were light enough to drive the planes -and carry their own weight and that of the aviator. But when the wind -blew the aeroplane was as likely as not to capsize. Their study was -how to keep the machine from turning over. - -The air does not blow in regular currents. Instead, near the earth, it -is continually tossing up and down, and often whirling about in rotary -masses. There is constant atmospheric turmoil, and the question is how -to maintain a balance in these currents that bear the machine. Put in -technical form it is how to make the centre of gravity coincide with -the centre of air-pressure. - -The shifting of the air-currents means that the centre of air-pressure -moves. The aeroplane is sailed at a slight angle to the direction in -which it is heading, and the centre of air-pressure is on the forward -surfaces of the machine. The wind strikes the front, but rarely -touches the back of the plane, and so gains a great leverage that adds -materially to its power to overturn the machine. As the wind veers -continually it is easy to see the aviator's difficulty in keeping -track of this centre of pressure. - -Both Lilienthal and Chanute had tried to balance by shifting their -weight, but this was extremely exhausting, and often could not be done -in time to meet the changing currents. The Wrights realized that a -more automatic method of meeting these changes must be found, and they -worked it out by shifting the rudder and the surfaces of the airship -as it met the air-currents. - -The earlier aviators had found that two planes, or "double-deckers," -gave the best results. The Wrights adopted this type, believing that -it was the strongest form, and could be made more compact and be more -easily managed than the single plane, or the many-winged type. They -built their gliding-machine of cloth and spruce and steel wire. But -instead of the aviator hanging below the wings, as in the other -planes, he lay flat across the centre of the lower wing. A horizontal -rudder extended in front of the plane instead of behind it. This not -only guided the flight of the machine, but counterbalanced the changes -of the centre of air-pressure. To steer, the wings were moved by cords -controlled by the aviator's body. They considered that the shiftings -of the air were too rapid to be followed by conscious thought, and so -their plan was to have a plane that would balance automatically, or by -reflex action, as a bicycle is balanced. - -Langley had adopted wings that slanted upward from the point at which -they joined, copying the wings of a soaring buzzard. The Wrights -doubted whether this was the best form for shifting weather, and built -theirs more on the pattern of the gull's wings, curving slightly at -the tips. They were made of cloth, arched over ribs to imitate the -curved surfaces of bird's wings, and were fastened to two rectangular -wooden frames, fixed one above the other by braces of wood and wire. - -Their next step was to try to find some method by which they might -keep their gliding-machine continuously in the air, so that they might -gain an automatic balance. The old method of launching the plane from -a hill gave little chance for a real test. Study taught them that -birds are really aeroplanes, and that buzzards and hawks and gulls -stay in the air by balancing on or sliding down rising currents of -air. They looked for a place where there should be winds of proper -strength to balance their machine for a considerable time as it slid -downward, and decided to make their experiments at Kitty Hawk, North -Carolina, on the stretch of sand-dunes that divided Albemarle Sound -from the Atlantic Ocean. They calculated that their gliding-machine, -with 165 square feet of surface, should be held up by a wind blowing -twenty-one miles an hour. The machine was to be raised like a kite, -with men holding ropes fastened to the end of each wing. When the -ropes were freed the aviator would glide slowly to the ground, having -time to test the principle of equilibrium. This plan would also do -away with the former need of carrying the plane up to the top of a -hill before each flight. - -They found in practice that their plan of raising the plane like a -kite was impracticable, and that the wind was not strong enough to -support it at a proper angle. They had to glide from hills as others -had done, but they discovered that their theory of steering and -balancing by automatically shifting surfaces worked very much better -than the old method of shifting the aviator's weight. - -In 1901 and 1902 the Wrights continued their gliding experiments at -Kitty Hawk. Their new machines were much larger, and they added a -vertical tail in order to secure better lateral balance. Sometimes the -wind was strong enough to lift the aviator above the point from which -he had started and hold him motionless in the air for half a minute. -They made new tables of calculation for aerial flight, and found that -a wind of eighteen miles an hour would keep their plane and its -operator in the air. - -Their next step was to place a gas-engine on their aeroplane and -attempt actual mechanical flight. After many experiments they -succeeded, and on December 17, 1903, the first airship made four -flights at Kitty Hawk. In the longest flight it stayed in the air -fifty-nine seconds, and flew against a twenty-mile wind. It weighed, -with the aviator, about 745 pounds, and was propelled by a gas-engine -weighing 240 pounds, and having twelve or thirteen horse-power. That -test assured them that mechanical flight was possible. - -The Wrights had now solved the real problem of aviation, equilibrium. -They were ready to try mechanical flights in places where the -wind-conditions were less favorable than at Kitty Hawk. They secured a -swampy meadow eight miles east of Dayton, and, using that secrecy -which they have always believed was necessary to the protection of -their interests, began to fly there. Their airship flew well in a -straight course, but there was difficulty in turning corners. -Sometimes it could be done, but occasionally the plane would lose its -balance as it turned, and have to be brought to the ground. In time -they remedied this, and on September 20, 1904, they were able to make -a complete circle. Later in that same year they made two flights of -three miles each around a circular course. - -The Wrights' system of balance, the great original feature of their -invention, is attained by what is called the warping of the -wings. When they are flying, and some cause, such as a change in their -position, or a sudden gust of wind, makes the airship tip, a lever is -moved, and the two planes warp down on the end that is canting toward -the earth. Simultaneously the two opposite ends of the planes warp up. -The lower ends at once gain greater lifting power, the upper ends -less. Therefore the airship stops tilting and comes back to an even -flight. The lever is instantly moved to keep the machine from tipping -to the other side. - - - WILBUR WRIGHT - ORVILLE WRIGHT - - CABLE ADDRESS: - WRIGHTS, DAYTON - - WRIGHT BROTHERS - - 1127 W. THIRD STREET - DAYTON, OHIO - - - July 22, 1911. - - George W. Jacobs & Co., - - Philadelphia. - - Gentlemen:-- - - Replying to yours of June 26th we are herewith enclosing a - photograph of our first flight made at Kitty Hawk, North - Carolina, on December 17, 1903. - - Yours truly, - - [Signature: Wright Brothers.] - - -[Illustration: THE WRIGHT BROTHERS' AIRSHIP] - -When the airship came to turn a corner it was apt to "skid." It slid -from its balance, owing to the change in its course against the -currents of air. The Wrights overcame this by having the planes of -their machine warp at the same instant that the rudder shifts the -course, by this raising one wing and lowering the other, so that the -aeroplane cants over and makes the circle leaning against the wind, on -the same principle that a bicycler takes a curve on an angle instead -of riding upright. The problems of balance and of turning corners were -therefore both met and solved by warping the planes to meet the -conditions of the airship's contact with the wind. - -One of the chief reasons for the Wrights' success was that they had -studied their subject long and faithfully before they tried to fly. -They had worked with their gliders several years, and had made new -calculations of the changing angles and currents of air. They had been -in no hurry, and when they built their first real airship they made -use of all the principles of aerodynamics that they had discovered. -They knew that their machine would fly before they tried it, because -they knew exactly what its various surfaces would do in the air. The -propeller was the only part of their airship they had not studied when -they began to build. When they found that they could not use the -figures that had governed the construction of marine propellers they -set to work to solve this problem in the same thoroughgoing way. They -mastered it, and their success with their propeller is the feature of -their airship in which they take the greatest pride. - -The first official statement of their progress in flying was made in -letters of the Wrights in the _Aerophile_ in 1905, and to the Aero -Club of America in 1906. These declared that they had begun actual -flight with a motor-driven aeroplane on December 17, 1903, had then -spent the year 1904 in experimenting with flights in circular courses, -and had so learned the proper methods of control of the planes by 1905 -that they had at last made continuous flights of eleven, twelve, -fifteen, twenty, twenty-one, and twenty-four miles, at a speed of -about thirty-eight miles an hour, and had been able to alight safely -in each instance, ready to fly again as soon as their fuel was -replenished. - -Until that date the inventors had been singularly successful in -keeping their experiments from public knowledge. They had reached -agreements with the farmers who lived near their field outside Dayton, -and with the local newspapers, that no notice should be taken of their -flights. But finally one of their flights attracted so much attention -that a score of men appeared with cameras, and the Wrights decided -that it was time to stop their experiments. They dismantled their -machines, made public statements of what they had accomplished, and -started to negotiate with various governments for the purchase of -their aeroplanes for use in war. - -In December, 1907, the Signal Corps of the United States army invited -proposals for furnishing a "heavier than air flying machine." The -Wrights submitted a bid, proposing to deliver a machine that would -meet the specifications for $25,000. Their offer, with those of two -others, was accepted. By now their names and something of what they -had accomplished were very generally known, and when they began the -preliminary tests of their machines at their old grounds at Kitty -Hawk, near Kill Devil Hills, a legion of reporters was on hand. The -Wrights still tried to preserve as much secrecy as possible, and the -newspaper men to furnish as much publicity. The flights could not be -concealed and the trials were announced as thoroughly satisfactory. On -May 10, 1908, ten ascensions in the government airship were made, the -longest being over a mile and a half. On succeeding days longer -flights were made, one of two miles at a speed of forty-six miles an -hour. Orville Wright made a flight with a passenger on board, and a -little later Wilbur flew eight miles, at a rate of forty-five miles an -hour. The reporters assured the world that the Wrights had proved the -success of the "heavier than air" machine. As one of them wrote, -"Then, bedraggled and very sunburned they tramped up to the little -weather bureau and informed the world, waiting on the other side of -various sounds and continents and oceans, that it was all right, the -rumors true, and there was no doubt that a man could fly." - -Kitty Hawk, the place the Wrights had chosen because the Weather -Bureau had told them the winds were strongest and steadiest there, now -became one of the chief foci of the world's attention. The Wrights, -still quiet and unassuming, suddenly jumped into fame. The public -could not understand how these two men, bicycle-makers of Dayton, had -learned so much about airships. They did not appreciate that the -brothers had mastered every detail of flight long before, that they -had learned the fundamental principles of soaring and floating, diving -and rising, circling and gliding, before they attached the first motor -to their planes. They had been far more thorough and more resourceful -than those Europeans who had for some time experimented with aviation. -Henri Farman, who had caused a sensation in Europe by flying a -kilometer (five-eighths of a mile) over a circular course on January -13, 1908, came to this country, and heard what the United States -government was requiring in the tests. "I have done some flying," said -he, "but I do not try to do what your inventors must do at Fort Myer. -I never fly in winds. Once I had a spill in France when I attempted -it." - -The government trials were held at Fort Myer, outside Washington. Here -the Wrights took their machines when they were satisfied that they -were in shape for the tests. Mr. Augustus Post, secretary of the Aero -Club of America, has graphically described in _The World's Work_ for -October, 1909, his impression of Orville Wright's flying in 1908. He -says that Mr. Wright and he left Washington about six o'clock on a -clear, still morning, bound for the flying field. "The conditions for -flight were perfect," he continues. "Mr. Taylor, Mr. Wright's -mechanic, got out the machine and it was placed on the starting-rail. -The weights were raised, and Mr. Wright took his place. None of us -expected anything more than a short flight down the field, with -possibly a circle. The machine was released, and away he went, rising -higher and higher, circling when he came to the end of the field and -continuing round. I had taken the time of starting and marked on the -back of an envelope each circle of the field. From a position of -strained attention and fixed gaze, Mr. Wright gradually became more -confident and comfortable; round and round he went for fully twenty -minutes, and then we began to realize that something wonderful was -taking place. Thirty minutes passed; we could hardly believe it. Mr. -Taylor came up and said: 'Don't make a motion; if you do, he'll come -down'; and we all stood like statues, watching the flying man, every -nerve as tense in our bodies as though we were running the machine -ourselves. Mark after mark I made on the back of the old envelope--so -many that I had lost track of the number; it seemed an age since the -machine started, and it appeared to be fixed in the sky. We were -impressed that it could circle on forever, or sail like a bird over -the country, so positive and assuring and complete was this -demonstration. We knew that the problem of flight by an aeroplane had -been solved." - -An accident caused the flights to be suspended for a time, but a year -later the Wrights were ready for the official endurance test, a flight -of one hour, carrying a passenger. President Taft and a great audience -were present. Lieutenant Lahm was the passenger. Signal Corps men -raised the weight and fastened the end of the starting rope to the -aeroplane. Wilbur Wright, at the rear, turned the propellers and -started the motor. Orville Wright adjusted the spark, and took his -seat. He grasped the levers, spoke a few words of instruction to his -passenger, seated beside him, and gave the word to release the -machine. It glided down the track, gathering speed until it left the -rails. Then the forward planes rose, and the plane soared into the -air, flying swiftly. It circled around and around, each circle taking -about one minute. For the first ten minutes the motor did not move -smoothly, but after that it settled to perfection. The great audience, -watches in hand, kept their eyes on the airship. The hour mark was -passed, and there were wild shouts of applause and encouragement. Then -the plane broke the world's record of one hour, nine minutes, and -forty seconds, that Wilbur Wright had made earlier in the year. Wilbur -Wright led in a cheer to those circling above. Then the airship began -to descend, taking the circles easily, and finally skimming down to -the ground. The motor was shut off, and the test was ended, the -machine having flown for one hour, twelve minutes, and forty seconds. -President Taft crossed the field and shook Orville Wright's hand. "I -am glad to congratulate you on your achievement," said he; "you came -down as gracefully and as much like a bird as you went up. I hope your -passenger behaved himself and did not talk to the motorman. It was a -wonderful performance; I would not have missed it." Then he turned to -shake hands with Wilbur Wright. "Your brother has broken your record." -"Yes," said the other, smiling, "but it's all in the family." - -Lieutenant Lahm said, "The machine was under perfect control at all -times. He apparently had given no conscious thought either to his -hands or to the levers. His actions all seemed involuntary. It had -hardly started on one of its dips before his hands were moved in the -proper direction to restore the balance. It seemed impossible for -anything to go wrong. I never knew an hour to pass so quickly as that -one up in the air. The first half seemed like ten minutes, and the -second scarcely longer. I hardly felt the vibrations of the engine, -but at first the rising and dipping were hard to get used to. The only -disagreeable sensation I experienced was a deafness from the whirring -motor. Sometimes the undulating movement was noticeable, but that was -all. The sensation of riding the air in an aeroplane is -indescribable." - -The speed test came on the day following the endurance flight. This -was to be made over a measured course of five miles from Fort Myer to -Alexandria, and back, making a total flight of ten miles over trees, -railroads, and rough country. Aviators declared this a more difficult -course than the crossing of the English Channel, owing to the great -rises and drops of the land, which made it almost impossible to -maintain a level course. Speed was a very important factor in the -government's specifications for a successful airship, and the price to -be paid depended on this, which had been calculated to be forty miles -an hour. The government was to pay the Wrights $25,000 for the -airship, and a bonus of ten per cent., or $2,500, for every mile made -above the forty. For every mile less, to the minimum limit of -thirty-six miles an hour, the government was to deduct the same -percentage. - -The machine that was making these tests was very similar to the one -that had been used at Fort Myer the year before. The amount of -supporting surface had been reduced by about eighty square feet, and a -change had been made in the lever that turned the rudder and -controlled the equilibrating device. This had originally consisted of -two levers, placed side by side. Now the top of one lever was jointed, -so that a sideways movement of the wrist was sufficient to move the -rudder for steering in the horizontal plane. Simultaneously the lever -could be pushed forward and pulled back to lift or lower the opposite -tips of the wings. In this way one hand could control both the -steering and the balancing of the planes. - -In spite of the fact that the wind conditions were not exactly as he -wished Orville Wright decided to make the flight for speed on that -day. He made a good ascension, carrying Lieutenant Benjamin D. Foulois -with him as passenger. Twice he circled the field in order to get up -speed and reach sufficient elevation. Then, amid cheers of -encouragement from the immense throng that was watching, he turned -sharply past the starting-tower and flew between the flags that marked -the starting-line. Two captive balloons had been floated to show the -course and also to give an indication of the proper altitude to -maintain. The wind tended to carry the aeroplane to the east, but -Orville Wright was able to hold it on a fairly even course, and to -reach the balloon at Shuter's Hill that marked the turning point. Here -the official time was taken by officers of the Signal Corps. On the -return the airship met with strong downward currents of air that bore -it groundward until it was hidden by the tops of trees. Mr. Wright -said afterward, "I had to climb like forty all the way back." But he -managed to send his aeroplane higher and higher, and to bring it back -over the heads of the crowds at the finish line. There it swept about -in a circle, and landed easily near the aeroplane shed. What -aeronautical authorities declared to be the greatest feat in the -history of aviation had been successfully accomplished. The elapsed -time of the flight was fourteen minutes and forty-two seconds, which -meant that the airship had attained a speed of a little more than -forty-two miles an hour. The conditions of the Wrights' contract with -the government had been in every respect more than fulfilled. - -The Wrights carried Europe by storm, being received there with even -greater acclamations than in America. The French, as a nation, had for -some time been more interested in aviation than any other people. -France was the home of Montgolfier, Santos-Dumont, and Farman. At -first France looked with incredulity and suspicion on the Wrights' -claims. The French papers accused them of playing _le bluff_, and said -that "they argued a great deal and experimented very little," which, -as a matter of fact, was exactly the opposite of the Wrights' whole -history. But as soon as Wilbur Wright showed what he could actually -do, all this changed, and the French could not say enough that was -good about him. Delagrange, his nearest competitor, acknowledged -frankly that Wilbur Wright was his superior as an aviator. But he -could not understand the American's quiet methods, and plan of -pursuing his own way regardless of public opinion. He found that -Wilbur Wright actually preferred to fly without an audience, and -thought nothing of disappointing the crowds that gathered to watch -him. On one such occasion, when Wilbur Wright found the weather -conditions unsatisfactory, he declined to fly. "If it had been I," -said Delagrange, "I would have made a flight if I had been likely to -smash up at three hundred meters rather than disappoint those ten -thousand people." - -This novel charm of simplicity caught the French fancy. The Wrights -wanted to do everything for themselves. At Kitty Hawk they had lived -in a small shack, and cooked their own meals. Wilbur Wright had a -similar shack built on his flying-field in France, and planned to do -his own cooking. But this was too extreme for the French mind. When he -went to his shack he found a native cook installed there, and had to -submit to the hospitality of his hosts. - -The Wrights were organizing companies in the different countries of -Europe, and wanted to attend strictly to their business. But wherever -they went they were fêted. They met the French President, the Kaiser, -the King of England, and the King of Spain, and they were dined and -publicly honored in all the great capitals. Germany turned from its -native hero, Count Zeppelin, to admire them. But everywhere they kept -that same quiet tone. They showed that they cared nothing to perform -hazardous feats simply because of the hazard, nor to establish -records. Wilbur Wright was asked if he would not try for the prize -offered to the first man to fly across the English Channel. He said he -would not at that time, because it "would be risky and would not prove -anything more than a journey over land." And the public knew that this -was sensible caution, and not lack of courage. - -Daring aviators sprang into fame at once. Most of these built their -machines according to their individual ideas, and there was a great -trying-out of different patterns. Blériot, a Frenchman, flew across -the English Channel in a monoplane in thirty-eight minutes. Instantly -he became the French idol. When he reached Paris at five in the -morning an enormous crowd welcomed him, and the cries of "Vive -Blériot!" could be heard for squares. He was dined at the Hôtel de -Ville, given the Legion of Honor, and money was subscribed for a -monument to mark the place near Calais where he commenced his flight. -Shortly after Roger Sommer rose in the country outside Paris on a -moonlight night, and flew for two hours, twenty-seven minutes, and -fifteen seconds, the longest flight made to that time. The world -recognized that the actual invention of the airship was one of the -greatest achievements of the ages. Said the _London Times_, "It is no -wonder that there should be great enthusiasm in France over the -cross-Channel flight of M. Blériot, and that the French papers should -talk of nothing else. Further enthusiasm will doubtless greet the -gallant attempt, which was all but successful, of M. Latham yesterday, -to repeat the achievement. Since the discovery of the New World no -material event has happened on this earth so impressive to the -imagination as the conquest of the air which is now half achieved. -Indeed, the conquest of the air is likely to be more vast and -bewildering in its results than even the discovery of the New World, -and one is inclined to wonder that men should take it as calmly as -they do." - -A great aviation week was held at Rheims, and almost all the world's -famous aviators, except the Wrights, were there. Control of the -airships was shown to a remarkable degree. On one of the preparatory -days three heavier than air machines were manoeuvring in the great -aerodrome at the same time. They were flying at high speed, when -suddenly Glenn H. Curtiss, an American, saw an Antoinette aeroplane -approaching him at right angles, and flying upon the same level. -Instantly he elevated the planes of his machine, and his aeroplane -obeyed his touch, shot upward, and flew over the Antoinette. There was -great applause from those who had been watching him. The manoeuvre -showed how easily the airships were controlled. - -Germany meantime was intensely interested in Count Zeppelin's -dirigible balloons, which, although as long as a battle-ship, had -flown with great success. The German government paid $1,250,000 into -the Zeppelin fund for experiments, and contributed a large sum in -addition to the maintenance of a balloon corps. The German people -showed themselves as proud of Count Zeppelin as the French were of -Blériot, and the Americans of the Wrights. - -The aviation week at Rheims was followed by other great airship meets -in other countries. The Hudson-Fulton Celebration in New York in the -autumn of 1909 was the occasion of new records in flying, and served -to awaken Americans to a more intense interest in navigation of the -air. That meeting was followed by others in all parts of the United -States, and competitions for height and city-to-city flights became -matters of weekly occurrence. Yet America has not so far reached the -intense enthusiasm over flying that fills the lands of Europe. - -The airship is on the market, ready to be purchased by whomsoever will -pay the price. The London daily papers advertise an agency that will -supply buyers with either the Blériot monoplane of the type -Calais-Dover, the Latham or Antoinette monoplane, or the Wright and -Voisin biplanes. Moreover the art of handling the aeroplane does not -seem unusually difficult to master, provided one has the taste for it. -Roger Sommer first sat in an airship on July 3d, yet on August 7th -following he made a world's record flight outside Paris. "It is easier -to learn to fly than it is to walk," Wilbur Wright has said. - -The only American machines besides the Wrights' biplanes which have -made a name for themselves are the Curtiss biplanes. Mr. Curtiss is -one of the most daring aviators in the world, and his flight down the -Hudson River attracted the widest attention. But there are questions -as to whether his aeroplanes do not infringe on certain patent claims -of the Wrights, and his flight was made under a bond that should -protect the Wrights in case it proved later that his biplane did -infringe on their title. Here it should be said that the Wrights are -as excellent business men as they are inventors, and intend to receive -due compensation for their years of work. At one time they offered to -sell their invention outright for $100,000, but since then their -patents have been upheld by the courts, and those patents cover a very -large area of the field of airship manufacture. The American market is -largely in their hands. - -Every year lighter and lighter gas-engines are being made, and this -means that the surplus carrying power of the aeroplane can be -increased. Fuel can be carried for flights of greater and greater -distances, and rapid increases of speed can be attained. With -improvements in safety there seems no limit to the possibilities of -flight. So far a long train of casualties has marked the airship's -progress. This was inevitable when men came to imitate the birds, and -trust themselves to the fickle currents of the air. But many aviators -have been drawn from a reckless class, and many accidents have been -due to a desire to thrill an audience rather than to learn more about -the laws of flight. The Wrights have held to the wise course. They -care nothing for spectacular performances or establishing new records -for their own glory. Their work is in the shops, devising improvements -that will make the airship safer and better fitted for commercial -uses. They are men of remarkable balance, and it was their quality of -unremitting care that made them the wonder of Europe, used above all -things else to the dramatic in men's flights through air. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Historic Inventions, by Rupert S. 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Holland - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Historic Inventions - -Author: Rupert S. Holland - -Release Date: April 12, 2013 [EBook #42517] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORIC INVENTIONS *** - - - - -Produced by Greg Bergquist, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42517 ***</div> <div class="figcenter"> <img class="border" src="images/cover.jpg" width="400" height="602" alt="" /> @@ -8048,382 +8010,6 @@ things else to the dramatic in men’s flights through air.</p> THE HISTORIC SERIES FOR YOUNG PEOPLE</p> </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Historic Inventions, by Rupert S. 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Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Historic Inventions - -Author: Rupert S. Holland - -Release Date: April 12, 2013 [EBook #42517] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORIC INVENTIONS *** - - - - -Produced by Greg Bergquist, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - -[Illustration: GUTENBERG TAKES THE FIRST PROOF] - - - - - Historic Inventions - - By - RUPERT S. HOLLAND - - _Author of "Historic Boyhoods," "Historic Girlhoods," - "Builders of United Italy," etc._ - - - PHILADELPHIA - GEORGE W. JACOBS & COMPANY - PUBLISHERS - - - Copyright, 1911, by - GEORGE W. JACOBS AND COMPANY - _Published August, 1911_ - - _All rights reserved_ - Printed in U.S.A. - - - _To - J. W. H._ - - - - - CONTENTS - - - I. GUTENBERG AND THE PRINTING PRESS 9 - - II. PALISSY AND HIS ENAMEL 42 - - III. GALILEO AND THE TELESCOPE 53 - - IV. WATT AND THE STEAM-ENGINE 70 - - V. ARKWRIGHT AND THE SPINNING-JENNY 84 - - VI. WHITNEY AND THE COTTON-GIN 96 - - VII. FULTON AND THE STEAMBOAT 111 - - VIII. DAVY AND THE SAFETY-LAMP 126 - - IX. STEPHENSON AND THE LOCOMOTIVE 140 - - X. MORSE AND THE TELEGRAPH 168 - - XI. MCCORMICK AND THE REAPER 189 - - XII. HOWE AND THE SEWING-MACHINE 206 - - XIII. BELL AND THE TELEPHONE 215 - - XIV. EDISON AND THE ELECTRIC LIGHT 233 - - XV. MARCONI AND THE WIRELESS TELEGRAPH 261 - - XVI. THE WRIGHTS AND THE AIRSHIP 273 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Gutenberg Takes the First Proof _Frontispiece_ - - Palissy the Potter After an Unsuccessful - Experiment _Facing page_ 46 - - Galileo's Telescope " " 58 - - Watt First Tests the Power of Steam " " 72 - - Sir Richard Arkwright " " 88 - - The Inventor of the Cotton Gin " " 104 - - _The Clermont_, the First Steam Packet " " 120 - - The Davy Safety Lamp " " 136 - - One of the First Locomotives " " 156 - - Morse and the First Telegraph " " 180 - - The Earliest Reaper " " 194 - - Elias Howe's Sewing-Machine " " 210 - - The First Telephone " " 222 - - Edison and the Early Phonograph " " 258 - - Wireless Station in New York City Showing - the Antenna " " 268 - - The Wright Brothers' Airship " " 281 - - - - -I - -GUTENBERG AND THE PRINTING PRESS - -About 1400-1468 - - -The free cities of mediaeval Germany were continually torn asunder by -petty civil wars. The nobles, who despised commerce, and the burghers, -who lived by it, were always fighting for the upper hand, and the -laboring people sided now with one party, and now with the other. -After each uprising the victors usually banished a great number of the -defeated faction from the city. So it happened that John Gutenberg, a -young man of good family, who had been born in Mainz about 1400, was -outlawed from his home, and went with his wife Anna to live in the -city of Strasburg, which was some sixty miles distant from Mainz. He -chose the trade of a lapidary, or polisher of precious stones, an art -which in that age was held in almost as high esteem as that of the -painter or sculptor. He had been well educated, and his skill in -cutting gems, as well as his general learning and his interest in all -manner of inventions, drew people of the highest standing to his -little workshop, which was the front room of his dwelling house. - -One evening after supper, as Gutenberg and his wife were sitting in -the room behind the shop, he chanced to pick up a playing-card. He -studied it very carefully, as though it were new to him. Presently -his wife looked up from her sewing, and noticed how much absorbed he -was. "Prithee, John, what marvel dost thou find in that card?" said -she. "One would think it the face of a saint, so closely dost thou -regard it." - -"Nay, Anna," he answered thoughtfully, "but didst thou ever consider -how the picture on this card was made?" - -"I suppose it was drawn in outline, and then painted, as other -pictures are." - -"But there is a better way," said Gutenberg, still studying the -playing-card. "These lines were first marked out on a wooden block, -and then the wood was cut away on each side of them, so that they were -left raised. The lines were then smeared with ink and pressed on the -cardboard. This way is shorter, Anna, than by drawing and painting -each picture separately, because when the block is once engraved it -can be used to mark any number of cards." - -Anna took the playing-card from her husband's hand. It represented a -figure that was known as the Knave of Bells. "It's an unsightly -creature," she said, studying it, "and not to be compared with our -picture of good St. Christopher on the wall yonder. Surely that was -made with a pen?" - -"Nay, it was made from an engraved block, just like this card," said -the young lapidary. - -"St. Christopher made in that way!" exclaimed his wife. "Then what a -splendid art it must be, if it keeps the pictures of the blessed -saints for us!" - -The picture of the saint was a curious colored woodcut, showing St. -Christopher carrying the child Jesus across the water. Under it was an -inscription in Latin, and the date 1423. - -"Yes, thou art right, dear," Gutenberg went on. "Pictures like that -are much to be prized, for they fill to some extent the place of -books, which are so rare and cost so much. But there are much more -valuable pictures in the Cathedral here at Strasburg. Dost thou -remember the jewels the Abbot gave me to polish for him? When I -carried them back, he took me into the Cathedral library, and showed -me several books filled with these engraved pictures, and they were -much finer than our St. Christopher. The books I remember were the -'Ars Memorandi,' the 'Ars Moriendi,' and the 'Biblia Pauperum,' and -the last had no less than forty pictures, with written explanations -underneath." - -"That is truly wonderful, John! And what are they about?" - -"The 'Biblia Pauperum' means 'Bible for the Poor,' and is a series of -scenes from the Old and New Testaments." - -"I think I've heard of it; but I wish you'd tell me more about it." - -John leaned forward, his keen face showing unusual interest. "The -forty pictures in it were made by pressing engraved blocks of wood on -paper, just like the St. Christopher, or this playing-card. The lines -are all brown, and the pictures are placed opposite each other, with -their blank backs pasted together, so they form one strong leaf." - -"And how big are the pictures?" - -"They are ten inches high and seven or eight inches wide, and each is -made up of three small pictures, separated by lines. More than that, -there are four half-length figures of prophets, two above and two -below the larger pictures. Then there are Latin legends and rhymes at -the bottom of each page." - -"And all that is cut on wood first?" said Anna, doubtfully. "It sounds -almost like a miracle." - -"Aye. I looked very closely, and the whole book is made from blocks, -like the playing-card." - -"Art thou sure it's not the pencraft of some skilful scribe?" - -"Assuredly I am. Dost thou see, Anna, how much better these blocks are -than the slower way of copying by hand? When they're once cut many -books can be printed as easily as one." - -"Aye," answered his wife, "and they will be cheaper than the works -written out by the scribes, and still be so costly that whoever can -make them ought to grow rich from the sale. If thou canst do it, it -will make thy fortune. Thou art so ingenious. Canst thou not make a -'Bible for the Poor'?" - -"Little wife, thou must be dreaming!" But John Gutenberg smiled, for -he saw that she had discovered the thought that had been in his mind. - -"But couldst thou not?" Anna persisted. "Thou art so good at inventing -better ways of doing things." - -Gutenberg laughed and shook his head. "I have found new ways to polish -stones and mirrors," said he, "but those are in my line of work. This -is quite outside it, and much more difficult." - -Nothing more was said on the subject that night, but Anna could see, -as day followed day, that her husband was planning something, and she -felt very certain that he was thinking out a way of making books more -quickly than by the old process of copying them word for word by hand. - -A few weeks later the young lapidary surprised his wife by showing her -a pile of playing-cards. "See my handicraft," said he. "Aren't these -as good as the Knave of Bells I gave thee?" - -She looked at them, delight in her eyes. "They are very much better, -John. The lines are much clearer, and the color brighter." - -"Still, that is only a step. It is of little use unless I can cut -letters, and press them on vellum as I did these cards. I shall try -thy name, Anna, and see if I cannot engrave it here on wood." - -He took a small wooden tablet from the work-table in his shop, and -marking certain lines upon it, cut away the wood so that it left a -stamp of his wife's name. Brushing ink over the raised letters he -pressed the wood upon a sheet of paper, and then, lifting it -carefully, showed her her own name printed upon the paper. - -"Wonderful!" she cried. "The letters have the very likeness of -writing!" - -"Aye," agreed Gutenberg, looking at the four letters, "it is not a -failure. I think with patience and perseverance I could even impress a -copy of our picture of St. Christopher. It must have been made from -some manner of engraved block. See." He took the rude print from the -wall, and showed her on the back of it the marks of the stylus, or -burnisher, by which it had been rubbed upon the wood. "Thou mayst be -sure from this that these lines were not produced by a pen, as in -ordinary writing," said he. - -"Well," said Anna, "it would surely be a pious act to multiply -pictures of the holy St. Christopher." - -Encouraged by his wife's great interest, and spurred on by the passion -for invention, Gutenberg now set himself seriously to study the -problem of engraving. First of all he found it very difficult to find -the right kind of wood. Some kinds were too soft and porous, others -were liable to split easily. Finally he chose the wood of the -apple-tree, which had a fine grain, was dense and compact, and firm -enough to stand the process of engraving. Another difficulty was the -lack of proper tools; but he worked at these until his box was -supplied with a stock of knives, saws, chisels, and gravers of many -different patterns. Then he started to draw the portrait of the saint. - -At his first attempt he made the picture and the inscription that went -with it on the same block, but as soon as he had finished it a better -idea occurred to him. The second time he drew the picture and the -inscription on separate blocks. "That's an improvement," he said to -his wife, "for I can draw the picture and the letters better -separately, and if I want I can use different colored inks for -printing the two parts." Then he cut the wood away from the drawings, -and inking them, pressed them upon the paper. The result was a much -clearer picture than the old "St. Christopher" had been. - -He studied his work with care. "So far so good," said he, "but it's -not yet perfect. The picture can't be properly printed without thicker -ink. This flows too easily, and even using the greatest care I can -hardly keep from blotting it." - -He had to make a great many experiments to solve this difficulty of -the ink. At last he found that a preparation of oil was best. He could -vary the color according to the substances he used with this. Umber -gave him lines of a darkish brown color, lampblack and oil gave him -black ink. At first he used the umber chiefly, in imitation of the old -drawings that he was copying. - -When his ink was ready he turned again to his interested wife. "Now -thou canst help me," said he. "Stuff and sew this piece of sheepskin -for me, while I get the paper ready for the printing." - -Anna had soon done as he asked. Then Gutenberg added a handle to the -stuffed ball. "I need this to spread the ink evenly upon the block," -said he. "One more servant of my new art is ready." - -He had ground the ink upon a slab. Now he dipped his printer's dabber -in it, and spread the ink over the wood. Then he laid the paper on it, -and pressed it down with the polished handle of one of his new graving -tools. He lifted it carefully. The picture was a great improvement -over his first attempt. "This ink works splendidly!" he exclaimed in -delight. - -"Now I shall want a picture of St. Christopher in every room in the -house," said Anna. - -"But what shall I do?" said Gutenberg. "I can't afford the time and -money to make these pictures, unless I can sell them in some way." - -"And canst thou not do that?" - -"I know of no way at present; but I will hang them on the wall of the -shop, and perhaps some of my customers will see them and ask about -them." - -The young lapidary was poor, and he had spent part of his savings in -working out his scheme of block-printing. He could give no more time -to this now, but he hung several copies of the "St. Christopher" in -his front room. Several days later a young woman, stopping at -Gutenberg's shop for her dowry jewels, noticed the pictures. "What are -those?" said she. "The good saint would look well on our wall at home. -If thou wilt wrap the picture up and let me take it home I will show -it to my husband, and if he approves I will send thee the price of it -to-morrow." - -Gutenberg consented, and the next day the woman sent the money for the -"St. Christopher." A few days later it happened that several people, -calling at the shop to buy gems, chose to purchase pictures instead. -Anna was very much pleased by the sales, and told her husband so at -supper that evening. But he was less satisfied. "In spite of the sales -I have lost money today," said he. "Those who bought the prints had -meant to buy jewels and mirrors, and if they had done so I should have -made a bigger profit. The pictures take people's attention from the -gems, and so hurt my business." - -"But may it not be that the printing will pay thee better than the -sale of jewels, if thou wilt keep on with it?" suggested the hopeful -wife. "How soon shalt thou go to the Cathedral with the Abbot's -jewels?" - -"As soon as I have finished the polishing. Engraving these blocks has -kept me back even in that." - -"When thou dost go take some of thy prints with thee," begged Anna, -"and see what the Father has to say about them." - -By working hard Gutenberg had the Abbot's jewels finished two days -later, and he took them with several of his prints to the Cathedral. -He was shown into the library, where often a score of monks were -busied in making copies of old manuscripts. He delivered the jewels to -the Abbot, and then showed him the pictures. - -"Whose handiwork is this?" asked the Father. - -But Gutenberg was not quite ready to give away his secret, and so he -answered evasively, "The name of the artisan does not appear." - -"Where didst thou obtain them?" asked the Abbot. - -"I pray thee let me keep that also a secret," answered Gutenberg. - -The Abbot looked them over carefully. "I will take them all," said he. -"They will grace the walls of our library, and tend to preserve us -from evil." - -The young jeweler was very much pleased, and hurried home to tell his -wife what had happened. She was delighted. "Now thou art in a fair way -to grow rich," said she. - -But Gutenberg was by nature cautious. "We mustn't forget," he -answered, "that the steady income of a regular trade is safer to rely -on than occasional success in other lines." - -A few days later a young man named Andrew Dritzhn called at -Gutenberg's shop, and asked if he might come and learn the lapidary's -trade. Theretofore Gutenberg had had no assistants, but, on thinking -the matter over, he decided that if he had a good workman with him he -would have more time to study the art of printing. So he engaged -Dritzhn. Soon after this the new apprentice introduced two young -friends of his, who also begged for the chance to learn how to cut -gems and set them, and how to polish Venetian glass for mirrors and -frame them in carved and decorated copper frames. Gutenberg agreed and -these two others, named Hielman and Riffe, came to work with him. - -The shop was now very busy, with the three apprentices and the master -workman all occupied. But Gutenberg was anxious to keep his new -project secret, and so he fitted up the little back room as a shop, -and spent his evenings working there with Anna. - -On his next visit to the Cathedral he came home with a big package -under his arm. He unwrapped it, and showed Anna a large volume. "See," -said he, "this is the 'History of St. John the Evangelist.' The Abbot -gave it to me in return for some more copies of my St. Christopher. It -is written on vellum with a pen, and all the initial letters are -illuminated. There are sixty-three pages, and some patient monk has -spent months, aye, perhaps years, in making it. But I have a plan to -engrave it all, just as I did the picture." - -"Engrave a whole book! That would be a miracle!" - -"I believe I can do it. And when once the sixty-three blocks are cut, -a block to a page, I can print a score of the books as easily as one -copy." - -"Then thou canst sell books as well as the monks! And when the blocks -are done it may not take more than a day to make a book, instead of -months and years." - -So John Gutenburg set to work with new enthusiasm. He needed a very -quiet place in which to carry out his scheme, and more room than he -had at home. It is said he found such a place in the ruined cloisters -of the Monastery of St. Arbogast in the suburbs of Strasburg. Thither -he stole away whenever he could leave the shop, and not even Anna went -with him, nor even to her did he tell what he was doing. At last he -brought home the tools he had been making, and started to cut the -letters of the first pages of the "History of St. John." Night after -night he worked at it, until a great pile of engraved blocks was done. - -Then one evening there was a knock at the door of the living-room, and -before he could answer it the door was opened, and the two -apprentices, Dritzhn and Hielman, came in. They saw their master -bending over wooden blocks, a pile of tools, and the open pages of the -History. "What is this?" exclaimed Dritzhn. "Some new mystery?" - -"I cannot explain now," said the confused inventor. - -"But thou promised to teach us all thy arts for the money we pay -thee," objected Hielman, who was of an avaricious turn of mind. - -"No, only the trade of cutting gems and shaping mirrors." - -"We understood we paid thee for all thy teaching," objected the -apprentice. "'Tis only fair we should have our money's worth." - -Gutenberg thought a moment. "This work must be done in quiet," said -he, "and must be kept an absolute secret for a time. But I do need -money to carry it on rightly." - -This made Dritzhn more eager than ever to learn what the work was. "We -can keep thy secret," said he, "furnish funds, and perhaps help in the -business." - -Gutenberg had misgivings as to the wisdom of increasing his -confidants, but he finally decided to trust them. First he pledged -each to absolute secrecy. Then he produced his wooden cuts, and -explained in detail how he had made them. Both the apprentices showed -the greatest interest. "Being a draughtsman, I can help with the -figures," said Dritzhn. - -"Yes," agreed Gutenberg, "but just now I am chiefly busy in cutting -blocks for books." - -"Books!" exclaimed the apprentice. - -"Yes. I have found a new way of imprinting them." Then he showed them -what he was doing with the History. - -Dritzhn was amazed. "There should be a fortune in this!" said he. "But -will not this art do away with the old method of copying?" - -"In time it may," agreed the inventor. "That's one reason why we must -keep it secret. Otherwise the copyists might try to destroy what I -have done." - -As a result of this interview a contract was drawn up between -Gutenberg and his apprentices, according to the terms of which each -apprentice was to pay the inventor two hundred and fifty florins. The -work was to be kept absolutely secret, and in case any of the partners -should die during the term of the agreement the survivors should keep -the business entirely to themselves, on payment of one hundred florins -to the heirs of the deceased partner. Riffe, the third apprentice, was -admitted to the business, and after that the four took turns looking -after the jewelry shop and working over the blocks for the History. - -But the pupils were not so well educated as the master. They could not -read, and had to be taught how to draw the different letters. They -were clumsy in cutting the lines, and spoiled block after block. -Gutenberg was very patient with them. Again and again he would throw -away a spoiled block and show them how the letters should be cut -properly. - -In time the blocks were all finished. "Now I can help," said Anna. -"Thou must let me take the impressions." - -"So thou shalt," her husband answered. "To-night we will fold and cut -the paper into the right size for the pages, and grind the umber for -ink. To-morrow we will begin to print the leaves." - -The following day they all took turns making the impressions. Page -after page came out clear and true. Then Anna started to paste the -blank sides of the sheets together, for the pages were only printed -on one side. In a week a pile of the Histories was printed and bound, -and ready to be sold. - -The jewelers had little time to offer the books to the wealthy people -of the city, and so Gutenberg engaged a young student at the -Cathedral, Peter Schoeffer by name, to work for him. The first week -he sold two copies, and one other was sold from the shop. That made a -good beginning, but after that it was more difficult to find buyers, -and the firm began to grow doubtful of their venture. - -The poor people of Strasburg could not read, and could not have -afforded to buy the books in any event, the nobility were hard to -reach, and the clergy, who made up the reading class of the age, were -used to copying such manuscripts as they needed. But this situation -did not prevent Gutenberg from continuing with his work. He knew that -the young men who were studying at the Cathedral had to copy out word -for word the "Donatus," or manual of grammar they were required to -learn. So the firm set to work to cut blocks and print copies of this -book. When they were finished they sold more readily than the History -had done, and the edition of fifty copies was soon disposed of. But by -that time all the scholars of the city were supplied, and it was very -difficult to send the books to other cities. There were no newspapers, -and no means of advertising, and the only practical method of sale was -to show the book to possible purchasers, and point out its merits to -them. So Gutenberg turned to two other books that were used by the -monks, and printed them. One was called the "Ars Memorandi," or "Art -of Remembering," and the other the "Ars Moriendi," or "Art of Knowing -How to Die." - -Whenever he printed a new book Gutenberg took it to the Cathedral to -show the priests. He carried the "Ars Moriendi" there, and found the -Abbot in the library, looking over the manuscripts of several monks. - -"Good-morning, my son," said the Abbot. "Hast thou brought us more of -thy magical books?" - -"It is not magic, Father; it is simply patience that has done it," -said Gutenberg, handing the Abbot a copy of his latest book. - -"Thanks, my son. It is always a pleasure to examine thy manuscripts." - -The monks gathered around the Abbot to look at the new volume. "It is -strange," said one of them, named Father Melchior. "How canst thou -make so many books? Thou must have a great company of scribes." - -Another was turning over the pages of the book. "It is not quite like -the work of our hands," said he. - -"It is certain that none of us can compete with thy speed in writing," -went on Father Melchior. "Every few weeks thou dost bring in twelve or -more books, written in half the time it takes our quickest scribe to -make a single copy." - -"Moreover," said another, "the letters are all so exact and regular. -Thou hast brought two copies, and one has just as many letters and -words on a page as the other, and all the letters are exactly alike." - -The Abbot had been studying the book closely. Now he asked the monks -to withdraw. When Gutenberg and he were alone, he said, "Are these -books really made with a copyist's pen?" He cast a searching glance at -the lapidary. - -Gutenberg, much embarrassed, had no answer for him. - -"It is as I guessed," said the Abbot. "They are made from blocks, like -the St. Christopher." - -The Abbot smiled at the look of dismay on Gutenberg's face. "Have no -fear," he added. "It may be that I can supply thee with better work -for thy skill. We need more copies of the 'Biblia Pauperum' for our -use here, and I have no doubt thou couldst greatly improve on the best -we have." - -"I should like to do it," said Gutenberg, "if there were not too much -expense." - -"The priests will need many copies," the Abbot assured him. "And thou -shalt be well paid for them." - -So the young printer agreed to undertake this new commission. It meant -much to him to have secured the patronage of the Abbot, for this would -set a seal upon the excellence of his work, and bring him to the -notice of the wealthy and cultivated people of the day. - -Gutenberg took the Abbot's copy of the "Biblia" home, and he and the -apprentices started work upon the wooden blocks. There were many cuts -in the book which had to be copied, and so they engaged two wood -engravers who lived in Strasburg to help them. Even so, it took them -months to finish the book. But when it was printed and bound, and a -copy shown to the Abbot, he was delighted with it. "Thou hast done -nobly, my son," said he, "and thy labors will serve the interests of -our Mother Church. Thou shalt be well paid." - -Gutenberg returned home with the money, and showed it delightedly to -his wife. "I knew thou wouldst triumph," said she. "Only to think of a -real 'Biblia Pauperum' made by my John Gutenberg. We shall see -wonderful days!" - -Now fortune grew more favorable. The "Biblia" sold better than the -other books had done, and they next printed the Canticles, or -Solomon's Song. This was impressed, as the others had been, on only -one side of the page, and from engraved wooden blocks. Then Gutenberg -thought he would like to print the entire Bible. Anna favored this, -and he started to figure out how long the work would take. - -"There are seven hundred pages in the Bible," said he. "I cannot -engrave more than two pages a month working steadily, and at such a -rate it would take me fully three hundred and fifty months, or nearly -thirty years, to make blocks enough to print the Holy Book." - -"Why, thou wouldst be an old man before it was done!" cried his wife -in dismay. - -"Yes, and more than that, this process of engraving is dimming to the -eyes. I should be blind before my work was half done." - -"But couldst thou not divide the work with the others?" - -"Yes, if only I could persuade them to attempt so big a work. They -want to try smaller books, for they say my new process is hardly -better for making a large book than the old method of copying. It may -be that I can get them to print the Gospels gradually, one book at a -time." - -Though the workmen were now growing more weary and disheartened with -each new volume they undertook, Gutenberg would not give up. He -persuaded them to start cutting the blocks for the Gospel of St. -Matthew. But as he worked with his knives the apprentices grumbled -about him. At last he had the first block nearly done. Then his hand -slipped, the tool twisted, and the block was split across. - -The other men looked aghast. So much work had gone for nothing. - -Gutenberg sat studying the broken block of wood. As he studied it a -new idea came to him. Picking up his knife he split the wood, making -separate pieces of every letter carved on it. Then he stared at the -pile of little pieces that lay before him like a bundle of splinters. -He realized that he was now on the trail of a greater discovery than -any he had yet made, for these separate letters could be used over and -over again, not only in printing one book but in printing hundreds. - -Taking a fresh block he split it into little strips, and cutting these -down to the right size, he carved a letter on the end of each strip. -This was more difficult than cutting on the solid block, and he -spoiled many strips of wood before he got a letter that satisfied him. -But finally he had made one, and then another, and another, until he -had all the letters of the alphabet. He was careful to cut the sticks -of the proper width, so that the letters would not be too far apart -when they should be used for printing. When they were done he showed -them to the others and called them _stucke_, or type. They soon saw -what a great step forward he had made. - -The first words he printed with type were _Bonus homo_, "a good man." -He took the letters that spelled the first word, and putting them in -their proper order tied them together with a string. He only had one -letter o, so he had to stop and cut two more. Then he made a supply of -each letter of the alphabet, and put type of each letter separately in -little boxes, to keep them from getting mixed. So he made the first -font of movable type known to history. - -As he experimented with these first type he made another improvement. -He found it was hard to keep the letters tight together, so that he -could ink them and print from them. He cut little notches in the edges -of the different type, and by fastening his linen thread about the -notches in the outside letters of each word he found that he could -hold a word as tightly together as if all the letters in it were cut -on a single block. - -The cutting of the type and the studying out of new and better ways of -holding them together took a great deal of time, and meanwhile the -sales of gems and mirrors had fallen off. The apprentices had not the -master's skill in holding the letters together, and they grew -discouraged as time after time the type would separate as they were -ready to print from it. They wanted to go back to the blocks, but -Gutenberg insisted that his new way was the better. At last he hit -upon another idea. He would make a press which would hold the type -together better than a linen thread or a knot of wire. - -After many patient experiments he finished a small model of a press -which seemed to him to combine all the qualifications needed for his -work. He took this to a skilful turner in wood and metal, who examined -it carefully. "This is only a simple wine-press I am to make, Master -John," said he. - -"Yes," answered Gutenberg, "it is in effect a wine-press, but it shall -shortly spout forth floods of the most abundant and marvelous liquor -that has ever flowed to quench the thirst of man." - -The mechanic, paying no heed to Gutenberg's excitement, made the press -for him according to the model. It was set up in the printing-rooms of -Dritzhn's dwelling, and the firm went on with their work of cutting -movable type. But the sale of books was small, and for two years more -the apprentices grumbled, and protested that they should have stuck to -the lapidary's art. - -New troubles soon arose. It was found that the ink softened the type -and spoiled the form of the letters. "We must make more fresh type," -said Gutenberg, "until we can find a way to harden the wood." Then a -bill was sent in of one hundred florins for press-work. The partners -were angry, and said they saw no real advantage in the press. "But -without the frame and press all our labor of making _stucke_ will -prove useless," answered the inventor. "We must either give up the -art, and disband, or make the necessary improvements as they are -called for." - -Gutenberg was made of sterner stuff than his partner Dritzhn. Two -years of small success and great doubt had told upon the latter, and -so one day when Father Melchior of the Cathedral told him he noticed -that he was worried, Dritzhn confessed to him the secret of the -printing shop. "I have put money into the business," said he, "and if -I leave now I fear I shall lose it all." - -"Leave it by all means," advised the Father, "for be sure that no good -will come of these strange arts." - -But when he went back to the shop Dritzhn discovered the others -setting type for a new work, a dictionary, that was called a -"Catholicon." They were all enthusiastic about this, believing it -would have a readier sale than their other works, and so he decided to -stay with them a little longer, in spite of the Father's advice. - -Just as the dictionary was ready to be issued, in the autumn of 1439, -an event occurred which threw the firm into confusion. Dritzhn died -suddenly, and his two brothers demanded that Gutenberg should let them -take his place in the firm. He read over the contract which they had -all signed, and then told them that they could not be admitted as -partners, but should be paid the fifteen florins which the books -showed were due to Dritzhn's heirs. They rejected this with scorn, and -at once started a lawsuit against Gutenberg and his partners. - -There were no such protections for inventions as patents then; rumor -soon spread abroad the news that Gutenberg had discovered a new art -that would prove a gold-mine, and the poor inventor saw that the -lawsuit would probably end in his ruin. The printing-press had stood -in Dritzhn's house, and before Gutenberg could prevent it the two -brothers had stolen parts of it. Then he had what was left of it -carried to his own house; but even here spies swarmed to try to learn -something of his secret. Finally he realized that his invention was -not safe even there, and decided that every vestige of his work must -be destroyed. "Take the _stucke_ from the forms," said he to his -friends, "and break them up in my sight, that none of them may remain -perfect." - -"What, all our labor for the last three years!" cried Hielman. - -"Never mind," answered Gutenberg. "Break them up, or some one will -steal our art, and we shall be ruined." - -So, taking hammers and mallets, they broke the precious forms of type -into thousands of fragments. - -The lawsuit dragged along, and finally ended in Gutenberg's favor. The -firm was ordered to pay Dritzhn's brothers the fifteen florins, and -nothing more. But the type were destroyed, and the partners were -afraid to make new ones, lest the suspicious public should spy upon -them and learn their secret. When the term of the contract between the -partners came to an end it was not renewed. Each of the firm went his -own way, and John Gutenberg opened his lapidary's shop again and tried -to build up the trade he had lost. - -His wife was still Gutenberg's chief encouragement. She was certain -that some day he would win success, and often in the evening she would -urge him not to despair of his invention, but to wait till the time -should be ripe for him to go on with it again. As a matter of fact it -was impossible for him to give it up. Before long he was cutting -_stucke_ again in his spare hours, and then trying his hand at -printing single pages. - -He felt however that it would be impossible for him to resume his -presswork in Strasburg. There was too much prejudice against his -invention there. So he decided to go back to his home town of Mainz, -where many of his family were living. Anna agreed with this decision, -and so they closed their shop, sold their goods, and journeyed to his -brother's home. There one day his brother introduced him to a rich -goldsmith named Faust, and this man said he understood that Gutenberg -had invented a new way of making books. John admitted this, and told -him some details of his process. - -The goldsmith was most enthusiastic, and suggested that he might be -able to help the inventor with money. Gutenberg said he should need -two or three thousand florins. "I will give it to thee," answered -Faust, "if thou canst convince me that it will pay better than -goldsmithing." - -Then the printer confided all his secrets to Faust, and the latter -considered them with great care. At last he was satisfied, and told -Gutenberg that he would enter into partnership with him. "But where -shall we start the work?" he added. "Secrecy is absolutely necessary. -We must live in the house in which we work." - -"I had thought of the Zum Jungen," answered Gutenberg, naming an old -house that overlooked the Rhine. - -"The very place," agreed Faust. "It is almost a palace in size, and -will give us ample room; it is in the city, and yet out of its bustle. -It is vacant now, and I will rent it at once. When canst thou move -there?" - -"At once," said Gutenberg, more pleased than he dared show. - -So the printer and his good wife moved to the Zum Jungen, which was -more like a castle than a tradesman's dwelling-house. Its windows -looked over the broad, beautiful river to the wooded shores beyond. -Faust advanced Gutenberg the sum of 2,020 florins, taking a mortgage -on his printing materials as security. Then Faust moved his family and -servants to the old house, and the firm started work. Hanau, the valet -of Gutenberg's father, and a young scholar named Martin Duttlinger, -joined them at the outset. - -Two well-lighted rooms on the second floor, so placed as to be -inaccessible to visitors, were chosen for the workshops. Here the four -worked from early morning until nearly midnight, cutting out new sets -of type and preparing them for the presswork. They began by printing a -new manual of grammar, an "Absies," or alphabetical table, and the -"Doctrinale." All three of these it was thought would be of use to all -who could read. - -Soon Faust discovered the same defect in the type that the workmen at -Strasburg had discovered. The wooden letters would soften when used, -and soon lose their shape. He spoke to Gutenberg about it, and the -latter studied the problem. At length an idea occurred to him. He -opened a drawer and took out a bit of metal. He cut a letter on the -end of it. "There is the answer," said he. "We will make our type of -lead. We can cut it, and ink cannot soften it as it does wood." - -Faust was very much pleased. Now that he understood Gutenberg's -invention he realized how great a thing it was destined to become, and -was anxious to help its progress in every way he could. One day -Gutenberg told him that they needed a good man to cut the designs for -the engravings. "Dost thou know of one?" asked Faust. "Of only one," -was the answer. "He is Peter Schoeffer, a youth who helped me -before. He is now a teacher of penmanship in Paris." - -"We must send for him," said Faust. - -So Gutenberg sent for Schoeffer, and the printing staff was -increased to five. - -Schoeffer had considerable reputation as a scholar, and soon after -he had joined them Gutenberg asked him what he thought was the most -important book in the world. Schoeffer replied that he was not -sufficiently learned to answer the question. - -"But to the best of thy knowledge," persisted Gutenberg. - -"I remember that when I was in the Cathedral school," said -Schoeffer, "Father Melchior showed us the Gothic Gospels, or Silver -Book, and said that more art and expense had been spent on the Bible -than on any other book he knew. I believe therefore that it is the -most useful and important book in the world." - -"So I believe," agreed Gutenberg, "and I intend to print it in the -best style possible to my art." - -"But what a tremendous undertaking, to print the whole Bible!" -exclaimed Schoeffer. - -"Yes, a stupendous work," Gutenberg agreed. "And so I want to start -upon it at once." - -Schoeffer was amazed when Gutenberg showed him the new press he had -built at the Zum Jungen. He watched the master dab the type with ink, -slide them under the platen, and having pressed it down, take out the -printed page. - -"It is wonderful!" said he. "How many impressions canst thou take from -the press in a day?" - -"About three hundred, working steadily." - -"Then books will indeed multiply! What would the plodding copyists say -to this!" - -When they began printing with the lead type they soon found that the -metal was too soft. The nicest skill had to be used in turning the -screw of the press, and only Gutenberg seemed able to succeed with it. -Schoeffer suggested that they should try iron. - -"We have," said Gutenberg, "but it pierced the paper so that it could -not be used." - -Schoeffer was used to experimenting in metals, and the next day he -brought to the workroom an alloy which he thought might serve. It was -a mixture of regulus of antimony and lead. They tried it, and found it -was precisely the right substance for their use. Gutenberg and Faust -were both delighted, and very soon afterward made Peter Schoeffer a -partner in the firm. - -They now started on the great work of printing the Bible. Duttlinger -was commissioned to buy a Bible to serve for his own use. This was -brought in secret to the workrooms, and the partners inspected it -carefully. They realized what a huge undertaking it would be to print -such a long book, but nevertheless they set out to do it. Each man was -allotted his share in the labor, and the work began. - -The press Gutenberg was using was a very simple affair. Two upright -posts were fastened together by crosspieces at top and bottom. In this -frame a big iron screw was worked by means of a handle. A board was -fastened beneath the screw, and the type, when inked and set in a -wooden frame, were placed on this board. The printing paper was laid -over the type, and the screw forced the platen, which was the board -fixed to it, down upon the paper. Then the screw was raised by the -handle, the platen was lifted with it, and the printed paper was ready -to be taken out. The screw was worked up and down in a box, called a -hose, and the board on which the type were set for the printing was -actually a sort of sliding table. The frame or chase of type was fixed -on this table, and when inked and with the paper laid in place, was -slid under the platen, which was a smooth planed board. The screw was -turned down, the platen was pressed against the sheet of paper, and -the printing was done. - -Each of the workers at the Zum Jungen suggested valuable changes and -additions. Schoeffer proved wonderfully adept at cutting type, and -later at illuminating the initial letters that were needed. The copies -we have of the books published by this first Mainz press bear -striking witness to the rare skill and taste Peter Schoeffer showed -in designing and coloring the large capital letters that were -considered essential at that day. - -The firm had by now prepared several hundred pounds' weight of metal -type for the Bible, had discovered that a mixture of linseed oil and -lampblack made the best ink, and had invented ink-dabbers made of skin -stuffed with wool. Then it occurred to Schoeffer that there must be -some easier way of making type than by cutting it out by hand. After -some study he found it, and the firm began taking casts of type in -plaster moulds. But the success of this method seemed very doubtful at -first, for it was hard to get a good impression of such small things -as type in the soft plaster. Again Schoeffer showed his skill. He -planned the cutting of punches which would stamp the outline of the -type upon the matrix. He cut matrices for the whole alphabet, and then -showed the letters cast from them to Gutenberg and Faust. - -"Are these letters cast in moulds?" exclaimed the astonished Faust. - -"Yes," answered Schoeffer. - -"This is the greatest of all thy inventions then," said Faust. "Thou -art beyond all question a great genius!" - -With type cast in this new way the firm printed the first page of -their Bible in the spring of 1450. The press worked to perfection, and -when they removed the vellum sheet the printed letters were clear, -beautifully formed, and ranged in perfect lines. So began the -printing of what was to become famous as the Mazarine Bible. But it -was not until five years later, in 1455, that the book was finished. - -The Bible was printed, but its cost had been great, and the returns -from its sale were small. Faust was dissatisfied with Gutenberg, and -took occasion to tell Schoeffer one evening that he believed the -firm would do better without the master. "Thou hast devised the ink, -the forms for casting type, and the mixture of metals," he said. -"These are almost all that has been invented. Gutenberg spent 4,000 -florins before the Bible was half done, and I do not see how he can -ever repay me the sums I have advanced." - -Faust played upon young Schoeffer's vanity, he praised him -continually and disparaged Gutenberg, and finally persuaded him they -would be better off without the latter. Peter Schoeffer was, -moreover, in love with Faust's daughter Christiane, and wished to -marry her. This was another inducement for him to side with the rich -goldsmith. - -Then one day Faust asked Gutenberg blankly when he intended to repay -him the money he had advanced. Gutenberg was surprised, and told him -he had nothing but the small profits the firm was making. - -"I will give thee thirty days to pay the debt," said Faust, "and if -thou dost fail to pay within that time I shall take steps to collect -it." - -"But how am I to procure it? Wouldst thou ruin me?" cried Gutenberg. - -"The money I must have, and if thou art honest thou wilt pay me," came -the hard answer. - -The month ended, and Gutenberg had not found the money. He protested -and pleaded with Faust, but the latter was obdurate. He started a -lawsuit at once to recover the sums he had expended, and judgment was -given against Gutenberg, commanding that he should pay what he had -borrowed, together with interest. Gutenberg could not do this, and so -Faust took possession of all the presses, the type, and the copies of -the Bible that were already printed. - -Gutenberg knew that he was ruined. His wife tried to console him. "I -am worse than penniless," said he. "My noble art is at an end. What I -most feared has happened. They have stolen my invention, and I have -nothing left." - -Meantime Schoeffer had married Faust's daughter, and the two men -took up the printing business for themselves. Faust showed the Bibles -to friends, and was advised to carry a supply of them to Paris. He -went to that city, and at first met with great success. He sold the -King a copy for seven hundred and fifty crowns, and private citizens -copies at smaller prices. But soon word spread abroad that this -stranger's stock was inexhaustible. "The more he sells the more he has -for sale," said one priest. Then some one started the report that the -stranger was in league with the devil, and soon a mob had broken into -his lodgings and found his stock of Bibles. Faust was arrested on the -charge of dealing in the black art, and was brought before the court. -He now decided that he would have to tell of the printing press if he -were to escape, and so he made a full confession. So great was the -wonder and admiration at the announcement of this new invention that -he was at once released, loaded with honors, and soon after returned -to Mainz with large profits from his trip. - -But Gutenberg was not entirely left to despair. His brother Friele, -who was well-to-do, came to his aid, and interested friends in -starting John at work on his presses again. He missed Schoeffer's -discoveries as to ink and the casts for type, but although he had not -the means to print another copy of the Bible, he contrived to print -various other books which were bought by the clerical schools and the -monasteries. After a time Faust, realizing perhaps that Gutenberg was -in reality the inventor of the art which he was beginning to find so -lucrative, came to him, and asked his forgiveness. He admitted that he -had been unfair in the prosecution of the lawsuit, and urged Gutenberg -to take his old place in their firm. But Gutenberg could not be -persuaded, he preferred to work after his own fashion, and to be -responsible only to himself. - -For eight years he carried on the business of his new printing shop in -the Zum Jungen, with his brother and Conrad Humery, Syndic of Mainz, -to share the expenses and profits. Then his wife, Anna, died, and he -could not keep on with the work. His brother advised him to leave -Mainz for a time and travel. So he sold his presses and type to the -Syndic, and left Mainz. Wherever he journeyed he was received with -honor, for it was now widely known that he had invented the new art of -printing. The Elector Adolphus of Nassau invited him to enter his -service as one of his gentlemen pensioners, and paid him a generous -salary. Thus he was able to live in peace and comfort until his death -in 1468. - -Meanwhile Faust and Schoeffer had continued to print the Bible and -other works, and had found a prosperous market in France and the -German cities. Schoeffer cast a font of Greek type, and used this in -printing a copy of Cicero's "De Officiis," which was eagerly bought by -the professors and students of the great University of Paris. But as -Faust was disposing of the last copies of this book in the French -capital he was seized with the plague, and died almost immediately. -For thirty-six years Peter Schoeffer continued printing books, -making many improvements, and bringing out better and better editions -of the Bible. - -The capture of Mainz in 1462 by the Elector Adolphus of Nassau gave -the secrets of the printing press to the civilized world. Presses were -set up in Hamburg, Cologne, Strasburg, and Augsburg, two of Faust's -former workmen began printing in Paris, and the Italian cities of -Florence and Venice eagerly took up the new work. Between 1470 and -1480 twelve hundred and ninety-seven books were printed in Italy -alone, an indication of what men thought of the value of Gutenberg's -invention. - -William Caxton, an English merchant, learned the new art while he was -traveling in Germany, and when he returned home started a press at -Westminster with a partner named Wynken de Worde. This was the first -English press, but others were quickly set up at Oxford and York, -Canterbury, Worcester, and Norwich, and books began to appear in a -steady stream. - -The art of printing has seen great changes since Gutenberg's day. The -type is now made by machinery, inked by machinery, set and distributed -again by machinery. The letters, when once set up, are cast in plates -of entire pages, so that they can be kept for use whenever they are -wanted. Stereotyping and electrotyping have made this possible. The -Mergenthaler Linotype machine sets and casts type in the form of solid -lines. The great presses of to-day can accomplish more in twelve hours -than the presses of 1480 in as many months. - -But the great press we have is the direct descendant of the little one -that John Gutenberg built in the Zum Jungen at Mainz, and the letters -we read on the printed page are after all only another form of those -he cut out with so much patient labor on his wooden blocks in -Strasburg. Printing is one of the greatest inventions the world has -ever seen, but it had its beginning in the simple fact that a young -German polisher of gems fell to wondering how a rude playing-card had -been made. - - - - -II - -PALISSY AND HIS ENAMEL - -About 1510-1589 - - -The discovery of a long-sought enamel and the successful manufacture -of a new and beautiful type of pottery can scarcely be ranked among -the great inventions of history, but the story of Bernard Palissy is -far too interesting to need any such excuse. He was a worker in the -fine arts, in a day when objects of beauty were considered of the -first importance, and his success was then regarded as almost as great -a thing as the building of the first McCormick reaper in another age. - -This maker of a new and beautiful porcelain was a Frenchman, born -about 1510 at the little village of La Chapelle Biron, which lies -between the Lot and Dordogne, in Perigord. His parents were poor -peasants, without the means or the opportunity to give Bernard much of -a schooling, but he picked up a very fair knowledge of reading and -writing, and kept his eyes so wide open that he learned much more than -the average country boy. It was the age when the churches of France -were being made glorious with windows of many-colored glass, and -Bernard, watching the glass-workers, dared to ask if they would take -him as apprentice. One of them would, and so the boy of Perigord began -his career of artist, his field covering not only the manufacture of -glass, but its cutting, arranging, and sometimes its painting for the -rose-windows of the Gothic churches. And so skilled were those -glass-workers and so deeply in love with their art that their glass -has been the despair of the later centuries that have tried to copy -them. - -Like a true artist he was very much in earnest. With his spare time -and such money as he could save he studied all subjects that seemed -apt to be of help to him. He learned geometry, and drawing, painting, -and modeling. In his desire for the greatest subjects for his windows -and the finest treatment of them, Bernard turned to Italy, the home of -the great painters, and copied their works. This led his eager mind to -delve into Italian literature, and shortly the young workman was not -only draughtsman and artist, but something of a man of letters as -well. The little village of La Chapelle Biron found that the peasant's -son, without any education in the church schools, was already a man of -many talents and quite remarkable learning. - -He had mastered his profession, and the town in Perigord was somewhat -too small for him. He must see something of that outer world where -many others were making works of art. His skill as a painter of glass, -as a draughtsman, and land-measurer, would earn him a living wherever -he might go. So he set forth on his travels, as many young scholars -and artisans were used to do in those days, working here and there, -collecting new ideas, talking with many men of different minds, and -gaining a first-hand knowledge of the world that lay about him. He -visited the chief provinces of France, saw something of Burgundy and -Flanders, and stayed for a time on the banks of the Rhine. His love of -acquiring knowledge grew as he traveled, and he studied natural -history, geology and chemistry. Where churches were being built he -painted glass, where towns or nobles needed measurers or surveyors of -their lands he worked for them. When he had seen as much of the world -as he wished, he went to the town of Saintes, married, and settled -there as a man of several trades. - -It was in 1539 that Palissy became a citizen of Saintes, and several -years later that chance sent his way a beautiful cup of enameled -pottery. Some have said that the cup came from Italy, and some from -Nuremberg, but it was of a new pattern to Palissy, and the more he -looked at it and handled it the more he wanted to learn the secret of -its making, and duplicate it or improve on it. He had the artist's -wish to create something beautiful, and with it was the belief that he -could provide well for his wife and children, and raise the potter's -art to a new height if he could learn the secret of this enamel. That -thought became his lodestone, and he left all his other work to -accomplish it. Much as he knew about glass, he knew nothing about -enamel. He had no notion of the materials he should need, nor how he -was to combine them. He started to make earthen vessels without -knowing how other men had made them. He knew that he should need a -furnace, and so he built one, although he had never seen a furnace -fired. - -The attempt seemed foolhardy from the start. What he had saved he -spent in his attempts to find the right materials. Soon his savings -were gone, and he had to look about for a new means of living. A -survey and plan of the great salt-marshes of Saintonge was wanted in -1543, and Palissy obtained the work. He finished it, was paid the -stipulated sum, and immediately spent it in fresh experiments to find -the coveted enamel. But he could not find it. One experiment after -another ended in rebuff. He labored day and night, and the result of -all his labors was the same. But the desire to find that enamel had -possessed Palissy's mind, and it was not a mind to veer or change. - -The man was beset by friends who told him he was mad to continue the -chase, and that his undoubted talents in other lines were being -wasted. He was implored, reproached, and belabored by his wife, who -begged him to leave his furnace, and turn to work that would feed and -clothe his growing family. He might well have seemed a fanatic, he -might well have seemed distraught and cruel to his family, but he met -each protest with a simple frankness that disarmed all attacks and -showed his indomitable purpose. Those were days of intense suffering -for Palissy, and later he described them in his own writings in a way -that showed his real depth of feeling and his constant struggle -against what he held to be temptations. - -He borrowed money to build a new furnace, and when this was done he -lived by it, trying one combination of materials after another in his -search for the secret of the enamel. Those were superstitious days, -and some of his more ignorant neighbors thought that Bernard Palissy -must be in league with the devil, since he spent day and night feeding -fuel to his furnace, and sending a great volume of smoke and sparks -into the air. Some said he was an alchemist trying to turn base metals -into gold, some that he was discovering new poisons, some frankly -believed that his learning had turned his mind and made him mad. They -were all certain of one thing, and that was that his great fires were -providing very ill for his family, who became in time a charge on the -town's charity. - -For sixteen years Palissy experimented. For sixteen years he had to -resist the reproaches of wife and children, and the threats of -neighbors. That was an epic struggle, well worth the recording. We can -picture the little mediaeval town, surrounded by its salt marshes, the -prosperous burghers, and the strange man, Bernard Palissy, at whom all -others scoffed, whose children played in the streets in rags and -tatters, but who, himself, was always working at his furnace with -demoniac zeal. "Too much learning," says one burgher, shaking his -head. "What business had a simple glass-worker to study those texts -out of Italy?" "Seeking for more learning than other folk have is apt -to league one with the Evil One," says number two. "Bernard has sold -his soul. He will fall in his furnace some day, and go up in smoke." -"Nay," says the third burgher, "he will live forever, to bring shame -to our town of Saintes. He is like one of those plagues the priests -tell us of." And he crosses himself devoutly. - -[Illustration: PALISSY, THE POTTER, AFTER AN UNSUCCESSFUL -EXPERIMENT] - -But Palissy cared for nothing but to learn that secret. At first he -had had a workman to help him; now he let him go. He had no money to -pay him, and so gave him all his clothes except those he had on. He -knew his family were starving, and he dared not go out into the -streets for fear of the maledictions of his neighbors. But he fed that -furnace and he melted his different compositions. When he could get no -other fuel he turned to the scant furnishings of his house. He burned -his bed and chairs, his table, and everything that was made of wood. -He felt that he was now on the verge of his discovery; but he must -have more fire. He tore strips of board from the walls, and piled them -in the furnace. Still he needed more heat, and ran out into the yard -behind his dwelling. There were sticks that supported vines, and a -fence that ran between his land and the next. He took the wood of the -fence, the sticks of the vines, and hurried back with them to the -furnace. He threw them on the blaze, he bent over his composition, and -he found the secret answered for him. After sixteen years he learned -how to make that rare enamel. - -It was a glorious achievement, and it brought Palissy fame and -fortune. With his new knowledge he had soon fashioned pottery, -decorated with rustic scenes, and exquisitely enameled, that all -lovers of works of art desired at any price. The first pieces of his -rustic pottery soon reached the court of France, and Henry II and his -nobles ordered vases and figures from him to ornament the gardens of -their chateaux. Catherine de' Medici became his patron, and the -powerful Constable de Montmorenci sent to Saintes for Palissy to -decorate his chateau at Ecouen. Fragments of this work have been -preserved, exquisite painted tiles, and also painted glass, setting -forth the story of Psyche, which Palissy prepared for the chateau. - -The people of Saintes now found that their madman, instead of bringing -obloquy upon their town, was to bring it fame. The Reformation had -made many Protestants in that part of France, and Palissy was one of -them. But when the Parliament of Bordeaux, in 1562, ordered the -execution of the edict of 1559, that had been directed against the -Protestants, the Catholic Duke of Montpensier gave him a special -safeguard, and ordered that his porcelain factory should be exempted -from the general proscription. Party feeling ran very high, however, -and in spite of the Duke's safeguard Palissy was arrested, his -workshop ordered destroyed by the judges at Saintes, and the King -himself had to send a special messenger to the town and claim that -Palissy was his own servant, in order to save his life. The royal -family, in spite of their many faults, were sincere lovers of -beautiful workmanship, and they summoned Palissy to Paris, where they -could insure his safety. Catherine de' Medici gave him a site for his -workshop on a part of the ground where the Palace of the Tuilleries -stood later, and used often to visit him and talk with him about his -art. He made the finest pieces of his porcelain here in Paris. Here he -also resumed his earlier studies, and came to lecture on natural -history and physics to all the great scholars of the day. When the -massacre of St. Bartholomew's Eve deluged France with the blood of -Protestants Catherine saw that Palissy was spared from the general -destruction. - -Palissy had shown the inborn courage of his nature during those -sixteen lean years in Saintes. The perilous ups and downs of life in -sixteenth century France were to show that courage in another light. -In spite of royal favor the Catholic League reached for him, and in -1588, when he was nearly eighty years old, he was arrested by order of -the Sixteen, thrown into the Bastille, and threatened with death. -Henry III, son of Catherine, and in his own way a friend of artists, -went to see Palissy in prison. "My good friend," said the King, "you -have now been five and forty years in the service of my mother and -myself; we have allowed you to retain your religion in the midst of -fire and slaughter. Now I am so pressed by the Guises and my own -people that _I am constrained_ to deliver you up into the hands of -your enemies, and to-morrow you will be burned unless you are -converted." - -"Sire," answered the old man, "I am ready to resign my life for the -glory of God. You have told me several times that you pity me, and I, -in my turn, pity you, who have used the words _I am constrained_. It -was not spoken like a king, sire; and these are words which neither -you nor those who constrain you, the Guisards and all your people, -will ever be able to make me utter, for I know how to die." - -The King, however, admiring Palissy's talents, and remembering his -mother's fondness for the artist, would not give him up to the party -of the League. Instead he let him remain in his dungeon in the -Bastille, where he died in 1589. - -The maker of Palissy ware, as it is called, had many talents, and -among them was that of the writer. During his days in prison he busied -himself in penning his philosophic, religious, and artistic -meditations, as many other illustrious prisoners have done. His -autobiography is curious, and its note of sincerity has given it great -value as a human document. Says Lamartine of the writings of Palissy, -they are "real treasures of human wisdom, divine piety, and eminent -genius, as well as of great simplicity, vigor, and copiousness of -style. It is impossible, after reading them, not to consider the poor -potter one of the greatest writers of the French language. Montaigne -is not more free and flowing, Jean-Jacques Rousseau is scarcely more -graphic; neither does Bossuet excel him in poetical power." - -But Palissy did not explain his art of enamel in detail in any of his -writings, and after the death of his brothers or nephews, who -succeeded to his work, the secret of Palissy ware, like that of -certain other arts of the Renaissance, was lost. - -Palissy did not decorate his porcelain with flat painting. His -figures, which usually dealt with historical, mythological, or -allegorical subjects, were executed in relief, and colored. These -colors were bright, and were generally yellows, blues, and grays, -although sometimes he used greens, violets, and browns. He never -acquired the pure white enamel of Luca della Robbia, nor that of the -faience of Nevers. His enamel is hard, but the glaze is not so fine -as that of Delft. The back of his ware is never all the same color, -but usually mottled with several colors, often yellow, blue, and -brown. - -Palissy's studies in natural history helped him when he came to -decorate his pottery. The figures are strikingly true in form and -color, and seem to have been moulded directly from nature, as they -probably were. Thus the fossil shells which he frequently used in his -border decorations are the shells found in the Paris basin, his fish -are those of the Seine, his plants, usually the watercress, the hart's -tongue, and the maidenhair fern, are those which he found in the -country about Paris. His rustic scenes have that same charm of -fidelity to nature. - -He also made very beautiful tiles to overlay walls, stoves, and -floors. The chateau at Ecouen has a large room entirely paved with -them, and many are to be seen in the chapel. They bear heraldic -designs, the devices of the Constable de Montmorenci, and the colors -are fresh and bright, due to the artist's unique method of enameling. - -Like so many Renaissance artists Palissy tried his skill in many -lines. If his most remarkable work was his "rustic pieces," as they -are called, great dishes ornamented with fishes, reptiles, frogs, -shells, and plants in relief, intended to be used as ornaments and not -for service, scarcely less interesting were his statuettes, his stands -for fountains, his "rustic figures" for gardens, his candlesticks, -ewers and basins, saltcellars, ink-stands, and baskets. Large -collections of his work are to be found in the Louvre, the Hotel de -Cluny, and at Sevres. Many pieces have strayed into the hands of great -private collectors of rare porcelain, and both England and Russia have -many fine examples of his masterpieces. - -He had two assistants, either brothers or nephews, and they knew the -secret of his process. They had worked with him, and they continued -his art into the reign of Henry IV. One of their productions shows -that king surrounded by his family. But these successors had not the -artistic instinct or touch of the master. They had little originality, -and speedily became servile copyists, so that Palissy ware for a time -lost the high place it had held. But these successors did not hand on -the secret, and when no more of the ware was forthcoming good judges -of the potter's art found it easy to distinguish between the work of -Bernard and of his followers, and his own porcelain was again -enthroned among the greatest productions of French art. Connoisseurs -of to-day find it easy to know real Palissy ware. - -Such is the story of a great artist of the Renaissance in France, of a -man born with the love of beauty, who found a new way of giving the -world delight, and who overcame what seemed almost superhuman trials. - - - - -III - -GALILEO AND THE TELESCOPE - -1564-1642 - - -Three days before the death of the great Italian Michael Angelo, in -the year 1564, there was born in Pisa a boy who was given the name of -Galileo Galilei, and who was destined to become one of the greatest -philosophers and inventors the world has ever known. He came of a -noble family of Florence, which had originally borne the name of -Bonajuti, but had later changed it to that of Galilei, and he is -usually known by his baptismal name of Galileo, according to the -Italian custom of that age. His father was a merchant, engaged in -business in Pisa, a man well versed in the Latin and Greek tongues, -and well known for his knowledge of mathematics. He was anxious that -each of his three sons should have a good education, and so he sent -Galileo, his eldest boy, to the famous monastery of Vallombrosa, -situated in a beautiful wooded valley not far from Florence. But the -father did not intend his son to become a priest, and so, when he -found his thoughts tending in that direction, he took him away from -the monastery, planning to make him a merchant like himself. - -But the mind of the young Galileo was already remarkably acute. He was -a good musician, a skilful draughtsman and painter, something of a -poet, and had shown considerable talent in designing and building a -variety of toy machines. His father soon decided that his son's bent -did not lie in the direction of a dealer in cloths, and, casting about -for a scientific career, chose that of medicine for Galileo. So he -took up this study at the University of Pisa. - -One afternoon the youth of eighteen went to the great Cathedral of the -city. He knelt to make his devotions. From the roof of the nave hung a -large bronze lamp, and as the boy watched he saw an attendant draw the -lamp toward him to light it, and then let it swing back again. The -swinging caught his attention, and he watched it with more and more -interest. At first the arc of the swinging lamp was wide, but -gradually it grew less and less. But what struck him as singular was -that the oscillations all seemed to be made in the same time. He had -no watch, so he put his fingers on his wrist in order to note the -pulse-beats. As nearly as he could determine the swings of the lamp as -they lessened were keeping the same times. - -When he went home he began to experiment with this idea of the -swinging lamp, or pendulum as it came to be called, and soon had -constructed an instrument which marked with very fair accuracy the -rate and variation of the pulse-beats. It was imperfect in many -respects, but when he showed it to his teachers at the university they -were delighted with it, and it was soon generally used by the -physicians of the day under the name of the Pulsilogia. - -But, to his father's dismay, the young Galileo did not show great -interest in the study of medicine. Instead he spent his time studying -the mathematics of Euclid, and from them went on to the writings of -Archimedes and the laws of mechanics. These latter absorbed him, and -fresh from reading them he constructed for himself a hydrostatic -balance, the purpose of which was to ascertain accurately the relative -proportions of any two metals in an alloy. He wrote an essay on his -invention, and circulated it among his friends and teachers. This -added to his reputation as a scientist, but brought him no money. His -family were poor, and he needed a means of support, and so he applied -for, and after a time obtained, appointment to the post of Professor -of Mathematics at the University of Pisa. - -For centuries the laws of mechanics as laid down by the Greek -Aristotle had been accepted without much dispute by the civilized -world. But a spirit of new thought and investigation was now rising in -Europe, and more especially in Italy. Galileo determined to study the -laws of mechanics by experiment, and not, as so many earlier -scientists had done, by argument or mere theoretical opinions. -Therefore he undertook to establish definitely the laws relating to -falling bodies. - -Aristotle, almost two thousand years before, had announced that if two -bodies of different weights were dropped from the same height the -heavier would reach the ground sooner than the lighter, according to -the proportion of their weights. Galileo doubted this, and decided to -try it. Accordingly he assembled the teachers and students of the -university one morning about the base of the famous Leaning Tower of -Pisa. He himself climbed to the top, carrying with him a ten-pound -shot and a one-pound shot. He balanced them on the edge of the tower -and let them fall together. They struck the ground together. As a -result of this experiment Galileo declared three laws in relation to -falling bodies. He said that if one neglected the resistance of the -air, or in other words supposed the bodies to fall through a vacuum, -it would be found, first, that all bodies fall from the same height in -equal times; second, that in falling the final velocities are -proportional to the times; and third, that the spaces fallen through -are proportional to the squares of the times. - -The first of these laws was shown by his experiment on the Leaning -Tower. To show the others he built a straight inclined plane with a -groove down its centre. A bronze ball was free to move in the groove -with the least possible friction. By means of this he showed that no -matter how much he inclined the plane, and so changed the time, the -ball would always move down it according to the laws he had stated. - -But in disproving the accuracy of the old laws of Aristotle the young -scientist had raised a hornet's nest about his ears. The men of the -old school would not believe him, a conspiracy was set on foot against -him, and finally the criticism of his new teachings grew so severe -that he was forced to resign his position, and move to Florence. - -In spite of his wide-spread reputation no school or university was -ready to welcome the young scientist. He was known as a man of a very -original turn of mind, and therefore one who would be apt to clash -with those who clung to their belief in the old order of thought. At -last, however, he succeeded in obtaining the chair of Professor of -Mathematics at the University of Padua, then one of the greatest seats -of learning in Italy. Here again he showed the great scope of his -knowledge, and wrote on military architecture and fortifications, the -laws of motion, of the sphere, and various branches of mechanics. He -invented a machine for raising water, and was granted a patent which -secured him his rights in it for twenty years, and he also produced -what he called his Geometrical and Military Compass, but what was -later commonly known as the Sector. - -Galileo's fame as a teacher had now spread widely throughout Europe, -and students began to flock to Padua to study under him. He had a -large house, where a number of his private pupils lived with him, a -garden, in which he delighted, and a workshop. Here he experimented on -his next invention, that of the air thermometer. One of his friends, -Castelli, wrote of this in a letter many years later, dated 1638. "I -remember," he writes, "an experiment which our Signor Galileo had -shown me more than thirty-five years ago. He took a small glass bottle -about the size of a hen's egg, the neck of which was two palms long, -and as narrow as a straw. Having well heated the bulb in his hand, he -inserted its mouth in a vessel containing a little water, and, -withdrawing the heat of his hand from the bulb, instantly the water -rose in the neck more than a palm above its level in the vessel. It -is thus that he constructed an instrument for measuring the degrees of -heat and cold." - -In 1604 the attention of all the astronomers of Europe was attracted -by a new star which suddenly appeared in the constellation -Serpentarius. Galileo studied it, and shortly began to lecture on the -comparatively new science of astronomy. Formerly he had taught the old -system of Aristotle to his classes, now, after a searching -investigation, he declared his belief in the contrary conclusions of -Copernicus. This study led him on and on. He became interested in the -magnetic needle, and its use as a compass in navigation. Columbus' -discovery of its changing its position according to its relation to -the North Pole took place on his first voyage to America, and reports -of this had reached Padua. All educated men were rousing to the fact -that the age was fertile with new discoveries in every branch of -knowledge, and Galileo and those who were working with him gave eager -heed to each month's batch of news. - -Mere chance is said to have brought about the making of the first -telescope. The story goes that an apprentice of Hans Lipperhey, an -optician of Middleburg, in Holland, was, one day in October, 1608, -playing with some spectacle lenses in his master's shop. He noticed -that by holding two of the lenses in a certain position he obtained a -large and inverted view of whatever he looked at. He told Master Hans -about this, and the optician fixed two lenses in a tube, and looking -at the weathercock on a neighboring steeple saw that it seemed much -nearer and to be upside down. He hung the tube in his shop as a -curious toy, and one day the Marquis Spinola examined it and bought it -to present to Prince Maurice of Nassau. Soon a number of Hans -Lipperhey's scientific neighbors were trying to make copies of his -tube, and before very long reports of it were carried to Italy. The -news reached Galileo while on a visit to Venice in June, 1609. This is -his account of what followed, taken from a letter written to his -brother-in-law Landucci, and dated August 29, 1609. - -[Illustration: GALILEO'S TELESCOPE] - -"You must know then that about two months ago a report was spread here -that in Flanders a spy-glass had been presented to Prince Maurice, so -ingeniously constructed that it made the most distant objects appear -quite near, so that a man could be seen quite plainly at a distance of -two miles. This result seemed to me so extraordinary that it set me -thinking, and as it appeared to me that it depended upon the laws of -perspective, I reflected on the manner of constructing it, and was at -length so entirely successful that I made a spy-glass which far -surpasses the report of the Flanders one. As the news had reached -Venice that I had made such an instrument, six days ago I was summoned -before their Highnesses, the Signoria, and exhibited it to them, to -the astonishment of the whole senate. Many of the nobles and senators, -although of a great age, mounted more than once to the top of the -highest church tower in Venice, in order to see sails and shipping -that were so far off that it was two hours before they were seen, -without my spy-glass, steering full sail into the harbor; for the -effect of my instrument is such that it makes an object fifty miles -off appear as large as if it were only five. - -"Perceiving of what great utility such an instrument would prove in -naval and military operations, and seeing that His Serenity the Doge -desired to possess it, I resolved on the 24th inst. to go to the -palace and present it as a free gift." So Galileo did, and as a result -the senate elected him to the Professorship at Padua for life, with a -salary of one thousand florins yearly. - -But what were Galileo's claims to the invention of this great -instrument? Here is what he wrote in 1623. "Perhaps it may be said -that no great credit is due for the making of an instrument, or the -solution of a problem, when one is told beforehand that the instrument -exists, or that the problem is solvable. It may be said that the -certitude of the existence of such a glass aided me, and that without -this knowledge I would never have succeeded. To this I reply, the help -which the information gave me consisted in exciting my thoughts in a -particular direction, and without that, it is possible they may never -have been directed that way; but that such information made the act of -invention easier to me I deny, and I say more--to find the solution of -a definite problem requires a greater effort of genius than to resolve -one not specified; for in the latter case hazard, chance, may play the -greater part, while in the former all is the work of the reasoning and -intelligent mind. Thus, we are certain that the Dutchman, the first -inventor of the telescope, was a simple spectacle-maker, who, handling -by chance different forms of glasses, looked, also by chance, through -two of them, one convex and the other concave, held at different -distances from the eye; saw and noted the unexpected result; and thus -found the instrument. On the other hand, I, on the simple information -of the effect obtained, discovered the same instrument, not by chance, -but by the way of pure reasoning. Here are the steps: the artifice of -the instrument depends either on one glass or on several. It cannot -depend on one, for that must be either convex, or concave, or plain. -The last form neither augments nor diminishes visible objects; the -concave diminishes them, the convex increases them, but both show them -blurred and indistinct. Passing then to the combination of two -glasses, and knowing that glasses with plain surfaces change nothing, -I concluded that the effect could not be produced by combining a plain -glass with a convex or a concave one; I was thus left with the two -other kinds of glasses, and after a few experiments I saw how the -effect sought could be produced. Such was the march of my discovery, -in which I was not assisted in any way by the knowledge that the -conclusion at which I aimed was a verity." - -The telescope that Galileo presented to the Doge of Venice, and which -was later lost, consisted of a tube of lead, with what is called a -plano-concave eye-glass and a plano-convex object glass, and had a -magnifying power of three diameters, which made objects look three -times nearer than they actually were, and as a result nine times -larger. The tube was about seventy centimeters long and about -forty-five millimeters in diameter. It was first used in public from -the top of the campanile in the piazza at Venice on August 21, 1609, -and the most distant object that could be seen through it was the -campanile of the church of San Giustina in Padua, about thirty-five -kilometers away. - -As soon as Galileo returned to his home in Padua he busied himself -with improving his invention. First he constructed a new telescope, -which as he said "made objects appear more than sixty times larger." -Soon he had a still better one, which enlarged four hundred times. He -used this to examine the moon, and said that it brought that body "to -a distance of less than three semi-diameters of the earth, thus making -it appear about twenty times nearer and four hundred times larger than -when seen by the unaided eye." To use the instrument more accurately -he built a support which held it firmly. He had also now learned to -make the lenses adjustable, by fixing the tubes that held them so that -they could be drawn out of, or pushed into the main tube of the -telescope. To see objects not very far distant very clearly he would -push the glasses a little way apart, and to see things very far -distant he drew the glasses together. - -But this last telescope did not altogether satisfy him, and so he -built a still larger one. This brought objects more than thirty times -closer and showed them almost a thousand times larger in size. With -this he discovered the moons of Jupiter, and some of the fixed stars, -and added much to what was already known concerning the Milky Way, a -region of the sky which had long been a puzzle to astronomers. - -He spent a great part of his time now in his workshop, making and -grinding glasses. They were expensive and very difficult to prepare -properly. Out of more than one hundred that he ground at first he -found only ten that would show him the newly found moons of Jupiter. -The object glasses were the more difficult, for it was this glass -which had to bring to a focus as accurately as possible all the rays -of light that passed into the telescope. - -As the voyage of Columbus had brought a new world in the western ocean -to the notice of Europe, so Galileo's discoveries with his telescope -brought forth a new world in the skies. Galileo wrote out statements -of his discoveries, and sent these, with his new telescopes, to the -princes and learned men of Italy, France, Flanders, and Germany. At -all the courts and universities the telescopes were received with the -greatest enthusiasm, and put to instant use in the hope of discovering -new stars. But again the followers of Aristotle, those who were -unwilling to admit that anything new could be learned about the laws -of nature or the universe, arose in wrath. They attacked Galileo and -his discoveries. They would not admit that Jupiter had four attendant -moons, although these satellites could be seen by any one through the -telescope, and a little later, when Galileo stated that the planet -Saturn was composed of three stars which touched each other (later -found to be one planet with two rings) they rose up to denounce him. -But as yet these protests against the discoverer had little effect. -Europe was too much interested in what he was showing it to realize -how deeply he might affect men's views of the universe. - -Fame was now safely his. Men came from all parts of Europe to study -under this wonderful professor of Padua. But teaching gave him too -little time to carry on his own researches. So he looked about for -some other position that would give him greater leisure, and finally -stated his wishes to Cosimo II, Duke of Florence. Galileo had named -the satellites of Jupiter after the house of Medici, to which this -Duke belonged, and Cosimo was much flattered at the compliment. As a -result he was soon after made First Mathematician of the University of -Pisa, and also Philosopher and Mathematician to the Grand Duke's Court -of Florence. - -Settled at last at Florence his work as an astronomer steadily went -forward. He discovered that the planet Venus had a varying crescent -form, that there were small spots circling across the face of the sun, -which he called sun-spots, and later that there were mountains on the -moon. He also visited Rome, where he was received with the greatest -good-will by Pope Paul V and his cardinals, and where he met the -leading scientists of the capital. - -But Galileo's course was no less flecked with light and shade than -were the sun and moon he studied. The envy of rivals soon spread false -reports about him, and the professors at Pisa refused to accept the -results of his studies. Then one of the latter stirred the religious -scruples of the Dowager Grand Duchess by telling her that Galileo's -conclusion that the earth had a double motion must be wrong, since it -was opposed to the statements of the Bible. Galileo heard of this, and -wrote a letter in reply, in which he said that in studying the laws of -nature men must start with what they could prove by experiments -instead of relying wholly on the Scriptures. This was enough to set -the machinery of his enemies in motion. Galileo's teachings were -pointed out as dangerous to the teachings of the Church, and the -officers of the Inquisition began to consider how they might best deal -with him. Certain of his writings were declared false and prohibited, -and he was admonished that he must follow certain lines in his -teachings. He went to Rome himself, and saw the Pope again, but found -that his friends were fewer and his enemies growing more powerful. - -The theory of Copernicus that the earth and planets are in constant -motion was the very foundation of Galileo's scientific studies, and -yet the order of the Church now forbade him to use this theory. He -went back to Florence out of health and despondent. His old students -were falling away from him through fear of the Pope's displeasure, and -he was left much alone. But his thirst for knowledge would not let him -rest. He took up his residence in the fine old Torre del Gallo, which -looks down on Florence and the river Arno, and went on with his work. -He wrote out the results of his discoveries, and made a microscope -from a model he had seen. Soon he had greatly improved upon his model, -and had an instrument, which, as he said, "magnifies things as much as -50,000 times, so that one sees a fly as large as a hen." He sent -copies to some friends, and shortly his microscopes were as much in -demand as his telescopes had been. - -In 1632 he published what he called "The Dialogues of Galileo -Galilei." This divided the world of Italy into two camps, the one -those who believed in Aristotle and the old learning, the other those -who followed Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. The Jesuits took up the -gage he had thrown down, and Galileo found the Church of Rome arrayed -against him. The sale of his book was forbidden, a commission was -appointed to bring charges against him, and he was ordered to go to -Rome for trial. The commission reported that Galileo had disobeyed the -Church's orders by maintaining that the earth moves and that the sun -is stationary, that he had wrongly declared that the movements of the -tides were due to the sun's stability and the motion of the earth, and -that he had failed to give up his old beliefs in regard to the sun and -the earth as he had been commanded. - -Galileo, although he was ill, went to Rome, and was placed on trial -before the Inquisition. After weeks of weary waiting and long -examinations he was ordered to take a solemn oath, forswearing his -belief in his own writings and rejecting the conclusion that the sun -was stationary and that the earth moved. Rather than suffer the pains -of the Inquisition he agreed, and made his solemn declaration. -According to an old story, now discredited, as he rose from his knees -after the ceremony he whispered to a friend "_Eppur si muove_" (It -does move, nevertheless). Whether he said this or not there can be no -doubt but that the great astronomer knew the performance was a farce, -and that the world did move in spite of all the Inquisition could -declare. - -The Inquisition did its work ruthlessly. Notices of the sentence -prohibiting the reading of Galileo's book and ordering all copies of -it to be surrendered, and copies of the declaration he had made -denying his former teachings, were sent to all the courts of Europe -and to many of the universities. In Padua the documents were read to -teachers and students at the university where for so many years -Galileo had been the greatest glory of learning, and in Florence the -Inquisitor read the sentence publicly in the church of Santa Croce, -notices having been sent to all who were known to be friends or -followers of Galileo, ordering them to attend. Thus his humiliation -was spread broadcast, and in addition he was ordered to be held at -Rome as a prisoner. - -After a time he was permitted to go on parole to the city of Siena, -which was at least nearer his home outside Florence. There he stayed -until the Grand Duke Cosimo, who had stood by him, persuaded the -Church that Galileo's health required that he be allowed to join his -friends. At last he reached his home, and again took up his studies. -His eyesight was failing, and eventually he became entirely blind, but -meanwhile his speculations covered the widest fields of science, he -studied the laws of motion and equilibrium, the velocity of light, the -problems of the vacuum, of the flight of projectiles, and the -mathematical theory of the parabola. He wrote another book, dealing -with two new sciences, and was busy with designs for a pendulum clock -at the time of his death in 1642. He was buried in the church of Santa -Croce, the Pantheon of Florence, under the same roof with his great -fellow countryman, Michael Angelo. - -What is known as the modern refracting telescope is based upon a -different combination of lenses than that used by Galileo. Kepler -studied Galileo's instrument, and then designed one consisting of two -convex lenses. The modern telescope follows Kepler's arrangement, but -Galileo's adjustment is still suitable where only low magnifying -powers are needed, and is used to-day in the ordinary field- and -opera-glass. - -Galileo knew nothing of what we call the reflecting telescope. He -found that by using a convex-lens as an object-glass he could bring -the rays of light from any distant object to a focus, and it did not -apparently occur to him that he could achieve the same end by the use -of a concave mirror. James Gregory, a Scotchman, designed the first -reflector in 1663, and described it in a book, but he was too poor to -construct it. Nine years later Sir Isaac Newton, having studied -Gregory's plans, built the first reflecting telescope, which is now to -be seen in the hall of the Royal Society in London. But invention has -gone yet farther in perfecting these instruments with which to study -the skies, and the great telescopes of modern times have in most -instances discarded Newton's reflector for the refracting instrument. -And these are built on a tremendous scale. The Yerkes telescope at -Williams Bay, Wisconsin, has a refractor of forty inches, and the one -built for the Paris Exposition of 1900, one of fifty inches. In -numerous other details they have changed, and yet each is chiefly -indebted to that simple spy-glass of Galileo, by which he was able to -show the nobles and senators of Venice full-rigged ships, which -without it were barely distant specks on the horizon. Or, going still -farther back, the men who make our present telescopes are following -the trail that was first blazed on the day when the Dutch apprentice -of Middleburg chanced to pick up two spectacle lenses and look through -the two of them at once. - -Galileo made many great discoveries and inventions; there was hardly a -field of science that he did not enter and explore; but his greatest -work was to open a new world to men's attention. It was this that -brought him before the Inquisition and that branded him as a dangerous -heretic, and it was this that placed him in the forefront of the -world's discoverers. Men might say that the earth stood still, because -it suited them best to believe so, but Galileo gave the world an -instrument by which it could study the matter for itself, and the -world has gone on using that instrument and that method ever since. - - - - -IV - -WATT AND THE STEAM-ENGINE - -1736-1819 - - -It was no pressing need that drove John Gutenberg to the invention of -his printing press, nor was it necessity that led to Galileo's -discovery of the telescope, but it was a very urgent demand that led -to the building of a steam-engine by James Watt. England and Scotland -found that men and women, even with the aid of horses, could not work -the coal mines as they must be worked if the countries were to be kept -supplied with fuel. The small mines were used up, the larger ones must -be deepened, and in that event it would be too long and arduous a task -for men and women to raise the coal in small baskets, or for horses to -draw it out by the windlass. A machine must be constructed that would -do the work more quickly, more easily, and more cheaply. - -A Frenchman named Denys Papin had built the first steam-engine with a -piston. He had seen certain experiments that showed him how much -strength there was in compressed air. He had noticed that air pressure -could lift several men off their feet. His problem therefore was how -best to compress the air, or, as it appeared to him, how to secure a -vacuum. His experiments proved that he could do this by the use of -steam. He took a simple cylinder and fitted a piston into it. Water -was put in the cylinder under the piston, a fire was lighted beneath -it, and as the water came to the boiling point the piston was forced -upward by the steam. Then the fire was taken away, and as the steam in -the cylinder condensed, the piston was forced down by the air pressure -above. He fastened the upper end of the piston to a rope, which passed -over two pulleys. If a weight were hung to the other end of the rope -it would be raised as the piston was forced down. In that way the air -pressure did the work of lifting the weight, and the necessary vacuum -was obtained by forming steam and then condensing it in the cylinder. -This was a very primitive device, requiring several minutes for the -engine to make one stroke, but it was the beginning of the practical -use of steam as a motive power. - -Thomas Newcomen, an English blacksmith by trade, first put Papin's -idea to use. Instead of the rope and pulleys Newcomen fastened a -walking-beam to the end of the piston, and attached a pump-rod to the -other end of the walking-beam. He used the steam in the cylinder only -to balance the pressure of the air on the piston, and let the pump-rod -descend by its own weight. As the steam condensed the piston fell, and -the pump-rod rose again. By this means he could pump water from a -mine, or lift coal. His first engine was able to lift fifty gallons of -water fifty yards at each stroke, and could make twelve strokes a -minute. At first he condensed his steam by throwing cold water on the -outside of the cylinder, but one day he discovered that the engine -suddenly increased its speed, and he found that a hole had been worn -in the cylinder, and that the water with which he had covered the top -of the piston was entering through this hole. This condensed the steam -more rapidly, and he adopted it as an improvement in his next engine. -A little later a boy named Humphrey Potter, who had charge of turning -the cocks that let the water and steam into the cylinder, found a way -of tying strings to the cocks so that the engine would turn them -itself, and so originated what came to be known as valve-gear. - -Newcomen's engine was a great help to the coal mines of England and -Scotland, but it was very expensive to run, a large engine consuming -no less than twenty-eight pounds of coal per hour per horse-power. -Then it happened that in 1764 a small Newcomen engine that belonged to -the University of Glasgow was given to James Watt, an instrument-maker -at the university, to be repaired. To do this properly he made a study -of all that had been discovered in regard to engines, and then set -about to construct one for himself. - -There are many stories told of the boyhood of James Watt. He lived at -Greenock on the River Clyde in Scotland, and was of a quiet, almost -shy disposition, and delicate in health. He was fond of drawing and of -studying mechanical problems, but rarely had much to say about his -studies. The story goes that as he sat one evening at the tea-table -with his aunt, Mrs. Muirhead, she said reprovingly to him, "James -Watt, I never saw such an idle boy: take a book or employ yourself -usefully; for the last hour you haven't spoken a word, but taken -off the lid of that kettle and put it on again, holding a cup or a -silver spoon over the steam, watching it rise from the spout, and -catching the drops it falls into. Aren't you ashamed of spending your -time in this way?" And history goes on to presume that as the boy -watched the bubbling kettle he was studying the laws of steam and -making ready to put them to good use some day. - -[Illustration: WATT FIRST TESTS THE POWER OF STEAM] - -He picked out the trade of a maker of mathematical instruments, and -went to London to fit himself for it. He was apprenticed to a good -master and made rapid progress, but the climate of London was bad for -his health, and as soon as his term of instruction was finished he -went back to Scotland. There he found it difficult to get employment, -but at last he obtained permission to open a small shop in the -grounds of the University of Glasgow, and to call himself -"Mathematical-instrument-maker to the University." - -When the Newcomen engine was given to Watt to repair he studied it -closely, and soon reached an important conclusion. A great amount of -heat was lost whenever the cold water was let into the cylinder to -condense the steam, and this loss vastly increased the expense of -running the engine, and cut down its power. He saw that to prevent -this loss the cylinder must be kept as hot as the steam that entered -it. This led him to study the nature of steam, and he had soon made -some remarkable discoveries in regard to it. He found that water had a -high capacity for storing up heat, without a corresponding effect on -the thermometer. This hidden heat became known as latent heat. - -It was of course a matter of common knowledge that heat could be -obtained by the combustion of coal or wood. Watt found that heat lay -also in water, to be drawn out and used in what is called steam. If -you change the temperature of water you find that it exists in three -different states, that of a liquid, or water, that of a solid, or ice, -and that of a gas, or steam. If water were turned into steam, and two -pounds of this steam passed into ten pounds of water at the freezing -point the steam would become liquid, or water, again, at 212 deg. of -temperature, but at the same time the ten pounds of freezing water -into which the steam had been passed would also have been raised to -212 deg. by the process. This shows that the latent heat of the two pounds -of steam was sufficient to convert the ten pounds of freezing water -into boiling water. That is the latent heat which is set free to work -when the steam coming in contact with the cold changes the vapor from -its gaseous to a liquid state. The heat, however, is only latent, or -in other words of no use, until the temperature of the water is raised -to 212 deg., and the vapor rises. - -Mr. Lauder, a pupil of Lord Kelvin, writing of Watt's "Discoveries of -the Properties of Steam," describes his results in this way: "Suppose -you take a flask, such as olive oil is often sold in, and fill it with -cold water. Set it over a lighted lamp, put a thermometer in the -water, and the temperature will be observed to rise steadily till it -reaches 212 deg., where it remains, the water boils, and steam is produced -freely. Now draw the thermometer out of the water, but leaving it -still in the steam. It remains steady at the same point--212 deg. Now it -requires quite a long time and a large amount of heat to convert all -the water into steam. As the steam goes off at the same temperature as -the water, it is evident a quantity of heat has escaped in the steam, -of which the thermometer gives us no account. This is latent heat. - -"Now, if you blow the steam into cold water instead of allowing it to -pass into the air, you will find that it heats the water six times -more than what is due to its indicated temperature. To fix your idea: -suppose you take 100 lbs. of water at 60 deg., and blow one pound of steam -into it, making 101 lbs., its temperature will now be about 72 deg., a -rise of 12 deg. Return to your 100 lbs. of water at 60 deg. and add one pound -of water at 212 deg. the same temperature as the steam you added, and the -temperature will only be raised about 2 deg. The one pound of steam heats -six times more than the one pound of water, both being at the same -temperature. This is the quantity of latent heat, which means simply -hidden heat, in steam. - -"Proceeding further with the experiment, if, instead of allowing the -steam to blow into the water, you confine it until it gets to some -pressure, then blow it into the water, it takes the same weight to -raise the temperature to the same degree. This means that the total -heat remains practically the same, no matter at what pressure. - -"This is James Watt's discovery, and it led him to the use of -high-pressure steam, used expansively." - -Newcomen, in making his steam-engine, had simply made additions to -Papin's model. Watt had already done much more, for in trying to find -how the engine might be made of greater service he had discovered at -the outset the principle of the latent heat of steam. He knew that in -Newcomen's engine four-fifths of all the steam used was lost in -heating the cold cylinder, and that only one-fifth was actually used -in moving the piston. It was easy to see how this loss occurred. The -cylinder was cooled at the top because it was open to the air, and was -cooled at the bottom in condensing the steam that had driven the -piston up so as to create a vacuum which would lower the piston for -another stroke. Watt knew that what he wanted was a plan by which the -cylinder could always be kept as hot as the steam that went into it. -How was he to obtain this? He solved it by the invention of the -"separate condenser." This is how he tells of his discovery. "I had -gone to take a walk on a fine Sabbath afternoon, early in 1765. I had -entered the green by the gate at the foot of Charlotte Street and had -passed the old washing-house, when the idea came into my mind that as -steam was an elastic body it would rush into a vacuum, and if a -communication were made between the cylinder and an exhausted vessel -it would rush into it, and might be there condensed without cooling -the cylinder. I then saw that I must get rid of the condensed steam -and injection-water if I used a jet as in Newcomen's engine. Two ways -of doing this occurred to me. First, the water might be run off by a -descending pipe, if an offlet could be got at the depth of thirty-five -or thirty-six feet, and any air might be extracted by a small pump. -The second was to make the pump large enough to extract both water and -air.... I had not walked farther than the golf-house when the whole -thing was arranged in my mind." - -This was the discovery that gave us practically the modern -steam-engine, with its countless uses in unnumbered fields. Newcomen's -engine was limited to the pressure of the atmosphere, Watt's could use -the tremendous force of steam under higher and higher pressure. He led -the steam out of the cylinder and condensed it in a separate vessel, -thereby leaving the cylinder hot. He closed the cylinder top, and -prevented the loss of steam. The invention may seem simple enough as -we study it, but as a matter of fact it was the attainment of this -result of keeping the cylinder as hot as the steam that enters it that -has given us our steam-engine. - -The morning following that Sunday afternoon on which the idea of the -condenser had occurred to Watt he borrowed a brass syringe from a -college friend, and using this as a cylinder and a tin can as a -condenser tried his experiment. The scheme worked, albeit in a -primitive way, and Watt saw that he was on the track of an engine that -would revolutionize the labor of men. But he saw also that it would -take both time and money to bring his invention to its most efficient -form. - -His instrument-making business had prospered, he had taken in a -partner, and the firm now employed sixteen workmen. About the same -time he married, and rented a house outside the university grounds. -Soon he was busily at work building a working model of his -steam-engine. - -A working model was very hard to make. Watt himself was a skilful -mechanician, but the men who helped him were not. The making of the -cylinder and the piston gave him the chief trouble. The cylinder would -leak. It took him months to devise the tools that would enable him to -make a perfect-fitting cylinder, and when he had accomplished that he -still found that in one way or another a certain amount of steam would -escape. Yet, although imperfect, his model was already many times more -powerful than the Newcomen engine he had started with. - -But before very long Watt found that this work was leading him into -debt. He told his good friend Professor Black, who had discovered the -latent heat of steam before Watt had, that he needed a partner to help -him in his business of building engines. Black suggested Dr. Roebuck, -who had opened the well-known Carron Iron Works near Glasgow. The two -men met, and, after some negotiations, formed a partnership. Roebuck -agreed to pay Watt's debts to the sum of a thousand pounds, to provide -the money for further experiments, and to obtain a patent for the -steam-engine. In return for this he was to become the owner of a -two-third interest in the invention. - -It was more difficult to secure a patent in those days than in later -times, for both the courts and the public considered that the right to -make use of any new invention should belong to the whole world, and -not alone to one man or to a few men. Watt's models had to be very -carefully made, and his designs very accurately drawn if he was to -secure any real protection, and the preparation of these took a vast -amount of time. But Roebuck continued to encourage him, and on January -5, 1769, he was granted his first patent, the very same day on which -another great English inventor, Arkwright, obtained a patent for his -spinning-frame. This first patent covered Watt's invention of the -condenser, but not his next invention, which was the double-acting -engine, or in other words, a method by which the steam should do work -on the downward as well as on the upward stroke. - -With his patent secured Watt spent six months building a huge new -engine, which he had ready for use in September, 1769. In spite of all -his painstaking it was only a partial success. The cylinder had been -badly cast, the pipe-condenser did not work properly, and there was -still the old leakage of steam at the piston. Men began to doubt -whether the new engine could ever be made to accomplish what Watt -claimed for it, but although he realized the difficulties the inventor -would not allow himself to doubt. Unfortunately his way was no longer -clear. Dr. Roebuck met with reverses and had to end the partnership -agreement, and Watt had to borrow money from his old friend Professor -Black to secure his patent. To add to his distress his wife, who had -been his best counselor, died. - -Dr. Roebuck had owed money to a celebrated merchant of Birmingham -named Matthew Boulton. Boulton had heard a great deal about Watt's -engine, and now consented to take Roebuck's interest in Watt's -invention in payment of the debt. At the same time the firm of -Boulton and Watt was formed, and in May, 1774, Watt shipped his trial -engine south, and set out himself for Birmingham. - -Boulton was a business genius, and Watt now found that he could leave -financial matters entirely to his care, and busy himself solely with -his engine. He had better workmen, better appliances, and better -material in Birmingham than he had had in Glasgow, and the engine was -soon beginning to justify his hopes. But the original patent had only -been granted for fourteen years, and six of these had already passed. -Boulton was not willing to put money into the building of a great -factory until he was sure that the engines would be secured to the -firm. Therefore more time had to be spent in obtaining an extension of -the patent. This was finally done, and Watt was granted a term of -twenty-four years. At once Boulton set to work, the first engine -factory rose, and hundreds of men in England turned to Birmingham to -see how much truth there was in the wonderful stories that had been -spread abroad of the new invention. - -Men soon learned that the stories were true. Orders began to flow in, -and Watt had his hands full in traveling about the country -superintending the erection of his steam-engines. The mines of -Cornwall had become unworkable, and as a great deal depended on the -success of the engine in such work, he traveled to Cornwall to make -sure that there should be no faults. The miners, the engineers, and -the owners had gathered to see the new engine. It stood the test -splendidly, making eleven eight-foot strokes per minute, which broke -the record. After that the other mines of Great Britain discarded the -old expensive Newcomen engine, and sent in orders for Watt's. The firm -prospered, and the inventor began to feel some of the material -comforts of success. He had married a second time, and made a home for -his wife and children in Birmingham. Now, when he could spare the time -from superintending the workmen and traveling over the country, he -gave his thoughts to further inventive schemes. - -Watt had not only invented the condenser and the double-acting engine, -he had produced an indicator for measuring the pressure of steam in -the cylinder, and also what was called the fly-ball governor, which -took the place of the throttle-valve he had first used to regulate the -speed of his engines. These improvements had so increased the uses of -the engine that scores of rival inventors were abroad, and therefore -he decided to secure a second patent. This he did in 1781, the patent -being issued "for certain new methods of producing a continued -rotative motion around an axis or centre, and thereby to give motion -to the wheels of mills or other machines." The next year he secured -still another patent, and now he had so perfected his double-acting -engine that it had a regular and easily controlled motion, in -consequence of which, as he said in his specifications, "in most of -our great manufactories these engines now supply the place of water, -wind and horse mills, and instead of carrying the work to the power, -the prime agent is placed wherever it is most convenient to the -manufacturer." This meant that the steam-engine had now reached the -point where it could be made to serve for almost any purpose and -placed in almost any position that might be required. - -There was one further step for Watt to take in the development of his -invention. He wished a more powerful engine than his double-acting -one, and so he produced the "compound" engine. This was really two -engines, the cylinders and condensers of which were so connected that -the steam which had been used to press on the piston of the first -could then be used to act expansively upon the piston of the second, -and in this way the second engine be made to work either alternately -or simultaneously with the first. And this compound engine is -practically the very engine that we have to-day. Improvements have -been made, but they have been made in details. The piston-rings -invented by Cartwright have prevented the escape of steam, and so -permitted the use of a higher pressure than Watt could achieve, and -the cross-head invented by Haswell has provided the piston with a -better bed on which to rest and freed it from a certain friction. - -The firm of Boulton and Watt had a successful career, and in time the -sons of the two partners took the latters' places. Watt had occasion -to protect his patents by a suit at law, but he was victorious in -this, and by the time the patent rights had expired the firm had built -up such a large business that it was safe from rivals. Confident of -his son's ability to carry on the business Watt at length retired, to -busy himself in studying other inventions, to cultivate his garden, -and to revisit familiar scenes in his beloved Scotland. - -The steam-engine had come to take its place in the great onward march -of progress. Men were already at work planning to make it move cars -across the land and ships upon the sea. It was to revolutionize the -manufacture of almost everything; what men and women had done before -by hand it was now to do, and, devised at first because of the great -need of a new way to work the coal mines, it was to provide a motive -power to accomplish all kinds of labor. - -Such is the story of how James Watt took Newcomen's simple piston and -cylinder and so harnessed steam that he could make it do the work he -wanted. - - - - -V - -ARKWRIGHT AND THE SPINNING-JENNY - -1732-1792 - - -All the great English inventors have sprung from families of small -means, and have had to work for their living. Richard Arkwright, born -at Preston, in Lancashire, December 23, 1732, was no exception to this -rule. He was the youngest of thirteen children, and his parents were -as poor as the proverbial church mice. He had no real education, only -such as he could pick up by chance, but he made the most of such -chances as came his way. He was apprenticed to a barber at Bolton, and -later took up that business for himself. It was an occupation in which -he would be apt to glean much gossip and many stray scraps of -information, but little that would tend to broaden his mind. Perhaps -he realized this for himself, and concluded that the hairdressing line -was not to be his destiny, for when he was in the neighborhood of -twenty-eight years of age he retired from his barber-shop, and became -a traveling dealer in hair and dyes. This would at least allow him to -see something more of the world. - -His prospects at this new trade were good. He had come upon a new -method of dyeing hair and preparing it to be made into wigs. Wigs were -the fashion, and Arkwright had an excellent process, and was an -energetic and resourceful dealer. He saw something of the country -world of England, the men and women in it, what they wanted, and what -they needed. Doubtless his inventive mind was already revolving -improvements for them. The dealer in dyes and wigs was a shrewd and -canny man. Carlyle had this to say concerning him and his progress: -"Nevertheless, in stropping of razors, in shaving of dirty beards, and -the contradictions and confusions attendant thereon, the man had -notions in that rough head of his! Spindles, shuttles, wheels, and -contrivances, plying ideally within the same; rather hopeless-looking, -which, however, he did at last bring to bear. Not without difficulty." - -There is always a strain of romance, or at least adventure, in the -life of the itinerant pedlar, something of the free-footedness of the -gypsy, and something of the acumen of those Eastern traders who -traveled in caravans from the Orient. But doubtless we see the charm -more clearly than the traveler himself. It may have been, and most -likely was, a workaday job for Richard Arkwright. But consider the -romance that underlay it! This country vendor of hair was to become -one of the world's great inventors, and to kneel before his sovereign -for the accolade that was to make him knight. Figaro of Seville, famed -as he was, was none superior to the Lancashire barber. - -He traveled much through South Lancashire and Cheshire, and there he -came in daily contact with the cotton-spinners. A weaver of great -ingenuity and tireless purpose, James Hargreaves, had invented what -was known as a spinning-jenny, an arrangement by which many spindles, -fastened in a wooden frame, would work together by the turning of a -fly-wheel. This machine could do the work of many spinners, and in a -much shorter time. The rovings of cotton went under a bar-clasp that -took the place of the spinner's finger and thumb. This bar-clasp could -be moved backward and forward on a rod as the spinner's hand would do -when stretching the thread and winding it on. It had a precision of -action that resulted in a much greater regularity in the spun thread -than by the earlier process. It was a very ingenious device, and -Hargreaves deserved the greatest credit for the skill with which he -solved the problem. - -But the spinners did not take kindly to this improvement. When they -discovered that Hargreaves could do more spinning with less work with -his machine, and could supply his own loom with all the woof that was -needed instead of keeping three or four spinners employed, they grew -highly indignant. They did not realize that the demand for cotton -cloth was far greater than the supply, and that they could all be -profitably employed operating the spinning-jenny. That panic which has -so often come over people when they learn of a new device entering -their field of action struck the cotton-spinners, and Hargreaves was -regarded as a foe rather than a friend. Hargreaves was driven from -Lancashire to Nottingham, and many of his larger jennies were broken -by mobs. A few of the smaller machines were saved, but the people's -mind was very evident. - -Hargreaves' improvement on the old-fashioned spinning-wheel dates -from 1767, though he himself, it is said, had first used such a -machine in 1764. Two men, Wyatt and Paul, of Birmingham, had earlier -built a machine to spin stronger yarn than that usually used, but -their machine had shown many defects, and they had abandoned its use. -Arkwright knew of Hargreaves' jenny, but not of the other machine, and -as he came upon none in use in his travels he cannot be held to have -been under any obligations to this earlier device. - -The manufacture of cotton goods was in a primitive state in England. -Pure cotton fabrics could not be made, and the fustians that were -produced had a warp of linen yarn in them, due to the fact that no way -was known by which cotton yarn of sufficient strength could be spun. -Arkwright soon learned these difficulties that arose from the absence -of cotton warp and the deficiency of cotton weft, and his alert mind -commenced to wonder whether he could not so improve on Hargreaves' -jenny as to overcome these difficulties. He was not a skilled mechanic -himself, and so, when he decided to take up the subject, he employed a -clockmaker, named Kay, to help him. Realizing the hostility to any -improvement on the part of the cotton-spinners, he gave out that he -was engaged in building a machine to solve the world-old problem of -perpetual motion. - -Under this cloak he worked, and soon found that his new occupation was -vastly more interesting than that of dealer in wigs had been. He was a -shrewd man, and therefore, when he withdrew from that trade in 1767, -it is probable that he foresaw that he was on the track of something -better. His idea was that cotton could be spun by rollers, and he said -that this thought occurred to him as he happened to watch a red-hot -iron bar lengthened out by passing between two rollers. But the iron -would necessarily have to be drawn out in such a process, while the -cotton wool could be indefinitely packed together. It would have to be -taken hold of, and forcibly stretched as it passed through the pair of -rollers, if it were to be drawn out, and not merely compressed. His -solution of this problem was a machine that had two pairs of rollers, -which were called drawing-rollers, the first pair of which revolved -slowly in contact with each other, while the second pair revolved more -rapidly in a similar way. One roller of each pair was covered with -leather, and the other was fluted lengthwise. The two were pressed -together by means of weights. In this manner the adhesion of the -cotton wool was safely secured, and there was no chance of the rollers -slipping around without drawing it in. The cotton passed through the -two pairs of rollers, and its extension depended entirely on the -difference in the velocity of the revolutions of the two pairs. When -the proper fineness had been obtained in this way, the cotton, as it -passed from the second pair of rollers, was twisted into a firm strong -thread by spindles attached to the frame. - -Arkwright realized that he must have assistance in order to put his -machines on the market. He applied to a Mr. Atherton, and the latter, -although he considered the venture a hazardous one, sent him two -workmen to help in building his first machine. When this was -finished Arkwright went with it to Preston, and there set up his -spinning-frame and began to use it in a room of the house that -belonged to the Free Grammar School. His experiments convinced him of -its success. Then he thought how he could best introduce his machine -with least risk of rousing the popular fury. John Smalley, a liquor -merchant and painter, had helped him build his machine, and after -consultation, the two men decided to take the spinning-jenny to -Nottingham, which lay in the heart of the frame-work stocking trade. - -[Illustration: SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT] - -Arkwright's great opportunity lay in the fact that the manufacture of -cotton hosiery had hitherto had to be carried on on a limited scale, -owing to the difficulty of obtaining yarn that was sufficiently strong -for the stocking-frames that were then used. At first he and John -Smalley were associated with the Messrs. Wright, Nottingham bankers, -but these bankers, figuring on the experience that had befallen the -inventors of other spinning machines, soon withdrew their aid. But -Arkwright was more fortunate in his next step. Samuel Need, a -Nottingham manufacturer of stockings, and his partner, Jedediah -Strutt, of Derby, who had himself invented a device for making ribbed -stockings, became interested in his machine, tested it carefully, and -with the experience they had already gained as practical -manufacturers, decided in its favor. It was their approval that -started Arkwright on the road to fortune. - -Arkwright took out his first patent in 1769, the same year that Watt -patented his steam-engine with a separate condenser. A little later, -with his partners Need and Strutt, he built a very complete factory at -Cromford, on the Derwent River. He had already shown his power of -originating and perfecting a working machine, now he showed an -additional ability for organizing a great manufactory, and improving -and adding new devices to his original model. This was the test of his -strength, and perhaps the most wonderful part of his character. Many -men have come upon new ideas, and many have sent them forth to improve -the world's work, but only a few have developed them, day in and day -out, until they stand forth as a finished achievement. That is the -gauge, the test that has proved the inventor. Not Watt's first -innovations on the stationary steam-engine, nor Stephenson's building -of his original locomotive, nor Arkwright's discovery that rollers -could be used to draw the cotton, but the years of trial and -improvement Watt spent at Birmingham, and Stephenson in his shops at -Killingworth, and Arkwright in his factory at Cromford, have made the -three men famous in history. They were the years of patience and -perseverance, which must come in the life of every great inventor to -test his strength. - -The country people about Cromford came to see Arkwright's machines, -and wonder at them, and sometimes to buy a dozen pairs of stockings -that had been made of Arkwright's yarn. But the big Manchester -manufacturers refused to trade with him. The fine water-twist that was -being spun on his spinning-frames was perfectly adapted to be used as -warp, and would have supplied the demand for genuine cotton goods, -which otherwise had to be imported from India. But, though they needed -his yarn, the manufacturers would not buy it from him, and he was -forced to find some way of using his large output himself. First he -used it to manufacture stockings, and then, in 1773, to make, for the -first time in England, fabrics entirely of cotton. This was the -turning point in England's trade in cotton goods. Heretofore she had -not been able to meet the demands of her own people, now she was to -commence a campaign that was ultimately to send her cloth to the -farthest ends of the earth. - -His powers of resistance were to be still further tested. An act was -passed, based on the assumption that the English spinners could never -compete with the fine Indian handiwork, that a duty of sixpence a yard -should be levied on all calicoes, which were a variety of cotton goods -originally imported from Calicut, in India. In addition, the sale of -printed calicoes was forbidden. The customs officers immediately began -to levy the duty on the products of Arkwright's mills, claiming that -the goods were in reality calicoes, although they were made in -England. It followed that merchants who had ordered goods from the -Cromford Mill cancelled their orders, rather than pay the duty, and -again Arkwright found his cottons piling up on his hands. - -The act was too unfair to stand, and after a time was repealed. Cotton -and all mixed fabrics were taxed threepence per yard, and the -prohibition on printed cotton goods was withdrawn. The opposition of -rival manufacturers could not in the nature of things long retard -what was to become one of the nation's main industries. - -He took out his second patent in 1775, and it embraced almost the -entire field of cloth manufacture. It contained innumerable devices -that he had worked out during the years he had been experimenting at -his factory. It covered "carding, drawing, and roving machines for use -in preparing silk, cotton, flax, and wool for spinning." The man who -had been a vendor of wigs had now revolutionized the whole spinning -world. He had taught men and women to work at his machines, instead of -in the old way of individual hand labor, he had organized a great -business, and was showing the world that more could be accomplished by -the division of labor and its control by one mind than could ever have -resulted from individual initiative. In this way he was taking a most -vital part in the progress of those new economic ideas that were -dawning into consciousness toward the close of the eighteenth century. - -It is so easy to see the successful result, so difficult to appreciate -the trials that have been undergone. We look at the great picture and -we admire the genius of the artist, but how rarely we realize the no -less wonderful patience, the no less wonderful struggle that underlies -what we see. The creator has not wrought easily, that is certain; and -his greatness consists in what he has overcome. - -Arkwright was ill with asthma during many of the years when he was -fighting for his fortune, and time and again it seemed as if his -strength must fail before the task he had undertaken. But he was a -great fighter, and so he won through. His workmen were offered bribes -to leave his service, and teach his methods to rivals, his patents -were infringed, right and left there was warfare, and he was fighting -a score of enemies single-handed. - -In 1781 he had to bring suit against Colonel Mordaunt, and eight other -manufacturers, for infringing his patent. The influence of all the -Lancashire cotton-spinners was aligned against his claims. They could -not deny the fact that he had invented the spinning-jenny, but they -said that the specifications of his patent were not sufficiently -clear. The court upheld this contention, and declared the patent -invalid. Arkwright withdrew the other suits he had started, and wrote -and published his "Case," in order to set forth to the world the truth -of his claims. - -In 1785 he brought his case again into court, and this time Lord -Loughborough ruled that his patent was valid. On account of this -conflict of decisions the matter was referred to the Court of King's -Bench. Here a Lancashire man named Highs, who had constructed a double -jenny to work fifty-six spindles in 1770, was declared by Arkwright's -opponents to be the real inventor. It was said that Arkwright had -stolen this man's ideas. On such evidence Arkwright's claims were -denied, and his patent overruled. This was the species of constant -warfare with which he had to occupy himself. - -Manchester had fought against the spinning-frame for years, but it was -to receive the chief fruits of its success. Arkwright built a mill -there in 1780, and it prospered exceedingly, in spite of the fact that -he no longer had the protection of his patents. He was such a good -business man, such a splendid organizer, that he could overcome his -enemies without that help, and in time he built up a fortune. - -When he had started his first mill at Nottingham Arkwright had been -obliged to use horse-power, and it was owing to the expense of such a -system that he had soon moved to Cromford, where he could obtain -water-power from the Derwent River. It was this that gave his yarn the -name of water-twist. But in his Manchester Mill he made use of a -hydraulic wheel, supplied with water by a single-stroke atmospheric -steam-engine. Later Boulton and Watt's engines were installed, and -with the most profitable results. As a result of these improvements -the imports of cotton wool, which had averaged less than 5,000,000 -pounds a year in the five years from 1771 to 1775, rose to an average -of more than 25,000,000 pounds in the five years ending with 1790. -England began to export cotton goods in 1781, which was sufficient -evidence that the manufacture of such goods was proceeding more -rapidly than the home demand for them. This was due largely to -Arkwright's invention, to his building up of factories on new methods, -and to the great help furnished to all machinery by the steam-engines -of James Watt. - -This is the romance of the dealer in wigs and dyes. He had won fame -and fortune, and a powerful position in his country. In 1786 he was -appointed High Sheriff in Derbyshire, and the same year was knighted -by George III. He died at Cromford in 1792. - -His personality was strong, aggressive, dominating. Nothing could turn -him from his course when he had made up his mind in regard to it. He -was determined to make a fortune out of cotton-spinning, and he did, -in spite of the loss of his patents, and the rivals who were always -pursuing him. He stands high as inventor, and quite as high as one of -the makers of modern commercial England. - - - - -VI - -WHITNEY AND THE COTTON-GIN - -1765-1825 - - -Cotton-growing has been for a long time the main industry of the -Southern United States, and the exporting of cotton by that part of -the country has largely fed the mills of the world. Yet in 1784 the -customs officers at Liverpool seized eight bags of cotton arriving on -an American vessel, claiming that so much of the raw material could -not have been produced in the thirteen states. In 1793 the total -export of cotton from the United States was less than ten thousand -bales, but by 1860 the export was four million bales. The chief reason -for this marvelous advance was the cotton-gin, for which Eli Whitney -applied for a patent in 1793. - -Wherever cotton grew in the South there the cotton-gin was to be -found. It brought prosperity and ease and comfort, it allowed the -small as well as the large owner to have his share of the profits of -the markets of the world. It gave the cotton country its living, and -yet Whitney struggled for years to win the slightest recognition of -his claims. He wrote to Robert Fulton, "In one instance I had great -difficulty in proving that the machine had been used in Georgia, -although at the same moment there were three separate sets of this -machinery in motion within fifty yards of the building in which the -court sat, and all so near that the rattling of the wheels was -distinctly heard on the steps of the court-house." - -He came to the South from New England, having been born in -Westborough, Worcester County, Massachusetts, December 8, 1765, -educated at Yale College, and going to Georgia as teacher in a private -family. General Greene, of Savannah, took a great interest in him, and -taught him law. Whitney had been a good student, had an attractive -personality, and had already shown a natural knack for mechanics. -While he was teaching at the Greenes' home he noticed that the -embroidery frame that Mrs. Greene used tore the fine threads of her -work. He asked her to let him study it, and shortly had made a frame -on an entirely different plan that would do the same work without -injuring the threads. His hostess was delighted with it, and spread -the word of her young teacher's ingenuity through the neighborhood. - -As in all Southern mansions hospitality was rife at the Greenes', and -it happened that one evening a number of gentlemen were gathered there -who had fought under the General in the Revolution. The subject of the -growing of cotton came under discussion, and some one spoke of the -unfortunate fact that no method had been found for cleaning the cotton -staple of the green seed. If that could be done cotton could be grown -with profit on all the land that was unsuited for rice. To separate a -single pound of the clean staple from the green seed took a whole -day's work for a woman. There was little profit in trying to grow -much cotton at such a rate, and most of the cotton picking was done by -the negroes in the evenings, when the harder labor of the fields was -finished. Then Mrs. Greene pointed to Eli Whitney with a smile. -"There, gentlemen," said she, "apply to my friend Mr. Whitney for your -device. He can make anything." The guests looked at the young man, but -he hastened to disclaim any such abilities, and said that he had never -even seen cotton-seed. - -But in spite of his disclaimer he began to consider whether he could -make a machine that would help to separate the seed from the cotton. -He went to see a neighbor, Phineas Miller, and talked over his plans -with him. Miller became interested, and gave him a room in his house -where he might carry on his experiments. He had to use very primitive -implements, making his own tools and drawing his own wire. He worked -quietly, only Mr. Miller and Mrs. Greene knowing what he was doing. - -Whitney worked on his machine all the winter of 1793, and by spring it -was far enough completed to assure him of success. Mr. Miller, who was -a lawyer with a taste for mechanics, and who was, again like Eli -Whitney, a New Englander and graduate of Yale, married Mrs. Greene -after the General's death. It was he who actually made Whitney's -machine a business possibility by proposing that he should become a -partner with the inventor, and bear all the expenses of manufacturing -it until they should secure their patent. They drew up a legal -agreement to this effect, dated May 27, 1793, and stipulating that -all the profits should be equally divided between them. - -There followed very soon the first dramatic scenes in the long battle -between the owners of the cotton-gin and the public. The Southern -people knew how invaluable such an invention would be to them; it -meant food and shelter and better living all along the line; it would -increase the value of their property a hundredfold. So as soon as it -became bruited abroad that Eli Whitney had such a machine in his -workroom that spot became the Mecca for the countryside. Crowds came -to beg for a look at the wonderful machine, and hung about the house -and plotted to get in. But Whitney and Miller were afraid to let -people see the invention until they had made sure of their patents on -it, and so they refused to let the crowds have a look at it. Then the -more reckless of the crowds threw all sense of fairness to the winds, -and broke into Mr. Miller's house, seized the machine, and carried it -off with them. Soon it was publicly displayed, and before Whitney -could finish his model for the Patent Office a dozen machines, similar -to his, were in use in the cotton fields. - -Whitney's cotton-gin was made of two cylinders of different diameters, -mounted in a strong wooden frame. One cylinder had a number of small -circular saws that were fitted into grooves cut into the cylinder. The -other cylinder was covered with brushes, and so placed that the tips -of the bristles of these brushes touched the saw-teeth. The raw cotton -was put in a hopper, where it was met by the teeth of the saws, and -torn from the seeds. The brushes then swept the cotton clear of the -gin. The seeds were too large to go between the bars through which the -series of saws protruded, and were kept apart by themselves. Of course -many improvements were made upon this machine, but it was found that -even in this original form it would enable one man, using two -horse-power, to clean the seed from five thousand pounds of cotton in -a day. That meant that fortunes could be made in the hitherto -disregarded cotton fields of the South. - -Whitney now went to Connecticut to finish certain improvements on the -machine, to secure his patents, and to begin the manufacturing of as -many gins as his partner Miller should find were needed in Georgia. -The partners' wrote frequently to each other, and their letters show -the fierceness of the struggle they were waging to protect their -rights. "It will be necessary," wrote Miller, "to have a considerable -number of gins in readiness to send out as soon as the patent is -obtained in order to satisfy the absolute demands and make people's -heads easy on the subject; for I am informed of two other claimants -for the honor of the invention of the cotton-gin in addition to those -we knew before." - -The two men did everything in their power to hasten the building of -their gins. They knew their rivals were unscrupulous, and were in fact -already trying their best to prejudice the minds of the more -conservative Georgia cotton-growers against them. But money was very -scarce, and the manufacture of the machines proved so costly that -Whitney found it impossible to furnish as many gins as his partner -wanted. - -Whitney applied for his patent in 1793. The following April he went -back to Georgia, where he found unusually large crops of cotton had -been planted, in expectation of using the gin. As there were not -enough of his gins ready rivals were pushing their inferior machines. -One of these, called the roller-gin, destroyed the seeds by crushing -them between two revolving cylinders, instead of separating them by -teeth. A large part of the crushed seed was, however, apt to stay in -the cotton after it had passed through the machine, and this form of -gin did not therefore produce as satisfactory results as did -Whitney's. Another rival was the saw-gin, which was almost identical -with Whitney's gin, except that the saw-teeth were cut in circular -rings of iron instead of being made of wire. This machine infringed -the partners' patents, and caused them an almost endless series of -expensive lawsuits. - -Two years of conflict in the South proved the superiority of Whitney's -invention over all other machines, but resulted in little actual -profit. In March, 1795, he went north to New York, where he was kept -for several weeks by illness. When he got back to his factory in New -Haven he found that fire had wiped out his workshop, together with all -his gins and papers. He was $4,000 in debt, and virtually bankrupt. -Yet he had great courage, and fortunately his partner Miller had the -same faith. When Whitney sent him the news from New Haven, Miller -replied, "I think we ought to meet such events with equanimity. We -have been pursuing a valuable object by honorable means, and I trust -that all our measures have been such as reason and virtue must -justify. It has pleased Providence to postpone the attainment of this -object. In the midst of the reflections which your story has -suggested, and with feelings keenly awake to the heavy, the extensive -injury we have sustained, I feel a secret joy and satisfaction that -you possess a mind in this respect similar to my own--that you are not -disheartened, that you do not relinquish the pursuit, and that you -will persevere, and endeavor, at all events, to attain the main -object. This is exactly consonant to my own determinations. I will -devote all my time, all my thoughts, all my exertions, and all the -money I can earn or borrow to encompass and complete the business we -have undertaken; and if fortune should, by any future disaster, deny -us the boon we ask, we will at least deserve it. It shall never be -said that we have lost an object which a little perseverance could -have attained. I think, indeed, it will be very extraordinary if two -young men in the prime of life, with some share of ingenuity, and with -a little knowledge of the world, a great deal of industry, and a -considerable command of property, should not be able to sustain such a -stroke of misfortune as this, heavy as it is." - -Whitney attempted to rebuild his factory, but the affairs of the firm -were in extreme jeopardy. He had to pay twelve per cent. a year to -borrow money for his work. Then certain English manufacturers reported -that the cotton that was cleaned by Whitney's gin was not of good -quality. The struggle was a hard one. He wrote to Miller, "The extreme -embarrassments which have been for a long time accumulating upon me -are now become so great that it will be impossible for me to struggle -against them many days longer. It has required my utmost exertions to -exist without making the least progress in our business. I have -labored hard against the strong current of disappointment which has -been threatening to carry us down the cataract, but I have labored -with a shattered oar and struggled in vain, unless some speedy relief -is obtained.... Life is but short at best, and six or seven years out -of the midst of it is to him who makes it an immense sacrifice. My -most unremitted attention has been devoted to our business. I have -sacrificed to it other objects from which, before this time, I might -certainly have gained $20,000 or $30,000. My whole prospects have been -embarked in it, with the expectation that I should before this time -have realized something from it." - -Pirates now filled the field, and the lawsuits which they were -compelled to bring to defend themselves went against them. Miller -wrote to Whitney on May 11, 1797, "The event of the first patent suit, -after all our exertions made in such a variety of ways, has gone -against us. The preposterous custom of trying civil causes of this -intricacy and magnitude by a common jury, together with the -imperfection of the patent law, frustrated all our views, and -disappointed expectations which had become very sanguine. The tide of -popular opinion was running in our favor, the judge was well disposed -toward us, and many decided friends were with us, who adhered firmly -to our cause and interests. The judge gave a charge to the jury -pointedly in our favor; after which the defendant himself told an -acquaintance of his that he would give $2,000 to be free from the -verdict, and yet the jury gave it against us, after a consultation of -about an hour. And having made the verdict general, no appeal would -lie. - -"On Monday morning, when the verdict was rendered, we applied for a -new trial, but the judge refused it to us on the ground that the jury -might have made up their opinion on the defect of the law, which makes -an aggression consist of making, devising, and using or selling; -whereas we could only charge the defendant with using. - -"Thus, after four years of assiduous labor, fatigue, and difficulty, -are we again set afloat by a new and most unexpected obstacle. Our -hopes of success are now removed to a period still more distant than -before, while our expenses are realized beyond all controversy." - -The failure of that patent suit loosed all the pirates, and Whitney -saw the cotton fields flooded with gins, all of which were really -based on his invention, and yet from which he did not receive one -penny. The public had given over paying any attention to his patents. -Every one seemed determined that a machine which meant so much to the -cotton lands should be free to all, irrespective of any legal or moral -rights in the matter. Miller wrote him a little later, "The prospect -of making anything by ginning in this state is at an end. -Surreptitious gins are erected in every part of the country, and the -jurymen at Augusta have come to an understanding among themselves that -they will never give a cause in our favor, let the merits of the case -be as they may." - -[Illustration: WHITNEY, THE INVENTOR OF THE COTTON GIN] - -Affairs could not well have been worse for the partners. They would -have been willing to give up making gins and devote themselves to -selling the rights they had already obtained, but it was difficult to -find purchasers for titles which were so openly disregarded on every -hand. They found it almost impossible to collect payments for the few -machines they did sell, the buyers preferring to be sued, trusting to -a jury of their neighbors deciding for them against the unpopular -manufacturers, who claimed to control such an important machine as the -gin. Whitney tried to sell his patent rights for South Carolina to -that state itself, and had the matter brought before the Legislature. -It met with better success than usual. "I have been at this place," he -writes in a letter, "a little more than two weeks attending the -Legislature. A few hours previous to their adjournment they voted to -purchase for the state of South Carolina my patent-right to the -machine for cleaning cotton at $50,000, of which sum $20,000 is to be -paid in hand, and the remainder in three annual payments of $10,000 -each." To this he added, "We get but a song for it in comparison with -the worth of the thing, but it is securing something. It will enable -Miller & Whitney to pay their debts and divide something between -them." - -This plan of selling the rights to the states seemed to promise better -things for the inventor. In December, 1802, he arranged for the sale -of similar rights to the state of North Carolina, and a little later a -similar agreement was made with Tennessee. But imagine his dismay when -the South Carolina Legislature suddenly annulled its contract with -him, refused to make any further payments, and began suit to recover -what had already been paid him. The current of popular opinion had -again set against this firm of two. It was said that a man in -Switzerland had invented a cotton-gin before Whitney, and that the -main features of his own machine had been taken from others. But there -were some upright and honorable men in the South Carolina Legislature, -and they finally succeeded in convincing their associates that Whitney -had been maligned. In the session of 1804 the Legislature rescinded -its latest act in regard to the gin, and testified to its high opinion -of Whitney. - -The inventor's faithful partner, Miller, died in 1803. He had stood by -Whitney through thick and thin, and had met one buffet after another. -In spite of his splendid spirit the ceaseless war to protect their -claims had somewhat broken him, and he had despaired of ever receiving -justice in the courts. Whitney himself was now receiving some return -from the sales to the states, and these enabled him to keep out of -debt, but the greater part of his earnings had still to go for the -costs of his suits at law. - -In December, 1807, the United States Court in Georgia gave a decision -in Whitney's favor against a man named Fort who had infringed on his -patent. The words of Judge Johnson in this case became celebrated. "To -support the originality of the invention," said he, "the complainants -have produced a variety of depositions of witnesses, examined under -commission, whose examinations expressly prove the origin, progress, -and completion of the machine of Whitney, one of the copartners. -Persons who were made privy to his first discovery testify to the -several experiments which he made in their presence before he ventured -to expose his invention to the scrutiny of the public eye. But it is -not necessary to resort to such testimony to maintain this point. The -jealousy of the artist to maintain that reputation, which his -ingenuity has justly acquired, has urged him to unnecessary pains on -this subject. There are circumstances in the knowledge of all mankind -which prove the originality of this invention more satisfactorily to -the mind than the direct testimony of a host of witnesses. The -cotton-plant furnished clothing to mankind before the age of -Herodotus. The green seed is a species much more productive than the -black, and by nature adapted to a much greater variety of climate, but -by reason of the strong adherence of the fibre to the seed, without -the aid of some more powerful machine for separating it than any -formerly known among us, the cultivation of it would never have been -made an object. The machine of which Mr. Whitney claims the invention -so facilitates the preparation of this species for use that the -cultivation of it has suddenly become an object of infinitely greater -national importance than that of the other species ever can be. Is it, -then, to be imagined that if this machine had been before discovered, -the use of it would ever have been lost, or could have been confined -to any tract or country left unexplored by commercial enterprise? But -it is unnecessary to remark further upon this subject. A number of -years have elapsed since Mr. Whitney took out his patent, and no one -has produced or pretended to prove the existence of a machine of -similar construction or use. - -"With regard to the utility of this discovery the court would deem it -a waste of time to dwell long upon this topic. Is there a man who -hears us who has not experienced its utility? The whole interior of -the Southern states was languishing and its inhabitants emigrating for -want of some object to engage their attention and employ their -industry, when the invention of this machine at once opened views to -them which set the whole country in active motion. From childhood to -age it has presented to us a lucrative employment. Our debts have been -paid off, our capitals have increased, and our lands trebled -themselves in value. We cannot express the weight of the obligation -which the country owes to this invention. The extent of it cannot now -be seen. Some faint presentiment may be formed from the reflection -that cotton is rapidly supplanting wool, flax, silk, and even furs in -manufactures, and may one day profitably supply the use of specie in -our East India trade. Our sister states also participate in the -benefits of this invention, for besides affording the raw material for -their manufacturers, the bulkiness and quantity of the article afford -a valuable employment for their shipping." - -Whitney had fought long and hard, and had at last received at least -partial justice. But it had been so slow in coming that, when his -rights were to a certain extent established, there were only a few -years left his patents to run. He had realized for some time that he -must look elsewhere for financial returns, and so, in 1798, had begun -the manufacture of firearms. He purchased a site for his factory near -New Haven, at a place called Whitneyville now, then known as East -Rock. Oliver Wolcott, Secretary of the Treasury, ordered 10,000 stand -of arms from him, and he contracted to furnish them. At first he met -with many difficulties, owing to lack of proper materials and workmen, -and his own lack of familiarity with the business. But as time went on -the works improved, and Whitney applied his inventive genius to many -important improvements. He received other contracts, and eventually -the national government came to rely upon his factory for a large part -of its war supplies. - -In 1812 Whitney applied for a renewal of his patent for the -cotton-gin. He set forth the facts that he had received almost no -compensation for his invention, that it had made the fortune of many -of the Southern states, that it enabled one man to do the work of a -thousand men before, but that, placing the value of one man's labor at -twenty cents a day, the whole amount he had received was less than the -value of the labor saved in one hour by the use of his machines -throughout the country. But again there was opposition from many -influential Southern planters, and his application was denied. - -The inventor was, however, making money from his factory for firearms, -and his personal fortunes had brightened. In 1817 he married Henrietta -Edwards, the daughter of Judge Pierpont Edwards, of Connecticut. His -home life was ideally happy, he was fond of New Haven, and eventually -he received increasing evidence that the people of the cotton lands -were learning their indebtedness to him, and were anxious to make some -restitution for their earlier disregard of his claims. He died January -8, 1825. - -The material value of Eli Whitney's invention can hardly be estimated. -It opened a new kingdom to the South. It built up countless acres of -hitherto unprofitable land. But in spite of men's recognition of the -value of his cotton-gin, and their instant adoption of it everywhere, -he was for years denied his title to it, and had to wage a warfare -that is almost without parallel in the history of American inventors. - - - - -VII - -FULTON AND THE STEAMBOAT - -1765-1815 - - -There is a peculiar charm attaching to the figure of Robert Fulton, -the attraction that plays about the man who is many-sided, and -picturesque on whatever side one looks at him. He was a man at home on -both shores of the Atlantic, at a time when such men were rare. He had -been taught drawing by Major Andre, when the latter was a prisoner of -war in the little Pennsylvania town of Lancaster. He had hung out his -sign as Painter of Miniatures at the corner of Second and Walnut -Streets in Philadelphia, under the friendly patronage of Benjamin -Franklin. He had lodged in London at the house of Benjamin West, and -shown his pictures at the Royal Academy. Two great English noblemen -became his allies in scientific studies. Napoleon, as First Consul, -bargained with him over his invention of torpedoes. Finally he sent -the little _Clermont_ up the Hudson under steam. There was a man of -rare ability, one who had many hostages to give to fortune. He was the -artist turned inventor, as many another has done, and if he was not as -great an artist as Leonardo da Vinci neither was Leonardo as great an -inventor as Robert Fulton. - -Fulton invented a machine for cutting marble, one for spinning flax, -a double inclined plane for canal navigation, a machine for twisting -rope, an earth-scoop for canal and irrigation purposes, a -cable-cutter, the earliest French panorama, a submarine torpedo boat, -and the steamboat. Other men had worked over steamboats, but he -reached the goal. He made the steamboat practicable, as Watt had the -steam-engine. Above all, he was very fortunate; he found his -countrymen ready to welcome the _Clermont_, and to fall in with his -plans, an attitude which had not faced certain men in England and in -France who had built similar boats earlier than Fulton. Some engineers -have been tempted to call him a lucky amateur, a talented artist who -happened to become interested in new methods of navigation. If one -grants all this there is still the fact that it was the _Clermont's_ -success that opened the watercourses of the world to steam. - -"Quicksilver Bob" he was called as a boy in Lancaster, because he used -to buy all that metal he could for experiments. Even then he was -many-sided. He made designs for firearms and experimented with guns to -learn the carrying distance of various bores and balls. There was a -factory in Lancaster where arms were being made for the Continental -troops, and "Quicksilver Bob" was given the run of the place. In -addition he painted signs to hang before the village shops and -taverns. - -To simplify his fishing expeditions he made a model of a boat -propelled by paddles, and later he built such a boat and used it on -the Conestoga River. No one could tell what he would turn to next. -When Hessian prisoners were kept in the neighborhood the town boys -would go out to look at them, and Robert would make sketches of them. -These sketches gave him a local reputation, and his friends were not -surprised when at seventeen he left Lancaster to seek his fortune as a -painter of portraits and miniatures in Philadelphia. - -He was well liked in the city. He had a talent for friendship, which, -combined with good looks, more than ordinary intelligence, and most -uncommon industry, carried him far. He drew plans for machinery, he -designed houses and carriages, he worked as professional painter. -Franklin became his patron and adviser. Then illness sent him to the -fashionable hot springs of Virginia, and there he heard so much talk -of England and of France that he decided to see those countries for -himself. Before he left America he bought a farm in Washington County, -Pennsylvania, in order to insure a home for his mother and sisters. -That done, he sailed for England, with a packet of letters of -introduction, in 1786. - -In London Fulton professed himself to be an artist, although his -thoughts were constantly tending toward inventions. He lived at the -house of Benjamin West, and painted, and his portraits were shown at -the Royal Academy and at the Society of Artists. Betimes he enjoyed -himself in society and in trips to the counties. He journeyed into -Devonshire and stayed at Powderham Castle, copying famous pictures -there. Wherever he went he made friends, and their influence was -constantly helping him forward on what must have been a somewhat -precarious career. - -Two of these friends, the Duke of Bridgewater and the Earl of -Stanhope, were scientists of repute. The Duke owned a great estate, of -untold mineral wealth, which had never been properly worked because of -lack of transportation facilities. He had recently built several -canals on this property, and was at the head of a number of companies -which were planning to intersect England with waterways. He interested -Fulton in his schemes and gradually weaned his thoughts away from art -to civil engineering. The Earl of Stanhope corresponded with him over -the possibility of propelling boats by steam, and in these letters -Fulton first gave the outlines of the plans he was later to perfect in -the _Clermont_. The Earl was deeply interested, and encouraged the -young American to persevere, but for the time Fulton left the -steamboat to work out other problems. - -The possibility of a great English canal system appealed to him -strongly, and in 1794 he obtained an English patent for a double -inclined plane for raising and lowering canal boats. Later he took -English patents on a machine for spinning flax, and on a new device -for twisting hemp rope. There followed others for a machine that -should scoop out earth to make canals or aqueducts, for a "Market or -Passage Boat" to use on canals, and for a "Dispatch Boat" that should -travel quickly. He sent drawings of all these inventions to his -influential friends, hoping that they would push them, and he also -wrote and published "A Treatise on Canal Navigation." By this time he -would seem to have given up all thought of the artist's career, and -to have turned his talent with the pen to the aid of his mechanical -drawings. - -The French Revolution was imminent, and Fulton was busy studying the -conditions that were leading to it. He believed that Free Trade would -tend to abolish many of the difficulties that divided nations, and he -wrote a paper on that subject, addressed to the French Directory. He -believed in democracy, but he was strongly of the opinion that the -young American republic should take no part in the struggle for -liberty in Europe. In a letter written in 1794 he says, "It has been -much Agitated here whether the Americans would join the French. But I -Believe every Cool friend to America could wish them to Remain nuter. -The americans have no troublesome Neighbors, they are without foreign -Possessions, and do not want the alliance of any Nation, for this -Reason they have nothing to do with foreign Politics. And the Art of -Peace Should be the Study of every young American which I most -Sincerely hope they will maintain." - -But Fulton himself was in a manner to be drawn into the turmoil. When -France had quieted somewhat England began that policy of aggression on -the sea toward American ships and crews that was to lead to the War of -1812. Fulton's attention was drawn from canal-building to the -possibility of some invention that might tend to subserve peace, and -this in time led him to design and build the first torpedo. - -Again Fulton's talent for friendship stood him in good stead. When he -had left London for Paris he called upon Joel Barlow, poet and -American diplomat, and was urged to take up his residence first at the -hotel where the Barlows were staying, and later at their house. For -seven years Fulton lived with them, busy about the most diverse -matters, and always keenly interested in the struggles of the new and -hot-tempered republic. A rich American had bought a tract of central -real estate in Paris and had built a row of shops arranged on the two -sides of a cloister. Fulton suggested that he add a panorama to the -other buildings, and the idea was adopted. Fulton was given charge, -and by 1800 he had built and opened the first panorama that Paris had -ever seen. The show made money, and the inventor, a perfect -Jack-of-all-trades, added another feather to his varicolored cap. - -In December, 1797, Fulton had interested his friend Barlow in a -machine intended to drive "carcasses" of gunpowder under water. But -his first experiments at exploding the gunpowder at a definite moment -failed. Then he moved to Havre, where he would have greater -opportunity to try out his torpedo-boats, as he christened them. His -idea was that if his invention succeeded war would be made so -dangerous that nations would be obliged to keep peace. Barlow was able -to assist him with money until he had built and actually navigated -some of his torpedoes along the coast. When he had satisfied himself, -he wrote to the French government, the Directory, offering them his -invention for use against their enemies. - -The Directory was pleased with the offer, but the government was in -so much of a turmoil that it was months before any positive action was -taken. At length, on February 28, 1801, Fulton received word from -Napoleon, the First Consul, to send his torpedo-boat against the -English fleet. He set out; but the English fleet did not come his way, -and he spent the summer vainly reconnoitering along the coast. To show -the value of his invention he arranged to attack a sloop. This he -described in his letter to the French Commission on Submarine -Navigation. "To prove this experiment," he wrote, "the Prefect -Maritime and Admiral Villaret ordered a small Sloop of about 40 feet -long to be anchored in the Road, on the 23rd of Thermidor. With a bomb -containing about 20 pounds of powder I advanced to within 200 Metres, -then taking my direction so as to pass near the Sloop, I struck her -with the bomb in my passage. The explosion took place and the sloop -was torn into atoms, in fact, nothing was left but the buye [buoy] and -cable. And the concussion was so great that a column of Water, Smoke -and fibres of the Sloop were cast from 80 to 100 feet in Air. This -simple Experiment at once proved the effect of the Bomb Submarine to -the satisfaction of all the Spectators." - -This exhibition took place in August, 1801, before a crowd of -onlookers, and at once established the value of the torpedo. But, as -he was unable to attack any English ships, the French government lost -interest in his invention, and Napoleon's scientific advisers reported -to him that they regarded the young American as "a visionary." - -At the same time the British government awakened to the great -possibilities of Fulton's device. His old friend, Lord Stanhope, urged -that suitable offers be made him. This was ultimately done, and in -April, 1804, Fulton left France and returned to London. A contract was -drawn up by which he was to put his torpedo at the service of the -English government and receive in return two hundred pounds a month -and one-half the value of all ships that might be destroyed by his -invention. - -This arrangement, however, was of short duration. A change of ministry -dampened his hopes, and in 1806 the government declined to adopt his -invention on his terms. At the same time they tried to suppress this -new method of warfare, and to that end made him another offer. Fulton, -always an ardent patriot, answered, "At all events, whatever may be -your reward, I will never consent to let these inventions lie dormant -should my Country at any time have need of them. Were you to grant me -an annuity of L20,000 a year, I would sacrifice all to the safety & -independence of my Country. But I hope that England and America will -understand their mutual Interest too well to War with each other And I -have no desire to Introduce my Engines into practice for the benefit -of any other Nation." - -He was already eager to return home to work upon his long cherished -plans for a steamboat. He continues, "As I am bound in honor to Mr. -Livingston to put my steamboat in practice and such engine is of more -immediate use to my Country than Submarine Navigation, I wish to -devote some years to it and should the British Government allow me an -annuity I should not only do justice to my friends but it would enable -me to carry my steamboat and other plans into effect for the good of -my Country.--It has never been my intention to hide these Inventions -from the World on any consideration, on the contrary it has been my -intention to make them public as soon as consistent with strict -justice to all with whom I am concerned. For myself I have ever -considered the interest of America [n] free commerce, the interest of -mankind, the magnitude of the object in view and the rational -reputation connected with it superior to all calculations of a -pecuniary kind." - -Satisfactory terms of agreement were reached, and in 1806 Fulton was -free and ready to return to that native land from which he had been -away twenty years. - -The building of a practicable steamboat had long been in his mind. He -had corresponded on the subject with Chancellor Livingston, who had -devoted much time and money to new inventions. Fulton, when in Paris, -had experimented with models of steamboats, and had studied the -records of what had already been done in that line. In 1802 he had -started a course of calculations on the resistance of water, and the -comparative advantages of the known means of propelling vessels. He -had rejected the plan of using paddles or oars, and also of forcing -water out of the stern of the vessel, and had retained the idea of the -paddle-wheel. This he tried successfully on a small model that he -built and used on a river that ran through the village of Plombieres. -He then built an experimental boat, sixty-six feet long and eight -feet wide, and this he exhibited to a large audience of Parisians in -August, 1803. His success led him to order certain parts of a -steam-engine from the firm of Boulton and Watt in Birmingham, these to -be shipped to America. Meantime Chancellor Livingston had obtained for -himself and Fulton the exclusive right to navigate the waters of New -York state by vessels propelled by fire or steam. - -As soon as he reached America in December, 1806, Fulton started work -on his boat. He engaged Charles Brownne, a ship-builder on the East -River, to lay down the hull. He decided to name the vessel the -_Clermont_, the name of Chancellor Livingston's country-place on the -Hudson, where Fulton had been a guest. The engine duly arrived from -Birmingham and was carried to the shipyard. As a number of loafers and -hangers-on about the docks threatened injury to "Fulton's Folly," as -the building boat was called, he had to engage watchmen to guard his -property. By August the boat was finished, and was moved by her own -engine from the yards to the Jersey shore. She was one hundred and -fifty feet long, thirteen feet wide, and drew two feet of water. -Before she had gone a quarter of a mile both passengers and observers -on the shore were satisfied that the steamboat was a thoroughly -practicable vessel. - -On Sunday, August 9, 1807, Fulton made a short trial trip of the -_Clermont_, and wrote an account of it to Livingston. "Yesterday about -12 o'clock I put the steamboat in motion first with a paddle 8 inches -broad, 3 feet long, with which I ran about one mile up the East River -against a tide of about one mile an hour, it being nearly high -water. I then anchored and put on another paddle 8 inches wide, 3 feet -long, started again and then, according to my best observations, I -went 3 miles an hour, that is two against a tide of one: another board -of 8 inches was wanting, which had not been prepared, I therefore -turned the boat and ran down with the tide--and turned her round -neatly into the berth from which I parted. She answers the helm equal -to anything that ever was built, and I turned her twice in three times -her own length. Much has been proved by this experiment. First that -she will, when in complete order, run up to my full calculations. -Second, that my axles, I believe, will be sufficiently strong to run -the engine to her full power. Third, that she steers well, and can be -turned with ease." - -[Illustration: "THE CLERMONT," THE FIRST STEAM PACKET] - -It was on August 17, 1807, that the _Clermont_ made her first historic -trip up the Hudson. At one o'clock she cast off from her dock near the -State's Prison, in what was called Greenwich Village, on the North -River. The inventor described the voyage characteristically to a -friend. He wrote, "The moment arrived in which the word was to be -given for the boat to move. My friends were in groups on the deck. -There was anxiety mixed with fear among them. They were silent, sad -and weary. I read in their looks nothing but disaster, and almost -repented of my efforts. The signal was given and the boat moved on a -short distance and then stopped and became immovable. To the silence -of the preceding moment, now succeeded murmurs of discontent, and -agitations, and whispers and shrugs. I could hear distinctly -repeated--'I told you it was so; it is a foolish scheme: I wish we -were well out of it.' - -"I elevated myself upon a platform and addressed the assembly. I -stated that I knew not what was the matter, but if they would be quiet -and indulge me for half an hour, I would either go on or abandon the -voyage for that time. This short respite was conceded without -objection. I went below and examined the machinery, and discovered -that the cause was a slight maladjustment of some of the work. In a -short time it was obviated. The boat was again put in motion. She -continued to move on. All were still incredulous. None seemed willing -to trust the evidence of their own senses. We left the fair city of -New York; we passed through the romantic and ever-varying scenery of -the Highlands; we descried the clustering houses of Albany; we reached -its shores,--and then, even then, when all seemed achieved, I was the -victim of disappointment. - -"Imagination superseded the influence of fact. It was then doubted if -it could be done again, or if done, it was doubted if it could be made -of any great value." - -But the _Clermont_, in spite of all prophecies to the contrary, had -traveled under her own steam from New York to Albany, and the trip was -the crowning event in Fulton's career as inventor. At the time she -made that first voyage the _Clermont_ was a very simple craft, decked -for a short distance at bow and stern, the engine open to view, and -back of the engine a house like that on a canal-boat to shelter the -boiler and provide an apartment for the officers. The rudder was of -the pattern used on sailing-vessels, and was moved by a tiller. The -boiler was of the same pattern used in Watt's steam-engines, and was -set in masonry. The condenser stood in a large cold-water cistern, and -the weight of the masonry and the cistern greatly detracted from the -boat's buoyancy. She was so very unwieldy that the captains of other -river boats, realizing the danger of the steamboat's competition, were -able to run into her, and make it appear that the fault was hers; and -as a result she several times reached port with only a single wheel. - -There were almost as many quaint descriptions of the boat as there -were people who saw it. One described it as an "ungainly craft looking -precisely like a backwoods sawmill mounted on a scow and set on fire." -Others said the _Clermont_ appeared at night like a "monster moving on -the waters defying the winds and tide, and breathing flames and -smoke." Some of the ignorant along the Hudson fell on their knees and -prayed to be delivered from the monster. The boat must have been a -very strange sight; pine wood was used for fuel, and when the engineer -stirred the fire a torrent of sparks went shooting into the sky. - -The boat was clumsy beyond question. The exposed machinery creaked and -groaned, the unguarded paddle-wheels revolved ponderously and splashed -a great deal of water, the tiller was badly placed for steering. -Fulton quickly remedied some of the defects, and the _Clermont_ that -began to make regular runs from New York to Albany a little later was -quite a different boat from that which made her maiden voyage on -August 17th. - -In spite of Fulton's gloomy tone in his letter there were many among -the men and women who made the first trip with him who were not -dubious concerning the invention. As soon as the first difficulties -were overcome and the boat was moving on a steady keel, the -passengers, most of whom were close friends of Fulton and of -Chancellor Livingston, broke into song. As they passed by the -Palisades it is said they sang "Ye Banks and Braes o' Bonny Doon." -Fulton himself could not be overlooked. A contemporary described him: -"Among a thousand individuals you might readily point out Robert -Fulton. He was conspicuous for his gentle, manly bearing and freedom -from embarrassment, for his extreme activity, his height, somewhat -over six feet,--his slender yet energetic form and well accommodated -dress, for his full and curly dark brown hair, carelessly scattered -over his forehead and falling around his neck. His complexion was -fair, his forehead high, his eyes dark and penetrating and revolving -in a capacious orbit of cavernous depths; his brow was thick and -evinced strength and determination; his nose was long and prominent, -his mouth and lips were beautifully proportioned, giving the impress -of eloquent utterance. Trifles were not calculated to impede him or -damp his perseverance." - -Fulton was now forty-two years old, and famous on both sides of the -Atlantic. He asked Harriet Livingston, a near relation of his friend -the Chancellor, to become his wife. She accepted him, and he was -warmly welcomed into that rich and influential family. - -On September 2, 1807, Fulton advertised regular sailings of the -_Clermont_ between New York and Albany. These proved popular, and -other routes were soon planned. That winter he made many changes in -the vessel and worked out certain devices that he wished to patent. -The name of _Clermont_ was changed to the _North River_ the following -spring, and the reconstructed steamboat continued in regular service -on the Hudson for a number of years. In the succeeding year he built -other boats, the _Rariton_, to run from New York to New Brunswick, and -_The Car of Neptune_ as a second Hudson River boat. He was very much -occupied perfecting new commercial schemes, protecting his patents -from a horde of pirates, and planning to introduce his invention into -Europe. Before his death in 1815, eight years after the _Clermont's_ -first trip, he had built seventeen boats, among them the first steam -war frigate, a torpedo boat, and the first steam ferry-boats with -rounded ends to be used for approaching opposite shores. - -A century has not dimmed Fulton's fame, nor set aside his claim to be -the practical inventor of the steamboat. He built the first one to be -used in American waters, and his model was copied in all other -countries. He carried his ideas to completion, and that, with his -talent to observe and improve upon other men's work, gave him his -leading place among the world's pioneers. - - - - -VIII - -DAVY AND THE SAFETY-LAMP - -1778-1829 - - -Humphrey Davy, according to his contemporaries, could have chosen any -one of several roads to fame. Samuel Taylor Coleridge said of him, -"Had not Davy been the first chemist, he probably would have been the -first poet of his age." Among many activities he invented the -safety-lamp, the object of which was to protect miners from the perils -of exploding fire-damp. George Stephenson invented a similar device at -about the same time, or a little earlier, but Davy's lamp was the one -most generally adopted, and his claim as inventor is commonly -recognized, while Stephenson's fame is secure with the perfection of -the steam-locomotive and the railroad. - -Davy was born at Penzance in Cornwall December 17, 1778, the eldest -son in a family of five children. More alert and imaginative than -other boys, and with an uncommonly good memory, he made great headway -at Mr. Coryton's grammar school, where he went when he was six. -Coleridge's opinion of him may have been correct, for history says -that he was a fluent writer of English and Latin verses while still a -schoolboy, and that he could tell stories well enough to hold an -audience of his teachers and neighbors. He liked fine language and -the arts of speech, and, according to his brother, Dr. John Davy, he -cultivated those arts in his walks. Once when he was taking a bottle -of medicine to a sick woman in the country he began to declaim a -stirring speech, and at its climax threw the bottle away. He never -noticed its loss until he reached the patient, and then wondered what -could have become of the vial. The bottle was found next morning in a -hay-field adjoining the path Davy had taken. - -When he was fourteen he left Mr. Coryton's school for the Truro -Grammar School, where he stayed for a year. Here he was famed for his -good-humor and a very original turn of mind. A school friend, -reminiscing about Humphrey, told of a walk several of them took one -hot day. "Whilst others complained of the heat," said he, "and whilst -I unbuttoned my waistcoat, Humphrey appeared with his great-coat -close-buttoned up to his chin, for the purpose, as he declared, of -keeping _out_ the heat. This was laughed at at the time, but it struck -me then, as it appears to me now, as evincing originality of thought -and an indisposition to be led by the example of others." - -This originality of thought and love of experiment for its own sake -were to be chief characteristics of the future scientist. - -His school education was finished when he was fifteen, and he returned -home, where he studied French in a desultory fashion, and devoted most -of his time to fishing, of which he was always very fond. His father's -death made him realize that as the eldest of the sons he must shoulder -the responsibility for the family's support, and, all his natural -tastes lying in that direction, he decided to become a physician. - -A practicing surgeon and apothecary of Penzance, Bingham Borlase, was -willing to take Davy as an apprentice, and the youth began work and -study in his office. But the boy was no ordinary apprentice. He became -almost at once an omnivorous student and writer. He laid out a plan of -study that included theology, astronomy, logic, mathematics, Latin, -Greek, Italian, Spanish, and Hebrew, and he wrote essays, remarkably -mature and well-phrased, in a series of note-books that he kept in the -office. Poetry he wrote also, filled with love of the sea that circled -his native Cornwall, and the great cliffs and moorlands that make that -part of England one of the most picturesque spots in the world. - -His work with Mr. Borlase brought him into the field of chemistry when -he was nineteen. It was a field of magic to him. He read two books, -Lavoisier's "Elements of Chemistry," and Nicholson's "Dictionary of -Chemistry," and rushed from them to experiment for himself. His -bedroom was his laboratory. His tools were old bottles, glasses, -tobacco-pipes, teacups, and such odds and ends as he could find. When -he needed fire he went to the kitchen. The owner of the house, Mr. -Tonkin, was an old friend of the Davy family, and very fond of -Humphrey, but the amateur experiments were almost too much for him. -Said he, after he had watched some more than usually noisy combustion -at the fire, "This boy, Humphrey, is incorrigible. Was there ever so -idle a dog? He will blow us all into the air." But Humphrey minded no -arguments nor objections; he was studying the effects of acids and -alkalies on vegetable colors, the kind of air that was to be found in -the vesicles of common varieties of seaweed, and the solution and -precipitation of metals. The work was all-engrossing; it occupied -every spare moment of his time and thought. - -If any greater stimulus to scientific study had been needed it would -have been supplied to young Davy by his acquaintance with Gregory -Watt, the son of the inventor James Watt. Gregory came to board at -Mrs. Davy's house when he was twenty-one, and Humphrey nineteen. He -was a splendid companion, and possessed of a remarkably brilliant -mind. In a short time the two youths had become inseparable friends, -experimenting together, and taking walks to the mines and quarries in -the neighborhood of Penzance in search of minerals for study. It was -an ideal friendship, incomparably valuable for Davy. But Gregory Watt -died when he was twenty-eight. "Gregory was a noble fellow," Davy -wrote to a friend, "and would have been a great man." - -In the meantime the young physician's apprentice had been lured away -from Penzance. Dr. Beddoes had established what he styled a Pneumatic -Institution at Clifton, the object of which was to try the medicinal -effects of different gases on consumptive patients. Davy, only twenty, -had been offered the position of director, and had accepted. His old -friend Mr. Tonkin, who had thought to see Humphrey become the leading -physician of Penzance, was so much put out with this change of plan -that he altered his will and revoked a legacy he had intended for -Davy. - -Filled with the ardor of research Davy went on with his experiments at -Clifton. He discovered silica in the epidermis of the stems of weeds, -corn, and grasses. He experimented with nitrous oxide (laughing gas) -for ten months until he had thoroughly learned its intoxicating -effects. Often he jeopardized his life, and once nearly lost it, by -breathing carburetted hydrogen. He published the results of his more -important experiments. When he was twenty-one he issued his "Essays on -Heat and Light." He experimented with galvanic electricity, and -increased the powers of Volta's Galvanic Pile. Moreover he outlined -and partly drafted an epic poem on the deliverance of the Israelites -from Egypt. The total is a surprising catalogue of industries for the -young Clifton Director. - -His ardor had worn him out, and he was forced to take a holiday at -Penzance. His reputation as a rising scientist had reached the little -Cornish town, and he was given a hearty welcome. He loved his own -country and never lost his delight in her natural beauties. Nor did he -ever forget his own days in the grammar school, and in his will he -directed that a certain sum of money should be paid to the master each -year "on condition that the boys may have a holiday on his birthday." - -Davy had already made influential friends, and one of them, Dr. Hope, -the professor of chemistry at the University of Edinburgh, was to give -him his next step forward. Dr. Hope knew Davy's works on heat, -nitrous oxide, and galvanic electricity, and he recommended the young -scientist to Count Rumford for the professorship of chemistry in the -Royal Philosophical Institution in London, which Count Rumford had -been instrumental in founding. Davy wrote to his mother that this was -"as honorable as any scientific appointment in the kingdom, with an -income of at least five hundred pounds a year." - -He went to London in 1801, and there he had the great satisfaction of -meeting many scientific men whose names and work were well known to -him. Six weeks after he arrived he began his first course of lectures, -taking for his subject the history of galvanism, and the various -methods of accumulating galvanic influence. The _Philosophical -Magazine_ said of the new lion, "The sensation created by his first -course of lectures at the Institution, and the enthusiastic admiration -which they obtained, is at this period hardly to be imagined. Men of -the first rank and talent,--the literary and the scientific, the -practical and the theoretical,--blue-stockings and women of fashion, -the old and the young, all crowded, eagerly crowded, the lecture-room. -His youth, his simplicity, his natural eloquence, his chemical -knowledge, his happy illustrations and well-conducted experiments, -excited universal attention and unbounded applause. Compliments, -invitations, and presents were showered upon him in abundance from all -quarters; his society was courted by all, and all appeared proud of -his acquaintance." - -Davy was an eloquent, enthusiastic, forceful speaker. He prepared his -lectures with the greatest care, and he delivered them with that -attention to dramatic effect which is instinctive in all really great -speakers. Coleridge said, "I attend Davy's lectures to increase my -stock of metaphors," and there were many others who went to hear the -young chemist for other reasons than a liking for science. He had his -own theories of the arts of public address. "Great powers," said he, -"have never been exerted independent of strong feelings. The rapid -arrangement of ideas from their various analogies to the equally rapid -comparisons of these analogies, with facts uniformly occurring during -the progress of discovery, have existed only in those minds where the -agency of strong and various motives is perceived--of motives -modifying each other, mingling with each other, and producing that -fever of emotion which is the joy of existence and the consciousness -of life." - -In addition to his lectures Davy worked hard in the well-stocked -laboratory of the Institution, where he was supplied with a corps of -capable assistants. His researches covered a very large part of the -field of chemistry, and he was indefatigable in running down any new -idea which his active brain chanced to hit upon. In his vacations from -London he went to the farthest regions of the British Isles, spending -considerable time in the north of Ireland and the Hebrides. Here he -studied the geological structures, and collected all the information -he could in regard to agriculture. Anything to do with natural science -interested him. He sketched a great deal, and he was forever asking -questions of all the countrymen he met. His questions made him famous -in many a hamlet, where such inquisitiveness had never been known -before. - -Shortly after he had moved to London he had been asked to investigate -astringent plants in connection with tanning. To this end he visited -tan-yards and farmers, and in 1802 began to deliver a course of -lectures on "The Connection of Chemistry with Vegetable Physiology." -These lectures proved remarkably popular, and for ten years he -repeated them at the meetings of the Board of Agriculture. They were -later published in book form, and so great was their interest that -they were translated into almost every European language. _The -Edinburgh Review_, that dean of British critics, said, "We feel -grateful for his having thus suspended for a time the labors of -original investigation, in order to apply the principles and -discoveries of his favorite science to the illustration and -improvement of an art which, above all others, ministers to the wants -and comforts of man." - -When his agricultural researches were finished he went back to his -studies with the voltaic pile or battery. He discovered that potash -and soda can be decomposed, with the resultant metals of potassium and -sodium. When he made this discovery he was so delighted that he danced -about the room, and was too excited to finish the experiment for some -time. - -He had worked too hard, and soon after this discovery he fell ill. For -days all London watched for the bulletins of the young chemist's -condition. Fortunately he recovered, and in time went back to the -work which was proving so invaluable for the world of science. - -The Royal Institution now provided him with a voltaic battery that was -four times as powerful as any that had previously been constructed. -With this he made numberless chemical discoveries. The Royal Society -had made him a fellow when he was twenty-five years old, and one of -its secretaries when he was twenty-nine. His London lectures grew -continually more popular. The Dublin Society invited him to lecture in -that city, and his course at once attracted the greatest attention. He -was already the scientific lion of England, but withal a very modest -and unassuming lion. Cuvier said, "Davy, not yet thirty-two, in the -opinion of all who could judge of such labors, held the first rank -among the chemists of this or of any other age." The National -Institute of France awarded him the prize that had been established by -Napoleon for the greatest discovery made by means of galvanism. Then, -in 1812, when he was thirty-three, he was knighted by the Prince -Regent. - -Sir Humphrey Davy, as he now was, married Mrs. Appreece, a woman of -many talents and unusual intelligence. She was rich, and soon after -their marriage Davy was able to resign his professorship at the Royal -Institution, which he had held for twelve years, and devote himself to -original research and to travel. Carrying a portable chemical -apparatus for his studies, Sir Humphrey and Lady Davy went first to -Scotland, and then to France, Italy, and Germany. They met the most -prominent men of the age in those countries. These men found the -famous chemist interested in everything about him, as much of a poet -as a scientist. In Rome he wrote a sonnet to the sculptor Canova, and -the literary circles of Italy proclaimed him a poet after their own -heart. - -Davy was now one of the foremost chemists of the world, but he could -as yet hardly lay claim to the title of inventor. He had been an -ambitious man, and had once said that he had escaped the temptations -that lay in wait for many men because of "an active mind, a deep ideal -feeling of good, and a look toward future greatness." That future -greatness had always been in his thoughts, and had been one of the -compelling powers in his great chemical discoveries. But beyond this -thought of greatness was a very deep and earnest desire to help his -fellow men. So when the chance to do this offered he took advantage of -it at once. - -Explosions of coal-gas were only too common in the mines of England. -They were almost always fatal to the miners, and formed the greatest -peril of those who labored underground. In 1812 a terrible explosion -occurred in a leading English mine, and caused the death of almost a -hundred miners. The mine had caught on fire, and had to be closed at -the mouth, which meant certain destruction to those within. The -catastrophe was so great that the biggest mine-owners met to see -whether some protection against such accidents could not be devised. -After much discussion they appointed a committee to call on Sir -Humphrey Davy and ask him to investigate the possibilities for them. - -Davy realized that here lay his opportunity to be of real service to -men, the goal he had always had in mind. He took up the question, -experimented with fire-damp, and found that it was in reality light -carburetted hydrogen. He visited many mines, and took into careful -consideration the conditions under which the men worked. For months he -investigated and experimented, and at length, in 1815, he constructed -what he called the safety-lamp. This was an oil lamp which had a -chimney or cage of wire gauze. The gauze held the flame of the lamp -from passing through and igniting the fire-damp outside. It was only -possible for a very little of the fire-damp to penetrate the gauze and -such as did was held harmless prisoner. The cage allowed air to pass -and light to escape, and although by the combustion of the fire-damp -the wire gauze might become red hot, it was still efficient as a -safety-lamp. - -Davy's safety-lamp proved exactly what was needed to act as protection -from exploding fire-damp. It was tried under all conditions and served -admirably. George Stephenson had worked out a somewhat similar -safety-lamp at about the same time, and his was used in the collieries -around Newcastle. In the rest of England Davy's lamp was at once -adopted. All miners were equipped with either the Davy lamp or the -"Geordie" lamp, as the other was called, and the mine fatalities from -fire-damp immediately decreased. This lamp is still the main safeguard -of those who have to contend with dangerous explosive gases in mines -all over the world. - -Friends urged Davy to patent his lamp, and thus ensure himself a -very considerable income from its sale. But he said, "I never thought -of such a thing: my sole object was to serve the cause of humanity; -and if I have succeeded, I am amply rewarded in the gratifying -reflection of having done so. I have enough for all my views and -purposes; more wealth could not increase either my fame or my -happiness. It might undoubtedly enable me to put four horses to my -carriage; but what would it avail me to have it said that Sir Humphrey -drives his carriage and four?" - -[Illustration: THE DAVY SAFETY LAMP] - -His fellow men appreciated the great value of this service he had -rendered. At Newcastle, the centre of the mining country, a dinner was -given in his honor, and a service of plate, worth over twelve thousand -dollars, was presented to him. The Emperor of Russia sent him a -magnificent silver-gilt vase, with a letter congratulating him on his -great achievement, and the King of England made him a baronet. - -Davy himself, in spite of his reputation as a chemist, placed this -invention above all his other work. "I value it more than anything I -ever did," said he. "It was the result of a great deal of -investigation and labor; but if my directions be attended to, it will -save the lives of thousands of poor men. I was never more affected -than by a written address which I received from the working colliers -when I was in the north, thanking me on behalf of themselves and their -families for the preservation of their lives." - -Davy's note-books are most interesting reading and show the -philosophic trend of his thoughts. At one time he said, "Whoever -wishes to enjoy peace, and is gifted with great talents, must labor -for posterity. In doing this he enjoys all the pleasures of -intellectual labor, and all the desire arising from protracted hope. -He feels no envy nor jealousy; his mark is too far distant to be seen -by short-sighted malevolence, and therefore it is never aimed at.... -To raise a chestnut on the mountain, or a palm in the plain, which may -afford shade, shelter, and fruit for generations yet unborn, and -which, if they have once fixed their roots, require no culture, is -better than to raise annual flowers in a garden, which must be watered -daily, and in which a cold wind may chill or too ardent a sunshine may -dry.... The best faculties of man are employed for futurity: speaking -is better than acting, writing is better than speaking." - -He was fond of travel, and after he had seen the successful use of his -lamp he went abroad again. When he returned he was made president of -the Royal Society, a position which had been made illustrious by Sir -Isaac Newton. The British navy asked him to discover what could be -done to prevent the corrosion of copper sheathing on vessels, caused -by salt water. He made experiments, and at last succeeded in rendering -the copper negatively electrical by the use of small pieces of tin, -zinc, or iron nails. But shells and seaweed would adhere to the -non-corroded surface, and hence the process was not entirely -successful. This principle of galvanic protection, however, was found -to be applicable to many other purposes. - -These and other experiments in chemistry and electricity, travel, and -his duties as president of the Royal Society filled his days. In 1826 -he was attacked by paralysis, and from then he spent much of his time -on the continent, seeking health and strength. He wrote on fishing and -on travel, and all his writings, on whatever theme he touched, are -filled with the love of nature and of beauty, and permeated with that -philosophic balance that had been characteristic of his whole career. -He died in Geneva, May 29, 1829. - -Davy was not the born inventor, drawn irresistibly to construct -something new. He was the born chemist, and it was only when he was -asked to investigate the nature of the fire-damp that he fell to -studying whether some adequate protection could not be afforded the -miners. Yet he himself said that he was more proud of his safety-lamp -than of all his other discoveries, and although the scientists and -chemists may think of Humphrey Davy as a great experimenter, great -lecturer, and great writer on chemistry and electricity, the world at -large knows him best for his safety-lamp and for the great change for -the better he was able to bring about in the mines of England. - - - - -IX - -STEPHENSON AND THE LOCOMOTIVE - -1781-1848 - - -The need of finding a new way of working the coal mines of England, -and of marketing the coal, which had been such an important factor in -the development of the steam-engine, was a scarcely less important -factor in the building of the earliest practical railway locomotive. -The coal had to be hauled from the pit of the colliery to the shipping -place. It was carried in cars that were pushed or pulled over a rude -line of wooden or iron rails. But it was evident from the time when -James Watt began to build his steam-engines to lift the coal from the -mine that men of inventive minds would soon seek to send the cars over -the level ground by the same power. We owe the railroad chiefly to the -needs of the north of England, and there we find the real birth of the -locomotive. - -About the beginning of the nineteenth century a number of men in -England were experimenting with new means of locomotion, both for -merchandise and for passengers. Their projects varied from cars -running on wheels and drawn by horses to carriages propelled by small -stationary steam-engines, placed at short distances from each other -along the road. In 1802 Richard Trevethick, a captain in a Cornish -tin-mine, took out a patent for a steam-carriage. The machine he built -looked like an ordinary stage-coach on four wheels. It had one -horizontal cylinder, which was placed in the rear of the hind axle, -together with the boiler and the furnace-box. The motion of the piston -was carried to a separate crank-axle, and that in turn gave the motion -to the axle of the driving-wheel. This was in itself a great -invention, being the first really successful high-pressure engine that -was built on the principle of moving a piston by the elasticity of -steam against only the pressure of the air. The steam was admitted -from the boiler under the piston that moved in a cylinder, and forced -it upward. When the motion had reached its limit, the communication -between the piston and the under side of the cylinder was shut off, -and the steam escaped into the atmosphere. Then a passage was opened -between the boiler and the upper end of the piston, which was -consequently pushed downward, and then the steam was again allowed to -escape. As a result the power of the engine was equal to the -difference between the atmosphere's pressure and the elastic force of -the steam in the boiler. - -This steam-carriage of Trevethick was fairly successful, and created a -great sensation in that part of Cornwall where it was built. He -decided to take it to London, and drove it himself to Plymouth, from -which port it was to be carried by sea. On the road it caused -amazement and consternation, and won the name of Captain Trevethick's -dragon. He exhibited it in London, but after a short time gave up -driving it, believing that the roads of England were too badly built -to make the use of a steam-carriage feasible. - -Other men were working on similar lines. Among them was the owner of a -colliery in the north named Blackett, who built a number of engines -for propelling coal-cars and used them at his mines. But these were -very clumsy and heavy, moved slowly, and had to be continually -repaired at considerable expense, so that other miners, after -examining Blackett's engines, decided they were not worth the cost of -manufacture. To make the steam-carriage really serviceable it must be -more efficient and reliable. - -Meantime a young man named George Stephenson, who was working at a -coal mine at Killingworth, seven miles north of Newcastle, was -studying out a new plan of locomotive. His father had been a fireman -in a colliery at Wylam, a village near Newcastle, and there the son -George was born on June 9, 1781. He had lived the life of the other -boys of the village, had been a herd-boy to care for a neighbor's -cows, had been a "picker" in the colliery, and separated stones and -dross from the coal, had risen to assistant fireman, then fireman, -then engineman. He was strong and vigorous, fond of outdoor sports, -and also considerable of a student. In time he moved to Willington -Quay, a village on the River Tyne, where coal was shipped to London. -Here he married, and made his home in a small cottage near the quay. -He was in charge of a fixed engine on Willington Ballast Hill that -drew the trains of laden coal-cars up the incline. - -After he had worked for three years at Willington he was induced to -take the position of brakesman of the engine at the West Moor Colliery -at Killingworth. He had only been settled in his new place a short -time when his wife died, leaving him with a son Robert. Stephenson -thenceforth threw himself into his work harder than ever, studying -with his son as the boy grew older, and spending a great deal of time -over his plans for a steam-engine that should move the coal-cars. He -knew the needs of the colliery perfectly, had acquired a good -knowledge of mechanics, and proposed to put his knowledge to account. - -He had already, as engine-wright of the Killingworth Colliery, applied -the surplus power of a pumping steam-engine to the work of drawing -coal from the deeper workings of the mine, thereby saving a great -amount of manual and horse labor. When the coal was drawn up it had to -be transported to the quays along the Tyne, and to simplify this -Stephenson laid down inclined planes so that a train of full wagons -moving down the incline was able to draw up another train of empty -wagons. But this would only work over a short distance, and was in -itself a small saving in effort. - -The engines that Mr. Blackett had built, using Trevethick's model as a -basis, were working daily near the Killingworth Colliery, and -Stephenson frequently went over to see them. He studied Mr. Blackett's -latest locomotive, nicknamed "Black Billy," with the greatest care, -and then told his friend Jonathan Foster that he was convinced that he -could build a better engine than Trevethick's, one that would work -more effectively and cheaply and draw a train of cars more steadily. - -He also had the advantage of seeing other primitive locomotives that -were being tried at different places near Newcastle. One of these, -known as Blenkinsop's Leeds engine, ran on a tramway, and would draw -sixteen wagons with a weight of seventy tons at the rate of about -three miles an hour. But the Blenkinsop engine was found to be very -unsteady, and tore up the tram-rails, and when its boiler blew up the -owner decided that the engine was not worth the cost of repair. -Stephenson, however, drew some useful points from it, as well as from -each of the other models he saw, and proposed to himself to follow -Watt's example in constructing his steam-engine, namely, to combine -the plans and discoveries of other inventors in a machine of his own, -and so achieve a more complete success. - -Stephenson was now very well regarded at the colliery for the -improvements he had made there. He brought the matter of building a -new "Traveling Engine," as he called it, to the attention of the -lessees of the mine in 1813. Lord Ravensworth, the principal partner, -formed a favorable opinion of Stephenson's plans, and agreed to supply -him with the funds necessary to build a locomotive. - -With his support Stephenson went to work to choose his tools and -workmen. He had to devise and make many of the tools he needed, and to -train his men specially for this business. He built his first engine -in the workshops at the West Moor Mine. It followed to some extent the -model of Blenkinsop's engine. It had a cylindrical boiler, eight feet -long and thirty-four inches in diameter, with an internal flue tube -passing through it. The engine had two vertical cylinders and worked -the propelling gear with cross-heads and connecting-rods. The power of -the two cylinders was carried by means of spur-wheels, which continued -the motive power to the wheels that supported the engine on the rails. -The engine was simply mounted on a wooden frame that was supported on -four wheels. These wheels were smooth, as Stephenson was convinced -that smooth wheels would run properly on an edge-rail. - -This engine, christened the "Blutcher," and taking about ten months to -build, was tried on the Killingworth Railway on July 25, 1814. It -proved to be the most successful working engine that had yet been -built, and would pull eight loaded wagons of about thirty tons' weight -up a slight grade at the rate of four miles an hour. For some time it -was used daily at the colliery. - -But the "Blutcher" was after all a very clumsy machine. The engine had -no springs, and its movement was a series of jolts, that injured the -rails and shook the machinery apart. The important parts of the -machinery were huddled together, and caused friction, and the -cog-wheels soon became badly worn. Moreover the engine moved scarcely -faster than a horse's walk, and the expense of running it was very -little less than the cost of horse-power. Stephenson saw that he must -in some way increase the power of his engine if he was to provide a -new motive power for the mines. - -In this first engine the steam had been allowed to escape into the air -with a loud, hissing noise, which frightened horses and cattle, and -was generally regarded as a nuisance. Stephenson thought that if he -could carry this steam, after it had done its work in the cylinders, -into the chimney by means of a small pipe, and allow it to escape in a -vertical direction, its velocity would be added to the smoke from the -fire, or the rising current of air in the chimney, and would in that -way increase the draught, and as a result the intensity of combustion -in the furnace. He tried this experiment, and found his conjecture -correct; the blast stimulated combustion, consequently the capability -of the boiler to generate steam was greatly increased, and the power -of the engine increased in the same proportion. No extra weight was -added to the machine. The invention of this steam blast was almost the -turning point in the history of the locomotive. Without it the engine -would have been too clumsy and slow for practical use, but with it the -greatest possibilities of use appeared. - -Encouraged by the success of his steam blast Stephenson started to -build a second locomotive. In this he planned an entire change in -mechanical construction, his principal objects being the use of as few -parts as possible, and the most direct possible application of power -to the wheels. He took out a patent for this engine on February 28, -1815. This locomotive had two vertical cylinders that communicated -directly with each pair of the four wheels that supported the engine, -by means of a cross-head and a pair of connecting-rods. "Ball and -socket" joints were used to make the union between the ends of the -cross-heads where they united with the connecting-rods, and between -the rods and the crank-pins attached to each driving-wheel. The -mechanical skill of his workmen was not equal to the forging of all -the necessary parts as Stephenson had devised them, and he was obliged -to make use of substitutes which did not always work smoothly, but he -finally succeeded in completing a locomotive which was a vast -improvement on all earlier ones, and that was notable for the simple -and direct communication between the cylinders and the wheels, and the -added power gained by using the waste steam in the steam blast. This -second locomotive of Stephenson's was in the main the model for all -those built for a considerable time. - -During the time when Stephenson was working on his second locomotive -explosions of fire-damp were unusually frequent in the coal mines of -Northumberland and Durham, and for a space he turned his attention to -the possibility of inventing some pattern of safety-lamp. The result -was his perfection of a lamp that would furnish the miners with -sufficient light and yet preclude risk of exploding fire-damp. This -came to be known as the "Geordie Lamp," to distinguish it from the -"Davy Lamp" that Sir Humphrey Davy was inventing at about the same -time. The lamp was used successfully by the miners at Killingworth, -and was considered by many as superior to Davy's lamp. Disputes arose -as to which was invented first, and long controversies between -scientific societies, most of which sided with the friends of Davy. -Stephenson himself stated his claims firmly, but without rancor, and -when he saw that it prevented the accidents in mines was satisfied -that he had gained his object, and returned to the more absorbing -subject of locomotives. - -He realized that the road and the rails were almost as important as -the engine itself. At that time the railways were laid in the most -careless fashion, little attention was paid to the rails' proper -joining, and less to the grades of the roads. Stephenson laid down new -rails at Killingworth with "half-lap joints," or extending over each -other for a certain distance at the ends, instead of the "butt joints" -that were formerly used. Over these both the coal-cars drawn by horses -and his locomotive ran much more smoothly. To increase this smoothness -of travel he added a system of spring carriage to his engine, and -saved it from the jolting that had handicapped his first model. - -The second locomotive was proving so efficient at the Killingworth -Colliery that friends of the inventor urged him to look into the -possible use of steam in traveling on the common roads. To study this -he made an instrument called the dynamometer, which enabled him to -calculate the resistance of friction to which carriages would be -exposed on railways. His experiments made him doubtful of the -possibility of running such railroads, unless a great amount of very -expensive tunneling and grading were first done. - -All this time George Stephenson continued to study with his son -Robert. The boy was employed at the colliery, and was rapidly learning -the business under the skilful charge of his father. Stephenson had -decided however that Robert should have a better education than had -been his, and in 1820 took him from his post as viewer in the West -Moor Pit, and sent him to the University of Edinburgh. - -News spread slowly in England in that day, and the fact that a steam -locomotive was being successfully used at Killingworth attracted very -little attention in the rest of the country. Even in the neighborhood -of the mines people soon grew used to seeing "Puffing Billy," as the -engine was called, traveling back and forth from the pit to the quay, -and took it quite for granted. Here and there scattered scientific -men, ever since Watt's perfection of the steam-engine, had considered -the possibility of travel by steam, but practical business men had -failed to come forward to build a railway line. At length, however, -Edward Pease, of Darlington, planned a road to run from Stockton to -Darlington, and set about building it. He had a great deal of -difficulty in forming a company to finance it, but he was a man of -much perseverance, and at length he succeeded. While he was doing this -Stephenson was patiently building new locomotives, and trying to -induce the mine-owners along the Tyne to replace their horse-cars with -his engines. In 1819 the owners of the Hetton Colliery decided to make -this change, and asked Stephenson to take charge of the construction -of their line. He obtained the consent of the Killingworth owners, and -began work. On November 18, 1822, the Hetton Railway was opened. Its -length was about eight miles, and five of Stephenson's locomotives -were working on it, under the direction of his brother Robert. In -building this line George Stephenson was thoroughly practical. -Although he knew that his name was becoming more and more identified -with the locomotive engine, he did not hesitate to use stationary -engines wherever he considered that they would be more economical. In -the Hetton Railway, which ran for a part of its distance through rough -country, he used stationary engines wherever he could not secure -grades that would make locomotives practicable. His own steam-engines -traveled over this line at the rate of about four miles an hour, and -each was able to draw a train of seventeen coal wagons, weighing about -sixty-four tons. - -The coal mines of the Midlands and the north of England had been the -original inducement to inventors to build engines that would draw -cars, and the manufacturing needs of Manchester and Liverpool were now -gradually inducing promoters to consider building railroads. The -growth of Manchester and the towns close to it was tremendous, the -cotton traffic between Manchester and Liverpool had jumped to enormous -figures, and men felt that some new method of communication must be -found. Robert Fulton's friend, the Duke of Bridgewater, had been of -some help with his canal system, but the trade quickly outstripped -this service. Then William James, a man of wealth and influence, a -large landowner and coal-operator, took up the subject of a Liverpool -and Manchester Railway with some business friends, and had a survey of -such a line begun. His men met with every possible resistance from the -country people, who had no wish to have "Puffing Billys" racing -through their fields; bogs had to be crossed and hills leveled; and it -soon appeared that the cost of a road would be very expensive. The -local authorities gave James and his associates some encouragement, -but those members of Parliament he approached were more or less -opposed to his plans. The time was not yet quite ripe for the road, -but the needs of trade were growing more and more pressing. - -Meantime Mr. Pease was again growing eager to build his Darlington and -Stockton line. Near the end of the year 1821 two men called at his -house. One introduced himself as Nicholas Wood, viewer at -Killingworth, and then presented his companion, George Stephenson, of -the same place. Stephenson had letters to Mr. Pease, and after a talk -with him, persuaded him to go to the Killingworth Colliery and see his -locomotives. Pease was much impressed with the engines he saw there, -and even more with Stephenson's ability as a practical engineer. The -upshot of the matter was that Pease reported the results of his visit -to the directors of his company, and they authorized him to secure -Stephenson's services in surveying the line they wished to build. He -took up the work, made careful surveys and reports, and was finally -directed to build a railway according to his own plans. This he did, -working with the best corps of assistants and the most efficient -materials he could find. When the line was nearly completed he made a -tour of inspection over it with his son and a young man named John -Dixon. Dixon later recalled that Stephenson said to the two as they -came to the end of their trip, "Now, lads, I will tell you that I -think you will live to see the day, though I may not live so long, -when railways will come to supersede almost all other methods of -conveyance in this country--when mail coaches will go by railway, and -railroads will become the Great Highway for the king and all his -subjects. The time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man -to travel on a railway than to walk on foot. I know there are great -and almost insurmountable difficulties that will have to be -encountered; but what I have said will come to pass as sure as we -live." - -In spite of the powerful opposition that the company encountered, and -the threats of the road trustees and others, the Stockton and -Darlington line was opened for travel on September 27, 1825. A great -concourse of people had gathered to see the opening of this first -public railway. Everything went well. Stephenson himself drove the -engine, and the train consisted of six wagons, loaded with coal and -flour, then a special passenger coach, filled with the directors and -their friends, then twenty-one wagons temporarily fitted with seats -for passengers, and then six wagons of coal, making thirty-four -carriages in all. A contemporary writer says, "The signal being given -the engine started off with this immense train of carriages; and such -was its velocity, that in some parts the speed was frequently twelve -miles an hour; and at that time the number of passengers was counted -to be four hundred and fifty, which, together with the coals, -merchandise, and carriages, would amount to near ninety tons. The -engine, with its load, arrived at Darlington, a distance of eight and -three-quarter miles, in sixty-five minutes. The six wagons loaded with -coals, intended for Darlington, were then left behind; and, obtaining -a fresh supply of water and arranging the procession to accommodate a -band of music, and numerous passengers from Darlington, the engine set -off again, and arrived at Stockton in three hours and seven minutes, -including stoppages, the distance being nearly twelve miles." By the -time the train reached Stockton there were about six hundred people -riding in the cars or hanging on to them, and the train traveled on a -steady average of four to six miles an hour from Darlington. - -This road was primarily built to transport freight, and passengers -were in reality an afterthought. But the directors decided to try a -passenger coach, and accordingly Stephenson built one. It was an -uncouth carriage, looking something like a caravan used at a country -fair. The doors were at the ends, a row of seats ran along each side -of the interior, and a long deal table extended down the centre. -Stephenson called this coach the "Experiment," and in a short time it -had become the most popular means of travel between Stockton and -Darlington. - -With the Stockton and Darlington Railway an assured and successful -fact, the men who had been interested in building a line between -Liverpool and Manchester earlier took up the subject again. Some -improvement in the means of communication between the two cities was -more needed than ever. The three canals and the turnpike road were -often so crowded that traffic was held up for days and even weeks. In -addition the canal charges were excessive. On the other hand the -railway builders had to meet the opposition of the powerful canal -companies and landowners along the line they wished to open, and it -took time and ingenuity to accomplish working adjustments. - -The Liverpool and Manchester Railway bill came up for consideration in -the House of Commons early in 1825. A determined stand was made -against it, and the promoters and their engineers, chief among whom -was Stephenson, had to be very modest in their claims. Stephenson had -said to friends that he was confident that locomotives could be built -that would carry a train of cars at the rate of twenty miles an hour, -but such a claim would have been received by the public as ridiculous, -and the engineer laughed to scorn. His opponents tried to badger him -in every way they could, and ridicule even his modest statements. -"Suppose now," said one of the members of Parliament in questioning -him, "one of these engines to be going along a railroad at the rate of -nine or ten miles an hour, and that a cow were to stray upon the line -and get in the way of the engine; would not that be a very awkward -circumstance?" "Yes," answered Stephenson, with a twinkling eye, "very -awkward--_for the coo_!" - -In fact very few of the members understood Stephenson's invention at -all. A distinguished barrister represented about the general level of -ignorance when he said in a speech, "Any gale of wind which would -affect the traffic on the Mersey would render it _impossible_ to set -off a locomotive engine, either by poking the fire, or keeping up the -pressure of the steam till the boiler was ready to burst." Against -such opposition it was not surprising that the bill failed of passage -that year. - -But the necessities of commerce could not be denied, and the following -year the bill came up again, and was passed. Stephenson, as principal -engineer of the railway, at once began its building. This in itself -was a unique and very remarkable feat. An immense bog, called Chat -Moss, had to be crossed, and Stephenson was the only one of the -engineers concerned who did not doubt whether such a crossing were -really possible. Ditches that were dug to drain the bog immediately -filled up; as soon as one part was dug out the bog flowed in again; it -swelled rapidly in rainy weather, and piles driven into it would sink -down into the mire. But Stephenson finally built his road across it. A -matting of heath and the branches of trees was laid on the bog's -surface, and in some places hurdles interwoven with heather; this -floating bed was covered over with a few inches of gravel, and on this -the road proper was constructed. In addition to the crossing of Chat -Moss a tunnel of a mile and a half had to be cut under part of -Liverpool, and in several places hills had to be leveled or cut -through. The old post-roads had never had to solve such problems, and -George Stephenson deserves to rank as high as a pioneer of railroad -construction as he does as builder of the working locomotive. - -The directors of the railway were anxious to secure the best engine -possible, and opened a general competition, naming certain conditions -the engine must fulfil. Stephenson and Henry Booth built the "Rocket," -and, as this was the only engine that fulfilled all the conditions, -took the prize. The "Rocket" was by far the most perfect locomotive -yet built, having many new improvements that Stephenson had recently -worked out. - -The "Rocket" would make thirty miles an hour, a wonderful achievement, -and was put to work drawing the gravel that was used in building the -permanent road across Chat Moss. With the aid of such a powerful -engine the work went on more rapidly, and in June, 1830, a trial trip -was made from Liverpool to Manchester and back. There was a huge -gathering at the stations at each end of the line. The train was made -up of two carriages, filled with about forty passengers, and seven -wagons loaded with stores. The "Rocket" drew this train from Liverpool -to Manchester in two hours and one minute, and made the return trip in -an hour and a half. It crossed Chat Moss at the rate of about -twenty-seven miles an hour. - -The public opening of the new road occurred on September 15, 1830. By -that time Stephenson had built eight locomotives, and they were all -ready for service. Much of the opposition of the general public had -been overcome, and the opening was considered a great national event. -The Duke of Wellington, then Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, and many -other prominent men were present. George Stephenson drove the first -engine, the "Northumbrian," and was followed by seven other -locomotives and trains, carrying about 600 passengers. Stephenson's -son drove the second engine, and his brother the third. They started -from Liverpool, and the people massed along the line cheered and -cheered again as they saw the eight trains speed along at the rate of -twenty-four miles an hour. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVES] - -Unfortunately an accident occurred about seventeen miles out of -Liverpool. The first engine, with the carriage containing the Duke of -Wellington, had been stopped on a siding so that the Duke might review -the other trains. Mr. Huskisson, one of the members of Parliament for -Liverpool, and a warm friend and supporter of Stephenson and the -railroad, had stepped from his coach, and was standing on the railway. -The Duke called to him, and he crossed over to shake hands. As they -grasped hands the bystanders began to cry, "Get in, get in!" Confused, -Mr. Huskisson tried to go around the open door of the carriage, which -projected over the opposite rail. As he did so he was hit by the -"Rocket," an engine coming up on the other track, was knocked down, -and had one leg crushed. That same night he died in the near-by -parsonage of Eccles. This first serious railway accident, occurring at -the very opening of the line, cast a gloom over the event. It revealed -something of the danger coincident with the new invention. The Duke of -Wellington and Sir Robert Peel both expressed a wish that the trains -should return to Liverpool, but when it was pointed out that a great -many people had gathered from all the neighboring country at -Manchester, and that to abandon the opening would jeopardize the whole -future success of the road, they agreed to go on. The journey was -completed without any further mishap, and the people of Manchester -gave the eight trains a warm welcome. - -With the opening of this line the success of the railroad as a -practical means of conveyance became assured. Singularly enough the -builders of the railroad had based their estimates almost entirely on -merchandise traffic, and had stated to the committee of the House of -Commons that they did not expect their passenger coaches to be more -than half filled. The carriages they planned to use would have carried -400 to 500 persons if full, but the road was hardly open before the -company had to provide accommodations to carry 1,200 passengers daily, -and the receipts from passenger travel immediately far exceeded the -receipts from carrying freight. - -Similarly the directors had expected that the average speed of the -locomotives would be about nine or ten miles an hour, but very soon -the trains were carrying passengers the entire thirty miles between -Liverpool and Manchester in a little more than an hour. Travel by -stage-coach had taken at least four hours, so that the railroad -reduced the time nearly one-fourth. Engineers who came from a distance -to examine the railroad were amazed at the smoothness of travel over -it. Two experts from Edinburgh declared that traveling on it was -smoother and easier than any they had known over the best turnpikes of -Mr. Macadam. They said that even when the train was going at the very -high speed of twenty-five miles an hour they "could observe the -passengers, among whom were a good many ladies, talking to gentlemen -with the utmost _sang froid_." - -Business men were delighted at being able to leave Liverpool in the -morning, travel to Manchester, do business there, and return home the -same afternoon. The price of coal, and the cost of carrying all -classes of goods, was tremendously reduced. Another result, which was -the opposite of what had been expected, was that the price of land -along the line and near the stations at once rose. Instead of the -noise and smoke of the trains frightening people away it seemed to -charm them. The very landlords who had driven the surveyors off their -property and done everything they could to hinder the builders now -complained if the railroad did not pass directly through their -domains, and begged for stations close at hand. Even the land about -Chat Moss was bought up and improved, and all along the line what had -been waste stretches began to blossom into towns and villages. - -Stephenson continued to make improvements to his locomotives. He had -already added the multitubular boiler, the idea of which was to -increase the evaporative power of the boiler by adding to its heating -surface by means of many small tubes filled with water. This increase -of evaporative power increased the speed the engine could attain. In -his new engine, the "Samson," he adopted the plan of coupling the fore -and rear wheels of the engine. This more effectually secured the -adhesion of the wheels to the rails, and allowed the carrying of -heavier loads. He improved the springs of the carriages, and built -buffers to prevent the bumping of the carriage ends, which had been -very unpleasant for the earliest passengers. He also found a new -method of lubricating his carriage axles, his spring frames, the -buffers, and the brakes he had built for the trains. - -The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was to be followed rapidly by -other lines. George Stephenson was a good man of business as well as a -good engineer. He suggested a number of lucrative opportunities to his -Liverpool friends, and he took a financial share in some of them -himself. He thought there should be a line between Swannington and -Leicester, in order to increase the coal supply of the latter town, -which was quite a manufacturing centre. A company was formed, and his -son Robert was appointed engineer. In the course of the work Robert -learned that an estate near the road was to be sold, and decided that -there was considerable coal there. George Stephenson and two other -friends bought the place, and he took up his residence there, at Alton -Grange, in order to supervise the mining operations. The mine was very -successful, and the railroad proved of the greatest value to the -people of Leicester. Stephenson now changed his position from that of -an employee of coal-owners to that of employer of many miners himself. - -The first railroads to be built were principally branches of the -Liverpool and Manchester one, and chiefly located in the mining and -manufacturing county of Lancaster. But before long the great -metropolis of London required railroad communication with the -Midlands, and the London and Birmingham road was projected. Here again -the promoters had to overcome gigantic obstacles, the opposition of -the great landed proprietors who owned vast estates in the -neighborhood of London, the opposition of the old posting companies, -and of the conservative element who were afraid of the great changes -such a method of transportation would bring about. The natural -difficulties of the first lines were increased a hundredfold, greater -marshes had to be crossed, greater streams to be bridged, greater -hills to be tunneled. But the greater the obstacles the greater -Stephenson's resources proved. When some of his tunnels were flooded, -because the workmen had cut into an unexpected bed of quicksand, he -immediately designed and built a vast system of powerful pumps, and -drew off enough water to fill the Thames from London Bridge to -Woolwich, so that his workmen might continue the tunnels and line them -with masonry sufficiently solid to withstand any future inrush of -water. - -The men who were back of this railroad would very probably never have -projected it had they realized that the building of it would cost five -million pounds. But when the road was opened for use the excess in -traffic beyond the estimates was much greater than the excess in cost -had been. The company was able to pay large dividends, and the -builders found that they could have made no better investment. This -London and Birmingham road, 112 miles long, was opened September 17, -1838. The receipts from passenger traffic alone for the first year -were L608,564. Evidently travel by coach had not been as popular in -reality as the conservatives had ardently maintained. - -It is curious to note the many kinds of opposition these first -railways encountered. Said Mr. Berkeley, a member of Parliament for -Cheltenham, "Nothing is more distasteful to me than to hear the echo -of our hills reverberating with the noise of hissing railroad engines -running through the heart of our hunting country, and destroying that -noble sport to which I have been accustomed from my childhood." One -Colonel Sibthorpe declared that he "would rather meet a highwayman, or -see a burglar on his premises, than an engineer; he should be much -more safe, and of the two classes he thought the former more -respectable!" Sir Astley Cooper, the eminent surgeon, said to Robert -Stephenson, when the latter called to see him about a new road, "Your -scheme is preposterous in the extreme. It is of so extravagant a -character as to be positively absurd. Then look at the recklessness of -your proceedings! You are proposing to cut up our estates in all -directions for the purpose of making an unnecessary road. Do you think -for one moment of the destruction of property involved in it? Why, -gentlemen, if this sort of thing is allowed to go on, you will in a -very few years _destroy the noblesse_!" Physicians maintained that -travel through tunnels would be most prejudicial to health. Dr. -Lardner protested against passengers being compelled to put up with -what he called "the destruction of the atmospheric air," and Sir -Anthony Carlisle insisted that "tunnels would expose healthy people to -colds, catarrhs, and consumption." Many critics expected the boilers -of the locomotives to explode at any and all times. Others were sure -that the railways would throw so many workmen out of employment that -revolution must follow, and still others declared that England was -being delivered utterly into the power of a small group of -manufacturers and mine-owners. But in spite of all this the people -took to riding on the railways and England prospered. - -The aristocracy held out the longest. Noblemen did not relish the -thought of traveling in the same carriages with workmen. The private -coach had for long been a badge of station. For a time, therefore, the -old families and country gentility sent their servants and their -luggage by train, but themselves jogged along the old post-roads in -the family chariots. But there were more accidents and more delays in -travel by coach than by train, and so, one by one, they pocketed their -pride and capitulated. The Duke of Wellington, who had seen the -accident to Mr. Huskisson near Liverpool, held out against such travel -for a long time. But when Queen Victoria, in 1842, used the railway to -go from London to Windsor, the last resistance ended, and the Iron -Duke, together with the rest of his order, followed the Queen's -example. Said the famous Dr. Arnold of Rugby, as he watched a train -speeding through the country, "I rejoice to see it, and think that -feudality is gone forever. It is so great a blessing to think that any -one evil is really extinct." - -Stephenson himself was one of the busiest men in the kingdom. He was -engineer of half a dozen lines that were building, and he traveled -incessantly. Many nights the only sleep he had was while sitting in -his chaise riding over country roads. At dawn he would be at work, -surveying, planning, directing, until nightfall. In three years he -surveyed and directed the construction of the North Midland line, -running from Derby to Leeds, the York and North Midland, from -Normanton to York, the Manchester and Leeds, the Birmingham and Derby, -and the Sheffield and Rotherham. And in addition to this he traveled -far and wide to give advice about distant lines, to the south of -England, to Scotland, and to the north of Ireland to inspect the -proposed Ulster Railway. He took an office in London, in order that he -might take part in the railway discussions that were continually -coming before Parliament. His knowledge of every detail relating to -the subject was enormous. He knew both the engineering and the -business sides most intimately. "In fact," he said to a committee of -the House of Commons in 1841, "there is hardly a railway in England -that I have not had to do with." Yet in spite of all this work he -found time to look after his coal mines near Chesterfield, to -establish lime-works at Ambergate, on the Midland Railway, and to -superintend his flourishing locomotive factory at Newcastle. - -King Leopold of Belgium invited him to Brussels, and there discussed -with him his plans for a railway from Brussels to Ghent. The King made -him a Knight of his Order of Leopold, and when the railway was -finished George Stephenson was one of the chief guests of honor at the -opening. Later he went to France, where he was consulted in regard to -the new line that was building between Orleans and Tours. From there -he went to Spain to look into the possible construction of a road -between Madrid and the Bay of Biscay. He found the government of -Spain indifferent to the railway, and there were many doubts as to -whether there would be sufficient traffic to pay the cost of -construction. His report to the shareholders in this proposed "Royal -North of Spain Railway" was therefore unfavorable, and the idea was -shortly after abandoned. - -Stephenson had moved his home from Alton Grange to Tapton House in -1838. The latter place was a large, comfortable dwelling, beautifully -situated among woods about a mile to the northeast of Chesterfield. -Here he lived the life of a country gentleman, free to indulge the -strong love of nature that had always been one of his leading -characteristics. He began to grow fine fruits and vegetables and -flowers, and his farm and gardens and hothouses became celebrated all -over England. He was continually sought out by inventors and -scientific men, who wanted his views on their particular work. He also -spent some time at Tapton in devising improvements for the locomotive. -One of these was a three-cylinder locomotive, and such an engine was -later used successfully on the North Eastern Railway. It was, however, -found to be too expensive an engine for general railroad use. He also -invented a new self-acting brake. He sent a model of this to the -Institute of Mechanical Engineers at Birmingham, of which he was -president, together with a report describing it in full. "Any -effectual plan," he wrote, "for increasing the safety of railway -traveling is, in my mind, of such vital importance, that I prefer -laying my scheme open to the world to taking out a patent for it; and -it will be a source of great pleasure to me to know that it has been -the means of saving even one human life from destruction, or that it -has prevented one serious concussion." - -He also gave great assistance to his son Robert, who was rapidly -becoming a railway engineer second only to his father in fame. George -Stephenson began the line from Chester to Holyhead, which was -completed by Robert. Robert designed the tubular bridge across the -Menai Straits on this line, which was considered a most remarkable -feat. Permission could not be obtained to interfere with the -navigation of the Straits in the slightest degree during the building, -and so piers and arches could not be used. It occurred to Robert -Stephenson that the train might be run through a hollow iron beam. Two -tubes, which were to form the bridge, were made of wrought iron, -floated out into the stream, and raised into position. This new and -original railway bridge proved a success, and convinced England that -Robert had inherited his father's genius for surmounting what seemed -impossible natural difficulties. George Stephenson did not live to see -this line completed. He died August 12, 1848. - -In many respects Stephenson was like Watt. He came from the working -classes, inheriting no special gift for science, and little leisure to -follow his own bent. What he learned he got at first hand, in the coal -mines and the engine shops. What he accomplished was due largely to -indomitable perseverance. Others had built steam-engines that were -almost successful as locomotives, but for one reason or another had -never pushed their invention to that point where the world could -actually use it. When Stephenson had built his locomotive he fought -for it, he made men take an interest in it, and the world accept it. -He always spoke of his career as a battle. "I have fought," said he, -"for the locomotive single-handed for nearly twenty years, having no -engineer to help me until I had reared engineers under my own care." -And again he said, "I put up with every rebuff, _determined_ not to be -put down." - -Stephenson did for the locomotive what Watt did for the condensing -engine. He took the primitive devices of other men, and by the rare -powers of selection, combination, and invention produced a finished -product of wonderful power and efficiency. True it is that neither -Watt nor Stephenson were the first men to conceive of a steam-engine -or a locomotive, nor even the first to build working models, but they -were the first to finish what they began, and add the steam-engine and -the locomotive to the other servants of men. - -Dr. Arnold was doubtless right when he looked upon the railway as -presaging the end of the feudal system. Its value is beyond any -estimate. It has widened man's horizon, and given him all the lands -instead of only the limits of his homestead. - - - - -X - -MORSE AND THE TELEGRAPH - -1791-1872 - - -On the packet ship _Sully_, sailing from the French port of Havre for -New York on October 1, 1832, were Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, -who had been attending certain lectures on electricity in Paris, and -an American artist named Samuel Finley Breese Morse. Dr. Jackson was -intensely interested in electricity, and more especially in some -experiments that Faraday had lately been making in regard to it. He -had an electromagnet in his trunk, and one day, as a number of the -passengers sat at dinner, he began to describe the laws of -electro-magnetism as they were then known. He told how the force of a -magnet could be tremendously increased by passing an electric current -a number of times about a bar of soft iron. One of the diners asked -how far electricity could be transmitted and how fast it traveled. Dr. -Jackson answered that it seemed to travel instantaneously, none of the -experimenters having detected any appreciable difference in time -between the completing of the electric circuit and the appearance of -the spark at any distance. Morse, who had been interested in the study -of electricity at Yale College, said that if the electric current -could be made visible in any part of the circuit he saw no reason why -messages could not be sent instantaneously by electricity. To send a -message would simply require the breaking of the circuit in such -different ways as could be made to represent the letters of the -alphabet. The conversation went on to other subjects, but the artist -kept the conclusion he had just stated in mind. That night he walked -the deck discussing the matter with Dr. Jackson, and for the rest of -the voyage he was busy jotting down suggestions in his note-book and -elaborating a plan for transforming breaks in an electric current into -letters. - -The facts at his disposal, and his first method of dealing with them, -were comparatively simple. The electric current would travel to any -distance along a wire. The current being broken, a spark would appear. -The spark would stand for one letter. The lack of a spark might stand -for another. The length of its absence would indicate another. With -these three indications as a starting-point he could build up an -alphabet. As there was no limit to the distance that electricity would -travel there seemed no reason why these dots and dashes, or sparks and -spaces, should not be sent all around the world. - -Professor Jeremiah Day had taught Morse at Yale that the electric -spark might be made to pierce a band of unrolling paper. Harrison Gray -Dyar, of New York, in 1827, had shown that the spark would decompose a -chemical solution and so leave a stain as a mark, and it was known -that it would excite an electro-magnet, which would move a piece of -soft iron, and that if a pencil were attached to this a mark would be -made on paper. Therefore Morse knew that if he devised his alphabet -he had only to choose the best method of indicating the dots and -dashes by the current. The voyage from Havre to New York occupied six -weeks, and during the greater part of this time he was busy working -out a mechanical sender which would serve to break the electric -current by a series of types set on a stick which should travel at an -even rate of speed. The teeth of the type would complete the circuit -or would break the current as they passed, and so send the letters. At -the receiving end of the line the current as it was sent would excite -the electro-magnet, which would be attached to a pencil, and so make a -mark, and each mark would represent one of the symbols that were to -stand for letters. He worked day and night over these first plans, and -after a few days showed his notes to Mr. William C. Rives, a -passenger, who had been the United States Minister to France. Mr. -Rives made various criticisms, and Morse took these up in turn, and -after long study overcame each one, so that by the end of the voyage -he felt that he had worked out a practical method of making the -electric current send and receive messages. - -At a later date a contest arose as to the respective claims of Samuel -Morse and Dr. Jackson to be considered the inventor of the recording -telegraph, and the evidence of their fellow passengers on board the -_Sully_ was given in great detail. From all that was then said it -would appear that Dr. Jackson knew quite as much, if not more, about -the properties of electro-magnetism than Morse did, but that he was of -a speculative turn of mind, whereas Morse was practical, and capable -of reducing the other's theories to a working basis. The note-books he -submitted, and which were well remembered by many of his fellow -voyagers, showed the various combinations of dots, lines, and spaces -with which he was constructing an alphabet, and also the crude -diagrams of the recording instrument which should mark the dots and -lines on a rolling piece of paper. Captain Pell, in command of the -_Sully_, testified later, that as the packet came into port Morse said -to him, "Well, Captain, should you hear of the telegraph one of these -days as the wonder of the world, remember that the discovery was made -on board the good ship _Sully_." The times were ripe for his great -invention, and although other men, abler scientists and students, had -foreseen the possibilities of such a system, it was Morse who -determined to put it into practice. - -But Samuel Morse was a painter, and all his career thus far had lain -along artistic lines. True, when he was an undergraduate at Yale he -had been much interested in Professor Day's lectures on electricity, -and had written long letters home in regard to them. But when he was -about to graduate, he wrote to his father, a well-known clergyman of -Charlestown, Massachusetts, "I am now released from college, and am -attending to painting. As to my choice of a profession, I still think -I was made for a painter, and would be obliged to you to make such -arrangements with Mr. Allston for my studying with him as you shall -think expedient. I should desire to study with him during the winter; -and, as he expects to return to England in the spring, I should -admire to be able to go with him. But of this we will talk when we -meet at home." - -Washington Allston was at that time the leading influence in the -primitive art life of the country, and Morse was very fortunate to -have won his friendship and interest. Allston took him to England, and -there introduced him to Benjamin West, the dean of painters and a man -who was always eager to aid young countrymen of his who planned to -follow his career. Morse made a careful drawing of the Farnese -Hercules and took it to West. The veteran examined it and handed it -back, saying, "Now finish it." Morse worked over it some time longer, -and returned it to West. "Very well, indeed, sir," said West. "Go on -and finish it." "Is it not finished?" asked Morse. "See," said West, -"you have not marked that muscle, nor the articulation of the -finger-joints." Again Morse worked over it, and again returned, only -to meet with the same counsel to complete the picture. Then the older -man relented. "Well, I have tried you long enough," said he. "Now, -sir, you have learned more by this drawing than you would have -accomplished in double the time by a dozen half-finished beginnings. -It is not many drawings, but the character of one which makes a -thorough draughtsman. Finish one picture, sir, and you are a painter." - -Morse now decided to paint a large picture of "The Dying Hercules" for -exhibition at the Royal Academy. In order to be sure of the anatomy he -first modeled the figure in clay, and this cast was so well done that, -acting on West's advice, he entered it for a prize in sculpture then -offered by the Society of Arts. This entry won, and the young American -was presented with the gold medal of the society before a -distinguished audience. The picture that he painted from this model -was hung at the exhibition of the Royal Academy, and received high -praise from the critics, so that Morse felt he had begun his career as -artist most auspiciously. - -His natural inclination was toward the painting of large canvases -dealing with historical and mythical subjects, which were much in -fashion at that period, and he now set to work on the subject, "The -Judgment of Jupiter in the case of Apollo, Marpessa, and Idas." This -was to be submitted for the prize of fifty guineas and medal offered -by the Royal Academy. It seems to have been a fine piece of work, and -met with West's hearty praise, but before it could be submitted the -artist was obliged to return home at an urgent summons from his -father. - -Boston had already heard of Morse's success in London when he reached -home in October, 1815. His "Judgment of Jupiter" was exhibited, and -became the talk of the town, but when he opened a studio and began to -paint no one offered to buy any of his pictures. He needed money -badly, and he saw none coming his way. After a year's struggle he -closed his studio, and traveled through the country sections of New -England, looking for work as a portrait painter. This he found, and he -wrote to his parents from Concord, New Hampshire, "I have painted five -portraits at $15 each, and have two more engaged and many talked of. I -think I shall get along well. I believe I could make an independent -fortune in a few years if I devoted myself exclusively to portraits, -so great is the desire for good portraits in the different country -towns." - -In Concord he met Miss Lucretia P. Walker, whom he married a few years -later. Meantime he went to visit his uncle in Charleston, South -Carolina, and found his portraits so popular that he received one -hundred and fifty orders in a few weeks. He was also commissioned to -paint a portrait of James Monroe, then President, for the Charleston -Common Council, and the picture was considered a striking masterpiece. -He soon after married, and settled his household goods in New York, -with $3,000 made by his portraits, as his capital. - -He knew what he wanted to do, to paint great historical pictures. But -the public did not appreciate his efforts in that line. He painted a -large exhibition picture for the National House of Representatives, -but it was not purchased by the government. On the other hand the -Corporation of New York commissioned him to paint the portrait of -Lafayette, who was then visiting America. At the same time he became -enthusiastic over the founding of a new society of artists, and was -chosen the first president of the National Academy of Design. - -His small capital was dwindling. His efforts to paint historical -pictures rather than portraits, and his share in paying off certain -debts of his father's, had made great inroads on the money he had -saved. To add to his misfortunes his wife died in February, 1825. In -1829 he went abroad, visited the great galleries of Europe, and tried -to find a more ready market for his historical studies. It was on his -return from France in 1832 that the conversation of Dr. Jackson and -the other passengers turned his thoughts in the direction of an -electric telegraph. - -Now came his gradual transformation from painter to inventor. His -brothers gave him a room with them in New York, and this became his -studio and laboratory at one and the same time. Easels and -plastercasts were mixed with type-moulds and galvanic batteries, and -Morse turned from a portrait to his working model of telegraph -transmitter and back again a dozen times a day. He painted to make his -living, but his interest was steadily turning to his invention. - -He had many friends, and a wide reputation as a man of great -intellectual ability, and in a few years he was appointed the first -Professor of the Literature of the Arts of Design in the new -University of the City of New York. This gave him a home in the -university building on Washington Square, and there he moved his -apparatus. At this time he was chiefly concerned with the question of -how far a message could be sent by the electric current, for it was -known that the current grew feebler in proportion to the resistance of -the wire through which it travels. He had learned that the -electro-magnet at the receiving end would at any great distance become -so enfeebled that it would fail to make any record of the message. His -solution of this difficulty was a relay system. He explained this to -Professor Gale, a colleague at the university, who later testified as -to Morse's work. "Suppose," said the inventor, "that in experimenting -on twenty miles of wire we should find that the power of magnetism is -so feeble that it will not move a lever with certainty a hair's -breadth: that would be insufficient, it may be, to write or print; yet -it would be sufficient to close and break another or a second circuit -twenty miles farther, and this second circuit could be made, in the -same manner, to break and close a third circuit twenty miles farther, -and so on around the globe." Gale proved of great assistance. So far -Morse had only used his recorder over a few yards of wire, his -electro-magnet had been of the simplest make, and his battery was a -single pair of plates. Gale suggested that his simple electro-magnet, -with its few turns of thick wire, should be replaced by one with a -coil of long thin wire. In this way a much feebler current would be -able to excite the magnet, and the recorder would mark at a much -greater distance. He also urged the use of a much more powerful -battery. The two men now erected a working telegraph in the rooms of -the university, and found that they could send and receive messages at -will. - -It is interesting to read Morse's own words in regard to the beginning -of his work at Washington Square. "There," he said, "I immediately -commenced, with very limited means, to experiment upon my invention. -My first instrument was made up of an old picture or canvas frame -fastened to a table; the wheels of an old wooden clock, moved by a -weight to carry the paper forward; three wooden drums, upon one of -which the paper was wound and passed over the other two; a wooden -pendulum suspended to the top piece of the picture or stretching frame -and vibrating across the paper as it passed over the centre wooden -drum; a pencil at the lower end of the pendulum, in contact with the -paper; an electro-magnet fastened to a shelf across the picture or -stretching frame, opposite to an armature made fast to the pendulum; a -type rule and type for breaking the circuit, resting on an endless -band, composed of carpet-binding, which passed over two wooden rollers -moved by a wooden crank. - -"Up to the autumn of 1837 my telegraphic apparatus existed in so rude -a form that I felt a reluctance to have it seen. My means were very -limited--so limited as to preclude the possibility of constructing an -apparatus of such mechanical finish as to warrant my success in -venturing upon its public exhibition. I had no wish to expose to -ridicule the representative of so many hours of laborious thought. -Prior to the summer of 1837, at which time Mr. Alfred Vail's attention -became attracted to my telegraph, I depended upon my pencil for -subsistence. Indeed, so straightened were my circumstances that, in -order to save time to carry out my invention and to economize my -scanty means, I had for many months lodged and eaten in my studio, -procuring my food in small quantities from some grocery and preparing -it myself. To conceal from my friends the stinted manner in which I -lived, I was in the habit of bringing my food to my room in the -evenings, and this was my mode of life for many years." - -Before he devoted all his time to his invention Morse had been -anxious to paint a large historical picture for one of the panels in -the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington. His offer had been rejected, -and this had led a number of his friends to raise a fund and -commission him to paint such a picture. He chose as his subject "The -Signing of the First Compact on Board the _Mayflower_." But he was now -so much engrossed with his experiments that he gave up the plan and -the fund was returned to the subscribers. - -We have already heard in Morse's statement of the arrival of Mr. -Alfred Vail. He was to have much to do with the success of Morse's -invention. He had happened to call at the university building when the -inventor was showing his models to several visiting scientists. -"Professor Morse," said Mr. Vail, "was exhibiting to these gentlemen -an apparatus which he called his Electro-Magnetic Telegraph. There -were wires suspended in the room running from one end of it to the -other, and returning many times, making a length of several hundred -feet. The two ends of the wire were connected with an electro-magnet -fastened to a vertical wooden frame. In front of the magnet was its -armature, and also a wooden lever or arm fitted at its extremity to -hold a lead pencil.... I saw this instrument work, and became -thoroughly acquainted with the principle of its operation, and, I may -say, struck with the rude machine, containing, as I believed, the germ -of what was destined to produce great changes in the conditions and -relations of mankind. I well recollect the impression which was then -made upon my mind.... Before leaving the room in which I beheld for -the first time this magnificent invention, I asked Professor Morse if -he intended to make an experiment on a more extended line of -conductors. He replied that he did, but that he desired pecuniary -assistance to carry out his plans. I promised him assistance provided -he would admit me into a share of the invention, to which proposition -he assented.... The question then arose in my mind, whether the -electro-magnet could be made to work through the necessary lengths of -line, and after much reflection I came to the conclusion that, -provided the magnet would work even at a distance of eight or ten -miles, there could be no risk in embarking in the enterprise. And upon -this I decided in my own mind to sink or swim with it." - -Alfred Vail secured his father's financial assistance, and in -September, 1837, an agreement was executed by which Vail was to -construct a model of Morse's telegraph for exhibition to Congress, and -to secure the necessary United States patents, in return for which he -was to have a one-fourth interest in these patent rights. The patent -was obtained on October 3, 1837, and Vail set to work to prepare the -new models. Almost all the apparatus that was used had to be specially -made for the purpose, or altered from its original use. The first -working battery was placed in a cherry-wood box divided into cells and -lined with beeswax, and the insulated wire was the same as that the -milliners used in building up the high bonnets fashionable at that -day. Vail made certain improvements as he worked on his model. He -replaced the recording pencil with a fountain pen, and instead of the -zigzag signals used the short and long lines that came to be called -"dots" and "dashes." He learned from the typesetters of a newspaper -office what letters occurred most frequently in ordinary usage, and -constructed the Morse or Vail code on the principle of using the -simplest signals to represent those letters that would be most needed. - -By the winter of 1837 many people had seen the telegraph instruments -at the university building, but few of them considered them more than -ingenious toys. Scientific men had talked of the possibilities of an -electric telegraph for a number of years, but the public had seen none -actually installed. Even Vail's father began to doubt the wisdom of -his son's investment. To convince him the young man, on January 6, -1838, asked his father to come to the experimenting shop where Morse -and he were working. He explained how the model operated, and said -that he could send any message to Morse, who was stationed some -distance away at the receiving end. The father took a piece of paper, -and wrote on it, "A patient waiter is no loser." "There," said he, "if -you can send this, and Mr. Morse can read it at the other end I shall -be convinced." The message was sent over the wire, and correctly read -by Morse. Then Mr. Vail admitted that he was satisfied. - -Morse now decided to bring his invention to the attention of Congress. -He was permitted to set up his apparatus in the room of the House -Committee on Commerce at the Capitol. There he gave an exhibition to -the committee, but most of them doubted if his plans for sending -long-distance messages were really feasible. On February 21, 1838, -he worked his telegraph through ten miles of wire contained on a reel, -with President Van Buren and his cabinet as an audience. Then he asked -that Congress appropriate sufficient money to enable him to construct -a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. The chairman of the -Committee on Commerce, Francis O. J. Smith, of Maine, was very much -interested by now, and drafted a bill appropriating $30,000 for this -purpose. But the bill did not come to a vote, and the matter was -allowed to drop. - -[Illustration: MORSE AND THE FIRST TELEGRAPH] - -Meantime rival claimants to the invention were appearing on all sides. -Morse decided that he must try to secure European patents, and went -abroad for that purpose. His claim was opposed in England, and in -France it was finally decided that in the case of such an invention -the government must be the owner. He was well received, and given the -fullest credit for his achievements, but the patents were refused, and -he had to return home with his small capital much depleted and -business prospects at a low ebb. Moreover, the United States -government now seemed to have lost interest in the subject, and his -partners, the Vails, were having financial difficulties of their own. - -While he waited he continued to experiment. He believed that the -electric current could be sent under water as easily as through the -air, and to try this he insulated a wire two miles long with hempen -threads that were saturated with pitch-tar and wrapped with -India-rubber. He unreeled this cable from a small rowboat between -Castle Garden and Governor's Island in New York Harbor on the night -of October 18, 1842. At daybreak Morse was at the station at the -Battery, and began to send a message through his submarine cable. He -had succeeded in sending three or four characters when the -communication suddenly stopped, and although he waited and kept on -with his trials no further letters could be transmitted. On -investigation it appeared that no less than seven ships were lying -along the line of Morse's cable, and that one of these, in getting -under way, had lifted the cable on her anchor. The sailors hauled two -hundred feet of it on deck, and, seeing no end to it, cut it, and -carried part of it away with them. But the test had proved Morse's -theory, and he became convinced that in time messages could be sent -across the ocean as easily as over land. - -When Congress met in December, 1842, Morse again appeared in -Washington to obtain financial help. Congress was not very -enthusiastic over his project, but the House Committee on Commerce -finally recommended an appropriation of $30,000, and a bill to that -effect was passed in the House of Representatives by the small -majority of six votes. The Senate was overcrowded with bills, and -Morse's was continually postponed. In the early evening of the last -day of the session there were one hundred and nineteen bills to come -to vote before his, and it seemed impossible that it should be taken -up. Morse, who had been sitting in the gallery all day, concluded that -further waiting was useless, and went back to his hotel, planning to -leave for New York early the next morning. He found that after paying -his hotel bill he would have less than half a dollar in the world. -But as he came down to breakfast the following morning he was met by -Miss Ellsworth, the daughter of his friend, the Commissioner of -Patents. She held out her hand, saying, "I have come to congratulate -you." - -"Congratulate me! Upon what?" asked Morse. - -"On the passage of your bill," she answered. - -"Impossible! It couldn't come up last evening. You must be mistaken," -said the inventor. - -"No," said Miss Ellsworth, "father sent me to tell you that your bill -was passed. He remained until the session closed, and yours was the -last bill but one acted upon, and it was passed just five minutes -before the adjournment." - -In return for this news Morse promised that Miss Ellsworth should send -the first message when his telegraph line was opened. That same day he -wrote to Alfred Vail that the bill "was reached a few minutes before -midnight and passed. This was the turning point in the history of the -telegraph. My personal funds were reduced to the fraction of a dollar, -and, had the passage of the bill failed from any cause, there would -have been little prospect of another attempt on my part to introduce -to the world my new invention." - -It had been decided to construct an underground line between -Washington and Baltimore, the conductor being a five-wire cable laid -in pipes, but after several miles had been laid from Baltimore the -insulation broke down. A very large part of the government grant had -been spent, and the situation looked very dubious. But after some -discussion it was determined to carry the wire by poles, as this -could be done much more rapidly and at smaller expense. - -The National Whig Convention, to nominate candidates for President and -Vice-President, met at Baltimore on May 1, 1844. The overhead wire had -been started from Washington toward Baltimore, and by that day -twenty-two miles of it were in working order. The day before the -convention met Morse had arranged with Vail that certain signals -should mean that certain candidates had been nominated. Henry Clay was -named for President, and the news was carried by railroad to the point -where Morse had stretched his wire. He signaled it to Washington, and -the Capitol heard it long before the first messages arrived by train. - -On May 24, 1844, the line was completed, and Miss Ellsworth was -invited to send the first message from the room of the United States -Supreme Court to Baltimore. She chose the Biblical words "What hath -God wrought?" and this was sent over the telegraph. Vail received the -message in Baltimore, and the first demonstration was a complete -success. The younger man had added an improvement of his own; instead -of the dots and dashes being indicated by the markings of a pen or -pencil they were embossed on the paper with a metal stylus. - -An incident in connection with the Democratic Convention, which was -then in session in Baltimore for the purpose of nominating -presidential candidates, added to the public interest in Morse's -telegraph. The Democrats had named James K. Polk for President and -Silas Wright for Vice-President. The news was sent by wire to -Washington, and Mr. Wright sent his message declining the honor over -the telegraph. The chairman of the meeting, Hendrick B. Wright, -received the message. In a letter to Benson J. Lossing he says, "As -the presiding officer of the body I read the despatch, but so -incredulous were the members as to the authority of the evidence -before them that the convention adjourned over to the following day to -await the report of the committee sent over to Washington to get -_reliable_ information on the subject." The committee returned with -word that the telegraph message had been correct. Then, all but the -convention committee being excluded from the telegraph room in -Baltimore, message after message was sent over the wire by Vail to -Morse and Silas Wright in Washington. The committee used many -arguments to urge Wright's acceptance; he answered them all, -persisting in his refusal; and finally this decision was reported to -the convention, which nominated Mr. Dallas in his place. The story of -the part the new invention had played quickly spread abroad, and added -to the intense public interest now focussed on it. - -On April 1, 1845, the first telegraph line between Washington and -Baltimore was opened for general use. Congress had appropriated $8,000 -to maintain it for the first year, and placed it under the direction -of the Postmaster-General. The official charge was one cent for every -four characters transmitted. The receipts of the first four days were -one cent, for the fifth day twelve and a half cents, for the seventh -sixty cents, for the eighth one dollar and thirty-two cents, for the -ninth one dollar and four cents. Morse offered to sell his invention -to the government for $100,000, but the Postmaster-General declined -the offer, stating in his report that the service "had not satisfied -him that under any rate of postage that could be adopted its revenues -could be made equal to its expenditures." - -With the public opening of the line between Washington and Baltimore -the practical success of the new electric telegraph was assured. The -Magnetic Telegraph Company was formed to carry a wire from New York to -Philadelphia, and thence another line was run to Baltimore in 1846. -The telegraph being an accomplished fact, pirates of the patent now -appeared, and for a course of years Morse and his partners had to -fight for their rights. Henry O'Reilly, who had been employed in -building the first lines, contracted to construct another from -Philadelphia to St. Louis, and when that was finished he formed a -company known as the People's Line, to run to New Orleans. He claimed -to use instruments entirely different from those patented by Morse, -and so to be free from the payment of royalties. Morse applied for an -injunction, and on appeal the Federal Supreme Court decided in his -favor. Other similar suits followed, and in each one the decision -justified Morse's contention. The conclusion was that even though -other men had known of the possibilities by experiment, it was the -fact that he had first put the matter into practical form directed -toward a specific purpose, and hence was to be regarded in law as the -inventor. - -The telegraph grew with the country. The Western Union Company -followed the stage-coach across the plains to California, and soon the -frontier towns were linked to the large cities of the East. Other men -took up the work in other lines, and in 1854 Cyrus W. Field formed the -Atlantic Telegraph Company to lay a cable between America and Europe. -As Morse had said when he first began seriously to study the subject -on board the _Sully_, "If it will go ten miles without stopping I can -make it go around the globe." - -The inventor found himself universally honored, and at last a very -wealthy man. He married Miss Griswold of Poughkeepsie, and bought an -estate of two hundred acres near that city. He was given degrees by -American and European universities and societies, was made a member of -the French Legion of Honor, received orders of knighthood from the -rulers of Spain and Italy, Denmark, Turkey, and Portugal. In 1858 the -Emperor of the French called a Congress in Paris to honor Morse, and -the Congress awarded him a gift of 400,000 francs as a token of -gratitude. In his eightieth year his statue in bronze was placed in -Central Park, New York, and his countrymen did their utmost to show -him their appreciation of his great achievement. He died in 1872, a -short time after he had unveiled a statue of Benjamin Franklin in New -York's Printing-house Square. - -Morse was the inventor, but his partner Alfred Vail had a great share -in making the present telegraph. He discarded the original porte-rule -and type of the transmitter for the key or lever, moved up and down by -hand to complete or break the circuit. He perfected the dot and dash -code, he invented the device for embossing the message, and replaced -the inking pen by a metal disc, smeared with ink, that rolled the dots -and dashes on the paper. When it was found that the telegraph -operators would read the signals from the clicking of the marking -lever instead of from the paper, he made an instrument which had no -marking device, and in which the signals were sounded by the striking -of the lever of the armature against the metal stops. This "sounder" -soon drove out the old Morse recorder. The present instrument is in -its mechanical form far more the work of Vail than of Morse. - - - - -XI - -McCORMICK AND THE REAPER - -1809-1884 - - -The same sturdy pioneer stock that gave America Daniel Boone and -Lincoln, Robert Fulton and Andrew Jackson, produced the inventor of -the reaper. He came of a line of resourceful, fearless Scotch-Irish -settlers, bone of the bone and sinew of the sinew of those generations -that laid the broad foundations of the United States. His -great-grandfather had been an Indian fighter in the colony of -Pennsylvania, his grandfather had moved to Virginia and fought in the -Revolution, and his father had built a log-house and tilled a farm in -that strip of arable Virginia land that lay between the Blue Ridge and -the Alleghany Mountains. He prospered, and added neighboring farms to -his original holding; he had two grist-mills, two sawmills, a -blacksmith shop, a smelting-furnace, and a distillery; he invented new -makes of farm machinery, and in addition was a man of considerable -reading, able to hold his own in discussion with the lawyers and the -clergymen of the countryside. He was of that same well-developed type -of countryman of whom so many were to be found in the thirteen -original states and the borderlands to the west, that settler type -which was the real backbone of the young country. - -The McCormick house and farm was almost a small village in itself. -There were eight children, and their shoes were cobbled, their clothes -woven, their very beds and chairs and tables built at home. Whatever -was needed could be done, the family were always busy within doors or -without, and the spirit of helpfulness and invention was in the air. -Into such a setting Cyrus Hall McCormick was born in 1809, the same -year that saw the birth of Lincoln. - -He went to one of the Old Field Schools, so called because it was -built on ground that had been abandoned for farm use. He learned what -other boys and girls were learning in simple country schools, but he -studied harder than most of them, because he had a keen desire to -understand thoroughly whatever subject he started. He saw his father -busy in his workshop at all spare moments, and he took him as a -pattern. After weeks of work he brought his teacher a remarkably exact -map of the world, drawn to scale, and outlined in ink on paper pasted -on linen, and fastened on two rollers. The work showed his ingenious -fancy, and perhaps determined his father to have him educated as a -surveyor. At eighteen he began this study, and had soon won a good -reputation in the neighborhood as an engineer. Much of the time he -spent in the fields with his father, and here he soon learned that -reaping wheat was no easy task, and that swinging a wheat cradle under -the summer sun was hard on both the temper and the back. - -Many men had tried to lighten the farmer's labor in cutting grain, and -Cyrus McCormick's father had long had the ambition to invent a -reaper. He had succeeded in building a cumbersome machine that was -pushed at the back by a pair of horses. The plan of the machine was -well enough; it consisted of a row of short curved sickles that were -fastened to upright posts. Revolving rods drove the wheat up against -the sickles. The machine acted properly, but the grain would not. -Instead of standing up straight and separated to be cut the wheat -would more often come in great bunches, twisting about the sickles and -getting tangled in the machinery. Mr. McCormick tried the machine in -the harvesting of 1816, but it would not work, and had to be carted -away to the workshop as an invention gone wrong. But he persevered -with this idea, and from time to time built other models. After a -number of years he brought forth a machine that would cut, but left -the wheat after cutting in a badly tangled shape. He saw that this was -not sufficient. The reaper to be of real use must dispose of the grain -properly as well as shear the stalks. - -Cyrus now took up the work that his father reluctantly abandoned. He -decided to build his reaper on entirely new lines. First he dealt with -the problem of how to separate the grain that was to be cut from that -which was to be left standing. This he finally solved by adding a -curved arm, or divider, to the end of his reaper's blade. In this way -the grain that was to be cut would be properly fed to the knife. - -But the grain was apt to be badly tangled before the reaper reached -it, and his machine must be able to cut that which was pressed down -and out of shape as well as that which was standing straight. To -accomplish this he decided that his knife must have two motions, one a -forward cut, and the other sideways. He tried many plans before he -finally hit upon one that solved this for him. It was a straight knife -blade that moved forward and backward, cutting with each motion. This -idea became known as the reciprocating blade. - -Yet even though the machine could divide the grain properly, and the -knife cut with a double motion, there was the possibility that the -blade might simply press the grain down and so slide over it. This was -especially apt to be the case after a rain, or when the grain had been -badly blown about by the wind. The problem now was how to hold it -upright. He found the solution lay in adding a row of indentations -that projected a few inches from the edge of the knife, and acted like -fingers in catching the stalks and holding them in place to be cut. - -These three ideas, the divider, the reciprocating blade, and the -fingers, were all fundamental devices of the machine Cyrus McCormick -was building. They all met the question of how the grain could be cut. -To these he next added a revolving reel, that would lift any grain -that had fallen and straighten it, and a platform to catch the grain -as it was cut and fell. His idea was that a man should walk along -beside the reaper and rake off the grain as it fell upon the platform. - -Two more devices, and his first machine was completed. One was to have -the shafts placed on the outside of the reaper, or so that the horse -would pull it sideways, instead of having to push it, as had been the -case with his father's model. The other was to have the whole machine -practically operated by one big wheel, which should bear the weight -and move the knife and the reel. - -It had taken young McCormick many months to work out all these -problems, and there were only one or two weeks each year, the harvest -weeks, when he could actually try his machine. He wanted to use it in -the spring of 1831, but he found that the work of finishing all the -necessary details was enormous. He begged his father to leave a small -patch of wheat for him to try to cut, and at last, one day in July of -that year, he drove his cumbersome machine into the field. All his -family watched as the reaper headed toward the grain. They saw the -wheat gathered and swept down upon the knife, they saw the blade move -back and forth and cut the grain, and then saw it fall upon the little -platform. The machine worked with hitches, not nearly so smoothly nor -so efficiently as it should, but it did work; it gathered the grain in -and it left it in good shape to be raked off the platform. The trial -proved that such a machine could be made to do the work, and that was -all that the inventor wanted. - -He drove it back to his workshop and made certain changes in the reel -and the divider. Then, several days later, he drove it over to the -little settlement at Steele's Tavern, and cut six acres of oats in one -afternoon. That was a marvelous feat, and caused great wonder in the -countryside, but the harvesting season had ended, and the inventor -would have to wait a year before he could prove the use of his machine -again. - -By the next year McCormick was ready for a larger audience. The town -of Lexington lay some eighteen miles south of his home, and he made -arrangements with a farmer there, named John Ruff, to give an -exhibition of his reaper in the latter's field. Over a hundred people -were present when McCormick arrived, all curious to see what could be -done with the complicated-looking machine. Many of them were -harvesters themselves, and none too eager to see a mechanical device -enter into competition for their work. The field was hilly and rough, -and the reaper careened about in it like a ship in a gale. The farmer -grew indignant, and protested that McCormick would ruin all his wheat, -and the laborers began to jeer and joke at the machine's expense. The -exhibition gave every sign of proving a failure when one of the -spectators called out that he owned the next field and would be glad -to give McCormick a chance there. This field was level, and the young -man quickly turned his reaper into it. Before sunset he had cut six -acres of wheat, and convinced his audience that his machine was a -great improvement over the old method. That evening he drove the -reaper to the court-house square and explained its working to the -towns people. Very few of them saw how it was to revolutionize the -farmer's labor, but one or two did. Professor Bradshaw, of the local -academy, studied the machine, and then stated publicly that in his -opinion, "This machine is worth a hundred thousand dollars." - -[Illustration: THE EARLIEST REAPER] - -But if Cyrus McCormick had been fortunate in growing up on a farm -where he could study the problem of cutting grain at first hand he was -now to find that he was not so fortunate when it came to building -other reapers and marketing them. His home was four days' travel from -Richmond. He must have money to get the iron for his machines, to -advertise, and to pay agents to try to sell them. He had very little -money. He did advertise in the _Lexington Union_ in September, 1833, -offering reapers for sale at fifty dollars; but there were no answers -to his advertisements. So skeptical were the farmers that it was seven -years before one bought a reaper of him. But he had faith enough in -his invention to take out a patent on it in 1834. - -Until now McCormick had depended on the farm for his livelihood, but -there was little profit in this, and he turned his attention to a -deposit of iron ore in the neighborhood, and built a furnace and began -to make iron. This succeeded until the panic of 1837 reached the -Virginia country and brought debt and lowered prices with it. Cyrus -surrendered his farm and what other property he had to his creditors. -None of them was sufficiently interested in the crude reaper to -consider it worth taking. - -But the inventor hung on to his faith in this machine, although no one -appeared to buy it, and the expense he had gone to in making it had -practically bankrupted him. And his faith met with its reward, for one -day in 1840 a stranger rode up to the door of his workshop and offered -fifty dollars for a reaper. He had seen one of the machines on -exhibition, and had decided to try it. A little later two other -farmers who lived on the James River appeared and gave McCormick two -more orders. He had the satisfaction of knowing that in the harvest of -1840 three of his reapers were having a trying out. - -The next year he was busy trying to perfect a blade that would cut wet -grain. This took him weeks of experimenting, but at last he found that -a serrated edge of a certain pattern would produce the effect he -wanted. He added this to the new machines he was building, fixed the -price of the reaper at one hundred dollars, and in 1842 sold seven -machines, in 1843 twenty-nine, and in 1844 fifty. At last he had -justified himself, and the log workshop had become a busy factory. - -An invention of such great value to the farmer naturally advertised -itself through the country districts. Men who heard of a machine that -would cut one hundred and seventy-five acres of wheat in less than -eight days--as happened in one case--naturally decided that it was -worth investigating. And those who already owned machines saw a chance -to make money by selling to their neighbors. One man paid McCormick -$1,333 for the reaper agency of eight counties, another $500 for the -right in five other counties, and a business man offered $2,500 for -the agency in southern Virginia. Meantime orders were coming in from -the distant states of Illinois, Wisconsin, Missouri, and Iowa, and the -little home factory was being pushed to the utmost. - -But it was not only difficult to obtain the necessary materials for -building reapers on the remote Virginia farm, it was almost impossible -to ship the machines ordered in time for the harvests. Those that went -west had to be taken by wagon to Scottsville, sent down the canal to -Richmond, put on shipboard for the long journey down the James River -to the Atlantic and so by ocean to New Orleans, changed there to a -river steamer that should take them up the Mississippi and by the Ohio -River to the distributing point of Cincinnati. Many delays might -happen in such a long trip, and many delays did happen, and in several -cases the reapers did not reach the farmers who had ordered them until -long after the harvesting season was over. McCormick saw that he must -build his reapers in a more central place. - -At that time labor was very scarce in the great central region of the -country, and the farms were enormous. The wheat was going to waste, -for there were not enough scythes and sickles to cut it. McCormick -started on a trip through the middle West, and what he saw convinced -him that his reaper would soon be an absolute necessity on every farm. -All he needed was to find the best point for building his machines and -shipping them. He studied this matter with the greatest care, and -finally decided that the strategic place was the little town of -Chicago, situated on one of the Great Lakes, and half-way between the -prairies of the West and the commercial depots and factories of the -eastern seaboard. - -Chicago in 1847 was still little more than a frontier town. It had -fought gamely with floods and droughts, with cholera and panics, with -desperadoes and with land thieves. But men saw that it was bound to -grow, for railroads would have to come to bring the wheat and others -to carry it away, and that meant that some day it would be a great -metropolis. McCormick, like most of the other business builders who -were streaming into Chicago, only wanted credit to enable him to build -and sell his goods, and he was fortunate enough to find a rich and -prominent citizen named William B. Ogden, who was ready to give him -credit and enter into partnership with him. - -Ogden gave McCormick $25,000 for a half interest in the business of -making reapers, and started at once to build a factory. At last the -inventor was firmly established. He arranged to sell five hundred -reapers for the harvest of 1848, and as one after another was sent out -into the great wheat belts and set up and tried, the farmers who saw -them decided that the reapers spelled prosperity for them. The -business grew, and at the end of two years, when the partners found it -wiser to dissolve their firm, McCormick was able to tell Ogden that he -would pay him back the $25,000 that he had invested, and give him -$25,000 more for interest and profits. Ogden accepted, and McCormick -became sole owner of the business. - -Cyrus McCormick was not only an inventor, but a business-builder of -the rarest talent, one of the great pioneers in a field that was later -to be cultivated in the United States to a remarkable degree. He knew -he had a machine that would lessen labor and increase wealth wherever -wheat was grown, and he felt that it was his mission to see that the -reaper should do its share in the progress of the world. In that sense -he was more than a mere business man; but in another sense he was a -gigantic business-builder. Just as he had studied the problem of -cutting wheat with the object of producing the most efficient machine -possible, so he now studied the problem of selling his reapers in such -a way that every farmer should own one. He believed in liberal -advertising, and he had posters printed with a picture of the reaper -at the top, and below it a formal guarantee warranting the machine's -performance absolutely. There was a space beneath this for the -signature of the farmer who bought, and the agent who sold, and two -witnesses. The price of the reaper was one hundred and twenty dollars, -and the buyer paid down thirty dollars, and the balance at the end of -six months, provided the reaper would cut one and a half acres an -hour, and fulfil the other requirements. This guarantee, with a chance -to obtain the money back if the purchase was unsatisfactory, was a new -idea, and appealed to every one as a most sincere and honorable way of -doing business. More than this, he sold for a fixed price, which was -in many respects a new method of selling, and he printed in newspapers -and farm journals letters he had received from farmers telling of -their satisfaction with the reaper. In these new ways he laid the -foundation of an enormous business. - -The rush to the gold fields of California in 1849 and the resulting -settlement of the far western country made Chicago even more central -than it had been before. But, although the advertisements of the -McCormick reaper were scattered everywhere, many farmers would put off -buying until the harvesting season had almost come, and when it was -too late to get the machines from the central factory. Therefore -McCormick had agents and built warehouses in every farming district, -and these agents were given a free rein in their own locality, their -instructions being to see that every farmer who needed a reaper was -given the easiest opportunity to get one. The price was a fixed one, -but McCormick was patient with the purchasers. He gave them a chance -to pay for the reapers with the proceeds of their harvests. He held -that it was better that he should wait for the money than that the -farmers should lack the machines that would enable them to make the -most of their fields of grain. "I have never yet sued a farmer for the -price of a reaper," he stated in 1848, and he held to that policy as -steadfastly as he could. As a result he soon gained the farmers' -confidence, and his name became identified with square, and even with -lenient, dealing with all classes of purchasers. He lost little by it, -and in the long run the wide-spread advertising of this policy of -business proved an invaluable asset. - -It is not to be supposed that no rival reapers were put upon the -market. Many were, and to meet some of these McCormick made use of -what became known as the Field Test. He would instruct his agents to -issue invitations to his rivals to meet him in competition. Then the -different makes of reapers would show how many acres of grain they -could cut in an afternoon before an audience of the neighboring -farmers. Judges were appointed to decide as to the merits of the -different machines, and in most of the tests McCormick's reaper -outdistanced all its rivals. In one such meeting it is said that forty -machines competed. Such shows were the best possible form of -advertising, but in time they degenerated into absurd performances. -Trick machines of unwieldy strength were built secretly, and reapers -were driven into growths of young trees, and were fastened together -and then pulled apart to prove which was the stronger. At last it was -realized that the field tests were no longer fair, and McCormick gave -them up. - -So important an invention as the reaper was certain to have many -improvements made to it. For a number of years, however, the only -additions that were made to the original model were seats for the -driver and raker. The machine did the work of the original man with -the sickle or scythe and that of the cradler, and having cut the grain -left it in loose piles on the ground. But it still had to be raked up -and bound, and a number of inventors were busy trying to perfect -mechanical devices that would do this work too. A man named Jearum -Atkins invented a contrivance that was called the "Iron Man," which -was a post fastened to the reaper, having two iron arms that swept -round and round and brushed the grain from the platform as fast as it -was cut and had fallen. This plan was very clumsy, but improvements -were made so rapidly that by 1860 the market was filled with various -patterns of self-raking reapers. - -The problem of binding the grain was more difficult. This had always -been hard labor, taking a great deal of time and requiring three or -four men to every reaper. The first step toward a self-binder was the -addition of a foot-board at the back of the reaper, on which a man -might stand and fasten the grain into sheaves as it fell. This was a -little better than the old method, but only a little. It took less -time, but it was still very hard and slow work. - -McCormick was deep in a study of this matter when one day a man named -James Withington came to him from Wisconsin, and announced that he had -a machine that could automatically bind grain. McCormick had been -working night and day over his own plan, and when the inventor began -to explain he fell asleep. When he woke, Withington had left. -McCormick at once sent one of his men to the inventor's Wisconsin -home, and, with many apologies, begged him to come back. Withington -did, and showed McCormick a wonderful machine, one made of two arms of -steel that would catch each bundle of grain, pass a wire about it and -twist the ends of the wire, cut it loose, and throw it to the ground. -Here was an invention that would more than double the usefulness of -the reaper, and one that seems quite as remarkable as the reaper -itself. McCormick at once contracted with Withington for this binder, -and tried it on an Illinois farm the following July. It worked -perfectly, cutting fifty acres of grain and binding it into sheaves. -At last only one person was needed to harvest the wheat, the one who -sat upon the driver's seat and simply had to guide the horses. A -small boy or girl could do all the work that it had taken a score of -men to accomplish twenty years before. - -Now it seemed as if the reaper was complete, and nothing could be -added to increase its efficiency. McCormick had seen to it that the -whirr of his machine was heard in every wheat field of the United -States, and was busily extending the reign of the reaper to the great -grain districts of Russia, India, and South America. Then, in the -spring of 1880, William Deering built and sold 3,000 self-binding -machines that used twine instead of wire to fasten the sheaves, and as -the news of this novelty spread the farmers declared that the wire of -the old binders had cut their hands, had torn their wheat, had proved -hard to manage in the flour-mills, and that henceforth they must have -twine-binders. - -McCormick realized that he must give the farmers what they demanded, -and he looked about for a man who could invent a new method of binding -with twine. He found him in Marquis L. Gorham, who perfected a new -twine-binder, and added a device by which all the sheaves bound were -turned out in uniform size. By the next year McCormick was pushing his -Gorham binder on the market, and the farmers who had wavered in their -allegience to his reaper were returning to the McCormick fold. - -The battle of rival reapers had been long and costly. From the -building of his factory in Chicago McCormick had been engaged in -continuous lawsuits with competitors. His original patent had expired -in 1848, and he had used every effort to have it extended. The battle -was fought through the lower courts, through the Supreme Court, and in -Congress. The greatest lawyers of the time were retained on one side -of the reaper struggle or the other. His rivals combined and raised a -great fund to defeat his claims. He spent a fortune, but his patents -were not renewed, and competition was thrown wide open. With the -invention of the twine-binder the patent war burst out afresh, and -again the courts were called upon for decisions between the rivals. -But by now the competition had become so keen and the cost of -manufacturing so heavy that the field dwindled quickly. When the war -over the twine-binder ended there were only twenty-two competing firms -left; before that there had been over a hundred. - -The reaper had been primarily necessary in America, because here farm -labor was very scarce, and the wheat fields enormously productive. In -fact the growth of the newly opened Western country must have been -indefinitely retarded if men had had to cut the grain by hand and -harvest it in the primitive manner. The reaper was a very vital factor -in the development of that country, and McCormick deserved the credit -of being one of the greatest profit-builders of the land. - -In Europe and Asia labor was plentiful, and the reaper had to win its -way more slowly. McCormick showed his machine at the great -international exhibitions and gradually induced the large landowners -to consider it. Practical demonstration proved its value, and it made -its appearance in the fields of European Russia and Siberia, in -Germany and France and the Slavic countries, in India, Australia, and -the Argentine, and at last wherever wheat was to be cut. It trebled -the output of grain, and the welfare of the people has proven largely -dependent on their food supply. It has been an invention of the -greatest economic value to the world. - - - - -XII - -HOWE AND THE SEWING-MACHINE - -1819-1867 - - -The needs of his times, and of the people among whom he lives, have -often set the inventor's mind working along the line of his -achievement. It was so with Elias Howe, who built the first -sewing-machine. A hard-working man, and not overstrong, he would -return to his home from the machine-shop where he was employed, and -throw himself on the bed night after night to rest. Each night he -watched his young wife sewing to clothe their three children and add a -little something to the family income. With a strong taste for -mechanics it was natural that he should wonder if there were not some -way of lightening the burden of so much needlework. - -He had been brought up in surroundings that naturally impressed him -with the value of looms and new appliances for spinning and weaving. -He understood the various processes of handling wool and cotton, -although his own work lay outside them. His father had been a miller -in the small Massachusetts town of Spencer, where Elias was born in -1819. New England was already building her textile factories, and when -he was only six the boy joined his brothers and sisters at the work of -sticking wire teeth through the straps of leather that were then used -for cotton-cards. What he learned from books he had to pick up during -a few weeks each summer at the district school. His health was -delicate, and he was lame, unfitted to be a farmer, and his best place -seemed to be in his father's mill. But he was ambitious, and when he -was sixteen, a friend having brought him glowing tales of the great -cotton-mills in the fast-growing city of Lowell, he decided to seek -his fortune there. The panic of 1837 closed the mills, and Howe found -his course deflected to work in a machine-shop in Cambridge. By the -time he came of age he had married and was living in Boston, working -as a mechanic to support his family. Of a speculative turn of mind, he -was constantly suggesting improvements at the shop, and his watching -his wife labor with needle and thread turned his thoughts in the -direction of a machine for sewing. - -The idea was not a new one, but the men who had studied it had decided -that there were too many difficulties to overcome. Howe took up the -matter as a pastime, giving his spare moments to it, and talking it -over with his wife in the evenings when he was not too tired. -Naturally enough what he tried to do was to imitate the action of the -hand in sewing. His idea was to make a machine that would thrust a -needle through the cloth and then push it back again, working up and -down. Therefore his first needle was sharp at both ends, and had its -eye in the middle. He decided that he could only use very coarse -thread, as the constant motion would surely snap any fine thread. But -a year's experimenting convinced him that this simple up-and-down -thrust was too primitive a motion, and that the needle must be made -to form a different sort of stitch. He tried one method after another, -and finally hit upon the idea of making use of two threads, and -forming the stitch by means of a shuttle and a curved needle having -the eye near the point. He made a model, in wood and wire, of this -first sewing-machine, in October, 1844, and found that it would work. - -An early account of Howe's first sewing-machine says, "He used a -needle and a shuttle of novel construction, and combined them with -holding surfaces, feed mechanism, and other devices as they had never -before been brought together in one machine.... One of the principal -features of Mr. Howe's invention is the combination of a grooved -needle having an eye near its point, and vibrating in the direction of -its length, with a side-pointed shuttle for effecting a locked stitch, -and forming with the threads, one on each side of the cloth, a firm -and lasting seam not easily ripped." - -Howe had now decided to give all his time to introducing his -sewing-machine. He gave up his position in the machine-shop, and moved -his family to his father's house in Cambridge. There his father was -employed in cutting palm-leaf for the manufacture of hats. The son had -a lathe put in the garret, and began to make the various parts that -were needed for his sewing-machine. He did any work he could find by -the day to supply his family with food and clothing, but it proved a -very hard battle. His father's shop burned, and the whole family -seemed on the brink of ruin. The young inventor was in a very -difficult situation. He was confident that he had a machine that -should, if properly handled, bring him in a fortune, but he must have -some money to buy the iron and steel that were essential to its -building, and he must devise a way of interesting some capitalist in -it sufficiently to enable him to put it on the market. Meantime he -must contrive to provide for his family, who were now practically -without shelter. - -Fortunately, at this point, a Cambridge dealer in coal and wood, by -the name of Fisher, heard of Howe's machine, and asked to see it. Howe -jumped at the opportunity, explained its mechanism, and told how he -was situated. Mr. Fisher thought the model had possibilities, and -agreed to provide board for the inventor and his family, to give the -young man a workshop in his own house, and to advance him the sum of -$500, which Howe said was absolutely necessary to pay for the -construction of such a machine as could be shown to the public. For -his assistance Fisher was to receive a half-interest in a patent for -the sewing-machine if Howe could obtain one. This arrangement proved -Howe's salvation, and in December, 1844, he moved into his new -friend's house. - -He worked all that winter, meeting the many practical difficulties -that arose as he progressed with his machine, and devising solutions -for overcoming each. He worked all day, and many a time long into the -night. His machine progressed so well that by April, 1845, he found -that it would sew a seam four yards long. The machine was entirely -completed by the latter part of May, and its work proved satisfactory -to both partners. Howe sewed the seams of two woolen suits with it, -one for himself, and one for Fisher, and it was declared that the -mechanical sewing was so well done that it promised to outlast the -cloth. There was no longer any doubt that Howe had invented a machine -that would lighten labor to a very great degree. - -He took out his first patent on the sewing-machine toward the end of -1845. But when he tried to introduce his invention he met the same -difficulties that had faced all men who tried to supplant hand labor -by any mechanical process. The tailors of Boston to whom he showed it -were willing to admit its efficiency, but told him that he could never -secure its general use, as such a proceeding would ruin their -business. Every one admired the sewing-machine and praised Howe's -ingenuity, but no one would buy one. The opposition to the completed -machine seemed insuperable, and Fisher, believing it to be so, at -length withdrew from his partnership with Howe. The latter and his -family had to move back again to his father's house. - -To make a living Howe took a position as a locomotive engineer, -leaving his invention unused at home. This work proved too hard, his -health broke down, and he was compelled to give up the position. In -his enforced idleness he began to devise new ways of selling his -machine, and finally decided to send his brother Amasa to England, and -see if he could not interest some one there in the invention. His -brother was willing to do this, and arrived in London, with a -sewing-machine, in October, 1846. He showed it to a man named William -Thomas, who became interested in it, offered $1,250 for it, and -also offered to employ Elias Howe in his business of umbrella and -corset maker. - -[Illustration: ELIAS HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE] - -Howe decided that this position was preferable to his idleness in -Cambridge, and accepted it. He sailed for England, and entered the -factory of William Thomas. But, although Thomas had taken a very -lively interest in Howe's sewing-machine, he did not treat the -inventor well. For eight months Howe worked for him, and meantime he -had sent for his wife and three children, and they had arrived in -London. But eight months was the limit of his endurance of his new -master's tyranny, and at the end of that time he gave up his position. -Matters seemed tending worse and worse with him, and the situation of -the Howe family in London, almost penniless, grew daily more and more -precarious. - -His family at home sent Howe a little money before his earnings were -entirely spent, and he used this to buy passage for his wife and -children back to the United States. He himself stayed in London, -believing there were better chances for the sale of his machine there -than in America. But his pursuit of fortune in England proved but the -search for the rainbow's pot of gold. There was no market for his -wares, and after months of actual destitution he pawned the model of -his sewing-machine and even his patent papers in order to secure funds -to pay his passage home. Tragedy dogged his footsteps. He reached New -York with only a few small coins in his pocket, and received word that -his wife was lying desperately ill in Cambridge. His own strength was -spent, and he had to wait several days before he had the money to pay -his railroad fare to Boston. Soon after he reached home his wife -died. Blow after blow had fallen on him until he was almost crushed. - -Even his hard-won invention seemed now about to be snatched from him. -Certain mechanics in New England, who had heard descriptions of his -model, built machines on its lines, and sold them. The newspapers -learned of these, and began to suggest their use in a number of -industries. Howe looked about him, saw the sewing-machine growing in -favor, heard it praised, and realized that it had been actually stolen -from him. He bestirred himself, found patent attorneys who were -willing to look into his patents, and when they pronounced them -unassailable, found money enough to defend them. He began several -suits to establish his claims in August, 1850, and at about the same -time formed a partnership with a New Yorker named Bliss, who agreed to -try to sell the machines if Howe would open a shop and build them in -New York. - -Howe's claims to the invention of the sewing-machine were positively -established by the courts in 1854. The machine was now well known, and -its value as a moneymaker very apparent. But the workers in cheap -clothing shops organized to prevent the introduction of the machines, -claiming that they would destroy their livelihood. Labor leaders took -up the slogan, and led the men and women workers in what were known as -the Sewing-machine Riots. In the few shops where the machines were -actually introduced they were injured or destroyed by the workmen. The -pressure became so great that the larger establishments ceased their -use, and only the small shops, that employed a few workers, were able -to continue using the new machine. In spite of its recognized value it -looked as if the sewing-machine could not prove a financial success, -and when Howe's partner Bliss died in 1855 the inventor was able to -buy his share in the business from his heirs for a very small sum. - -Opposition, even of the most strenuous order, has never been able to -retard for long the use of an invention that simplifies industry. If a -machine is made that will in an hour do the work that formerly -required several days' hand labor that machine is certain to displace -that hand labor. The workers may protest, but industrial progress -demands the more economic method. So it was with the sewing-machine. -The riots died away, the labor leaders turned to other fields, and one -by one the clothing factories installed the new machines. Howe had the -patience to wait, and in one way and another obtained the sinews of -war to sue the infringers of his patents. The waiting was worth while. -He ultimately forced all other manufacturers of sewing-machines to pay -him for their products. In six years his royalties increased from $300 -a year to over $200,000 a year. His machine was shown at the Paris -Exposition of 1867, and was awarded a gold medal, and Howe himself was -given the ribbon of the French Legion of Honor. - -The wheel of fortune has turned quickly for many inventors, but -perhaps never more completely than it did for Elias Howe. The man who -had pawned his goods in London, and had reached New York with less -than a dollar in his pocket, had an income of $200,000 a year. He who -had been rebuffed by the tailors of Boston was recognized as one of -the great men of his generation, and one who, instead of taking the -bread from the mouths of poor working men and women, had lightened -their labor a thousandfold. The women, like his own wife, who had -sewed by day and night, were saved their strength and vision, and the -slavery of the clothing factories, notorious in those days, was -inestimably lightened. But it had been a hard fight to make the world -take what it sorely needed. - -Howe's struggle had been so hard that his health was badly broken when -he did succeed. He had several years to enjoy his profits and honors. -He died October 3, 1867, at his home in Brooklyn. - -Many inventors have barely escaped with their lives from the fury of -mobs who thought the inventor would take their living from them. -Papin, and Hargreaves, and Arkwright all learned what such resistance -meant. But as one invention has succeeded another people have grown -wiser, and realized that each has conferred a benefit rather than -taken away a right. Howe was one of the last to find the people he -hoped to benefit aligned against him. The world has moved, since -Galileo's day, and the inventor is now known as the great benefactor. -But Howe's life was a fight, and his triumph that of one of the great -martyrs of invention. - - - - -XIII - -BELL AND THE TELEPHONE - -1847- - - -None of the inventions that have resulted from the study of -electricity have been stumbled upon in the dark. Scientists in both -England and America had realized the possibility of the telegraph -before Morse built his first working outfit in his rooms on Washington -Square. Edison took out a patent covering wireless telegraphy before -Marconi gave his name to the new means of communication. Often a man -who has been following one trail through this new field has come upon -another, glanced down it, and decided to go back and explore it more -thoroughly another day. Meantime the trail is run down by a rival. The -prize has gone to that persevering one who has made that trail his -own, and learned its secret while other men were only glancing at it. -Alexander Graham Bell was by no means the first man to realize that -the sound of the human voice could be sent over a wire. He did not -happen to stumble upon this fact. He worked it out bit by bit, from -what other men had already learned concerning electricity, and his -object was to make the telephone of real use to the world. It so -happened that Elisha Gray and Bell each filed a claim upon the -telephone at the Patent Office on the same day, February 14, 1876. -But it was Bell who was able to place the first telephone at the -public's service. - -He came of a family that had long been interested in the study of -speech. His father, his grandfather, his uncle, and two brothers had -all taught elocution in one form or another at the Universities of -Edinburgh, Dublin, and London. His grandfather had worked out a -successful system to correct stammering, his father, widely known as a -splendid elocutionist, had invented a sign-language that he called -"Visible Speech," which was of help to those learning foreign tongues, -and also a system to enable the deaf to read spoken words by the -movements of the lips. Naturally enough the young inventor started -with a very considerable knowledge of the laws of sound. - -Bell was born in Edinburgh March 1, 1847, and educated there and in -London. When he was sixteen family influence was able to get him the -post of teacher of elocution in certain schools, and he spent his -leisure hours studying the science of sound. Soon after he came of age -he met two well-known Englishmen who were experts in his line of -study, Sir Charles Wheatstone and Alexander J. Ellis. Ellis had -translated Helmholtz's celebrated book on "The Sensations of Tone," -and was able to show Bell in his own laboratory how the German -scientist had succeeded in keeping tuning-forks in vibration by the -power of electro-magnets, and had blended the tones of several -tuning-forks so as to produce approximately the sound of the human -voice. This idea was new to Bell, and led him to wonder whether it -would not be possible to construct what might be called a musical -telegraph, sending different notes over a wire by electro-magnetism, -using a piano keyboard to give the different notes. - -Sir Charles Wheatstone, the leading English authority on the -telegraph, received young Bell with the greatest interest, and showed -him a new talking-machine that had been constructed by Baron de -Kempelin. Bell studied this closely, discussed it with Wheatstone, and -decided that he would devote himself to the problems of reproducing -sounds mechanically. - -The course of his life was then suddenly altered. His two brothers -died in Edinburgh of consumption, and he was told that he must seek a -change of climate. Accordingly his father and mother sailed with him -to the town of Brantford in Canada. There he at once became interested -in teaching his father's system of "Visible Speech" to a tribe of -Mohawk Indians in the neighborhood. - -He had already had very considerable success in teaching deaf-mutes to -talk by visible speech, or sign-language, and this success was -repeated in Canada. Word of it went to Boston, and as a result the -Board of Education of that city wrote to him, offering to pay him five -hundred dollars if he would teach his system in a school for -deaf-mutes there. He was glad to accept, and in 1871 moved to Boston, -which he planned to make his permanent residence. - -Success crowned his teaching almost immediately. Boston University -offered him a professorship, and he opened a "School of Vocal -Physiology," which paid him well. Most of his remarkable skill in -teaching the deaf and dumb to understand spoken words and in a manner -to speak themselves was due to his father's system, which he had -carefully followed, and had in some respects improved upon. - -At this time a resident of Salem, Thomas Sanders, engaged the young -teacher to train his small deaf-mute son, and asked him to make his -home at Sanders' house in Salem. As he could easily reach Boston from -there Bell consented, and in the cellar of Mr. Sanders' house he set -up a workshop, where for three years he experimented with tuning-forks -and electric batteries along the line of his early studies in London. - -At nearly the same time Miss Mabel Hubbard came to him to be taught -his system of speech. He became engaged to her, and some years later -they were married. - -His future wife's father was a well-known Boston lawyer, Gardiner G. -Hubbard. It is related that one evening as Bell sat at the piano in -Mr. Hubbard's home in Cambridge, he said, "Do you know that if I sing -the note G close to the strings of the piano, the G-string will answer -me?" "What of it?" asked Mr. Hubbard. "Why, it means that some day we -ought to have a musical telegraph, that will send as many messages -simultaneously over one wire as there are notes on the piano." - -Bell knew the field of his work in a general way, but he had not yet -decided which path to choose of several that looked as if they might -lead across it. His far-distant goal was to construct a machine that -would carry, not the dots and dashes of the telegraph, but the complex -vibrations of the human voice. This would be much more difficult to -attain than a musical telegraph, and for some time he wavered between -the two ideas. His work with his deaf and dumb pupils was all in the -line of making sound vibrations visible to the eye. He knew that with -what was called the phonautograph he could get tracings of such sound -vibrations upon blackened paper by means of a pencil or marker -attached to a vibrating cord or membrane, and furthermore that he -could obtain tracings of certain vowel sound vibrations upon smoked -glass. He studied the effect of vibrations upon the bones of the ear, -and this led him to experiment with vibrating a thin piece of iron -before an electro-magnet. - -His study of the effect of vibrations on the human eardrum showed Bell -what path he should follow. Sound waves striking the delicate ear-drum -could send thrills through the heavier bones inside the ear. He -thought that if he could construct two iron discs, which should be -similar to the ear-drums, and connect them by an electrified wire, he -might be able to make the disc at one end vibrate with sound waves, -send those vibrations through the wire to the other disc, and have -that give out the vibrations again in the form of sounds. That now -became his working idea, and it was the principle on which the -telephone was ultimately to be built. - -But Bell had been giving so much time and attention to this absorbing -project that his teaching had suffered. His "School of Vocal -Physiology" had had to be abandoned, and he found that his only pupils -were Miss Hubbard and small George Sanders. Both Mr. Sanders and Mr. -Hubbard, who had been helping him with the cost of his experiments, -refused to do so any longer unless he would devote himself to working -out his musical telegraph, in which both had a great deal of faith as -a successful business proposition. - -While he was struggling with these distracting calls of duty and -science he was obliged to go to Washington to see his patent attorney. -There he determined to call upon Professor Joseph Henry, who was the -greatest American authority on electrical science, and who had -experimented with the telegraph in the early years of the century. -Bell, aged twenty-eight, explained his new idea to Henry, then aged -seventy-eight. The theory was new to Henry, but he saw at once that it -had tremendous possibilities. He told Bell so. "But," said Bell, "I -have not the expert knowledge of electricity that is needed." "You can -get it," answered Henry. "You must, for you are in possession of the -germ of a great invention." - -Those few words, coming from such a man, were of the greatest possible -encouragement to Bell. He returned home, determined to get the -knowledge of electricity he needed, and to carry on his work with the -telephone. - -He rented a room at 109 Court Street, Boston, for a workshop, and took -a bedroom in the neighborhood. He studied electricity night and day, -and he gave equal time to the musical telegraph that his friends -favored and to the invention that now claimed his real interest. - -The man from whom Bell rented his workshop was Charles Williams, -himself a manufacturer of electrical supplies. Bell had for his -assistant Thomas A. Watson, who helped him construct the two -armatures, or vibrating discs, at the end of an electrified wire that -stretched from the workshop to an adjoining room. Watson was working -with Bell on an afternoon in June, 1875. Bell was in the workshop, and -Watson in the next room. Bell was stooping down over the instrument at -his end of the wire. Suddenly he gave an exclamation. He had heard a -faint twang come from the disc in front of him. - -He dashed into the next room. "Snap that reed again, Watson," he -commanded. Back at his own end of the wire he waited. In a minute he -caught the light twang again. It was only what he had been expecting -to hear at any time during the months of his work, but nevertheless he -was amazed when he did catch the sound. It proved that a sound could -be carried over a wire, and accurately reproduced at the farther end. -And that meant that the vibrations of the human voice could ultimately -be sent in the same way. - -Bell's enthusiasm had already converted his assistant, Watson; it now -won over Hubbard and Sanders. They began to believe that there might -be something of real value in his strange scheme, and offered to help -him finance it. He went on with his studies in electricity, and -gradually began to learn how he could make it serve him best. - -But it was a far cry from that first faint sound to the actual -transmission of words. For a long time his receiving instruments would -only give out vague rumbling noises. In November, 1875, his -experiments showed him that the vibrations created in a reed by the -human voice could be transmitted in such a way as to reproduce words -and sounds. Then, in January, 1876, he showed a few of the pupils at -Monroe's School of Oratory in Boston an apparatus by which singing -could be carried more or less satisfactorily from the cellar of the -building to a room on the fourth floor. But on March 10, 1876, the new -instrument actually talked. Watson, who was at the basement end of the -wire, heard the disc say, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want you." He -dashed up the three flights of stairs to the room in which Bell was. -"I can _hear_ you!" he cried. "I can _hear the words_!" - -"Had I known more about electricity, and less about sound," Bell is -reported to have said, "I would never have invented the telephone." He -had come upon his discovery by the right path, but it was a path that -very few men could ever have picked out. Other inventors had tried to -make a machine that would carry the voice, but they had all worked -from the standpoint of the telegraph. Bell, inheriting unusual -knowledge of the laws of speech and sound, came from the other -direction. He started with the laws of sound transmission rather than -with the laws of the telegraph. The result was that he had created -something altogether new, basically different from all the other -inventions that made use of electricity, for which there was as yet no -common name even, and which he described in his application for a -patent, as "an improvement in telegraphy." - -Only two months after the day on which the telephone had actually -talked for the first time the Centennial Exposition opened in -Philadelphia. Mr. Hubbard was one of the Commissioners, and he -obtained permission to have Bell's first telephone placed on a small -table in the Department of Education. Bell himself was too poor to be -able to go to Philadelphia, and intended to stay in Boston, and try to -find new deaf-mute pupils. But when Miss Hubbard left for the -Centennial, and begged him to go with her, he could not resist. He -stayed on the train, without a ticket, without baggage, and reached -Philadelphia with the Hubbards. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST TELEPHONE - Reproduced by permission - From "The History of the Telephone" - By Herbert N. Casson - Published by A. C. McClurg & Co.] - -The new instrument had been at the Exposition for six weeks without -attracting serious attention. But Mr. Hubbard arranged that the judges -should examine it for a few minutes on the Sunday afternoon following -Bell's arrival. The afternoon, however, was very warm, and there were -a great many exhibits for the judges to inspect. There was the first -grain-binder, and the earliest crude electric light, and Elisha Gray's -musical telegraph, and exhibits of printing telegraphs. It was seven -o'clock when the judges reached Bell's table, and they were tired and -hungry. One of the judges picked up the receiver, looked at it, and -put it back on the table. The others laughed and joked as they started -to go by. Then they stopped short. A man had come up to the table, -with a crowd of attendants at his heels. He said to the young man at -the table, "Professor Bell, I am delighted to see you again." The new -arrival was the Emperor Dom Pedro of Brazil, who had once visited -Bell's school for deaf-mutes in Boston. The Emperor said he would -like to test Bell's new machine. - -With the judges, a group of famous scientific men, and the Emperor's -suite for audience, Bell went to the transmitter at the other end of -the wire, while Dom Pedro put the receiver to his ear. There was a -moment's pause, and then the Emperor threw back his head, exclaiming, -"_My God--it talks!_" - -The Emperor put down the receiver. Joseph Henry, who had encouraged -Bell in Washington, picked it up. He too heard Bell's own words coming -from the disc. He too showed his amazement. "This comes nearer to -overthrowing the doctrine of the conservation of energy," said he, -"than anything I ever saw." After him came Sir William Thomson, later -known as Lord Kelvin. He had been the engineer of the first Atlantic -Cable. He listened intently. "Yes," said he at last, "it does speak. -It is the most wonderful thing I have seen in America!" - -Until ten o'clock that night the judges spoke into the transmitter and -listened at the receiver of Bell's instrument. Next morning it was -given a place of honor, and every one begged for a chance to examine -it. It became the most wonderful exhibit of the Centennial, and the -judges gave Bell their Certificate of Award. Nothing more opportune -could possibly have happened for the inventor. - -But in spite of this launching at the hands of the most eminent -scientists, business men could see little future for the new machine. -It was very ingenious, they admitted, but it could only be a toy. And -Bell himself was not sufficiently well versed in business affairs to -know how to make the most of his invention. Fortunately Mr. Hubbard -was much better acquainted with business methods. He determined to -promote the telephone, and he did. He talked about it to all his -friends until they could think of nothing else. He began a campaign of -publicity, with the object of making the name of the new instrument a -household word. He had it written up for the newspapers, and -advertised public demonstrations of its powers, and arranged that Bell -should lecture on it in different cities. Bell was a good lecturer, -and his talks became popular. Then news was sent to the _Boston Globe_ -by telephone, and people began to wonder if there were not new -possibilities in its use. - -In May, 1877, a man named Emery called at Hubbard's office, and leased -two telephones for twenty dollars. That encouraged the promoters, and -they issued a little circular describing the business. Then another -man, who ran a burglar-alarm company, obtained permission to hang up -the telephone in a few banks. They proved of use, and the same man -started a service among the express companies. Before long several -other small exchanges were opened, and by August, 1877, it was -estimated that there were 778 telephones in use. Hubbard was very much -encouraged, and he, together with Bell, Sanders, and Watson formed the -"Bell Telephone Association." - -The Western Union Telegraph Company was a great corporation, -controlling the telegraph business of the country. Hubbard hoped that -it would purchase the Bell patents, as it had already bought many -patents taken out on allied inventions. They offered them to President -Orton for $100,000, but he refused to buy them, saying, "What use -could this company make of an electrical toy?" - -But the Western Union had many little subsidiary companies, supplying -customers with printing-telegraphs and dial telegraphs and various -other modifications of the usual telegraph, and one day one of these -companies reported that some of their customers were preferring to use -the new telephone. The Western Union bestirred itself at this sign of -competition, and had shortly formed the "American Speaking-Telephone -Company," with a staff of inventors that included Edison. The war was -on in earnest, for the new company not only claimed to have the best -instrument on the market, but advertised that it had "the only -original telephone." - -That war was actually a good thing for Bell, and Hubbard, and Sanders. -With the Western Union pushing this new invention, and not only -pushing it, but fighting for its claim to it, the public realized that -the telephone was neither a toy nor a scientific oddity, but an -instrument of great commercial value. Sanders' relatives came to the -aid of the Bell Company, and put money into its treasury, and soon -Hubbard was leasing out telephones at the rate of a thousand a month. - -But none of these partners was exactly the man to organize and build -up such a business as this of the telephone should be, and each of -them knew it. Then Hubbard discovered a young man in Washington who -impressed him as having remarkable executive ability. Watson met him, -and his opinion coincided with that of Hubbard. The upshot of the -matter was that the partners offered the post of General Manager at a -salary of thirty-five hundred dollars a year to this man, Theodore N. -Vail, and Vail accepted the offer. Vail himself knew little about the -telephone, but his cousin, Alfred Vail, had been the friend and -assistant of Morse when he was working on his first telegraph. - -Hubbard had advertised Bell's telephone, Sanders had financed it, and -now Vail pushed it on the market. He faced the powerful Western Union -and fought them. He sent copies of Bell's original patent to each of -his agents, with the message, "We have the only original telephone -patents, we have organized and introduced the business, and we do not -propose to have it taken from us by any corporation." - -His plan was to create a national telephone system, and so he confined -each of his agents to one place, and reserved all rights to connect -one city with another. He made short-term contracts, and tried in -every way to keep control of the whole system in the hands of the -parent company. Then the Western Union came out with Edison's new -telephone transmitter, which increased the value of the telephone -tenfold, and which in fact made it almost a new instrument. The Bell -Company was panic-stricken, for their customers demanded a telephone -as good as Edison's. - -Those were hard times for Vail and the partners back of him. The -telephone war had cut the price of service to a point where neither -company could show a profit. Bell, now married, returned from England -with word that he had been unable to establish the telephone business -there, and that he must have a thousand dollars at once to pay his -most pressing debts. He was ill, and he wrote from the Massachusetts -General Hospital, "Thousands of telephones are now in operation in all -parts of the country, yet I have not yet received one cent from my -invention. On the contrary, I am largely out of pocket by my -researches, as the mere value of the profession that I have sacrificed -during my three years' work amounts to twelve thousand dollars." - -At this juncture a young Bostonian named Francis Blake wrote to Vail, -announcing that he had invented a transmitter that was the equal of -Edison's, and offering to sell it for stock in the company. The -purchase was made, and the claim of the inventor proved true. The Bell -telephone was again as good as that of the Western Union Company. A -new company, called the National Bell Telephone Company, was -organized, with a capital of $850,000, and Colonel Forbes of Boston -became its first president. - -There have been few patent struggles to compare with that which was -waged over the telephone. McCormick fought for years to uphold his -rights to the invention of the reaper, but he fought a host of -competitors, and the warfare was of the guerrilla order. The Bell -Company fought alone against the Western Union, and it was a struggle -of giants. The Western Union was certain that it could find patents -antedating Bell's, and it went on that assumption, even after its own -expert had reported, "I am entirely unable to discover any apparatus -or method anticipating the invention of Bell as a whole, and I -conclude that his patent is valid." It claimed that Gray was the -original inventor, and instructed its lawyers to bring suits against -the Bell Company for infringing on Gray's patents. - -The legal battle began in the autumn of 1878, and continued for a -year. Then George Gifford, the leading counsel for the Western Union, -told his clients that their claim was baseless, and advised that they -come to a settlement. The Western Union saw the wisdom of this course, -and went to the Bell Company with an offer of compromise. An agreement -was finally reached, to remain in force for seventeen years, and the -terms were that the Western Union should admit that Bell was the -original inventor, that his patents were valid, and should retire from -the telephone business. On the other side, the Bell Company agreed to -buy the Western Union telephone system, to pay them a royalty of -twenty per cent. on all their telephone rentals, and to keep out of -the telegraph business. - -That ended the great war. It converted a powerful rival into an ally, -it gave the Bell Company fifty-six thousand new telephones in -fifty-five cities, and it made that company the national system of the -United States. In 1881 there was another reorganization; the American -Bell Telephone Company was created, with a capital of six million -dollars. The following year there was such a telephone boom that the -Bell Company's system was doubled, and the gross earnings reached more -than a million dollars. - -The four men who had taken hold of Bell's invention in its infancy and -brought it to maturity were ready to surrender its care into the hands -of the able business men who headed the Bell Company. Sanders sold his -stock in the company for a little less than a million dollars, Watson, -when he resigned his interest, found himself sufficiently rich to -build a ship-building plant near Boston and employ four thousand -workmen to build battle-ships. Gardiner G. Hubbard retired from active -business life, and transferred his remarkable energy to the affairs of -the National Geographical Society. Bell had presented his stock in the -company to his wife on their wedding-day, and he now took up afresh -the work of his boyhood and youth, the teaching of deaf-mutes. But he -was no longer unheeded nor unrewarded. In 1880 the government of -France awarded him the Volta prize of fifty thousand francs and the -Cross of the Legion of Honor. With the Volta prize he founded the -Volta Laboratory in Washington for the use of students. In Washington -he has made his home, and there scientists of all lands call to pay -their respects to the patriarch of American inventors. - -Shortly after the first appearance of the telephone at the Centennial -Exposition men were accustomed to laugh at the new invention, and call -it a freak, a scientific toy. Its mechanism was so incomprehensible to -most people that they refused to regard it seriously. A Boston -mechanic expressed the general ignorance when he stoutly maintained -that in his opinion there must be "a hole through the middle of the -wire." And the telephone is still to most people a mystery, far more -so than the telegraph or the incandescent light or the other uses to -which electricity has been put. It is one thing to send a message by -the mechanical process of dots and dashes made by breaking and joining -a current. It is quite another to reproduce in one place the exact -inflection, tone, and quality of a voice that is speaking hundreds of -miles away, across rivers and mountains. There is real magic in that, -the wonder that might be found in a Genii's spell in the Arabian -Nights. How can people be blamed for laughing at such pretensions, and -believing that even if such a thing were true it was more fit for an -exposition than for public use? - -Yet this thing of magic has outdistanced every other mode of -communication. It is estimated that in the United States as many -messages are sent by telephone as the combined total of telegrams, -letters, and railroad passengers. The telephone wires are eight times -greater than the telegraph wires, and their earnings six times as -great. It is true that the telephone is vastly more used in America -than in other parts of the world, and yet it is figured that in the -world at large almost as many messages are now telephoned as are sent -by post. - -And the mystery of the telephone grows no less the more one studies -it. You speak against a tiny disc of sheet-iron, and the disc -trembles. It has millions and millions of varieties of trembles, as -many as there are sounds in the universe. A piece of copper wire, -connected with an electric battery, stretches from the disc against -which you have spoken to another disc miles and miles away. The -tremble of your disc sends an electric thrill along the wire to that -other disc and makes it tremble exactly as yours did. And that -trembling sounds the very note you spoke, the very note in millions of -possible notes, and as accurately as if the sound wave had only -traveled three feet through clear air. That is what happens when you -telephone, but when you realize it the mystery gains rather than -decreases. - -Scores of men claimed to have invented telephones before Bell did, but -none ever proved their claims. Men who were studying improvements on -the telegraph had glimpses of the ultimate possibility of transmitting -speech by wire, and Elisha Gray filed a caveat on that point later on -the very day that Bell filed his application for a patent. But Gray's -was a caveat, or a declaration that the applicant believes he can -invent a certain device, and Bell's was the statement that he had -already perfected his invention. Bell's claim stood against the world, -and men now recognize that the telephone was born on that afternoon in -June, 1875, when the young teacher of deaf-mutes first caught the -faint twang of a snapping reed sent across a few yards of wire. - - - - -XIV - -EDISON AND THE ELECTRIC LIGHT - -1847- - - -To some men the material world is always presenting itself in the form -of a series of fascinating puzzles, to be solved as one might work out -a game of chess. The astronomer is given certain figures, and from -those he intends to derive certain laws; the scientist knows the -properties of certain materials and from those he is to reach some new -combination that will produce a new result. He is not an inventor as -much as he is a detective; he picks up the clews to certain happenings -and constructs a working theory to fit them. In mechanics this theory -that he constructs usually takes the form of a machine. And this -machine is not so much a new discovery as it is the practical -working-out of certain carefully-selected laws of nature. - -Perhaps there has never been a man whose thoughts were so continually -asking the question why as Thomas Alva Edison. Certainly there has -never been one who has found the answer to that question in so many -lines of scientific study. He has not merely happened on his -discoveries. He has not been as much interested in the result as in -the reasons for it. He belongs to the experimenting age. Once on a -time men took the facts of nature for granted. But if they had always -done so there would have been no telegraph, no telephone, no electric -light, no phonograph. Each of these were achieved by working on a -definite problem, and in no haphazard way. The inventor has become a -scientist and a mechanic, and no longer an amateur discoverer. Chance -has much less to do with the winning of new knowledge than it once -had. - -A visitor to Edison's laboratory tells how he found him holding a vial -of some liquid to the light. After a long look at it he put the vial -down on the table, and resting his head in his hands, stared intently -at it, as if he expected the vial to make some answer. Then he picked -it up, shook it, and held it again to the light. The visitor -introduced himself. Edison nodded toward the bottle. "Take a look at -those filings," said he. "See how curiously they settle when I shake -the bottle. In alcohol they behave one way, but in oil in this way. -Isn't that the most curious thing you ever saw--better than a play at -one of your city theatres, eh?" Again he shook the vial. "What I want -to know is what they mean by it; and I'm going to find out." There is -the man, he wants to know "what they mean by it," he continually asks -the question why, he is the great experimenter among great inventors. - -Edison has shown the calibre of his mind in a score of different ways. -He has been showing it ever since the days when he was a newsboy on -the trains of the Canadian Grand Trunk Railroad and the Michigan -Central. Then he fitted up a corner of the baggage-car of his train as -a miniature laboratory, and filled it with the bottles and retorts -that had been discarded at the railroad workshops. Among his treasures -was a copy of Fresenius's "Qualitative Analysis," engaging reading for -a boy only twelve years old. But he was not only a chemist. When he -was not working on the train he would be hanging about machine shops, -listening and watching and considering. One day the manager of the -_Detroit Free Press_ told him he might have some three hundred pounds -of old type that had been used up. The newsboy found an old hand-press -and began to print a paper himself, called the _Grand Trunk Herald_, -and sold it to the employees and regular passengers on his line. -Usually he would set the type before the train started, and print it -in the spare moments of his trip. Sometimes one of the station-masters -on the run, who was also a telegraph operator, would get a piece of -important news, write it down, and hand the paper to Edison as the -train stopped. Then the boy would go to his shop in the caboose, set -up the item, print it, and sell it, beating the daily newspapers that -might be awaiting the passengers at the end of the ride. - -The new invention of the telegraph, and the great possibilities of its -use, early caught his attention. About the time the Civil War began -the newsboy adopted a new idea in his business. He had always found it -difficult to know how many newspapers to carry on each trip. If he had -too large a stock some would be left on his hands, if he carried too -few he would be sold out early and lose a good profit. He made a -friend of one of the compositors of the _Detroit Free Press_, and got -him to show him the proofs of the paper. That gave him some idea of -the news of the day, and he could judge how many papers he would -probably need. One day the proof-slip told him that there had been a -terrific battle at Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, and that sixty -thousand men had been killed and wounded. He knew that this would sell -the paper. All he needed was to let people get an inkling of what the -news was. - -Edison dashed to the telegraph-operator and asked if he would wire a -message to each of the large stations on the railroad line requesting -the station-masters to chalk up a notice on their train -bulletin-board, giving the fact that there had been a great battle, -and that papers telling about it would reach the station at such an -hour. In return he offered the operator newspaper service for six -months free. The bargain was made, and the boy hurried to the -newspaper office. - -He did not have enough money to buy as many papers as he wanted. He -asked the superintendent to let him have one thousand copies of the -_Press_ on credit. The request was instantly refused. Thereupon he -marched up the stairs to the office of the paper's owner, and asked if -he would give him fifteen hundred copies on trust. The owner looked at -the boy for a moment, and then wrote out an order. "Take that -down-stairs," said he, "and you will get what you want." As Edison -said in telling the story afterward, "Then I felt happier than I have -ever felt since." - -He took his fifteen hundred copies to his storehouse on the train. At -the station where the first stop was made he usually sold two papers. -That day as they ran in to the platform it looked as if a riot had -occurred. All the town was clamoring for papers. He sold a couple of -hundred at five cents each. Another crowd met him at the next stop, -and he raised his price to ten cents a copy. The same thing happened -at each place where they stopped. When he reached Port Huron he put -what was left of his stock in a wagon, and drove through the main -streets. He sold his papers at a quarter of a dollar and more apiece. -He went by a church, and called out the news of the battle. In ten -seconds the minister and all his congregation were clamoring about the -wagon, bidding against each other for copies of the precious issue. He -had made a small fortune for a boy, and felt that he owed it largely -to his use of the telegraph. Quick-witted he was, beyond a doubt, of -an inventive turn, but a shrewd business man on top of all. - -He wanted to be a telegraph-operator. Electricity fascinated him, and -he could watch the machines and listen to the music of their clicking -by the hour. He set up a line of his own in his father's basement at -Port Huron, making his batteries of bottles, old stovepipe wire, nails -and zinc that he could pick up for a trifle. He studied the subject in -his shop in the corner of the baggage-car, during the scant moments -when he was neither printer nor newsboy. Once a bottle of phosphorus -upset and started a fire. The boy was thrashed and his bottles and -wires thrown out. But he was too doggedly persistent to mind any -mishap. He saved the small son of the station-master at Port Clements -from being run down by a train, and in return the father offered to -teach him telegraphy. So little by little he learned his chosen work. - -He obtained a position as night operator at Port Huron. That kept him -busy at night, but he refused to sleep during the daytime as other -night operators did, and used that time to work on his own schemes. To -catch some sleep he kept a loud alarm-clock at his office, and set it -so that he would be waked when trains were due and he was needed. But -sometimes trains were off schedule, and again and again he would -oversleep. At last the train despatcher ordered Edison to signal him -the letter "A" in the Morse alphabet every half hour. The boy -willingly agreed. A few nights later he brought an invention of his -own to the office, and connected it by wires with the clock and the -telegraph. Then he watched it work. Exactly on the half hour a little -lever fell, sending an excellent copy of the Morse "A" to the key of -the telegraph. Another lever closed the circuit. He kept his eyes on -this instrument of his making until he had seen it act faultlessly -again at the next half hour. Then he went to sleep. Night after night -the signal was sent without a mistake, and the despatcher began to -regain some of the confidence he had lost in the young operator. Then -one night the despatcher chanced to be at the next station to -Edison's, and it occurred to him to call the latter up and have a chat -with him. He signaled for fifteen minutes, and received no answer. -Then he jumped on a hand-car and rode to Edison's station. Looking -through the window he saw the youth sound asleep. His eyes took in the -strange instrument upon the table. It was near the half hour, and as -the man watched he saw one lever of the instrument throw open the key -and the other send the signal over the wire. The operator was still -sleeping soundly. The despatcher recognized the young man's ingenuity, -but he also realized that he had been fooled, and so he woke Edison -none too gently, and told him that his services were no longer in -demand on that road. - -Ingenuity, mechanical short-cuts, new devices for doing old work, were -what beset his mind. He was not interested in doing the simple routine -service of a telegrapher, he wanted to see what improvements on it he -could make. Often this keenness for new ideas led him into trouble -with his employers; occasionally it was of real service. At one time -an ice-jam had broken the cable-line between Port Huron, in Michigan, -and Sarnia, over the Canadian line. The river there was a mile and a -half wide. The officers were wondering how they could get their -messages across when they saw Edison jump upon a locomotive standing -in the train-yard. He seized the valve that controlled the whistle. He -opened and closed it so that the locomotive's whistles resembled the -dots and dashes of the telegraph code. He called Sarnia again and -again. "Do you hear this? Do you get this?" he sent by the whistle. -Four and five times he sent the message, and finally the whistle of a -locomotive across the river answered him. In that way communication -was again established. - -A little later, when Edison was employed as operator in the railroad -office at Indianapolis, he practiced receiving newspaper reports in -his spare hours at night. He and a friend named Parmley would take the -place of the regular man, who was glad to have them do it. "I would -sit down," said Edison, "for ten minutes, and 'take' as much as I -could from the instrument, carrying the rest in my head. Then while I -wrote out, Parmley would serve his turn at 'taking,' and so on. This -worked well until they put a new man on at the Cincinnati end. He was -one of the quickest despatchers in the business, and we soon found it -was hopeless for us to try to keep up with him. Then it was that I -worked out my first invention, and necessity was certainly the mother -of it. - -"I got two old Morse registers and arranged them in such a way that by -running a strip of paper through them the dots and dashes were -recorded on it by the first instrument as fast as they were delivered -from the Cincinnati end, and were transmitted to us through the other -instrument at any desired rate of speed. They would come in on one -instrument at the rate of forty words a minute, and would be ground -out of our instrument at the rate of twenty-five. Then weren't we -proud! Our copy used to be so clean and beautiful that we hung it up -on exhibition; and our manager used to come and gaze at it silently -with a puzzled expression. He could not understand it, neither could -any of the other operators; for we used to hide my impromptu automatic -recorder when our toil was over. But the crash came when there was a -big night's work--a presidential vote, I think it was--and copy kept -pouring in at the top rate of speed until we fell an hour and a half -or two hours behind. The newspapers sent in frantic complaints, an -investigation was made, and our little scheme was discovered. We -couldn't use it any more." - -His fortunes rose and fell, for, although he was now becoming a very -expert operator, taking messages with greater and greater speed, he -would continue to stray into new fields of experiment. When he started -to work in the Western Union office in Memphis, which was soon after -the end of the Civil War, he found that all messages that were sent -from New Orleans to New York had to be received at Memphis, sent on -from there to Louisville, taken again, and so forwarded by half a -dozen relays to New York. Many errors might creep in by such a system. -To cure this he devised an automatic repeater, which could be attached -to the line at Memphis, and would of its own accord send the message -on. In this way the signals could go directly from New Orleans to New -York. The device worked, and was highly praised in the local -newspapers. But it happened that the manager of the office had a -relative who was just completing a similar instrument, and Edison had -forestalled him. Consequently he found himself discharged. He got a -railroad pass as far as Decatur, and walked a hundred and fifty miles -from there to Nashville. So by alternate riding and walking he finally -reached Louisville. A little later he was offered a place in the -Boston office. - -He had plenty of nerve, and was not at all put out at the amusement of -the other men when he walked into the Boston office, clad in an old -and shapeless linen duster. "Here I am," he announced to the -superintendent. "And who are you?" he was asked. "Tom Edison. I was -told to report here." - -The superintendent sent him to the operating-room. Shortly after a New -York telegrapher, famed for his speed, called up. Every one else was -busy, and Edison was told to take his message. He sat down, and for -four and a half hours wrote the messages, numbering the pages and -throwing them on the floor for the office boy to gather up. As time -went on the messages came with such lightning speed that the whole -force gathered about to see the new man work. They had never seen such -quickness. At the end of the last message came the words, "Who the -devil are you?" "Tom Edison," the operator ticked back. "You are the -first man in the country," wired the man in New York, "that could ever -take me at my fastest, and the only one who could ever sit at the -other end of my wire for more than two hours and a half. I'm proud to -know you." - -This story may be legendary, but it is known to be a fact that Edison -was at this time the fastest operator in the employ of the Western -Union, and that he could take the messages sent him with a careless -ease which amounted almost to indifference. He had also cultivated an -unusually clear handwriting, which was of great help in writing out -the messages. - -As soon as he was settled at the Boston office he opened a small -workshop, where he might try to complete some of the many devices he -had in mind. He took out his first patent in 1868, when he was -twenty-one years old, and it was obtained for what he called an -electrical vote recorder. This was intended for use in Congress and -the State Legislatures, and to take the place of the slow process of -calling the roll on any vote. It was worked somewhat on the plan of -the hotel indicator. The voter, sitting at his desk, would press one -button if he wanted to vote "aye," and another if he wanted to vote -"no." His vote was then recorded on a dial by the Speaker's desk, and -as soon as each member had pressed one or the other button the total -votes on each side could be known. The machine worked perfectly, and -Edison took it to Washington in high hopes of having it adopted by -Congress. The chairman to whom he was referred examined it carefully. -Then he said, "Young man, it works all right and couldn't be better. -With an instrument like that it would be difficult to monkey with the -vote if you wanted to. But it won't do. In fact, it's the last thing -on earth that we want here. Filibustering and delay in the counting of -the votes are often the only means we have of defeating bad -legislation. So, though I admire your genius and the spirit which -prompted you to invent so excellent a machine, we shan't require it -here. Take the thing away." - -"Of course I was very sorry," said Edison, in speaking of this -interview later, "for I had banked on that machine bringing me in -money. But it was a lesson to me. There and then I made a vow that I -would never invent anything which was not wanted, or which was not -necessary to the community at large. And so far I believe I have kept -that vow." - -It was very evident there was a keen-witted man at work in the Boston -office. The operators there had been much annoyed by an army of -cockroaches that used to march across the table where they put their -lunches and make a raid on the sandwiches and pies. One day Edison -appeared with some tin-foil and four or five yards of fine wire. He -unrolled the tin-foil, and, cutting two narrow strips from the long -sheet, he stretched them around the table, keeping them near together, -but not touching, and fastening them with small tacks. Then he -connected the ribbons of foil with two batteries. - -The leaders of the cockroach army arrived. The advance guard got his -fore-creepers over the first ribbon safely, but as soon as they -touched the parallel ribbon over he fell. In a very short time the -invading army had met its Waterloo, and the lunches were safe from any -further attack. - -At another time the tin dipper that hung by the tank of drinking-water -temporarily disappeared. When it was returned Edison put up a sign, -reading, "Please return this dipper." He also connected the nail on -which the dipper hung with a wire attached to an electric battery. -After that the dipper stayed in its place under penalty of a wrenched -arm for moving it without first disconnecting the battery. - -Edison had now determined to become an inventor, and as soon as he was -able gave up his position in the Boston telegraph office, where his -routine work took too much of his time, and went to New York to look -for other opportunities. It happened that one day soon after his -arrival he was walking through Wall Street and was attracted to the -office of the Law Gold Indicator. The indicators or stock-tickers of -this company were a new device, and were distributed through most of -the large brokerage houses of the city. On the morning when Edison -casually looked in, the machines had stopped work, no one could find -out what was the matter, and the brokers were much disturbed. Edison -watched Mr. Law and his workmen searching for the trouble. Then he -said that he thought he could fix the machines. Mr. Law told him to -try. He removed a loose contact spring that had fallen between the -wheels, and immediately the tickers began to work again. The other -workmen looked foolish, and Mr. Law asked the newcomer to step into -his private office. At the end of the interview the owner had offered -Edison the position of manager at a salary of three hundred dollars a -month, and Edison had accepted. - -He determined to improve this stock-indicator, and set to work at -once. Soon he had evolved a number of important additions. The -president of the company sent for him and asked how much he would take -for these improvements. The inventor said that he would leave that to -the president. Forty thousand dollars was named and accepted. Edison -opened a bank account, and gave more time to working in his own -laboratory. He had got well started up the rungs of the ladder he -planned to climb. - -His work lay along the lines of the telegraph, and he was anxious to -win the support of the Western Union for his new ideas. His chance -came when there was a breakdown of the lines between New York and -Albany. He went to the Western Union president, who had already heard -of him, and said, "If I locate this trouble within two or three hours, -will you take up my inventions and give them honest consideration?" -The president answered, "I'll consider your inventions if you get us -out of this fix within two days." Edison rushed forthwith to the main -office. There he called up Pittsburg and asked for their best -operator. When he had him he told him to call up the best man at -Albany, and get him to telegraph down the line to New York as far as -he could, and report back to him. Inside of an hour he received the -message, "I can telegraph all right down to within two miles of -Poughkeepsie, and there is trouble with the wire there." Edison went -back to the president and told him that if he would send a repair -train to Poughkeepsie they would find a break two miles the other side -of the city and could have it repaired that afternoon. They followed -his directions, and communication was restored before night. After -that the Western Union officials gave the most careful consideration -to every new invention that Edison brought them. - -As soon as he had money in bank Edison carried out a plan he had long -had in mind. He gave up his workshop in New York and opened a factory -and experimenting shop in Newark, New Jersey, where he would have -plenty of room for himself and his assistants. He began by -manufacturing his improved "stock-tickers," and he met with very -considerable success. But he felt that manufacturing was not his -forte. He said of this venture later, "I was a poor manufacturer, -because I could not let well enough alone. My first impulse upon -taking any apparatus into my hand, from an egg-beater to an electric -motor, is to seek a way of improving it. Therefore, as soon as I have -finished a machine I am anxious to take it apart again in order to -make an experiment. That is a costly mania for a manufacturer." - -In his Newark shop Edison now turned his attention to improvements on -the telegraph. His first important invention was the duplex, by which -two messages could be sent over the same wire in opposite directions -at the same time without any confusion or obstruction to each other. -This doubled the capacity of the single wire. Later he decided to -carry this system farther, and perfected the quadruplex device. By -this two messages could be sent simultaneously in each direction, and -two sending and two receiving operators were employed at each end of a -single wire. The principle involved was that of working with two -electric currents that differ from each other in strength or nature, -and which only affect receiving instruments specially adapted to take -such currents, and no others. This invention changed a hundred -thousand miles of wire into four hundred thousand, and saved the -Western Union untold millions of dollars which would otherwise have -had to be expended for new wires and repairs to the old ones. - -Along somewhat similar lines Edison perfected an automatic telegraph, -an harmonic multiplex telegraph, and an autographic telegraph. The -harmonic multiplex used tuning-forks to separate the several different -messages sent at the same time, and the autographic telegraph allowed -of the transmission of an exact reproduction of a message written by -the sender in one place and received in another. And in addition to -all these leading inventions he was continually improving on the main -system, and his improvements were rapidly bought and taken over by the -Western Union Company. - -In almost as many diverse ways Edison improved upon the telephone. He -had left his factory in Newark in charge of a capable superintendent, -and moved his own laboratories to Menlo Park, a quiet place about -twenty-five miles from Newark. His striking discoveries soon earned -for him the nickname of "The Wizard of Menlo Park." Here he -experimented with the new apparatus known as the telephone. He said of -his own connection with it, "When I struck the telephone business the -Bell people had no transmitter, but were talking into the magneto -receiver. You never heard such a noise and buzzing as there was in -that old machine! I went to work and monkeyed around, and finally -struck the notion of the lampblack button. The Western Union Telegraph -Company thought this was a first-rate scheme, and bought the thing -out, but afterward they consolidated, and I quit the telephone -business." As a matter of fact Edison has done a great deal of other -work besides inventing his carbon transmitter in the telephone field, -and the Patent Office is well stocked with applications he has sent -them for receivers and transmitters of different designs. - -Edison has himself told of the main incidents in his perfection of the -electric light. In the _Electrical Review_ he said, "In 1878 I went -down to see Professor Barker, at Philadelphia, and he showed me an arc -lamp--the first I had seen. Then a little later I saw another--I think -it was one of Brush's make--and the whole outfit, engine, dynamo, and -one or two lamps, was traveling around the country with a circus. At -that time Wallace and Moses G. Farmer had succeeded in getting ten or -fifteen lamps to burn together in a series, which was considered a -very wonderful thing. It happened that at the time I was more or less -at leisure, because I had just finished working on the carbon-button -telephone, and this electric-light idea took possession of me. It was -easy to see what the thing needed: it wanted to be subdivided. The -light was too bright and too big. What we wished for was little -lights, and a distribution of them to people's houses in a manner -similar to gas. Grovernor P. Lowry thought that perhaps I could -succeed in solving the problem, and he raised a little money and -formed the Edison Electric Light Company. The way we worked was that I -got a certain sum of money a week and employed a certain number of -men, and we went ahead to see what we could do. - -"We soon saw that the subdivision never could be accomplished unless -each light was independent of every other. Now it was plain enough -that they could not burn in series. Hence they must burn in multiple -arc. It was with this conviction that I started. I was fired with the -idea of the incandescent lamp as opposed to the arc lamp, so I went to -work and got some very fine platinum wire drawn. Experiment with this, -however, resulted in failure, and then we tried mixing in with the -platinum about ten per cent. of iridium, but we could not force that -high enough without melting it. After that came a lot of -experimenting--covering the wire with oxide of cerium and a number of -other things. - -"Then I got a great idea. I took a cylinder of zirconia and wound -about a hundred feet of the fine platinum wire on it coated with -magnesia from the syrupy acetate. What I was after was getting a -high-resistance lamp, and I made one that way that worked up to forty -ohms. But the oxide developed the phenomena now familiar to -electricians, and the lamp short-circuited itself. After that we went -fishing around and trying all sorts of shapes and things to make a -filament that would stand. We tried silicon and boron, and a lot of -things that I have forgotten now. The funny part of it was that I -never thought in those days that a carbon filament would answer, -because a fine hair of carbon was so sensitive to oxidation. Finally, -I thought I would try it because we had got very high vacua and good -conditions for it. - -"Well, we sent out and bought some cotton thread, carbonized it, and -made the first filament. We had already managed to get pretty high -vacua, and we thought, maybe, the filament would be stable. We built -the lamp and turned on the current. It lit up, and in the first few -breathless minutes we measured its resistance quickly and found it was -275 ohms--all we wanted. Then we sat down and looked at that lamp. We -wanted to see how long it would burn. The problem was solved--if the -filament would last. The day was--let me see--October 21, 1879. We sat -and looked, and the lamp continued to burn, and the longer it burned -the more fascinated we were. None of us could go to bed, and there was -no sleep for any of us for forty hours. We sat and just watched it -with anxiety growing into elation. It lasted about forty-five hours, -and then I said, If it will burn that number of hours now, I know I -can make it burn a hundred.' We saw that carbon was what we wanted, -and the next question was what kind of carbon. I began to try various -things, and finally I carbonized a strip of bamboo from a Japanese -fan, and saw that I was on the right track. But we had a rare hunt -finding the real thing. I sent a schoolmaster to Sumatra and another -fellow up the Amazon, while William H. Moore, one of my associates, -went to Japan and got what we wanted there. We made a contract with an -old Jap to supply us with the proper fibre, and that man went to work -and cultivated and cross-fertilized bamboo until he got exactly the -quality we required." - -This is the inventor's own statement, but it gives a very meagre -notion of the many months' experimenting in his workshop while he -hunted for a suitable filament for his electric light. - -As he said, after he had first seen the Brush light, and studied it, -he decided that the main problem was one of distribution, and -thereupon considered whether he should use the incandescent or the -voltaic arc in the system he was planning. At last he decided in favor -of the incandescent light. - -Then began the long months of testing platinum wire. He wanted to find -some way of preventing this hardest of all metals from melting when -the full force of the electric current was turned into it. He worked -out several devices to keep the platinum from fusing, an automatic -lever to regulate the electric current when the platinum was near the -melting-point, and a diaphragm with the same object; but all of them -had to be discarded. Although he was still searching for the right -clue he seems to have had no doubt of his final success. He said at -this time, "There is no difficulty about dividing up the current and -using small quantities at different points. The trouble is in finding -a candle that will give a pleasant light, not too intense, which can -be turned off and on as easily as gas. Such a candle cannot be made -from carbon points, which waste away, and must be regulated constantly -while they do last. Some composition must be discovered which will be -luminous when charged with electricity and that will not wear away. -Platinum wire gives a good light when a certain quantity of -electricity is passed through it. If the current is made too strong, -however, the wire will melt. I want to get something better." - -It was generally known that Edison was working along this line. An -English paper, commenting on the matter, said, "The weak point of the -lamp is this, that in order to be luminous, platinum must be heated -almost to the point of melting. With a slight increase in the current, -the lamp melts in the twinkling of an eye, and in practice the -regulator is found to short-circuit the current too late to prevent -the damage. It is this difficulty which must be overcome. Can it be -done?" - -After long study Edison concluded that pure platinum was not suited to -successful electric lighting. Then he incorporated with it another -material of a non-conducting nature, with the result that when the -electric current was turned on one material became incandescent and -the other luminous. This gave a clear, but not a permanent, light. He -tried many different combinations, and experimented month after month, -but none of his trials produced the result he wanted, and at last he -concluded that he was on the wrong track, and that neither platinum -nor any other metal would give the right light. - -There is something very dramatic about his real discovery. He was -sitting in his laboratory one evening, when his right hand happened to -touch a small pile of lampblack and tar that his assistants had been -using in working on a telephone transmitter. He picked up a little of -it, and began to roll it between his finger and thumb. He was thinking -of other things, and he rolled the mixture absent-mindedly for some -time, until he had formed a thin thread that looked something like a -piece of wire. Glancing at it, he fell to wondering how it would serve -as a filament for his light. It was carbon, and might be able to stand -a stronger current than platinum. He rolled some more of the mixture, -and decided to try it. - -His experiments had already resulted in the production of an almost -absolute vacuum, only one-millionth part of an atmosphere being left -in the tube. Such a vacuum had never been obtained before. With his -assistant, Charles Bachelor, he put a thread of the lampblack and tar -in a bulb, exhausted the air, and turned on the current. There was an -intense glow of light; but it did not last, the carbon soon burned -out. Therefore he started to study the reason why the carbon had -failed to withstand the electric current. His conclusion was that it -was impossible to get the air out of the lampblack. Besides that the -thread became so brittle that the slightest shock to the lamp broke -it. But he felt certain now that a carbon filament, made of something -other than tar and lampblack, was what he wanted. - -He next sent a boy to buy a reel of cotton, and told his assistants he -was going to see what a carbonized thread would do. They looked -doubtful, but began the experiment. A short piece of the thread was -bent in the form of a hairpin, laid in a nickel mould and securely -clamped, and then put in a muffle furnace, where it was kept for five -hours. Then it was taken out and allowed to cool. The mould was opened -and the carbonized thread removed. It instantly broke. Another thread -was put through the same process. As soon as it was taken from the -mould it broke. Then a battle began that lasted for two days and two -nights, the object of which was to get a carbonized thread that would -not break. Edison wanted that thread because it contained no air, and -might stand a greater current than the lampblack. Finally they took -from the mould an unbroken thread, but as they tried to fasten it to -the conducting wire it broke into pieces. Only on the night of the -third day of their work, in all which time they had taken no rest, did -they get a thread safely into the lamp, exhaust the air, and turn on -the current. A clear, soft light resulted, and they knew that they had -solved the problem of the incandescent light. - -Edison and Bachelor watched that light for hours. They had turned on a -small current at the start, to test the strength of the filament, but -as it stood it, they turned on a greater and greater current until the -thread was bearing a heat that would have instantly melted the -platinum wire. The cotton thread glowed for forty-five hours, and then -suddenly went out. The two watchers ended their long vigil, exhausted, -but very happy. They knew that they had found the light that was to be -the main illumination for the world. - -But Edison realized that he had not yet found the ideal filament. The -cotton thread had only lasted forty-five hours, and he wanted one that -would burn for a hundred hours or longer. He wanted a more homogeneous -material than thread, and he began to try carbonizing everything he -could lay his hands on, straw, paper, cardboard, splinters of wood. He -found that the cardboard stood the current better than the cotton -thread, but even that did not burn long enough. Then he happened upon -a bamboo fan, tore off the rim, and tried that. It made a filament -that gave better results than any of the others. - -Now he began his exhaustive study of bamboo. He learned that there -were more than twelve hundred known varieties of bamboo. He wanted to -find the most homogeneous variety. He sent out a number of men to hunt -this bamboo, and it is said that the search cost nearly $100,000. Six -thousand specimens of bamboo were carbonized, and he found three kinds -of bamboo and one of cane that gave almost the result he wanted. All -of these grew in a region near the Amazon, and were hard to get on -account of malarial conditions. But at last he discovered the bamboo -species that suited him, and he was ready to give his new light to the -world. - -The world was waiting for it. Scientists and the press reported his -invention everywhere. He hung a row of lamps from the trees at Menlo -Park, and the thousands who came to see them wondered when they found -they could burn day and night for longer than a week. The lamps were -small and finely made, they could be lighted or extinguished by simply -pressing a button, and the cost of making them was slight. The last -doubters surrendered, and admitted that Edison had given the world a -new light, and one which was not simply a scientific marvel, but was -eminently practical and useful. - -But Edison is never satisfied with what he has done in any line; he -must try to increase the service each invention gives. Therefore he -now conceived the idea of having a central station from which every -one might obtain electric light as they had formerly obtained gas. -There were gigantic difficulties in the way of such an undertaking. -Hardly any one outside of Edison's own laboratory knew anything about -electric lighting, and there were only a few of them who could be -trusted to put a carbon filament in an exhausted globe. - -He went about this new development in the most methodical way. He got -an insurance map of New York City, and studied the business section -from Wall to Canal Streets and from Broadway over to the East River. -He knew where every elevator shaft and boiler and fire-wall was, and -also how much gas each resident used and what he paid for it. This -last he learned by hiring men to walk through the district at two -o'clock in the afternoon and note how many gas lights were burning, -then to make the rounds again at three, and again at four, and so on -into the hours of the next morning. - -With the field carefully examined he formed the New York Edison -Illuminating Company, and had his assistants take charge of factories -for making lamps, dynamos, sockets, and the other parts necessary for -his lights. It was very difficult to get the land he wanted for his -central station, but he finally bought two old buildings on Pearl -Street for $150,000. He had little room space and he wanted to get a -big output of electricity. So he decided to get a high-speed engine. -They were practically unknown then, and when he went to an engine -builder and said that he wanted a 150 horse-power engine that would -run 700 revolutions per minute he was told it was impossible. But he -found a man to build one for him, and set it up in the shop at Menlo -Park. The shop was built on a shale hill, and when the engine was -started the whole hill shook with the high speed revolutions. After -some experimenting and changing they got the power that Edison wanted, -and he ordered six more engines like the first. - -In the meantime workmen had been busy digging ditches and laying mains -through the district that Edison intended to light. The engines were -set up in the central station and tried out. Then the troubles began. -The engines would not run evenly, one would stop and another go -dashing on at a tremendous speed. Edison tried a dozen different plans -before he brought anything like order out of that engine chaos. -Finally he had some engines built to run at 350 revolutions and give -175 horse-power, and these proved what was required. September 4, -1882, he turned the current on to the mains for the needed light -service, and it stayed on with only one short stoppage for eight -years. - -In this way Edison invented the electric light and evolved the central -station that should provide the current wherever it was needed. At the -same time he had worked out countless adjuncts to it, the use of -the fine copper thread to serve as a fuse wire and prevent -short-circuiting, the meter, consisting of a small glass cell, -containing a solution in which two plates of zinc are placed, and -which shows how much current is supplied, the weighing voltameter, and -other instruments for estimating the current, and improvements on the -motors and engines. There was no field remotely connected with -electric lighting that he did not enter. Yet as soon as the invention -was actually before the world business competitors sprang up on -every hand. There was more litigation over this than over any other of -Edison's inventions. "I fought for the lamp for fourteen years," he -said, "and when I finally won my rights there were but three years of -the allotted seventeen left for my patent to live. Now it has become -the property of anybody and everybody." - -[Illustration: EDISON AND THE EARLY PHONOGRAPH] - -Edison had always wanted a model laboratory, one that should be fitted -with the most perfect instruments obtainable, and supplied with all -the materials he could possibly require in any of his extraordinary -experiments. In 1886 he bought a house in Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, -and near the house ten acres of land, on which he built the laboratory -of his dreams. Here he had a large force of skilled workmen constantly -engaged in developing his ideas, and the expenses were paid by the -many commercial companies in which he was interested, and which -profited by the improvements he was continually making in their -machinery. - -Many volumes might be written to tell of the "Wizard's" achievements. -There has been no inventor who has covered such a field, and each step -he takes opens new and fascinating vistas to his ever-inquiring eyes. -Electricity is always his main study, and electricity he expects in -time will revolutionize modern life by making heat, power, and light -practically as cheap as air. But other subjects have concerned him -almost as much. He ranges from new processes for making guns to the -supplying of ready-made houses built of cement. Everything interests -him, every object tempts him to try his hand at improving on it. - -The phonograph is his achievement, and the practical development of -the kinetoscope. He has built electric locomotives and run them, he -has made many discoveries in regard to platinum. His better known -patents include developments of the electric lamp, the telephone, -storage-batteries, ore-milling machinery, typewriters, electric pens, -vocal engines, addressing machines, cast-iron furniture, wire-drawing, -methods of preserving fruit, moving-picture machines, compressed-air -machines, and the manufacture of plate glass. He took out a patent -covering wireless telegraphy in 1891, but other matters were then -absorbing his attention, and he was quite willing to yield that field -to the brilliant Italian, Marconi. He feels no jealousy for other -inventors. He knows how vast the field is, and how many paths -constantly beckon him. - -It is doubtless true that the great inventors are born and not made, -but many of them seem, nevertheless, to have drifted into the work -that gave them fame, or to have hit by chance on their compelling -idea. It was not so with Edison. He was beyond any doubt born an -inventor. With him to see was to ask the question why, and to ask that -question was to start his thoughts on the train that was to bring him -to the answer. - - - - -XV - -MARCONI AND THE WIRELESS TELEGRAPH - -1874- - - -At first sight the wireless telegraph seems the most wonderful of all -inventions and discoveries, the one that is least easy to understand, -and that most nearly approaches that magic which is above all nature's -laws. Even if we do come to understand it it loses nothing of its -wonder, and the last impression is very like the first. We can -understand how an electric current travels through a wire, even if we -cannot understand electricity, but how that current can travel through -limitless space and yet reach its destination strains the imagination. -Yet wireless telegraphy is not a matter of the imagination, but of -exact, demonstrable science. - -On December 12, 1901, a quiet, dark-skinned young man sat, about -noontime, in a room of the old barracks building on Signal Hill, near -St. John's, Newfoundland. On the table in front of him was a -mechanical apparatus, with an ordinary telephone receiver at its side. -The window was partly open, and a wire led from the machine on the -table through the window to a gigantic kite that a high wind kept -flying fully 400 feet above the room. The young man picked up the -receiver, and held it to his ear for a long time. His face showed no -sign of excitement, though an assistant, standing near him, could -barely keep still. Then, suddenly, came the sharp click of the -"tapper" as it struck the "coherer." That meant that something was -coming. The young man listened a few minutes, and then handed the -receiver to his assistant. "See if you can hear anything, Mr. Kemp," -said he. The other man took the receiver, and a moment later his ear -caught the sound of three little clicks, faint, but distinct and -unmistakable, the three dots of the letter S in the Morse Code. Those -clicks had been sent from Poldhu, on the Cornish coast of England, and -they had traveled through air across the Atlantic Ocean without any -wire to guide them. That was one of the great moments of history. The -young man at the table was Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian. - -We know that it is no injustice to a great inventor to say that other -men had imagined what he achieved, and had earlier tried to prove -their theories. It takes nothing from the glory of that other great -Italian, Columbus, to recall that other sailors had planned to cross -the sea to the west of Europe and that some had tried it. So James -Clerk-Maxwell had proved by mathematics the electro-magnetic theory of -light in 1864, and Heinrich Hertz had demonstrated in 1888 by actual -experiment that electric waves exist in the free ether, and Edison had -for a time worked on the problem of a wireless telegraph. Marconi -devised the last link that made the wonder possible, and caught the -first click that came across the sea, and to him belong the palms. -Judge Townsend, in deciding a suit in a United States court in 1905, -declared, "It would seem, therefore, to be a sufficient answer to the -attempts to belittle Marconi's great invention that, with the whole -scientific world awakened by the disclosures of Hertz in 1887 to the -new and undeveloped possibilities of electric waves, nine years -elapsed without a single practical or commercially successful result, -and Marconi was the first to describe and the first to achieve the -transmission of definite intelligible signals by means of these -Hertzian waves." - -Marconi was born at Villa Griffone, near Bologna, in 1874, so that he -was under thirty when he caught that first transatlantic message. He -studied at Leghorn under Professor Rosa, and later at the University -of Bologna with Professor Righi. He was always absorbed in science, -and experimented, holiday after holiday, on his father's estate. He -was precocious to an extraordinary degree, for in 1895, when only -twenty-one, he had produced a wireless transmitting apparatus that he -patented in Italy. Within a year he had taken out patents in England -and in other European countries, and had proposed a wireless telegraph -system to the English Post-Office Department. That Department, through -Sir William Henry Preece, Engineer-in-Chief of Telegraphs, took up the -subject, and reported very favorably on the Marconi System. Marconi -himself, at the House of Commons, telegraphed by wireless across the -Thames, a distance of 250 yards. In June, 1897, he sent a message nine -miles, in July twelve miles, and in 1898 he succeeded in sending one -across the English Channel to France, thirty-two miles. In 1901 he -covered a space of 3,000 miles. - -Let us now see what it was that Marconi had actually done. - -Wireless signals are in reality wave motions in the magnetic forces of -the earth, or, in other words, disturbances of those forces. They are -sent out through this magnetic field, and follow the earth's -curvature, in the same way that tidal waves follow the ocean's -surface. Everywhere about us there is a sea of what science calls the -ether, and the ether is constantly in a state of turmoil, because it -is the medium through which energy, radiating from the sun, is carried -to the earth and other planets. This energy is transmitted through the -free ether in waves, which are known as electromagnetic waves. It was -this fact that Professor Hertz discovered, and the waves are sometimes -called the Hertzian waves. Light is one variety of wave motion, and -heat another. The ether must be distinguished from the air, for -science means by it a medium which exists everywhere and is to be -regarded as permeating all space and all matter. The ether exists in a -vacuum, for, although all the air may have been withdrawn, an object -placed in a vacuum can still be seen from outside, and hence the wave -motions of light are traveling through a space devoid of air. - -Professor Hertz proved in 1888 that a spark, or disruptive discharge -of electricity, caused electro-magnetic waves to radiate away in all -directions through the ether. The waves acted exactly like ripples -that radiate from a stone when it strikes the water. These Hertzian -waves were found to travel with the same velocity as light, and would -circle the world eight times in a second. As soon as the existence of -these waves was known many scientists began to consider whether they -could not be used for telegraphy. But the problem was a very difficult -one. The questions were how to transmit the energy to a distance, and -how to make a receiver that should be sensitive enough to be affected -by it. - -Let us picture a body of still water with a twig floating upon its -surface. If a stone is thrown into the water ripples radiate in all -directions, these waves becoming weaker as the circles they form -become larger, or in other words as they grow more distant from the -point where the stone struck the water. When the waves reach the -floating twig they will move it, and when they cease the twig will be -motionless again. Should there be grasses or rocks protruding up from -the water the motion given to the twig by the waves would be lessened, -or distorted, or changed in many ways, depending on the intervening -object. Whether the waves will actually impart motion to the twig will -depend on the force by which these waves were started and upon the -lightness of the twig, or its sensitiveness to the ripples as they -radiate. If the water were disturbed by some other force than the -stone the twig would be moved by that other force, and the observer -could not tell from what direction the motion had come, or how it had -been caused. Applying this to wireless telegraphy one may say that a -device must be used that will send out waves of a certain length, and -that the receiver must be constructed so that it will respond only to -waves of the length sent by that transmitter. - -There must therefore be accurate tuning of the two instruments. Let a -weight be fastened at the end of a spiral spring and then be struck. -The weight will oscillate at a uniform rate, or so many times a -minute. If this be held so that it strikes the water the movement of -the spring will create a certain number of waves a minute. If now a -second weight, attached to a second spring, be hung down into the -water, the waves caused by the first will reach the second, and if the -springs be alike the movements or oscillations will correspond. But if -the springs were not alike, or if, in other words, the two instruments -were not in tune, the wave motions would not be received and copied -accurately. Therefore in wireless telegraphy the instrument that is to -impart the motion to the electro-magnetic waves that fill the ether -must be tuned in accord with the instrument that is to receive the -motion of those waves. - -The sending of the wireless message requires a source of production of -the electro-magnetic waves. This is obtained by what is known as -capacity, or in other words, the power that is possessed by any metal -surface to retain a charge of electricity, and by inductance, procured -when a constantly changing current is sent through a coil of wire. -This capacity and inductance must be adjusted to give exactly the same -frequency of motion to the waves, or the same oscillations, if the -receiver that is tuned to vibrate to those waves is to receive that -message accurately. The receiving station must have the means to -intercept the waves, and then transform them again into electrical -oscillations that shall correspond to those sent out from the -transmitting station. - -As early as 1844 Samuel F. B. Morse had succeeded in telegraphing -without wires under the Susquehanna River, and in 1854 James Bowman -Lindsay, a Scotchman, had sent a message a distance of two miles -through water without wires. Sir William Henry Preece, by using an -induced current, had telegraphed several miles without a connecting -wire. But the discoveries made in regard to the Hertzian waves placed -the subject on a different footing, and the possibility of an actual -usable wireless telegraph was now looked at from a new view-point. - -Professor Hertz had used a simple form of apparatus to obtain his free -ether waves. A loop of wire, with the ends almost touching each other, -had been his receiver, or detector. When he set his generator, or -instrument to create the oscillations, in operation, and held the -detector near it, he could see very minute electric sparks passing -between the ends of the loop of wire. This proved the existence of the -electro-magnetic waves. - -In 1890 Professor Eduard Branly found that loose metallic filings -became good conductors of electricity when there were electric -oscillations at hand. He demonstrated this by placing the filings -between metal plugs in a glass tube, and connecting this in circuit -with a battery and electric indicator. Professor Oliver Lodge named -this device of Branly's a "coherer," and when he found that it was -more sensitive than the Hertz detector he combined it with the Hertz -oscillator. This was in 1894, and the combination of oscillator and -coherer actually formed the first real wireless set. - -Wireless stations on shore are marked by very tall masts, which -support a single wire, or a set of wires, which are known as the -_antenna_. The antenna has electrical capacity, and when it is -connected with the other apparatus needful to produce the oscillations -it disturbs the earth's magnetic field. For temporary service, as in -the case of military operations, the antenna is frequently attached to -captive balloons or kites, and so suspended high in air. On ships the -antenna is fastened to the masts. The step that led to this addition -was taken by Count Popoff in 1895, when he attached a vertical wire to -one side of the coherer of the receiver of Professor Lodge, and -connected the other side with the ground. He used this to learn the -approach of thunder-storms. - -With a knowledge of electro-magnetic waves, with a high-power -oscillator, and a sensitive coherer, it remained for Marconi to -connect an antenna to the transmitter, and thus secure a wide and -practicable working field for the sending and receiving of his -messages. This he did in 1896, and it was this addition that made the -wireless telegraph of real use to men. Improvements in the transmitter -and receiver have constantly increased the power of the invention, and -have gradually allowed him to employ it over greater and greater -distances. - -With Marconi's successful demonstrations of wireless in England its -use at once began. The Trinity House installed a station at the -East Goodwin Lighthouse, which communicated with shore and proved of -the greatest value in preventing shipwrecks. The Marconi Wireless -Telegraph Company was organized in 1897, and made agreements to erect -coast stations for the Italian, Canadian, and Newfoundland -governments, and for Lloyd's. The great shipping lines established -wireless stations on their vessels, and the antenna were soon to be -seen on points of vantage along every coast. On December 12, 1901, -Marconi in Newfoundland caught the message sent from Cornwall; on -January 19, 1903, President Roosevelt sent the first "official" -wireless message across the Atlantic to Edward VII, and in October, -1905, a message was sent from England across the mountains, valleys -and cities of Europe to the battle-ship _Renown_, stationed at the -entrance to the Suez Canal. - -[Illustration: WIRELESS STATION IN NEW YORK CITY, SHOWING THE ANTENNA] - -The system of operating wireless telegraphy is in some respects -similar to that of the ordinary telegraph. The Morse Code is largely -used in America, and a modification of it, called the Continental -Code, in Europe. When the wireless operator wishes to send a message -to another station he "listens in," as it is called, by connecting his -receiving apparatus with the adjacent antenna and the ground. He has -the telephone receiver attached to his ears. Next he adjusts his -receiving circuits for a number of wave lengths. If he catches no -signals in his telephone receiver he understands that no messages are -being sent within his area. Then he "throws in" the transmitting -apparatus, which automatically disconnects the receiving end. He -gives the letters that stand for the station with which he wants to -communicate, and adds the letters of his own station. He does this a -number of times, to insure the other station picking up the call. Then -he "listens in," and if he receives the clicks that show that the -other station has heard him he is ready to establish regular -telegraphic communication. - -A number of distant stations may be sending messages simultaneously. -In that case the operator tunes his instrument, or in other words -adjusts his apparatus to suit the wave length of the station with -which he wishes to communicate. In this way he "tunes out" the other -messages, and receives only the one he wants. If, however, the -stations that are sending simultaneously happen to be situated near -together, as in the case of several vessels near a shore station, the -operator is often unable to do this "tuning out," and must try to -catch the message he wishes by the sound of the "spark" of the -transmitting station, if he can in any way distinguish it from the -"sparks" of the other messages. - -There are several ways of determining when the two circuits are in -tune. One is to insert a hot-wire current meter between the antenna -and the inductance, which indicates the strength of the oscillatory -current that has been established. A maximum reading can then be made -by manipulating the flexible connections, and this will show whether -the two circuits are in accord. The other method is by using a device -that indicates the wave length. This measures the frequency of one -circuit, and then the other circuit can be adjusted to give a -corresponding wave length. The larger the antenna the longer will be -the wave length and the greater the power of the apparatus. It is -usual to employ a short wave length for low-power, short-distance -equipments, and a long wave length for the high-power, long-distance -stations. - -Wireless telegraphy has already proved itself of the greatest value on -the ocean. It has sent news of storms and wrecks across tossing seas -and brought rescue to scores of voyagers. Ships may now keep in -constant communication with their offices on shore. The great lines -send Marconigrams to each other in mid-ocean, and publish daily papers -giving the latest news of the whole world. Greater distances have so -far been covered over water than over land, but this branch of the -service is being rapidly developed, and it must prove in time of the -greatest value across deserts and wild countries, where a regular -telegraph service would be impracticable. In such a country as Alaska, -where there are constant heavy sleet and snow storms, the wireless -should prove invaluable. - -The telegraph and cable companies did their best to ignore the claims -of the wireless systems, but they have been compelled to acknowledge -them at last. Rival companies have sprung up, using slightly different -varieties of apparatus. Each of the big companies that were ready to -compete with the Marconi Company by 1906, the German Telefunken -Company, the American National Electric Signaling Company, the -American De Forest Company, and the British Lodge-Muirhead Wireless -Syndicate, had certain peculiar advantages over the others. The laws -relating to the uses of wireless, and especially the rights of -governments to the sole use of the systems in case of war, are in a -confused condition, but eventually order must come from this chaos as -it did in the history of the telephone and telegraph. - -Wireless has brought the possibility of communication between any two -individuals, no matter where they may be situated, within the realm of -fact. A severing of communication with any part of the world will be -impossible. Storms and earthquakes that destroy telegraph systems, -enemies that cut submarine cables, cannot prevent the sending of -Marconigrams. The African explorer and the Polar adventurer can each -talk with his countrymen. The use of this agency is still in its -earliest youth, but it has already done so much that it is impossible -to say to what a stature it may grow. It should cut down the rates for -using wire and cable systems, and ultimately place the means of -communicating directly with any one on land or sea within the reach of -every man. All the world's information will be at the instant disposal -of whomsoever needs it, and all this is due to those electro-magnetic -waves that permeate the ether, waiting to be put into service at the -touch of man. - - - - -XVI - -THE WRIGHTS AND THE AIRSHIP - -Wilbur Wright 1867- - -Orville Wright 1871- - - -Men have always wanted to be able to fly. So long as there have been -birds to watch, so long have men of speculative minds wondered at the -secret of their flight. Early in recorded history men built ships to -sail across the seas, but the problem of air navigation has always -baffled them. The balloon came into being, but the balloon for years -was only a toy, dependent on the wind's whim, and of the least -possible service to men. The problem of aerial navigation was to -master the currents of the air as the sailing-vessel and the steamship -had overcome the waves and tides at sea. - -The history of invention often shows that some great thinker, or -school of thinkers, has stated a scientific conclusion that -generations of later men have never dared to question. The laws of -Aristotle in regard to falling bodies were never doubted until Galileo -began to wonder if they could be true. Sir Isaac Newton had stated, -and mathematical computations had proved his words, that a mechanical -flying-machine was an impossibility. Any such machine must be heavier -than the air it flew in. The weight of Newton's authority and the -weight of figures were compelling facts, such as scientists had no -mind to doubt. But in spite of these facts men could see that birds -flew, although they were often a thousand times heavier than the air -they went through. And that sight kept men speculating, in spite of -all the figures and scientific dicta of the ages. - -It was known for centuries that if a kite was held in position by a -string reaching to the ground the wind blowing against it would keep -it supported in the air. Now if the kite, instead of being stationary -in moving air, were to be moved constantly through quiet air it would -also stay up. The motive power might be supplied by a motor and -propellers, but in order to do away with the string which holds the -kite in position the aeroplane, which is only a big kite in principle, -must have some way of balancing itself so that it will stay in the -proper position in the air. - -A German engineer, Otto Lilienthal, made a study of the mechanics of -birds' flights, and determined to learn their secret by actual trial. -He built wings that were similar to those of the hawk and buzzard, the -great soaring birds, and in 1891 he began to throw himself from the -tops of hills, supported by these wings, and glided through the air -into the valleys. In this way he learned new laws of flight, -contradicting many theories of the scientists, and opening a new world -of speculation. But in August, 1896, his wings broke in a sudden gust -of wind, he fell fifty feet, and died of a broken back. - -It was this problem of balancing that had cost Lilienthal his life. He -had tried to balance himself by throwing his weight quickly from side -to side as he held to his "gliding machine." His pupil, Percy S. -Pilcher, an Englishman, continued his experiments, trying the same -method of balancing, but in September, 1899, his wings broke, and he -met the same fate as his teacher. It seemed that men could not shift -their weight quickly enough to meet the gusts of wind. - -Meantime new theories of flight were being worked out in the United -States. Professor S. P. Langley, of the Smithsonian Institution, had -made experiments with plates of metal moved through the air at various -rates of speed and at different angles, and had published his new -conclusions in regard to the support the air would furnish -flying-planes in 1891. In 1896 he built a small steam-aeroplane that -flew a distance of three-quarters of a mile down the Potomac River. -And in the same year Octave Chanute, of Chicago, with the aid of A. M. -Herring, built a multiple-wing machine and tried it successfully on -the banks of Lake Michigan. But the problem of balancing was not yet -solved, and here Wilbur and Orville Wright entered upon the scene. - -The Wrights' home was in Dayton, Ohio, and there they had spent their -boyhood, in no way distinguished from their neighbors. Their father -had been a teacher, an editor, and a bishop of the United Brethren -Church. He had traveled a great deal, and was an unusually -well-educated man. Their mother had been to college. Their two older -brothers and their sister were college graduates, and the younger boys -would have had the same education had their mother not died and they -decided to stay at home and look after affairs for their father, who -was often away. In telling the story of their invention in _The -Century_ for September, 1908, they said, "Late in the autumn of 1878 -our father came into the house one evening with some object concealed -in his hands and, before we could see what it was, tossed it into the -air. Instead of falling to the floor, as we expected, it flew across -the room and struck the ceiling, where it fluttered a while and -finally sank to the floor. It was a little toy known to scientists as -a helicoptere, but which we, with sublime disregard for science, -dubbed a 'bat.' ... It lasted only a short time, but its memory was -abiding." At that time Wilbur was eleven and Orville seven years old. - -These two brothers, scientifically minded, started a bicycle shop, and -bade fair to become ordinarily prosperous citizens of Dayton, much -like their neighbors. They were, however, deeply interested in news -from the world of science and invention, and when they read in 1896 -that Lilienthal had been killed by a fall from his glider they began -to wonder what were the real difficulties that must be overcome in -flying. Further reading awakened a deep interest in the problem of the -airship, and they worked upon it, at first as a scientific pastime, -but soon in all seriousness. They built models in their workshop, and -experimented with them. Then, in 1900, Wilbur wrote to his father that -he was going on a holiday to a place in North Carolina called Kitty -Hawk, to try a glider. - -The Wrights realized in 1900 that the only problem to be solved was -that of equilibrium. Men had made aeroplanes that would support them -in motion, and also engines that were light enough to drive the planes -and carry their own weight and that of the aviator. But when the wind -blew the aeroplane was as likely as not to capsize. Their study was -how to keep the machine from turning over. - -The air does not blow in regular currents. Instead, near the earth, it -is continually tossing up and down, and often whirling about in rotary -masses. There is constant atmospheric turmoil, and the question is how -to maintain a balance in these currents that bear the machine. Put in -technical form it is how to make the centre of gravity coincide with -the centre of air-pressure. - -The shifting of the air-currents means that the centre of air-pressure -moves. The aeroplane is sailed at a slight angle to the direction in -which it is heading, and the centre of air-pressure is on the forward -surfaces of the machine. The wind strikes the front, but rarely -touches the back of the plane, and so gains a great leverage that adds -materially to its power to overturn the machine. As the wind veers -continually it is easy to see the aviator's difficulty in keeping -track of this centre of pressure. - -Both Lilienthal and Chanute had tried to balance by shifting their -weight, but this was extremely exhausting, and often could not be done -in time to meet the changing currents. The Wrights realized that a -more automatic method of meeting these changes must be found, and they -worked it out by shifting the rudder and the surfaces of the airship -as it met the air-currents. - -The earlier aviators had found that two planes, or "double-deckers," -gave the best results. The Wrights adopted this type, believing that -it was the strongest form, and could be made more compact and be more -easily managed than the single plane, or the many-winged type. They -built their gliding-machine of cloth and spruce and steel wire. But -instead of the aviator hanging below the wings, as in the other -planes, he lay flat across the centre of the lower wing. A horizontal -rudder extended in front of the plane instead of behind it. This not -only guided the flight of the machine, but counterbalanced the changes -of the centre of air-pressure. To steer, the wings were moved by cords -controlled by the aviator's body. They considered that the shiftings -of the air were too rapid to be followed by conscious thought, and so -their plan was to have a plane that would balance automatically, or by -reflex action, as a bicycle is balanced. - -Langley had adopted wings that slanted upward from the point at which -they joined, copying the wings of a soaring buzzard. The Wrights -doubted whether this was the best form for shifting weather, and built -theirs more on the pattern of the gull's wings, curving slightly at -the tips. They were made of cloth, arched over ribs to imitate the -curved surfaces of bird's wings, and were fastened to two rectangular -wooden frames, fixed one above the other by braces of wood and wire. - -Their next step was to try to find some method by which they might -keep their gliding-machine continuously in the air, so that they might -gain an automatic balance. The old method of launching the plane from -a hill gave little chance for a real test. Study taught them that -birds are really aeroplanes, and that buzzards and hawks and gulls -stay in the air by balancing on or sliding down rising currents of -air. They looked for a place where there should be winds of proper -strength to balance their machine for a considerable time as it slid -downward, and decided to make their experiments at Kitty Hawk, North -Carolina, on the stretch of sand-dunes that divided Albemarle Sound -from the Atlantic Ocean. They calculated that their gliding-machine, -with 165 square feet of surface, should be held up by a wind blowing -twenty-one miles an hour. The machine was to be raised like a kite, -with men holding ropes fastened to the end of each wing. When the -ropes were freed the aviator would glide slowly to the ground, having -time to test the principle of equilibrium. This plan would also do -away with the former need of carrying the plane up to the top of a -hill before each flight. - -They found in practice that their plan of raising the plane like a -kite was impracticable, and that the wind was not strong enough to -support it at a proper angle. They had to glide from hills as others -had done, but they discovered that their theory of steering and -balancing by automatically shifting surfaces worked very much better -than the old method of shifting the aviator's weight. - -In 1901 and 1902 the Wrights continued their gliding experiments at -Kitty Hawk. Their new machines were much larger, and they added a -vertical tail in order to secure better lateral balance. Sometimes the -wind was strong enough to lift the aviator above the point from which -he had started and hold him motionless in the air for half a minute. -They made new tables of calculation for aerial flight, and found that -a wind of eighteen miles an hour would keep their plane and its -operator in the air. - -Their next step was to place a gas-engine on their aeroplane and -attempt actual mechanical flight. After many experiments they -succeeded, and on December 17, 1903, the first airship made four -flights at Kitty Hawk. In the longest flight it stayed in the air -fifty-nine seconds, and flew against a twenty-mile wind. It weighed, -with the aviator, about 745 pounds, and was propelled by a gas-engine -weighing 240 pounds, and having twelve or thirteen horse-power. That -test assured them that mechanical flight was possible. - -The Wrights had now solved the real problem of aviation, equilibrium. -They were ready to try mechanical flights in places where the -wind-conditions were less favorable than at Kitty Hawk. They secured a -swampy meadow eight miles east of Dayton, and, using that secrecy -which they have always believed was necessary to the protection of -their interests, began to fly there. Their airship flew well in a -straight course, but there was difficulty in turning corners. -Sometimes it could be done, but occasionally the plane would lose its -balance as it turned, and have to be brought to the ground. In time -they remedied this, and on September 20, 1904, they were able to make -a complete circle. Later in that same year they made two flights of -three miles each around a circular course. - -The Wrights' system of balance, the great original feature of their -invention, is attained by what is called the warping of the -wings. When they are flying, and some cause, such as a change in their -position, or a sudden gust of wind, makes the airship tip, a lever is -moved, and the two planes warp down on the end that is canting toward -the earth. Simultaneously the two opposite ends of the planes warp up. -The lower ends at once gain greater lifting power, the upper ends -less. Therefore the airship stops tilting and comes back to an even -flight. The lever is instantly moved to keep the machine from tipping -to the other side. - - - WILBUR WRIGHT - ORVILLE WRIGHT - - CABLE ADDRESS: - WRIGHTS, DAYTON - - WRIGHT BROTHERS - - 1127 W. THIRD STREET - DAYTON, OHIO - - - July 22, 1911. - - George W. Jacobs & Co., - - Philadelphia. - - Gentlemen:-- - - Replying to yours of June 26th we are herewith enclosing a - photograph of our first flight made at Kitty Hawk, North - Carolina, on December 17, 1903. - - Yours truly, - - [Signature: Wright Brothers.] - - -[Illustration: THE WRIGHT BROTHERS' AIRSHIP] - -When the airship came to turn a corner it was apt to "skid." It slid -from its balance, owing to the change in its course against the -currents of air. The Wrights overcame this by having the planes of -their machine warp at the same instant that the rudder shifts the -course, by this raising one wing and lowering the other, so that the -aeroplane cants over and makes the circle leaning against the wind, on -the same principle that a bicycler takes a curve on an angle instead -of riding upright. The problems of balance and of turning corners were -therefore both met and solved by warping the planes to meet the -conditions of the airship's contact with the wind. - -One of the chief reasons for the Wrights' success was that they had -studied their subject long and faithfully before they tried to fly. -They had worked with their gliders several years, and had made new -calculations of the changing angles and currents of air. They had been -in no hurry, and when they built their first real airship they made -use of all the principles of aerodynamics that they had discovered. -They knew that their machine would fly before they tried it, because -they knew exactly what its various surfaces would do in the air. The -propeller was the only part of their airship they had not studied when -they began to build. When they found that they could not use the -figures that had governed the construction of marine propellers they -set to work to solve this problem in the same thoroughgoing way. They -mastered it, and their success with their propeller is the feature of -their airship in which they take the greatest pride. - -The first official statement of their progress in flying was made in -letters of the Wrights in the _Aerophile_ in 1905, and to the Aero -Club of America in 1906. These declared that they had begun actual -flight with a motor-driven aeroplane on December 17, 1903, had then -spent the year 1904 in experimenting with flights in circular courses, -and had so learned the proper methods of control of the planes by 1905 -that they had at last made continuous flights of eleven, twelve, -fifteen, twenty, twenty-one, and twenty-four miles, at a speed of -about thirty-eight miles an hour, and had been able to alight safely -in each instance, ready to fly again as soon as their fuel was -replenished. - -Until that date the inventors had been singularly successful in -keeping their experiments from public knowledge. They had reached -agreements with the farmers who lived near their field outside Dayton, -and with the local newspapers, that no notice should be taken of their -flights. But finally one of their flights attracted so much attention -that a score of men appeared with cameras, and the Wrights decided -that it was time to stop their experiments. They dismantled their -machines, made public statements of what they had accomplished, and -started to negotiate with various governments for the purchase of -their aeroplanes for use in war. - -In December, 1907, the Signal Corps of the United States army invited -proposals for furnishing a "heavier than air flying machine." The -Wrights submitted a bid, proposing to deliver a machine that would -meet the specifications for $25,000. Their offer, with those of two -others, was accepted. By now their names and something of what they -had accomplished were very generally known, and when they began the -preliminary tests of their machines at their old grounds at Kitty -Hawk, near Kill Devil Hills, a legion of reporters was on hand. The -Wrights still tried to preserve as much secrecy as possible, and the -newspaper men to furnish as much publicity. The flights could not be -concealed and the trials were announced as thoroughly satisfactory. On -May 10, 1908, ten ascensions in the government airship were made, the -longest being over a mile and a half. On succeeding days longer -flights were made, one of two miles at a speed of forty-six miles an -hour. Orville Wright made a flight with a passenger on board, and a -little later Wilbur flew eight miles, at a rate of forty-five miles an -hour. The reporters assured the world that the Wrights had proved the -success of the "heavier than air" machine. As one of them wrote, -"Then, bedraggled and very sunburned they tramped up to the little -weather bureau and informed the world, waiting on the other side of -various sounds and continents and oceans, that it was all right, the -rumors true, and there was no doubt that a man could fly." - -Kitty Hawk, the place the Wrights had chosen because the Weather -Bureau had told them the winds were strongest and steadiest there, now -became one of the chief foci of the world's attention. The Wrights, -still quiet and unassuming, suddenly jumped into fame. The public -could not understand how these two men, bicycle-makers of Dayton, had -learned so much about airships. They did not appreciate that the -brothers had mastered every detail of flight long before, that they -had learned the fundamental principles of soaring and floating, diving -and rising, circling and gliding, before they attached the first motor -to their planes. They had been far more thorough and more resourceful -than those Europeans who had for some time experimented with aviation. -Henri Farman, who had caused a sensation in Europe by flying a -kilometer (five-eighths of a mile) over a circular course on January -13, 1908, came to this country, and heard what the United States -government was requiring in the tests. "I have done some flying," said -he, "but I do not try to do what your inventors must do at Fort Myer. -I never fly in winds. Once I had a spill in France when I attempted -it." - -The government trials were held at Fort Myer, outside Washington. Here -the Wrights took their machines when they were satisfied that they -were in shape for the tests. Mr. Augustus Post, secretary of the Aero -Club of America, has graphically described in _The World's Work_ for -October, 1909, his impression of Orville Wright's flying in 1908. He -says that Mr. Wright and he left Washington about six o'clock on a -clear, still morning, bound for the flying field. "The conditions for -flight were perfect," he continues. "Mr. Taylor, Mr. Wright's -mechanic, got out the machine and it was placed on the starting-rail. -The weights were raised, and Mr. Wright took his place. None of us -expected anything more than a short flight down the field, with -possibly a circle. The machine was released, and away he went, rising -higher and higher, circling when he came to the end of the field and -continuing round. I had taken the time of starting and marked on the -back of an envelope each circle of the field. From a position of -strained attention and fixed gaze, Mr. Wright gradually became more -confident and comfortable; round and round he went for fully twenty -minutes, and then we began to realize that something wonderful was -taking place. Thirty minutes passed; we could hardly believe it. Mr. -Taylor came up and said: 'Don't make a motion; if you do, he'll come -down'; and we all stood like statues, watching the flying man, every -nerve as tense in our bodies as though we were running the machine -ourselves. Mark after mark I made on the back of the old envelope--so -many that I had lost track of the number; it seemed an age since the -machine started, and it appeared to be fixed in the sky. We were -impressed that it could circle on forever, or sail like a bird over -the country, so positive and assuring and complete was this -demonstration. We knew that the problem of flight by an aeroplane had -been solved." - -An accident caused the flights to be suspended for a time, but a year -later the Wrights were ready for the official endurance test, a flight -of one hour, carrying a passenger. President Taft and a great audience -were present. Lieutenant Lahm was the passenger. Signal Corps men -raised the weight and fastened the end of the starting rope to the -aeroplane. Wilbur Wright, at the rear, turned the propellers and -started the motor. Orville Wright adjusted the spark, and took his -seat. He grasped the levers, spoke a few words of instruction to his -passenger, seated beside him, and gave the word to release the -machine. It glided down the track, gathering speed until it left the -rails. Then the forward planes rose, and the plane soared into the -air, flying swiftly. It circled around and around, each circle taking -about one minute. For the first ten minutes the motor did not move -smoothly, but after that it settled to perfection. The great audience, -watches in hand, kept their eyes on the airship. The hour mark was -passed, and there were wild shouts of applause and encouragement. Then -the plane broke the world's record of one hour, nine minutes, and -forty seconds, that Wilbur Wright had made earlier in the year. Wilbur -Wright led in a cheer to those circling above. Then the airship began -to descend, taking the circles easily, and finally skimming down to -the ground. The motor was shut off, and the test was ended, the -machine having flown for one hour, twelve minutes, and forty seconds. -President Taft crossed the field and shook Orville Wright's hand. "I -am glad to congratulate you on your achievement," said he; "you came -down as gracefully and as much like a bird as you went up. I hope your -passenger behaved himself and did not talk to the motorman. It was a -wonderful performance; I would not have missed it." Then he turned to -shake hands with Wilbur Wright. "Your brother has broken your record." -"Yes," said the other, smiling, "but it's all in the family." - -Lieutenant Lahm said, "The machine was under perfect control at all -times. He apparently had given no conscious thought either to his -hands or to the levers. His actions all seemed involuntary. It had -hardly started on one of its dips before his hands were moved in the -proper direction to restore the balance. It seemed impossible for -anything to go wrong. I never knew an hour to pass so quickly as that -one up in the air. The first half seemed like ten minutes, and the -second scarcely longer. I hardly felt the vibrations of the engine, -but at first the rising and dipping were hard to get used to. The only -disagreeable sensation I experienced was a deafness from the whirring -motor. Sometimes the undulating movement was noticeable, but that was -all. The sensation of riding the air in an aeroplane is -indescribable." - -The speed test came on the day following the endurance flight. This -was to be made over a measured course of five miles from Fort Myer to -Alexandria, and back, making a total flight of ten miles over trees, -railroads, and rough country. Aviators declared this a more difficult -course than the crossing of the English Channel, owing to the great -rises and drops of the land, which made it almost impossible to -maintain a level course. Speed was a very important factor in the -government's specifications for a successful airship, and the price to -be paid depended on this, which had been calculated to be forty miles -an hour. The government was to pay the Wrights $25,000 for the -airship, and a bonus of ten per cent., or $2,500, for every mile made -above the forty. For every mile less, to the minimum limit of -thirty-six miles an hour, the government was to deduct the same -percentage. - -The machine that was making these tests was very similar to the one -that had been used at Fort Myer the year before. The amount of -supporting surface had been reduced by about eighty square feet, and a -change had been made in the lever that turned the rudder and -controlled the equilibrating device. This had originally consisted of -two levers, placed side by side. Now the top of one lever was jointed, -so that a sideways movement of the wrist was sufficient to move the -rudder for steering in the horizontal plane. Simultaneously the lever -could be pushed forward and pulled back to lift or lower the opposite -tips of the wings. In this way one hand could control both the -steering and the balancing of the planes. - -In spite of the fact that the wind conditions were not exactly as he -wished Orville Wright decided to make the flight for speed on that -day. He made a good ascension, carrying Lieutenant Benjamin D. Foulois -with him as passenger. Twice he circled the field in order to get up -speed and reach sufficient elevation. Then, amid cheers of -encouragement from the immense throng that was watching, he turned -sharply past the starting-tower and flew between the flags that marked -the starting-line. Two captive balloons had been floated to show the -course and also to give an indication of the proper altitude to -maintain. The wind tended to carry the aeroplane to the east, but -Orville Wright was able to hold it on a fairly even course, and to -reach the balloon at Shuter's Hill that marked the turning point. Here -the official time was taken by officers of the Signal Corps. On the -return the airship met with strong downward currents of air that bore -it groundward until it was hidden by the tops of trees. Mr. Wright -said afterward, "I had to climb like forty all the way back." But he -managed to send his aeroplane higher and higher, and to bring it back -over the heads of the crowds at the finish line. There it swept about -in a circle, and landed easily near the aeroplane shed. What -aeronautical authorities declared to be the greatest feat in the -history of aviation had been successfully accomplished. The elapsed -time of the flight was fourteen minutes and forty-two seconds, which -meant that the airship had attained a speed of a little more than -forty-two miles an hour. The conditions of the Wrights' contract with -the government had been in every respect more than fulfilled. - -The Wrights carried Europe by storm, being received there with even -greater acclamations than in America. The French, as a nation, had for -some time been more interested in aviation than any other people. -France was the home of Montgolfier, Santos-Dumont, and Farman. At -first France looked with incredulity and suspicion on the Wrights' -claims. The French papers accused them of playing _le bluff_, and said -that "they argued a great deal and experimented very little," which, -as a matter of fact, was exactly the opposite of the Wrights' whole -history. But as soon as Wilbur Wright showed what he could actually -do, all this changed, and the French could not say enough that was -good about him. Delagrange, his nearest competitor, acknowledged -frankly that Wilbur Wright was his superior as an aviator. But he -could not understand the American's quiet methods, and plan of -pursuing his own way regardless of public opinion. He found that -Wilbur Wright actually preferred to fly without an audience, and -thought nothing of disappointing the crowds that gathered to watch -him. On one such occasion, when Wilbur Wright found the weather -conditions unsatisfactory, he declined to fly. "If it had been I," -said Delagrange, "I would have made a flight if I had been likely to -smash up at three hundred meters rather than disappoint those ten -thousand people." - -This novel charm of simplicity caught the French fancy. The Wrights -wanted to do everything for themselves. At Kitty Hawk they had lived -in a small shack, and cooked their own meals. Wilbur Wright had a -similar shack built on his flying-field in France, and planned to do -his own cooking. But this was too extreme for the French mind. When he -went to his shack he found a native cook installed there, and had to -submit to the hospitality of his hosts. - -The Wrights were organizing companies in the different countries of -Europe, and wanted to attend strictly to their business. But wherever -they went they were feted. They met the French President, the Kaiser, -the King of England, and the King of Spain, and they were dined and -publicly honored in all the great capitals. Germany turned from its -native hero, Count Zeppelin, to admire them. But everywhere they kept -that same quiet tone. They showed that they cared nothing to perform -hazardous feats simply because of the hazard, nor to establish -records. Wilbur Wright was asked if he would not try for the prize -offered to the first man to fly across the English Channel. He said he -would not at that time, because it "would be risky and would not prove -anything more than a journey over land." And the public knew that this -was sensible caution, and not lack of courage. - -Daring aviators sprang into fame at once. Most of these built their -machines according to their individual ideas, and there was a great -trying-out of different patterns. Bleriot, a Frenchman, flew across -the English Channel in a monoplane in thirty-eight minutes. Instantly -he became the French idol. When he reached Paris at five in the -morning an enormous crowd welcomed him, and the cries of "Vive -Bleriot!" could be heard for squares. He was dined at the Hotel de -Ville, given the Legion of Honor, and money was subscribed for a -monument to mark the place near Calais where he commenced his flight. -Shortly after Roger Sommer rose in the country outside Paris on a -moonlight night, and flew for two hours, twenty-seven minutes, and -fifteen seconds, the longest flight made to that time. The world -recognized that the actual invention of the airship was one of the -greatest achievements of the ages. Said the _London Times_, "It is no -wonder that there should be great enthusiasm in France over the -cross-Channel flight of M. Bleriot, and that the French papers should -talk of nothing else. Further enthusiasm will doubtless greet the -gallant attempt, which was all but successful, of M. Latham yesterday, -to repeat the achievement. Since the discovery of the New World no -material event has happened on this earth so impressive to the -imagination as the conquest of the air which is now half achieved. -Indeed, the conquest of the air is likely to be more vast and -bewildering in its results than even the discovery of the New World, -and one is inclined to wonder that men should take it as calmly as -they do." - -A great aviation week was held at Rheims, and almost all the world's -famous aviators, except the Wrights, were there. Control of the -airships was shown to a remarkable degree. On one of the preparatory -days three heavier than air machines were manoeuvring in the great -aerodrome at the same time. They were flying at high speed, when -suddenly Glenn H. Curtiss, an American, saw an Antoinette aeroplane -approaching him at right angles, and flying upon the same level. -Instantly he elevated the planes of his machine, and his aeroplane -obeyed his touch, shot upward, and flew over the Antoinette. There was -great applause from those who had been watching him. The manoeuvre -showed how easily the airships were controlled. - -Germany meantime was intensely interested in Count Zeppelin's -dirigible balloons, which, although as long as a battle-ship, had -flown with great success. The German government paid $1,250,000 into -the Zeppelin fund for experiments, and contributed a large sum in -addition to the maintenance of a balloon corps. The German people -showed themselves as proud of Count Zeppelin as the French were of -Bleriot, and the Americans of the Wrights. - -The aviation week at Rheims was followed by other great airship meets -in other countries. The Hudson-Fulton Celebration in New York in the -autumn of 1909 was the occasion of new records in flying, and served -to awaken Americans to a more intense interest in navigation of the -air. That meeting was followed by others in all parts of the United -States, and competitions for height and city-to-city flights became -matters of weekly occurrence. Yet America has not so far reached the -intense enthusiasm over flying that fills the lands of Europe. - -The airship is on the market, ready to be purchased by whomsoever will -pay the price. The London daily papers advertise an agency that will -supply buyers with either the Bleriot monoplane of the type -Calais-Dover, the Latham or Antoinette monoplane, or the Wright and -Voisin biplanes. Moreover the art of handling the aeroplane does not -seem unusually difficult to master, provided one has the taste for it. -Roger Sommer first sat in an airship on July 3d, yet on August 7th -following he made a world's record flight outside Paris. "It is easier -to learn to fly than it is to walk," Wilbur Wright has said. - -The only American machines besides the Wrights' biplanes which have -made a name for themselves are the Curtiss biplanes. Mr. Curtiss is -one of the most daring aviators in the world, and his flight down the -Hudson River attracted the widest attention. But there are questions -as to whether his aeroplanes do not infringe on certain patent claims -of the Wrights, and his flight was made under a bond that should -protect the Wrights in case it proved later that his biplane did -infringe on their title. Here it should be said that the Wrights are -as excellent business men as they are inventors, and intend to receive -due compensation for their years of work. At one time they offered to -sell their invention outright for $100,000, but since then their -patents have been upheld by the courts, and those patents cover a very -large area of the field of airship manufacture. The American market is -largely in their hands. - -Every year lighter and lighter gas-engines are being made, and this -means that the surplus carrying power of the aeroplane can be -increased. Fuel can be carried for flights of greater and greater -distances, and rapid increases of speed can be attained. With -improvements in safety there seems no limit to the possibilities of -flight. So far a long train of casualties has marked the airship's -progress. This was inevitable when men came to imitate the birds, and -trust themselves to the fickle currents of the air. But many aviators -have been drawn from a reckless class, and many accidents have been -due to a desire to thrill an audience rather than to learn more about -the laws of flight. The Wrights have held to the wise course. They -care nothing for spectacular performances or establishing new records -for their own glory. Their work is in the shops, devising improvements -that will make the airship safer and better fitted for commercial -uses. They are men of remarkable balance, and it was their quality of -unremitting care that made them the wonder of Europe, used above all -things else to the dramatic in men's flights through air. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Historic Inventions, by Rupert S. 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