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Having +been induced, during the last ten years, to visit a considerable +number of workshops and factories, both in England and on the +Continent, for the purpose of endeavouring to make myself +acquainted with the various resources of mechanical art, I was +insensibly led to apply to them those principles of +generalization to which my other pursuits had naturally given +rise. The increased number of curious processes and interesting +facts which thus came under my attention, as well as of the +reflections which they suggested, induced me to believe that the +publication of some of them might be of use to persons who +propose to bestow their attention on those enquiries which I have +only incidentally considered. With this view it was my intention +to have delivered the present work in the form of a course of +lectures at Cambridge; an intention which I was subsequently +induced to alter. The substance of a considerable portion of it +has, however, appeared among the preliminary chapters of the +mechanical part of the Encyclopedia Metropolitana. + +I have not attempted to offer a complete enumeration of all +the mechanical principles which regulate the application of +machinery to arts and manufactures, but I have endeavoured to +present to the reader those which struck me as the most +important, either for understanding the actions of machines, or +for enabling the memory to classify and arrange the facts +connected with their employment. Still less have I attempted to +examine all the difficult questions of political economy which +are intimately connected with such enquiries. It was impossible +not to trace or to imagine, among the wide variety of facts +presented to me, some principles which seemed to pervade many +establishments; and having formed such conjectures, the desire to +refute or to verify them, gave an additional interest to the +pursuit. Several of the principles which I have proposed, appear +to me to have been unnoticed before. This was particularly the +case with respect to the explanation I have given of the division +of labour; but further enquiry satisfied me that I had been +anticipated by M. Gioja, and it is probable that additional +research would enable me to trace most of the other principles, +which I had thought original, to previous writers, to whose merit +I may perhaps be unjust, from my want of acquaintance with the +historical branch of the subject. + +The truth however of the principles I have stated, is of much +more importance than their origin; and the utility of an enquiry +into them, and of establishing others more correct, if these +should be erroneous, can scarcely admit of a doubt. + +The difficulty of understanding the processes of manufactures +has unfortunately been greatly overrated. To examine them with +the eye of a manufacturer, so as to be able to direct others to +repeat them, does undoubtedly require much skill and previous +acquaintance with the subject; but merely to apprehend their +general principles and mutual relations, is within the power of +almost every person possessing a tolerable education. + +Those who possess rank in a manufacturing country, can +scarcely be excused if they are entirely ignorant of principles, +whose development has produced its greatness. The possessors of +wealth can scarcely be indifferent to processes which, nearly or +remotely have been the fertile source of their possessions. Those +who enjoy leisure can scarcely find a more interesting and +instructive pursuit than the examination of the workshops of +their own country, which contain within them a rich mine of +knowledge, too generally neglected by the wealthier classes. + +It has been my endeavour, as much as possible, to avoid all +technical terms, and to describe, in concise language, the arts I +have had occasion to discuss. In touching on the more abstract +principles of political economy, after shortly stating the +reasons on which they are founded, I have endeavoured to support +them by facts and anecdotes; so that whilst young persons might +be amused and instructed by the illustrations, those of more +advanced judgement may find subject for meditation in the general +conclusions to which they point. I was anxious to support the +principles which I have advocated by the observations of others, +and in this respect I found myself peculiarly fortunate. The +reports of committees of the House of Commons, upon various +branches of commerce and manufactures, and the evidence which +they have at different periods published on those subjects, teem +with information of the most important kind, rendered doubly +valuable by the circumstances under which it has been collected. +From these sources I have freely taken, and I have derived some +additional confidence from the support they have afforded to my +views. * + +Charles Babbage +Dorset Street +Manchester Square +8 June, 1832 + +[*Footnote: I am happy to avail myself of this occasion of expressing +my obligations to the Right Hon. Manners Sutton, the Speaker of the +House of Commons, to whom I am indebted for copies of a considerable +collection of those reports.] + + +Preface to the Second Edition + + +In two months from the publication of the first edition of +this volume, three thousand copies were in the hands of the +public. Very little was spent in advertisements; the booksellers, +instead of aiding, impeded its sale; * it formed no part of any +popular series and yet the public, in a few weeks, purchased the +whole edition. Some small part of this success, perhaps, was due +to the popular exposition of those curious processes which are +carried on in our workshops, and to the endeavour to take a short +view of the general principles which direct the manufactories of +the country. But the chief reason was the commanding attraction +of the subject, and the increasing desire to become acquainted +with the pursuits and interests of that portion of the people +which has recently acquired so large an accession of political +influence. + + +[*Footnote: I had good evidence of this fact from various quarters; +and being desirous of verifying it, I myself applied for a copy at +the shop of a bookseller of respectability, who is probably not aware +that he refused to procure one even for its author.] + + +A greater degree of attention than I had expected has been +excited by what I have stated in the first edition, respecting +the 'Book-trade'. Until I had commenced the chapter, 'On the +separate cost of each process of a manufacture', I had no +intention of alluding to that subject: but the reader will +perceive that I have throughout this volume, wherever I could, +employed as illustrations, objects of easy access to the reader; +and, in accordance with that principle, I selected the volume +itself. When I arrived at the chapter, 'On combinations of +masters against the public', I was induced, for the same reason, +to expose a combination connected with literature, which, in my +opinion, is both morally and politically wrong. I entered upon +this enquiry without the slightest feeling of hostility to that +trade, nor have I any wish unfavourable to it; but I think a +complete reform in its system would add to its usefulness and +respectability. As the subject of that chapter has been much +discussed, I have thought it right to take a view of the various +arguments which have been advanced, and to offer my own opinion +respecting their validity--and there I should have left the +subject, content to allow my general character to plead for me +against insinuations respecting my motives--but as the remarks +of some of my critics affect the character of another person, I +think it but just to state circumstances which will clearly +disprove them. + +Mr Fellowes, of Ludgate Street, who had previously been the +publisher of some other volumes for me, had undertaken the +publication of the first edition of the present work. A short +time previous to its completion, I thought it right to call his +attention to the chapter in which the book-trade is discussed; +with the view both of making him acquainted with what I had +stated, and also of availing myself of his knowledge in +correcting any accidental error as to the facts. Mr Fellowes, +'differing from me entirely respecting the conclusions I had +arrived at', then declined the publication of the volume. If I +had then chosen to apply to some of those other booksellers, +whose names appear in the Committee of 'The Trade', it is +probable that they also would have declined the office of +publishing for me; and, had my object been to make a case against +the trade, such a course would have assisted me. But I had no +such feeling; and having procured a complete copy of the whole +work, I called with it on Mr Knight, of Pall Mall East, whom +until that day I had never seen, and with whom I had never +previously had the slightest communication. I left the book in Mr +Knight's hands, with a request that, when he had read it, I might +be informed whether he would undertake the publication of it; and +this he consented to do. Mr Knight, therefore, is so far from +being responsible for a single opinion in the present volume, +that he saw it only, for a short time, a few days previous to its +publication. + +It has been objected to me, that I have exposed too freely +the secrets of trade. The only real secrets of trade are +industry, integrity, and knowledge: to the possessors of these no +exposure can be injurious; and they never fail to produce respect +and wealth. + +The alterations in the present edition are so frequent, that +I found it impossible to comprise them in a supplement. But the +three new chapters, 'On money as a medium of exchange'; 'On a new +system of manufacturing'; and 'On the effect of machinery in +reducing the demand for labour'; will shortly be printed +separately, for the use of the purchasers of the first edition. + +I am inclined to attach some importance to the new system of +manufacturing; and venture to throw it out with the hope of its +receiving a full discussion among those who are most interested +in the subject. I believe that some such system of conducting +manufactories would greatly increase the productive powers of any +country adopting it; and that our own possesses much greater +facilities for its application than other countries, in the +greater intelligence and superior education of the working +classes. The system would naturally commence in some large town, +by the union of some of the most prudent and active workmen; and +their example, if successful, would be followed by others. The +small capitalist would next join them, and such factories would +go on increasing until competition compelled the large capitalist +to adopt the same system; and, ultimately, the whole faculties of +every man engaged in manufacture would be concentrated upon one +object--the art of producing a good article at the lowest +possible cost--whilst the moral effect on that class of the +population would be useful in the highest degree, since it would +render character of far greater value to the workman than it is +at present. + +To one criticism which has been made, this volume is +perfectly open. I have dismissed the important subject of the +patent-laws in a few lines. The subject presents, in my opinion, +great difficulties, and I have been unwilling to write upon it, +because I do not see my way. I will only here advert to one +difficulty. What constitutes an invention? Few simple mechanical +contrivances are new; and most combinations may be viewed as +species, and classed under genera of more or less generality; and +may, in consequence, be pronounced old or new, according to the +mechanical knowledge of the person who gives his opinion. + +Some of my critics have amused their readers with the +wildness of the schemes I have occasionally thrown out; and I +myself have sometimes smiled along with them. Perhaps it were +wiser for present reputation to offer nothing but profoundly +meditated plans, but I do not think knowledge will be most +advanced by that course; such sparks may kindle the energies of +other minds more favourably circumstanced for pursuing the +enquiries. Thus I have now ventured to give some speculations on +the mode of blowing furnaces for smelting iron; and even +supposing them to be visionary, it is of some importance thus to +call the attention of a large population, engaged in one of our +most extensive manufactures, to the singular fact, that +four-fifths of the steam power used to blow their furnaces +actually cools them. + +I have collected, with some pains, the criticisms* on the +first edition of this work, and have availed myself of much +information which has been communicated to me by my friends, for +the improvement of the present volume. If I have succeeded in +expressing what I had to explain with perspicuity, I am aware +that much of this clearness is due to my friend, Dr Fitton, to +whom both the present and the former edition are indebted for +such an examination and correction, as an author himself has very +rarely the power to bestow. + + +[*Footnote: Several of these have probably escaped me, and I shall +feel indebted to any one who will inform my publisher of any future +remarks.] + + +22 November, 1832. + + + + +Section I. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + +The object of the present volume is to point out the effects +and the advantages which arise from the use of tools and +machines;--to endeavour to classify their modes of action;--and to +trace both the causes and the consequences of applying machinery +to supersede the skill and power of the human arm. + +A view of the mechanical part of the subject will, in the +first instance, occupy our attention, and to this the first +section of the work will be devoted. The first chapter of the +section will contain some remarks on the general sources from +whence the advantages of machinery are derived, and the +succeeding nine chapters will contain a detailed examination of +principles of a less general character. The eleventh chapter +contains numerous subdivisions, and is important from the +extensive classification it affords of the arts in which copying +is so largely employed. The twelfth chapter, which completes the +first section, contains a few suggestions for the assistance of +those who propose visiting manufactories. + +The second section, after an introductory chapter on the +difference between making and manufacturing, will contain, in the +succeeding chapters, a discussion of many of the questions which +relate to the political economy of the subject. It was found that +the domestic arrangement, or interior economy of factories, was +so interwoven with the more general questions, that it was deemed +unadvisable to separate the two subjects. The concluding chapter +of this section, and of the work itself, relates to the future +prospects of manufactures, as arising from the application of +science. + + + +Chapter 1 + +Sources of the Advantages arising from Machinery and Manufactures + +1. There exists, perhaps, no single circumstance which +distinguishes our country more remarkably from all others, than +the vast extent and perfection to which we have carried the +contrivance of tools and machines for forming those conveniences +of which so large a quantity is consumed by almost every class of +the community. The amount of patient thought, of repeated +experiment, of happy exertion of genius, by which our +manufactures have been created and carried to their present +excellence, is scarcely to be imagined. If we look around the +rooms we inhabit, or through those storehouses of every +convenience, of every luxury that man can desire, which deck the +crowded streets of our larger cities, we shall find in the +history of each article, of every fabric, a series of failures +which have gradually led the way to excellence; and we shall +notice, in the art of making even the most insignificant of them, +processes calculated to excite our admiration by their +simplicity, or to rivet our attention by their unlooked-for +results. + +2. The accumulation of skill and science which has been +directed to diminish the difficulty of producing manufactured +goods, has not been beneficial to that country alone in which it +is concentrated; distant kingdoms have participated in its +advantages. The luxurious natives of the East,(1*) and the ruder +inhabitants of the African desert are alike indebted to our +looms. The produce of our factories has preceded even our most +enterprising travellers.(2*) The cotton of India is conveyed by +British ships round half our planet, to be woven by British skill +in the factories of Lancashire: it is again set in motion by +British capital; and, transported to the very plains whereon it +grew, is repurchased by the lords of the soil which gave it +birth, at a cheaper price than that at which their coarser +machinery enables them to manufacture it themselves.(3*) + +3. The large proportion of the population of this country, +who are engaged in manufactures, appears from the following table +deduced from a statement in an Essay on the Distribution of +Wealth, by the Rev. R. Jones: + +For every hundred persons employed in agriculture, there are: + + Agriculturists Non-agriculturists + + In Bengal 100 25 + In Italy 100 31 + In France 100 50 + In England 100 200 + + +The fact that the proportion of non-agricultural to +agricultural persons is continually increasing, appears both from +the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons upon +Manufacturers' Employment, July, 1830, and from the still later +evidence of the last census; from which document the annexed +table of the increase of population in our great manufacturing +towns, has been deduced. + +Increase of population per cent + +Names of places + 1801-11 1811-21 1821-31 Total +Manchester 22 40 47 151 +Glasgow 30 46 38 161 +Liverpool(4*) 26 31 44 138 +Nottingham 19 18 25 75 +Birmingham 16 24 33 90 +Great Britain 14.2 15.7 15.5 52.5 + + +Thus, in three periods of ten years, during each of which the +general population of the country has increased about 15 per +cent, or about 52 per cent upon the whole period of thirty years, +the population of these towns has, on the average, increased 132 +per cent. After this statement, there requires no further +argument to demonstrate the vast importance to the well-being of +this country, of making the interests of its manufacturers well +understood and attended to. + +4. The advantages which are derived from machinery and +manufactures seem to arise principally from three sources: The +addition which they make to human power. The economy they produce +of human time. The conversion of substances apparently common and +worthless into valuable products. + +5. Of additions to human power. With respect to the first of +these causes, the forces derived from wind, from water, and from +steam, present themselves to the mind of every one; these are, in +fact, additions to human power, and will be considered in a +future page: there are, however, other sources of its increase, +by which the animal force of the individual is itself made to act +with far greater than its unassisted power; and to these we shall +at present confine our observations. + +The construction of palaces, of temples, and of tombs, seems +to have occupied the earliest attention of nations just entering +on the career of civilization; and the enormous blocks of stone +moved from their native repositories to minister to the grandeur +or piety of the builders, have remained to excite the +astonishment of their posterity, long after the purposes of many +of these records, as well as the names of their founders, have +been forgotten. The different degrees of force necessary to move +these ponderous masses, will have varied according to the +mechanical knowledge of the people employed in their transport; +and that the extent of power required for this purpose is widely +different under different circumstances, will appear from the +following experiment, which is related by M. Rondelet, Sur L'Art +de Batir. A block of squared stone was taken for the subject of +experiment: + +1. Weight of stone 1080 lbs + +2. In order to drag this stone along the floor of the quarry, +roughly chiselled, it required a force equal to 758 lbs + +3. The same stone dragged over a floor of planks required 652 lbs + +4. The same stone placed on a platform of wood, and dragged over +a floor of planks, required 606 lbs + +5. After soaping the two surfaces of wood which slid over each +other, it required 182 lbs + +6. The same stone was now placed upon rollers of three inches +diameter, when it required to put it in motion along the floor of +the quarry 34 lbs + +7. To drag it by these rollers over a wooden floor 28 lbs + +8. When the stone was mounted on a wooden platform, and the same +rollers placed between that and a plank floor, it required 22 lbs + + +From this experiment it results, that the force necessary to +move a stone along + + Part of its weight + +The roughly chiselled floor of its quarry is nearly 2/3 +Along a wooden floor 3/5 +By wood upon wood 5/9 +If the wooden surfaces are soaped 1/6 +With rollers on the floor of the quarry 1/32 +On rollers on wood 1/40 +On rollers between wood 1/50 + + +At each increase of knowledge, as well as on the contrivance +of every new tool, human labour becomes abridged. The man who +contrived rollers, invented a tool by which his power was +quintupled. The workman who first suggested the employment of +soap or grease, was immediately enabled to move, without exerting +a greater effort, more than three times the weight he could +before.(5*) + +6. The economy of human time is the next advantage of +machinery in manufactures. So extensive and important is this +effect, that we might, if we were inclined to generalize, embrace +almost all the advantages under this single head: but the +elucidation of principles of less extent will contribute more +readily to a knowledge of the subject; and, as numerous examples +will be presented to the reader in the ensuing pages, we shall +restrict our illustrations upon this point. + +As an example of the economy of time, the use of gunpowder in +blasting rocks may be noticed. Several pounds of powder may be +purchased for a sum acquired by a few days' labour: yet when this +is employed for the purpose alluded to, effects are frequently +produced which could not, even with the best tools, be +accomplished by other means in less than many months. + +The dimensions of one of the blocks of limestone extracted +from the quarries worked for the formation of the breakwater at +Plymouth were 26 1/2 ft long, 13 ft wide, and 16 ft deep. This +mass, containing above 4,800 cubic feet, and weighing about 400 +tons, was blasted three times. Two charges of 50 lbs each were +successively exploded in a hole 13 feet deep, the bore being 3 +inches at top and 2 1/2 inches at bottom: 100 lbs of powder were +afterwards exploded in the rent formed by those operations. Each +pound of gunpowder separated from the rock two tons of matter, or +nearly 4,500 times its own weight. The expense of the powder was +L 6, or nearly 7 1/2d. per lb: the boring occupied two men during +a day and a half, and cost about 9s.; and the value of the +produce was, at that time, about L 45. + +7. The simple contrivance of tin tubes for speaking through, +communicating between different apartments, by which the +directions of the superintendent are instantly conveyed to the +remotest parts of an establishment, produces a considerable +economy of time. It is employed in the shops and manufactories in +London, and might with advantage be used in domestic +establishments, particularly in large houses, in conveying orders +from the nursery to the kitchen, or from the house to the stable. +Its convenience arises not merely from saving the servant or +workman useless journeys to receive directions, but from +relieving the master himself from that indisposition to give +trouble, which frequently induces him to forego a trifling want, +when he knows that his attendant must mount several flights of +stairs to ascertain his wishes, and, after descending, must mount +again to supply them. The distance to which such a mode of +communication can be extended, does not appear to have been +ascertained, and would be an interesting subject for enquiry. +Admitting it to be possible between London and Liverpool, about +seventeen minutes would elapse before the words spoken at one end +would reach the other extremity of the pipe. + +8. The art of using the diamond for cutting glass has +undergone, within a few years, a very important improvement. A +glazier's apprentice, when using a diamond set in a conical +ferrule, as was always the practice about twenty years since, +found great difficulty in acquiring the art of using it with +certainty; and, at the end of a seven years' apprenticeship, many +were found but indifferently skilled in its employment. This +arose from the difficulty of finding the precise angle at which +the diamond cuts, and of guiding it along the glass at the proper +inclination when that angle is found. Almost the whole of the +time consumed and of the glass destroyed in acquiring the art of +cutting glass, may now be saved by the use of an improved tool. +The gem is set in a small piece of squared brass with its edges +nearly parallel to one side of the square. A person skilled in +its use now files away the brass on one side until, by trial, he +finds that the diamond will make a clean cut, when guided by +keeping this edge pressed against a ruler. The diamond and its +mounting are now attached to a stick like a pencil, by means of a +swivel allowing a small angular motion. Thus, even the beginner +at once applies the cutting edge at the proper angle, by pressing +the side of the brass against a ruler; and even though the part +he holds in his hand should deviate a little from the required +angle, it communicates no irregularity to the position of the +diamond, which rarely fails to do its office when thus employed. + +The relative hardness of the diamond, in different +directions, is a singular fact. An experienced workman, on whose +judgement I can rely, informed me that he has seen a diamond +ground with diamond powder on a cast-iron mill for three hours +without its being at all worn, but that, on changing its +direction with respect to the grinding surface, the same edge was +ground away. + +9. Employment of materials of little value. The skins used by +the goldbeater are produced from the offal of animals. The hoofs +of horses and cattle, and other horny refuse, are employed in the +production of the prussiate of potash, that beautiful, yellow, +crystallized salt, which is exhibited in the shops of some of our +chemists. The worn-out saucepans and tinware of our kitchens, +when beyond the reach of the tinker's art, are not utterly +worthless. We sometimes meet carts loaded with old tin kettles +and worn-out iron coal-skuttles traversing our streets. These +have not yet completed their useful course; the less corroded +parts are cut into strips, punched with small holes, and +varnished with a coarse black varnish for the use of the +trunk-maker, who protects the edges and angles of his boxes with +them; the remainder are conveyed to the manufacturing chemists in +the outskirts of the town, who employ them in combination with +pyroligneous acid, in making a black die for the use of calico +printers. + +10. Of tools. The difference between a tool and a machine is +not capable of very precise distinction; nor is it necessary, in +a popular explanation of those terms, to limit very strictly +their acceptation. A tool is usually more simple than a machine; +it is generally used with the hand, whilst a machine is +frequently moved by animal or steam power. The simpler machines +are often merely one or more tools placed in a frame, and acted +on by a moving power. In pointing out the advantages of tools, we +shall commence with some of the simplest. + +11. To arrange twenty thousand needles thrown promiscuously +into a box, mixed and entangled in every possible direction, in +such a form that they shall be all parallel to each other, would, +at first sight, appear a most tedious occupation; in fact, if +each needle were to be separated individually, many hours must be +consumed in the process. Yet this is an operation which must be +performed many times in the manufacture of needles; and it is +accomplished in a few minutes by a very simple tool; nothing more +being requisite than a small flat tray of sheet iron, slightly +concave at the bottom. In this the needles are placed, and shaken +in a peculiar manner, by throwing them up a very little, and +giving at the same time a slight longitudinal motion to the tray. +The shape of the needles assists their arrangement; for if two +needles cross each other (unless, which is exceedingly +improbable, they happen to be precisely balanced), they will, +when they fall on the bottom of the tray, tend to place +themselves side by side, and the hollow form of the tray assists +this disposition. As they have no projection in any part to +impede this tendency, or to entangle each other, they are, by +continually shaking, arranged lengthwise, in three or four +minutes. The direction of the shake is now changed, the needles +are but little thrown up, but the tray is shaken endways; the +result of which is, that in a minute or two the needles which +were previously arranged endways become heaped up in a wall, with +their ends against the extremity of the tray. They are then +removed, by hundreds at a time, with a broad iron spatula, on +which they are retained by the forefinger of the left hand. As +this parallel arrangement of the needles must be repeated many +times, if a cheap and expeditious method had not been devised, +the expense of the manufacture would have been considerably +enhanced. + +12. Another process in the art of making needles furnishes an +example of one of the simplest contrivances which can come under +the denomination of a tool. After the needles have been arranged +in the manner just described, it is necessary to separate them +into two parcels, in order that their points may be all in one +direction. This is usually done by women and children. The +needles are placed sideways in a heap, on a table, in front of +each operator, just as they are arranged by the process above +described. From five to ten are rolled towards this person with +the forefinger of the left hand; this separates them a very small +space from each other, and each in its turn is pushed lengthwise +to the right or to the left, according to the direction of the +point. This is the usual process, and in it every needle passes +individually under the finger of the operator. A small alteration +expedites the process considerably: the child puts on the +forefinger of its right hand a small cloth cap or fingerstall, +and rolling out of the heap from six to twelve needles, he keeps +them down by the forefinger of the left hand, whilst he presses +the forefinger of the right hand gently against their ends: those +which have the points towards the right hand stick into the +fingerstall; and the child, removing the finger of the left hand, +slightly raises the needles sticking into the cloth, and then +pushes them towards the left side. Those needles which had their +eyes on the right hand do not stick into the finger cover, and +are pushed to the heap on the right side before the repetition of +this process. By means of this simple contrivance each movement +of the finger, from one side to the other, carries five or six +needles to their proper heap; whereas, in the former method, +frequently only one was moved, and rarely more than two or three +were transported at one movement to their place. + +13. Various operations occur in the arts in which the +assistance of an additional hand would be a great convenience to +the workman, and in these cases tools or machines of the simplest +structure come to our aid: vices of different forms, in which the +material to be wrought is firmly grasped by screws, are of this +kind, and are used in almost every workshop; but a more striking +example may be found in the trade of the nail-maker. + +Some kinds of nails, such as those used for defending the +soles of coarse shoes, called hobnails, require a particular form +of the head, which is made by the stroke of a die. The workman +holds one end of the rod of iron out of which he forms the nails +in his left hand; with his right hand he hammers the red-hot end +of it into a point, and cutting the proper length almost off, +bends it nearly at a right angle. He puts this into a hole in a +small stake-iron immediately under a hammer which is connected +with a treadle, and has a die sunk in its surface corresponding +to the intended form of the head; and having given one part of +the form to the head with the small hammer in his hand, he moves +the treadle with his foot, disengages the other hammer, and +completes the figure of the head; the returning stroke produced +by the movement of the treadle striking the finished nail out of +the hole in which it was retained. Without this substitution of +his foot for another hand, the workman would, probably, be +obliged to heat the nails twice over. + +14. Another, though fortunately a less general substitution +of tools for human hands, is used to assist the labour of those +who are deprived by nature, or by accident, of some of their +limbs. Those who have had an opportunity of examining the +beautiful contrivances for the manufacture of shoes by machinery, +which we owe to the fertile invention of Mr Brunel, must have +noticed many instances in which the workmen were enabled to +execute their task with precision, although labouring under the +disadvantages of the loss of an arm or leg. A similar instance +occurs at Liverpool, in the Institution for the Blind, where a +machine is used by those afflicted with blindness, for weaving +sash-lines; it is said to have been the invention of a person +suffering under that calamity. Other examples might be mentioned +of contrivances for the use, the amusement, or the instruction of +the wealthier classes, who labour under the same natural +disadvantages. These triumphs of skill and ingenuity deserve a +double portion of our admiration when applied to mitigate the +severity of natural or accidental misfortune; when they supply +the rich with occupation and knowledge; when they relieve the +poor from the additional evils of poverty and want. + +15. Division of the objects of machinery. There exists a +natural, although, in point of number, a very unequal division +amongst machines: they may be classed as; first, those which are +employed to produce power, and as, secondly, those which are +intended merely to transmit force and execute work. The first of +these divisions is of great importance, and is very limited in +the variety of its species, although some of those species +consist of numerous individuals. + +Of that class of mechanical agents by which motion is +transmitted--the lever, the pulley, the wedge, and many others-- +it has been demonstrated, that no power is gained by their use, +however combined. Whatever force is applied at one point can only +be exerted at some other, diminished by friction and other +incidental causes; and it has been further proved, that whatever +is gained in the rapidity of execution is compensated by the +necessity of exerting additional force. These two principles, +long since placed beyond the reach of doubt, cannot be too +constantly borne in mind. But in limiting our attempts to things +which are possible, we are still, as we hope to shew, possessed +of a field of inexhaustible research, and of advantages derived +from mechanical skill, which have but just begun to exercise +their influence on our arts, and may be pursued without limit +contributing to the improvement, the wealth, and the happiness of +our race. + +16. Of those machines by which we produce power, it may be +observed, that although they are to us immense acquisitions, yet +in regard to two of the sources of this power--the force of wind +and of water--we merely make use of bodies in a state of motion +by nature; we change the directions of their movement in order to +render them subservient to our purposes, but we neither add to +nor diminish the quantity of motion in existence. When we expose +the sails of a windmill obliquely to the gale, we check the +velocity of a small portion of the atmosphere, and convert its +own rectilinear motion into one of rotation in the sails; we thus +change the direction of force, but we create no power. The same +may be observed with regard to the sails of a vessel; the +quantity of motion given by them is precisely the same as that +which is destroyed in the atmosphere. If we avail ourselves of a +descending stream to turn a water-wheel, we are appropriating a +power which nature may appear, at first sight, to be uselessly +and irrecoverably wasting, but which, upon due examination, we +shall find she is ever regaining by other processes. The fluid +which is falling from a higher to a lower level, carries with it +the velocity due to its revolution with the earth at a greater +distance from its centre. It will therefore accelerate, although +to an almost infinitesimal extent, the earth's daily rotation. +The sum of all these increments of velocity, arising from the +descent of all the falling waters on the earth's surface, would +in time become perceptible, did not nature, by the process of +evaporation, convey the waters back to their sources; and thus +again, by removing matter to a greater distance from the centre, +destroy the velocity generated by its previous approach. + +17. The force of vapour is another fertile source of moving +power; but even in this case it cannot be maintained that power +is created. Water is converted into elastic vapour by the +combustion of fuel. The chemical changes which thus take place +are constantly increasing the atmosphere by large quantities of +carbonic acid and other gases noxious to animal life. The means +by which nature decomposes these elements, or reconverts them +into a solid form, are not sufficiently known: but if the end +could be accomplished by mechanical force, it is almost certain +that the power necessary to produce it would at least equal that +which was generated by the original combustion. Man, therefore, +does not create power; but, availing himself of his knowledge of +nature's mysteries, he applies his talents to diverting a small +and limited portion of her energies to his own wants: and, +whether he employs the regulated action of steam, or the more +rapid and tremendous effects of gunpowder, he is only producing +on a small scale compositions and decompositions which nature is +incessantly at work in reversing, for the restoration of that +equilibrium which we cannot doubt is constantly maintained +throughout even the remotest limits of our system. The operations +of man participate in the character of their author; they are +diminutive, but energetic during the short period of their +existence: whilst those of nature, acting over vast spaces, and +unlimited by time, are ever pursuing their silent and resistless +career. + +18. In stating the broad principle, that all combinations of +mechanical art can only augment the force communicated to the +machine at the expense of the time employed in producing the +effect, it might, perhaps, be imagined, that the assistance +derived from such contrivances is small. This is, however, by no +means the case: since the almost unlimited variety they afford, +enables us to exert to the greatest advantage whatever force we +employ. There is, it is true, a limit beyond which it is +impossible to reduce the power necessary to produce any given +effect, but it very seldom happens that the methods first +employed at all approach that limit. In dividing the knotted root +of a tree for fuel, how very different will be the time consumed, +according to the nature of the tool made use of! The hatchet, or +the adze, will divide it into small parts, but will consume a +large portion of the workman's time. The saw will answer the same +purpose more quickly and more effectually. This, in its turn, is +superseded by the wedge, which rends it in a still shorter time. +If the circumstances are favourable, and the workman skilful, the +time and expense may be still further reduced by the use of a +small quantity of gunpowder exploded in holes judiciously placed +in the block. + +19. When a mass of matter is to be removed a certain force +must be expended; and upon the proper economy of this force the +price of transport will depend. A country must, however, have +reached a high degree of civilization before it will have +approached the limit of this economy. The cotton of Java is +conveyed in junks to the coast of China; but from the seed not +being previously separated, three-quarters of the weight thus +carried is not cotton. This might, perhaps, be justified in Java +by the want of machinery to separate the seed, or by the relative +cost of the operation in the two countries. But the cotton +itself, as packed by the Chinese, occupies three times the bulk +of an equal quantity shipped by Europeans for their own markets. +Thus the freight of a given quantity of cotton costs the Chinese +nearly twelve times the price to which, by a proper attention to +mechanical methods, it might be reduced. * + +NOTES: + +1. 'The Bandana handkerchiefs manufactured at Glasgow have long +superseded the genuine ones, and are now consumed in large +quantities both by the natives and Chinese.' Crawford's Indian +Archipelago, vol. iii, p. 505. + +2. 'Captain Clapperton, when on a visit at the court of the +Sultan Bello, states, that 'provisions were regularly sent me from +the sultan's table on pewter dishes with the London stamp; and I +even had a piece of meat served up on a white wash-hand basin of +English manufacture.' Clapperton's Journey, p. 88. + +3. At Calicut, in the East Indies (whence the cotton cloth called +calico derives its name), the price of labour is one-seventh of +that in England, yet the market is supplied from British looms. + +4. Liverpool, though not itself a manufacturing town, has been +placed in this list, from its connection with Manchester, of +which it is the port. + +5. So sensible are the effects of grease in diminishing friction, +that the drivers of sledges in Amsterdam, on which heavy goods are +transported, carry in their hand a rope soaked in tallow, which +they throw down from time to time before the sledge, in order +that, by passing over the rope, it may become greased. + + + +Chapter 2 + +Accumulating Power + +20. Whenever the work to be done requires more force for its +execution than can be generated in the time necessary for its +completion, recourse must be had to some mechanical method of +preserving and condensing a part of the power exerted previously +to the commencement of the process. This is most frequently +accomplished by a fly-wheel, which is in fact nothing more than a +wheel having a very heavy rim, so that the greater part of its +weight is near the circumference. It requires great power applied +for some time to put this into rapid motion; but when moving with +considerable velocity, the effects are exceedingly powerful, if +its force be concentrated upon a small object. In some of the +iron works where the power of the steam-engine is a little too +small for the rollers which it drives, it is usual to set the +engine at work a short time before the red-hot iron is ready to +be removed from the furnace to the rollers, and to allow it to +work with great rapidity until the fly has acquired a velocity +rather alarming to those unused to such establishments. On +passing the softened mass of iron through the first groove, the +engine receives a great and very perceptible check; and its speed +is diminished at the next and at each succeeding passage, until +the iron bar is reduced to such a size that the ordinary power of +the engine is sufficient to roll it. + +21. The powerful effect of a large flywheel when its force +can be concentrated on a point, was curiously illustrated at one +of the largest of our manufactories. The proprietor was shewing +to a friend the method of punching holes in iron plates for the +boilers of steam-engines. He held in his hand a piece of +sheet-iron three-eighths of an inch thick, which he placed under +the punch. Observing, after several holes had been made, that the +punch made its perforations more and more slowly, he called to +the engine-man to know what made the engine work so sluggishly, +when it was found that the flywheel and punching apparatus had +been detached from the steam-engine just at the commencement of +his experiment. + +22. Another mode of accumulating power arises from lifting a +weight and then allowing it to fall. A man, even with a heavy +hammer, might strike repeated blows upon the head of a pile +without producing any effect. But if he raises a much heavier +hammer to a much greater height, its fall, though far less +frequently repeated, will produce the desired effect. + +When a small blow is given to a large mass of matter, as to a +pile, the imperfect elasticity of the material causes a small +loss of momentum in the transmission of the motion from each +particle to the succeeding one; and, therefore, it may happen +that the whole force communicated shall be destroyed before it +reaches the opposite extremity. + +23. The power accumulated within a small space by gunpowder +is well known; and, though not strictly an illustration of the +subject discussed in this chapter, some of its effects, under +peculiar circumstances, are so singular, that an attempt to +explain them may perhaps be excused. If a gun is loaded with ball +it will not kick so much as when loaded with small shot; and +amongst different kinds of shot, that which is the smallest, +causes the greatest recoil against the shoulder. A gun loaded +with a quantity of sand, equal in weight to a charge of +snipe-shot, kicks still more. If, in loading, a space is left +between the wadding and the charge, the gun either recoils +violently, or bursts. If the muzzle of a gun has accidentally +been stuck into the ground, so as to be stopped up with clay, or +even with snow, or if it be fired with its muzzle plunged into +water, the almost certain result is that it bursts. + +The ultimate cause of these apparently inconsistent effects +is, that every force requires time to produce its effect; and if +the time requisite for the elastic vapour within to force out the +sides of the barrel, is less than that in which the condensation +of the air near the wadding is conveyed in sufficient force to +drive the impediment from the muzzle, then the barrel must burst. +If sometimes happens that these two forces are so nearly balanced +that the barrel only swells; the obstacle giving way before the +gun is actually burst. + +The correctness of this explanation will appear by tracing +step by step the circumstances which arise on discharging a gun +loaded with powder confined by a cylindrical piece of wadding, +and having its muzzle filled with clay, or some other substance +having a moderate degree of resistance. In this case the first +effect of the explosion is to produce an enormous pressure on +everything confining it, and to advance the wadding through a +very small space. Here let us consider it as at rest for a +moment, and examine its condition. The portion of air in +immediate contact with the wadding is condensed; and if the +wadding were to remain at rest, the air throughout the tube would +soon acquire a uniform density. But this would require a small +interval of time; for the condensation next the wadding would +travel with the velocity of sound to the other end, from whence, +being reflected back, a series of waves would be generated, +which, aided by the friction of the tube, would ultimately +destroy the motion. + +But until the first wave reaches the impediment at the +muzzle, the air can exert no pressure against it. Now if the +velocity communicated to the wadding is very much greater than +that of sound, the condensation of the air immediately in advance +of it may be very great before the resistance transmitted to the +muzzle is at all considerable; in which case the mutual repulsion +of the particles of air so compressed, will offer an absolute +barrier to the advance of the wadding.(1*) + +If this explanation be correct, the additional recoil, when a +gun is loaded with small shot or sand, may arise in some measure +from the condensation of the air contained between their +particles; but chiefly from the velocity communicated by the +explosion to those particles of the substances in immediate +contact with the powder being greater than that with which a wave +can be transmitted through them. It also affords a reason for the +success of a method of blasting rocks by filling the upper part +of the hole above the powder with sand, instead of clay rammed +hard. That the destruction of the gun barrel does not arise from +the property possessed by fluids, and in some measure also by +sand and small shot, of pressing equally in all directions, and +thus exerting a force against a large portion of the interior +surface, seems to be proved by a circumstance mentioned by Le +Vaillant and other travellers, that, for the purpose of taking +birds without injuring their plumage, they filled the barrel of +their fowling pieces with water, instead of loading them with a +charge of shot. + +24. The same reasoning explains a curious phenomenon which +occurs in firing a still more powerfully explosive substance. If +we put a small quantity of fulminating silver upon the face of an +anvil, and strike it slightly with a hammer, it explodes; but +instead of breaking either the hammer or the anvil, it is found +that that part of the face of each in contact with the +fulminating silver is damaged. In this case the velocity +communicated by the elastic matter disengaged may be greater than +the velocity of a wave traversing steel; so that the particles at +the surface are driven by the explosion so near to those next +adjacent, that when the compelling force is removed, the +repulsion of the particles within the mass drives back those +nearer to the surface, with such force, that they pass beyond the +limits of attraction, and are separated in the shape of powder. + +25. i) The success of the experiment of firing a tallow candle +through a deal board, would be explained in the same manner, by +supposing the velocity of a wave propagated through deal to be +greater than that of a wave passing through tallow. + +25. ii) The boiler of a steam-engine sometimes bursts even +during the escape of steam through the safety-valve. If the water +in the boiler is thrown upon any part which happens to be red +hot, the steam formed in the immediate neighbourhood of that part +expands with greater velocity than that with which a wave can be +transmitted through the less heated steam; consequently one +particle is urged against the next, and an almost invincible +obstacle is formed, in the same manner as described in the case +of the discharge of a gun. If the safety-valve is closed, it may +retain the pressure thus created for a short time, and even when +it is open the escape may not be sufficiently rapid to remove all +impediment; there may therefore exist momentarily within the +boiler pressures of various force, varying from that which can +just lift the safety-valve up to that which is sufficient, if +exerted during an extremely small space of time, to tear open the +boiler itself. + +26. This reasoning ought, however, to be admitted with +caution; and perhaps some inducement to examine it carefully may +be presented by tracing it to extreme cases. It would seem, but +this is not a necessary consequence, that a gun might be made so +long, that it would burst although no obstacle filled up its +muzzle. It should also follow that if, after the gun is charged, +the air were extracted from the barrel, though the muzzle be then +left closed, the gun ought not to burst. It would also seem to +follow from the principle of the explanation, that a body might +be projected in air, or other elastic resisting medium, with such +force that, after advancing a very short space it should return +in the same direction in which it was projected. + +NOTES: + +1. See Poisson's remarks, Ecole Polytec. Cahier, xxi, p. 191. + + + +Chapter 3 + +Regulating Power + +27. Uniformity and steadiness in the rate at which machinery +works, are essential both for its effect and its duration. The +first illustration which presents itself is that beautiful +contrivance, the governor of the steam-engine, which must +immediately occur to all who are familiar with that admirable +engine. Wherever the increased speed of the engine would lead to +injurious or dangerous consequences, this is applied; and it is +equally the regulator of the water-wheel which drives a +spinning-jenny, or of the windmills which drain our fens. In the +dockyard at Chatham, the descending motion of a large platform, +on which timber is raised, is regulated by a governor; but as the +weight is very considerable, the velocity of this governor is +still further checked by causing its motion to take place in +water. + +28. Another very beautiful contrivance for regulating the +number of strokes made by a steam-engine, is used in Cornwall: it +is called the cataract, and depends on the time required to fill +a vessel plunged in water, the opening of the valve through which +the fluid is admitted being adjustable at the will of the +engine-man. + +29. The regularity of the supply of fuel to the fire under +the boilers of steam-engines is another mode of contributing to +the uniformity of their rate, and also economizes the consumption +of coal. Several patents have been taken out for methods of +regulating this supply: the general principle being to make the +engine supply the fire with small quantities of fuel at regular +intervals by means of a hopper, and to make it diminish this +supply when the engine works too quickly. One of the incidental +advantages of this plan is, that by throwing on a very small +quantity of coal at a time, the smoke is almost entirely +consumed. The dampers of ashpits and chimneys are also, in some +cases, connected with machines in order to regulate their speed. + +30. Another contrivance for regulating the effect of +machinery consists in a vane or fly, of little weight, but +presenting a large surface. This revolves rapidly, and soon +acquires a uniform rate, which it cannot greatly exceed, because +any addition to its velocity produces a much greater addition to +the resistance it meets with from the air. The interval between +the strokes on the bell of a clock is regulated in this way, and +the fly is so contrived, that the interval may be altered by +presenting the arms of it more or less obliquely to the direction +in which they move. This kind of fly, or vane, is generally used +in the smaller kinds of mechanism, and, unlike the heavy fly, it +is a destroyer instead of a preserver of force. It is the +regulator used in musical boxes, and in almost all mechanical +toys. + +31. The action of a fly, or vane, suggests the principle of +an instrument for measuring the altitude of mountains, which +perhaps deserves a trial, since, if it succeed only tolerably, it +will form a much more portable instrument than the barometer. It +is well known that the barometer indicates the weight of a column +of the atmosphere above it, whose base is equal to the bore of +the tube. It is also known that the density of the air adjacent +to the instrument will depend both on the weight of air above it, +and on the heat of the air at that place. If, therefore, we can +measure the density of the air, and its temperature, the height +of a column of mercury which it would support in the barometer +can be found by calculation. Now the thermometer gives +information respecting the temperature of the air immediately; +and its density might be ascertained by means of a watch and a +small instrument, in which the number of turns made by a vane +moved by a constant force, should be registered. The less dense +the air in which the vane revolves, the greater will be the +number of its revolutions in a given time: and tables could be +formed from experiments in partially exhausted vessels, aided by +calculation, from which, if the temperature of the air, and the +number of revolutions of the vane are given, the corresponding +height of the barometer might be found.(1*) + +NOTES: + +1. To persons who may be inclined to experiment upon this or any +other instrument, I would beg to suggest the perusal of the +section 'On the art of Observing', Observations on the Decline of +Science in England, p. 170, Fellowes, 1828. + + + +Chapter 4 + +Increase and Diminution of Velocity + +32. The fatigue produced on the muscles of the human frame +does not altogether depend on the actual force employed in each +effort, but partly on the frequency with which it is exerted. The +exertion necessary to accomplish every operation consists of two +parts: one of these is the expenditure of force which is +necessary to drive the tool or instrument; and the other is the +effort required for the motion of some limb of the animal +producing the action. In driving a nail into a piece of wood, one +of these is lifting the hammer, and propelling its head against +the nail; the other is, raising the arm itself, and moving it in +order to use the hammer. If the weight of the hammer is +considerable, the former part will cause the greatest portion of +the exertion. If the hammer is light, the exertion of raising the +arm will produce the greatest part of the fatigue. It does +therefore happen, that operations requiring very trifling force, +if frequently repeated, will tire more effectually than more +laborious work. There is also a degree of rapidity beyond which +the action of the muscles cannot be pressed. + +33. The most advantageous load for a porter who carries wood +up stairs on his shoulders, has been investigated by M. Coulomb; +but he found from experiment that a man walking up stairs without +any load, and raising his burden by means of his own weight in +descending, could do as much work in one day, as four men +employed in the ordinary way with the most favourable load. + +34. The proportion between the velocity with which men or +animals move, and the weights they carry, is a matter of +considerable importance, particularly in military affairs. It is +also of great importance for the economy of labour, to adjust the +weight of that part of the animal's body which is moved, the +weight of the tool it urges, and the frequency of repetition of +these efforts, so as to produce the greatest effect. An instance +of the saving of time by making the same motion of the arm +execute two operations instead of one, occurs in the simple art +of making the tags of bootlaces: these tags are formed out of +very thin, tinned, sheet-iron, and were formerly cut out of long +strips of that material into pieces of such a breadth that when +bent round they just enclosed the lace. Two pieces of steel have +recently been fixed to the side of the shears, by which each +piece of tinned-iron as soon as it is cut is bent into a +semi-cylindrical form. The additional power required for this +operation is almost imperceptible, and it is executed by the same +motion of the arm which produces the cut. The work is usually +performed by women and children; and with the improved tool more +than three times the quantity of tags is produced in a given +time.(1*) + +35. Whenever the work is itself light, it becomes necessary, +in order to economize time, to increase the velocity. Twisting +the fibres of wool by the fingers would be a most tedious +operation: in the common spinning-wheel the velocity of the foot +is moderate, but by a very simple contrivance that of the thread +is most rapid. A piece of catgut passing round a large wheel, and +then round a small spindle, effects this change. This contrivance +is common to a multitude of machines, some of them very simple. +In large shops for the retail of ribands, it is necessary at +short intervals to 'take stock', that is, to measure and rewind +every piece of riband, an operation which, even with this mode of +shortening it, is sufficiently tiresome, but without it would be +almost impossible from its expense. The small balls of sewing +cotton, so cheap and so beautifully wound, are formed by a +machine on the same principle, and but a few steps more +complicated. + +36. In turning from the smaller instruments in frequent use +to the larger and more important machines, the economy arising +from the increase of velocity becomes more striking. In +converting cast into wrought-iron, a mass of metal, of about a +hundredweight, is heated almost to white heat, and placed under a +heavy hammer moved by water or steam power. This is raised by a +projection on a revolving axis; and if the hammer derived its +momentum only from the space through which it fell, it would +require a considerably greater time to give a blow. But as it is +important that the softened mass of red-hot iron should receive +as many blows as possible before it cools, the form of the cam or +projection on the axis is such, that the hammer, instead of being +lifted to a small height, is thrown up with a jerk, and almost +the instant after it strikes against a large beam, which acts as +a powerful spring, and drives it down on the iron with such +velocity that by these means about double the number of strokes +can be made in a given time. In the smaller tilt-hammers, this is +carried still further by striking the tail of the tilt-hammer +forcibly against a small steel anvil, it rebounds with such +velocity, that from three to five hundred strokes are made in a +minute. In the manufacture of anchors, an art in which a similar +contrivance is of still greater importance, it has only been +recently applied. + +37. In the manufacture of scythes, the length of the blade +renders it necessary that the workman should move readily, so as +to bring every part of it on the anvil in quick succession. This +is effected by placing him in a seat suspended by ropes from the +ceiling: so that he is enabled, with little bodily exertion, to +vary his distance, by pressing his feet against the block which +supports the anvil, or against the floor. + +38. An increase of velocity is sometimes necessary to render +operations possible: thus a person may skate with great rapidity +over ice which would not support his weight if he moved over it +more slowly. This arises from the fact, that time is requisite +for producing the fracture of the ice: as soon as the weight of +the skater begins to act on any point, the ice, supported by the +water, bends slowly under him; but if the skater's velocity is +considerable, he has passed off from the spot which was loaded +before the bending has reached the point which would cause the +ice to break. + +39. An effect not very different from this might take place +if very great velocity were communicated to boats. Let us suppose +a flatbottomed boat, whose bow forms an inclined plane with the +bottom, at rest in still water. If we imagine some very great +force suddenly to propel this boat, the inclination of the plane +at the forepart would cause it to rise in the water; and if the +force were excessive, it might even rise out of the water, and +advance, by a series of leaps, like a piece of slate or an oyster +shell, thrown as a 'duck and drake'. + +If the force were not sufficient to pull the boat out of the +water, but were just enough to bring its bottom to the surface, +it would be carried along with a kind of gliding motion with +great rapidity; for at every point of its course it would require +a certain time before, it could sink to its usual draft of water; +but before that time had elapsed, it would have advanced to +another point, and consequently have been raised by the reaction +of the water on the inclined plane at its forepart. + +40. The same fact, that bodies moving with great velocity +have not time to exert the full effect of their weight, seems to +explain a circumstance which appears to be very unaccountable. It +sometimes happens that when foot-passengers are knocked down by +carriages, the wheels pass over them with scarcely any injury, +though, if the weight of the carriage had rested on their body, +even for a few seconds, it would have crushed them to death. If +the view above taken is correct, the injury in such circumstances +will chiefly happen to that part of the body which is struck by +the advancing wheel. + +41. An operation in which rapidity is of essential importance +is in bringing the produce of mines up to the surface. The shafts +through which the produce is raised are sunk at a very great +expense, and it is, of course, desirable to sink as few of them +as possible. The matter to be extracted is therefore raised by +steam-engines with considerable velocity, and without this many of our +mines could not be worked with profit. + +42. The effect of great velocity in modifying the form of a +cohesive substance is beautifully shown in the process for making +window glass, termed "flashing", which is one of the most striking +operations in our domestic arts. A workman having dipped his iron +tube into the glass pot, and loaded it with several pounds of the +melted "metal", blows out a large globe, which is connected with +his rod by a short thick hollow neck. Another workman now fixes +to the globe immediately opposite to its neck, an iron rod, the +extremity of which has been dipped in the melted glass; and when +this is firmly attached, a few drops of water separate the neck +of the globe from the iron tube. The rod with the globe attached +to it is now held at the mouth of a glowing furnace: and by +turning the rod the globe is made to revolve slowly, so as to be +uniformly exposed to the heat: the first effect of this softening +is to make the glass contract upon itself and to enlarge the +opening of the neck. As the softening proceeds, the globe is +turned more quickly on its axis, and when very soft and almost +incandescent, it is removed from the fire, and the velocity of +rotation being still continually increased, the opening enlarges +from the effect of the centrifugal force, at first gradually, +until at last the mouth suddenly expands or "flashes" out into one +large circular sheet of red hot glass. The neck of the original +globe, which is to become the outer part of the sheet, is left +thick to admit of this expansion, and forms the edge of the +circular plate of glass, which is called a "Table". The centre +presents the appearance of a thick boss or prominence, called the +"Bull's-eye", at the part by which it was attached to the iron +rod. + +43. The most frequent reason for employing contrivances for +diminishing velocity, arises from the necessity of overcoming +great resistances with small power. Systems of pulleys, the +crane, and many other illustrations, might also be adduced here +as examples; but they belong more appropriately to some of the +other causes which we have assigned for the advantages of +machinery. The common smoke-jack is an instrument in which the +velocity communicated is too great for the purpose required, and +it is transmitted through wheels which reduce it to a more +moderate rate. + +44. Telegraphs are machines for conveying information over +extensive lines with great rapidity. They have generally been +established for the purposes of transmitting information during +war, but the increasing wants of man will probably soon render +them subservient to more peaceful objects. + +A few years since the telegraph conveyed to Paris information +of the discovery of a comet, by M. Gambart, at Marseilles: the +message arrived during a sitting of the French Board of +Longitude, and was sent in a note from the Minister of the +Interior to Laplace, the President, who received it whilst the +writer of these lines was sitting by his side. The object in this +instance was, to give the earliest publicity to the fact, and to +assure to M. Gambart the title of its first discoverer. + +At Liverpool a system of signals is established for the +purposes of commerce, so that each merchant can communicate with +his own vessel long before she arrives in the port. + +NOTES: + +1. See Transactions of the Society of Arts, 1826. + + + +Chapter 5 + +Extending the Time of Action of Forces + +45. This is one of the most common and most useful of the +employments of machinery. The half minute which we daily devote +to the winding-up of our watches is an exertion of labour almost +insensible; yet, by the aid of a few wheels, its effect is spread +over the whole twenty-four hours. In our clocks, this extension +of the time of action of the original force impressed is carried +still further; the better kind usually require winding up once in +eight days, and some are occasionally made to continue in action +during a month, or even a year. Another familiar illustration may +be noticed in our domestic furniture: the common jack by which +our meat is roasted, is a contrivance to enable the cook in a few +minutes to exert a force which the machine retails out during the +succeeding hour in turning the loaded spit; thus enabling her to +bestow her undivided attention on the other important duties of +her vocation. A great number of automatons and mechanical toys +moved by springs, may be classed under this division. + +46. A small moving power, in the shape of a jack or a spring +with a train of wheels, is often of great convenience to the +experimental philosopher, and has been used with advantage in +magnetic and electric experiments where the rotation of a disk of +metal or other body is necessary, thus allowing to the enquirer +the unimpeded use of both his hands. A vane connected by a train +of wheels, and set in motion by a heavy weight, has also, on some +occasions, been employed in chemical processes, to keep a +solution in a state of agitation. Another object to which a +similar apparatus may be applied, is the polishing of small +specimens of minerals for optical experiments. + + + +Chapter 6 + +Saving time in Natural Operations + +47. The process of tanning will furnish us with a striking +illustration of the power of machinery in accelerating certain +processes in which natural operations have a principal effect. +The object of this art is to combine a certain principle called +tanning with every particle of the skin to be tanned. This, in +the ordinary process, is accomplished by allowing the skins to +soak in pits containing a solution of tanning matter: they remain +in the pits six, twelve, or eighteen months; and in some +instances (if the hides are very thick), they are exposed to the +operation for two years, or even during a longer period. This +length of time is apparently required in order to allow the +tanning matter to penetrate into the interior of a thick hide. +The improved process consists in placing the hides with the +solution of tan in close vessels, and then exhausting the air. +The effect is to withdraw any air which may be contained in the +pores of the hides, and to aid capillary attraction by the +pressure of the atmosphere in forcing the tan into the interior +of the skins. The effect of the additional force thus brought +into action can be equal only to one atmosphere, but a further +improvement has been made: the vessel containing the hides is, +after exhaustion, filled up with a solution of tan; a small +additional quantity is then injected with a forcing-pump. By +these means any degree of pressure may be given which the +containing vessel is capable of supporting; and it has been found +that, by employing such a method, the thickest hides may be +tanned in six weeks or two months. + +48. The same process of injection might be applied to +impregnate timber with tar, or any other substance capable of +preserving it from decay, and if it were not too expensive, the +deal floors of houses might thus be impregnated with alumine or +other substances, which would render them much less liable to be +accidentally set on fire. In some cases it might be useful to +impregnate woods with resins, varnish, or oil; and wood saturated +with oil might, in some instances, be usefully employed in +machinery for giving a constant, but very minute supply of that +fluid to iron or steel, against which it is worked. Some idea of +the quantity of matter which can be injected into wood by great +pressure, may be formed, from considering the fact stated by Mr +Scoresby, respecting an accident which occurred to a boat of one +of our whaling-ships. The harpoon having been struck into the +fish, the whale in this instance, dived directly down, and +carried the boat along with him. On returning to the surface the +animal was killed, but the boat, instead of rising, was found +suspended beneath the whale by the rope of the harpoon; and on +drawing it up, every part of the wood was found to be so +completely saturated with water as to sink immediately to the +bottom. + +49. The operation of bleaching linen in the open air is one +for which considerable time is necessary; and although it does +not require much labour, yet, from the risk of damage and of +robbery from long exposure, a mode of shortening the process was +highly desirable. The method now practised, although not +mechanical, is such a remarkable instance of the application of +science to the practical purposes of manufactures, that in +mentioning the advantages derived from shortening natural +operations, it would have been scarcely pardonable to have +omitted all allusion to the beautiful application of chlorine, in +combination with lime, to the art of bleaching. + +50. Another instance more strictly mechanical occurs in some +countries where fuel is expensive, and the heat of the sun is not +sufficient to evaporate the water from brine springs. The water +is first pumped up to a reservoir, and then allowed to fall in +small streams through faggots. Thus it becomes divided; and, +presenting a large surface, evaporation is facilitated, and the. +brine which is collected in the vessels below the faggots is +stronger than that which was pumped up. After thus getting rid of +a large part of the water, the remaining portion is driven off by +boiling. The success of this process depends on the condition of +the atmosphere with respect to moisture. If the air, at the time +the brine falls through the faggots, holds in solution as much +moisture as it can contain in an invisible state, no more can be +absorbed from the salt water, and the labour expended in pumping +is entirely wasted. The state of the air, as to dryness, is +therefore an important consideration in fixing the time when this +operation is to be performed; and an attentive examination of its +state, by means of the hygrometer, might be productive of some +economy of labour. + +51. In some countries, where wood is scarce, the evaporation +of salt water is carried on by a large collection of ropes which +are stretched perpendicularly. In passing down the ropes, the +water deposits the sulphate of lime which it held in solution, +and gradually incrusts them, so that in the course of twenty +years, when they are nearly rotten, they are still sustained by +the surrounding incrustation, thus presenting the appearance of a +vast collection of small columns. + +52. Amongst natural operations perpetually altering the +surface of our globe, there are some which it would be +advantageous to accelerate. The wearing down of the rocks which +impede the rapids of navigable rivers, is one of this class. A +very beautiful process for accomplishing this object has been +employed in America. A boat is placed at the bottom of the rapid, +and kept in its position by a long rope which is firmly fixed on +the bank of the river near the top. An axis, having a wheel +similar to the paddle-wheel of a steamboat fixed at each end of +it, is placed across the boat; so that the two wheels and their +connecting axis shall revolve rapidly, being driven by the force +of the passing current. Let us now imagine several beams of wood +shod with pointed iron fixed at the ends of strong levers, +projecting beyond the bow of the boat, as in the annexed +representation. + +If these levers are at liberty to move up and down, and if +one or more projecting pieces, called cams, are fixed on the axis +opposite to the end of each lever, the action of the stream upon +the wheels will keep up a perpetual succession of blows. The +sharp-pointed shoe striking upon the rock at the bottom, will +continually detach small pieces, which the stream will +immediately carry off. Thus, by the mere action of the river +itself, a constant and most effectual system of pounding the rock +at its bottom is established. A single workman may, by the aid of +a rudder, direct the boat to any required part of the stream; and +when it is necessary to move up the rapid, as the channel is cut, +he can easily cause the boat to advance by means of a capstan. + +53. When the object of the machinery just described has been +accomplished, and the channel is sufficiently deep, a slight +alteration converts the apparatus to another purpose almost +equally advantageous. The stampers and the projecting pieces on +the axis are removed, and a barrel of wood or metal, surrounding +part of the axis, and capable, at pleasure, of being connected +with, or disconnected from the axis itself, is substituted. The +rope which hitherto fastened the boat, is now fixed to this +barrel; and if the barrel is loose upon the axis, the +paddle-wheel makes the axis only revolve, and the boat remains in +its place: but the moment the axis is attached to its surrounding +barrel, this begins to turn, and winding up the rope, the boat is +gradually drawn up against the stream; and may be employed as a +kind of tug-boat for vessels which have occasion to ascend the +rapid. When the tug-boat reaches the summit the barrel is +released from the axis, and friction being applied to moderate +its velocity, the boat is allowed to descend. + +54. Clocks occupy a very high place amongst instruments by +means of which human time is economized: and their multiplication +in conspicuous places in large towns is attended with many +advantages. Their position, nevertheless, in London, is often +very ill chosen; and the usual place, halfway up on a high +steeple, in the midst of narrow streets, in a crowded city, is +very unfavourable, unless the church happen to stand out from the +houses which form the street. The most eligible situation for a +clock is, that it should project considerably into the street at +some elevation, with a dial-plate on each side, like that which +belonged to the old church of St Dunstan, in Fleet Street, so +that passengers in both directions would have their attention +directed to the hour. + +55. A similar remark applies, with much greater force, to the +present defective mode of informing the public of the position of +the receiving houses for the twopenny and general post. In the +lowest corner of the window of some attractive shop is found a +small slit, with a brass plate indicating its important office so +obscurely that it seems to be an object rather to prevent its +being conspicuous. No striking sign assists the anxious enquirer, +who, as the moments rapidly pass which precede the hour of +closing, torments the passenger with his enquiries for the +nearest post-office. He reaches it, perhaps, just as it is +closed; and must then either hasten to a distant part of the town +in order to procure the admission of his letters or give up the +idea of forwarding them by that post; and thus, if they are +foreign letters, he may lose, perhaps, a week or a fortnight by +waiting for the next packet. + +The inconvenience in this and in some other cases, is of +perpetual and everyday occurrence; and though, in the greater +part of the individual cases, it may be of trifling moment, the +sum of all these produces an amount, which it is always worthy of +the government of a large and active population to attend to. The +remedy is simple and obvious: it would only be necessary, at each +letter-box, to have a light frame of iron projecting from the +house over the pavement, and carrying the letters G. P., or T. +P., or any other distinctive sign. All private signs are at +present very properly prohibited from projecting into the street: +the passenger, therefore, would at once know where to direct his +attention, in order to discover a post-office; and those +letter-boxes which occurred in the great thoroughfares could not +fail to be generally known. + + + +Chapter 7 + +Exerting Forces Too Great for Human Power, and Executing +Operations Too Delicate for Human Touch + +56. It requires some skill and a considerable apparatus to +enable many men to exert their whole force at a given point; and +when this number amounts to hundreds or to thousands, additional +difficulties present themselves. If ten thousand men were hired +to act simultaneously, it would be exceedingly difficult to +discover whether each exerted his whole force, and consequently, +to be assured that each man did the duty for which he was paid. +And if still larger bodies of men or animals were necessary, not +only would the difficulty of directing them become greater, but +the expense would increase from the necessity of transporting +food for their subsistence. + +The difficulty of enabling a large number of men to exert +their force at the same instant of time has been almost obviated +by the use of sound. The whistle of the boatswain performs this +service on board ships; and in removing, by manual force, the +vast mass of granite, weighing above 1,400 tons, on which the +equestrian figure of Peter the Great is placed at St Petersburgh, +a drummer was always stationed on its summit to give the signal +for the united efforts of the workmen. + +An ancient Egyptian drawing was discovered a few years since, +by Champollion, in which a multitude of men appeared harnessed to +a huge block of stone, on the top of which stood a single +individual with his hands raised above his head, apparently in +the act of clapping them, for the purpose of insuring the +exertion of their combined force at the same moment of time. + +57. In mines, it is sometimes necessary to raise or lower +great weights by capstans requiring the force of more than one +hundred men. These work upon the surface; but the directions must +be communicated from below, perhaps from the depth of two hundred +fathoms. This communication, however, is accomplished with ease +and certainty by signals: the usual apparatus is a kind of +clapper placed on the surface close to the capstan, so that every +man may hear, and put in motion from below by a rope passing up +the shaft. + +At Wheal Friendship mine in Cornwall, a different contrivance +is employed: there is in that mine an inclined plane, passing +underground about two-thirds of a mile in length. Signals are +communicated by a continuous rod of metal, which being struck +below, the blow is distinctly heard on the surface. + +58. In all our larger manufactories numerous instances occur +of the application of the power of steam to overcome resistances +which it would require far greater expense to surmount by means +of animal labour. The twisting of the largest cables, the +rolling, hammering, and cutting large masses of iron, the +draining of our mines, all require enormous exertions of physical +force continued for considerable periods of time. Other means are +had recourse to when the force required is great, and the space +through which it is to act is small. The hydraulic press of +Bramah can, by the exertion of one man, produce a pressure of +1,500 atmospheres; and with such an instrument a hollow cylinder +of wrought iron three inches thick has been burst. In rivetting +together the iron plates, out of which steam-engine boilers are +made, it is necessary to produce as close a joint as possible. +This is accomplished by using the rivets red-hot: while they are +in that state the two plates of iron are rivetted together, and +the contraction which the rivet undergoes in cooling draws them +together with a force which is only limited by the tenacity of +the metal of which the rivet itself is made. + +59. It is not alone in the greater operations of the engineer +or the manufacturer, that those vast powers which man has called +into action, in availing himself of the agency of steam, are +fully developed. Wherever the individual operation demanding +little force for its own performance is to be multiplied in +almost endless repetition, commensurate power is required. It is +the same 'giant arm' which twists 'the largest cable', that spins +from the cotton plant an 'almost gossamer thread'. Obedient to +the hand which called into action its resistless powers, it +contends with the ocean and the storm, and rides triumphant +through dangers and difficulties unattempted by the older modes +of navigation. It is the same engine that, in its more regulated +action, weaves the canvas it may one day supersede, or, with +almost fairy fingers, entwines the meshes of the most delicate +fabric that adorns the female form.(1*) + +60. The Fifth Report of the Select Committee of the House of +Commons on the Holyhead Roads furnishes ample proof of the great +superiority of steam vessels. The following extracts are taken +from the evidence of Captain Rogers, the commander of one of the +packets: + +Question. Are you not perfectly satisfied, from the experience +you have had, that the steam vessel you command is capable of +performing what no sailing vessel can do? +Answer. Yes. + +Question. During your passage from Gravesend to the Downs, could +any square-rigged vessel, from a first-rate down to a sloop of +war, have performed the voyage you did in the time you did it in +the steamboat? +Answer. No: it was impossible. In the Downs we passed several +Indiamen, and 150 sail there that could not move down the +channel: and at the back of Dungeness we passed 120 more. + +Question. At the time you performed that voyage, with the weather +you have described, from the Downs to Milford, if that weather +had continued twelve months, would any square-rigged vessel have +performed it? +Answer. They would have been a long time about it: probably, +would have been weeks instead of days. A sailing vessel would not +have beat up to Milford, as we did, in twelve months. + + +61. The process of printing on the silver paper, which is +necessary for bank-notes, is attended with some inconvenience, +from the necessity of damping the paper previously to taking the +impression. It was difficult to do this uniformly and in the old +process of dipping a parcel of several sheets together into a +vessel of water, the outside sheets becoming much more wet than +the others, were very apt to be torn. A method has been adopted +at the Bank of Ireland which obviates this inconvenience. The +whole quantity of paper to be damped is placed in a close vessel +from which the air is exhausted; water is then admitted, and +every leaf is completely wetted; the paper is then removed to a +press, and all the superfluous moisture is squeezed out. + +62. The operation of pulverizing solid substances and of +separating the powders of various degrees of fineness, is common +in the arts: and as the best graduated sifting fails in effecting +this separation with sufficient delicacy, recourse is had to +suspension in a fluid medium. The substance when reduced by +grinding to the finest powder is agitated in water which is then +drawn off: the coarsest portion of the suspended matter first +subsides, and that which requires the longest time to fall down +is the finest. In this manner even emery powder, a substance of +great density, is separated into the various degrees of fineness +which are required. Flints, after being burned and ground, are +suspended in water, in order to mix them intimately with clay, +which is also suspended in the same fluid for the formation of +porcelain. The water is then in part evaporated by heat, and the +plastic compound, out of which our most beautiful porcelain is +formed, remains. It is a curious fact, and one which requires +further examination than it has yet received, that, if this +mixture be suffered to remain long at rest before it is worked +up, it becomes useless; for it is then found that the silex, +which at first was uniformly mixed, becomes aggregated together +in small lumps. This parallel to the formation of flints in the +chalk strata deserves attention.(2*) + +63. The slowness with which powders subside, depends partly +on the specific gravity of the substance, and partly on the +magnitude of the particles themselves. Bodies, in falling through +a resisting medium, after a certain time acquire a uniform +velocity, which is called their terminal velocity, with which +they continue to descend: when the particles are very small, and +the medium dense, as water, this terminal velocity is soon +arrived at. Some of the finer powders even of emery require +several hours to subside through a few feet of water, and the mud +pumped up into our cisterns by some of the water companies is +suspended during a still longer time. These facts furnish us with +some idea of the great extent over which deposits of river mud +may be spread; for if the mud of any river whose waters enter the +Gulf Stream, sink through one foot in an hour, it might be +carried by that stream 1,500 miles before it had sunk to the +depth of 600 or 700 feet. + +64. A number of small filaments of cotton project from even +the best spun thread, and when this thread is woven into muslin +they injure its appearance. To cut these off separately is quite +impossible, but they are easily removed by passing the muslin +rapidly over a cylinder of iron kept at a dull red heat: the time +during which each portion of the muslin is in contact with the +red-hot iron is too short to heat it to the burning point; but +the filaments being much finer, and being pressed close to the +hot metal, are burnt. + +The removal of these filaments from patent net is still more +necessary for its perfection. The net is passed at a moderate +velocity through a flame of gas issuing from a very long and +narrow slit. Immediately above the flame a long funnel is fixed, +which is connected with a large air-pump worked by a +steam-engine. The flame is thus drawn forcibly through the net, +and all the filaments on both sides of it are burned off at one +operation. Previously to this application of the air-pump, the +net acting in the same way, although not to the same extent, as +the wire-gauze in Davy's safety lamp, cooled down the flame so as +to prevent the combustion of the filaments on the upper side: the +air-pump by quickening the current of ignited gas, removes this +inconvenience. + +NOTES: + +1. The importance and diversified applications of the steam +engine were most ably enforced in the speeches made at a public +meeting held (June 1824) for the purpose of proposing the +erection of a monument to the memory of James Watt; these were +subsequently printed. + +2. Some observations on the subject, by Dr Fitton, occur in the +appendix to Captain King's Survey of the Coast of Australia, vol. +ii, p. 397. London, 1826. + + + +Chapter 8 + +Registering Operations + +65. One great advantage which we may derive from machinery is +from the check which it affords against the inattention, the +idleness, or the dishonesty of human agents. Few occupations are +more wearisome than counting a series of repetitions of the same +fact; the number of paces we walk affords a tolerably good +measure of distance passed over, but the value of this is much +enhanced by possessing an instrument, the pedometer, which will +count for us the number of steps we have made. A piece of +mechanism of this kind is sometimes applied to count the number +of turns made by the wheel of a carriage, and thus to indicate +the distance travelled: an instrument, similar in its object, +but differing in its construction, has been used for counting the +number of strokes made by a steam-engine, and the number of coins +struck in a press. One of the simplest instruments for counting +any series of operations, was contrived by Mr Donkin.(1*) + +66. Another instrument for registering is used in some +establishments for calendering and embossing. Many hundred +thousand yards of calicoes and stuffs undergo these operations +weekly; and as the price paid for the process is small, the value +of the time spent in measuring them would bear a considerable +proportion to the profit. A machine has, therefore, been +contrived for measuring and registering the length of the goods +as they pass rapidly through the hands of the operator, by which +all chance of erroneous counting is avoided. + +67. Perhaps the most useful contrivance of this kind, is one +for ascertaining the vigilance of a watchman. It is a piece of +mechanism connected with a clock placed in an apartment to which +the watchman has not access; but he is ordered to pull a string +situated in a certain part of his round once in every hour. The +instrument, aptly called a tell-tale, informs the owner whether +the man has missed any, and what hours during the night. + +68. It is often of great importance, both for regulations of +excise as well as for the interest of the proprietor, to know the +quantity of spirits or of other liquors which have been drawn off +by those persons who are allowed to have access to the vessels +during the absence of the inspectors or principals. This may be +accomplished by a peculiar kind of stop-cock--which will, at +each opening, discharge only a certain measure of fluid the +number of times the cock has been turned being registered by a +counting apparatus accessible only to the master. + +69. The time and labour consumed in gauging the contents of +casks partly filled, has led to an improvement which, by the +simplest means, obviates a considerable inconvenience, and +enables any person to read off, on a scale, the number of gallons +contained in any vessel, as readily as he does the degree of heat +indicated by his thermometer. A small stop-cock connects the +bottom of the cask with a glass tube of narrow bore fixed to a +scale on the side of the cask, and rising a little above its top. +The plug of the cock may be turned into three positions: in the +first, it cuts off all communication with the cask: in the +second, it opens a communication between the cask and the glass +tube: and, in the third. It cuts off the connection between the +cask and the tube, and opens a communication between the tube and +any vessel held beneath the cock to receive its contents. The +scale of the tube is graduated by pouring into the cask +successive quantities of water, while the communication between +the cask and the tube is open. Lines are then drawn on the scale +opposite the places in the tube to which the water rises at each +addition, and the scale being thus formed by actual +measurement,(2*) the contents of each cask are known by +inspection, and the tedious process of gauging is altogether +dispensed with. Other advantages accrue from this simple +contrivance, in the great economy of time which it introduces in +making mixtures of different spirits, in taking stock, and in +receiving spirit from the distiller. + +70. The gas-meter, by which the quantity of gas used by each +consumer is ascertained, is another instrument of this kind. They +are of various forms, but all of them intended to register the +number of cubic feet of gas which has been delivered. It is very +desirable that these meters should be obtainable at a moderate +price, and that every consumer should employ them; because, by +making each purchaser pay only for what he consumes, and by +preventing that extravagant waste of gas which we frequently +observe, the manufacturer of gas will be enabled to make an equal +profit at a diminished price to the consumer. + +71. The sale of water by the different companies in London, +might also, with advantage, be regulated by a meter. If such a +system were adopted, much water which is now allowed to run to +waste would be saved, and an unjust inequality between the rates +charged on different houses by the same company be avoided. + +72. Another most important object to which a meter might be +applied, would be to register the quantity of water passing into +the boilers of steam-engines. Without this, our knowledge of the +quantity evaporated by different boilers, and with fireplaces of +different constructions, as well as our estimation of the duty of +steam-engines, must evidently be imperfect. + +73. Another purpose to which machinery for registering +operations is applied with much advantage is the determination of +the average effect of natural or artificial agents. The mean +height of the barometer, for example, is ascertained by noting +its height at a certain number of intervals during the +twenty-four hours. The more these intervals are contracted, the +more correctly will the mean be ascertained; but the true mean +ought to be influenced by each momentary change which has +occurred. Clocks have been proposed and made with this object, by +which a sheet of paper is moved, slowly and uniformly, before a +pencil fixed to a float upon the surface of the mercury in the +cup of the barometer. Sir David Brewster proposed, several years +ago to suspend a barometer, and swing it as a pendulum. The +variations in the atmosphere would thus alter the centre of +oscillation, and the comparison of such an instrument with a good +clock, would enable us to ascertain the mean altitude of the +barometer during any interval of the observer's absence.(3*) + +An instrument for measuring and registering the quantity of +rain, was invented by Mr John Taylor, and described by him in the +Philosophical Magazine. It consists of an apparatus in which a +vessel that receives the rain falling into the reservoir tilts +over as soon as it is full, and then presents another similar +vessel to be filled, which in like manner, when full, tilts the +former one back again. The number of times these vessels are +emptied is registered by a train of wheels; and thus, without the +presence of the observer, the quantity of rain falling during a +whole year may be measured and recorded. + +Instruments might also be contrived to determine the average +force of traction of horses--of the wind--of a stream or of any +irregular and fluctuating effort of animal or other natural +force. + +74. Clocks and watches may be considered as instruments for +registering the number of vibrations performed by a pendulum or a +balance. The mechanism by which these numbers are counted is +technically called a scapement. It is not easy to describe: but +the various contrivances which have been adopted for this +purpose, are amongst the most interesting and most ingenious to +which mechanical science has given birth. Working models, on an +enlarged scale, are almost necessary to make their action +understood by the unlearned reader; and, unfortunately, these are +not often to be met with. A very fine collection of such models +exists amongst the collection of instruments at the University of +Prague. + +Instruments of this kind have been made to extend their +action over considerable periods of time, and to register not +merely the hour of the day, but the days of the week, of the +month, of the year, and also to indicate the occurrence of +several astronomical phenomena. + +Repeating clocks and watches may be considered as instruments +for registering time, which communicate their information only +when the owner requires it, by pulling a string, or by some +similar application. + +An apparatus has recently been applied to watches, by which +the hand which indicates seconds leaves a small dot of ink on the +dial-plate whenever a certain stop or detent is pushed in. Thus, +whilst the eye is attentively fixed on the phenomenon to be +observed, the finger registers on the face of the watch-dial the +commencement and the end of its appearance. + +75. Several instruments have been contrived for awakening the +attention of the observer at times previously fixed upon. The +various kinds of alarums connected with clocks and watches are of +this kind. In some instances it is desirable to be able to set +them so as to give notice at many successive and distant points +of time, such as those of the arrival of given stars on the +meridian. A clock of this kind is used at the Royal Observatory +at Greenwich. + +76. An earthquake is a phenomenon of such frequent occurrence, +and so interesting, both from its fearful devastations as well as +from its connection with geological theories, that it becomes +important to possess an instrument which shall, if possible, +indicate the direction of the shock, as well as its intensity. +An observation made a few years since at Odessa, after an +earthquake which happened during the night, suggests a simple +instrument by which the direction of the shock may be determined. + +A glass vase, partly filled with water, stood on the table of +a room in a house at Odessa; and, from the coldness of the glass, +the inner part of the vessel above the water was coated with dew. +Several very perceptible shocks of an earthquake happened between +three and four o'clock in the morning; and when the observer got +up, he remarked that the dew was brushed off at two opposite +sides of the glass by a wave which the earthquake had caused in +the water. The line joining the two highest points of this wave +was, of course, that in which the shock travelled. This +circumstance, which was accidentally noticed by an engineer at +Odessa,(4*) suggests the plan of keeping, in countries subject to +earthquakes, glass vessels partly filled with treacle, or some +unctuous fluid, so that when any lateral motion is communicated +to them from the earth, the adhesion of the liquid to the glass +shall enable the observer, after some interval of time, to +determine the direction of the shock. + +In order to obtain some measure of the vertical oscillation +of the earth, a weight might be attached to a spiral spring, or a +pendulum might be sustained in a horizontal position, and a +sliding index be moved by either of them, so that the extreme +deviations should be indicated by it. This, however, would not +give even the comparative measure accurately, because a +difference in the velocity of the rising or falling of the +earth's surface would affect the instrument. + +NOTES: + +1. Transactions of the Society of Arts, 1819, p. 116. + +2. The contrivance is due to Mr Hencky, of High Holborn, in whose +establishment it is in constant use. + +3. About seven or eight years since, without being aware of Sir +David Brewster's proposal. I adapted a barometer, as a pendulum, +to the works of a common eight day clock: it remained in my +library for several months, but I have mislaid the observations +which were made. + +4. Memoires de l'Academie des Sciences de Petersburgh, 6e serie, +tom. i. p. 4. + + + +Chapter 9 + +Economy of the Materials Employed + +77. The precision with which all operations by machinery are +executed, and the exact similarity of the articles thus made, +produce a degree of economy in the consumption of the raw +material which is, in some cases, of great importance. The +earliest mode of cutting the trunk of a tree into planks, was by +the use of the hatchet or the adze. It might, perhaps, be first +split into three or four portions, and then each portion was +reduced to a uniform surface by those instruments. With such +means the quantity of plank produced would probably not equal the +quantity of the raw material wasted by the process: and, if the +planks were thin, would certainly fall far short of it. An +improved tool, completely reverses the case: in converting a tree +into thick planks, the saw causes a waste of a very small +fractional part; and even in reducing it to planks of only an +inch in thickness, does not waste more than an eighth part of the +raw material. When the thickness of the plank is still further +reduced, as is the case in cutting wood for veneering, the +quantity of material destroyed again begins to bear a +considerable proportion to that which is used; and hence circular +saws, having a very thin blade, have been employed for such +purposes. In order to economize still further the more valuable +woods, Mr Brunel contrived a machine which, by a system of +blades, cut off the veneer in a continuous shaving, thus +rendering the whole of the piece of timber available. + +78. The rapid improvements which have taken place in the +printing press during the last twenty years, afford another +instance of saving in the materials consumed, which has been well +ascertained by measurement, and is interesting from its +connection with literature. In the old method of inking type, by +large hemispherical balls stuffed and covered with leather, the +printer, after taking a small portion of ink from the ink-block, +was continually rolling the balls in various directions against +each other, in order that a thin layer of ink might be uniformly +spread over their surface. This he again transferred to the type +by a kind of rolling action. In such a process, even admitting +considerable skill in the operator, it could not fail to happen +that a large quantity of ink should get near the edges of the +balls, which, not being transferred to the type, became hard and +useless, and was taken off in the form of a thick black crust. +Another inconvenience also arose--the quantity of ink spread on +the block not being regulated by measure, and the number and +direction of the transits of the inking-balls over each other +depending on the will of the operator, and being consequently +irregular, it was impossible to place on the type a uniform layer +of ink, of the quantity exactly sufficient for the impression. +The introduction of cylindrical rollers of an elastic substance, +formed by the mixture of glue and treacle, superseded the +inking-balls, and produced considerable saving in the consumption +of ink: but the most perfect economy was only to be produced by +mechanism. When printing-presses, moved by the power of steam, +were introduced, the action of these rollers was found to be well +adapted to their performance; and a reservoir of ink was formed, +from which a roller regularly abstracted a small quantity at each +impression. From three to five other rollers spread this portion +uniformly over a slab (by most ingenious contrivances varied in +almost each kind of press), and another travelling roller, having +fed itself on the slab, passed and repassed over the type just +before it gave the impression to the paper. + +In order to shew that this plan of inking puts the proper +quantity of ink upon the type, we must prove, first--that the +quantity is not too little: this would soon have been discovered +from the complaints of the public and the booksellers; and, +secondly that it is not too great. This latter point was +satisfactorily established by an experiment. A few hours after +one side of a sheet of paper has been printed upon, the ink is +sufficiently dry to allow it to receive the impression upon the +other; and, as considerable pressure is made use of, the tympan +on which the side first printed is laid, is guarded from soiling +it by a sheet of paper called the set-off sheet. This paper +receives, in succession, every sheet of the work to be printed, +acquiring from them more or less of the ink, according to their +dryness, or the quantity upon them. It was necessary in the +former process, after about one hundred impressions, to change +this set-off sheet, which then became too much soiled for further +use. In the new method of printing by machinery, no such sheet is +used, but a blanket is employed as its substitute; this does not +require changing above once in five thousand impressions, and +instances have occurred of its remaining sufficiently clean for +twenty thousand. Here, then, is a proof that the quantity of +superfluous ink put upon the paper in machine-printing is so +small, that, if multiplied by five thousand, and in some +instances even by twenty thousand, it is only sufficient to +render useless a single piece of clean cloth.(1*) The following +were the results of an accurate experiment upon the effect of the +process just described, made at one of the largest printing +establishments in the metropolis.(2*) Two hundred reams of paper +were printed off, the old method of inking with balls being +employed; two hundred reams of the same paper, and for the same +book, were then printed off in the presses which inked their own +type. The consumption of ink by the machine was to that by the +balls as four to nine, or rather less than one-half. + +NOTES: + +1. In the very best kind of printing, it is necessary, in the old +method, to change the set-off sheet once in twelve times. In +printing the same kind of work by machinery, the blanket is +changed once in 2000. + +2. This experiment was made at the establishment of Mr Clowes, in +Stamford Street. + + + +Chapter 10 + +Of the Identity of the Work When It is of the Same Kind, and its +Accuracy when of Different Kinds + +79. Nothing is more remarkable, and yet less unexpected, than +the perfect identity of things manufactured by the same tool. If +the top of a circular box is to be made to fit over the lower +part, it may be done in the lathe by gradually advancing the tool +of the sliding-rest; the proper degree of tightness between the +box and its lid being found by trial. After this adjustment, if a +thousand boxes are made, no additional care is required; the tool +is always carried up to the stop, and each box will be equally +adapted to every lid. The same identity pervades all the arts of +printing; the impressions from the same block, or the same +copperplate, have a similarity which no labour could produce by +hand. The minutest traces are transferred to all the impressions, +and no omission can arise from the inattention or unskilfulness +of the operator. The steel punch, with which the cardwadding for +a fowling-piece is cut, if it once perform its office with +accuracy, constantly reproduces the same exact circle. + +80. The accuracy with which machinery executes its work is, +perhaps, one of its most important advantages: it may, however, +be contended, that a considerable portion of this advantage may +be resolved into saving of time; for it generally happens, that +any improvement in tools increases the quantity of work done in a +given time. Without tools, that is, by the mere efforts of the +human hand, there are, undoubtedly, multitudes of things which it +would be impossible to make. Add to the human hand the rudest +cutting instrument, and its powers are enlarged: the fabrication +of many things then becomes easy, and that of others possible +with great labour. Add the saw to the knife or the hatchet, and +other works become possible, and a new course of difficult +operations is brought into view, whilst many of the former are +rendered easy. This observation is applicable even to the most +perfect tools or machines. It would be possible for a very +skilful workman, with files and polishing substances, to form a +cylinder out of a piece of steel; but the time which this would +require would be so considerable, and the number of failures +would probably be so great, that for all practical purposes such +a mode of producing a steel cylinder might be said to be +impossible. The same process by the aid of the lathe and the +sliding-rest is the everyday employment of hundreds of workmen. + +81. Of all the operations of mechanical art, that of turning +is the most perfect. If two surfaces are worked against each +other, whatever may have been their figure at the commencement, +there exists a tendency in them both to become portions of +spheres. Either of them may become convex, and the other concave, +with various degrees of curvature. A plane surface is the line of +separation between convexity and concavity, and is most difficult +to hit; it is more easy to make a good circle than to produce a +straight line. A similar difficulty takes place in figuring +specula for telescopes; the parabola is the surface which +separates the hyperbolic from the elliptic figure, and is the +most difficult to form. If a spindle, not cylindrical at its end, +be pressed into a hole not circular, and kept constantly turning, +there is a tendency in these two bodies so situated to become +conical, or to have circular sections. If a triangular-pointed +piece of iron be worked round in a circular hole the edges will +gradually wear, and it will become conical. These facts, if +they do not explain, at least illustrate the principles on +which the excellence of work formed in the lathe depends. + + + +Chapter 11 + +Of Copying + +82. The two last-mentioned sources of excellence in the work +produced by machinery depend on a principle which pervades a very +large portion of all manufactures, and is one upon which the +cheapness of the articles produced seems greatly to depend. The +principle alluded to is that of copying, taken in its most +extensive sense. Almost unlimited pains are, in some instances, +bestowed on the original, from which a series of copies is to be +produced; and the larger the number of these copies, the more +care and pains can the manufacturer afford to lavish upon the +original. It may thus happen, that the instrument or tool +actually producing the work, shall cost five or even ten thousand +times the price of each individual specimen of its power. + +As the system of copying is of so much importance, and of +such extensive use in the arts, it will be convenient to classify +a considerable number of those processes in which it is employed. +The following enumeration however is not offered as a complete +list; and the explanations are restricted to the shortest +possible detail which is consistent with a due regard to making +the subject intelligible. + +Operations of copying are effected under the following +circumstances: + +by printing from cavities by stamping +by printing from surface by punching +by casting with elongation +by moulding with altered dimensions + + +Of printing from cavities + +83. The art of printing, in all its numerous departments, is +essentially an art of copying. Under its two great divisions, +printing from hollow lines, as in copperplate, and printing from +surface, as in block printing, are comprised numerous arts. + +84. Copperplate printing. In this instance, the copies are +made by transferring to paper, by means of pressure, a thick ink, +from the hollows and lines cut in the copper. An artist will +sometimes exhaust the labour of one or two years upon engraving a +plate, which will not, in some cases furnish above five hundred +copies in a state of perfection. + +85. Engravings on steel. This art is like that of engraving +on copper, except that the number of copies is far less limited. +A bank-note engraved as a copperplate, will not give above three +thousand impressions without a sensible deterioration. Two +impressions of a bank-note engraved on steel were examined by one +of our most eminent artists,(1*) who found it difficult to +pronounce with any confidence, which was the earliest impression. +One of these was a proof from amongst the first thousand, the +other was taken after between seventy and eighty thousand had +been printed off. + +86. Music printing. Music is usually printed from pewter +plates, on which the characters have been impressed by steel +punches. The metal being much softer than copper, is liable to +scratches, which detain a small portion of the ink. This is the +reason of the dirty appearance of printed music. A new process +has recently been invented by Mr Cowper, by which this +inconvenience will be avoided. The improved method, which give +sharpness to the characters, is still an art of copying; but it +is effected by surface printing, nearly in the same manner as +calico-printing from blocks, to be described hereafter, 96. The +method of printing music from pewter plates, although by far the +most frequently made use of, is not the only one employed, for +music is occasionally printed from stone. Sometimes also it is +printed with moveable type; and occasionally the musical +characters are printed on the paper, and the lines printed +afterwards. Specimens of both these latter modes of +music-printing may be seen in the splendid collection of +impressions from the types of the press of Bodoni at Parma: but +notwithstanding the great care bestowed on the execution of that +work, the perpetual interruption of continuity in the lines, +arising from the use of moveable types, when the characters and +lines are printed at the same time, is apparent. + +87. Calico printing from cylinders. Many of the patterns on +printed calicos are copies by printing from copper cylinders +about four or five inches in diameter, on which the desired +pattern has been previously engraved. One portion of the +cylinders is exposed to the ink, whilst an elastic scraper of +very thin steel, by being pressed forcibly against another part, +removes all superfluous ink from the surface previously to its +reaching the cloth. A piece of calico twenty-eight yards in +length rolls through this press, and is printed in four or five +minutes. + +88. Printing from perforated sheets of metal, or stencilling. +Very thin brass is sometimes perforated in the form of letters, +usually those of a name; this is placed on any substance which it +is required to mark, and a brush dipped in some paint is passed +over the brass. Those parts which are cut away admit the paint. +and thus a copy of the name appears on the substance below. This +method, which affords rather a coarse copy, is sometimes used for +paper with which rooms are covered, and more especially for the +borders. If a portion be required to match an old pattern, this +is, perhaps the most economical way of producing it. + +89. Coloured impressions of leaves upon paper may be made by +a kind of surface printing. Such leaves are chosen as have +considerable inequalities: the elevated parts of these are +covered, by means of an inking ball, with a mixture of some +pigment ground up in linseed oil; the leaf is then placed between +two sheets of paper, and being gently pressed, the impression +from the elevated parts on each side appear on the corresponding +sheets of paper. + +90. The beautiful red cotton handkerchiefs dyed at Glasgow +have their pattern given to them by a process similar to +stencilling, except that instead of printing from a pattern, the +reverse operation that of discharging a part of the colour from a +cloth already dyed--is performed. A number of handkerchiefs are +pressed with very great force between two plates of metal, which +are similarly perforated with round or lozenge-shaped holes, +according to the intended pattern. The upper plate of metal is +surrounded by a rim, and a fluid which has the property of +discharging the red dye is poured upon that plate. This liquid +passes through the holes in the metal, and also through the +calico; but, owing to the great pressure opposite all the parts +of the plates not cut away, it does not spread itself beyond the +pattern. After this, the handkerchiefs are washed, and the +pattern of each is a copy of the perforations in the metal-plate +used in the process. + +Another mode by which a pattern is formed by discharging +colour from a previously dyed cloth, is to print on it a pattern +with paste; then, passing it into the dying-vat, it comes out +dyed of one uniform colour. But the paste has protected the fibres +of the cotton from the action of the dye or mordant; and when the +cloth so dyed is well washed, the paste is dissolved, and leaves +uncoloured all those parts of the cloth to which it was applied. + + +Printing from surface + +91. This second department of printing is of more frequent +application in the arts than that which has just been considered. + +92. Printing from wooden blocks. A block of box wood is, in +this instance, the substance out of which the pattern is formed: +the design being sketched upon it, the workman cuts away with +sharp tools every part except the lines to be represented in the +impression. This is exactly the reverse of the process of +engraving on copper, in which every line to be represented is cut +away. The ink, instead of filling the cavities cut in the wood, +is spread upon the surface which remains, and is thence +transferred to the paper. + +93. Printing from moveable types. This is the most important +in its influence of all the arts of copying. It possesses a +singular peculiarity, in the immense subdivision of the parts +that form the pattern. After that pattern has furnished thousands +of copies, the same individual elements may be arranged again and +again in other forms, and thus supply multitudes of originals, +from each of which thousands of their copied impressions may +flow. It also possesses this advantage, that woodcuts may be used +along with the letterpress, and impressions taken from both at +the same operation. + +94. Printing from stereotype. This mode of producing copies +is very similar to the preceding. There are two modes by which +stereotype plates are produced. In that most generally adopted a +mould is taken in plaster from the moveable types, and in this +the stereotype plate is cast. Another method has been employed in +France: instead of composing the work in moveable type, it was +set up in moveable copper matrices; each matrix being in fact a +piece of copper of the same size as the type, and having the +impression of the letter sunk into its surface instead of +projecting in relief. A stereotype plate may, it is evident, be +obtained at once from this arrangement of matrices. The objection +to the plan is the great expense of keeping so large a collection +of matrices. + +As the original composition does not readily admit of change, +stereotype plates can only be applied with advantage to cases +where an extraordinary number of copies are demanded, or where +the work consists of figures, and it is of great importance to +ensure accuracy. Trifling alterations may, however, be made in it +from time to time; and thus mathematical tables may, by the +gradual extirpation of error, at last become perfect. This mode +of producing copies possesses, in common with that by moveable +types, the advantage of admitting the use of woodcuts: the copy +of the woodcut in the stereotype plate being equally perfect. +with that of the moveable type. This union is of considerable +importance, and cannot be accomplished with engravings on copper. + +95. Lettering books. The gilt letters on the backs of books +are formed by placing a piece of gold leaf upon the leather, and +pressing upon it brass letters previously heated: these cause the +gold immediately under them to adhere to the leather, whilst the +rest of the metal is easily brushed away. When a great number of +copies of the same volume are to be lettered, it is found to be +cheaper to have a brass pattern cut with the whole of the proper +title: this is placed in a press, and being kept hot, the covers, +each having a small bit of leaf-gold placed in the proper +position, are successively brought under the brass, and stamped. +The lettering at the back of the volume in the reader's hand was +executed in this manner. + +96. Calico printing from blocks. This is a mode of copying, +by surface printing, from the ends of small pieces of copper +wire, of various forms, fixed into a block of wood. They are all +of one uniform height, about the eighth part of an inch above the +surface of the wood, and are arranged by the maker into any +required pattern. If the block be placed upon a piece of fine +woollen cloth, on which ink of any colour has been uniformly +spread, the projecting copper wires receive a portion, which they +give up when applied to the calico to be printed. By the former +method of printing on calico, only one colour could be used; but +by this plan, after the flower of a rose, for example, has been +printed with one set of blocks, the leaves may be printed of +another colour by a different set. + +97. Printing oilcloth. After the canvas, which forms the +basis of oilcloth, has been covered with paint of one uniform +tint, the remainder of the processes which it passes through, are +a series of copyings by surface printing, from patterns formed +upon wooden blocks very similar to those employed by the calico +printer. Each colour requiring a distinct set of blocks, those +oilcloths with the greatest variety of colours are most +expensive. + +There are several other varieties of printing which we shall +briefly notice as arts of copying; which, although not strictly +surface printing, yet are more allied to it than that from +copperplates. + +98. Letter copying. In one of the modes of performing this +process, a sheet of very thin paper is damped, and placed upon +the writing to be copied. The two papers are then passed through +a rolling press, and a portion of the ink from one paper is +transferred to the other. The writing is, of course, reversed by +this process; but the paper to which it is transferred being +thin, the characters are seen through it on the other side, in +their proper position. Another common mode of copying letters is +by placing a sheet of paper covered on both sides with a +substance prepared from lamp-black, between a sheet of thin paper +and the paper on which the letter to be despatched is to be +written. If the upper or thin sheet be written upon with any hard +pointed substance, the word written with this style will be +impressed from the black paper upon both those adjoining it. The +translucency of the upper sheet, which is retained by the writer, +is in this instance necessary to render legible the writing which +is on the back of the paper. Both these arts are very limited in +their extent, the former affording two or three, the latter from +two to perhaps ten or fifteen copies at the same time. + +99. Printing on china. This is an art of copying which is +carried to a very great extent. As the surfaces to which the +impression is to be conveyed are often curved, and sometimes even +fluted, the ink, or paint, is first transferred from the copper +to some flexible substance, such as paper, or an elastic compound +of glue and treacle. It is almost immediately conveyed from this +to the unbaked biscuit, to which it more readily adheres. + +100. Lithographic printing. This is another mode of producing +copies in almost unlimited number. The original which supplies +the copies is a drawing made on a stone of a slightly porous +nature, the ink employed for tracing it is made of such greasy +materials that when water is poured over the stone it shall not +wet the lines of the drawing. When a roller covered with printing +ink, which is of an oily nature, is passed over the stone +previously wetted, the water prevents this ink from adhering to +the uncovered portions; whilst the ink used in the drawing is of +such a nature that the printing ink adheres to it. In this state, +if a sheet of paper be placed upon the stone, and then passed +under a press, the printing ink will be transferred to the paper, +leaving the ink used in the drawing still adhering to the stone. + +101. There is one application of lithographic printing which +does not appear to have received sufficient attention, and +perhaps further experiments are necessary to bring it to +perfection. It is the reprinting of works which have just arrived +from other countries. A few years ago one of the Paris newspapers +was reprinted at Brussels as soon as it arrived by means of +lithography. Whilst the ink is yet fresh, this may easily be +accomplished: it is only necessary to place one copy of the +newspaper on a lithographic stone; and by means of great pressure +applied to it in a rolling press, a sufficient quantity of the +printing ink will be transferred to the stone. By similar means, +the other side of the newspaper may be copied on another stone, +and these stones will then furnish impressions in the usual way. +If printing from stone could be reduced to the same price per +thousand as that from moveable types, this process might be +adopted with great advantage for the supply of works for the use +of distant countries possessing the same language. For a single +copy might be printed off with transfer ink, and thus an English +work, for example, might be published in America from stone, +whilst the original, printed from moveable types, made its +appearance on the same day in England. + +102. It is much to be wished that such a method were +applicable to the reprinting of facsimiles of old and scarce +books. This, however, would require the sacrifice of two copies, +since a leaf must be destroyed for each page. Such a method of +reproducing a small impression of an old work, is peculiarly +applicable to mathematical tables, the setting up of which in +type is always expensive and liable to error, but how long ink +will continue to be transferable to stone, from paper on which it +has been printed, must be determined by experiment. The +destruction of the greasy or oily portion of the ink in the +character of old books, seems to present the greatest impediment; +if one constituent only of the ink were removed by time, it might +perhaps be hoped, that chemical means would ultimately be +discovered for restoring it: but if this be unsuccessful, an +attempt might be made to discover some substance having a strong +affinity for the carbon of the ink which remains on the paper, +and very little for the paper itself.(2*) + +103. Lithographic prints have occasionally been executed in +colours. In such instances a separate stone seems to have been +required for each colour, and considerable care, or very good +mechanism, must have been employed to adjust the paper to each +stone. If any two kinds of ink should be discovered mutually +inadhesive, one stone might be employed for two inks; or if the +inking-roller for the second and subsequent colours had portions +cut away corresponding to those parts of the stone inked by the +previous ones, then several colours might be printed from the +same stone: but these principles do not appear to promise much, +except for coarse subjects. + +104. Register printing. It is sometimes thought necessary to +print from a wooden block, or stereotype plate, the same pattern +reversed upon the opposite side of the paper. The effect of this, +which is technically called Register printing, is to make it +appear as if the ink had penetrated through the paper, and +rendered the pattern visible on the other side. If the subject +chosen contains many fine lines, it seems at first sight +extremely difficult to effect so exact a super position of the +two patterns, on opposite sides of the same piece of paper, that +it shall be impossible to detect the slightest deviation; yet the +process is extremely simple. The block which gives the impression +is always accurately brought down to the same place by means of a +hinge; this spot is covered by a piece of thin leather stretched +over it; the block is now inked, and being brought down to its +place, gives an impression of the pattern to the leather: it is +then turned back; and being inked a second time, the paper +intended to be printed is placed upon the leather, when the block +again descending, the upper surface of the paper is printed from +the block, and its undersurface takes up the impression from the +leather. It is evident that the perfection of this mode of +printing depends in a great measure on finding some soft +substance like leather, which will take as much ink as it ought +from the block, and which will give it up most completely to +paper. Impressions thus obtained are usually fainter on the lower +side; and in order in some measure to remedy this defect, rather +more ink is put on the block at the first than at the second +impression. + + +Of copying by casting + +105. The art of casting, by pouring substances in a fluid +state into a mould which retains them until they become solid, is +essentially an art of copying; the form of the thing produced +depending entirely upon that of the pattern from which it was +formed. + +106. Of casting iron and other metals.--Patterns of wood or +metal made from drawings are the originals from which the moulds +for casting are made: so that, in fact, the casting itself is a +copy of the mould; and the mould is a copy of the pattern. In +castings of iron and metals for the coarser purposes, and, if +they are afterwards to be worked even for the finer machines, +the exact resemblance amongst the things produced, which takes +place in many of the arts to which we have alluded, is not +effected in the first instance, nor is this necessary. As the +metals shrink in cooling, the pattern is made larger than the +intended copy; and in extricating it from the sand in which it is +moulded, some little difference will occur in the size of the +cavity which it leaves. In smaller works where accuracy is more +requisite, and where few or no after operations are to be +performed, a mould of metal is employed which has been formed +with considerable care. Thus, in casting bullets, which ought to +be perfectly spherical and smooth, an iron instrument is used, in +which a cavity has been cut and carefully ground; and, in order +to obviate the contraction in cooling, a jet is left which may +supply the deficiency of metal arising from that cause, and which +is afterwards cut off. The leaden toys for children are cast in +brass moulds which open, and in which have been graved or +chiselled the figures intended to be produced. + +107. A very beautiful mode of representing small branches of +the most delicate vegetable productions in bronze has been +employed by Mr Chantrey. A small strip of a fir-tree, a branch of +holly, a curled leaf of broccoli, or any other vegetable +production, is suspended by one end in a small cylinder of paper +which is placed for support within a similarly formed tin case. +The finest river silt, carefully separated from all the coarser +particles, and mixed with water, so as to have the consistency of +cream, is poured into the paper cylinder by small portions at a +time, carefully shaking the plant a little after each addition, +in order that its leaves may be covered, and that no bubbles of +air may be left. The plant and its mould are now allowed to dry, +and the yielding nature of the paper allows the loamy coating to +shrink from the outside. When this is dry it is surrounded by a +coarser substance; and, finally, we have the twig with all its +leaves embedded in a perfect mould. This mould is carefully +dried, and then gradually heated to a red heat. At the ends of +some of the leaves or shoots, wires have been left to afford +airholes by their removal, and in this state of strong ignition a +stream of air is directed into the hole formed by the end of the +branch. The consequence is, that the wood and leaves which had +been turned into charcoal by the fire, are now converted into +carbonic acid by the current of air; and, after some time, the +whole of the solid matter of which the plant consisted is +completely removed, leaving a hollow mould, bearing on its +interior all the minutest traces of its late vegetable occupant. +When this process is completed, the mould being still kept at +nearly a red heat, receives the fluid metal, which, by its +weight, either drives the very small quantity of air, which at +that high temperature remains behind, out through the +airholes, or compresses it into the pores of very porous +substance of which the mould is formed. + +108. When the form of the object intended to be cast is such +that the pattern cannot be extricated from its mould of sand or +plaster, it becomes necessary to make the pattern with wax, or +some other easily fusible substance. The sand or plaster is +moulded round this pattern, and, by the application of heat, the +wax is extricated through an opening left purposely for its +escape. + +109. It is often desirable to ascertain the form of the +internal cavities, inhabited by molluscous animals, such as those +of spiral shells, and of the various corals. This may be +accomplished by filling them with fusible metal, and dissolving +the substance of the shell by muriatic acid; thus a metallic +solid will remain which exactly filled all the cavities. If such +forms are required in silver, or any other difficulty fusible +metal, the shells may be filled with wax or resin, then dissolved +away; and the remaining waxen form may serve as the pattern from +which a plaster mould may be made for casting the metal. Some +nicety will be required in these operations; and perhaps the +minuter cavities can only be filled under an exhausted receiver. + +110. Casting in plaster. This is a mode of copying applied to +a variety of purposes: to produce accurate representations of the +human form--of statues--or of rare fossils--to which latter +purpose it has lately been applied with great advantage. In all +casting, the first process is to make the mould; and plaster is +the substance which is almost always employed for the purpose. +The property which it possesses of remaining for a short time in +a state of fluidity, renders it admirably adapted to this object, +and adhesion, even to an original of plaster, is effectually +prevented by oiling the surface on which it is poured. The mould +formed round the subject which is copied, removed in separate +pieces and then reunited, is that in which the copy is cast. This +process gives additional utility and value to the finest works of +art. The students of the Academy at Venice are thus enabled to +admire the sculptured figures of Egina, preserved in the gallery +at Munich; as well as the marbles of the Parthenon, the pride of +our own Museum. Casts in plaster of the Elgin marbles adorn many +of the academies of the Continent; and the liberal employment of +such presents affords us an inexpensive and permanent source of +popularity. + +111. Casting in wax. This mode of copying, aided by proper +colouring, offers the most successful imitations of many objects +of natural history, and gives an air of reality to them which +might deceive even the most instructed. Numerous figures of +remarkable persons, having the face and hands formed in wax, have +been exhibited at various times; and the resemblances have, in +some instances been most striking. But whoever would see the art +of copying in wax carried to the highest perfection, should +examine the beautiful collection of fruit at the house of the +Horticultural Society; the model of the magnificent flower of the +new genus Rafflesia--the waxen models of the internal parts of +the human body which adorn the anatomical gallery of the Jardin +des Plantes at Paris, and the Museum at Florence--or the +collection of morbid anatomy at the University of Bologna. The +art of imitation by wax does not usually afford the multitude of +copies which flow from many similar operations. This number is +checked by the subsequent stages of the process, which, ceasing +to have the character of copying by a tool or pattern, become +consequently more expensive. In each individual production, form +alone is given by casting; the colouring must be the work of the +pencil, guided by the skill of the artist. + + +Of copying by moulding + +112. This method of producing multitudes of individuals +having an exact resemblance to each other in external shape, is +adopted very widely in the arts. The substances employed are, +either naturally or by artificial preparation, in a soft or +plastic state; they are then compressed by mechanical force, +sometimes assisted by heat, into a mould of the required form. + +113. Of bricks and tiles. An oblong box of wood fitting upon +a bottom fixed to the brickmaker's bench, is the mould from which +every brick is formed. A portion of the plastic mixture of which +the bricks consist is made ready by less skilful hands: the +workman first sprinkles a little sand into the mould, and then +throws the clay into it with some force; at the same time rapidly +working it with his fingers, so as to make it completely close up +to the corners. He next scrapes off, with a wetted stick, the +superfluous clay, and shakes the new-formed brick dexterously out +of its mould upon a piece of board, on which it is removed by +another workman to the place appointed for drying it. A very +skilful moulder has occasionally, in a long summer's day, +delivered from ten to eleven thousand bricks; but a fair average +day's work is from five to six thousand. Tiles of various kinds +and forms are made of finer materials, but by the same system of +moulding. Among the ruins of the city of Gour, the ancient +capital of Bengal, bricks are found having projecting ornaments +in high relief: these appear to have been formed in a mould, and +subsequently glazed with a coloured glaze. In Germany, also, +brickwork has been executed with various ornaments. The cornice +of the church of St Stephano, at Berlin, is made of large blocks +of brick moulded into the form required by the architect. At the +establishment of Messrs Cubitt, in Gray's Inn Lane, vases, +cornices, and highly ornamented capitals of columns are thus +formed which rival stone itself in elasticity, hardness, and +durability. + +114. Of embossed china. Many of the forms given to those +beautiful specimens of earthenware which constitute the equipage +of our breakfast and our dinner-tables, cannot be executed in the +lathe of the potter. The embossed ornaments on the edges of the +plates, their polygonal shape, the fluted surface of many of the +vases, would all be difficult and costly of execution by the +hand; but they become easy and comparatively cheap, when made by +pressing the soft material out of which they are formed into a +hard mould. The care and skill bestowed on the preparation of +that mould are repaid by the multitude it produces. In many of +the works of the china manufactory, one part only of the article +is moulded; the upper surface of the plate, for example, whilst +the under side is figured by the lathe. In some instances, the +handle, or only a few ornaments, are moulded, and the body of the +work is turned. + +115. Glass seals. The process of engraving upon gems requires +considerable time and skill. The seals thus produced can +therefore never become common. Imitations, however, have been +made of various degrees of resemblance. The colour which is given +to glass is, perhaps, the most successful part of the imitation. +A small cylindrical rod of coloured glass is heated in the flame +of a blowpipe, until the extremity becomes soft. The operator +then pinches it between the ends of a pair of nippers, which are +formed of brass, and on one side of which the device intended for +the seal has been carved in relief. When the mould has been well +finished and care is taken in heating the glass properly, the +seals thus produced are not bad imitations; and by this system of +copying they are so multiplied, that the more ordinary kinds are +sold at Birmingham for three pence a dozen. + +116. Square glass bottles. The round forms which are usually +given to vessels of glass are readily produced by the expansion +of the air with which they are blown. It is, however, necessary +in many cases to make bottles of a square form, and each capable +of holding exactly the same quantity of fluid. It is also +frequently desirable to have imprinted on them the name of the +maker of the medicine or other liquid they are destined to +contain. A mould of iron, or of copper, is provided of the +intended size, on the inside of which are engraved the names +required. This mould, which is used in a hot state, opens into +two parts, to allow the insertion of the round, unfinished +bottle, which is placed in it in a very soft state before it is +removed from the end of the iron tube with which it was blown. +The mould is now closed, and the glass is forced against its +sides, by blowing strongly into the bottle. + +117. Wooden snuff boxes. Snuff boxes ornamented with devices, +in imitation of carved work or of rose engine turning, are sold +at a price which proves that they are only imitations. The wood, +or horn, out of which they are formed, is softened by long +boiling in water, and whilst in this state it is forced into +moulds of iron, or steel, on which are cut the requisite +patterns, where it remains exposed to great pressure until it is +dry. + +118. Horn knife handles and umbrella handles. The property +which horn possesses of becoming soft by the action of water and +of heat, fits it for many useful purposes. It is pressed into +moulds, and becomes embossed with figures in relief, adapted to +the objects to which it is to be applied. If curved, it may be +straightened; or if straight, it may be bent into any forms which +ornament or utility may require; and by the use of the mould +these forms may be multiplied in endless variety. The commoner +sorts of knives, the crooked handles for umbrellas, and a +multitude of other articles to which horn is applied, attest the +cheapness which the art of copying gives to the things formed of +this material. + +119. Moulding tortoise-shell. The same principle is applied +to things formed out of the shell of the turtle, or the land +tortoise. From the greatly superior price of the raw material, +this principle of copying is, however, more rarely employed upon +it; and the few carvings which are demanded, are usually +performed by hand. + +120. Tobacco-pipe making. This simple art is almost entirely +one of copying. The moulds are formed of iron, in two parts, each +embracing one half of the stem; the line of junction of these +parts may generally be observed running lengthwise from one end +of the pipe to the other. The hole passing to the bowl is formed +by thrusting a long wire through the clay before it is enclosed +in the mould. Some of the moulds have figures, or names, sunk in +the inside, which give a corresponding figure in relief upon the +finished pipe. + +121. Embossing upon calico. Calicoes of one colour, but +embossed all over with raised patterns, though not much worn in +this country, are in great demand in several foreign markets. +This appearance is produced by passing them between rollers, on +one of which is figured in intaglio the pattern to be transferred +to the calico. The substance of the cloth is pressed very +forcibly into the cavities thus formed, and retains its pattern +after considerable use. The watered appearance in the cover of +the volume in the reader's hands is produced in a similar manner. +A cylinder of gun-metal, on which the design of the watering is +previously cut, is pressed by screws against another cylinder, +formed out of pieces of brown paper which have been strongly +compressed together and accurately turned. The two cylinders are +made to revolve rapidly, the paper one being slightly damped, +and, after a few minutes, it takes an impression from the upper +or metal one. The glazed calico is now passed between the +rollers, its glossy surface being in contact with the metal +cylinder, which is kept hot by a heated iron enclosed within it. +Calicoes are sometimes watered by placing two pieces on each +other in such a position that the longitudinal threads of the one +are at right angles to those of the other, and compressing them +in this state between flat rollers. The threads of the one piece +produce indentations in those of the other, but they are not so +deep as when produced by the former method. + +122. Embossing upon leather. This art of copying from +patterns previously engraved on steel rollers is in most respects +similar to the preceding. The leather is forced into the +cavities, and the parts which are not opposite to any cavity are +powerfully condensed between the rollers. + +123. Swaging. This is an art of copying practised by the +smith. In order to fashion his iron and steel into the various +forms demanded by his customers, he has small blocks of steel +into which are sunk cavities of different shapes; these are +called swages, and are generally in pairs. Thus if he wants a +round bolt, terminating in a cylindrical head of larger diameter, +and having one or more projecting rims, he uses a corresponding +swaging tool; and having heated the end of his iron rod, and +thickened it by striking the end in the direction of the axis +(which is technically called upsetting), he places its head upon +one part of the lage; and whilst an assistant holds the other +part on the top of the hot iron, he strikes it several times with +his hammer, occasionally turning the head one quarter round. The +heated iron is thus forced by the blows to assume the form of the +mould into which it is impressed. + +124. Engraving by pressure. This is one of the most beautiful +examples of the art of copying carried to an almost unlimited +extent; and the delicacy with which it can be executed, and the +precision with which the finest traces of the graving tool can be +transferred from steel to copper, or even from hard steel to soft +steel, is most unexpected. We are indebted to Mr Perkins for most +of the contrivances which have brought this art at once almost to +perfection. An engraving is first made upon soft steel, which is +hardened by a peculiar process without in the least injuring its +delicacy. A cylinder of soft steel, pressed with great force +against the hardened steel engraving, is now made to roll very +slowly backward and forward over it, thus receiving the design, +but in relief. The cylinder is in its turn hardened without +injury., and if it be slowly rolled to and fro with strong +pressure on successive plates of copper, it will imprint on a +thousand of them a perfect facsimile of the original steel +engraving from which it was made. Thus the number of copies +producible from the same design may be multiplied a +thousand-fold. But even this is very far short of the limits to +which the process may be extended. The hardened steel roller, +bearing the design upon it in relief may be employed to make a +few of its first impressions upon plates of soft steel, and these +being hardened become the representatives of the original +engraving, and may in their turn be made the parents of other +rollers, each generating copperplates like their prototype. The +possible extent to which facsimiles of one original engraving may +thus be multiplied, almost confounds the imagination, and appears +to be for all practical purposes unlimited. + +This beautiful art was first proposed by Mr Perkins for the +purpose of rendering the forgery of bank notes a matter of great +difficulty; and there are two principles which peculiarly adapt +it to that object: first, the perfect identity of all the +impressions, so that any variation in the minutest line would at +once cause detection; secondly, that the original plates may be +formed by the united labours of several artists most eminent in +their respective departments; for as only one original of each +design is necessary, the expense, even of the most elaborate +engraving, will be trifling, compared with the multitude of +copies produced from it. + +125. It must, however, be admitted that the principle of +copying itself furnishes an expedient for imitating any engraving +or printed pattern, however complicated; and thus presents a +difficulty which none of the schemes devised for the prevention +of forgery appear to have yet effectually obviated. In attempting +to imitate the most perfect banknote, the first process would be +to place it with the printed side downwards upon a stone or other +substance, on which, by passing it through a rolling-press, it +might be firmly fixed. The next object would be to discover some +solvent which should dissolve the paper, but neither affect the +printing-ink, nor injure the stone or substance to which it is +attached. Water does not seem to do this effectually, and perhaps +weak alkaline or acid solutions would be tried. If, however, this +could be fully accomplished, and if the stone or other substance, +used to retain the impression, had those properties which enable +us to print from it, innumerable facsimiles of the note might +obviously be made, and the imitation would be complete. Porcelain +biscuit, which has recently been used with a black lead pencil +for memorandum books, seems in some measure adapted for such +trials, since its porosity may be diminished to any required +extent by regulating the dilution of the glazing. + +126. Gold and silver moulding. Many of the mouldings used by +jewellers consist of thin slips of metal, which have received +their form by passing between steel rollers, on which the pattern +is embossed or engraved; thus taking a succession of copies of +the devices intended. + +127. Ornamental papers. Sheets of paper coloured or covered +with gold or silver leaf, and embossed with various patterns, are +used for covering books, and for many ornamental purposes. The +figures upon these are produced by the same process, that of +passing the sheets of paper between engraved rollers. + + +Of copying by stamping + +128. This mode of copying is extensively employed in the +arts. It is generally executed by means of large presses worked +with a screw and heavy flywheel. The materials on which the +copies are impressed are most frequently metals, and the process +is sometimes executed when they are hot, and in one case when the +metal is in a state between solidity and fluidity. + +129. Coins and medals. The whole of the coins which circulate +as money are produced by this mode of copying. The screw presses +are either worked by manual labour, by water, or by steam power. +The mint which was sent a few years since to Calcutta was capable +of coining 200,000 pieces a day. Medals, which usually have their +figures in higher relief than coins, are produced by similar +means; but a single blow is rarely sufficient to bring them to +perfection, and the compression of the metal which arises from +the first blow renders it too hard to receive many subsequent +blows without injury to the die. It is therefore, after being +struck, removed to a furnace, in which it is carefully heated +red-hot and annealed, after which operation it is again placed +between the dies, and receives additional blows. For medals, on +which the figures are very prominent, these processes must be +repeated many times. One of the largest medals hitherto struck +underwent them nearly a hundred times before it was completed. + +130. Ornaments for military accoutrements, and furniture. +These are usually of brass, and are stamped up out of solid or +sheet brass by placing it between dies, and allowing a heavy +weight to drop upon the upper die from a height of from five to +fifteen feet. + +131. Buttons and nail heads. Buttons embossed with crests or +other devices are produced by the same means; and some of those +which are plain receive their hemispherical form from the dies in +which they are struck. The heads of several kinds of nails which +are portions of spheres, or polyhedrons, are also formed by these +means. + +132. Of a process for copying, called in France clichee. This +curious method of copying by stamping is applied to medals, and +in some cases to forming stereotype plates. There exists a range +of temperature previous to the melting point of several of the +alloys of lead, tin, and antimony, in which the compound is +neither solid, nor yet fluid. In this kind of pasty state it is +placed in a box under a die, which descends upon it with +considerable force. The blow drives the metal into the finest +lines of the die, and the coldness of the latter immediately +solidifies the whole mass. A quantity of the half-melted metal is +scattered in all directions by the blow, and is retained by the +sides of the box in which the process is carried on. The work +thus produced is admirable for its sharpness, but has not the +finished form of a piece just leaving the coining-press: the +sides are ragged, and it must be trimmed, and its thickness +equalized in the lathe. + + +Of copying by punching + +133. This mode of copying consists in driving a steel punch +through the substance to be cut, either by a blow or by pressure. +In some cases the object is to copy the aperture, and the +substance separated from the plate is rejected; in other cases +the small pieces cut out are the objects of the workman's labour. + +134. Punching iron plate for boilers. The steel punch used +for this purpose is from three-eighths to three-quarters of an +inch in diameter, and drives out a circular disk from a plate of +iron from one-quarter to five eighths of an inch thick. + +135. Punching tinned iron. The ornamental patterns of open +work which decorate the tinned and japanned wares in general use, +are rarely punched by the workman who makes them. In London the +art of punching out these patterns in screw-presses is carried on +as a separate trade; and large quantities of sheet tin are thus +perforated for cullenders, wine-strainers, borders of waiters, +and other similar purposes. The perfection and the precision to +which the art has been carried are remarkable. Sheets of copper, +too, are punched with small holes about the hundredth of an inch +in diameter, in such multitudes that more of the sheet metal is +removed than remains behind; and plates of tin have been +perforated with above three thousand holes in each square inch. + +136. The inlaid plates of brass and rosewood, called buhl +work, which ornament our furniture, are, in some instances, +formed by punching; but in this case, both the parts cut out, and +those which remain, are in many cases employed. In the remaining +illustrations of the art of copying by punching, the part made +use of is that which is punched out. + +137. Cards for guns. The substitution of a circular disk of +thin card instead of paper, for retaining in its place the charge +of a fowling-piece, is attended with considerable advantage. It +would, however, be of little avail, unless an easy method was +contrived of producing an unlimited number of cards, each exactly +fitting the bore of the barrel. The small steel tool used for +this purpose cuts out innumerable circles similar to its cutting +end, each of which precisely fills the barrel for which it was +designed. + +138. Ornaments of gilt paper. The golden stars, leaves, and +other devices, sold in shops for the purpose of ornamenting +articles made of paper and pasteboard, and other fancy works, are +cut by punches of various forms out of sheets of gilt paper. + +139. Steel chains. The chain used in connecting the +mainspring and fusee in watches and clocks, is composed of small +pieces of sheet steel, and it is of great importance that each of +these pieces should be of exactly the same size. The links are of +two sorts; one of them consisting of a single oblong piece of +steel with two holes in it, and the other formed by connecting +two of the same pieces of steel, placed parallel to each other, +and at a small distance apart, by two rivets. The two kinds of +links occur alternately in the chain: each end of the single +pieces being placed between the ends of two others, and connected +with them by a rivet passing through all three. If the rivet +holes in the pieces for the double links are not precisely at +equal distances, the chain will not be straight, and will, +consequently, be unfit for its purpose. + + +Copying with elongation + +140. In this species of copying there exists but little +resemblance between the copy and the original. It is the +cross-section only of the thing produced which is similar to the +tool through which it passes. When the substances to be operated +upon are hard, they must frequently pass in succession through +several holes, and it is in some cases necessary to anneal them +at intervals. + +141. Wire drawing. The metal to be converted into wire is +made of a cylindrical form, and drawn forcibly through circular +holes in plates of steel: at each passage it becomes smaller. +and, when finished, its section at any point is a precise copy of +the last hole through which it passed. Upon the larger kinds of +wire, fine lines may sometimes be traced, running longitudinally. +these arise from slight imperfections in the holes of the +draw-plates. For many purposes of the arts, wire, the section of +which is square or half round, is required: the same method of +making it is pursued, except that the holes through which it is +drawn are in such cases themselves square, or half-round, or of +whatever other form the wire is required to be. A species of wire +is made, the section of which resembles a star with from six to +twelve rays; this is called pinion wire, and is used by the +clockmakers. They file away all the rays from a short piece, +except from about half an inch near one end: this becomes a +pinion for a clock; and the leaves or teeth are already burnished +and finished, from having passed through the draw-plate. + +142. Tube drawing. The art of forming tubes of uniform +diameter is nearly similar in its mode of execution to wire +drawing. The sheet brass is bent round and soldered so as to form +a hollow cylinder; and if the diameter outside is that which is +required to be uniform, it is drawn through a succession of +holes, as in wire drawing: If the inside diameter is to be +uniform, a succession of steel cylinders, called triblets, are +drawn through the brass tube. In making tubes for telescopes, it +is necessary that both the inside and outside should be uniform. +A steel triblet, therefore, is first passed into the tube, which +is then drawn through a succession of holes, until the outside +diameter is reduced to the required size. The metal of which the +tube is formed is condensed between these holes and the steel +cylinder within; and when the latter is withdrawn the internal +surface appears polished. The brass tube is considerably extended +by this process, sometimes even to double its first length. + +143. Leaden pipes. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water +were formerly made by casting; but it has been found that they +can be made both cheaper and better by drawing them through holes +in the manner last described. A cylinder of lead, of five or six +inches in diameter and about two feet long, is cast with a small +hole through its axis, and an iron triblet of about fifteen feet +in length is forced into the hole. It is then drawn through a +series of holes, until the lead is extended upon the triblet from +one end to the other, and is of the proper thickness in +proportion to the size of the pipe. + +144. Iron rolling. When cylinders of iron of greater +thickness than wire are required, they are formed by passing +wrought iron between rollers, each of which has sunk in it a +semi-cylindrical groove; and as such rollers rarely touch +accurately, a longitudinal line will usually be observed in the +cylinders so manufactured. Bar iron is thus shaped into all the +various forms of round, square, half-round, oval, etc. in which +it occurs in commerce. A particular species of moulding is thus +made, which resembles, in its section, that part of the frame of +a window which separates two adjacent panes of glass. Being much +stronger than wood, it can be considerably reduced in thickness, +and consequently offers less obstruction to the light; it is much +used for skylights. + +145. It is sometimes required that the iron thus produced +should not be of uniform thickness throughout. This is the case +in bars for railroads, where greater depth is required towards +the middle of the rail which is at the greatest distance from the +supports. This form is produced by cutting the groove in the +rollers deeper at those parts where additional strength is +required, so that the hollow which surrounds the roller would, if +it could be unwound, be a mould of the shape the iron is intended +to fit. + +146. Vermicelli. The various forms into which this paste is +made are given by forcing it through holes in tin plate. It +passes through them, and appears on the other side in long +strings. The cook makes use of the same method in preparing +butter and ornamental pastry for the table, and the confectioner +in forming cylindrical lozenges of various composition. + + +Of copying with altered dimensions + +147. Of the pentagraph. This mode of copying is chiefly used +for drawings or maps: the instrument is simple; and, although +usually employed in reducing, is capable of enlarging the size of +the copy. An automaton figure, exhibited in London a short time +since, which drew profiles of its visitors, was regulated by a +mechanism on this principle. A small aperture in the wall, +opposite the seat in which the person is placed whose profile is +taken, conceals a camera lucida, which is placed in an adjoining +apartment: and an assistant, by moving a point, connected by a +pentagraph with the hand of the automaton, over the outline of +the head, causes the figure to trace a corresponding profile. + +148. By turning. The art of turning might perhaps itself be +classed amongst the arts of copying. A steel axis, called a +mandril, having a pulley attached to the middle of it, is +supported at one end either by a conical point, or by a +cylindrical collar, and at the other end by another collar, +through which it passes. The extremity which projects beyond this +last collar is formed into a screw, by which various instruments, +called chucks, can be attached to it. These chucks are intended +to hold the various materials to be submitted to the operation of +turning, and have a great variety of forms. The mandril with the +chuck is made to revolve by a strap which passes over the pulley +that is attached to it, and likewise over a larger wheel moved +either by the foot, or by its connection with steam or water +power. All work which is executed on a mandril partakes in some +measure of the irregularities in the form of that mandril; and +the perfect circularity of section which ought to exist in every +part of the work, can only be ensured by an equal accuracy in the +mandril and its collar. + +149. Rose engine turning. This elegant art depends in a great +measure on copying. Circular plates of metal called rosettes, +having various indentations on the surfaces and edges, are fixed +on the mandril, which admits of a movement either end-wise or +laterally: a fixed obstacle called the 'touch', against which the +rosettes are pressed by a spring, obliges the mandril to follow +their indentations, and thus causes the cutting tool to trace out +the same pattern on the work. The distance of the cutting tool +from the centre being usually less than the radius of the +rosette, causes the copy to be much diminished. + +150. Copying dies. A lathe has been long known in France, and +recently been used at the English mint for copying dies. A blunt +point is carried by a very slow spiral movement successively over +every part of the die to be copied, and is pressed by a weight +into all the cavities; while a cutting point connected with it by +the machine traverses the face of a piece of soft steel, in which +it cuts the device of the original die on the same or on a +diminished scale. The degree of excellence of the copy increases +in proportion as it is smaller than the original. The die of a +crown-piece will furnish by copy a very tolerable die for a +sixpence. But the chief use to be expected from this lathe is to +prepare all the coarser parts, and leave only the finer and more +expressive lines for the skill and genius of the artist. + +151. Shoe-last making engine. An instrument not very unlike +in principle was proposed for the purpose of making shoe lasts. A +pattern last of a shoe for the right foot was placed in one part +of the apparatus, and when the machine was moved, two pieces of +wood, placed in another part which had been previously adjusted +by screws, were cut into lasts greater or less than the original, +as was desired; and although the pattern was for the right foot, +one of the lasts was for the left, an effect which was produced +by merely interposing a wheel which reversed the motion between +the two pieces of wood to be cut into lasts. + +152. Engine for copying busts. Many years since, the late Mr +Watt amused himself with constructing an engine to produce copies +of busts or statues, either of the same size as the original, or +in a diminished proportion. The substances on which he operated +were various, and some of the results were shewn to his friends, +but the mechanism by which they were made has never been +described. More recently, Mr Hawkins, who, nearly at the same +time, had also contrived a similar machine, has placed it in the +hands of an artist, who has made copies in ivory from a variety +of busts. The art of multiplying in different sizes the figures +of the sculptor, aided by that of rendering their acquisition +cheap through the art of casting, promises to give additional +value to his productions, and to diffuse more widely the pleasure +arising from their possession. + +153. Screw cutting. When this operation is performed in the +lathe by means of a screw upon the mandril, it is essentially an +art of copying, but it is only the number of threads in a given +length which is copied; the form of the thread, and length as +well as the diameter of the screw to be cut, are entirely +independent of those from which the copy is made. There is +another method of cutting screws in a lathe by means of one +pattern screw, which, being connected by wheels with the mandril, +guides the cutting point. In this process, unless the time of +revolution of the mandril is the same as that of the screw which +guides the cutting point, the number of threads in a given length +will be different. If the mandril move quicker than the cutting +point, the screw which is produced will be finer than the +original; if it move slower, the copy will be more coarse than +the original. The screw thus generated may be finer or coarser-- +it may be larger or smaller in diameter--it may have the same or +a greater number of threads than that from which it is copied; +yet all the defects which exist in the original will be +accurately transmitted, under the modified circumstances, to +every individual generated from it. + +154. Printing from copper plates with altered dimensions. +Some very singular specimens of an art of copying, not yet made +public, were brought from Paris a few years since. A watchmaker +in that city, of the name of Gonord, had contrived a method by +which he could take from the same copperplate impressions of +different sizes, either larger or smaller than the original +design. Having procured four impressions of a parrot, surrounded +by a circle, executed in this manner, I shewed them to the late +Mr Lowry, an engraver equally distinguished for his skill, and +for the many mechanical contrivances with which he enriched his +art. The relative dimensions of the several impressions were 5.5, +6.3, 8.4, 15.0, so that the largest was nearly three times the +linear size of the smallest; and Mr Lowry assured me, that he was +unable to detect any lines in one which had not corresponding +lines in the others. There appeared to be a difference in the +quantity of ink, but none in the traces of the engraving; and, +from the general appearance, it was conjectured that the largest +but one was the original impression from the copperplate. + +The means by which this singular operation was executed have +not been published; but two conjectures were formed at the time +which merit notice. It was supposed that the artist was in +possession of some method of transferring the ink from the lines +of a copperplate to the surface of some fluid, and of +retransferring the impression from the fluid to paper. If this +could be accomplished, the print would, in the first instance, be +of exactly the same size as the copper from which it was derived; +but if the fluid were contained in a vessel having the form of an +inverted cone, with a small aperture at the bottom, the liquid +might be lowered or raised in the vessel by gradual abstraction +or addition through the apex of the cone; in this case, the +surface to which the printing-ink adhered would diminish or +enlarge, and in this altered state the impression might be +retransferred to paper. It must be admitted, that this +conjectural explanation is liable to very considerable +difficulties; for, although the converse operation of taking an +impression from a liquid surface has a parallel in the art of +marbling paper, the possibility of transferring the ink from the +copper to the fluid requires to be proved. + +Another and more plausible explanation is founded on the +elastic nature of the compound of glue and treacle, a substance +already in use in transferring engravings to earthenware. It is +conjectured, that an impression from the copperplate is taken +upon a large sheet of this composition; that this sheet is then +stretched in both directions, and that the ink thus expanded is +transferred to paper. If the copy is required to be smaller than +the original, the elastic substance must first be stretched, and +then receive the impression from the copperplate: on removing the +tension it will contract, and thus reduce the size of the design. +It is possible that one transfer may not in all cases suffice; as +the extensibility of the composition of glue and treacle, +although considerable, is still limited. Perhaps sheets of India +rubber of uniform texture and thickness, may be found to answer +better than this composition; or possibly the ink might be +transferred from the copper plate to the surface of a bottle of +this gum, which bottle might, after being expanded by forcing air +into it, give up the enlarged impression to paper. As it would +require considerable time to produce impressions in this manner, +and there might arise some difficulty in making them all of +precisely the same size, the process might be rendered more +certain and expeditious by performing that part of the operation +which depends on the enlargement or diminution of the design only +once; and, instead of printing from the soft substance. +transferring the design from it to stone: thus a considerable +portion of the work would be reduced to an art already well +known, that of lithography. This idea receives some confirmation +from the fact, that in another set of specimens, consisting of a +map of St Petersburgh, of several sizes, a very short line, +evidently an accidental defect, occurs in all the impressions of +one particular size, but not in any of a different size. + +155. Machine to produce engraving from medals. An instrument +was contrived, a long time ago, and is described in the Manuel de +Tourneur, by which copperplate engravings are produced from +medals and other objects in relief. The medal and the copper are +fixed on two sliding plates at right angles to each other, so +connected that, when the plate on which the medal is fixed is +raised vertically by a screw, the slide holding the copperplate +is advanced by an equal quantity in the horizontal direction. The +medal is fixed on the vertical slide with its face towards the +copperplate, and a little above it. + +A bar, terminating at one end in a tracing point, and at the +other in a short arm, at right angles to the bar, and holding a +diamond point, is placed horizontally above the copper; so that +the tracing point shall touch the medal to which the bar is +perpendicular, and the diamond point shall touch the copperplate +to which the arm is perpendicular. + +Under this arrangement, the bar being supposed to move +parallel to itself, and consequently to the copper, if the +tracing point pass over a flat part of the medal, the diamond +point will draw a straight line of equal length upon the copper; +but, if the tracing point pass over any projecting part of the +medal, the deviation from the straight line by the diamond point, +will be exactly equal to the elevation of the corresponding point +of the medal above the rest of the surface. Thus, by the transit +of this tracing point over any line upon the medal, the diamond +will draw upon the copper a section of the medal through that +line. + +A screw is attached to the apparatus, so that if the medal be +raised a very small quantity by the screw, the copperplate will +be advanced by the same quantity, and thus a new line of section +may be drawn: and, by continuing this process, the series of +sectional lines on the copper produces the representation of the +medal on a plane: the outline and the form of the figure arising +from the sinuosities of the lines, and from their greater or less +proximity. The effect of this kind of engraving is very striking; +and in some specimens gives a high degree of apparent relief. It +has been practised on plate glass, and is then additionally +curious from the circumstance of the fine lines traced by the +diamond being invisible, except in certain lights. + +From this description, it will have been seen that the +engraving on copper must be distorted; that is to say, that the +projection on the copper cannot be the same as that which arises +from a perpendicular projection of each point of the medal upon a +plane parallel to itself. The position of the prominent parts +will be more altered than that of the less elevated; and the +greater the relief of the medal the more distorted will be its +engraved representation. Mr John Bate, son of Mr Bate, of the +Poultry, has contrived an improved machine, for which he has +taken a patent, in which this source of distortion is remedied. +The head, in the title page of the present volume, is copied from +a medal of Roger Bacon, which forms one of a series of medals of +eminent men, struck at the Royal Mint at Munich, and is the first +of the published productions of this new art.(3*) + +The inconvenience which arises from too high a relief in the +medal, or in the bust, might be remedied by some mechanical +contrivance, by which the deviation of the diamond point from the +right line (which it would describe when the tracing point +traverses a plane), would be made proportional not to the +elevation of the corresponding point above the plane of the +medal, but to its elevation above some other parallel plane +removed to a fit distance behind it. Thus busts and statues might +be reduced to any required degree of relief. + +156. The machine just described naturally suggests other +views which seem to deserve some consideration, and, perhaps, +some experiment. If a medal were placed under the tracing point +of a pentagraph, an engraving tool substituted for the pencil, +and a copperplate in the place of the paper; and if, by some +mechanism, the tracing point, which slides in a vertical plane, +could, as it is carried over the different elevations of the +medal, increase or diminish the depth of the engraved line +proportionally to the actual height of the corresponding point on +the medal, then an engraving would be produced, free at least +from any distortion, although it might be liable to objections of +a different kind. If, by any similar contrivance, instead of +lines, we could make on each point of the copper a dot, varying +in size or depth with the altitude of the corresponding point of +the medal above its plane, than a new species of engraving would +be produced: and the variety of these might again be increased, +by causing the graving point to describe very small circles, of +diameters, varying with the height of the point on the medal +above a given plane; or by making the graving tool consist of +three equidistant points, whose distance increased or diminished +according to some determinate law, dependent on the elevation of +the point represented above the plane of the medal. It would, +perhaps, be difficult to imagine the effects of some of these +kinds of engraving; but they would all possess, in common, the +property of being projections, by parallel lines, of the objects +represented, and the intensity of the shade of the ink would +either vary according to some function of the distance of the +point represented from some given plane, or it would be a little +modified by the distances from the same plane of a few of the +immediately contiguous points. + +157. The system of shading maps by means of lines of equal +altitude above the sea bears some analogy to this mode of +representing medals, and if applied to them would produce a +different species of engraved resemblance. The projections on the +plane of the medal, of the section of an imaginary plane, placed +at successive distances above it, with the medal itself, would +produce a likeness of the figure on the medal, in which all the +inclined parts of it would be dark in proportion to their +inclination. Other species of engraving might be conceived by +substituting, instead of the imaginary plane, an imaginary sphere +or other solid, intersecting the figure in the medal. + +158. Lace made by caterpillars. A most extraordinary species +of manufacture, which is in a slight degree connected with +copying, has been contrived by an officer of engineers residing +at Munich. It consists of lace, and veils, with open patterns in +them, made entirely by caterpillars. The following is the mode of +proceeding adopted: he makes a paste of the leaves of the plant, +which is the usual food of the species of caterpillar(4*) he +employs, and spreads it thinly over a stone, or other flat +substance. He then, with a camel-hair pencil dipped in olive oil, +draws upon the coating of paste the pattern he wishes the insects +to leave open. This stone is then placed in an inclined position, +and a number of the caterpillars are placed at the bottom. A +peculiar species is chosen, which spins a strong web; and the +animals commencing at the bottom, eat and spin their way up to +the top, carefully avoiding every part touched by the oil, but +devouring all the rest of the paste. The extreme lightness of +these veils, combined with some strength, is truly surprising. +One of them, measuring twenty-six and a half inches by seventeen +inches, weighed only 1.51 grains; a degree of lightness which +will appear more strongly by contrast with other fabrics. One +square yard of the substance of which these veils are made weighs +4 1/3 grains, whilst one square yard of silk gauze weighs 137 +grains, and one square yard of the finest patent net weighs 262 +1/2 grains. The ladies' coloured muslin dresses, mentioned in the +table subjoined, cost ten shillings per dress, and each weigh six +ounces; the cotton from which they are made weighing nearly six +and two-ninth ounces avoirdupois weight. + +Weight of one square yard of each of the following articles(5*) + + Weight of + Weight cotton used + Value finished of in waking + per yard one square one square + Description of goods measure yard yard + + s. d. Troy grains Troy grains + + Caterpillar veils -- 4 1/3 -- + Silk gauze 3-4 wide 1 0 137 -- + Finest patent net -- 262 1/2 -- + Fine cambric muslin -- 551 -- + 6-4ths jaconet muslin 2 0 613 670 + Ladies' coloured muslin dresses 3 0 788 875 + 6-4ths cambric 1 2 972 1069 + 9-8ths calico 0 9 988 1085 + 1/2-yard nankeen 0 8 2240 2432 + + +159. This enumeration, which is far from complete, of the +arts in which copying is the foundation, may be terminated with +an example which has long been under the eye of the reader; +although few, perhaps, are aware of the number of repeated +copyings of which these very pages are the subject. + +1. They are copies, by printing, from stereotype plates. + +2. These stereotype plates are copied, by the art of casting, +from moulds formed of plaster of Paris. + +3. These moulds are themselves copied by casting the plaster +in a liquid state upon the moveable types set up by the +compositor. + +[It is here that the union of the intellectual and the +mechanical departments takes place. The mysteries, however, of an +author's copying, form no part of our enquiry, although it may be +fairly remarked, that, in numerous instances, the mental far +eclipses the mechanical copyist.] + +4. These moveable types, the obedient messengers of the most +opposite thoughts, the most conflicting theories, are themselves +copies by casting from moulds of copper called matrices. + +5. The lower part of those matrices, bearing the impressions +of the letters or characters, are copies, by punching, from steel +punches on which the same characters exist in relief. + +6. These steel punches are not themselves entirely exempted +from the great principle of art. Many of the cavities which exist +in them, such as those in the middle of the punches for the +letters a, b, d, e, g, etc., are produced from other steel +punches in which these parts are in relief. + +We have thus traced through six successive stages of copying +the mechanical art of printing from stereotype plates: the +principle of copying contributing in this, as in every other +department of manufacture, to the uniformity and the cheapness of +the work produced. + +NOTES: + +1. The late Mr Lowry. + +2. I posses a lithographic reprint of a page of a table, which +appears, from the from of the type, to have been several years +old. + +3. The construction of the engraving becomes evident on examining +it with a lens of sufficient power to show the continuity of the +lines. + +4. The Phalaena pardilla, which feeds on the Prunus padus. + +5. Some of these weights and measures are calculated from a +statement in the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons +on Printed Cotton Goods; and the widths of the pieces there given +are presumed to be the real widths, not those by which they are +called in the retail shops. + + + +Chapter 12 + +On the Method of Observing Manufactories + +160. Having now reviewed the mechanical principles which +regulate the successful application of mechanical science to +great establishments for the production of manufactured goods, it +remains for us to suggest a few enquiries, and to offer a few +observations, to those whom an enlightened curiosity may lead to +examine the factories of this or of other countries. + +The remark--that it is important to commit to writing all +information as soon as possible after it is received, especially +when numbers are concerned--applies to almost all enquiries. It +is frequently impossible to do this at the time of visiting an +establishment, although not the slightest jealousy may exist; the +mere act of writing information as it is communicated orally, is +a great interruption to the examination of machinery. In such +cases, therefore, it is advisable to have prepared beforehand the +questions to be asked, and to leave blanks for the answers, which +may be quickly inserted, as, in a multitude of cases, they are +merely numbers. Those who have not tried this plan will be +surprised at the quantity of information which may, through its +means, be acquired, even by a short examination. Each manufacture +requires its own list of questions, which will be better drawn up +after the first visit. The following outline, which is very +generally applicable, may suffice for an illustration; and to +save time, it may be convenient to have it printed; and to bind +up, in the form of a pocket-book, a hundred copies of the +skeleton forms for processes, with about twenty of the general +enquiries. + + +GENERAL ENQUIRIES + + +Outlines of a description of any of the mechanical arts ought to +contain information on the following points + +Brief sketch of its history, particularly the date of its +invention, and of its introduction into England. + +Short reference to the previous states through which the +material employed has passed: the places whence it is procured: +the price of a given quantity. + +[The various processes must now be described successively +according to the plan which will be given in (161); after which +the following information should be given.] + +Are various kinds of the same article made in one establishment, +or at different ones, and are there differences in the processes? + +To what defects are the goods liable? + +What substitutes or adulterations are used? + +What waste is allowed by the master? + +What tests are there of the goodness of the manufactured +articles? + +The weight of a given quantity, or number, and a comparison +with that of the raw material? + +The wholesale price at the manufactory? (L s. d.) per ( ) + +The usual retail price? (L s. d.) + +Who provide tools? Master, or men? Who repair tools? Master, +or men? + +What is the expense of the machinery? + +What is the annual wear and tear, and what its duration? + +Is there any particular trade for making it? Where? + +Is it made and repaired at the manufactory? + +In any manufactory visited, state the number ( ) of +processes; and of the persons employed in each process; and the +quantity of manufactured produce. + +What quantity is made annually in Great Britain? + +Is the capital invested in manufactories large or small? + +Mention the principal seats of this manufacture in England; +and if it flourishes abroad, the places where it is established. + +The duty, excise. or bounty, if any, should be stated, and +any alterations in past years; and also the amount exported or +imported for a series of years. + +Whether the same article, but of superior, equal, or inferior +make, is imported? + +Does the manufacturer export, or sell, to a middleman, who +supplies the merchant? + +To what countries is it chiefly sent? and in what goods are +the returns made? + + +161. Each process requires a separate skeleton, and the +following outline will be sufficient for many different +manufactories: + + Process ( ) Manufacture ( ) + Place ( ) Name ( ) + date 183 + + +The mode of executing it, with sketches of the tools or +machine if necessary. + +The number of persons necessary to attend the machine. Are +the operatives, men ( ) women, ( ) or children? ( ) If mixed, +what are the proportions? + +What is the pay of each? (s. d.) (s. d. ) (s. d.) per ( ) + +What number ( ) of hours do they work per day? + +Is it usual, or necessary, to work night and day without +stopping? Is the labour performed by piece--or by day-work? + +Who provide tools? Master, or men? Who repair tools? Master, +or men? What degree of skill is required, and how many years' ( ) +apprenticeship? + +The number of times ( ) the operation is repeated per day or +per hour? + +The number of failures ( ) in a thousand? + +Whether the workmen or the master loses by the broken or +damaged articles? + +What is done with them? + +If the same process is repeated several times, state the +diminution or increase of measure, and the loss, if any, at each +repetition. + + +162. In this skeleton, the answers to the questions are in +some cases printed, as "Who repair the tools?--Masters, Men"; in +order that the proper answer may be underlined with a pencil. In +filling up the answers which require numbers, some care should be +taken: for instance, if the observer stands with his watch in his +hand before a person heading a pin, the workman will almost +certainly increase his speed, and the estimate will be too large. +A much better average will result from enquiring what quantity is +considered a fair day's work. When this cannot be ascertained, +the number of operations performed in a given time may frequently +be counted when the workman is quite unconscious that any person +is observing him. Thus the sound made by the motion of a loom may +enable the observer to count the number of strokes per minute, +even though he is outside the building in which it is contained. +M. Coulomb, who had great experience in making such observations, +cautions those who may repeat his experiments against being +deceived by such circumstances: 'Je prie' (says he) 'ceux qui +voudront les repeter, s'ils n'ont pas le temps de mesurer les +resultats apres plusiers jours d'un travail continu, d'observer +les ouvriers a differentes reprises dans la journee, sans qu'ils +sachent qu'ils sont observes. L'on ne peut trop avertir combien +l'on risque de se tromper en calculant, soit la vitesse, soit le +temps effectif du travail, d'apres une observation de quelques +minutes.' Memoires de l'Institut. vol. II, p. 247. It frequently +happens, that in a series of answers to such questions, there are +some which, although given directly, may also be deduced by a +short calculation from others that are given or known; and +advantage should always be taken of these verifications, in order +to confirm the accuracy of the statements; or, in case they are +discordant, to correct the apparent anomalies. In putting lists +of questions into the hands of a person undertaking to give +information upon any subject, it is in some cases desirable to +have an estimate of the soundness of his judgement. The questions +can frequently be so shaped, that some of them may indirectly +depend on others; and one or two may be inserted whose answers +can be obtained by other methods: nor is this process without its +advantages in enabling us to determine the value of our own +judgement. The habit of forming an estimate of the magnitude of +any object or the frequency of any occurrence, immediately +previous to our applying to it measure or number, tends +materially to fix the attention and to improve the judgement. + + + + + +Section II + +On the domestic and political economy of manufactures + + + +Chapter 13 + +Distinction Between Making and Manufacturing + +163. The economical principles which regulate the application +of machinery, and which govern the interior of all our great +factories, are quite as essential to the prosperity of a great +commercial country, as are those mechanical principles, the +operation of which has been illustrated in the preceding section. + +The first object of every person who attempts to make any +article of consumption, is, or ought to be, to produce it in a +perfect form; but in order to secure to himself the greatest and +most permanent profit, he must endeavour, by every means in his +power, to render the new luxury or want which he has created, +cheap to those who consume it. The larger number of purchasers +thus obtained will, in some measure, secure him from the caprices +of fashion, whilst it furnishes a far greater amount of profit, +although the contribution of each individual is diminished. The +importance of collecting data, for the purpose of enabling the +manufacturer to ascertain how many additional customers he will +acquire by a given reduction in the price of the article he +makes, cannot be too strongly pressed upon the attention of those +who employ themselves in statistical enquiries. In some ranks of +society, no diminution of price can bring forward a great +additional number of customers; whilst, amongst other classes, a +very small reduction will so enlarge the sale, as to yield a +considerable increase of profit. Materials calculated to assist +in forming a table of the numbers of persons who possess incomes +of different amount, occur in the 14th Report of the +Commissioners of Revenue Inquiry, which includes a statement of +the amount of personal property proved at the legacy office +during one year; the number of the various classes of testators; +and an account of the number of persons receiving dividends from +funded property, distributed into classes. Such a table, formed +even approximately, and exhibited in the form of a curve, might +be of service. + +164. A considerable difference exists between the terms +making and manufacturing. The former refers to the production of +a small, the latter to that of a very large number of +individuals; and the difference is well illustrated in the +evidence, given before the Committee of the House of Commons, on +the Export of Tools and Machinery. On that occasion Mr Maudslay +stated, that he had been applied to by the Navy Board to make +iron tanks for ships, and that he was rather unwilling to do so, +as he considered it to be out of his line of business; however, +he undertook to make one as a trial. The holes for the rivets +were punched by hand-punching with presses, and the 1680 holes +which each tank required cost seven shillings. The Navy Board, +who required a large number, proposed that he should supply forty +tanks a week for many months. The magnitude of the order made it +worth his while to commence manufacture, and to make tools for +the express business. Mr Maudslay therefore offered, if the Board +would give him an order for two thousand tanks, to supply them at +the rate of eighty per week. The order was given: he made tools, +by which the expense of punching the rivet-holes of each tank was +reduced from seven shillings to ninepence; he supplied +ninety-eight tanks a week for six months, and the price charged +for each was reduced from seventeen pounds to fifteen. + +165. If, therefore, the maker of an article wish to become a +manufacturer, in the more extended sense of the term, he must +attend to other principles besides those mechanical ones on which +the successful execution of his work depends; and he must +carefully arrange the whole system of his factory in such a +manner, that the article he sells to the public may be produced +at as small a cost as possible. Should he not be actuated at +first by motives so remote, he will, in every highly civilized +country, be compelled, by the powerful stimulus of competition, +to attend to the principles of the domestic economy of +manufactures. At every reduction in price of the commodity he +makes, he will be driven to seek compensation in a saving of +expense in some of the processes; and his ingenuity will be +sharpened in this enquiry by the hope of being able in his turn +to undersell his rivals. The benefit of the improvements thus +engendered is, for a short time, confined to those from whose +ingenuity they derive their origin; but when a sufficient +experience has proved their value, they become generally adopted, +until in their turn they are superseded by other more economical +methods. + + + +Chapter 14 + +Of Money as a Medium of Exchange + +166. In the earlier stages of societies the interchange of +the few commodities required was conducted by barter, but as soon +as their wants became more varied and extensive, the necessity of +having some common measure of the value of all commodities-- +itself capable of subdivision--became apparent: thus money was +introduced. In some countries shells have been employed for this +purpose; but civilized nations have, by common consent, adopted +the precious metals.(1*) The sovereign power has, in most +countries, assumed the right of coining; or, in other words, the +right of stamping with distinguishing marks, pieces of metal +having certain forms and weights and a certain degree of +fineness: the marks becoming a guarantee, to the people amongst +whom the money circulates, that each piece is of the required +weight and quality. + +The expense of manufacturing gold into coin, and that of the +loss arising from wear, as well as of interest on the capital +invested in it, must either be defrayed by the State, or be +compensated by a small reduction in its weight, and is a far less +cost to the nation than the loss of time and inconvenience which +would arise from a system of exchange or barter. + +167. These coins are liable to two inconveniences: they may +be manufactured privately by individuals, of the same quality, +and similarly stamped; or imitations may be made of inferior +metal, or of diminished weight. The first of these inconveniences +would be easily remedied by making the current value of the coin +nearly equal to that of the same weight of the metal; and the +second would be obviated by the caution of individuals in +examining the external characters of each coin, and partly by the +punishment inflicted by the State on the perpetrators of such +frauds. + +168. The subdivisions of money vary in different countries, +and much time may be lost by an inconvenient system of division. +The effect is felt in keeping extensive accounts, and +particularly in calculating the interest on loans, or the +discount upon bills of exchange. The decimal system is the best +adapted to facilitate all such calculations; and it becomes an +interesting question to consider whether our own currency might +not be converted into one decimally divided. The great step, that +of abolishing the guinea, has already been taken without any +inconvenience, and but little is now required to render the +change complete. + +169. If, whenever it becomes necessary to call in the +half-crowns, a new coin of the value of two shillings were +issued, which should be called by some name implying a unit (a +prince, for instance), we should have the tenth part of a +sovereign. A few years after, when the public were familiar with +this coin, it might be divided into one hundred instead of +ninety-six farthings; and it would then consist of twenty-five +pence, each of which would be four per cent. less in value than +the former penny. The shillings and six-pences being then +withdrawn from circulation, their place might be supplied with +silver coins each worth five of the new pence, and by others of +ten-pence, and of twopence halfpenny; the latter coin, having a +distinct name, would be the tenth part of a prince. + +170. The various manufactured commodities, and the various +property possessed by the inhabitants of a country, all become +measured by the standard thus introduced. But it must be observed +that the value of gold is itself variable; and that, like all +other commodities, its price depends on the extent of the demand +compared with that of the supply. + +171. As transactions multiply, and the sums to be paid become +large, the actual transfer of the precious metals from one +individual to another is attended with inconvenience and +difficulty, and it is found more convenient to substitute written +promises to pay on demand specified quantities of gold. These +promises are called bank-notes; and when the person or body +issuing them is known to be able to fulfil the pledge, the note +will circulate for a long time before it gets into the hands of +any person who may wish to make use of the gold it represents. +These paper representatives supply the place of a certain +quantity of gold; and, being much cheaper, a large portion of the +expense of a metallic circulation is saved by their employment. + +172. As commercial transactions increase, the transfer of +bank-notes is, to a considerable extent, superseded by shorter +processes. Banks are established, into which all monies are paid, +and out of which all payments are made, through written orders +called checks, drawn by those who keep accounts with them. In a +large capital, each bank receives, through its numerous +customers, checks payable by every other; and if clerks were sent +round to receive the amount in banknotes due from each, it would +occupy much time, and be attended with some risk and +inconvenience. + +173. Clearing house. In London this is avoided, by making all +checks paid in to bankers pass through what is technically called +The Clearing House. In a large room in Lombard Street, about +thirty clerks from the several London bankers take their +stations, in alphabetical order, at desks placed round the room; +each having a small open box by his side, and the name of the +firm to which he belongs in large characters on the wall above +his head. From time to time other clerks from every house enter +the room, and, passing along, drop into the box the checks due by +that firm to the house from which this distributor is sent. The +clerk at the table enters the amount of the several checks in a +book previously prepared, under the name of the bank to which +they are respectively due. + +Four o'clock in the afternoon is the latest hour to which the +boxes are open to receive checks; and at a few minutes before +that time, some signs of increased activity begin to appear in +this previously quiet and business-like scene. Numerous clerks +then arrive, anxious to distribute, up to the latest possible +moment, the checks which have been paid into the houses of their +employers. + +At four o'clock all the boxes are removed, and each clerk +adds up the amount of the checks put into his box and payable by +his own to other houses. He also receives another book from his +own house, containing the amounts of the checks which their +distributing clerk has put into the box of every other banker. +Having compared these, he writes out the balances due to or from +his own house, opposite the name of each of the other banks; and +having verified this statement by a comparison with the similar +list made by the clerks of those houses, he sends to his own bank +the general balance resulting from this sheet, the amount of +which, if it is due from that to other houses, is sent back in +bank-notes. + +At five o'clock the Inspector takes his seat; when each +clerk, who has upon the result of all the transactions a balance +to pay to various other houses, pays it to the inspector, who +gives a ticket for the amount. The clerks of those houses to whom +money is due, then receive the several sums from the inspector, +who takes from them a ticket for the amount. Thus the whole of +these payments are made by a double system of balance, a very +small amount of bank-notes passing from hand to hand, and +scarcely any coin. + +174. It is difficult to form a satisfactory estimate of the +sums which daily pass through this operation: they fluctuate from +two millions to perhaps fifteen. About two millions and a half +may possibly be considered as something like an average, +requiring for its adjustment, perhaps, L200,000 in bank notes and +L20 in specie. By an agreement between the different bankers, all +checks which have the name of any firm written across them must +pass through the clearing house: consequently, if any such check +should be lost, the firm on which it is drawn would refuse to pay +it at the counter; a circumstance which adds greatly to the +convenience of commerce. + +The advantage of this system is such, that two meetings a day +have been recently established--one at twelve, the other at +three o'clock; but the payment of balances takes place once only, +at five o'clock. + +If all the private banks kept accounts with the Bank of +England, it would be possible to carry on the whole of these +transactions with a still smaller quantity of circulating medium. + +175. In reflecting on the facility with which these vast +transactions are accomplished--supposing, for the sake of +argument, that they form only the fourth part of the daily +transactions of the whole community--it is impossible not to be +struck with the importance of interfering as little as possible +with their natural adjustment. Each payment indicates a transfer +of property made for the benefit of both parties; and if it were +possible, which it is not, to place, by legal or other means, +some impediment in the way which only amounted to one-eighth per +cent, such a species of friction would produce a useless +expenditure of nearly four millions annually: a circumstance +which is deserving the attention of those who doubt the good +policy of the expense incurred by using the precious metals for +one portion of the currency of the country. + +176. One of the most obvious differences between a metallic +and a paper circulation is, that the coin can never, by any panic +or national danger, be reduced below the value of bullion in +other civilized countries; whilst a paper currency may, from the +action of such causes, totally lose its value. Both metallic and +paper money, it is true, may be depreciated, but with very +different effects. + +1. Depreciation of coin. The state may issue coin of the same +nominal value, but containing only half the original quantity of +gold, mixed with some cheap alloy; but every piece so issued +bears about with it internal evidence of the amount of the +depreciation: it is not necessary that every successive +proprietor should analyse the new coin; but a few having done so, +its intrinsic worth becomes publicly known. Of course the coin +previously in circulation is now more valuable as bullion, and +quickly disappears. All future purchases adjust themselves to the +new standard, and prices are quickly doubled; but all past +contracts also are vitiated, and all persons to whom money is +owing, if compelled to receive payment in the new coin, are +robbed of one-half of their debt, which is confiscated for the +benefit of the debtor. + +2. Depreciation of paper. The depreciation of paper money +follows a different course. If, by any act of the Government +paper is ordained to be a legal tender for debts, and, at the +same time, ceases to be exchangeable for coin, those who have +occasion to purchase of foreigners, who are not compelled to take +the notes, will make some of their payments in gold; and if the +issue of paper, unchecked by the power of demanding the gold it +represents, be continued, the whole of the coin will soon +disappear. But the public, who are obliged to take the notes, are +unable, by any internal evidence, to detect the extent of their +depreciation; it varies with the amount in circulation, and may +go on till the notes shall be worth little more than the paper on +which they are printed. During the whole of this time every +creditor is suffering to an extent which he cannot measure; and +every bargain is rendered uncertain in its advantage, by the +continually changing value of the medium through which it is +conducted. This calamitous course has actually been run in +several countries: in France, it reached nearly its extreme limit +during the existence of assignats. We have ourselves experienced +some portion of the misery it creates; but by a return to sounder +principles, have happily escaped the destruction and ruin which +always attends the completion of that career. + +177. Every person in a civilized country requires, according +to his station in life, the use of a certain quantity of money, +to make the ordinary purchases of the articles which he consumes. +The same individual pieces of coin, it is true, circulate again +and again, in the same district: the identical piece of silver, +received by the workman on Saturday night, passing through the +hands of the butcher, the baker, and the small tradesman, is, +perhaps, given by the latter to the manufacturer in exchange for +his check, and is again paid into the hands of the workman at the +end of the succeeding week. Any deficiency in this supply of +money is attended with considerable inconvenience to all parties. +If it be only in the smaller coins, the first effect is a +difficulty in procuring small change; then a disposition in the +shopkeepers to refuse change unless a purchase to a certain +amount be made; and, finally, a premium in money will be given +for changing the larger denominations of coin. + +Thus money itself varies in price, when measured by other +money in larger masses: and this effect takes place whether the +circulating medium is metallic or of paper. These effects have +constantly occurred, and particularly during the late war; and, +in order to relieve it, silver tokens for various sums were +issued by the Bank of England. + +The inconvenience and loss arising from a deficiency of small +money fall with greatest weight on the classes whose means are +least; for the wealthier buyers can readily procure credit for +their small purchases, until their bill amounts to one of the +larger coins. + +178. As money, when kept in a drawer, produces nothing, few +people, in any situation of life, will keep, either in coin or in +notes, more than is immediately necessary for their use; when, +therefore, there are no profitable modes of employing money, a +superabundance of paper will return to the source from whence it +issued, and an excess of coin will be converted into bullion and +exported. + +179. Since the worth of all property is measured by money, it +is obviously conducive to the general welfare of the community, +that fluctuations in its value should be rendered as small and as +gradual as possible. + +The evils which result from sudden changes in the value of +money will perhaps become more sensible, if we trace their +effects in particular instances. Assuming, as we are quite at +liberty to do, an extreme case, let us suppose three persons, +each possessing a hundred pounds: one of these, a widow advanced +in years, and who, by the advice of her friends, purchases with +that sum an annuity of twenty pounds a year during her life: and +let the two others be workmen, who, by industry and economy, have +each saved a hundred pounds out of their wages; both these latter +persons proposing to procure machines for calendering, and to +commence that business. One of these invests his money in a +savings' bank; intending to make his own calendering machine, and +calculating that he shall expend twenty pounds in materials, and +the remaining eighty in supporting himself and in paying the +workmen who assist him in constructing it. The other workman, +meeting with a machine which he can buy for two hundred pounds, +agrees to pay for it a hundred pounds immediately, and the +remainder at the end of a twelvemonth. Let us now imagine some +alteration to take place in the currency, by which it is +depreciated one-half: prices soon adjust themselves to the new +circumstances, and the annuity of the widow, though nominally of +the same amount, will, in reality, purchase only half the +quantity of the necessaries of life which it did before. The +workman who had placed his money in the savings' bank, having +perhaps purchased ten pounds' worth of materials, and expended +ten pounds in labour applied to them, now finds himself, by this +alteration in the currency, possessed nominally of eighty pounds, +but in reality of a sum which will purchase only half the labour +and materials required to finish his machine; and he can neither +complete it, from want of capital, nor dispose of what he has +already done in its unfinished state for the price it has cost +him. In the meantime, the other workman, who had incurred a debt +of a hundred pounds in order to complete the purchase of his +calendering machine, finds that the payments he receives for +calendering, have, like all other prices, doubled, in consequence +of the depreciation of the currency; and he has therefore, in +fact, obtained his machine for one hundred and fifty pounds. +Thus, without any fault or imprudence, and owing to circumstances +over which they have no control, the widow is reduced almost to +starve; one workman is obliged to renounce, for several years, +his hope of becoming a master; and another, without any superior +industry or skill, but in fact, from having made, with reference +to his circumstances, rather an imprudent bargain, finds himself +unexpectedly relieved from half his debt, and the possessor of a +valuable source of profit; whilst the former owner of the +machine, if he also has invested the money arising from its sale +in the savings' bank, finds his property suddenly reduced +one-half. + +180. These evils, to a greater or less extent, attend every +change in the value of the currency; and the importance of +preserving it as far as possible unaltered in value, cannot be +too strongly impressed upon all classes of the community. + +NOTES: + +1. In Russia platinum has been employed for coin; and it +possesses a peculiarity which deserves notice. Platinum cannot be +melted in our furnaces, and is chiefly valuable in commerce when +in the shape of ingots, from which it may be forged into useful +forms. But when a piece of platinum is cut into two parts, it +cannot easily be reunited except by means of a chemical process, +in which both parts are dissolved in an acid. Hence, when +platinum coin is too abundant, it cannot, like gold, be reduced +into masses by melting, but must pass through an expensive +process to render it useful. + + + +Chapter 15 + +On the Influence of Verification on Price + +181. The money price of an article at any given period is +usually stated to depend upon the proportion between the supply +and the demand. The average price of the same article during a +long period, is said to depend, ultimately, on the power of +producing and selling it with the ordinary profits of capital. +But these principles, although true in their general sense, are +yet so often modified by the influence of others, that it becomes +necessary to examine a little into the disturbing forces. + +182. With respect to the first of these propositions, it may +be observed, that the cost of any article to the purchaser +includes, besides the ratio of the supply to the demand, another +element, which, though often of little importance, is, in many +cases, of great consequence. The cost, to the purchaser, is the +price he pays for any article, added to the cost of verifying the +fact of its having that degree of goodness for which he +contracts. In some cases the goodness of the article is evident +on mere inspection: and in those cases there is not much +difference of price at different shops. The goodness of loaf +sugar, for instance, can be discerned almost at a glance; and the +consequence is, that the price is so uniform, and the profit upon +it so small, that no grocer is at all anxious to sell it; whilst, +on the other hand, tea, of which it is exceedingly difficult to +judge, and which can be adulterated by mixture so as to deceive +the skill even of a practised eye, has a great variety of +different prices, and is that article which every grocer is most +anxious to sell to his customers. + +The difficulty and expense of verification are, in some +instances, so great, as to justify the deviation from +well-established principles. Thus it is a general maxim that +Government can purchase any article at a cheaper rate than that +at which they can manufacture it themselves. But it has +nevertheless been considered more economical to build extensive +flour-mills (such are those at Deptford), and to grind their own +corn, than to verify each sack of purchased flour, and to employ +persons in devising methods of detecting the new modes of +adulteration which might be continually resorted to. + +183. Some years since, a mode of preparing old clover and +trefoil seeds by a process called doctoring, became so prevalent +as to excite the attention of the House of Commons. It appeared +in evidence before a committee, that the old seed of the white +clover was doctored by first wetting it slightly, and then drying +it with the fumes of burning sulphur, and that the red clover +seed had its colour improved by shaking it in a sack with a small +quantity of indigo; but this being detected after a time, the +doctors then used a preparation of logwood, fined by a little +copperas, and sometimes by verdigris; thus at once improving the +appearance of the old seed, and diminishing, if not destroying, +its vegetative power already enfeebled by age. Supposing no +injury had resulted to good seed so prepared, it was proved that +from the improved appearance, the market price would be enhanced +by this process from five to twenty-five shillings a hundred +weight. But the greatest evil arose from the circumstance of +these processes rendering old and worthless seed equal in +appearance to the best. One witness had tried some doctored seed, +and found that not above one grain in a hundred grew, and that +those which did vegetate died away afterwards; whilst about +eighty or ninety per cent of good seed usually grows. The seed so +treated was sold to retail dealers in the country, who of course +endeavoured to purchase at the cheapest rate, and from them it +got into the hands of the farmers; neither of these classes being +capable of distinguishing the fraudulent from the genuine seed. +Many cultivators, in consequence, diminished their consumption of +the article; and others were obliged to pay a higher price to +those who had skill to distinguish the mixed seed, and who had +integrity and character to prevent them from dealing in it. + +184. In the Irish flax trade, a similar example of the high +price paid for verification occurs. It is stated in the report of +the committee, "That the natural excellent quality of Irish flax, +as contrasted with foreign or British, has been admitted." Yet +from the evidence before that committee it appears that Irish +flax sells, in the market, from 1d. to 2d. per pound less than +other flax of equal or inferior quality. Part of this difference +of price arises from negligence in its preparation, but a part +also from the expense of ascertaining that each parcel is free +from useless matter to add to its weight: this appears from the +evidence of Mr J. Corry, who was, during twenty-seven years, +Secretary to the Irish Linen-Board:-- + +"The owners of the flax, who are almost always people in the lower +classes of life, believe that they can best advance their own +interests by imposing on the buyers. Flax being sold by weight, +various expedients are used to increase it; and every expedient +is injurious, particularly the damping of it; a very common +practice, which makes the flax afterwards heat. The inside of +every bundle (and the bundles all vary in bulk) is often full of +pebbles, or dirt of various kinds, to increase the weight. In +this state it is purchased, and exported to Great Britain. The +natural quality of Irish flax is admitted to be not inferior to +that produced by any foreign country; and yet the flax of every +foreign country, imported into Great Britain, obtains a +preference amongst the purchasers, because the foreign flax is +brought to the British market in a cleaner and more regular +state. The extent and value of the sales of foreign flax in Great +Britain can be seen by reference to the public accounts; and I am +induced to believe, that Ireland, by an adequate extension of her +flax tillage, and having her flax markets brought under good +regulations, could, without encroaching in the least degree upon +the quantity necessary for her home consumption, supply the whole +of the demand of the British market, to the exclusion of the +foreigners." + +185. The lace trade affords other examples; and, in enquiring +into the complaints made to the House of Commons by the framework +knitters, the committee observe, that, "It is singular that the +grievance most complained of one hundred and fifty years ago, +should, in the present improved state of the trade, be the same +grievance which is now most complained of: for it appears, by the +evidence given before your committee, that all the witnesses +attribute the decay of the trade more to the making of fraudulent +and bad articles, than to the war, or to any other cause." And it +is shewn by the evidence, that a kind of lace called "single-press" +was manufactured, which, although good to the eye, became nearly +spoiled in washing by the slipping of the threads; that not one +person in a thousand could distinguish the difference between +"single-press" and "double-press" lace; and that, even workmen and +manufacturers were obliged to employ a magnifying glass for that +purpose; and that, in another similar article, called "warp lace," +such aid was essential. It was also stated by one witness, that + +"The trade had not yet ceased, excepting in those places where the +fraud had been discovered; and from those places no orders are +now sent for any sort of Nottingham lace, the credit being +totally ruined." + +186. In the stocking trade similar frauds have been practised. It +appeared in evidence, that stockings were made of uniform width +from the knee down to the ankle, and being wetted and stretched +on frames at the calf, they retained their shape when dry, but +that the purchaser could not discover the fraud until, after the +first washing, the stockings hung like bags about his ankles. + +187. In the watch trade the practice of deceit, in forging +the marks and names of respectable makers, has been carried to a +great extent both by natives and foreigners; and the effect upon +our export trade has been most injurious, as the following +extract from the evidence before a committee of the House of +Commons will prove:-- + +"Question. How long have you been in the trade? +Answer. Nearly thirty years. +Question. The trade is at present much depressed? +Answer. Yes, sadly. +Question. What is your opinion of the cause of that distress? +Answer. I think it is owing to a number of watches that have been +made so exceedingly bad that they will hardly look at them in the +foreign markets; all with a handsome outside show, and the works +hardly fit for anything. +Question. Do you mean to say, that all the watches made in this +country are of that description? +Answer. No; only a number which are made up by some of the Jews, +and other low manufacturers. I recollect something of the sort +years ago, of a falloff of the East India work, owing to there +being a number of handsome-looking watches sent out, for +instance, with hands on and figures, as if they shewed seconds, +and had not any work regular to shew the seconds: the hand went +round, but it was not regular. +Question. They had no perfect movements? +Answer. No, they had not; that was a long time since, and we had +not any East India work for a long time afterwards." + +In the home market, inferior but showy watches are made at a +cheap rate, which are not warranted by the maker to go above half +an hour; about the time occupied by the Jew pedlar in deluding +his country customer. + +188. The practice, in retail linen-drapers' shops, of calling +certain articles yard wide when the real width is perhaps, only +seven-eighths or three-quarters, arose at first from fraud, which +being detected, custom was pleaded in its defence: but the result +is, that the vender is constantly obliged to measure the width of +his goods in the customer's presence. In all these instances the +object of the seller is to get a higher price than his goods +would really produce if their quality were known; and the +purchaser, if not himself a skilful judge (which rarely happens +to be the case), must pay some person, in the shape of an +additional money price, who has skill to distinguish, and +integrity to furnish, articles of the quality agreed on. But as +the confidence of persons in their own judgement is usually +great, large numbers will always flock to the cheap dealer, who +thus, attracting many customers from the honest tradesman, +obliges him to charge a higher price for his judgement and +character than, without such competition, he could afford to do. + +189. There are few things which the public are less able to +judge of than the quality of drugs; and when these are compounded +into medicines it is scarcely possible, even for medical men, to +decide whether pure or adulterated ingredients have been +employed. This circumstance, concurring with the present +injudicious mode of paying for medical assistance, has produced a +curious effect on the price of medicines. Apothecaries, instead +of being paid for their services and skill, are remunerated by +being allowed to place a high charge upon their medicines, which +are confessedly of very small pecuniary value. The effect of such +a system is an inducement to prescribe more medicine than is +necessary; and in fact, even with the present charges, the +apothecary, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, cannot be +fairly remunerated unless the patient either takes, or pays for, +more physic than he really requires. The apparent extravagance of +the charge of eighteen pence for a two-ounce phial(1*) of +medicine, is obvious to many who do not reflect on the fact that +a great part of the charge is, in reality, payment for the +exercise of professional skill. As the same charge is made by the +apothecary, whether he attends the patient or merely prepares the +prescription of a physician, the chemist and druggist soon +offered to furnish the same commodity at a greatly diminished +price. But the eighteen pence charged by the apothecary might +have been fairly divided into two parts, three pence for medicine +and bottle, and fifteen pence for attendance. The chemist, +therefore, who never attends his customers, if he charges only a +shilling for the same medicine, realizes a profit of 200 or 300 +per cent upon its value. This enormous profit has called into +existence a multitude of competitors; and in this instance the +impossibility of verifying has, in a great measure, counteracted +the beneficial effects of competition. The general adulteration +of drugs, even at the extremely high price at which they are +retailed as medicine, enables those who are supposed to sell them +in an unadulterated state to make large profits, whilst the same +evil frequently disappoints the expectation, and defeats the +skill, of the most eminent physician. + +It is difficult to point out a remedy for this evil without +suggesting an almost total change in the system of medical +practice. If the apothecary were to charge for his visits, and to +reduce his medicines to one-fourth or one-fifth of their present +price, he would still have an interest in procuring the best +drugs, for the sake of his own reputation or skill. Or if the +medical attendant, who is paid more highly for his time, were to +have several pupils, he might himself supply the medicines +without a specific charge, and his pupils would derive +improvement from compounding them, as well as from examining the +purity of the drugs he would purchase. The public would gain +several advantages by this arrangement. In the first place, it +would be greatly for the interest of the medical practitioner to +have the best drugs; it would be in his interest also not to give +more physic than needful; and it would enable him, through some +of his more advanced pupils, to watch more frequently the changes +of any malady. + +190. There are many articles of hardware which it is +impossible for the purchaser to verify at the time of purchase, +or even afterwards, without defacing them. Plated harness and +coach furniture may be adduced as examples: these are usually of +wrought iron covered with silver, owing their strength to the one +and a certain degree of permanent beauty to the other metal. Both +qualities are, occasionally, much impaired by substituting cast- +for wrought-iron, and by plating with soft solder (tin and lead) +instead of with hard solder (silver and brass). The loss of +strength is the greatest evil in this case; for cast iron, though +made for this purpose more tough than usual by careful annealing, +is still much weaker than wrought-iron, and serious accidents +often arise from harness giving way. In plating with soft +solder, a very thin plate of silver is made to cover the iron, +but it is easily detached, particularly by a low degree of heat. +Hard soldering gives a better coat of silver, which is very +firmly attached, and is not easily injured unless by a very high +degree of heat. The inferior can be made to look nearly as well +as the better article, and the purchaser can scarcely discover +the difference without cutting into it. + +191. The principle that price, at any moment, is dependent on +the relation of the supply to the demand, is true to the full +extent only when the whole supply is in the hands of a very large +number of small holders, and the demand is caused by the wants of +another set of persons, each of whom requires only a very small +quantity. And the reason appears to be, that it is only in such +circumstances that a uniform average can be struck between the +feelings, the passions, the prejudices, the opinions, and the +knowledge, of both parties. If the supply, or present stock in +hand, be entirely in the possession of one person, he will +naturally endeavour to put such a price upon it as shall produce +by its sale the greatest quantity of money; but he will be guided +in this estimate of the price at which he will sell, both by the +knowledge that increased price will cause a diminished +consumption, and by the desire to realize his profit before a new +supply shall reach the market from some other quarter. If, +however, the same stock is in the hands of several dealers, there +will be an immediate competition between them, arising partly +from their different views of the duration of the present state +of supply, and partly from their own peculiar circumstances with +respect to the employment of their capital. + +192. The expense of ascertaining that the price charged is +that which is legally due is sometimes considerable. The +inconvenience which this verification produces in the case of +parcels sent by coaches is very great. The time lost in +recovering an overcharge generally amounts to so many times the +value of the sum recovered, that it is but rarely resorted to. It +seems worthy of consideration whether it would not be a +convenience to the public if government were to undertake the +general conveyance of parcels somewhat on the same system with +that on which the post is now conducted. The certainty of their +delivery, and the absence of all attempt at overcharge, would +render the prohibition of rival carriers unnecessary. Perhaps an +experiment might be made on this subject by enlarging the weight +allowed to be sent by the two-penny post, and by conveying works +in sheets by the general post. + +This latter suggestion would be of great importance to +literature, and consequently to the circulation of knowledge. As +the post-office regulations stand at present, it constantly +happens that persons who have an extensive reputation for +science, receive by post, from foreign countries, works, or parts +of works, for which they are obliged to pay a most extravagant +rate of postage, or else refuse to take in some interesting +communication. In France and Germany, printed sheets of paper are +forwarded by post at a very moderate expense, and it is fit that +the science and literature of England should be equally favoured. + +193. It is important, if possible, always to connect the name +of the workman with the work he has executed: this secures for +him the credit or the blame he may justly deserve; and +diminishes, in some cases, the necessity of verification. The +extent to which this is carried in literary works, published in +America, is remarkable. In the translation of the Mecanique +Celeste by Mr Bowditch, not merely the name of the printer, but +also those of the compositors, are mentioned in the work. + +194. Again, if the commodity itself is of a perishable +nature, such, for example, as a cargo of ice imported into the +port of London from Norway a few summers since, then time will +supply the place of competition; and, whether the article is in +the possession of one or of many persons, it will scarcely reach +a monopoly price. The history of cajeput oil during the last few +months, offers a curious illustration of the effect of opinion +upon price. In July of last year, 1831, cajeput oil was sold, +exclusive of duty, at 7 d. per ounce. The disease which had +ravaged the East was then supposed to be approaching our shores, +and its proximity created alarm. At this period, the oil in +question began to be much talked of, as a powerful remedy in that +dreadful disorder; and in September it rose to the price of 3s. +and 4s. the ounce. In October there were few or no sales: but in +the early part of November, the speculations in this substance +reached their height, and between the 1st and the 15th it +realized the following prices: 3s. 9d., 5s., 6s. 6d., 7s. 6d., +8s., 9s., 10s., 10s. 6d., 11s. After 15 November, the holders of +cajeput oil were anxious to sell at much lower rates; and in +December a fresh arrival was offered by public sale at 5s., and +withdrawn, being sold afterwards, as it was understood, by +private contract, at 4s. or 4s. 6d. per oz. Since that time, 1s. +6d. and 1s. have been realized; and a fresh arrival, which is +daily expected (March, 1832) will probably reduce it below the +price of July. Now it is important to notice, that in November, +the time of greatest speculation, the quantity in the market was +held by few persons, and that it frequently changed hands, each +holder being desirous to realize his profit. The quantity +imported since that time has also been considerable.(2*) + +195. The effect of the equalization of price by an increased +number of dealers, may be observed in the price of the various +securities sold at the Stock Exchange. The number of persons who +deal in the 3 per cent stock being large, any one desirous of +selling can always dispose of his stock at one-eighth per cent +under the market price; but those who wish to dispose of bank +stock, or of any other securities of more limited circulation, +are obliged to make a sacrifice of eight or ten times this amount +upon each hundred pounds value. + +196. The frequent speculations in oil, tallow, and other +commodities, which must occur to the memory of most of my +readers, were always founded on the principle of purchasing up +all the stock on hand, and agreeing for the purchase of the +expected arrivals; thus proving the opinion of capitalists to be, +that a larger average price may be procured by the stock being +held by few persons. + +NOTES: + +1. Apothecaries frequently purchase these phials at the old +bottle warehouses at ten shillings per gross; so that when their +servant has washed them, the cost of the phial is nearly one +penny. + +2. I have understood that the price of camphor, at the same time, +suffered similar changes. + + + +Chapter 16 + +On the Influence of Durability on Price + +197. Having now considered the circumstances that modify what +may be called the momentary amount of price, we must next examine +a principle which seems to have an effect on its permanent +average. The durability of any commodity influences its cost in a +permanent manner. We have already stated that what may be called +the momentary price of any commodity depends upon the proportion +existing between the supply and demand, and also upon the cost of +verification. The average price, during a long period, will +depend upon the labour required for producing and bringing it to +market, as well as upon the average supply and demand; but it +will also be influenced by the durability of the article +manufactured. + +Many things in common use are substantially consumed in +using: a phosphorus match, articles of food, and a cigar, are +examples of this description. Some things after use become +inapplicable to their former purposes, as paper which has been +printed upon: but it is yet available for the cheesemonger or the +trunk-maker. Some articles, as pens, are quickly worn out by use; +and some are still valuable after a long continued wear. There +are others, few perhaps in number, which never wear out; the +harder precious stones, when well cut and polished, are of this +later class: the fashion of the gold or silver mounting in which +they are set may vary with the taste of the age, and such +ornaments are constantly exposed for sale as second-hand, but the +gems themselves, when removed from their supports, are never so +considered. A brilliant which has successively graced the necks +of a hundred beauties, or glittered for a century upon patrician +brows, is weighed by the diamond merchant in the same scale with +another which has just escaped from the wheel of the lapidary, +and will be purchased or sold by him at the same price per carat. +The great mass of commodities is intermediate in its character +between these two extremes, and the periods of respective +duration are very various. It is evident that the average price +of those things which are consumed in the act of using them, can +never be less than that of the labour of bringing them to market. +They may for a short time be sold for less, but under such +circumstances their production must soon cease altogether. On the +other hand, if an article never wears out, its price may continue +permanently below the cost of the labour expended in producing +it; and the only consequence will be, that no further production +will take place: its price will continue to be regulated by the +relation of the supply to the demand; and should that at any +aftertime rise, for a considerable period, above the cost of +production, it will be again produced. + +198. Articles become old from actual decay, or the wearing +out of their parts; from improved modes of constructing them; or +from changes in their form and fashion, required by the varying +taste of the age. In the two latter cases, their utility is but +little diminished; and, being less sought after by those who have +hitherto employed them, they are sold at a reduced price to a +class of society rather below that of their former possessors. +Many articles of furniture, such as well-made tables and chairs, +are thus found in the rooms of those who would have been quite +unable to have purchased them when new; and we find constantly, +even in the houses of the more opulent, large looking-glasses +which have passed successively through the hands of several +possessors, changing only the fashion of their frames; and in +some instances even this alteration is omitted, an additional +coat of gilding saving them from the character of being +second-hand. Thus a taste for luxuries is propagated downwards in +society', and, after a short period, the numbers who have +acquired new wants become sufficient to excite the ingenuity of +the manufacturer to reduce the cost of supplying them, whilst he +is himself benefited by the extended scale of demand. + +199. There is a peculiarity in looking-glasses with reference +to the principle just mentioned. The most frequent occasion of +injury to them arises from accidental violence; and the +peculiarity is, that, unlike most other articles, when broken +they are still of some value. If a large mirror is accidentally +cracked, it is immediately cut into two or more smaller ones, +each of which may be perfect. If the degree of violence is so +great as to break it into many fragments, these smaller pieces +may be cut into squares for dressing-glasses; and if the +silvering is injured, it can either be resilvered or used as +plate-glass for glazing windows. The addition from our +manufactories to the stock of plate-glass in the country is +annually about two hundred and fifty thousand square feet. It +would be very difficult to estimate the quantity annually +destroyed or exported, but it is probably small; and the effect +of these continual additions is seen in the diminished price and +increased consumption of the article. Almost all the better order +of shop fronts are now glazed with it. If it were quite +indestructible, the price would continually diminish; and unless +an increased demand arose from new uses, or from a greater number +of customers, a single manufactory, unchecked by competition, +would ultimately be compelled to shut up, driven out of the +market by the permanance of its own productions. + +200. The metals are in some degree permanent, although +several of them are employed in such forms that they are +ultimately lost. + +Copper is a metal of which a great proportion returns to use: +a part of that employed in sheathing ships and covering houses is +lost from corrosion; but the rest is generally remelted. Some is +lost in small brass articles, and some is consumed in the +formation of salts, Roman vitriol (sulphate of copper), verdigris +(acetate of copper), and verditer. + +Gold is wasted in gilding and in embroidering; but a portion +of this is recovered by burning the old articles. Some portion is +lost by the wear of gold, but, upon the whole, it possesses +considerable permanence. + +Iron. A proportion of this metal is wasted by oxidation, in +small nails, in fine wire; by the wear of tools, and of the tire +of wheels, and by the formation of some dyes: but much, both of +cast- and of wrought-iron, returns to use. + +Lead is wasted in great quantities. Some portion of that +which is used in pipes and in sheets for covering roofs returns +to the melting-pot; but large quantities are consumed in the form +of small shot, or sometimes in that of musket balls, litharge, +and red lead, for white and red paints, for glass-making, for +glazing pottery, and for sugar of lead (acetate of lead). + +Silver is rather a permanent metal. Some portion is consumed +in the wear of coin, in that of silver plate, and a portion in +silvering and embroidering. + +Tin. The chief waste of this metal arises from tinned iron; +some is lost in solder and in solutions for the dyers. + + + +Chapter 17 + +Of Price as Measured by Money + +201. The money price at which an article sells furnishes us +with comparatively little information respecting its value, if we +compare distant intervals of time and different countries; for +gold and silver, in which price is usually measured, are +themselves subject, like all other commodities, to changes in +value; nor is there any standard to which these variations can be +referred. The average price of a certain quality of different +manufactured articles, or of raw produce, has been suggested as a +standard; but a new difficulty then presents itself; for the +improved methods of producing such articles render their money +price extremely variable within very limited periods. The annexed +table will afford a striking instance of this kind of change +within a period of only twelve years. + + Prices of the following articles at Birmingham, in the +undermentioned years + + Description 1818 1824 1828 1830 + s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. + Anvils cwt 25 0 20 0 16 0 13 0 + Awls, polished, Liverpool gross 2 6 2 0 1 6 1 2 + Bed-screws, 6 inches long gross 18 0 15 0 6 0 5 0 + Bits, tinned. for bridles doz. 5 0 5 0 3 3 2 6 + Bolts for doors, 6 inches doz. 6 0 5 0 2 3 1 6 + Braces for carpenters, with 12 bits set 9 0 4 0 4 2 3 5 + Buttons, for coats gross 4 6 6 3 3 0 2 2 + Buttons, small, for waistcoats gross 2 6 2 0 1 2 0 8 + Candlesticks, 6 in., brass pair 2 1 1 2 0 1 7 1 2 + Curry-combs, six barred doz. 2 9 2 6 1 5 0 1 1 + Frying-pans cwt 25 0 21 0 18 0 16 0 + Gun-locks, single roller each 6 0 5 2 1 10 1 6 + Hammers. shoe, No. 0 doz. 6 9 3 9 3 0 2 9 + + + +Description 1818 1824 1828 1830 + s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. + Hinges, cast-butts, 1 inch doz. 0 10 0 71/2 0 31/4 0 21/4 + Knobs, brass, 2 inches for commodes doz. 4 0 3 6 1 6 1 2 + Latches for doors, bright thumb doz. 2 3 2 2 1 0 0 9 + Locks for doors, iron rim, 6 inches doz. 38 0 32 0 15 0 13 6 + Sad-irons and other castings cwt 22 6 20 0 14 0 11 6 + Shovel and tongs, fire-irons pair 1 0 1 0 0 9 0 6 + Spoons, tinned table gross 17 6 15 0 10 0 7 0 + Stirrups, plated pair 4 6 3 9 1 6 1 1 + Trace-chains cwt 28 0 25 0 19 6 16 6 + Trays, japanned tea, 30 inches each 4 6 3 0 2 0 1 5 + Vices for blacksmiths cwt 30 0 28 0 22 0 19 6 + Wire, brass lb. 1 10 1 4 1 0 0 9 + --, iron, No. 6 bund. 16 0 13 0 9 0 7 0 + + +202. I have taken some pains to assure myself of the accuracy +of the above table: at different periods of the years quoted the +prices may have varied; but I believe it may be considered as a +fair approximation. In the course of my enquiries I have been +favoured with another list, in which many of the same articles +occur, but in this last instance the prices quoted are separated +by an interval of twenty years. It is extracted from the books of +a highly respectable house at Birmingham; and the prices confirm +the accuracy of the former table, so far as they relate to the +articles which are found in that list. + + Prices of 1812 and 1832 + Reduction + per cent in + price of + Description 1812 1832 1812 + s. d. s. d. + + Anvils cwt 25 0 14 0 44 + Awls, Liverpool blades gross 3 6 1 0 71 + Candlesticks, iron, plain 3 103/4 2 31/2 41 + screwed 6 41/2 3 9 41 + Bed screws, 6 inch square head gross 7 6 4 6 40 + flat head gross 8 6 4 8 45 + Curry-combs, 6 barred dozen 4 01/2 1 0 75 + + Reduction + per cent in + price of + Description 1812 1832 1812 + s. d. s. d. + +Curry-combs, 8 barred dozen 5 51/2 1 5 74 + patent, 6 barred dozen 7 11/2 1 5 80 + 8 barred dozen 8 63/4 1 10 79 + Fire-irons, iron head, No. 1. 1 41/2 0 73/4 53 + No. 2 1 6 0 81/2 53 + No. 3 1 81/4 0 91/2 53 + No. 4 1 101/2 0 101/2 53 + Gun-locks, single roller each 7 21/2 1 11 73 + Locks, 1 1/4 brass, port. pad 16 0 2 6 85 + 2 1/2 inch 3 keyed till-locks each 2 2 0 9 65 + Shoe tacks gross 5 0 2 0 60 + Spoons, tinned, iron table gross 22 6 7 0 69 + Stirrups. com. tinned, 2 bar dozen 7 0 2 9 61 + Trace-chains, iron cwt 46 91/2 15 0 68 + + Prices of the principal materials, used in mines in Cornwall, at +different periods [I am indebited to Mr John Taylor for this +interesting table] + + ALL DELIVERED AT THE MINES + + Description 1800 1810 1820 1830 1832 + s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. + Coals wey 81 7 85 5 53 4 51 0 40 0 + Timber (balk) foot 2 0 4 0 1 5 1 0 0 10 + (oak) foot 3 31/2 3 0 3 6 3 3 + Ropes cwt 66 0 84 0 48 6 40 0 40 0 + Iron (common bar) cwt 20 6 14 6 11 0 7 0 6 6 + Common castings cwt 16 0 15 0 8 0 6 6 + Pumps cwt 16s. & 17s. 17s. & 18s. 12s. & 15s. 6 6 6 10 + Gunpowder 100 lbs. 114 2 117 6 68 0 52 6 49 0 + Candles 9 3 10 0 8 9 5 11 4 10 + Tallow cwt 72 0 84 0 65 8 52 6 43 0 + Leather lb. 2 4 2 3 24 22 21 + Blistered steel cwt 50 0 44 0 38 0 + 2s. nails cwt 32 0 28 6 22 0 17 0 16 6 + + +203. I cannot omit availing myself of this opportunity of +calling the attention of the manufacturers, merchants, and +factors, in all our manufacturing and commercial towns, to the +great importance, both for their own interests, and for that of +the population to which their capital gives employment, of +collecting with care such averages from the actual sales +registered in their books. Nor, perhaps, would it be without its +use to suggest, that such averages would be still more valuable +if collected from as many different quarters as possible; that +the quantity of the goods from which they are deduced, together +with the greatest deviations from the mean, ought to be given; +and that if a small committee were to undertake the task, it +would give great additional weight to the information. Political +economists have been reproached with too small a use of facts, +and too large an employment of theory. If facts are wanting, let +it be remembered that the closet-philosopher is unfortunately too +little acquainted with the admirable arrangements of the factory, +and that no class of persons can supply so readily, and with so +little sacrifice of time, the data on which all the reasonings of +political economists are founded, as the merchant and +manufacturer; and, unquestionably, to no class are the deductions +to which they give rise so important. Nor let it be feared that +erroneous deductions may be made from such recorded facts: the +errors which arise from the absence of facts are far more +numerous and more durable than those which result from unsound +reasoning respecting true data. + +204. The great diminution in price of the articles here +enumerated may have arisen from several causes: 1. The alteration +in the value of the currency. 2. The increased value of gold in +consequence of the increased demand for coin. The first of these +causes may have had some influence, and the second may have had a +very small effect upon the two first quotations of prices, but +none at all upon the two latter ones. 3. The diminished rate of +profit produced by capital however employed. This may be +estimated by the average price of three per cents at the periods +stated. 4. The diminished price of the raw materials out of which +these articles were manufactured. The raw material is principally +brass and iron, and the reduction upon it may, in some measure, +be estimated by the diminished price of iron and brass wire, in +the cost of which articles, the labour bears a less proportion +than it does in many of the others. 5. The smaller quantity of +raw material employed, and perhaps, in some instances, an +inferior, quality of workmanship. 6. The improved means by which +the same effect was produced by diminished labour. + +205. In order to afford the means of estimating the influence +of these several causes, the following table is subjoined: + + 1812 1818 1824 1828 1830 1832 + Average Price of L s d. L s. d. L s d L s. d L s d L s. d + Gold. per oz 4 15 6 4 0 3 17 61/2 3 17 7 3 17 91/2 3 17 10 1/2 + Value of currency. per cent 79 5 3 97 6 10 100 100 100 100 + Price of 3 per cent consols 591/4 781/4 935/8 86 893/4 821/2 + Wheat per quarter 6 5 0 4 1 0 3 2 l 3 1 1 10 3 14 6 2 19 3 + + English pig iron at Birmingham 7 l0 0 6 7 6 6 l0 0 5 10 0 4 l0 0 + + English bar iron at Birmingham 10 10 0 9 10 0 7 15 0 6 0 0 5 0 0 + Swedish bar iron in London, excluding duty of from L4 to L6 10s +per ton 16 10 0 17 10 0 14 0 0 14 10 0 13 15 0 13 2 0 + + +As this table, if unaccompanied by any explanation, might +possibly lead to erroneous conclusions, I subjoin the following +observations, for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr +Tooke, who may yet, I hope, be induced to continue his valuable +work on High and Low Prices, through the important period which +has elapsed since its publication. + +'The table commences with 1812, and exhibits a great falling +off in the price of wheat and iron coincidently with a fall in +the price of gold, and leading to the inference of cause and +effect. Now, as regards wheat, it so happened that in 1812 it +reached its highest price in consequence of a series of bad +harvests, when relief by importation was difficult and enormously +expensive. In December, 1813, whilst the price of gold had risen +to L5, the price of wheat had fallen to 73s., or 50 per cent +under what it had been in the spring of 1812; proving clearly +that the two articles were under the influence of opposite +causes. + +'Again, in 1812, the freight and insurance on Swedish iron +were so much higher than at present as to account for nearly the +whole of the difference of price: and in 1818 there had been an +extensive speculation which had raised the price of all iron, so +that a part of the subsequent decline was a mere reaction from a +previously unfounded elevation. More recently, in 1825, there was +a great speculative rise in the article, which served as a strong +stimulus to increased production: this, aided by improved power +of machinery, has proceeded to such an extent as fully to account +for the fall of price.' + +To these reflections I will only add, that the result of my +own observation leads me to believe that by far the most +influential of these causes has been the invention of cheaper +modes of manufacturing. The extent to which this can be carried, +while a profit can yet be realized at the reduced price, is truly +astonishing, as the following fact, which rests on good +authority, will prove. Twenty years since, a brass knob for the +locks of doors was made at Birmingham; the price, at that time, +being 13s. 4d. per dozen. The same article is now manufactured, +having the same weight of metal, and an equal, or in fact a +slightly superior finish, at 1s. 9 1/4d. per dozen. One +circumstance which has produced this economy in the manufacture +is, that the lathe on which these knobs are finished is now +turned by a steam-engine; so that the workman, relieved from that +labour, can make them twenty times as fast as he did formerly. + +206. The difference of price of the same article, when of +various dimensions at different periods in the same country--and +in different countries--is curiously contrasted in the annexed +table. + + Comparative price of plate glass, at the manufactories of +London, Paris, Berlin, and Petersburg + + DIMENSIONS LONDON PARIS BERLIN PETERSBURG + Height Breadth 1771 1794 1832 1825 1835 1828 1825 + in inches in inches L s d L s d L s d L s d L s d L s d L s d + 16 16 0103 0101 0176 087 076 081 0410 + 30 20 146 232 2610 11610 1710 0106 1210 + 50 30 24 2 4 11 5 0 6 12 10 9 0 5 5 0 3 8 13 0 5 15 0 + 60 40 67 14 10 27 0 0 13 9 6 22 7 5 10 4 3 21 18 0 12 9 0 + 76 40 43 6 0 19 2 9 36 4 5 14 17 5 35 2 11 17 5 0 + 90 50 84 8 0 34 12 9 71 3 8 28 13 4 33 18 7 + 100 75 275 0 0 74 5 10 210 13 3 70 9 7 + 120 75 97 15 9 354 3 2 98 3 10 + + +The price of silvering these plates is twenty per cent on the +cost price for English glass; ten per cent on the cost price for +Paris plates; and twelve and a half on those of Berlin. + +The following table shews the dimensions and price, when +silvered, of the largest plates of glass ever made by the British +Plate Glass Company, which are now at their warehouse in London: + +Height Breadth Price when silvered + Inches Inches L s. d. + + 132 84 200 8 0 + 146 81 220 7 0 + 149 84 239 1 6 + 131 83 239 10 7 + 160 80 246 15 4 + + +The prices of the largest glass in the Paris lists when +silvered, and reduced to English measure, were: + +Year Inches Inches Price when silvered + L s. d. + 1825 128 80 629 12 0 + 1835 128 80 136 19 0 + + +207. If we wish to compare the value of any article at +different periods of time, it is clear that neither any one +substance, nor even the combination of all manufactured goods, +can furnish us with an invariable unit by which to form our scale +of estimation. Mr Malthus has proposed for this purpose to +consider a day's labour of an agricultural labourer, as the unit +to which all value should be referred. Thus, if we wish to +compare the value of twenty yards of broad cloth in Saxony at the +present time, with that of the same kind and quantity of cloth +fabricated in England two centuries ago, we must find the number +of days' labour the cloth would have purchased in England at the +time mentioned, and compare it with the number of days' labour +which the same quantity of cloth will now purchase in Saxony. +Agricultural labour appears to have been selected, because it +exists in all countries, and employs a large number of persons, +and also because it requires a very small degree of previous +instruction. It seems, in fact, to be merely the exertion of a +man's physical force; and its value above that of a machine of +equal power arises from its portability, and from the facility of +directing its efforts to arbitrary and continually fluctuating +purposes. It may perhaps be worthy of enquiry, whether a more +constant average might not be deduced from combining with this +species of labour those trades which require but a moderate +exertion of skill and which likewise exist in all civilized +countries, such as those of the blacksmith and carpenter, +etc.(1*) In all such comparisons there is, however, another +element, which, though not essentially necessary, will yet add +much to our means of judging. + +It is an estimate of the quantity of that food on which the +labourer usually subsists, which is necessary for his daily +support, compared with the quantity which his daily wages will +purchase. + +208. The existence of a class of middlemen, between small +producers and merchants, is frequently advantageous to both +parties; and there are certain periods in the history of several +manufactures which naturally call that class of traders into +existence. There are also times when the advantage ceasing, the +custom of employing them also terminates; the middlemen, +especially when numerous, as they sometimes are in retail trades, +enhancing the price without equivalent good. Thus, in the recent +examination by the House of Commons into the state of the coal +trade, it appears that five-sixths of the London public is +supplied by a class of middlemen who are called in the trade +Brass plate coal merchants: these consist principally of +merchants' clerks, gentlemen's servants, and others, who have no +wharfs of their own, but merely give their orders to some true +coal merchant, who sends in the coals from his wharf: the brass +plate coal merchants, of course, receiving a commission for his +agency. + +209. In Italy this system is carried to a great extent +amongst the voituriers, or persons who undertake to convey +travellers. There are some possessed of greater fluency and a +more persuasive manner who frequent the inns where the English +resort, and who, as soon as they have made a bargain for the +conveyance of a traveller, go out amongst their countrymen and +procure some other voiturier to do the job for a considerably +smaller sum, themselves pocketing the difference. A short time +before the day of starting, the contractor appears before his +customer in great distress, regretting his inability to perform +the journey on account of the dangerous illness of a mother or +some relative, and requesting to have his cousin or brother +substituted for him. The English traveller rarely fails to +acquiesce in this change, and often praises the filial piety of +the rogue who has deceived him. + +NOTES: + +1. Much information for such an enquiry is to be found, for the +particular period to which it refers, in the Report of the +Committee of the House of Commons on Manufacturers' Employment, 2 +July, 1830. + + + +Chapter 18 + +Of Raw Materials + +210. Although the cost of any article may be reduced in its +ultimate analysis to the quantity of labour by which it was +produced; yet it is usual, in a certain state of the manufacture +of most substances, to call them by the term raw material. Thus +iron, when reduced from the ore and rendered malleable, is in a +state fitted for application to a multitude of useful purposes, +and is the raw material out of which most of our tools are made. +In this stage of its manufacture, but a moderate quantity of +labour has been expended on the substance; and it becomes an +interesting subject to trace the various proportions in which raw +material, in this sense of the term, and labour unite to +constitute the value of many of the productions of the arts. + +211. Gold leaf consists of a portion of the metal beaten out +to so great a degree of thinness, as to allow a greenish-blue +light to be transmitted through its pores. About 400 square +inches of this are sold, in the form of a small book containing +25 leaves of gold, for 1s. 6d. In this case, the raw material, or +gold, is worth rather less than two-thirds of the manufactured +article. In the case of silver leaf, the labour considerably +exceeds the value of the material. A book of fifty leaves, which +would cover above 1000 square inches, is sold for 1s. 3d. + +212. We may trace the relative influence of the two causes +above referred to, in the prices of fine gold chains made at +Venice. The sizes of these chains are known by numbers, the +smallest having been (in 1828) No. 1, and the numbers 2, 3, 4, +etc., progressively increasing in size. The following table shews +the numbers and the prices of those made at that time.(1*) The +first column gives the number by which the chain is known; the +second expresses the weight in grains of one inch in length of +each chain; the third column the number of links in the same +length; and the last expresses the price, in francs worth +tenpence each, of a Venetian braccio, or about two English feet +of each chain. + + Venetian gold chains + Price of a Venetian + Braccio, equal to + Weight of Number of links two feet 1/8 inch + No. one inch, in grains in one inch English + 0.44 98 to 100 60 francs + 1.56 92 40 + 1 1/2.77 88 26 + 2.99 84 20 + 3 1.46 72 20 + 4 1.61 64 21 + 5 2.09 64 23 + 6 2.61 60 24 + 7 3.36 56 27 + 8 3.65 56 29 + 9 3.72 56 32 + 10 5.35 50 34 + 24 9.71 32 60 + + +Amongst these chains, that numbered 0 and that numbered 24 +are exactly of the same price, although the quantity of gold in +the latter is twenty-two times as much as in the former. The +difficulty of making the smallest chain is so great, that the +women who make it cannot work above two hours at a time. As we +advance from the smaller chain, the proportionate value of the +work to the worth of the material becomes less and less, until at +the numbers 2 and 3, these two elements of cost balance each +other: after which, the difficulty of the work decreases, and the +value of the material increases. + +213. The quantity of labour expended on these chains is, +however, incomparably less than that which is applied in some of +the manufactures of iron. In the case of the smallest Venetian +chain the value of the labour is not above thirty times that of +the gold. The pendulum spring of a watch, which governs the +vibrations of the balance, costs at the retail price two pence, +and weighs fifteen one-hundredths of a grain, whilst the retail +price of a pound of the best iron, the raw material out of which +fifty thousand such springs are made, is exactly the same sum of +two pence. + +214. The comparative price of labour and of raw material +entering into the manufactures of France, has been ascertained +with so much care, in a memoir of M. A. M. Heron de Villefosse, +Recherches statistiques, sur les Metaux de France.(2*) that we +shall give an abstract of his results reduced to English +measures. The facts respecting the metals relate to the year +1825. + +In France the quantity of raw material which can be purchased +for L1, when manufactured into + + Silk goods is worth L2.37 + Broad cloth and woollens 2.15 + Hemp and cables 3.94 + Linen comprising thread laces 5.00 + Cotton goods 2.44 + + The price of pig-lead was L1 1s. per cwt; and lead of the value +of L1 sterling, became worth, when manufactured into + + Sheets or pipes of moderate dimensions L 1. 25 + White lead 2.60 + Ordinary printing characters 4.90 + The smallest type 28.30 + + The price of copper was L5 2s. per cwt. Copper worth L1 became +when manufactured into + + Copper sheeting L1.26 + Household utensils 4.77 + Common brass pins tinned 2.34 + Rolled into plates covered with 1/20 silver 3.56 + Woven into metallic cloth, each square inch of which contains +10,000 meshes 52.23 + + +The price of tin was L4 12s. per cwt. Tin worth L1 when +manufactured into + + Leaves for silvering glass became L1.73 + Household utensils 1.85 + + +Quicksilver cost L10 16s. per cwt. Quicksilver worth L1 when +manufactured into + + Vermilion of average quality became L1.81 + + +Metallic arsenic cost L1 4s. per cwt. Arsenic worth L1 when +manufactured into + + White oxide of arsenic became L1.83 + Sulphuret (orpiment) 4.26 + + +The price of cast-iron was 8s. per cwt. Cast-iron worth L1 +when manufactured into + + Household utensils became L2.00 + Machinery 4.00 + Ornamental. as buckles. etc 45.00 + Bracelets. figures, buttons. etc. 147.00 + + +Bar-iron cost L1 6s. per cwt. Bar-iron worth L1 when +manufactured into + + Agricultural instruments became L3.57 + Barrels, musket 9. 10 + Barrels of double-barrel guns. twisted and damasked 238.08 + Blades of penknives 657.14 + razor. cast steel 53.57 sabre, for cavalry. infantry, and +artillery. etc. from 9.25 to 16.07 + of table knives 35.70 + Buckles of polished steel, used as jewellery 896.66 + Clothiers' pins 8.03 + Door-latches and bolts from 4.85 to 8.50 + Files, common 2.55 flat, cast steel 20.44 + Horseshoes 2.55 + Iron, small slit, for nails 1. 10 + Metallic cloth, iron wire, No. 80 96.71 + Needles of various sizes from 17.33 to 70.85 + Reeds for weaving 3-4ths calico 21.87 + Saws (frame) of steel 5. 12 + for wood 14.28 +Scissors, finest kind 446.94 + Steel, cast 4.28 + cast, in sheets 6.25 + cemented 2.41 + natural 1.42 + Sword handles, polished steel 972.82 + Tinned iron from 2.04 to 2.34 + Wire, iron from 2. 14 to 10.71 + + +215. The following is stated by M. de Villefosse to be the +price of bar-iron at the forges of various countries, in January, +1825. + +per ton + L s. d. + France 26 10 0 + Belgium and Germany 16 14 0 + Sweden and Russia, at Stockholm and St Petersburg 13 13 0 + England, at Cardiff 10 1 0 + + The price of the article in 1832 was 5 0 0 + + +M. De Villefosse states, that in France bar-iron, made as it +usually is with charcoal, costs three times the price of the +cast-iron out of which it is made; whilst in England, where it is +usually made with coke, the cost is only twice the price of +cast-iron. + +216. The present price (1832) of lead in England is L13 per +ton, and the worth of L1 of it manufactured into + + Milled sheet lead becomes Ll.08 + + +The present price of cake copper is L84 per ton, and the +worth of L1 of it manufactured into + + Sheet copper becomes L1.11 + +NOTES: + +1. A still finer chain is now manufactured (1832). + +2. Memoires de l'Institut. 1826 + + + +Chapter 19 + +On the Division of Labour + +217. Perhaps the most important principle on which the +economy of a manufacture depends, is the division of labour +amongst the persons who perform the work. The first application +of this principle must have been made in a very early stage of +society, for it must soon have been apparent, that a larger +number of comforts and conveniences could be acquired by each +individual, if one man restricted his occupation to the art of +making bows, another to that of building houses, a third boats, +and so on. This division of labour into trades was not, however, +the result of an opinion that the general riches of the community +would be increased by such an arrangement; but it must have +arisen from the circumstance of each individual so employed +discovering that he himself could thus make a greater profit of +his labour than by pursuing more varied occupations. Society must +have made considerable advances before this principle could have +been carried into the workshop; for it is only in countries which +have attained a high degree of civilization, and in articles in +which there is a great competition amongst the producers, that +the most perfect system of the division of labour is to be +observed. The various principles on which the advantages of this +system depend, have been much the subject of discussion amongst +writers on political economy; but the relative importance of +their influence does not appear, in all cases, to have been +estimated with sufficient precision. It is my intention, in the +first instance, to state shortly those principles, and then to +point out what appears to me to have been omitted by those who +have previously treated the subject. + +218. 1. Of the time required for learning. It will readily be +admitted, that the portion of time occupied in the acquisition of +any art will depend on the difficulty of its execution; and that +the greater the number of distinct processes, the longer will be +the time which the apprentice must employ in acquiring it. Five +or seven years have been adopted, in a great many trades, as the +time considered requisite for a lad to acquire a sufficient +knowledge of his art, and to enable him to repay by his labour, +during the latter portion of his time, the expense incurred by +his master at its commencement. If, however, instead of learning +all the different processes for making a needle, for instance, +his attention be confined to one operation, the portion of time +consumed unprofitably at the commencement of his apprenticeship +will be small, and all the rest of it will be beneficial to his +master: and, consequently, if there be any competition amongst +the masters, the apprentice will be able to make better terms, +and diminish the period of his servitude. Again, the facility of +acquiring skill in a single process, and the early period of life +at which it can be made a source of profit, will induce a greater +number of parents to bring up their children to it; and from this +circumstance also, the number of workmen being increased, the +wages will soon fall. + +219. 2. Of waste of materials in learning. A certain quantity +of material will, in all cases, be consumed unprofitably, or +spoiled by every person who learns an art; and as he applies +himself to each new process, he will waste some of the raw +material, or of the partly manufactured commodity. But if each +man commit this waste in acquiring successively every process, +the quantity of waste will be much greater than if each person +confine his attention to one process; in this view of the +subject, therefore, the division of labour will diminish the +price of production. + +220. 3. Another advantage resulting from the division of +labour is, the saving of that portion of time which is always +lost in changing from one occupation to another. When the human +hand, or the human head, has been for some time occupied in any +kind of work, it cannot instantly change its employment with full +effect. The muscles of the limbs employed have acquired a +flexibility during their exertion, and those not in action a +stiffness during rest, which renders every change slow and +unequal in the commencement. Long habit also produces in the +muscles exercised a capacity for enduring fatigue to a much +greater degree than they could support under other circumstances. +A similar result seems to take place in any change of mental +exertion; the attention bestowed on the new subject not being so +perfect at first as it becomes after some exercise. + +221. 4. Change of tools. The employment of different tools in +the successive processes is another cause of the loss of time in +changing from one operation to another. If these tools are +simple, and the change is not frequent, the loss of time is not +considerable; but in many processes of the arts the tools are of +great delicacy, requiring accurate adjustment every time they are +used; and in many cases the time employed in adjusting bears a +large proportion to that employed in using the tool. The +sliding-rest, the dividing and the drilling-engine, are of this +kind; and hence, in manufactories of sufficient extent, it is +found to be good economy to keep one machine constantly employed +in one kind of work: one lathe, for example, having a screw +motion to its sliding-rest along the whole length of its bed, is +kept constantly making cylinders; another, having a motion for +equalizing the velocity of the work at the point at which it +passes the tool, is kept for facing surfaces; whilst a third is +constantly employed in cutting wheels. + +222. 5. Skill acquired by frequent repetition of the same +processes. The constant repetition of the same process +necessarily produces in the workman a degree of excellence and +rapidity in his particular department, which is never possessed +by a person who is obliged to execute many different processes. +This rapidity is still further increased from the circumstance +that most of the operations in factories, where the division of +labour is carried to a considerable extent, are paid for as +piece-work. It is difficult to estimate in numbers the effect of +this cause upon production. In nail-making, Adam Smith has +stated, that it is almost three to one; for, he observes, that a +smith accustomed to make nails, but whose whole business has not +been that of a nailer, can make only from eight hundred to a +thousand per day; whilst a lad who had never exercised any other +trade, can make upwards of two thousand three hundred a day. + +223. In different trades, the economy of production arising +from the last-mentioned cause will necessarily be different. The +case of nail-making is, perhaps, rather an extreme one. It must, +however, be observed, that, in one sense, this is not a permanent +source of advantage; for, though it acts at the commencement of +an establishment, yet every month adds to the skill of the +workmen; and at the end of three or four years they will not be +very far behind those who have never practised any other branch +of their art. Upon an occasion when a large issue of bank-notes +was required, a clerk at the Bank of England signed his name, +consisting of seven letters, including the initial of his +Christian name, five thousand three hundred times during eleven +working hours, besides arranging the notes he had signed in +parcels of fifty each. + +224. 6. The division of labour suggests the contrivance of +tools and machinery to execute its processes. When each +processes, by which any article is produced, is the sole +occupation of one individual, his whole attention being devoted +to a very limited and simple operation, improvements in the form +of his tools, or in the mode of using them, are much more likely +to occur to his mind, than if it were distracted by a greater +variety of circumstances. Such an improvement in the tool is +generally the first step towards a machine. If a piece of metal +is to be cut in a lathe, for example, there is one particular +angle at which the cutting-tool must be held to insure the +cleanest cut; and it is quite natural that the idea of fixing the +tool at that angle should present itself to an intelligent +workman. The necessity of moving the tool slowly, and in a +direction parallel to itself, would suggest the use of a screw, +and thus arises the sliding-rest. It was probably the idea of +mounting a chisel in a frame, to prevent its cutting too deeply, +which gave rise to the common carpenter's plane. In cases where a +blow from a hammer is employed, experience teaches the proper +force required. The transition from the hammer held in the hand +to one mounted upon an axis, and lifted regularly to a certain +height by some mechanical contrivance, requires perhaps a greater +degree of invention than those just instanced; yet it is not +difficult to perceive, that, if the hammer always falls from the +same height, its effect must be always the same. + +225. When each process has been reduced to the use of some +simple tool, the union of all these tools, actuated by one moving +power, constitutes a machine. In contriving tools and simplifying +processes, the operative workmen are, perhaps, most successful; +but it requires far other habits to combine into one machine +these scattered arts. A previous education as a workman in the +peculiar trade, is undoubtedly a valuable preliminary; but in +order to make such combinations with any reasonable expectation +of success, an extensive knowledge of machinery, and the power of +making mechanical drawings, are essentially requisite. These +accomplishments are now much more common than they were +formerly, and their absence was, perhaps, one of the causes of +the multitude of failures in the early history of many of our +manufactures. + +226. Such are the principles usually assigned as the causes +of the advantage resulting from the division of labour. As in the +view I have taken of the question, the most important and +influential cause has been altogether unnoticed, I shall restate +those principles in the words of Adam Smith: + +"The great increase in the quantity of work, which, in consequence +of the division of labour, the same number of people are capable +of performing, is owing to three different circumstances: first, +to the increase of dexterity in every particular workman; +secondly, to the saving of time, which is commonly lost in +passing from one species of work to another; and, lastly, to the +invention of a great number of machines which facilitate and +abridge labour, and enable one man to do the work of many." + +Now, although all these are important causes, and each has +its influence on the result; yet it appears to me, that any +explanation of the cheapness of manufactured articles, as +consequent upon the division of labour, would be incomplete if +the following principle were omitted to be stated. + +That the master manufacturer, by dividing the work to be +executed into different processes, each requiring different +degrees of skill or of force, can purchase exactly that precise +quantity of both which is necessary for each process; whereas, if +the whole work were executed by one workman, that person must +possess sufficient skill to perform the most difficult, and +sufficient strength to execute the most laborious, of the +operations into which the art is divided.(1*) + +227. As the clear apprehension of this principle, upon which +a great part of the economy arising from the division of labour +depends, is of considerable importance, it may be desirable to +point out its precise and numerical application in some specific +manufacture. The art of making needles is, perhaps, that which I +should have selected for this illustration, as comprehending a +very large number of processes remarkably different in their +nature; but the less difficult art of pinmaking, has some claim +to attention, from its having been used by Adam Smith; and I am +confirmed in the choice of it, by the circumstance of our +possessing a very accurate and minute description of that art, as +practised in France above half a century ago. + +228. Pin-making. In the manufacture of pins in England the +following processes are employed: + +1. Wire-drawing. (a) The brass wire used for making pins is +purchased by the manufacturer in coils of about twenty-two inches +in diameter, each weighing about thirty-six pounds. (b) The coils +are wound off into smaller ones of about six inches in diameter, +and between one and two pounds' weight. (c) The diameter of this +wire is now reduced, by drawing it repeatedly through holes in +steel plates, until it becomes of the size required for the sort +of pins intended to be made. During this process the wire is +hardened, and to prevent its breaking, it must be annealed two or +three times, according to the diminution of diameter required. +(d) The coils are then soaked in sulphuric acid, largely diluted +with water, in order to clean them, and are then beaten on stone, +for the purpose of removing any oxidated coating which may adhere +to them. These operations are usually performed by men, who draw +and clean from thirty to thirty-six pounds of wire a day. They +are paid at the rate of five farthings per pound, and generally +earn about 3s. 6d. per day. + +M. Perronnet made some experiments on the extension the wire +undergoes in passing through each hole: he took a piece of thick +Swedish brass wire, and found + + Feet Inches + Its length to be before drawing 3 8 + After passing the first hole 5 5 + second hole 7 2 + third hole 7 8 + + It was now annealed, and the length became + + After passing the fourth hole 10 8 + fifth hole 13 1 + sixth hole 16 8 + And finally, after passing through six other holes 144 0 + + +The holes through which the wire was drawn were not, in this +experiment, of regularly decreasing diameter: it is extremely +difficult to make such holes, and still more to preserve them in +their original dimensions. + +229. 2. Straightening the wire. The coil of wire now passes +into the hands of a woman, assisted by a boy or girl. A few +nails, or iron pins, not quite in a line, are fixed into one end +of a wooden table about twenty feet in length; the end of the +wire is passed alternately between these nails, and is then +pulled to the other end of the table. The object of this process +is to straighten the wire, which had acquired a considerable +curvature in the small coils in which it had been wound. The +length thus straightened is cut off, and the remainder of the +coil is drawn into similar lengths. About seven nails or pins are +employed in straightening the wire, and their adjustment is a +matter of some nicety. It seems, that by passing the wire between +the first three nails or pins, a bend is produced in an opposite +direction to that which the wire had in the coil; this bend, by +passing the next two nails, is reduced to another less curved in +the first direction, and so on till the curve of the wire may at +last be confounded with a straight line. + +230. 3. Pointing. (a) A man next takes about three hundred of +these straightened pieces in a parcel, and putting them into a +gauge, cuts off from one end, by means of a pair of shears, moved +by his foot, a portion equal in length to rather more than six +pins. He continues this operation until the entire parcel is +reduced into similar pieces. (b) The next step is to sharpen the +ends: for this purpose the operator sits before a steel mill, +which is kept rapidly revolving: it consists of a cylinder about +six inches in diameter, and two and a half inches broad, faced +with steel, which is cut in the manner of a file. Another +cylinder is fixed on the same axis at a few inches distant; the +file on the edge of which is of a finer kind, and is used for +finishing off the points. The workman now takes up a parcel of +the wires between the finger and thumb of each hand, and presses +the ends obliquely on the mill, taking care with his fingers and +thumbs to make each wire slowly revolve upon its axis. Having +thus pointed all the pieces at one end, he reverses them, and +performs the same operation on the other. This process requires +considerable skill, but it is not unhealthy; whilst the similar +process in needlemaking is remarkably destructive of health. (c) +The pieces now pointed at both ends, are next placed in gauges, +and the pointed ends are cut off, by means of shears, to the +proper length of which the pins are to be made. The remaining +portions of the wire are now equal to about four pins in length, +and are again pointed at each end, and their lengths again cut +off. This process is repeated a third time, and the small portion +of wire left in the middle is thrown amongst the waste, to be +melted along with the dust arising from the sharpening. It is +usual for a man, his wife, and a child, to join in performing +these processes; and they are paid at the rate of five farthings +per pound. They can point from thirty-four to thirty-six and a +half pounds per day, and gain from 6s. 6d. to 7s., which may be +apportioned thus; 5s. 6d. the man. 1s. the woman, 6d. to the boy +or girl. + +231. 4. Twisting and cutting the heads. The next process is +making the heads. For this purpose (a) a boy takes a piece of +wire, of the same diameter as the pin to be headed, which he +fixes on an axis that can be made to revolve rapidly by means of +a wheel and strap connected with it. This wire is called the +mould. He then takes a smaller wire, which having passed through +an eye in a small tool held in his left hand, he fixes close to +the bottom of the mould. The mould is now made to revolve rapidly +by means of the right hand, and the smaller wire coils round it +until it has covered the whole length of the mould. The boy now +cuts the end of the spiral connected with the foot of the mould, +and draws it off. (b) When a sufficient quantity of heading is +thus made, a man takes from thirteen to twenty of these spirals +in his left hand, between his thumb and three outer fingers: +these he places in such a manner that two turns of the spiral +shall be beyond the upper edge of a pair of shears, and with the +forefinger of the same hand he feels that only two turns do so +project. With his right hand he closes the shears; and the two +turns of the spiral being cut off, drop into a basin; the +position of the forefinger preventing the heads from flying about +when cut off. The workmen who cut the heads are usually paid at +the rate of 2 1/2d. to 3d. per pound for large heads, but a +higher price is given for the smaller heading. Out of this they +pay the boy who spins the spiral; he receives from 4d. to 6d. a +day. A good workman can cut from six to about thirty pounds of +heading per day, according to its size. + +232. 5. Heading. The process of fixing the head on the body +of the pin is usually executed by women and children. Each +operator sits before a small steel stake, having a cavity, into +which one half of the intended head will fit; immediately above +is a steel die, having a corresponding cavity for the other half +of the head: this latter die can be raised by a pedal moved by +the foot. The weight of the hammer is from seven to ten pounds, +and it falls through a very small space, perhaps from one to two +inches. The cavities in the centre of these dies are connected +with the edge of a small groove, to admit of the body of the pin, +which is thus prevented from being flattened by the blow of the +die. (a) The operator with his left hand dips the pointed end of +the body of a pin into a tray of heads; having passed the point +through one of them, he carries it along to the other end with +the forefinger. He now takes the pin in the right hand, and +places the head in the cavity of the stake, and, lifting the die +with his foot, allows it to fall on the head. This blow tightens +the head on the shank, which is then turned round, and the head +receives three or four blows on different parts of its +circumference. The women and children who fix the heads are paid +at the rate of 1s. 6d. for every twenty thousand. A skilful +operator can with great exertion do twenty thousand per day, but +from ten to fifteen thousand is the usual quantity: children head +a much smaller number: varying, of course, with the degree of +their skill. About one per cent of the pins are spoiled in the +process; these are picked out afterwards by women, and are +reserved, along with the waste from other processes, for the +melting-pot. The die in which the heads are struck is varied in +form according to the fashion of the time; but the repeated blows +to which it is subject render it necessary that it should be +repaired after it has been used for about thirty pounds of pins. + +233. 6. Tinning. The pins are now fit to be tinned, a process +which is usually executed by a man, assisted by his wife, or by a +lad. The quantity of pins operated upon at this stage is usually +fifty-six pounds. (a) They are first placed in a pickle, in order +to remove any grease or dirt from their surface, and also to +render them rough, which facilitates the adherence of the tin +with which they are to be covered. (b) They are then placed in a +boiler full of a solution of tartar in water, in which they are +mixed with a quantity of tin in small grains. In this they are +generally kept boiling for about two hours and a half, and are +then removed into a tub of water into which some bran has been +thrown, for the purpose of washing off the acid liquor. (c) They +are then taken out, and, being placed in wooden trays, are well +shaken in dry bran: this removes any water adhering to them; and +by giving the wooden tray a peculiar kind of motion, the pins are +thrown up, and the bran gradually flies off, and leaves them +behind in the tray. The man who pickles and tins the pins usually +gets one penny per pound for the work, and employs himself, +during the boiling of one batch of pins, in drying those +previously tinned. He can earn about 9s. per day; but out of this +he pays about 3s. for his assistant. + +234. 7. Papering. The pins come from the tinner in wooden +bowls, with the points projecting in all directions: the +arranging of them side by side in paper is generally performed by +women. (a) A woman takes up some, and places them on a comb, and +shaking them, some of the pins fall back into the bowl, and the +rest, being caught by their heads, are detained between the teeth +of the comb. (b) Having thus arranged them in a parallel +direction, she fixes the requisite number between two pieces of +iron, having twenty-five small grooves, at equal distances; (c) +and having previously doubled the paper, she presses it against +the points of the pins until they have passed through the two +folds which are to retain them. The pins are then relieved from +the grasp of the tool, and the process is repeated. A woman gains +about 1s. 6d. per day by papering; but children are sometimes +employed, who earn from 6d. per day, and upwards. + +235. Having thus generally described the various processes of +pin-making, and having stated the usual cost of each, it will be +convenient to present a tabular view of the time occupied by each +process, and its cost, as well as the sums which can be earned by +the persons who confine themselves solely to each process. As the +rate of wages is itself fluctuating, and as the prices paid and +quantities executed have been given only between certain limits, +it is not to be expected that this table can represent the cost +of each part of the work with the minutest accuracy, nor even +that it shall accord perfectly with the prices above given: but +it has been drawn up with some care, and will be quite sufficient +to serve as the basis of those reasonings which it is meant to +illustrate. A table nearly similar will be subjoined, which has +been deduced from a statement of M. Perronet, respecting the art +of pin-making in France, above seventy years ago. + +English manufacture + +236. Pins, Elevens, 5546 weigh one pound; one dozen = 6932 +pins weigh twenty ounces, and require six ounces of paper. + + Name of the process + Workman + Time for making 1 lb of pins Hours + Cost of making 1 lb of pins Pence + Workmen earns per day s. d. + Price of making each part of a single pin in millionths of a +penny + + + 1. Drawing wire (224) Man .3636 1.2500 3 3 225 + 2. Straightening wire ( 225) Woman .3000 .2840 1 0 51 + Girl .3000 .1420 0 6 26 + 3. Pointing (226) Man .3000 1.7750 5 3 319 + 4. Twisting and cutting heads Boy .0400 .0147 0 4 1/2 3 + (227) Man .0400 .2103 5 4 1/2 38 + 5. Heading (228) Woman 4.0000 5.0000 1 3 901 + 6 Tinning or whitening Man .1071 .6666 6 0 121 + (229) Woman .1071 .3333 3 0 60 + 7. Papering (230) Woman 2.1314 3.1973 1 6 576 + 7.6892 12.8732 - - 2320 + +Number of persons employed: Men. 4; Women. 4; Children, 2. +Total, 10. + +French manufacture + +237. Cost of 12,000 pins, No. 6, each being eight-tenths of an +English inch in length,--as they were manufactured in France about +1760; with the cost of each operation: deduced from the +observations and statement of M. Perronet. + + Name of the process + Time for making twelve thousand pins Hours + Cost of making twelve thousand pins Pence + Workman usually earns per day Pence + Expense of tools and materials Pence + + 1. Wire -- -- -- 24.75 + 2. Straightening and cutting 1.2 .5 4.5 -- + 3. Coarse pointing 1.2 .625 10.0 -- + Turning wheel(2*) 1.2 .875 7.0 -- + Fine Pointing .8 .5 9.375 -- + Turning wheel 1.2 .5 4.75 -- + Cutting off pointed ends .6 .375 7.5 -- + 4. Turning spiral .5 .125 3.0 -- + Cutting off heads .8 .375 5.625 -- + Fuel to anneal ditto -- -- -- .125 + 5. Heading 12.0 .333 4.25 -- + 6. Tartar for cleaning -- -- -- .5 + Tartar for whitening -- -- -- .5 + 7. Papering 4.8 .5 2.0 -- + Paper -- -- -- 1.0 + Wear of tools -- -- -- 2.0 + 24.3 4.708 + + The great expense of turning the wheel appears to have arisen +from the person so occupied being unemployed during half his +time, whilst the pointer went to another manufactory + + +338. It appears from the analysis we have given of the art of +pinmaking, that it occupies rather more than seven hours and a +half of time, for ten different individuals working in succession +on the same material, to convert it into a pound of pins; and +that the total expense of their labour, each being paid in the +joint ratio of his skill and of the time he is employed, amounts +very nearly to 1s. 1d. But from an examination of the first of +these tables, it appears that the wages earned by the persons +employed vary from 4 1/2d. per day up to 6s., and consequently +the skill which is required for their respective employments may +be measured by those sums. Now it is evident, that if one person +were required to make the whole pound of pins, he must have skill +enough to earn about 5s. 3d. per day, whilst he is pointing the +wires or cutting off the heads from the spiral coils--and 6s. +when he is whitening the pins; which three operations together +would occupy little more than the seventeenth part of his time. +It is also apparent, that during more than one half of his time +he must be earning only 1s. 3d, per day, in putting on the heads; +although his skill, if properly employed, would, in the same +time, produce nearly five times as much. If, therefore, we were +to employ, for all the processes, the man who whitens the pins, +and who earns 6s. per day, even supposing that he could make the +pound of pins in an equally short time, yet we must pay him for +his time 46. 14 pence, or about 3s. 10d. The pins would therefore +cost, in making, three times and three quarters as much as they +now do by the application of the division of labour. + +The higher the skill required of the workman in any one +process of a manufacture, and the smaller the time during which +it is employed, so much the greater will be the advantage of +separating that process from the rest, and devoting one person's +attention entirely to it. Had we selected the art of +needle-making as our illustration, the economy arising from the +division of labour would have been still more striking; for the +process of tempering the needles requires great skill, attention, +and experience, and although from three to four thousand are +tempered at once, the workman is paid a very high rate of wages. +In another process of the same manufacture, dry-pointing, which +also is executed with great rapidity, the wages earned by the +workman reach from 7s. to 12s., 15s., and even, in some +instances, to 20s. per day; whilst other processes are carried on +by children paid at the rate of 6d. per day. + +239. Some further reflections suggested by the preceding +analysis, will be reserved until we have placed before the reader +a brief description of a machine for making pins, invented by an +American. It is highly ingenious in point of contrivance, and, in +respect to its economical principles, will furnish a strong and +interesting contrast with the manufacture of pins by the human +hand. In this machine a coil of brass wire is placed on an axis; +one end of this wire is drawn by a pair of rollers through a +small hole in a plate of steel, and is held there by a forceps. +As soon as the machine is put in action, - + +1. The forceps draws the wire on to a distance equal in +length to one pin: a cutting edge of steel then descends close to +the hole through which the wire entered, and severs the piece +drawn out. + +2. The forceps holding the piece thus separated moves on, +till it brings the wire to the centre of the chuck of a small +lathe, which opens to receive it. Whilst the forceps is returning +to fetch another piece of wire, the lathe revolves rapidly, and +grinds the projecting end of the wire upon a steel mill, which +advances towards it. + +3. After this first or coarse pointing, the lathe stops, and +another forceps takes hold of the half-pointed pin, (which is +instantly released by the opening of the chuck), and conveys it +to a similar chuck of an adjacent lathe, which receives it, and +finishes the pointing on a finer steel mill. + +4. This mill again stops, and another forceps removes the +pointed pin into a pair of strong steel clams, having a small +groove in them by which they hold the pin very firmly. A part of +this groove, which terminates at that edge of the steel clams +which is intended to form the head of the pin, is made conical. A +small round steel punch is now driven forcibly against the end of +the wire thus clamped, and the head of the pin is partially +formed by compressing the wire into the conical cavity. + +NOTES: + +1. I have already stated that this principle presented itself to +me after a personal examination of a number of manufactories and +workshops devoted to different purposes; but I have since found +that it had been distinctly pointed out in the work of Gioja. +Nuovo Prospetto delle Scienze Economiche. 6 tom. 4to. Milano, +1815, tom. i. capo iv. + +2. The great expense of turning the wheel appears to have arisen +from the person so occupied being unemployed during half his +time, whilst the pointer went to another manufactory. + + + +Chapter 20 + +On the Division of Labour + +241. We have already mentioned what may, perhaps, appear +paradoxical to some of our readers that the division of labour +can be applied with equal success to mental as to mechanical +operations, and that it ensures in both the same economy of time. +A short account of its practical application, in the most +extensive series of calculations ever executed, will offer an +interesting illustration of this fact, whilst at the same time it +will afford an occasion for shewing that the arrangements which +ought to regulate the interior economy of a manufactory, are +founded on principles of deeper root than may have been supposed, +and are capable of being usefully employed in preparing the road +to some of the sublimest investigations of the human mind. + +242. In the midst of that excitement which accompanied the +Revolution of France and the succeeding wars, the ambition of the +nation, unexhausted by its fatal passion for military renown, was +at the same time directed to some of the nobler and more +permanent triumphs which mark the era of a people's greatness and +which receive the applause of posterity long after their +conquests have been wrested from them, or even when their +existence as a nation may be told only by the page of history. +Amongst their enterprises of science, the French Government was +desirous of producing a series of mathematical tables, to +facilitate the application of the decimal system which they had +so recently adopted. They directed, therefore, their +mathematicians to construct such tables, on the most extensive +scale. Their most distinguished philosophers, responding fully to +the call of their country, invented new methods for this +laborious task; and a work, completely answering the large +demands of the Government, was produced in a remarkably short +period of time. M. Prony, to whom the superintendence of this +great undertaking was confided, in speaking of its commencement, +observes: Je m'y livrai avec toute l'ardeur dont j'etois capable, +et je m'occupai d'abord du plan general de l'execution. Toutes +les conditions que j'avois a remplir necessitoient l'emploi d'un +grand nombre de calculateurs; et il me vint bientot a la pensee +d'appliquer a la connection de ces Tables la division du travail, +dont les Arts de Commerce tirent un parti si avantageux pour +reunir a la pernection de main-d'oeuvre l'economie de la depense +et du temps. The circumstance which gave rise to this singular +application of the principle of the division on labour is so +interesting, that no apology is necessary for introducing it from +a small pamphlet printed at Paris a few years since, when a +proposition was made by the English to the French Government, +that the two countries should print these tables at their joint +expense. + +243. The origin of the idea is related in the following +extract: + +C'est a un chapitre d'un ouvrage Anglais,(1*) justement +celebre, (I.) qu'est probablement due l'existence de l'ouvrage +dont le gouvernement Britannique veut faire jouir le monde +savant: + +Voici l'anecdote: M. de Prony s'etait engage. avec les +comites de gouvernement. a composer pour la division centesimale +du cercle, des tables logarithmiques et trigonometriques, qui, +non seulement ne laissassent rien a desirer quant a l'exactitude, +mais qui formassent le monument de calcul 1e plus vaste et le +plus imposant qui eut jamais ete execute, ou meme concu. Les +logarithmes des nombres de 1 a 200.000 formaient a ce travail un +supplement necessaire et exige. Il fut aise a M. de Prony de +s'assurer que meme en s'associant trois ou quatre habiles +co-operateurs. La plus grande duree presumable de sa vie ne lui +sufirai pas pour remplir ses engagements. Il etait occupe de +cette facheuse pensee lorsque. Se trouvant devant la boutique +d'un marchand de livres. Il appercut la belle edition Anglaise de +Smith, donnee a Londres en 1776: il ouvrit le livre au hazard. et +tomba sur le premier chapitre, qui traite de la division du +travail, et ou la fabrication des epingles est citee pour +exemple. A peine avait-il parcouru les premieres pages, que, par +une espece d'inspiration. il concut l'expedient de mettre ses +logarithmes en manufacture comme les epingles. Il faisait en ce +moment, a l'ecole polytechnique, des lecons sur une partie +d'analyse liee a ce genre de travail, la methode des differences, +et ses applications a l'interpolation. Il alla passer quelques +jours a la campagne. et revint a Paris avec le plan de +fabrication. qui a ete suivi dans l'execution. Il rassembla deux +ateliers. qui faisai ent separement les memes calculs, et se +servaient de verification reciproque.(2*) + +244. The ancient methods of computing tables were altogether +inapplicable to such a proceeding. M. Prony, therefore, wishing +to avail himself of all the talent of his country in devising new +methods, formed the first section of those who were to take part +in this enterprise out of five or six of the most eminent +mathematicians in France. + +First section. The duty of this first section was to +investigate, amongst the various analytical expressions which +could be found for the same function, that which was most readily +adapted to simple numerical calculation by many individuals +employed at the same time. This section had little or nothing to +do with the actual numerical work. When its labours were +concluded, the formulae on the use of which it had decided, were +delivered to the second section. + +Second section. This section consisted of seven or eight +persons of considerable acquaintance with mathematics: and their +duty was to convert into numbers the formulae put into their +hands by the first section an operation of great labour; and then +to deliver out these formulae to the members of the third +section, and receive from them the finished calculations. The +members of this second section had certain means of verifying the +calculations without the necessity of repeating, or even of +examining, the whole of the work done by the third section. + +Third section. The members of this section, whose number +varied from sixty to eighty, received certain numbers from the +second section, and, using nothing more than simple addition and +subtraction, they returned to that section the tables in a +finished state. It is remarkable that nine-tenths of this class +had no knowledge of arithmetic beyond the two first rules which +they were thus called upon to exercise, and that these persons +were usually found more correct in their calculations, than those +who possessed a more extensive knowledge of the subject. + +245. When it is stated that the tables thus computed occupy +seventeen large folio volumes, some idea may perhaps be formed of +the labour. From that part executed by the third class, which may +almost be termed mechanical, requiring the least knowledge and by +far the greatest exertions, the first class were entirely exempt. +Such labour can always be purchased at an easy rate. The duties +of the second class, although requiring considerable skill in +arithmetical operations, were yet in some measure relieved by the +higher interest naturally felt in those more difficult +operations. The exertions of the first class are not likely to +require, upon another occasion, so much skill and labour as they +did upon the first attempt to introduce such a method; but when +the completion of a calculating engine shall have produced a +substitute for the whole of the third section of computers, the +attention of analysts will naturally be directed to simplifying +its application, by a new discussion of the methods of converting +analytical formulae into numbers. + +246. The proceeding of M. Prony, in this celebrated system of +calculation, much resembles that of a skilful person about to +construct a cotton or silk mill, or any similar establishment. +Having, by his own genius, or through the aid of his friends, +found that some improved machinery may be successfully applied to +his pursuit, he makes drawings of his plans of the machinery, and +may himself be considered as constituting the first section. He +next requires the assistance of operative engineers capable of +executing the machinery he has designed, some of whom should +understand the nature of the processes to be carried on; and +these constitute his second section. When a sufficient number of +machines have been made, a multitude of other persons, possessed +of a lower degree of skill, must be employed in using them; these +form the third section: but their work, and the just performance +of the machines, must be still superintended by the second class. + +247. As the possibility of performing arithmetical +calculations by machinery may appear to non-mathematical readers +to be rather too large a postulate, and as it is connected with +the subject of the division of labour, I shall here endeavour, in +a few lines, to give some slight perception of the manner in +which this can be done--and thus to remove a small portion of +the veil which covers that apparent mystery. + +248. That nearly all tables of numbers which follow any law, +however complicated, may be formed, to a greater or less extent, +solely by the proper arrangement of the successive addition and +subtraction of numbers befitting each table, is a general +principle which can be demonstrated to those only who are well +acquainted with mathematics; but the mind, even of the reader who +is but very slightly acquainted with that science, will readily +conceive that it is not impossible, by attending to the following +example. + +The subjoined table is the beginning of one in very extensive +use, which has been printed and reprinted very frequently in many +countries, and is called a table of square numbers. + + +Terms of Table A Table B first Difference C second Difference + + 1 1 + 3 + 2 4 2 + 5 + 3 9 2 + 7 + 4 16 2 + 9 + 5 25 2 + 11 + 6 36 2 + 13 + 7 49 + + +Any number in the table, column A, may be obtained, by +multiplying the number which expresses the distance of that term +from the commencement of the table by itself; thus, 25 is the +fifth term from the beginning of the table, and 5 multiplied by +itself, or by 5, is equal to 25. Let us now subtract each term of +this table from the next succeeding term, and place the results +in another column (B), which may be called first difference +column. If we again subtract each term of this first difference +from the succeeding term, we find the result is always the number +2, (column C); and that the same number will always recur in that +column, which may be called the second difference, will appear to +any person who takes the trouble to carry on the table a few +terms further. Now when once this is admitted, it is quite clear +that, provided the first term (1) of the table, the first term +(3) of the first differences, and the first term (2) of the +second or constant difference, are originally given, we can +continue the table of square numbers to any extent, merely by +addition: for the series of first differences may be formed by +repeatedly adding the constant difference (2) to (3) the first +number in column B, and we then have the series of numbers, 3, 5, +6, etc.: and again, by successively adding each of these to the +first number (1) of the table, we produce the square numbers. + +249. Having thus, I hope, thrown some light upon the +theoretical part of the question, I shall endeavour to shew that +the mechanical execution of such an engine, as would produce this +series of numbers, is not so far removed from that of ordinary +machinery as might be conceived.(3*) Let the reader imagine three +clocks, placed on a table side by side, each having only one +hand, and each having a thousand divisions instead of twelve +hours marked on the face; and every time a string is pulled, let +them strike on a bell the numbers of the divisions to which their +hands point. Let him further suppose that two of the clocks, for +the sake of distinction called B and C, have some mechanism by +which the clock C advances the hand of the clock B one division, +for each stroke it makes upon its own bell: and let the clock B +by a similar contrivance advance the hand of the clock A one +division, for each stroke it makes on its own bell. With such an +arrangement, having set the hand of the clock A to the division +I, that of B to III, and that of C to II, let the reader imagine +the repeating parts of the clocks to be set in motion continually +in the following order: viz.--pull the string of clock A; pull +the string of clock B; pull the string of clock C. + +The table on the following page will then express the series +of movements and their results. + +If now only those divisions struck or pointed at by the clock +A be attended to and written down, it will be found that they +produce the series of the squares of the natural numbers. Such a +series could, of course, be carried by this mechanism only so far +as the numbers which can be expressed by three figures; but this +may be sufficient to give some idea of the construction--and +was, in fact, the point to which the first model of the +calculating engine, now in progress, extended. + +250. We have seen, then, that the effect of the division of +labour, both in mechanical and in mental operations, is, that it +enables us to purchase and apply to each process precisely that +quantity of skill and knowledge which is required for it: we +avoid employing any part of the time of a man who can get eight +or ten shillings a day by his skill in tempering needles, in +turning a wheel, which can be done for sixpence a day; and we +equally avoid the loss arising from the employment of an +accomplished mathematician in performing the lowest processes of +arithmetic. + +251. The division of labour cannot be successfully practised +unless there exists a great demand for its produce; and it +requires a large capital to be employed in those arts in which it +is used. In watchmaking it has been carried, perhaps, to the +greatest extent. It was stated in evidence before a committee of +the House of Commons, that there are a hundred and two distinct +branches of this art, to each of which a boy may be put +apprentice: and that he only learns his master's department, and +is unable, after his apprenticeship has expired, without +subsequent instruction, to work at any other branch. The +watch-finisher, whose business is to put together the scattered +parts, is the only one, out of the hundred and two persons, who +can work in any other department than his own. + +252. In one of the most difficult arts, that of mining, great +improvements have resulted from the judicious distribution of the +duties; and under the arrangments which have gradually been +introduced, the whole system of the mine and its government is +now placed under the control of the following officers. + + +1. A manager, who has the general knowledge of all that is to +be done, and who may be assisted by one or more skilful persons. + +2. Underground captains direct the proper mining operations, +and govern the working miners. + +3. The purser and book-keeper manage the accounts. + +4. The engineer erects the engines, and superintends the men +who work them. + +5. A chief pitman has charge of the pumps and the apparatus +of the shafts. + +6. A surface-captain, with assistants, receives the ores +raised, and directs the dressing department, the object of which +is to render them marketable. + +7. The head carpenter superintends many constructions. + +8. The foreman of the smiths regulates the ironwork and +tools. + +9. A materials man selects, purchases, receives and delivers +all articles required. + +10. The roper has charge of ropes and cordage of all sorts. + +Notes: + +1. An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of +Nations, by Adam Smith. + +2. Note sur la publication, proposee par le gouvernement Anglais +des grandes tables logarithmiques et trigonometriques de M de +Prony De l'imprimerie de F. Didot, December 1, 1829, p. 7 + +3. Since the publication of the second edition of this work, one +portion of the engine which I have been constructing for some +years past has been put together. It calculates, in three +columns, a table with its first and second differences. Each +column can be expressed as far as five figures, so that these +fifteen figures constitute about one ninth part of the larger +engine. The ease and precision with which it works leave no room +to doubt its success in the more extended form. Besides tables of +squares, cubes, and portions of logarithmic tables, it possesses +the power of calculating certain series whose differences are not +constant; and it has already tabulated parts of series formed +from the following equations: + +The third differential of ux = units figur of delta ux + +The third differential of ux = nearest whole no. to (1/10,000 +delta ux) + +The subjoined is one amongst the series which it has calculated: + + 0 3,486 42,972 + 0 4,991 50,532 + 1 6,907 58,813 + 14 9,295 67,826 + 70 12,236 77,602 + 230 15,741 88,202 + 495 19,861 99,627 + 916 24,597 111,928 + 1,504 30,010 125,116 + 2,340 36,131 139,272 + +The general term of this is, + + ux = (x(x-1)(x-2))/(1 X 2 X 3) + the whole number in x/10 + +10 Sigma^3 (units figure of (x(x-1)/2) + + + +Chapter 21 + +On the Cost of Each Separate Process in a Manufacture + +253. The great competition introduced by machinery, and the +application of the principle of the subdivision of labour, render +it necessary for each producer to be continually on the watch, to +discover improved methods by which the cost of the article he +manufactures may be reduced; and, with this view, it is of great +importance to know the precise expense of every process, as well +as of the wear and tear of machinery which is due to it. The same +information is desirable for those by whom the manufactured goods +are distributed and sold; because it enables them to give +reasonable answers or explanations to the objections of +enquirers, and also affords them a better chance of suggesting to +the manufacturer changes in the fashion of his goods, which may +be suitable either to the tastes or to the finances of his +customers. To the statesman such knowledge is still more +important; for without it he must trust entirely to others, and +can form no judgement worthy of confidence, of the effect any tax +may produce, or of the injury the manufacturer or the country may +suffer by its imposition. + +254. One of the first advantages which suggests itself as +likely to arise from a correct analysis of the expense of the +several processes of any manufacture, is the indication which it +would furnish of the course in which improvement should be +directed. If a method could be contrived of diminishing by one +fourth the time required for fixing on the heads of pins, the +expense of making them would be reduced about thirteen per cent; +whilst a reduction of one half the time employed in spinning the +coil of wire out of which the heads are cut, would scarcely make +any sensible difference in the cost of manufacturing of the +whole article. It is therefore obvious, that the attention would +be much more advantageously directed to shortening the former +than the latter process. + +255. The expense of manufacturing, in a country where +machinery is of the rudest kind, and manual labour is very cheap, +is curiously exhibited in the price of cotton cloth in the island +of Java. The cotton, in the seed, is sold by the picul, which is +a weight of about 133 lbs. Not above one fourth or one fifth of +this weight, however, is cotton: the natives, by means of rude +wooden rollers, can only separate about 1 1/4 lb. of cotton from +the seed by one day's labour. A picul of cleansed cotton, +therefore, is worth between four and five times the cost of the +impure article; and the prices of the same substance, in its +different stages of manufacture, are--for one picul: + + Dollars Cotton in the seed 2 to 3 + Clean cotton 10 to 11 + Cotton thread 24 + Cotton thread dyed blue 35 + Good ordinary cotton cloth 50 + + +Thus it appears that the expense of spinning in Java is 117 +per cent on the value of the raw material; the expense of dying +thread blue is 45 per cent on its value; and that of weaving +cotton thread into cloth 117 per cent on its value. The expense +of spinning cotton into a fine thread is, in England, about 33 +per cent. (1*) + +256. As an example of the cost of the different processes of +a manufacture, perhaps an analytical statement of the expense of +the volume now in the reader's hands may not be uninteresting; +more especially as it will afford an insight into the nature and +extent of the taxes upon literature. It is found economical to +print it upon paper of a very large size, so that although +thirty-two pages, instead of sixteen, are really contained in +each sheet, this work is still called octavo. + + L s. d. + + To printer, for composing (per sheet of 32 pages) L3 1s. 10 1/2 +sheets 32 0 6 [This relates to the ordinary size of the type used +in the volume.] + + To printer for composing small type, as in extracts and 2 0 3 +contents, extra per sheet, 3s. 10d. + + To printer, for composing table work, extra per sheet, 2 17 9 +5s. 6d. + Average charge for corrections, per sheet, L3 2s. 10d. 33 0 0 + Press work, 3000 being printed off, per sheet, L3 10s. 36 15 0 + Paper for 3000, at L1 11s. 6d. per ream, weighing 28 lbs: the +duty on paper at 3d. per lb. amounts to 7s. per ream, so that the +63 reams which are required for the work will cost: + + Paper 77 3 6 + Excise Duty 22 1 0 + Total expense of paper 99 4 6 + + Total expense of printing and paper 205 18 0 + Steel-plate for title-page 0 7 6 + Engraving on ditto, Head of Bacon 2 2 0 + Ditto letters 1 1 0 + Total expense of title-page 3 10 6 + Printing title-page, at 6s. per 100 9 0 0 + Paper for ditto, at 1s. 9d. per 100 2 12 6 + Expenses of advertising 40 0 0 + Sundries. 5 0 0 + + Total expense in sheets 266 1 0 + + Cost of a single copy in sheets; 3052 being printed, including +the overplus 0 1 9 + Extra boarding 0 0 6 + + Cost of each copy, boarded(2*) 0 2 3 + + +257. This analysis requires some explanation. The printer +usually charges for composition by the sheet, supposing the type +to be all of one kind; and as this charge is regulated by the +size of the letter, on which the quantity in a sheet depends, +little dispute can arise after the price is agreed upon. If there +are but few extracts, or other parts of the work, which require +to be printed in smaller type; or if there are many notes, or +several passages in Greek, or in other languages, requiring a +different type, these are considered in the original contract, +and a small additional price per sheet allowed. If there is a +large portion of small type, it is better to have a specific +additional charge for it per sheet. If any work with irregular +lines and many figures, and what the printers call rules, occurs, +it is called table work, and is charged at an advanced price per +sheet. Examples of this are frequent in the present volume. If +the page consists entirely of figures, as in mathematical tables, +which require very careful correction, the charge for composition +is usually doubled. A few years ago I printed a table of +logarithms, on a large-sized page, which required great +additional labour and care from the readers,(3*) in rendering the +proofs correct, and for which, although new punches were not +required, several new types were prepared, and for which +stereotype plates were cast, costing about L2 per sheet. In this +case L11 per sheet were charged, although ordinary composition, +with the same sized letter, in demy octavo, could have been +executed at thirty-eight shillings per sheet: but as the expense +was ascertained before commencing the work, it gave rise to no +difficulties. + +258. The charge for corrections and alterations is one which, +from the difficulty of measuring them, gives rise to the greatest +inconvenience, and is as disagreeable to the publisher (if he be +the agent between the author and the printer), and to the master +printer or his foreman, as it is to the author himself. If the +author study economy, he should make the whole of his corrections +in the manuscript, and should copy it out fairly: it will then be +printed correctly, and he will have little to pay for +corrections. But it is scarcely possible to judge of the effect +of any passage correctly, without having it set up in type; and +there are few subjects, upon which an author does not find he can +add some details or explanation, when he sees his views in print. +If, therefore, he wish to save his own labour in transcribing, +and to give the last polish to the language, he must be content +to accomplish these objects at an increased expense. If the +printer possess a sufficient stock of type, it will contribute +still more to the convenience of the author to have his whole +work put up in what are technically called slips,(4*) and then to +make all the corrections, and to have as few revises as he can. +The present work was set up in slips, but the corrections have +been unusually large, and the revises frequent. + +259. The press work, or printing off, is charged at a price +agreed upon for each two hundred and fifty sheets; and any broken +number is still considered as two hundred and fifty. When a large +edition is required, the price for two hundred and fifty is +reduced; thus, in the present volume, two hundred and fifty +copies, if printed alone, would have been charged eleven +shillings per sheet, instead of 5s. 10d., the actual charge. The +principle of this mode of charging is good, as it obviates all +disputes; but it is to be regretted that the custom of charging +the same price for any small number as for two hundred and fifty, +is so pertinaciously adhered to, that the workmen will not agree +to any other terms when only twenty or thirty copies are +required, or even when only three or four are wanted for the sake +of some experiment. Perhaps if all numbers above fifty were +charged as two hundred and fifty, and all below as for half two +hundred and fifty, both parties would derive an advantage. + +260. The effect of the excise duty is to render the paper +thin, in order that it may weigh little; but this is counteracted +by the desire of the author to make his book look as thick as +possible, in order that he may charge the public as much as he +decently can; and so on that ground alone the duty is of no +importance. There is, however, another effect of this duty, which +both the public and the author feel; for they pay, not merely the +duty which is charged, but also the profit on that duty, which +the paper-maker requires for the use of additional capital; and +also the profit to the publisher and bookseller on the increased +price of the volume. + +261. The estimated charge for advertisements is, in the +present case, about the usual allowance for such a volume; and, +as it is considered that advertisements in newspapers are the +most effectual, where the smallest pays a duty of 3s. 6d., nearly +one half of the charge of advertising is a tax. + +262. It appears then, that, to an expenditure of L224 +necessary to produce the present volume, L42 are added in the +shape of a direct tax. Whether the profits arising from such a +mode of manufacturing will justify such a rate of taxation, can +only be estimated when the returns from the volume are +considered, a subject that will be discussed in a subsequent +chapter.(5*) It is at present sufficient to observe, that the tax +on advertisements is an impolitic tax when contrasted with that +upon paper, and on other materials employed. The object of all +advertisements is, by making known articles for sale, to procure +for them a better price, if the sale is to be by auction; or a +larger extent of sale if by retail dealers. Now the more any +article is known, the more quickly it is discovered whether it +contributes to the comfort or advantage of the public; and the +more quickly its consumption is assured if it be found valuable. +It would appear, then, that every tax on communicating +information respecting articles which are the subjects of +taxation in another shape, is one which must reduce the amount +that would have been raised, had no impediment been placed in the +way of making known to the public their qualities and their +price. + +NOTES: + +1. These facts are taken from Crawford's Indian Archipelago. + +2. These charges refer to the edition prepared for the public, +and do not relate to the large paper copies in the hands of some +of the author's friends. + +3. Readers are persons employed to correct the press at the +printing office. + +4. Slips are long pieces of paper on which sufficient matter is +printed to form, when divided, from two to four pages of text. + +5. Chapter 31. + + + +Chapter 22 + +On the Causes and Consequences of Large Factories + +263. On examining the analysis which has been given in +chapter XIX of the operations in the art of pin-making, it will +be observed, that ten individuals are employed in it, and also +that the time occupied in executing the several processes is very +different. In order, however, to render more simple the reasoning +which follows, it will be convenient to suppose that each of the +seven processes there described requires an equal quantity of +time. This being supposed, it is at once apparent, that, to +conduct an establishment for pin-making most profitably, the +number of persons employed must be a multiple of ten. For if a +person with small means has only sufficient capital to enable him +to employ half that number of persons, they cannot each of them +constantly adhere to the execution of the same process; and if a +manufacturer employs any number not a multiple of ten, a similar +result must ensue with respect to some portion of them. The same +reflection constantly presents itself on examining any +well-arranged factory. In that of Mr Mordan, the patentee of the +ever-pointed pencils, one room is devoted to some of the +processes by which steel pens are manufactured. Six fly-presses +are here constantly at work; in the first a sheet of thin steel +is brought by the workman under the die which at each blow cuts +out a flat piece of the metal, having the form intended for the +pen. Two other workmen are employed in placing these flat pieces +under two other presses, in which a steel chisel cuts the slit. +Three other workmen occupy other presses, in which the pieces so +prepared receive their semi-cylindrical form. The longer time +required for adjusting the small pieces in the two latter +operations renders them less rapid in execution than the first; +so that two workmen are fully occupied in slitting, and three in +bending the flat pieces, which one man can punch out of the sheet +of steel. If, therefore, it were necessary to enlarge this +factory, it is clear that twelve or eighteen presses would be +worked with more economy than any number not a multiple of six. + +The same reasoning extends to every manufacture which is +conducted upon the principle of the division of labour, and we +arrive at this general conclusion: When the number of processes +into which it is most advantageous to divide it, and the number +of individuals to be employed in it, are ascertained, then all +factories which do not employ a direct multiple of this latter +number, will produce the article at a greater cost. This +principle ought always to be kept in view in great +establishments, although it is quite impossible, even with the +best division of the labour, to attend to it rigidly in practice. +The proportionate number of the persons who possess the greatest +skill, is of course to be first attended to. That exact ratio +which is more profitable for a factory employing a hundred +workmen, may not be quite the best where there are five hundred; +and the arrangements of both may probably admit of variations, +without materially increasing the cost of their produce. But it +is quite certain that no individual, nor in the case of +pin-making could any five individuals, ever hope to compete with +an extensive establishment. Hence arises one cause of the great +size of manufacturing establishments, which have increased with +the progress of civilization. Other circumstances, however, +contribute to the same end, and arise also from the same cause-- +the division of labour. + +264. The material out of which the manufactured article is +produced, must, in the several stages of its progress, be +conveyed from one operator to the next in succession: this can be +done at least expense when they are all working in the same +establishment. If the weight of the material is considerable, +this reason acts with additional force; but even where it is +light, the danger arising from frequent removal may render it +desirable to have all the processes carried on in the same +building. In the cutting and polishing of glass this is the case; +whilst in the art of needle-making several of the processes are +carried on in the cottages of the workmen. It is, however, clear +that the latter plan, which is attended with some advantages to +the family of the workmen, can be adopted only where there exists +a sure and quick method of knowing that the work has been well +done, and that the whole of the materials given out have been +really employed. + +265. The inducement to contrive machines for any process of +manufacture increases with the demand for the article; and the +introduction of machinery, on the other hand, tends to increase +the quantity produced and to lead to the establishment of large +factories. An illustration of these principles may be found in +the history of the manufacture of patent net. + +The first machines for weaving this article were very +expensive, costing from a thousand to twelve or thirteen hundred +pounds. The possessor of one of these, though it greatly +increased the quantity he could produce, was nevertheless unable, +when working eight hours a day, to compete with the old methods. +This arose from the large capital invested in the machinery; but +he quickly perceived that with the same expense of fixed capital, +and a small addition to his circulating capital, he could work +the machine during the whole twenty-four hours. The profits thus +realized soon induced other persons to direct their attention to +the improvement of those machines; and the price was greatly +reduced, at the same time that the rapidity of production of the +patent net was increased. But if machines be kept working through +the twenty-four hours, it is necessary that some person shall +attend to admit the workmen at the time they relieve each other; +and whether the porter or other servant so employed admit one +person or twenty, his rest will be equally disturbed. It will +also be necessary occasionally to adjust or repair the machine; +and this can be done much better by a workman accustomed to +machine-making, than by the person who uses it. Now, since the +good performance and the duration of machines depend to a very +great extent upon correcting every shake or imperfection in their +parts as soon as they appear, the prompt attention of a workman +resident on the spot will considerably reduce the expenditure +arising from the wear and tear of the machinery. But in the case +of single lace frame, or a single loom, this would be too +expensive a plan. Here then arises another circumstance which +tends to enlarge the extent of a factory. It ought to consist of +such a number of machines as shall occupy the whole time of one +workman in keeping them in order: if extended beyond that number, +the same principle of economy would point out the necessity of +doubling or tripling the number of machines, in order to employ +the whole time of two or three skilful workmen. + +266. Where one portion of the workman's labour consists in +the exertion of mere physical force, as in weaving and in many +similar arts, it will soon occur to the manufacturer, that if +that part were executed by a steam-engine, the same man might, in +the case of weaving, attend to two or more looms at once; and, +since we already suppose that one or more operative engineers +have been employed, the number of his looms may be so arranged +that their time shall be fully occupied in keeping the +steam-engine and the looms in order. One of the first results +will be, that the looms can be driven by the engine nearly twice +as fast as before: and as each man, when relieved from bodily +labour, can attend to two looms, one workman can now make almost +as much cloth as four. This increase of producing power is, +however, greater than that which really took place at first; the +velocity of some of the parts of the loom being limited by the +strength of the thread, and the quickness with which it commences +its motion: but an improvement was soon made, by which the motion +commenced slowly, and gradually acquired greater velocity than it +was safe to give it at once; and the speed was thus increased +from 100 to about 120 strokes per minute. + +267. Pursuing the same principles, the manufactory becomes +gradually so enlarged, that the expense of lighting during the +night amounts to a considerable sum; and as there are already +attached to the establishment persons who are up all night, and +can therefore constantly attend to it, and also engineers to make +and keep in repair any machinery, the addition of an apparatus +for making gas to light the factory leads to a new extension, at +the same time that it contributes, by diminishing the expense of +lighting, and the risk of accidents from fire, to reduce the cost +of manufacturing. + +268. Long before a factory has reached this extent, it will +have been found necessary to establish an accountant's +department, with clerks to pay the workmen, and to see that they +arrive at their stated times; and this department must be in +communication with the agents who purchase the raw produce, and +with those who sell the manufactured article. + +269. We have seen that the application of the division of +labour tends to produce cheaper articles; that it thus increases +the demand; and gradually, by the effect of competition, or by +the hope of increased gain, that it causes large capitals to be +embarked in extensive factories. Let us now examine the influence +of this accumulation of capital directed to one object. In the +first place, it enables the most important principle on which the +advantages of the division of labour depends to be carried almost +to its extreme limits: not merely is the precise amount of skill +purchased which is necessary for the execution of each process, +but throughout every stage--from that in which the raw material +is procured, to that by which the finished produce is conveyed +into the hands of the consumer--the same economy of skill +prevails. The quantity of work produced by a given number of +people is greatly augmented by such an extended arrangement; and +the result is necessarily a great reduction in the cost of the +article which is brought to market. + +270. Amongst the causes which tend to the cheap production of +any article, and which are connected with the employment of +additional capital, may be mentioned, the care which is taken to +prevent the absolute waste of any part of the raw material. An +attention to this circumstance sometimes causes the union of two +trades in one factory, which otherwise might have been separated. + +An enumeration of the arts to which the horns of cattle are +applicable, will furnish a striking example of this kind of +economy. The tanner who has purchased the raw hides, separates +the horns, and sells them to the makers of combs and lanterns. +The horn consists of two parts, an outward horny case, and an +inward conical substance, somewhat intermediate between indurated +hair and bone. The first process consists in separating these two +parts, by means of a blow against a block of wood. The horny +exterior is then cut into three portions with a frame-saw. + +1. The lowest of these, next the root of the horn, after +undergoing several processes, by which it is flattened, is made +into combs. + +2. The middle of the horn, after being flattened by heat, and +having its transparency improved by oil, is split into thin +layers, and forms a substitute for glass, in lanterns of the +commonest kind. + +3. The tip of the horn is used by the makers of knife +handles, and of the tops of whips, and for other similar +purposes. + +4. The interior, or core of the horn, is boiled down in +water. A large quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is put +aside, and sold to the makers of yellow soap. + +5. The liquid itself is used as a kind of glue, and is +purchased by cloth dressers for stiffening. + +6. The insoluble substance, which remains behind, is then +sent to the mill, and, being ground down, is sold to the farmers +for manure. + +7. Besides these various purposes to which the different +parts of the horn are applied, the clippings, which arise in comb +making, are sold to the farmer for manure. In the first year +after they are spread over the soil they have comparatively +little effect, but during the next four or five their efficiency +is considerable. The shavings which form the refuse of the +lantern maker, are of a much thinner texture: some of them are +cut into various figures and painted, and used as toys; for being +hygrometric, they curl up when placed on the palm of a warm hand. +But the greater part of these shavings also are sold for manure, +and from their extremely thin and divided form, the full effect +is produced upon the first crop. + +271. Another event which has arisen, in one trade at least, +from the employment of large capital, is, that a class of +middlemen, formerly interposed between the maker and the +merchant, now no longer exist. When calico was woven in the +cottages of the workmen, there existed a class of persons who +travelled about and purchased the pieces so made, in large +numbers, for the purpose of selling them to the exporting +merchant. But the middlemen were obliged to examine every piece, +in order to know that it was perfect, and of full measure. The +greater number of the workmen, it is true, might be depended +upon, but the fraud of a few would render this examination +indispensable: for any single cottager, though detected by one +purchaser, might still hope that the fact would not become known +to all the rest. + +The value of character, though great in all circumstances of +life, can never be so fully experienced by persons possessed of +small capital, as by those employing much larger sums: whilst +these larger sums of money for which the merchant deals, render +his character for punctuality more studied and known by others. +Thus it happens that high character supplies the place of an +additional portion of capital; and the merchant, in dealing with +the great manufacturer, is saved from the expense of +verification, by knowing that the loss, or even the impeachment, +of the manufacturer's character, would be attended with greater +injury to himself than any profit upon a single transaction could +compensate. + +272. The amount of well-grounded confidence, which exists in +the character of its merchants and manufacturers, is one of the +many advantages that an old manufacturing country always +possesses over its rivals. To such an extent is this confidence +in character carried in England, that, at one of our largest +towns, sales and purchases on a very extensive scale are made +daily in the course of business without any of the parties ever +exchanging a written document. + +273. A breach of confidence of this kind, which might have +been attended with very serious embarrassment, occurred in the +recent expedition to the mouth of the Niger. + +'We brought with us from England,' Mr Lander states, 'nearly +a hundred thousand needles of various sizes, and amongst them was +a great quantity of Whitechapel sharps warranted superfine, and +not to cut in the eye. Thus highly recommended, we imagined that +these needles must have been excellent indeed; but what was our +surprise, some time ago, when a number of them which we had +disposed of were returned to us, with a complaint that they were +all eyeless, thus redeeming with a vengeance the pledge of the +manufacturer, "that they would not cut in the eye". On +examination afterwards, we found the same fault with the +remainder of the "Whitechapel sharps", so that to save our credit +we have been obliged to throw them away.'(1*) + +274. The influence of established character in producing +confidence operated in a very remarkable manner at the time of +the exclusion of British manufactures from the continent during +the last war. One of our largest establishments had been in the +habit of doing extensive business with a house in the centre of +Germany; but, on the closing of the continental ports against our +manufactures, heavy penalties were inflicted on all those who +contravened the Berlin and Milan decrees. The English +manufacturer continued, nevertheless, to receive orders, with +directions how to consign them, and appointments for the time and +mode of payment, in letters, the handwriting of which was known +to him, but which were never signed, except by the christian name +of one of the firm, and even in some instances they were without +any signature at all. These orders were executed; and in no +instance was there the least irregularity in the payments. + +275. Another circumstance may be noticed, which to a small +extent is more advantageous to large than to small factories. In +the export of several articles of manufacture, a drawback is +allowed by government, of a portion of the duty paid on the +importation of the raw material. In such circumstances, certain +forms must be gone through in order to protect the revenue from +fraud; and a clerk, or one of the partners, must attend at the +custom-house. The agent of the large establishment occupies +nearly the same time in receiving a drawback of several +thousands, as the smaller exporter does of a few shillings. But +if the quantity exported is inconsiderable, the small +manufacturer frequently does not find the drawback will repay him +for the loss of time. + +276. In many of the large establishments of our manufacturing +districts, substances are employed which are the produce of +remote countries, and which are, in several instances, almost +peculiar to a few situations. The discovery of any new locality, +where such articles exist in abundance, is a matter of great +importance to any establishment which consumes them in large +quantities; and it has been found, in some instances, that the +expense of sending persons to great distances, purposely to +discover and to collect such produce, has been amply repaid. Thus +it has happened, that the snowy mountains of Sweden and Norway, +as well as the warmer hills of Corsica, have been almost stripped +of one of their vegetable productions, by agents sent expressly +from one of our largest establishments for the dying of calicos. +Owing to the same command of capital, and to the scale upon which +the operations of large factories are carried on, their returns +admit of the expense of sending out agents to examine into the +wants and tastes of distant countries, as well as of trying +experiments, which, although profitable to them, would be ruinous +to smaller establishments possessing more limited resources. + +These opinions have been so well expressed in the Report of +the Committee of the House of Commons on the Woollen Trade, in +1806, that we shall close this chapter with an extract, in which +the advantages of great factories are summed up. + +Your committee have the satisfaction of seeing, that the +apprehensions entertained of factories are not only vicious in +principle, but they are practically erroneous: to such a degree. +that even the very opposite principles might be reasonably +entertained. Nor would it be difficult to prove, that the +factories, to a certain extent at least, and in the present day, +seem absolutely necessary to the wellbeing of the domestic +system: supplying those very particulars wherein the domestic +system must be acknowledged to be inherently defective: for it is +obvious, that the little master manufacturers cannot afford, like +the man who possesses considerable capital, to try the +experiments which are requisite, and incur the risks, and even +losses, which almost always occur, in inventing and perfecting +new articles of manufacture, or in carrying to a state of greater +perfection articles already established. He cannot learn, by +personal inspection, the wants and habits, the arts, +manufactures, and improvements of foreign countries; diligence, +economy, and prudence, are the requisites of his character, not +invention, taste, and enterprise: nor would he be warranted in +hazarding the loss of any part of his small capital. He walks in +a sure road as long as he treads in the beaten track; but he must +not deviate into the paths of speculation. The owner of a +factory, on the contrary, being commonly possessed of a large +capital, and having all his workmen employed under his own +immediate superintendence, may make experiments, hazard +speculation, invent shorter or better modes of performing old +processes, may introduce new articles, and improve and perfect +old ones, thus giving the range to his taste and fancy, and, +thereby alone enabling our manufacturers to stand the competition +with their commercial rivals in other countries. Meanwhile, as is +well worthy of remark (and experience abundantly warrants the +assertion), many of these new fabrics and inventions, when their +success is once established, become general amongst the whole +body of manufacturers: the domestic manufacturers themselves thus +benefiting, in the end, from those very factories which had been +at first the objects of their jealousy. The history of almost all +our other manufactures, in which great improvements have been +made of late years in some cases at an immense expense, and after +numbers of unsuccessful experiments, strikingly illustrates and +enforces the above remarks. It is besides an acknowledged fact, +that the owners of factories are often amongst the most extensive +purchasers at the halls, where they buy from the domestic +clothier the established articles of manufacture, or are able at +once to answer a great and sudden order; whilst, at home, and +under their own superintendence, they make their fancy goods, and +any articles of a newer, more costly, or more delicate quality, +to which they are enabled by the domestic system to apply a much +larger proportion of their capital. Thus, the two systems, +instead of rivalling, are mutual aids to each other: each +supplying the other's defects, and promoting the other's +prosperity. + +Notes: + +1. Lander's Journal of an Expedition to the Mouth of the Niger, +vol. ii., p. 42. + + + +Chapter 23 + +On the Position of Large Factories + +277. It is found in every country, that the situation of +large manufacturing establishments is confined to particular +districts. In the earlier history of a manufacturing community, +before cheap modes of transport have been extensively introduced, +it will almost always be found that manufactories are placed near +those spots in which nature has produced the raw material: +especially in the case of articles of great weight, and in those +the value of which depends more upon the material than upon the +labour expended on it. Most of the metallic ores being +exceedingly heavy, and being mixed up with large quantities of +weighty and useless materials, must be smelted at no great +distance from the spot which affords them: fuel and power are the +requisites for reducing them; and any considerable fall of water +in the vicinity will naturally be resorted to for aid in the +coarser exertions of physical force; for pounding the ore, for +blowing the furnaces, or for hammering and rolling out the iron. +There are indeed peculiar circumstances which will modify this. +Iron, coal, and limestone, commonly occur in the same tracts; but +the union of the fuel in the same locality with the ore does not +exist with respect to other metals. The tracts generally the most +productive of metallic ores are, geologically speaking, different +from those affording coal: thus in Cornwall there are veins of +copper and of tin, but no beds of coal. The copper ore, which +requires a very large quantity of fuel for its reduction, is sent +by sea to the coalfields of Wales, and is smelted at Swansea; +whilst the vessels which convey it, take back coals to work the +steam-engines for draining the mines, and to smelt the tin, which +requires for that purpose a much smaller quantity of fuel than +copper. + +278. Rivers passing through districts rich in coal and +metals, will form the first highroads for the conveyance of +weighty produce to stations in which other conveniences present +themselves for the further application of human skill. Canals +will succeed, or lend their aid to these; and the yet unexhausted +applications of steam and of gas, hold out a hope of attaining +almost the same advantages for countries to which nature seemed +for ever to have denied them. Manufactures, commerce, and +civilization, always follow the line of new and cheap +communications. Twenty years ago, the Mississippi poured the vast +volume of its waters in lavish profusion through thousands of +miles of countries, which scarcely supported a few wandering and +uncivilized tribes of Indians. The power of the stream seemed to +set at defiance the efforts of man to ascend its course; and, as +if to render the task still more hopeless, large trees, torn from +the surrounding forests, were planted like stakes in its bottom, +forming in some places barriers, in others the nucleus of banks; +and accumulating in the same spot, which but for accident would +have been free from both, the difficulties and dangers of shoals +and of rocks. Four months of incessant toil could scarcely convey +a small bark with its worn-out crew two thousand miles up this +stream. The same voyage is now performed in fifteen days by large +vessels impelled by steam, carrying hundreds of passengers +enjoying all the comforts and luxuries of civilized life. Instead +of the hut of the Indian, and the far more unfrequent log house +of the thinly scattered settlers--villages, towns, and cities, +have arisen on its banks; and the same engine which stems the +force of these powerful waters, will probably tear from their +bottom the obstructions which have hitherto impeded and rendered +dangerous their navigation.(1*) + +279. The accumulation of many large manufacturing +establishments in the same district has a tendency to bring +together purchasers or their agents from great distances, and +thus to cause the institution of a public mart or exchange. This +contributes to diffuse information relative to the supply of raw +materials, and the state of demand for their produce, with which +it is necessary manufacturers should be well acquainted. The very +circumstance of collecting periodically, at one place, a large +number both of those who supply the market and of those who +require its produce, tends strongly to check the accidental +fluctuations to which a small market is always subject, as well +as to render the average of the prices much more uniform. + +280. When capital has been invested in machinery, and in +buildings for its accommodation, and when the inhabitants of the +neighbourhood have acquired a knowledge of the modes of working +at the machines, reasons of considerable weight are required to +cause their removal. Such changes of position do however occur; +and they have been alluded to by the Committee on the Fluctuation +of Manufacturers' Employment, as one of the causes interfering +most materially with an uniform rate of wages: it is therefore of +particular importance to the workmen to be acquainted with the +real causes which have driven manufactures from their ancient +seats. + +"The migration or change of place of any manufacture has +sometimes arisen from improvements of machinery not applicable to +the spot where such manufacture was carried on, as appears to +have been the case with the woollen manufacture, which has in +great measure migrated from Essex, Suffolk, and other southern +counties, to the northern districts, where coal for the use of +the steam-engine is much cheaper. But this change has, in some +instances, been caused or accelerated by the conduct of the +workmen, in refusing a reasonable reduction of wages, or opposing +the introduction of some kind of improved machinery or process; +so that, during the dispute, another spot has in great measure +supplied their place in the market. Any violence used by the +workmen against the property of their masters, and any +unreasonable combination on their part, is almost sure thus to be +injurious to themselves." + +281. These removals become of serious consequence when the +factories have been long established, because a population +commensurate with their wants invariably grows up around them. +The combinations in Nottinghamshire, of persons under the name of +Luddites, drove a great number of lace frames from that district, +and caused establishments to be formed in Devonshire. We ought +also to observe, that the effect of driving any establishment +into a new district, where similar works have not previously +existed, is not merely to place it out of the reach of such +combinations; but, after a few years, the example of its success +will most probably induce other capitalists in the new district +to engage in the same manufacture: and thus, although one +establishment only should be driven away, the workmen, through +whose combination its removal is effected, will not merely suffer +by the loss of that portion of demand for their labour which the +factory caused; but the value of that labour will itself be +reduced by the competition of a new field of production. + +282. Another circumstance which has its influence on this +question, is the nature of the machinery. Heavy machinery, such +as stamping-mills, steam-engines, etc., cannot readily be moved, +and must always be taken to pieces for that purpose; but when the +machinery of a factory consists of a multitude of separate +engines, each complete in itself, and all put in motion by one +source of power, such as that of steam, then the removal is much +less inconvenient. Thus, stocking frames, lace machines, and +looms, can be transported to more favourable positions, with but +a small separation of their parts. + +283. It is of great importance that the more intelligent +amongst the class of workmen should examine into the correctness +of these views; because, without having their attention directed +to them, the whole class may, in some instances, be led by +designing persons to pursue a course, which, although plausible +in appearance, is in reality at variance with their own best +interests. I confess I am not without a hope that this volume may +fall into the hands of workmen, perhaps better qualified than +myself to reason upon a subject which requires only plain common +sense, and whose powers are sharpened by its importance to their +personal happiness. In asking their attention to the preceding +remarks, and to those which I shall offer respecting +combinations, I can claim only one advantage over them; namely, +that I never have had, and in all human probability never shall +have, the slightest pecuniary interest, to influence even +remotely, or by anticipation, the judgements I have formed on the +facts which have come before me. + +NOTES: + +1. The amount of obstructions arising from the casual fixing of +trees in the bottom of the river, may be estimated from the +proportion of steamboats destroyed by running upon them. The +subjoined statement is taken from the American Almanack for 1832. + +Between the years 1811 and 1831, three hundred and +forty-eight steamboats were built on the Mississippi and its +tributary streams. During that period a hundred and fifty were +lost or worn out. + +Of this hundred and fifty: worn out 63 + lost by snags 36 + burnt 14 + lost by collision 3 + by accidents not ascertained 34 +Thirty six or nearly one fourth, being destroyed by accidental +obstruction. + +Snag is the name given in America to trees which stand nearly +upright in the stream with their roots fixed at the bottom. + +It is usual to divide off at the bow of the steamboats a +watertight chamber, in order that when a hole is made in it by +running against the snags, the water may not enterthe rest of the +vessel and sink it intantly. + + + +Chapter 24 + +On Over Manufacturing + +284. One of the natural and almost inevitable consequences of +competition is the production of a supply much larger than the +demand requires. This result usually arises periodically; and it +is equally important, both to the masters and to the workmen, to +prevent its occurrence, or to foresee its arrival. In situations +where a great number of very small capitalists exist--where each +master works himself and is assisted by his own family, or by a +few journeymen--and where a variety of different articles is +produced, a curious system of compensation has arisen which in +some measure diminishes the extent to which fluctuations of wages +would otherwise reach. This is accomplished by a species of +middlemen or factors, persons possessing some capital, who, +whenever the price of any of the articles in which they deal is +greatly reduced, purchase it on their own account, in the hopes +of selling at a profit when the market is better. These persons, +in ordinary times, act as salesmen or agents, and make up +assortments of goods at the market price, for the use of the home +or foreign dealer. They possess large warehouses in which to make +up their orders, or keep in store articles purchased during +periods of depression; thus acting as a kind of flywheel in +equalizing the market price. + +285. The effect of over-manufacturing upon great +establishments is different. When an over supply has reduced +prices, one of two events usually occurs: the first is a +diminished payment for labour; the other is a diminution of +the number of hours during which the labourers work, +together with a diminished rate of wages. In the former case +production continues to go on at its ordinary rate: in the +latter, the production itself being checked, the supply +again adjusts itself to the demand as soon as the stock on +hand is worked off, and prices then regain their former +level. The latter course appears, in the first instance, to +be the best both for masters and men; but there seems to be +a difficulty in accomplishing this, except where the trade +is in few hands. In fact, it is almost necessary, for its +success, that there should be a combination amongst the +masters or amongst the men; or, what is always far +preferable to either, a mutual agreement for their joint +interests. Combination amongst the men is difficult, and is +always attended with the evils which arise from the ill-will +excited against any persons who, in the perfectly +justifiable exercise of their judgement, are disposed not to +act with the majority. The combination of the masters, on +the other hand, is unavailing, unless the whole body of them +agree, for if any one master can procure more labour for his +money than the rest, he will be able to undersell them. + +286. If we look only at the interests of the consumer, the +case is different. When too large a supply has produced a great +reduction of price, it opens the consumption of the article to a +new class, and increases the consumption of those who previously +employed it: it is therefore against the interest of both these +parties that a return to the former price should occur. It is +also certain, that by the diminution of profit which the +manufacturer suffers from the diminished price, his ingenuity +will be additionally stimulated; that he will apply himself to +discover other and cheaper sources for the supply of his raw +material; that he will endeavour to contrive improved machinery +which shall manufacture it at a cheaper rate; or try to introduce +new arrangements into his factory, which shall render the economy +of it more perfect. In the event of his success, by any of these +courses or by their joint effects, a real and substantial good +will be produced. A larger portion of the public will receive +advantage from the use of the article, and they will procure it +at a lower price; and the manufacturer, though his profit on each +operation is reduced, will yet, by the more frequent returns on +the larger produce of his factory, find his real gain at the end +of the year, nearly the same as it was before; whilst the wages +of the workman will return to their level, and both the +manufacturer and the workman will find the demand less +fluctuating, from its being dependent on a larger number of +customers. + +287. It would be highly interesting, if we could trace, even +approximately, through the history of any great manufacture, the +effects of gluts in producing improvements in machinery, or in +methods of working; and if we could shew what addition to the +annual quantity of goods previously manufactured, was produced by +each alteration. It would probably be found, that the increased +quantity manufactured by the same capital, when worked with the +new improvement, would produce nearly the same rate of profit as +other modes of investment. + +Perhaps the manufacture of iron(1*) would furnish the best +illustration of this subject; because, by having the actual price +of pig and bar iron at the same place and at the same time, the +effect of a change in the value of currency, as well as several +other sources of irregularity, would be removed. + +288. At the present moment, whilst the manufacturers of iron +are complaining of the ruinously low price of their produce, a +new mode of smelting iron is coming into use, which, if it +realizes the statement of the patentees, promises to reduce +greatly the cost of production. + +The improvement consists in heating the air previously to +employing it for blowing the furnace. One of the results is, that +coal may be used instead of coke; and this, in its turn, +diminishes the quantity of limestone which is required for the +fusion of the iron stone. + +The following statement by the proprietors of the patent is +extracted from Brewster's Journal, 1832, p. 349: + +Comparative view of the quantity of materials required at the +Clyde iron works to smelt a ton of foundry pig-iron, and of the +quantity of foundry pig-iron smelted from each furnace weekly + +Fuel in tons of 20 cwt each cwt 112 lbs; Iron-stone; Lime-stone +Cwt; Weekly produce in pig-iron Tons + +1. With air not heated and coke; 7;3 1/4; 15; 45 +2. With air heated and coke; 4 3/4; 3 1/4; 10; 60 +3. With air heated and coals not coked; 2 1/4; 3 1/4; 7 1/2; 65 + +Notes. 1. To the coals stated in the second and third lines, must +be added 5 cwt of small coals, required to heat the air. + +2. The expense of the apparatus for applying the heated air +will be from L200 to L300 per furnace. + +3. No coals are now coked at the Clyde iron works; at all the +three furnaces the iron is smelted with coals. + +4. The three furnaces are blown by a double-powered +steam-engine, with a steam cylinder 40 inches in diameter, and a +blowing cylinder 80 inches in diameter, which compresses the air +so as to carry 2 1/2 lbs per square inch. There are two tuyeres +to each furnace. The muzzles of the blowpipes are 3 inches in +diameter. + +5. The air heated to upwards of 600 degrees of Fahrenheit. +It will melt lead at the distance of three inches from the +orifice through which it issues from the pipe. + +289. The increased effect produced by thus heating the air is +by no means an obvious result; and an analysis of its action will +lead to some curious views respecting the future application of +machinery for blowing furnaces. + +Every cubic foot of atmospheric air, driven into a furnace, +consists of two gases.(2*) about one-fifth being oxygen, and +four-fifths azote. + +According to the present state of chemical knowledge, the +oxygen alone is effective in producing heat; and the operation of +blowing a furnace may be thus analysed. + +1. The air is forced into the furnace in a condensed state, +and, immediately expanding, abstracts heat from the surrounding +bodies. + +2. Being itself of moderate temperature, it would, even +without expansion, still require heat to raise it to the +temperature of the hot substances to which it is to be applied. + +3. On coming into contact with the ignited substances in the +furnace, the oxygen unites with them, parting at the same moment +with a large portion of its latent heat, and forming compounds +which have less specific heat than their separate constituents. +Some of these pass up the chimney in a gaseous state, whilst +others remain in the form of melted slags, floating on the +surface of the iron, which is fused by the heat thus set at +liberty. + +4. The effects of the azote are precisely similar to the +first and second of those above described; it seems to form no +combinations, and contributes nothing, in any stage, to augment +the heat. + +The plan, therefore, of heating the air before driving it +into the furnace saves, obviously, the whole of that heat which +the fuel must have supplied in raising it from the temperature +of the external air up to that of 600 degrees Fahrenheit; thus +rendering the fire more intense, and the glassy slags more +fusible, and perhaps also more effectually decomposing the iron +ore. The same quantity of fuel, applied at once to the furnace, +would only prolong the duration of its heat, not augment its +intensity. + +290. The circumstance of so large a portion of the air(3*) +driven into furnaces being not merely useless, but acting really +as a cooling, instead of a heating, cause, added to so great a +waste of mechanical power in condensing it, amounting, in fact, +to four-fifths of the whole, clearly shews the defects of the +present method, and the want of some better mode of exciting +combustion on a large scale. The following suggestions are thrown +out as likely to lead to valuable results, even though they +should prove ineffectual for their professed object. + +291. The great difficulty appears to be to separate the +oxygen, which aids combustion, from the azote which impedes it. +If either of those gases becomes liquid at a lower pressure than +the other, and if those pressures are within the limits of our +present powers of compression, the object might be accomplished. + +Let us assume, for example, that oxygen becomes liquid under +a pressure of 200 atmospheres, whilst azote requires a pressure +of 250. Then if atmospheric air be condensed to the two hundredth +part of its bulk, the oxygen will be found in a liquid state at +the bottom of the vessel in which the condensation is effected, +and the upper part of the vessel will contain only azote in the +state of gas. The oxygen, now liquefied, may be drawn off for the +supply of the furnace; but as it ought when used, to have a very +moderate degree of condensation, its expansive force may be +previously employed in working a small engine. The compressed +azote also in the upper part of the vessel, though useless for +combustion, may be employed as a source of power, and, by its +expansion, work another engine. By these means the mechanical +force exerted in the original compression would all be restored, +except that small part retained for forcing the pure oxygen into +the furnace, and the much larger part lost in the friction of the +apparatus. + +292. The principal difficulty to be apprehended in these +operations is that of packing a working piston so as to bear the +pressure of 200 or 300 atmospheres: but this does not seem +insurmountable. It is possible also that the chemical combination +of the two gases which constitute common air may be effected by +such pressures: if this should be the case, it might offer a new +mode of manufacturing nitrous or nitric acids. The result of such +experiments might take another direction: if the condensation +were performed over liquids, it is possible that they might enter +into new chemical combinations. Thus, if air were highly +condensed in a vessel containing water, the latter might unite +with an additional dose of oxygen, (4*) which might afterwards +be easily disengaged for the use of the furnace. + +293. A further cause of the uncertainty of the results of +such an experiment arises from the possibility that azote may +really contribute to the fusion of the mixed mass in the furnace, +though its mode of operating is at present unknown. An +examination of the nature of the gases issuing from the chimneys +of iron-foundries, might perhaps assist in clearing up this +point; and, in fact, if such enquiries were also instituted upon +the various products of all furnaces, we might expect the +elucidation of many points in the economy of the metallurgic art. + +294. It is very possible also, that the action of oxygen in a +liquid state might be exceedingly corrosive, and that the +containing vessels must be lined with platinum or some other +substance of very difficult oxydation; and most probably new and +unexpected compounds would be formed at such pressures. In some +experiments made by Count Rumford in 1797, on the force of fired +gunpowder, he noticed a solid compound, which always appeared in +the gunbarrel when the ignited powder had no means of escaping; +and, in those cases, the gas which escaped on removing the +restraining pressure was usually inconsiderable. + +295. If the liquefied gases are used, the form of the iron +furnace must probably be changed, and perhaps it may be necessary +to direct the flame from the ignited fuel upon the ore to be +fused, instead of mixing that ore with the fuel itself: by a +proper regulation of the blast, an oxygenating or a deoxygenating +flame might be procured; and from the intensity of the flame, +combined with its chemical agency, we might expect the most +refractory ore to be smelted, and that ultimately the metals at +present almost infusible, such as platinum, titanium, and others, +might be brought into common use, and thus effect a revolution in +the arts. + +296. Supposing, on the occurrence of a glut, that new and +cheaper modes of producing are not discovered, and that the +production continues to exceed the demand, then it is apparent +that too much capital is employed in the trade; and after a time, +the diminished rate of profit will drive some of the +manufacturers to other occupations. What particular individuals +will leave it must depend on a variety of circumstances. Superior +industry and attention will enable some factories to make a +profit rather beyond the rest; superior capital in others will +enable them, without these advantages, to support competition +longer, even at a loss, with the hope of driving the smaller +capitalists out of the market, and then reimbursing themselves by +an advanced price. It is, however, better for all parties, that +this contest should not last long; and it is important, that no +artificial restraint should interfere to prevent it. An instance +of such restriction, and of its injurious effect, occurs at the +port of Newcastle, where a particular Act of Parliament requires +that every ship shall be loaded in its turn. The Committee of the +House of Commons, in their Report on the Coal Trade, state that, + + 'Under the regulations contained in this Act, if more ships +enter into the trade than can be profitablv employed in it, the +loss produced by detention in port, and waiting for a cargo. +which must consequently take place, instead of falling, as it +naturally would, upon particular ships, and forcing them from the +trade, is now divided evenly amongst them; and the loss thus +created is shared by the whole number.' Report, p. 6. + + 297. It is not pretended, in this short view, to trace out all +the effects or remedies of over-manufacturing; the subject is +difficult, and, unlike some of the questions already treated, +requires a combined view of the relative influence of many +concurring causes. + +NOTES: + +1. The average price per ton of pig iron, bar iron, and coal, +together with the price paid for labour at the works, for a long +series of years, would be very valuable, and I shall feel much +indebted to anyone who will favour me with it for any, even +short, period. + +2. The accurate proportions are, by measure, oxygen 21, azote 79. + +3. A similar reasoning may be applied to lamps. An Argand burner, +whether used for consuming oil or gas, admits almost an unlimited +quantity of air. It would deserve enquiry, whether a smaller +quantity might not produce greater light; and, possibly, a +different supply furnish more heat with the same expenditure of +fuel. + +4. Deutoxide of hydrogen, the oxygenated water of Thenard. + + + +Chapter 25 + +Enquiries Previous to Commencing any Manufactory + +298. There are many enquiries which ought always to be made +previous to the commencement of the manufacture of any new +article. These chiefly relate to the expense of tools, machinery, +raw materials, and all the outgoings necessary for its +production; to the extent of demand which is likely to arise; to +the time in which the circulating capital will be replaced; and +to the quickness or slowness with which the new article will +supersede those already in use. + +299. The expense of tools and of new machines will be more +difficult to ascertain, in proportion as they differ from those +already employed; but the variety in constant use in our various +manufactories, is such, that few inventions now occur in which +considerable resemblance may not be traced to others already +constructed. The cost of the raw material is usually less +difficult to determine; but cases occasionally arise in which it +becomes important to examine whether the supply, at the given +price, can be depended upon: for, in the case of a small +consumption, the additional demand arising from a factory may +produce a considerable temporary rise, though it may ultimately +reduce the price. + +300. The quantity of any new article likely to be consumed is +a most important subject for the consideration of the projector +of a new manufacture. As these pages are not intended for the +instruction of the manufacturer, but rather for the purpose of +giving a general view of the subject, an illustration of the way +in which such questions are regarded by practical men, will, +perhaps, be most instructive. The following extract from the +evidence given before a Committee of the House of Commons, in the +Report on Artizans and Machinery, shews the extent to which +articles apparently the most insignificant, are consumed, and the +view which the manufacturer takes of them. + +The person examined on this occasion was Mr Ostler, a +manufacturer of glass beads and other toys of the same substance, +from Birmingham. Several of the articles made by him were placed +upon the table, for the inspection of the Committee of the House +of Commons, which held its meetings in one of the +committee-rooms. + +Question. Is there any thing else you have to state upon this +subject? +Answer. Gentlemen may consider the articles on the table as +extremely insignificant: but perhaps I may surprise them a +little, by mentioning the following fact. Eighteen years ago, on +my first journey to London, a respectable-looking man, in the +city, asked me if I could supply him with dolls' eyes; and I was +foolish enough to feel half offended; I thought it derogatory to +my new dignity as a manufacturer, to make dolls' eyes. He took me +into a room quite as wide, and perhaps twice the length of this, +and we had just room to walk between stacks, from the loor to the +ceiling, of parts of dolls. He said, 'These are only the legs and +arms; the trunks are below., But I saw enough to convince me, +that he wanted a great many eyes; and, as the article appeared +quite in my own line of business, I said I would take an order by +way of experiment; and he shewed me several specimens. I copied +the order. He ordered various quantities, and of various sizes +and qualities. On returning to the Tavistock Hotel, I found that +the order amounted to upwards of 500l. I went into the country, +and endeavoured to make them. I had some of the most ingenious +glass toymakers in the kingdom in my service; but when I shewed +it to them, they shook their heads, and said they had often seen +the article before, but could not make it. I engaged them by +presents to use their best exertions; but after trying and +wasting a great deal of time for three or four weeks, I was +obliged to relinquish the attempt. Soon afterwards I engaged in +another branch of business (chandelier furniture), and took no +more notice of it. About eighteen months ago I resumed the +trinket trade, and then determined to think of the dolls' eyes; +and about eight months since, I accidentally met with a poor +fellow who had impoverished himself by drinking, and who was +dying in a consumption, in a state of great want. I showed him +ten sovereigns: and he said he would instruct me in the process. +He was in such a state that he could not bear the effluvia of his +own lamp, but though I was very conversant with the manual part +of the business, and it related to things I was daily in the +habit of seeing, I felt I could do nothing from his description. +(I mention this to show how difficult it is to convey, by +description, the mode of working.) He took me into his garret, +where the poor fellow had economized to such a degree, that he +actually used the entrails and fat of poultry from Leadenhall +market to save oil (the price of the article having been lately +so much reduced by competition at home). In an instant, before I +had seen him make three, I felt competent to make a gross; and +the difference between his mode and that of my own workmen was so +trifling, that I felt the utmost astonishment. + +Question. You can now make dolls' eyes? +Answer. I can. As it was eighteen years ago that I received the +order I have mentioned, and feeling doubtful of my own +recollection, though very strong, and suspecting that it could +[not] have been to the amount stated, I last night took the +present very reduced price of that article (less than half now of +what it was then), and calculating that every child in this +country not using a doll till two years old, and throwing it +aside at seven, and having a new one annually, I satisfied myself +that the eyes alone would produce a circulation of a great many +thousand pounds. I mention this merely to shew the importance of +trifles; and to assign one reason, amongst many, for my +conviction that nothing but personal communication can enable +our manufactures to be transplanted. + +301. In many instances it is exceedingly difficult to +estimate beforehand the sale of an article, or the effects of a +machine; a case, however, occurred during a recent enquiry, which +although not quite appropriate as an illustration of probable +demand, is highly instructive as to the mode of conducting +investigations of this nature. A committee of the House of +Commons was appointed to enquire into the tolls proper to be +placed on steam-carriages; a question, apparently, of difficult +solution, and upon which widely different opinions had been +formed, if we may judge by the very different rate of tolls +imposed upon such carriages by different 'turnpike trusts'. The +principles on which the committee conducted the enquiry were, +that 'The only ground on which a fair claim to toll can be made +on any public road, is to raise a fund, which, with the strictest +economy, shall be just sufficient--first, to repay the expense +of its original formation; secondly, to maintain it in good and +sufficient repair.' They first endeavoured to ascertain, from +competent persons, the effect of the atmosphere alone in +deteriorating a well-constructed road. The next step was, to +determine the proportion in which the road was injured, by the +effect of the horses' feet compared with that of the wheels. Mr +Macneill, the superintendent, under Mr Telford, of the Holyhead +roads, was examined, and proposed to estimate the relative +injury, from the comparative quantities of iron worn off from the +shoes of the horses, and from the tire of the wheels. From the +data he possessed, respecting the consumption of iron for the +tire of the wheels, and for the shoes of the horses, of one of +the Birmingham day-coaches, he estimated the wear and tear of +roads, arising from the feet of the horses, to be three times as +great as that arising from the wheels. Supposing repairs +amounting to a hundred pounds to be required on a road travelled +over by a fast coach at the rate of ten miles an hour, and the +same amount of injury to occur on another road, used only by +waggons, moving at the rate of three miles an hour, Mr Macneill +divides the injuries in the following proportions: + + Injuries arising from; Fast coach; Heavy waggon + Atmospheric changes 20 20 + Wheels 20 35.5 + Horses' feet drawing 60 44.5 + Total injury 100 100 + + +Supposing it, therefore, to be ascertained that the wheels of +steam carriages do no more injury to roads than other carriages +of equal weight travelling with the same velocity, the committee +now possessed the means of approximating to a just rate of toll +for steam carriages.(1*) + +302. As connected with this subject, and as affording most +valuable information upon points in which, previous to +experiment, widely different opinions have been entertained; the +following extract is inserted from Mr Telford's Report on the +State of the Holyhead and Liverpool Roads. The instrument +employed for the comparison was invented by Mr Macneill; and the +road between London and Shrewsbury was selected for the place of +experiment. + +The general results, when a waggon weighing 21 cwt was used +on different sorts of roads, are as follows: + + lbs +1. On well-made pavement, the draught is 33 + +2. On a broken stone surface, or old flint road 65 + +3. On a gravel road 147 + +4. On a broken stone road, upon a rough pavement foundation 46 + +5. On a broken stone surface, upon a bottoming of concrete, +formed of Parker's cement and gravel 46 + +The following statement relates to the force required to draw a +coach weighing 18 cwt. exclusive of seven passengers, up roads of +various inclinations: + +Inclination; Force required at six miles per hour; Force at +eight miles per hour; Force at ten miles per hour + + lbs lbs lbs + 1 in 20 268 296 318 + 1 in 26 213 219 225 + 1 in 30 165 196 200 + 1 in 40 160 166 172 + 1 in 600 111 120 128 + + +303. In establishing a new manufactory, the time in which the +goods produced can be brought to market and the returns be +realized, should be thoroughly considered, as well as the time +the new article will take to supersede those already in use. If +it is destroyed in using, the new produce will be much more +easily introduced. Steel pens readily took the place of quills; +and a new form of pen would, if it possessed any advantage, as +easily supersede the present one. A new lock, however secure, and +however cheap, would not so readily make its way. If less +expensive than the old, it would be employed in new work: but old +locks would rarely be removed to make way for it; and even if +perfectly secure, its advance would be slow. + +304. Another element in this question which should not be +altogether omitted, is the opposition which the new manufacture +may create by its real or apparent injury to other interests, and +the probable effect of that opposition. This is not always +foreseen; and when anticipated is often inaccurately estimated. +On the first establishment of steamboats from London to Margate, +the proprietors of the coaches running on that line of road +petitioned the House of Commons against them, as likely to lead +to the ruin of the coach proprietors. It was, however, found that +the fear was imaginary; and in a very few years, the number of +coaches on that road was considerably increased, apparently +through the very means which were thought to be adverse to it. +The fear, which is now entertained, that steampower and railroads +may drive out of employment a large proportion of the horses at +present in use, is probably not less unfounded. On some +particular lines such an effect might be produced; but in all +probability the number of horses employed in conveying goods and +passengers to the great lines of railroad, would exceed that +which is at present used. + +NOTES: + +1. One of the results of these enquiries is, that every coach +which travels from London to Birmingham distributes about eleven +pounds of wrought iron, along with the line of road between the +two places. + + + +Chapter 26 + +On a New System of Manufacturing + +305. A most erroneous and unfortunate opinion prevails +amongst workmen in many manufacturing countries, that their own +interest and that of their employers are at variance. The +consequences are that valuable machinery is sometimes neglected, +and even privately injured--that new improvements, introduced by +the masters, do not receive a fair trial--and that the talents +and observations of the workmen are not directed to the +improvement of the processes in which they are employed. This +error is, perhaps, most prevalent where the establishment of +manufactories has been of recent origin, and where the number of +persons employed in them is not very large: thus, in some of the +Prussian provinces on the Rhine it prevails to a much greater +extent than in Lancashire. Perhaps its diminished prevalence in +our own manufacturing districts, arises partly from the superior +information spread amongst the workmen; and partly from the +frequent example of persons, who by good conduct and an attention +to the interests of their employers for a series of years, have +become foremen, or who have ultimately been admitted into +advantageous partnerships. Convinced as I am, from my own +observation, that the prosperity and success of the master +manufacturer is essential to the welfare of the workman, I am yet +compelled to admit that this connection is, in many cases, too +remote to be always understood by the latter, and whilst it is +perfectly true that workmen, as a class, derive advantage from +the prosperity of their employers, I do not think that each +individual partakes of that advantage exactly in proportion to +the extent to which he contributes towards it; nor do I perceive +that the resulting advantage is as immediate as it might become +under a different system. + +306. It would be of great importance, if, in every large +establishment the mode of payment could be so arranged, that +every person employed should derive advantage from the success of +the whole; and that the profits of each individual should +advance, as the factory itself produced profit, without the +necessity of making any change in the wages. This is by no means +easy to effect, particularly amongst that class whose daily +labour procures for them their daily food. The system which has +long been pursued in working the Cornish mines, although not +exactly fulfilling these conditions, yet possesses advantages +which make it worthy of attention, as having nearly approached +towards them, and as tending to render fully effective the +faculties of all who are engaged in it. I am the more strongly +induced to place before the reader a short sketch of this system, +because its similarity to that which I shall afterwards recommend +for trial, will perhaps remove some objections to the latter, and +may also furnish some valuable hints for conducting any +experiment which might be undertaken. + +307. In the mines of Cornwall, almost the whole of the +operations, both above and below ground, are contracted for. The +manner of making the contract is nearly as follows. At the end of +every two months, the work which it is proposed to carry on +during the next period is marked out. It is of three kinds. 1. +Tutwork, which consists in sinking shafts, driving levels, and +making excavations: this is paid for by the fathom in depth, or +in length, or by the cubic fathom. 2. Tribute, which is payment +for raising and dressing the ore, by means of a certain part of +its value when rendered merchantable. It is this mode of payment +which produces such admirable effects. The miners, who are to be +paid in proportion to the richness of the vein, and the quantity +of metal extracted from it, naturally become quicksighted in the +discovery of ore, and in estimating its value; and it is their +interest to avail themselves of every improvement that can bring +it more cheaply to market. 3. Dressing. The 'Tributors', who dig +and dress the ore, can seldom afford to dress the coarser parts +of what they raise, at their contract price; this portion, +therefore, is again let out to other persons, who agree to dress +it at an advanced price. + +The lots of ore to be dressed, and the works to be carried +on, having been marked out some days before, and having been +examined by the men, a kind of auction is held by the captains of +the mine, in which each lot is put up, and bid for by different +gangs of men. The work is then offered, at a price usually below +that bid at the auction, to the lowest bidder, who rarely +declines it at the rate proposed. The tribute is a certain sum +out of every twenty shillings' worth of ore raised, and may vary +from threepence to fourteen or fifteen shillings. The rate of +earnings in tribute is very uncertain: if a vein, which was poor +when taken, becomes rich, the men earn money rapidly; and +instances have occurred in which each miner of a gang has gained +a hundred pounds in the two months. These extraordinary cases, +are, perhaps, of more advantage to the owners of the mine than +even to the men; for whilst the skill and industry of the workmen +are greatly stimulated, the owner himself always derives still +greater advantage from the improvement of the vein.(1*) This +system has been introduced, by Mr Taylor, into the lead mines of +Flintshire, into those at Skipton in Yorkshire, and into some of +the copper mines of Cumberland; and it is desirable that it +should become general, because no other mode of payment affords +to the workmen a measure of success so directly proportioned to +the industry, the integrity, and the talent, which they exert. + +308. I shall now present the outline of a system which +appears to me to be pregnant with the most important results, +both to the class of workmen and to the country at large; and +which, if acted upon, would, in my opinion, permanently raise the +working classes, and greatly extend the manufacturing system. + +The general principles on which the proposed system is +founded, are + +1. That a considerable part of the wages received by each +person employed should depend on the profits made by the +establishment; and, + +2. That every person connected with it should derive more +advantage from applying any improvement he might discover, to the +factory in which he is employed, than he could by any other +course. + +309. It would be difficult to prevail on the large capitalist +to enter upon any system, which would change the division of the +profits arising from the employment of his capital in setting +skill and labour in action; any alteration, therefore, must be +expected rather from the small capitalist, or from the higher +class of workmen, who combine the two characters; and to these +latter classes, whose welfare will be first affected, the change +is most important. I shall therefore first point out the course +to be pursued in making the experiment; and then, taking a +particular branch of trade as an illustration, I shall examine +the merits and defects of the proposed system as applied to it. + +310. Let us suppose, in some large manufacturing town, ten or +twelve of the most intelligent and skilful workmen to unite, +whose characters for sobriety and steadiness are good, and are +well known among their own class. Such persons will each possess +some small portion of capital; and let them join with one or two +others who have raised themselves into the class of small master +manufacturers, and, therefore possess rather a larger portion of +capital. Let these persons, after well considering the subject, +agree to establish a manufactory of fire-irons and fenders; and +let us suppose that each of the ten workmen can command forty +pounds, and each of the small capitalists possesses two hundred +pounds: thus they have a capital of L800 with which to commence +business; and, for the sake of simplifying, let us further +suppose the labour of each of these twelve persons to be worth +two pounds a week. One portion of their capital will be expended +in procuring the tools necessary for their trade, which we shall +take at L400, and this must be considered as their fixed capital. +The remaining L400 must be employed as circulating capital, in +purchasing the iron with which their articles are made, in paying +the rent of their workshops, and in supporting themselves and +their families until some portion of it is replaced by the sale +of the goods produced. + +311. Now the first question to be settled is, what proportion +of the profit should be allowed for the use of capital, and what +for skill and labour? It does not seem possible to decide this +question by any abstract reasoning: if the capital supplied by +each partner is equal, all difficulty will be removed; if +otherwise, the proportion must be left to find its level, and +will be discovered by experience; and it is probable that it will +not fluctuate much. Let us suppose it to be agreed that the +capital of L800 shall receive the wages of one workman. At the +end of each week every workman is to receive one pound as wages, +and one pound is to be divided amongst the owners of the capital. +After a few weeks the returns will begin to come in; and they +will soon become nearly uniform. Accurate accounts should be kept +of every expense and of all the sales; and at the end of each +week the profit should be divided. A certain portion should be +laid aside as a reserved fund, another portion for repair of the +tools, and the remainder being divided into thirteen parts, one +of these parts would be divided amongst the capitalists and one +belong to each workman. Thus each man would, in ordinary +circumstances, make up his usual wages of two pounds weekly. If +the factory went on prosperously, the wages of the men would +increase; if the sales fell off they would be diminished. It is +important that every person employed in the establishment, +whatever might be the amount paid for his services, whether he +act as labourer or porter, as the clerk who keeps the accounts, +or as bookkeeper employed for a few hours once a week to +superintend them, should receive one half of what his service is +worth in fixed salary, the other part varying with the success of +the undertaking. + +312. In such a factory, of course, division of labour would +be introduced: some of the workmen would be constantly employed +in forging the fire-irons, others in polishing them, others in +piercing and forming the fenders. It would be essential that the +time occupied in each process, and also its expense, should be +well ascertained; information which would soon be obtained very +precisely. Now, if a workman should find a mode of shortening any +of the processes, he would confer a benefit on the whole party, +even if they received but a small part of the resulting profit. +For the promotion of such discoveries, it would be desirable that +those who make them should either receive some reward, to be +determined after a sufficient trial by a committee assembling +periodically; or if they be of high importance, that the +discoverer should receive one-half, or twothirds, of the profit +resulting from them during the next year, or some other +determinate period, as might be found expedient. As the +advantages of such improvements would be clear gain to the +factory, it is obvious that such a share might be allowed to the +inventor, that it would be for his interest rather to give the +benefit of them to his partners, than to dispose of them in any +other way. + +313. The result of such arrangements in a factory would be, + +1. That every person engaged in it would have a direct +interest in its prosperity; since the effect of any success, or +falling off, would almost immediately produce a corresponding +change in his own weekly receipts. + +2. Every person concerned in the factory would have an +immediate interest in preventing any waste or mismanagement in +all the departments. + +3. The talents of all connected with it would be strongly +directed to its improvement in every department. + +4. None but workmen of high character and qualifications +could obtain admission into such establishments; because when any +additional hands were required, it would be the common interest +of all to admit only the most respectable and skilful; and it +would be far less easy to impose upon a dozen workmen than upon +the single proprietor of a factory. + +5. When any circumstance produced a glut in the market, more +skill would be directed to diminishing the cost of production; +and a portion of the time of the men might then be occupied in +repairing and improving their tools, for which a reserved fund +would pay, thus checking present, and at the same time +facilitating future production. + +6. Another advantage, of no small importance, would be the +total removal of all real or imaginary causes for combinations. +The workmen and the capitalist would so shade into each other-- +would so evidently have a common interest, and their difficulties +and distresses would be mutually so well understood that, instead +of combining to oppress one another, the only combination which +could exist would be a most powerful union between both parties +to overcome their common difficulties. + +314. One of the difficulties attending such a system is, that +capitalists would at first fear to embark in it, imagining that +the workmen would receive too large a share of the profits: and +it is quite true that the workmen would have a larger share than +at present: but, at the same time, it is presumed the effect of +the whole system would be, that the total profits of the +establishment being much increased, the smaller proportion +allowed to capital under this system would yet be greater in +actual amount, than that which results to it from the larger +share in the system now existing. + +315. It is possible that the present laws relating to +partnerships might interfere with factories so conducted. If this +interference could not be obviated by confining their purchases +under the proposed system to ready money, it would be desirable +to consider what changes in the law would be necessary to its +existence: and this furnishes another reason for entering into +the question of limited partnerships. + +316. A difficulty would occur also in discharging workmen who +behaved ill, or who were not competent to their work; this would +arise from their having a certain interest in the reserved fund, +and, perhaps, from their possessing a certain portion of the +capital employed; but without entering into detail, it may be +observed, that such cases might be determined on by meetings of +the whole establishment; and that if the policy of the laws +favoured such establishments, it would scarcely be more difficult +to enforce just regulations, than it now is to enforce some which +are unjust, by means of combinations either amongst the masters +or the men. + +317. Some approach to this system is already practised in +several trades: the mode of conducting the Cornish mines has +already been alluded to; the payment to the crew of whaling ships +is governed by this principle; the profits arising from fishing +with nets on the south coast of England are thus divided: +one-half the produce belongs to the owner of the boat and net; +the other half is divided in equal portions between the persons +using it, who are also bound to assist in repairing the net when +injured. + +NOTES: + +1. For a detailed account of the method of working the Cornish +mines, see a paper of Mr John Taylor's Transactions of the +Geological Society, vol. ii, p. 309. + + + +Chapter 27 + +On Contriving Machinery + +318. The power of inventing mechanical contrivances, and of +combining machinery, does not appear, if we may judge from the +frequency of its occurrence, to be a difficult or a rare gift. Of +the vast multitude of inventions which have been produced almost +daily for a series of years, a large part has failed from the +imperfect nature of the first trials; whilst a still larger +portion, which had escaped the mechanical difficulties, failed +only because the economy of their operations was not sufficiently +attended to. + +The commissioners appointed to examine into the methods +proposed for preventing the forgery of bank-notes, state in their +report, that out of one hundred and seventy-eight projects +communicated to the bank and to the commissioners, there were +only twelve of superior skill, and nine which it was necessary +more particularly to examine. + +319. It is however a curious circumstance, that although the +power of combining machinery is so common, yet the more beautiful +combinations are exceedingly rare. Those which command our +admiration equally by the perfection of their effects and the +simplicity of their means, are found only amongst the happiest +productions of genius. + +To produce movements even of a complicated kind is not +difficult. There exist a great multitude of known contrivances +for all the more usual purposes, and if the exertion of moderate +power is the end of the mechanism to be contrived, it is possible +to construct the whole machine upon paper, and to judge of the +proper strength to be given to each part as well as to the +framework which supports it, and also of its ultimate effect, +long before a single part of it has been executed. In fact, all +the contrivance, and all the improvements, ought first to be +represented in the drawings. + +320. On the other hand, there are effects dependent upon +physical or chemical properties for the determination of which no +drawings will be of any use. These are the legitimate objects of +direct trial. For example; if the ultimate result of an engine is +to be that it shall impress letters on a copperplate by means of +steel punches forced into it, all the mechanism by which the +punches and the copper are to be moved at stated intervals, and +brought into contact, is within the province of drawing, and the +machinery may be arranged entirely upon paper. But a doubt may +reasonably spring up, whether the bur that will be raised round +the letter, which has been already punched upon the copper, may +not interfere with the proper action of the punch for the letter +which is to be punched next adjacent to it. It may also be feared +that the effect of punching the second letter, if it be +sufficiently near to the first, may distort the form of that +first figure. If neither of these evils should arise, still the +bur produced by the punching might be expected to interfere with +the goodness of the impression produced by the copperplate; and +the plate itself, after having all but its edge covered with +figures, might change its form, from the unequal condensation +which it must suffer in this process, so as to render it very +difficult to take impressions from it at all. It is impossible by +any drawings to solve difficulties such as these, experiment +alone can determine their effect. Such experiments having been +made, it is found that if the sides of the steel punch are nearly +at right angles to the face of the letter, the bur produced is +very inconsiderable; that at the depth which is sufficient for +copperplate printing, no distortion of the adjacent letters takes +place, although those letters are placed very close to each +other; that the small bur which arises may easily be scraped off; +and that the copperplate is not distorted by the condensation of +the metal in punching, but is perfectly fit to print from, after +it has undergone that process. + +321. The next stage in the progress of an invention, after +the drawings are finished and the preliminary experiments have +been made, if any such should be requisite, is the execution of +the machine itself. It can never be too strongly impressed upon +the minds of those who are devising new machines, that to make +the most perfect drawings of every part tends essentially both to +the success of the trial, and to economy in arriving at the +result. The actual execution from working drawings is +comparatively an easy task; provided always that good tools are +employed, and that methods of working are adopted, in which the +perfection of the part constructed depends less on the personal +skill of the workman, than upon the certainty of the method +employed. + +322. The causes of failure in this stage most frequently +derive their origin from errors in the preceding one; and it is +sufficient merely to indicate a few of their sources. They +frequently arise from having neglected to take into consideration +that metals are not perfectly rigid but elastic. A steel cylinder +of small diameter must not be regarded as an inflexible rod; but +in order to ensure its perfect action as an axis, it must be +supported at proper intervals. + +Again, the strength and stiffness of the framing which +supports the mechanism must be carefully attended to. It should +always be recollected, that the addition of superfluous matter to +the immovable parts of a machine produces no additional momentum, +and therefore is not accompanied with the same evil that arises +when the moving parts are increased in weight. The stiffness of +the framing in a machine produces an important advantage. If the +bearings of the axis (those places at which they are supported) +are once placed in a straight line, they will remain so, if the +framing be immovable; whereas if the framework changes its form, +though ever so slightly, considerable friction is immediately +produced. This effect is so well understood in the districts +where spinning factories are numerous, that, in estimating the +expense of working a new factory, it is allowed that five per +cent on the power of the steam-engine will be saved if the +building is fireproof: for the greater strength and rigidity of a +fireproof building prevents the movement of the long shafts or +axes which drive the machinery, from being impeded by the +friction that would arise from the slightest deviation in any of +the bearings. + +323. In conducting experiments upon machinery, it is quite a +mistake to suppose that any imperfect mechanical work is good +enough for such a purpose. If the experiment is worth making, it +ought to be tried with all the advantages of which the state of +mechanical art admits; for an imperfect trial may cause an idea +to be given up, which better workmanship might have proved to be +practicable. On the other hand, when once the efficiency of a +contrivance has been established, with good workmanship it will +be easy afterwards to ascertain the degree of perfection which +will suffice for its due action. + +324. It is partly owing to the imperfection of the original +trials, and partly to the gradual improvements in the art of +making machinery, that many inventions which have been tried, and +given up in one state of art, have at another period been +eminently successful. The idea of printing by means of moveable +types had probably suggested itself to the imagination of many +persons conversant with impressions taken either from blocks or +seals. We find amongst the instruments discovered in the remains +of Pompeii and Herculaneum, stamps for words formed out of one +piece of metal, and including several letters. The idea of +separating these letters, and of recombining them into other +words, for the purpose of stamping a book, could scarcely have +failed to occur to many: but it would almost certainly have been +rejected by those best acquainted with the mechanical arts of +that time; for the workmen of those days must have instantly +perceived the impossibility of producing many thousand pieces of +wood or metal, fitting so perfectly and ranging so uniformly, as +the types or blocks of wood now used in the art of printing. + +The principle of the press which bears the name of Bramah, +was known about a century and a half before the machine, to which +it gave rise, existed; but the imperfect state of mechanical art +in the time of the discoverer, would have effectually deterred +him, if the application of it had occurred to his mind, from +attempting to employ it in practice as an instrument for exerting +force. + +These considerations prove the propriety of repeating, at the +termination of intervals during which the art of making machinery +has received any great improvement, the trails of methods which, +although founded upon just principles, had previously failed. + +325. When the drawings of a machine have been properly made, +and the parts have been well executed, and even when the work it +produces possesses all the qualities which were anticipated, +still the invention may fail; that is, it may fail of being +brought into general practice. This will most frequently arise +from the circumstance of its producing its work at a greater +expense than that at which it can be made by other methods. + +326. Whenever the new, or improved machine, is intended to +become the basis of a manufacture, it is essentially requisite +that the whole expense attending its operations should be fully +considered before its construction is undertaken. It is almost +always very difficult to make this estimate of the expense: the +more complicated the mechanism, the less easy is the task; and in +cases of great complexity and extent of machinery it is almost +impossible. It has been estimated roughly, that the first +individual of any newly invented machine, will cost about five +times as much as the construction of the second, an estimate +which is, perhaps, sufficiently near the truth. If the second +machine is to be precisely like the first, the same drawings, and +the same patterns will answer for it; but if, as usually happens, +some improvements have been suggested by the experience of the +first, these must be more or less altered. When, however, two or +three machines have been completed, and many more are wanted, +they can usually be produced at much less than one-fifth of the +expense of the original invention. + +327. The arts of contriving, of drawing, and of executing, do +not usually reside in their greatest perfection in one +individual; and in this, as in other arts, the division of labour +must be applied. The best advice which can be offered to a +projector of any mechanical invention, is to employ a respectable +draughtsman; who, if he has had a large experience in his +profession, will assist in finding out whether the contrivance is +new, and can then make working drawings of it. The first step, +however, the ascertaining whether the contrivance has the merit +of novelty, is most important; for it is a maxim equally just in +all the arts, and in every science, that the man who aspires to +fortune or to fame by new discoveries, must be content to examine +with care the knowledge of his contemporaries, or to exhaust his +efforts in inventing again, what he will most probably find has +been better executed before. + +328. This, nevertheless, is a subject upon which even +ingenious men are often singularly negligent. There is, perhaps, +no trade or profession existing in which there is so much +quackery, so much ignorance of the scientific principles, and of +the history of their own art, with respect to its resources and +extent, as are to be met with amongst mechanical projectors. The +self-constituted engineer, dazzled with the beauty of some, +perhaps, really original contrivance, assumes his new profession +with as little suspicion that previous instruction, that thought +and painful labour, are necessary to its successful exercise, as +does the statesman or the senator. Much of this false confidence +arises from the improper estimate which is entertained of the +difficulty of invention in mechanics. It is, therefore, of great +importance to the individuals and to the families of those who +are too often led away from more suitable pursuits, the dupes of +their own ingenuity and of the popular voice, to convince both +them and the public that the power of making new mechanical +combinations is a possession common to a multitude of minds, and +that the talents which it requires are by no means of the highest +order. It is still more important that they should be impressed +with the conviction that the great merit, and the great success +of those who have attained to eminence in such matters, was +almost entirely due to the unremitted perseverance with which +they concentrated upon their successful inventions the skill and +knowledge which years of study had matured. + + + +Chapter 28 + +Proper Circumstances for the Application of Machinery + +329. The first object of machinery, the chief cause of its +extensive utility, is the perfection and the cheap production of +the articles which it is intended to make. Whenever it is +required to produce a great multitude of things, all of exactly +the same kind, the proper time has arrived for the construction +of tools or machines by which they may be manufactured. If only a +few pairs of cotton stockings should be required, it would be an +absurd waste of time, and of capital, to construct a +stocking-frame to weave them, when, for a few pence, four steel +wires can be procured by which they may be knit. If, on the other +hand, many thousand pairs were wanted, the time employed, and the +expense incurred in constructing a stocking-frame, would be more +than repaid by the saving of time in making that large number of +stockings. The same principle is applicable to the copying of +letters: if three or four copies only are required, the pen and +the human hand furnish the cheapest means of obtaining them; if +hundreds are called for, lithography may be brought to our +assistance; but if hundreds of thousands are wanted, the +machinery of a printing establishment supplies the most +economical method of accomplishing the object. + +330. There are, however, many cases in which machines or +tools must be made, in which economical production is not the +most important object. Whenever it is required to produce a few +articles parts of machinery, for instance, which must be executed +with the most rigid accuracy or be perfectly alike--it is nearly +impossible to fulfil this condition, even with the aid of the +most skilful hands: and it becomes necessary to make tools +expressly for the purpose, although those tools should, as +frequently happens, cost more in constructing than the things +they are destined to make. + +331. Another instance of the just application of machinery, +even at an increased expense, arises where the shortness of time +in which the article is produced, has an important influence on +its value. In the publication of our daily newspapers, it +frequently happens that the debates in the Houses of Parliament +are carried on to three and four o'clock in the morning, that is. +to within a very few hours of the time for the publication of the +paper. The speeches must be taken down by reporters, conveyed by +them to the establishment of the newspaper, perhaps at the +distance of one or two miles, transcribed by them in the office, +set up by the compositor, the press corrected, and the paper be +printed off and distributed, before the public can read them. +Some of these journals have a circulation of from five to ten +thousand daily. Supposing four thousand to be wanted, and that +they could be printed only at the rate of five hundred per hour +upon one side of the paper, (which was the greatest number two +journeymen and a boy could take off by the old hand presses), +sixteen hours would be required for printing the complete +edition; and the news conveyed to the purchasers of the latest +portion of the impression, would be out of date before they could +receive it. To obviate this difficulty, it was often necessary to +set up the paper in duplicate, and sometimes, when late, in +triplicate: but the improvements in the printing machines have +been so great, that four thousand copies are now printed on one +side in an hour. + +332. The establishment of 'The Times' newspaper is an +example, on a large scale, of a manufactory in which the division +of labour, both mental and bodily, is admirably illustrated, and +in which also the effect of domestic economy is well exemplified. +It is scarcely imagined by the thousands who read that paper in +various quarters of the globe, what a scene of organized activity +the factory presents during the whole night, or what a quantity +of talent and mechanical skill is put in action for their +amusement and information. (1*) Nearly a hundred persons are +employed in this establishment; and, during the session of +Parliament, at least twelve reporters are constantly attending +the Houses of Commons and Lords; each in his turn retiring, after +about an hour's work, to translate into ordinary writing, the +speech he has just heard and noted in shorthand. In the meantime +fifty compositors are constantly at work, some of whom have +already set up the beginning, whilst others are committing to +type the yet undried manuscript of the continuation of a speech, +whose middle portion is travelling to the office in the pocket of +the hasty reporter, and whose eloquent conclusion is, perhaps, at +that very moment, making the walls of St Stephen's vibrate with +the applause of its hearers. These congregated types, as fast as +they are composed, are passed in portions to other hands; till at +last the scattered fragments of the debate, forming, when united +with the ordinary matter, eight-and-forty columns, reappear in +regular order on the platform of the printing-press. The hand of +man is now too slow for the demands of his curiosity, but the +power of steam comes to his assistance. Ink is rapidly supplied +to the moving types, by the most perfect mechanism; four +attendants incessantly introduce the edges of large sheets of +white paper to the junction of two great rollers, which seem to +devour them with unsated appetite; other rollers convey them to +the type already inked, and having brought them into rapid and +successive contact, redeliver them to four other assistants, +completely printed by the almost momentary touch. Thus, in one +hour, four thousand sheets of paper are printed on one side; and +an impression of twelve thousand copies, from above three hundred +thousand moveable pieces of metal, is produced for the public in +six hours. + +333. The effect of machinery in printing other periodical +publications, and of due economy in distributing them, is so +important for the interests of knowledge, that it is worth +examining by what means it is possible to produce them at the +small price at which they are sold. 'Chambers' Journal', which is +published at Edinburgh, and sold at three halfpence a number, +will furnish an example. Soon after its commencement in 1832, the +sale in Scotland reached 30,000, and in order to supply the +demand in London it was reprinted; but on account of the expense +of 'composition' it was found that this plan would not produce +any profit, and the London edition was about to be given up, when +it occurred to the proprietor to stereotype it at Edinburgh, and +cast two copies of the plates. This is now done about three weeks +before the day of publication--one set of plates being sent up +to London by the mail, an impression is printed off by steam: the +London agent has then time to send packages by the cheapest +conveyances to several of the large towns, and other copies go +through the booksellers' parcels to all the smaller towns. Thus a +great saving is effected in the outlay of capital, and 20,000 +copies are conveyed from London, as a centre, to all parts of +England, whilst there is no difficulty in completing imperfect +sets, nor any waste from printing more than the public demand. + +334. The conveyance of letters is another case, in which the +importance of saving time would allow of great expense in any new +machinery for its accomplishment. There is a natural limit to the +speed of horses, which even the greatest improvements in the +breed, aided by an increased perfection in our roads, can never +surpass; and from which, perhaps, we are at present not very +remote. When we reflect upon the great expense of time and money +which the last refinements of a theory or an art usually require, +it is not unreasonable to suppose that the period has arrived in +which the substitution of machinery for such purposes ought to be +tried. + +335. The post bag despatched every evening by the mail to one +of our largest cities, Bristol, usually weighs less than a +hundred pounds. Now, the first reflection which naturally +presents itself is, that, in order to transport these letters a +hundred and twenty miles, a coach and apparatus, weighing above +thirty hundredweight, are put in motion, and also conveyed over +the same space. (2*) + +It is obvious that, amongst the conditions of machinery for +accomplishing such an object, it would be desirable to reduce the +weight of matter to be conveyed along with the letters: it would +also be desirable to reduce the velocity of the animal power +employed; because the faster a horse is driven, the less weight +he can draw. Amongst the variety of contrivances which might be +imagined for this purpose, we will mention one, which, although +by no means free from objections, fulfils some of the prescribed +conditions; and it is not a purely theoretical speculation, since +some few experiments have been made upon it, though on an +extremely limited scale. + +336. Let us imagine a series of high pillars erected at +frequent intervals, perhaps every hundred feet, and as nearly as +possible in a straight line between two post towns. An iron or +steel wire must be stretched over proper supports, fixed on each +of these pillars, and terminating at the end of every three or +five miles, as may be found expedient, in a very strong support, +by which it may be stretched. At each of these latter points a +man ought to reside in a small stationhouse. A narrow cylindrical +tin case, to contain the letters, might be suspended by two +wheels rolling upon this wire; the cases being so constructed as +to enable the wheels to pass unimpeded by the fixed supports of +the wire. An endless wire of much smaller size must pass over two +drums, one at each end of the station. This wire should be +supported on rollers, fixed to the supports of the great wire, +and at a short distance below it. There would thus be two +branches of the smaller wire always accompanying the larger one; +and the attendant at either station, by turning the drum, might +cause them to move with great velocity in opposite directions. In +order to convey the cylinder which contains the letters, it would +only be necessary to attach it by a string, or by a catch, to +either of the branches of the endless wire. Thus it would be +conveyed speedily to the next station, where it would be removed +by the attendant to the commencement of the next wire, and so +forwarded. It is unnecessary to enter into the details which +this, or any similar plan, would require. The difficulties are +obvious; but if these could be overcome, it would present many +advantages besides velocity; for if an attendant resided at each +station, the additional expense of having two or three deliveries +of letters every day, and even of sending expresses at any +moment, would be comparatively trifling; nor is it impossible +that the stretched wire might itself be available for a species +of telegraphic communication yet more rapid. + +Perhaps if the steeples of churches, properly selected, were +made use of, connecting them by a few intermediate stations with +some great central building, as, for instance, with the top of St +Paul's; and if a similar apparatus were placed on the top of each +steeple, with a man to work it during the day, it might be +possible to diminish the expense of the two-penny post, and make +deliveries every half hour over the greater part of the +metropolis. + +337. The power of steam, however, bids fair almost to rival +the velocity of these contrivances; and the fitness of its +application to the purposes of conveyance, particularly where +great rapidity is required, begins now to be generally admitted. +The following extract from the Report of the Committee of the +House of Commons on steamcarriages, explains clearly its various +advantages: + +Perhaps one of the principal advantages resulting from the use of +steam, will be, that it may be employed as cheaply at a quick as +at a slow rate; 'this is one of the advantages over horse labour. +which becomes more and more expensive as the speed is increased. +There is every reason to expect, that in the end the rate of +travelling by steam will be much quicker than the utmost speed of +travelling by horses; in short, the safety to travellers will +become the limit to speed.' In horse-draught the opposite result +takes place; 'in all cases horses lose power of draught in a much +greater proportion than they gain speed, and hence the work they +do becomes more expensive as they go quicker.' + +Without increase of cost, then, we shall obtain a power which +will insure a rapidity of internal communication far beyond the +utmost speed of horses in draught; and although the performance +of these carriages may not have hitherto attained this point, +when once it has been established, that at equal speed we can use +steam more cheaply in draught than horses, we may fairly +anticipate that every day's increased experience in the +management of the engines, will induce greater skill, greater +confidence, and greater speed. + +The cheapness of the conveyance will probably be, for some +time, a secondary consideration. If, at present, it can be used +as cheaply as horse power, the competition with the former modes +of conveyance will first take place as to speed. When once the +superiority of steam-carriages shall have been fully established, +competition will induce economy in the cost of working them. The +evidence, however, of Mr Macneill, shewing the greater +efficiency, with diminished expenditure of fuel, by locomotive +engines on railways, convinces the committee, that experience +will soon teach a better construction of the engines, and a less +costly mode of generating the requisite supply of steam. + +Nor are the advantages of steam-power confined to the greater +velocity attained, or to its greater cheapness than +horse-draught. In the latter, danger is increased, in as large a +proportion as expense, by greater speed. In steam-power, on the +contrary, 'there is no danger of being run away with, and that of +being overturned is greatly diminished. It is difficult to +control four such horses as can draw a heavy carriage ten miles +per hour, in case they are frightened, or choose to run away; and +for quick travelling they must be kept in that state of courage, +that they are always inclined for running away, particularly down +hills, and at sharp turns of the road. In steam, however, there +is little corresponding danger, being perfectly controllable, and +capable of exerting its power in reverse in going down hills., +Every witness examined has given the fullest and most +satisfactory evidence of the perfect control which the conductor +has over the movement of the carriage. With the slightest +exertion it can be stopped or turned, under circumstances where +horses would be totally unmanageable. + +338. Another instance may be mentioned in which the object to +be obtained is so important, that although it might be rarely +wanted, yet machinery for that purpose would justify considerable +expense. A vessel to contain men, and to be navigated at some +distance below the surface of the sea, would, in many +circumstances, be almost invaluable. Such a vessel, evidently, +could not be propelled by any engine requiring the aid of fire. +If, however, by condensing air into a liquid, and carrying it in +that state, a propelling power could be procured sufficient for +moving the vessel through a considerable space, the expense would +scarcely render its occasional employment impossible.(3*) + +339. Slide of Alpnach. Amongst the forests which flank many +of the lofty mountains of Switzerland, some of the finest timber +is found in positions almost inaccessible. The expense of roads, +even if it were possible to make them in such situations, would +prevent the inhabitants from deriving any advantages from these +almost inexhaustible supplies. Placed by nature at a considerable +elevation above the spot at which they can be made use of, they +are precisely in fit circumstances for the application of +machinery to their removal; and the inhabitants avail themselves +of the force of gravity to relieve them from some portion of this +labour. The inclined planes which they have established in +various forests, by which the timber has been sent down to the +water courses, have excited the admiration of every traveller; +and in addition to the merit of simplicity, the construction +these slides requires scarcely anything beyond the material which +grows upon the spot. + +Of all these specimens of carpentry, the Slide of Alpnach was +the most considerable, from its great length, and from the almost +inaccessible position from which it descended. The following +account of it is taken from Gilbert's Annalen, 1819, which is +translated in the second volume of Brewster's Journal: + +For many centuries, the rugged flanks and the deep gorges of +Mount Pilatus were covered with impenetrable forests; which were +permitted to grow and to perish, without being of the least +utility to man, till a foreigner, who had been conducted into +their wild recesses in the pursuit of the chamois, directed the +attention of several Swiss gentlemen to the extent and +superiority of the timber. The most skilful individuals, however, +considered it quite impracticable to avail themselves of such +inaccessible stores. It was not till the end of 1816, that M. +Rupp, and three Swiss gentlemen, entertaining more sanguine +hopes, purchased a certain extent of the forests, and began the +construction of the slide, which was completed in the spring of +1818. + +The Slide of Alpnach is formed entirely of about 25,000 large +pine trees, deprived of their bark, and united together in a very +ingenious manner, without the aid of iron. It occupied about 160 +workmen during eighteen months, and cost nearly 100,000 francs, +or L4,250. It is about three leagues, or 44,000 English feet +long, and terminates in the Lake of Lucerne. It has the form of a +trough, about six feet broad, and from three to six feet deep. +Its bottom is formed of three trees, the middle one of which has +a groove cut out in the direction of its length, for receiving +small rills of water, which are conducted into it from various +places, for the purpose of diminishing the friction. The whole of +the slide is sustained by about 2,000 supports; and in many +places it is attached, in a very ingenious manner, to the rugged +precipices of granite. + +The direction of the slide is sometimes straight, and +sometimes zig-zag, with an inclination of from 10 degrees to 18 +degrees. It is often carried along the sides of hills and the +flanks of precipitous rocks, and sometimes passes over their +summits. Occasionally it goes under ground, and at other times it +is conducted over the deep gorges by scaffoldings 120 feet in +height. + +The boldness which characterizes this work, the sagacity and +skill displayed in all its arrangements, have excited the wonder +of every person who has seen it. Before any step could be taken +in its erection, it was necessary to cut several thousand trees +to obtain a passage through the impenetrable thickets. All these +difficulties, however, were surmounted, and the engineer had at +last the satisfaction of seeing the trees descend from the +mountain with the rapidity of lightning. The larger pines, which +were about a hundred feet long, and ten inches thick at their +smaller extremity, ran through the space of three leagues, or +nearly nine miles, in two minutes and a half, and during their +descent, they appeared to be only a few feet in length. + +The arrangements for this part of the operation were +extremely simple. From the lower end of the slide to the upper +end, where the trees were introduced, workmen were posted at +regular distances, and as soon as everything was ready, the +workman at the lower end of the slide cried out to the one above +him, 'Lachez' (let go). The cry was repeated from one to another. +and reached the top of the slide in three minutes. The workmen at +the top of the slide then cried out to the one below him, 'Il +vient' (it comes), and the tree was instantly launched down the +slide, preceded by the cry which was repeated from post to post. +As soon as the tree had reached the bottom, and plunged into the +lake, the cry of lachez was repeated as before, and a new tree +was launched in a similar manner. By these means a tree descended +every five or six minutes, provided no accident happened to the +slide, which sometimes took place, but which was instantly +repaired when it did. + +In order to shew the enormous force which the trees acquired +from the great velocity of their descent, M. Rupp made +arrangements for causing some of the trees to spring from the +slide. They penetrated by their thickest extremities no less than +from eighteen to twenty-four feet into the earth; and one of the +trees having by accident struck against another, it instantly +cleft it through its whole length, as if it had been struck by +lightning. + +After the trees had descended the slide, they were collected +into rafts upon the lake, and conducted to Lucerne. From thence +they descended the Reuss, then the Aar to near Brugg, afterwards +to Waldshut by the Rhine, then to Basle, and even to the sea when +it was necessary. + +It is to be regretted that this magnificent structure no +longer exists, and that scarcely a trace of it is to be seen upon +the flanks of Mount Pilatus. Political circumstances having taken +away the principal source of demand for the timber, and no other +market having been found, the operation of cutting and +transporting the trees necessarily ceased.(4*) + +Professor Playfair, who visited this singular work, states, +that six minutes was the usual time occupied in the descent of a +tree; but that in wet weather, it reached the lake in three +minutes. + +NOTES: + +1. The author of these pages, with one of his friends, was +recently induced to visit this most interesting establishment, +after midnight, during the progress of a very important debate. +The place was illuminated with gas, and was light as the day: +there was neither noise nor bustle; and the visitors were +received with such calm and polite attention, that they did not, +until afterwards, become sensible of the inconvenience which such +intruders, at a moment of the greatest pressure, must occasion, +nor reflect tha the tranquility which they admired, was the +result of intense and regulated occupation. But the effect of +such checks in the current of business will appear on +recollecting that, as four thousand newspapers are printed off on +one side within the hour, every minute is attended with a loss of +sixty-six impressions. The quarter of an hour, therefore, which +the stranger may think it not unreasonable to claim for the +gratification of his curiosity (and to him this time is but a +moment), may cause a failure in the delivery of a thousand +copies, and disappoint a proportionate number of expectant +readers, in some of our distant towns, to which the morning +papers are dispatched by the earliest and most rapid conveyances +of each day. + +This note is inserted with the further and more general +purpose of calling the attention of those, especially foreigners, +who are desirous of inspecting our larger manufactories, to the +chief cause of the difficulty which frequently attends their +introduction. When the establishment is very extensive, and its +departments skilfully arranged, the exclusion of visitors arises, +not from any illiberal jealousy, nor, generally, from any desire +of concealment, which would, in most cases, be absurd, but from +the substantial inconvenience and loss of time, throughout an +entire series of well-combined operations, which must be +occasioned even by short and causual interruptions. + +2. It is true that the transport of letters is not the only +object which this apparatus answers; but the transport of +passengers, which is a secondary object, does in fact put a limit +to the velocity of that of the letters, which is the primary one. + +3. A proposal for such a vessel, and description of its +construction, by the author of this volume, may be found in the +Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, Art. Diving Bell. + +4. The mines of Bolanos in Mexico are supplied with timber from +the adjacent mountains by a slide similar to that of Alpnach. It +was constructed by M. Floresi, a gentleman well acquainted with +Switzerland. + + + +Chapter 29 + +On the Duration of Machinery + +340. The time during which a machine will continue to perform +its work effectually, will depend chiefly upon the perfection +with which it was originally constructed upon the care taken to +keep it in proper repair, particularly to correct every shake or +looseness in the axes--and upon the smallness of the mass and of +the velocity of its moving parts. Everything approaching to a +blow, all sudden change of direction, is injurious. Engines for +producing power, such as windmills, water-mills, and +steam-engines, usually last a long time.(1*) + +341. Many of the improvements which have taken place in +steamengines, have arisen from an improved construction of the +boiler or the fireplace. The following table of the work done by +steam-engines in Cornwall, whilst it proves the importance of +constantly measuring the effects of machinery, shows also the +gradual advance which has been made in the art of constructing +and managing those engines. + + A table of the duty performed by steam-engines in Cornwall, +shewing the average of the whole for each year, and also the +average duty of the best engine in each monthly report + +Years; Approximate number of engines reported; Average duty of +the whole; Average duty of the best engines + + 1813; 24; 19,456,000; 26,400,000 + 1814; 29; 20.534,232; 32,000,000 + 1815; 35; 20.526,160; 28,700,000 + 1816; 32; 22,907,110; 32,400,000 + 1817; 31; 26,502,259; 41,600,000 + 1818; 32; 25,433,783; 39,300,000 + 1819; 37; 26,252,620; 40,000,000 + 1820; 37; 28,736,398; 41,300,000 + 1821; 39; 28,223,382; 42,800,000 + 1822; 45; 28,887,216; 42,500.000 + 1823; 45; 28,156,162; 42,122,000 + 1824; 45; 28,326,140; 43,500,000 + 1825; 50; 32,000,741; 45,400,000 + 1826; 48; 30,486,630; 45,200,000 + 1827; 47; 32,100,000; 59,700,000 + 1828; 54; 37,100,000; 76,763,000 + 1829; 52; 41,220,000; 76,234,307 + 1830; 55; 43,350,000; 75,885,519 + 1831; 55(2*); 44,700,000; 74,911,365 + 1832; 60; 44,400,000; 79,294,114 + 1833; 58; 46,000,000; 83,306,092 + + +342. The advantage arising from registering the duty done by +steamengines in Cornwall has been so great that the proprietors +of one of the largest mines, on which there are several engines, +find it good economy to employ a man to measure the duty they +perform every day. This daily report is fixed up at a particular +hour, and the enginemen are always in waiting, anxious to know +the state of their engines. As the general reports are made +monthly, if accident should cause a partial stoppage in the flue +of any of the boilers, it might without this daily check continue +two or three weeks before it could be discovered by a falling off +of the duty of the engine. In several of the mines a certain +amount of duty is assigned to each engine; and if it does more, +the proprietors give a premium to the engineers according to its +amount. This is called million money, and is a great stimulus to +economy in working the engine. + +343. Machinery for producing any commodity in great demand, +seldom actually wears out; new improvements, by which the same +operations can be executed either more quickly or better, +generally superseding it long before that period arrives: indeed, +to make such an improved machine profitable, it is usually +reckoned that in five years it ought to have paid itself, and in +ten to be superseded by a better. + +'A cotton manufacturer,' says one of the witnesses before a +Committee of the House of Commons, 'who left Manchester seven +years ago, would be driven out of the market by the men who are +now living in it, provided his knowledge had not kept pace with +those who have been, during that time, constantly profiting by +the progressive improvements that have taken place in that +period.' + +344. The effect of improvements in machinery, seems +incidentally to increase production, through a cause which may be +thus explained. A manufacturer making the usual profit upon his +capital, invested in looms or other machines in perfect +condition, the market price of making each of which is a hundred +pounds, invents some improvement. But this is of such a nature, +that it cannot be adapted to his present engines. He finds upon +calculation, that at the rate at which he can dispose of his +manufactured produce, each new engine would repay the cost of its +making, together with the ordinary profit of capital, in three +years: he also concludes from his experience of the trade, that +the improvement he is about to make, will not be generally +adopted by other manufacturers before that time. On these +considerations, it is clearly his interest to sell his present +engines, even at half-price, and construct new ones on the +improved principle. But the purchaser who gives only fifty pounds +for the old engines, has not so large a fixed capital invested in +his factory, as the person from whom he purchased them; and as he +produces the same quantity of the manufactured article, his +profits will be larger. Hence, the price of the commodity will +fall, not only in consequence of the cheaper production by the +new machines, but also by the more profitable working of the old, +thus purchased at a reduced price. This change, however, can be +only transient; for a time will arrive when the old machinery, +although in good repair, must become worthless. The improvement +which took place not long ago in frames for making patent-net was +so great, that a machine, in good repair, which had cost L1200, +sold a few years after for L60. During the great speculations in +that trade, the improvements succeeded each other so rapidly, +that machines which had never been finished were abandoned in the +hands of their makers, because new improvements had superseded +their utility. + +345. The durability of watches, when well made, is very +remarkable. One was produced, in going order, before a committee +of the House of Commons to enquire into the watch trade, which +was made in the year 1660; and there are many of ancient date, in +the possession of the Clockmaker's Company, which are still +actually kept going. The number of watches manufactured for home +consumption was, in the year 1798, about 50,000 annually. If this +supply was for Great Britain only, it was consumed by about ten +and a half millions of persons. + +346. Machines are, in some trades, let out to hire, and a +certain sum is paid for their use; in the manner of rent. This is +the case amongst the framework knitters: and Mr Henson, in +speaking of the rate of payment for the use of their frames, +states, that the proprietor receives such a rent that, besides +paying the full interest for his capital, he clears the value of +his frame in nine years. When the rapidity with which +improvements succeed each other is considered, this rent does not +appear exorbitant. Some of these frames have been worked for +thirteen years with little or no repair. But circumstances +occasionally arise which throw them out of employment, either +temporarily or permanently. Some years since, an article was +introduced called cut-up work, by which the price of +stocking-frames was greatly deteriorated. From the evidence of Mr +J. Rawson, it appears that, in consequence of this change in the +nature of the work, each frame could do the work of two, and many +stocking frames were thrown out of employment, and their value +reduced full three-fourths.(3*) + +This information is of great importance, if the numbers here +given are nearly correct, and if no other causes intervened to +diminish the price of frames; for it shews the numerical +connection between the increased production of those machines and +their diminished value. + +347. The great importance of simplifying all transactions +between masters and workmen, and of dispassionately discussing +with the latter the influence of any proposed regulations +connected with their trade, is well examplified by a mistake into +which both parties unintentionally fell, and which was productive +of very great misery in the lace trade. Its history is so well +told by William Allen, a framework knitter, who was a party to +it, that an extract from his evidence, as given before the +Framework Knitters' Committee of 1812, will best explain it. + +"I beg to say a few words respecting the frame rent; the rent +paid for lace frames, until the year 1805, was 1s. 6d. a frame +per week; there then was not any very great inducement for +persons to buy frames and let them out by the hire, who did not +belong to the trade; at that time an attempt was made, by one or +two houses, to reduce the prices paid to the workmen, in +consequence of a dispute between these two houses and another +great house: some little difference being paid in the price +amongst the respective houses, I was one chosen by the workmen to +try if we could not remedy the impending evil: we consulted the +respective parties, and found them inflexible; these two houses +that were about to reduce the prices, said that they would either +immediately reduce the price of making net, or they would +increase the frame rent: the difference to the workmen was +considerable, between the one and the other; they would suffer +less, in the immediate operation of the thing, by having the rent +advanced, than the price of making net reduced. They chose at +that time, as they thought, the lesser evil, but it has turned +out to be otherwise; for, immediately as the rent was raised upon +the percentage laid out in frames, it induced almost every +person, who had got a little money, to lay it out in the purchase +of frames; these frames were placed in the hands of men who could +get work for them at the warehouses; they were generally +constrained to pay an enormous rent, and then they were +compelled, most likely, to buy of the persons that let them the +frames, their butcher's meat, their grocery, or their clothing: +the encumbrance of these frames became entailed upon them: if any +deadness took place in the work they must take it at a very +reduced price, for fear of the consequences that would fall upon +them from the person who bought the frame: thus the evil has been +daily increasing, till, in conjunction with the other evils crept +into the trade, they have almost crushed it to atoms." + +348. The evil of not assigning fairly to each tool, or each +article produced, its proportionate value, or even of not having +a perfectly distinct, simple, and definite agreement between a +master and his workmen, is very considerable. Workmen find it +difficult in such cases to know the probable produce of their +labour; and both parties are often led to adopt arrangements, +which, had they been well examined, would have been rejected as +equally at variance in the results with the true interests of +both. + +349. At Birmingham, stamps and dies, and presses for a great +variety of articles, are let out: they are generally made by men +possessing small capital, and are rented by workmen. Power also +is rented at the same place. Steam-engines are erected in large +buildings containing a variety of rooms, in which each person may +hire one, two, or any other amount of horsepower, as his +occupation may require. If any mode could be discovered of +transmitting power, without much loss from friction, to +considerable distances, and at the same time of registering the +quantity made use of at any particular point, a considerable +change would probably take place in many departments of the +present system of manufacturing. A few central engines to produce +power, might then be erected in our great towns, and each +workman, hiring a quantity of power sufficient for his purpose, +might have it conveyed into his own house; and thus a transition +might in some instances be effected, if it should be found more +profitable, back again from the system of great factories to that +of domestic manufacture. + +350. The transmission of water through a series of pipes, +might be employed for the distribution of power, but the friction +would consume a considerable portion. Another method has been +employed in some instances, and is practised at the Mint. It +consists in exhausting the air from a large vessel by means of a +steam-engine. This vessel is connected by pipes, with a small +piston which drives each coining press; and, on opening a valve, +the pressure of the external air forces in the piston. This air +is then admitted to the general reservoir, and pumped out by the +engine. The condensation of air might be employed for the same +purpose; but there are some unexplained facts relating to elastic +fluids, which require further observations and experiment before +they can be used for the conveyance of power to any considerable +distance. It has been found, for instance, in attempting to blow +a furnace by means of a powerful water-wheel driving air through +a cast-iron pipe of above a mile in length, that scarcely any +sensible effect was produced at the opposite extremity. In one +instance, some accidental obstruction being suspected, a cat put +in at one end found its way out without injury at the other, thus +proving that the phenomenon did not depend on interruption within +the pipe. + +351. The most portable form in which power can be condensed +is, perhaps, by the liquefaction of the gases. It is known that, +under considerable pressure, several of these become liquid at +ordinary temperatures; carbonic acid, for example, is reduced to +a liquid state by a pressure of sixty atmospheres. One of the +advantages attending the use of these fluids, would be that the +pressure exerted by them would remain constant until the last +drop of liquid had assumed the form of gas. If either of the +elements of common air should be found to be capable of reduction +to a liquid state before it unites into a corrosive fluid with +the other ingredient, then we shall possess a ready means of +conveying power in any quantity and to any distance. Hydrogen +probably will require the strongest compressing force to render +it liquid, and may, therefore, possibly be applied where still +greater condensation of power is wanted. In all these cases the +condensed gases may be looked upon as springs of enormous force, +which have been wound up by the exertion of power, and which will +deliver the whole of it back again when required. These springs +of nature differ in some respects from the steel springs formed +by our art; for in the compression of the natural springs a vast +quantity of latent heat is forced out, and in their return to the +state of gas an equal quantity is absorbed. May not this very +property be employed with advantage in their application? + +Part of the mechanical difficulty to be overcome in +constructing apparatus connected with liquefied gases, will +consist in the structure of the valves and packing necessary to +retain the fluids under the great pressure to which they must be +submitted. The effect of heat on these gases has not yet been +sufficiently tried, to lead us to any very precise notions of the +additional power which its application to them will supply. + +The elasticity of air is sometimes employed as a spring, +instead of steel: in one of the large printing-machines in London +the momentum of a considerable mass of matter is destroyed by +making it condense the air included in a cylinder, by means of a +piston against which it impinges. + +352. The effect of competition in cheapening articles of +manufacture sometimes operates in rendering them less durable. +When such articles are conveyed to a distance for consumption, if +they are broken, it often happens, from the price of labour being +higher where they are used than where they were made, that it is +more expensive to mend the old article, than to purchase a new. +Such is usually the case, in great cities, with some of the +commoner locks, with hinges, and with a variety of articles of +hardware. + +NOTES: + +1. The amount of obstructions arising from the casual fixing of +trees in the bottom of the river, may be estimated from the +proportion of steamboats destroyed by running upon them, The +subjoined statement is taken from the American Almanack for 1832: + + +'Between the years 1811 and 1831, three hundred and +forty-eight steamboats were built on the Mississippi and its +tributary streams During that period a hundred and fifty were +lost or worn out, +'Of this hundred and fifty: + worn out 63 + lost by snags 36 + burnt 14 + lost by collision 3 + by accidents + not ascertained 34 +Thirty-six, or nearly one fourth, being destroyed by accidental +obstructions. + +Snag is the name given in America to trees which stand nearly +upright in the stream, with their roots fixed at the bottom. + +It is usual to divide off at the bow of the steamboats a +watertight chamber, in order that when a hole is made in it by +running against the snags, the water may not enter the rest of +the vessel and sink it instantly. + +2. This passage is not printed in italics in the original, but it +has been thus marked in the above extract, from its importance, +and from the conviction that the most extended discussion will +afford additional evidence of its truth. + +3. Report from the Committee of the House of Commons on the +Framework Knitter's Petition, April, 1819. + + + +Chapter 30 + +On Combinations Amongst Masters or Workmen against Each Other + +353. There exist amongst the workmen of almost all classes, +certain rules or laws which govern their actions towards each +other, and towards their employers. But, besides these general +principles, there are frequently others peculiar to each factory, +which have derived their origin, in many instances, from the +mutual convenience of the parties engaged in them. Such rules are +little known except to those actually pursuing the several +trades; and, as it is of importance that their advantages and +disadvantages should be canvassed, we shall offer a few remarks +upon some of them. + +354. The principles by which such laws should be tried are, + +First. That they conduce to the general benefit of all the +persons employed. + +Secondly. That they prevent fraud. + +Thirdly. That they interfere as little as possible with the +free agency of each individual. + +355. It is usual in many workshops, that, on the first +entrance of a new journeyman, he shall pay a small fine to the +rest of the men. It is clearly unjust to insist upon this +payment; and when it is spent in drinking, which is, +unfortunately, too often the case, it is injurious. The reason +assigned for the demand is, that the newcomer will require some +instruction in the habits of the shop, and in the places of the +different tools, and will thus waste the time of some of his +companions until he is instructed. If this fine were added to a +fund, managed by the workmen themselves, and either divided at +given periods, or reserved for their relief in sickness, it would +be less objectionable, since its tendency would be to check the +too frequent change of men from one shop to another. But it +ought, at all events, not to be compulsory, and the advantages to +be derived from the fund to which the workman is invited to +subscribe, ought to be his sole inducement to contribute. + +356. In many workshops, the workmen, although employed on +totally different parts of the objects manufactured, are yet +dependent, in some measure, upon each other. Thus a single smith +may be able to forge, in one day, work enough to keep four or +five turners employed during the next. If, from idleness or +intemperance, the smith neglects his work, and does not furnish +the usual supply, the turners (supposing them to be paid by the +piece), will have their time partly unoccupied, and their gains +consequently diminished. It is reasonable, in such circumstances, +that a fine should be levied on the delinquent; but it is +desirable that the master should have concurred with his workmen +in establishing such a rule, and that it should be shown to each +individual previously to his engagement; and it is very desirable +that such fine should not be spent in drinking. + +357. In some establishments, it is customary for the master +to give a small gratuity whenever any workman has exercised a +remarkable degree of skill, or has economized the material +employed. Thus, in splitting horn into layers for lanterns, one +horn usually furnishes from five to eight layers; but if a +workman split the horn into ten layers or more, he receives a +pint of ale from the master. These premiums should not be too +high, lest the material should be wasted in unsuccessful +attempts: but such regulations, when judiciously made, are +beneficial, as they tend to produce skill amongst the workmen, +profit to the masters, and diminished cost to the consumers. + +358. In some few factories, in which the men are paid by the +piece, it is usual, when any portion of work, delivered in by a +workman, is rejected by the master on account of its being badly +executed, to fine the delinquent. Such a practice tends to remedy +one of the evils attendant upon that mode of payment, and greatly +assists the master, since his own judgement is thus supported by +competent and unprejudiced judges. + +359. Societies exist amongst some of the larger bodies of +workmen, and others have been formed by the masters engaged in +the same branches of trade. These associations have different +objects in view; but it is very desirable that their effects +should be well understood by the individuals who compose them; +and that the advantages arising from them, which are certainly +great, should be separated as much as possible from the evils +which they have, unfortunately, too frequently introduced. +Associations of workmen and of masters may, with advantage, agree +upon rules to be observed by both parties, in estimating the +proportionate value of different kinds of work executed in their +trade, in order that time may be saved, and disputes be +prevented. They may also be most usefully employed in acquiring +accurate information as to the number of persons working in the +various departments of any manufacture, their rate of wages, the +number of machines in use, and other statistical details. +Information of this nature is highly valuable, both for the +guidance of the parties who are themselves most interested, and +to enable them, upon any application to government for +assistance, or with a view to legislative enactments, to supply +those details, without which the propriety of any proposed +measure cannot be duly estimated. Such details may be collected +by men actually engaged in any branch of trade, at a much smaller +expense of time, than by persons less acquainted with, and less +interested in it. + +360. One of the most legitimate and most important objects of +such associations as we have just mentioned, is to agree upon +ready and certain modes of measuring the quantity of work done by +the workmen. For a long time a difficulty upon this point existed +in the lace trade, which was justly complained of by the men as a +serious grievance; but the introduction of the rack, which counts +the number of holes in the length of the piece, has entirely put +an end to the most fertile cause of disputes. This invention was +adverted to by the Committee of 1812, and a hope was expressed, +in their report, that the same contrivance would be applied to +stocking-frames. It would, indeed, be of great mutual advantage +to the industrious workman, and to the master manufacturer in +every trade, if the machines employed in it could register the +quantity of work which they perform, in the same manner as a +steam-engine does the number of strokes it makes. The +introduction of such contrivances gives a greater stimulus to +honest industry than can readily be imagined, and removes one of +the sources of disagreement between parties, whose real interests +must always suffer by any estrangement between them. + +361. The effects arising from combinations amongst the +workmen, are almost always injurious to the parties themselves. +There are numerous instances, in which the public suffer by +increased price at the moment, but are ultimately gainers from +the permanent reduction which results; whilst, on the other hand, +the improvements which are often made in machinery in consequence +of 'a strike' amongst the workmen, most frequently do injury, of +greater or less duration, to that particular class which gave +rise to them. As the injury to the men and to their families is +almost always more serious than that which affects their +employers, it is of the utmost importance to the comfort and +happiness of the former class, that they should themselves +entertain sound views upon this question. For this purpose a few +illustrations of the principle which is here maintained, will +probably have greater weight than any reasoning of a more general +nature, though drawn from admitted principles of political +economy. Such instances will, moreover, present the advantage of +appealing to facts known to many individuals of those classes for +whose benefit these reflections are intended. + +362. There is a process in the manufacture of gun barrels for +making what, in the language of the trade, are called skelps. The +skelp is a piece or bar of iron, about three feet long, and four +inches wide, but thicker and broader at one end than at the +other; and the barrel of a musket is formed by forging out such +pieces to the proper dimensions, and then folding or bending them +into a cylindrical form, until the edges overlap, so that they +can be welded together. + +About twenty years ago, the workmen, employed at a very +extensive factory in forging these skelps out of bar-iron, +'struck' for an advance of wages; and as their demands were very +exorbitant, they were not immediately complied with. In the +meantime, the superintendent of the establishment directed his +attention to the subject; and it occurred to him, that if the +circumference of the rollers, between which the bar-iron was +rolled, were to be made equal to the length of a skelp, or of a +musket barrel, and if also the groove in which the iron was +compressed, instead of being of the same width and depth +throughout, were cut gradually deeper and wider from a point on +the rollers, until it returned to the same point, then the +bar-iron passing between such rollers, instead of being uniform +in width and thickness, would have the form of a skelp. On making +the trial, it was found to succeed perfectly; a great reduction +of human labour was effected by the process, and the workmen who +had acquired peculiar skill in performing it ceased to derive any +advantage from their dexterity. + +363. It is somewhat singular that another and a still more +remarkable instance of the effect of combination amongst workmen, +should have occurred but a few years since in the very same +trade. The process of welding the skelps, so as to convert them +into gun barrels, required much skill, and after the termination +of the war, the demand for muskets having greatly diminished, the +number of persons employed in making them was very much reduced. +This circumstance rendered combination more easy; and upon one +occasion, when a contract had been entered into for a +considerable supply to be delivered on a fixed day, the men all +struck for such an advance of wages as would have caused the +completion of the contract to be attended with a very heavy loss. + +In this difficulty, the contractors resorted to a mode of +welding the gun barrel, for which a patent had been taken out by +one of themselves some years before this event. The plan had not +then succeeded so well as to come into general use, in +consequence of the cheapness of the usual mode of welding by hand +labour, combined with some other difficulties with which the +patentee had to contend. But the stimulus produced by the +combination of the workmen, induced him to make new trials, and +he was enabled to introduce such a facility in welding gun +barrels by rollers, and such perfection in the work itself, that, +in all probability, very few will in future be welded by hand +labour. + +This new process consisted in folding a bar of iron, about a +foot long, into the form of a cylinder, with the edges a little +overlapping. It was then placed in a furnace, and being taken out +when raised to a welding heat, a triblet, or cylinder of iron, +was placed in it, and the whole was passed quickly through a pair +of rollers. The effect of this was, that the welding was +performed at a single heating, and the remainder of the +elongation necessary for extending the skelps to the length of +the musket barrel, was performed in a similar manner, but at a +lower temperature. The workmen who had combined were, of course, +no longer wanted, and instead of benefiting themselves by their +combination, they were reduced permanently, by this improvement +in the art, to a considerably lower rate of wages: for as the +process of welding gun barrels by hand required peculiar skill +and considerable experience, they had hitherto been in the habit +of earning much higher wages than other workmen of their class. +On the other hand, the new method of welding was far less +injurious to the texture of the iron, which was now exposed only +once, instead of three or four times, to the welding heat, so +that the public derived advantage from the superiority, as well +as from the economy of the process. Another process has +subsequently been invented, applicable to the manufacture of a +lighter kind of iron tubes, which can thus be made at a price +which renders their employment very general. They are now to be +found in the shops of all our larger ironmongers, of various +lengths and diameters, with screws cut at each end; and are in +constant use for the conveyance of gas for lighting, or of water +for warming, our houses. + +364. Similar examples must have presented themselves to all +those who are familiar with the details of our +manufactories, but these are sufficient to illustrate one of +the results of combinations. It would not, however, be fair +to push the conclusion deduced from these instances to its +extreme limit. Although it is very apparent, that in the two +cases which have been stated, the effects of combination +were permanently injurious to the workman, by almost +immediately placing him in a lower class (with respect to +his wages) than he occupied before; yet they do not prove +that all such combinations have this effect. It is quite +evident that they have all this tendency, it is also certain +that considerable stimulus must be applied to induce a man +to contrive a new and expensive process; and that in both +these cases, unless the fear of pecuniary loss had acted +powerfully, the improvement would not have been made. If, +therefore, the workmen had in either case combined for only +a small advance of wages, they would, in all probability, +have been successful, and the public would have been +deprived, for many years, of the inventions to which these +combinations gave rise. It must, however, be observed, that +the same skill which enabled the men to obtain, after long +practice, higher wages than the rest of their class, would +prevent many of them from being permanently thrown back into +the class of ordinary workmen. Their diminished wages will +continue only until they have acquired, by practice, a +facility of execution in some other of the more difficult +operations: but a diminution of wages, even for a year or +two, is still a very serious inconvenience to any person who +lives by his daily exertion. The consequence of combination +has then, in these instances, been, to the workmen who +combined--reduction of wages; to the public -reduction of +price; and to the manufacturer increased sale of his +commodity, resulting from that reduction. + +365. It is, however, important to consider the effects of +combination in another and less obvious point of view. The fear +of combination amongst the men whom he employs, will have a +tendency to induce the manufacturer to conceal from his workmen +the extent of the orders he may at any time have received; and, +consequently, they will always be less acquainted with the extent +of the demand for their labour than they otherwise might be. This +is injurious to their interests; for instead of foreseeing, by +the gradual falling-off in the orders, the approach of a time +when they must be unemployed, and preparing accordingly, they are +liable to much more sudden changes than those to which they would +otherwise be exposed. + +In the evidence given by Mr Galloway, the engineer, he +remarks, that, + +"When employers are competent to show their men that their +business is steady and certain, and when men find that they are +likely to have permanent employment, they have always better +habits, and more settled notions, which will make them better +men, and better workmen, and will produce great benefits to all +who are interested in their employment." + +366. As the manufacturer, when he makes a contract, has no +security that a combination may not arise amongst the workmen, +which may render that contract a loss instead of a benefit; +besides taking precautions to prevent them from becoming +acquainted with it, he must also add to the price at which he +could otherwise sell the article, some small increase to cover +the risk of such an occurrence. If an establishment consist of +several branches which can only be carried on jointly, as, for +instance, of iron mines, blast furnaces, and a colliery, in which +there are distinct classes of workmen, it becomes necessary to +keep on hand a larger stock of materials than would be required, +if it were certain that no combinations would arise. + +Suppose, for instance, the colliers were to 'strike' for an +advance of wages--unless there was a stock of coal above ground, +the furnaces must be stopped, and the miners also would be thrown +out of employ. Now the cost of keeping a stock of iron ore, or of +coals above ground, is just the same as that of keeping in a +drawer, unemployed, its value in money, (except, indeed, that the +coal suffers a small deterioration by exposure to the elements). +The interest of this sum must, therefore, be considered as the +price of an insurance against the risk of combination amongst the +workmen; and it must, so far as it goes, increase the price of +the manufactured article, and, consequently, limit the demand +which would otherwise exist for it. But every circumstance which +tends to limit the demand, is injurious to the workmen; because +the wider the demand, the less it is exposed to fluctuation. + +The effect to which we have alluded, is by no means a +theoretical conclusion; the proprietors of one establishment in +the iron trade, within the author's knowledge, think it expedient +always to keep above ground a supply of coal for six months, +which is, in that instance, equal in value to about L10,000. When +we reflect that the quantity of capital throughout the country +thus kept unemployed merely from the fear of combinations amongst +the workmen, might, under other circumstances, be used for +keeping a larger number at work, the importance of introducing a +system in which there should exist no inducement to combine +becomes additionally evident. + +367. That combinations are, while they last, productive of +serious inconveniences to the workmen themselves, is admitted by +all parties; and it is equally true, that, in most cases, a +successful result does not leave them in so good a condition as +they were in before 'the strike'. The little capital they +possessed, which ought to have been hoarded with care for days of +illness or distress, is exhausted; and frequently, in order to +gratify a pride, at the existence of which we cannot but rejoice, +even whilst we regret its misdirected energy, they will undergo +the severest privations rather than return to work at their +former wages. With many of the workmen, unfortunately, during +such periods, bad habits are formed which it is very difficult to +eradicate; and, in all those engaged in such transactions, the +kinder feelings of the heart are chilled, and passions are called +into action which are permanently injurious to the happiness of +the individual, and destructive of those sentiments of confidence +which it is equally the interest of the master manufacturer and +of his workman to maintain. If any of the trade refuse to join in +the strike, the majority too frequently forget, in the excitement +of their feelings, the dictates of justice, and endeavour to +exert a species of tyranny, which can never be permitted to exist +in a free country. In conceding therefore to the working classes, +that they have a right, if they consider it expedient, to combine +for the purpose of procuring higher wages (provided always, that +they have completed all their existing contracts), it ought ever +to be kept before their attention, that the same freedom which +they claim for themselves they are bound to allow to others, who +may have different views of the advantages of combination. Every +effort which reason and kindness can dictate, should be made, not +merely to remove their grievances, but to satisfy their own +reason and feelings, and to show them the consequences which will +probably result from their conduct: but the strong arm of the +law, backed, as in such cases it will always be, by public +opinion, should be instantly and unhesitatingly applied, to +prevent them from violating the liberty of a portion of their +own, or of any other class of society. + +368. Amongst the evils which ultimately fall heavy on the +working classes themselves, when, through mistaken views, they +attempt to interfere with their employers in the mode of carrying +on their business, may be mentioned the removal of factories to +other situations, where the proprietors may be free from the +improper control of their men. The removal of a considerable +number of lace frames to the western counties, which took place, +in consequence of the combinations in Nottinghamshire, has +already been mentioned. Other instances have occurred, where +still greater injury has been produced by the removal of a +portion of the skill and capital of the country to a foreign +land. Such was the case at Glasgow, as stated in the fifth +Parliamentary Report respecting Artizans and Machinery. One of +the partners in an extensive cotton factory, disgusted by the +unprincipled conduct of the workmen, removed to the state of New +York, where he re-established his machinery, and thus afforded, +to rivals already formidable to our trade, at once a pattern of +our best machinery, and an example of the most economical methods +of employing it. + +369. When the nature of the work is such that it is not +possible to remove it, as happens with regard to mines, the +proprietors are more exposed to injury from combinations amongst +the workmen: but as the owners are generally possessed of a +larger capital, they generally succeed, if the reduction of wages +which they propose is really founded on the necessity of the +case. + +An extensive combination lately existed amongst the colliers +in the north of England, which unfortunately led, in several +instances, to acts of violence. The proprietors of the coalmines +were consequently obliged to procure the aid of miners from other +parts of England who were willing to work at the wages they could +afford to give; and the aid of the civil, and in some cases of +the military, power, was requisite for their protection. This +course was persisted in during several months, and the question +being, which party could support itself longest on the diminished +gains, as it might have readily been foreseen, the proprietors +ultimately succeeded. + +370. One of the remedies employed by the masters against the +occurrence of combinations, is to make engagements with their men +for long periods and to arrange them in such a manner, that these +contracts shall not all terminate together. This has been done in +some cases at Sheffield, and in other places. It is attended with +the inconvenience to the masters that, during periods when the +demand for their produce is reduced, they are still obliged to +employ the same number of workmen. This circumstance, however, +frequently obliges the proprietors to direct their attention to +improvements in their works: and in one such instance, within the +author's knowledge, a large reservoir was deepened, thus +affording a more constant supply to the water-wheel, whilst, at +the same time, the mud from the bottom gave permanent fertility +to a piece of land previously almost barren. In this case, not +merely was the supply of produce checked, when a glut existed. +but the labour was, in fact, applied more profitably than it +would have been in the usual course. + +371. A mode of paying the wages of workmen in articles which +they consume, has been introduced into some of our manufacturing +districts, which has been called the truck system. As in many +instances this has nearly the effect of a combination of the +masters against the men, it is a fit subject for discussion in +the present chapter: but it should be carefully distinguished +from another system of a very different tendency, which will be +first described. + +372. The principal necessaries for the support of a workman +and his family are few in number, and are usually purchased by +him in small quantities weekly. Upon such quantities, sold by the +retail dealer, a large profit is generally made; and if the +article is one whose quality, like that of tea, is not readily +estimated, then a great additional gain is made by the retail +dealer selling an inferior article. + +Where the number of workmen living on the same spot is large, +it may be thought desirable that they should unite together and +have an agent, to purchase by wholesale those articles which are +most in demand, as tea, suger, bacon, etc., and to retail them at +prices, which will just repay the wholesale cost, together with +the expense of the agent who conducts their sale. If this be +managed wholly by a committee of workmen, aided perhaps by advice +from the master, and if the agent is paid in such a manner as to +have himself an interest in procuring good and reasonable +articles, it may be a benefit to the workmen: and if the plan +succeed in reducing the cost of articles of necessity to the men, +it is clearly the interest of the master to encourage it. The +master may indeed be enabled to afford them facilities in making +their wholesale purchases; but he ought never to have the least +interest in, or any connection with, the profit made by the +articles sold. The men, on the other hand, who subscribe to set +up the shop, ought not, in the slightest degree, to be compelled +to make their purchases there: the goodness and cheapness of the +article ought to be their sole inducements. + +It may perhaps be objected, that this plan is only employing +a portion of the capital belonging to the workmen in a retail +trade; and that, without it, competition amongst small +shopkeepers will reduce the articles to nearly the same price. +This objection would be valid if the objects of consumption +required no verification; but combining what has been already +stated on that subject(1*) with the present argument, the plan +seems liable to no serious objections. + +373. The truck system is entirely different in its effects. +The master manufacturer keeps a retail shop for articles required +by his men, and either pays their wages in goods, or compels them +by express agreement, or less directly, by unfair means, to +expend the whole or a certain part of their wages at his shop. If +the manufacturer kept this shop merely for the purpose of +securing good articles, at fair prices, to his workmen, and if he +offered no inducement to them to purchase at his shop, except the +superior cheapness of his articles, it would certainly be +advantageous to the men. But, unfortunately, this is not always +the case; and the temptation to the master, in times of +depression, to reduce in effect the wages which he pays (by +increasing the price of articles at his shop), without altering +the nominal rate of payment, is frequently too great to be +withstood. If the object be solely to procure for his workmen +better articles, it will be more effectually accomplished by the +master confining himself to supplying a small capital, at a +moderate rate of interest; leaving the details to be conducted by +a committee of workmen, in conjunction with his own agent, and +the books of the shop to be audited periodically by the men +themselves. + +374. Wherever the workmen are paid in goods, or are compelled +to purchase at the master's shop, much injustice is done to them, +and great misery results from it. Whatever may have been the +intentions of the master in such cases, the real effect is, to +deceive the workman as to the amount he receives in exchange for +his labour. Now, the principles on which the happiness of that +class of society depends, are difficult enough to be understood, +even by those who are blessed with far better opportunities of +investigating them: and the importance of their being well +acquainted with those principles which relate to themselves, is +of more vital consequence to workmen, than to many other classes. +It is therefore highly desirable to assist them in comprehending +the position in which they are placed, by rendering all the +relations in which they stand to each other, and to their +employers, as simple as possible. Workmen should be paid entirely +in money; their work should be measured by some unbiassed, some +unerring piece of mechanism; the time during which they are +employed should be defined, and punctually adhered to. The +payments they make to their benefit societies should be fixed on +such just principles, as not to require extraordinary +contributions. In short, the object of all who wish to promote +their happiness should be, to give them, in the simplest form, +the means of knowing beforehand, the sum they are likely to +acquire by their labour, and the money they will be obliged to +expend for their support: thus putting before them, in the +clearest light, the certain result of persevering industry. + +375. The cruelty which is inflicted on the workman by the +payment of his wages in goods, is often very severe. The little +purchases necessary for the comfort of his wife and children, +perhaps the medicines he occasionally requires for them in +illness, must all be made through the medium of barter; and he is +obliged to waste his time in arranging an exchange, in which the +goods which he has been compelled to accept for his labour are +invariably taken at a lower price than that at which his master +charged them to him. The father of a family perhaps, writhing +under the agonies of the toothache, is obliged to make his hasty +bargain with the village surgeon, before he will remove the cause +of his pain; or the disconsolate mother is compelled to sacrifice +her depreciated goods in exchange for the last receptacle of her +departed offspring. The subjoined evidence from the Report of the +Committee of the House of Commons on Framework Knitters' +Petitions, shows that these are not exaggerated statements. + +It has been so common in our town to pay goods instead of +money, that a number of my neighbours have been obliged to pay +articles for articles, to pay sugar for drugs out of the +druggist's shop; and others have been obliged to pay sugar for +drapery goods, and such things, and exchange in that way numbers +of times. I was credibly informed, that one person paid half a +pound of tenpenny sugar and a penny to have a tooth drawn; and +there is a credible neighbour of mine told me, that he had heard +that the sexton had been paid for digging a grave with sugar and +tea: and before I came off, knowing I had to give evidence upon +these things, I asked this friend to enquire of the sexton, +whether this was a fact: the sexton hesitated for a little time, +on account of bringing into discredit the person who paid these +goods: however, he said at last, 'I have received these articles +repeatedly--I know these things have been paid to a great extent +in this way.' + +NOTES: + +1. See Chapter XV, p. 87 + + + +Chapter 31 + +On Combinations of Masters against the public + +376. A species of combination occasionally takes place +amongst manufacturers against persons having patents: and these +combinations are always injurious to the public, as well as +unjust to the inventors. Some years since, a gentleman invented a +machine, by which modellings and carvings were cut in mahogany, +and other fine woods. The machine resembled, in some measure, the +drilling apparatus employed in ornamental lathes; it produced +beautiful work at a very moderate expense: but the cabinetmakers +met together, and combined against it, and the patent has +consequently never been worked. A similar fate awaited a machine +for cutting veneers by means of a species of knife. In this +instance, the wood could be cut thinner than by the circular saw, +and no waste was incurred; but 'the trade' set themselves against +it, and after a heavy expense, it was given up. + +The excuse alleged for this kind of combination, was the fear +entertained by the cabinetmakers that when the public became +acquainted with the article, the patentee would raise the price. + +Similar examples of combination seem not to be unfrequent, as +appears by the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons on +Patents for Inventions, June, 1829. See the evidence of Mr +Holdsworth. + +377. There occurs another kind of combination against the +public, with which it is difficult to deal. It usually ends in a +monopoly, and the public are then left to the discretion of the +monopolists not to charge them above the growling point--that +is, not to make them pay so much as to induce them actually to +combine against the imposition. This occurs when two companies +supply water or gas to consumers by means of pipes laid down +under the pavement in the street of cities: it may possibly occur +also in docks, canals, railroads, etc., and in other cases where +the capital required is very large, and the competition very +limited. If water or gas companies combine, the public +immediately loses all the advantage of competition, and it has +generally happened, that at the end of a period during which they +have undersold each other, the several companies have agreed to +divide the whole district supplied, into two or more parts, each +company then removing its pipes from all the streets except those +in its own portion. This removal causes great injury to the +pavement, and when the pressure of increased rates induces a new +company to start, the same inconvenience is again produced. +Perhaps one remedy against evils of this kind might be, when a +charter is granted to such companies, to restrict, to a certain +amount, the rate of profit on the shares, and to direct that any +profits beyond, shall accumulate for the repayment of the +original capital. This has been done in several late Acts of +Parliament establishing companies. The maximum rate of profit +allowed ought to be liberal, to compensate for the risk; the +public ought to have auditors on their part, and the accounts +should be annually published, for the purpose of preventing the +limitations from being exceeded. It must however be admitted, +that this would be an interference with capital, which, if +allowed, should, in the present state of our knowledge, be. +examined with great circumspection in each individual case, until +some general principle is established on well-admitted grounds. + +378. An instrument called a gas-meter, which ascertains the +quantity of gas used by each consumer, has been introduced, and +furnishes a satisfactory mode of determining the payments to be +made by individuals to the gas companies. A contrivance somewhat +similar in its nature, might be used for the sale of water; but +in that case some public inconvenience might be apprehended, from +the diminished quantity which would then run to waste: the +streams of water running through the sewers in London, are +largely supplied from this source; and if this supply were +diminished, the drainage of the metropolis might be injuriously +affected. + +379. In the north of England a powerful combination has long +existed among the coal-owners, by which the public has suffered +in the payment of increased price. The late examination of +evidence before a Committee of the House of Commons, has +explained its mode of operation, and the Committee have +recommended, that for the present the sale of coal should be left +to the competition of other districts. + +380. A combination, of another kind, exists at this moment to +a great extent, and operates upon the price of the very pages +which are now communicating information respecting it. A subject +so interesting to every reader, and still more so to every +manufacturer ofthe article which the reader consumes, deserves an +attentive examination. + +We have shown in Chapter XXI, p. 144, the component parts of +the expense of each copy of the present work; and we have seen +that the total amount of the cost of its production, exclusive of +any payment to the author for his labour, is 2s. 3d.(1*) + +Another fact, with which the reader is more practically +familiar, is that he has paid, or is to pay, to his bookseller, +six shillings for the volume. Let us now examine into the +distribution of these six shillings, and then, having the facts +ofthe case before us, we shall be better able to judgeofthe +meritsofthe combinationjust mentioned, andtoexplainits effects. + + Distribution of the profits on a six shilling book + + Buys at; Sells at; Profit on capital expended + s. d.; s. d. + +No. I--The publisher who accounts to the author for every copy +received; 3 10; 4 2; 10 per cent +No. II--The bookseller who retails to the public; 4 2; 6 0; 44 + Or, 4 6; 6 0; 33 1/3 + + +No. I, the publisher, is a bookseller; he is, in fact, the +author's agent. His duties are, to receive and take charge of the +stock, for which he supplies warehouse room; to advise the author +about the times and methods of advertising; and to insert the +advertisements. As he publishes other books, he will advertise +lists of those sold by himself; and thus, by combining many in +one advertisement, diminish the expense to each of his +principals. He pays the author only for the books actually sold; +consequently, he makes no outlav of capital, except that which he +pays for advertisements: but he is answerable for any bad debts +he may contract in disposing of them. His charge is usually ten +per cent on the returns. + +No. II is the bookseller who retails the work to the public. +On the publication of a new book, the publisher sends round to +the trade, to receive 'subscriptions' from them for any number of +copies not less than two. These copies are usually charged to the +'subscribers', on an average, at about four or five per cent less +than the wholesale price of the book: in the present case the +subscription price is 4s. 2d. for each copy. After the day of +publication, the price charged by the publisher to the +booksellers is 4s. 6d. With some works it is the custom to +deliver twenty-five copies to those who order twenty-four, thus +allowing a reduction of about four per cent. Such was the case +with the present volume. Different publishers offer different +terms to the subscribers; and it is usual, after intervals of +about six months, for the publisher again to open a subscription +list, so that if the work be one for which there is a steady +sale, the trade avail themselves of these opportunities +of purchasing, at the reduced rate, enough to supply their +probable demand.(2*) + +381. The volume thus purchased of the publisher at 4s. 2d. or +4s. 6d. is retailed by the bookseller to the public at 6s. In the +first case he makes a profit of forty-four, in the second of +thirty-three per cent. Even the smaller of these two rates of +profit on the capital employed, appears to be much too large. It +may sometimes happen, that when a book is enquired for, the +retail dealer sends across the street to the wholesale agent, and +receives, for this trifling service, one fourth part of the money +paid by the purchaser; and perhaps the retail dealer takes also +six months' credit for the price which the volume actually cost +him. + +382. In section 256, the price of each process in +manufacturing the present volume was stated: we shall now give an +analysis of the whole expense of conveying it into the hands of +the public. + + The retail price 6s. on 3052 produces 915 12 0 + +1. Total expense of printing and paper 207 5 8 7/11 +2. Taxes on paper and advertisements 40 0 11 +3. Commission to publisher as agent between author and printer 18 +14 4 4/11 4 Commission to publisher as agent for sale of the book +63 11 8 +5. Profit--the difference between subscription price and trade +price, 4d. per vol. 50 17 4 +6. Profit the difference between trade price and retail price, +1s. 6d. per vol. 228 18 0 + 362 1 4 +7. Remains for authorship 306 4 0 + + Total 915 12 0 + + +This account appears to disagree with that in page 146. but +it will be observed that the three first articles amount to L266 +1s., the sum there stated. The apparent difference arises from a +circumstance which was not noticed in the first edition of this +work. The bill amounting to L205 18s., as there given, and as +reprinted in the present volume, included an additional charge of +ten per cent upon the real charges of the printer and +paper-maker. + +383. It is usual for the publisher, when he is employed as +agent between the author and printer, to charge a commission of +ten per cent on all payments he makes. If the author is informed +of this custom previously to his commencing the work, as was the +case in the present instance, he can have no just cause of +complaint; for it is optional whether he himself employs the +printer, or communicates with him through the intervention of his +publisher. + +The services rendered for this payment are, the making +arrangements with the printer, the wood-cutter, and the engraver, +if required. There is a convenience in having some intermediate +person between the author and printer, in case the former should +consider any of the charges made by the latter as too high. When +the author himself is quite unacquainted with the details of the +art of printing, he may object to charges which, on a better +acquaintance with the subject, he might be convinced were very +moderate; and in such cases he ought to depend on the judgement +of his publisher, who is generally conversant with the art. This +is particularly the case in the charge for alterations and +corrections, some of which, although apparently trivial, occupy +the compositors much time in making. It should also be observed +that the publisher, in this case, becomes responsible for the +payments to those persons. + +384. It is not necessary that the author should avail himself +of this intervention, although it is the interest of the +publisher that he should; and booksellers usually maintain that +the author cannot procure his paper or printing at a cheaper rate +if he go at once to the producers. This appears from the evidence +given before the Committee of the House of Commons in the +Copyright Acts, 8 May, 1818. + +Mr O. Rees, bookseller, of the house of Longman and Co., +Paternoster Row, examined: + +Q. Suppose a gentleman to publish a work on his own account, +and to incur all the various expenses; could he get the paper at +30s. a ream? + +A. I presume not; I presume a stationer would not sell the +paper at the same price to an indifferent gentleman as to the +trade. + +Q. The Committee asked you if a private gentleman was to +publish a work on his own account, if he would not pay more for +the paper than persons in the trade; the Committee wish to be +informed whether a printer does not charge a gentleman a higher +rate than to a publisher. + +A. I conceive they generally charge a profit on the paper. + +Q. Do not the printers charge a higher price also for +printing, than they do to the trade? + +A. I always understood that they do. + +385. There appears to be little reason for this distinction +in charging for printing a larger price to the author than to the +publisher, provided the former is able to give equal security for +the payment. With respect to the additional charge on paper, if +the author employs either publisher or printer to purchase it, +they ought to receive a moderate remuneration for the risk, since +they become responsible for the payment; but there is no reason +why, if the author deals at once with the paper-maker, he should +not purchase on the same terms as the printer; and if he choose, +by paying ready money, not to avail himself of the long credit +allowed in those trades, he ought to procure his paper +considerably cheaper. + +386. It is time, however, that such conventional combinations +between different trades should be done away with. In a country +so eminently depending for its wealth on its manufacturing +industry, it is of importance that there should exist no abrupt +distinction of classes, and that the highest of the aristocracy +should feel proud of being connected, either personally or +through their relatives, with those pursuits on which their +country's greatness depends. The wealthier manufacturers and +merchants already mix with those classes, and the larger and even +the middling tradesmen are frequently found associating with the +gentry of the land. It is good that this ambition should be +cultivated, not by any rivalry in expense, but by a rivalry in +knowledge and in liberal feelings; and few things would more +contribute to so desirable an effect, than the abolition of all +such contracted views as those to which we have alluded. The +advantage to the other classes, would be an increased +acquaintance with the productive arts of the country an increased +attention to the importance of acquiring habits of punctuality +and of business and, above all, a general feeling that it is +honourable, in any rank of life, to increase our own and our +country's riches, by employing our talents in the production or +in the distribution of wealth. + +387. Another circumstance omitted to be noticed in the first +edition relates to what is technically called the overplus, which +may be now explained. When 500 copies of a work are to be +printed, each sheet of it requires one ream of paper. Now a ream, +as used by printers, consists of 21 1/2 quires, or 516 sheets. +This excess of sixteen sheets is necessary in order to allow for +'revises'--for preparing and adjusting the press for the due +performance of its work, and to supply the place of any sheets +which may be accidentally dirtied or destroyed in the processes +of printing, or injured by the binder in putting into boards. It +is found, however, that three per cent is more than the +proportion destroyed, and that damage is less frequent in +proportion to the skill and care of the workmen. + +From the evidence of several highly respectable booksellers +and printers, before the Committee of the House of Commons on the +Copyright Act, May, 1818, it appears that the average number of +surplus copies, above 500, is between two and three; that on +smaller impressions it is less, whilst on larger editions it is +greater; that, in some instances, the complete number of 500 is +not made up, in which case the printer is obliged to pay for +completing it; and that in no instance have the whole sixteen +extra copies been completed. On the volume in the reader's hands, +the edition of which consisted of 3000, the surplus amounted to +fifty-two--a circumstance arising from the improvements in +printing and the increased care of the pressmen. Now this +overplus ought to be accounted for to the author--and I believe +it usually is so by all respectable publishers. + +388. In order to prevent the printer from privately taking +off a larger number of impressions than he delivers to the author +or publisher, various expedients have been adopted. In some works +a particular watermark has been used in paper made purposely for +the book: thus the words 'Mecanique Celeste' appear in the +watermark of the two first volumes of the great work of Laplace. +In other cases, where the work is illustrated by engravings, such +a fraud would be useless without the concurrence of the +copperplate printer. In France it is usual to print a notice on +the back of the title page, that no copies are genuine without +the subjoined signature of the author: and attached to this +notice is the author's name, either written, or printed by hand +from a wooden block. But notwithstanding this precaution, I have +recently purchased a volume, printed at Paris, in which the +notice exists, but no signature is attached. In London there is +not much danger of such frauds, because the printers are men of +capital, to whom the profit on such a transaction would be +trifling, and the risk of the detection of a fact, which must of +necessity be known to many of their workmen, would be so great as +to render the attempt at it folly. + +389. Perhaps the best advice to an author, if he publishes on +his own account, and is a reasonable person, possessed of common +sense, would be to go at once to a respectable printer and make +his arrangements with him. + +390. If the author do not wish to print his work at his own +risk, then he should make an agreement with a publisher for an +edition of a limited number; but he should by no means sell the +copyright. If the work contains woodcuts or engravings, it would +be judicious to make it part of the contract that they shall +become the author's property, with the view to their use in a +subsequent edition of the works, if they should be required. An +agreement is frequently made by which the publisher advances the +money and incurs all the risk on condition of his sharing the +profits with the author. The profits alluded to are, for the +present work, the last item of section 382, or L306 4s. + +391. Having now explained all the arrangements in printing +the present volume, let us return to section 382, and examine the +distribution of the L915 paid by the public. Of this sum L207 was +the cost of the book, L40 was taxes, L362 was the charges of the +bookseller in conveying it to the consumer, and L306 remained for +authorship. + +The largest portion, or L362 goes into the pockets of the +booksellers; and as they do not advance capital, and incur very +little risk, this certainly appears to be an unreasonable +allowance. The most extravagant part of the charge is the +thirty-three per cent which is allowed as profit on retailing the +book. + +It is stated, however, that all retail booksellers allow to +their customers a discount of ten per cent upon orders above +20s., and that consequently the nominal profit of forty-four or +thirty-three per cent is very much reduced. If this is the case, +it may fairly be enquired, why the price of L2 for example, is +printed upon the back of a book, when every bookseller is ready +to sell it at L1 16s., and why those who are unacquainted with +that circumstance should be made to pay more than others who are +better informed? + +392. Several reasons have been alleged as justifying this +high rate of profit. + +First, it has been alleged that the purchasers of books take +long credit. This, probably, is often the case, and admitting it, +no reasonable person can object to a proportionate increase of +price. But it is no less clear, that persons who do pay ready +money, should not be charged the same price as those who defer +their payments to a remote period. + +Secondly, it has been urged that large profits are necessary +to pay for the great expenses of bookselling establishments; that +rents are high and taxes heavy; and that it would be impossible +for the great booksellers to compete with the smaller ones, +unless the retail profits were great. In reply to this it may be +observed that the booksellers are subject to no peculiar pressure +which does not attach to all other retail trades. It may also be +remarked that large establishments always have advantages over +smaller ones, in the economy arising from the division of labour; +and it is scarcely to be presumed that booksellers are the only +class who, in large concerns, neglect to avail themselves of +them. + +Thirdly, it has been pretended that this high rate of profit +is necessary to cover the risk of the bookseller's having some +copies left on his shelves; but he is not obliged to buy of the +publisher a single copy more than he has orders for: and if he do +purchase more, at the subscription price, he proves, by the very +fact, that he himself does not estimate that risk at more than +from four to eight per cent. + +393. It has been truly observed, on the other hand, that many +copies of books are spoiled by persons who enter the shops of +booksellers without intending to make any purchase. But, not to +mention that such persons finding on the tables various new +publications, are frequently induced, by that opportunity of +inspecting them, to become purchasers: this damage does not apply +to all booksellers nor to all books; of course it is not +necessary to keep in the shop books of small probable demand or +great price. In the present case, the retail profit on three +copies only, namely, 4s. 6d., would pay the whole cost of the one +copy soiled in the shop; and even that copy might afterwards +produce, at an auction, half or a third of its cost price. The +argument, therefore, from disappointments in the sale of books, +and that arising from heavy stock, are totally groundless in the +question between publisher and author. It shold be remarked also, +that the publisher is generally a retail, as well as a wholesale, +bookseller; and that, besides his profit upon every copy which he +sells in his capacity of agent, he is allowed to charge the +author as if every copy had been subscribed for at 4s. 2d., and +of course he receives the same profit as the rest of the +wholesale traders for the books retailed in his own shop. + +394. In the country, there is more reason for a considerable +allowance between the retail dealer and the public; because the +profit of the country bookseller is diminished by the expense of +the carriage of the books from London. He must also pay a +commission, usually five per cent, to his London agent, on all +those books which his correspondent does not himself publish. If +to this be added a discount of five per cent, allowed for ready +money to every customer, and of ten per cent to book clubs, the +profit of the bookseller in a small country town is by no means +too large. + +Some of the writers, who have published criticisms on the +observations made in the first edition of this work, have +admitted that the apparent rate of profit to the booksellers is +too large. But they have, on the other hand, urged that too +favourable a case is taken in supposing the whole 3000 copies +sold. If the reader will turn back to section 382, he will find +that the expense of the three first items remains the same, +whatever be the number of copies sold; and on looking over the +remaining items he will perceive that the bookseller, who incurs +very little risk and no outlay, derives exactly the same profit +per cent on the copies sold, whatever their numbers may be. This, +however, is not the case with the unfortunate author, on whom +nearly the whole of the loss falls undivided. The same writers +have also maintained, that the profit is fixed at the rate +mentioned, in order to enable the bookseller to sustain losses, +unavoidably incurred in the purchase and retail of other books. +This is the weakest of all arguments. It would be equally just +that a merchant should charge an extravagant commission for an +undertaking unaccompanied with any risk, in order to repay +himself for the losses which his own want of skill might lead to +in his other mercantile transactions. + +395. That the profit in retailing books is really too large, +is proved by several circumstances: First, that the same nominal +rate of profit has existed in the bookselling trade for a long +series of years, notwithstanding the great fluctuations in the +rate of profit on capital invested in every other business. +Secondly, that, until very lately, a multitude of booksellers, in +all parts of London, were content with a much smaller profit, and +were willing to sell for ready money, or at short credit, to +persons of undoubted character, at a profit of only ten per cent, +and in some instances even at a still smaller percentage, instead +of that of twenty-five per cent on the published prices. Thirdly, +that they are unable to maintain this rate of profit except by a +combination, the object of which is to put down all competition. + +396. Some time ago a small number of the large London +booksellers entered into such a combination. One of their objects +was to prevent any bookseller from selling books for less than +ten per cent under the published prices; and in order to enforce +this principle, they refuse to sell books, except at the +publishing price, to any bookseller who declines signing an +agreement to that effect. By degrees, many were prevailed upon to +join this combination; and the effect of the exclusion it +inflicted, left the small capitalist no option between signing or +having his business destroyed. Ultimately, nearly the whole +trade, comprising about two thousand four hundred persons, have +been compelled to sign the agreement. + +As might be naturally expected from a compact so injurious to +many of the parties to it, disputes have arisen; several +booksellers have been placed under the ban of the combination, +who allege that they have not violated its rules, and who accuse +the opposite party of using spies, etc., to entrap them.(3*) + +397. The origin of this combination has been explained by Mr +Pickering, of Chancery Lane, himself a publisher, in a printed +statement, entitled, 'Booksellers' Monopoly' and the following +list of booksellers, who form the committee for conducting this +combination, is copied from that printed at the head of each of +the cases published by Mr Pickering: + + Allen, J., 7, Leadenhall Street. + Arch, J., 61, Cornhill. + Baldwin, R., 47, Paternoster Row. + Booth, J. + Duncan, J., 37, Paternoster Row. + Hatchard, J., Piccadilly. + Marshall, R., Stationers' Court. + Murray, J., Albemarle Street. + Rees, O., 39, Paternoster Row. + Richardson, J. M., 23, Cornhill. + Rivington, J., St. Paul's Churchyard. + Wilson, E., Royal Exchange. + + +398. In whatever manner the profits are divided between the +publisher and the retail bookseller, the fact remains, that the +reader pays for the volume in his hands 6s., and that the author +will receive only 3s. 10d.; out of which latter sum, the expense +of printing the volume must be paid: so that in passing through +two hands this book has produced a profit of forty-four per cent. +This excessive rate of profit has drawn into the book trade a +larger share of capital than was really advantageous; and the +competition between the different portions of that capital has +naturally led to the system of underselling, to which the +committee above mentioned are endeavouring to put a stop.(4*) + +399. There are two parties who chiefly suffer from this +combination, the public and authors. The first party can seldom be +induced to take an active part against any grievance; and in fact +little is required from it, except a cordial support of the +authors, in any attempt to destroy a combination so injurious to +the interests of both. + +Many an industrious bookseller would be glad to sell for 5s. +the volume which the reader holds in his hand, and for which he +has paid 6s.; and, in doing so for ready money, the tradesman who +paid 4s. 6d. for the book, would realize, without the least risk, +a profit of eleven per cent on the money he had advanced. It is +one of the objects of the combination we are discussing, to +prevent the small capitalist from employing his capital at that +rate of profit which he thinks most advantageous to himself; and +such a proceeding is decidedly injurious to the public. + +400. Having derived little pecuniary advantage from my own +literary productions; and being aware, that from the very nature +of their subjects, they can scarcely be expected to reimburse the +expense of preparing them, I may be permitted to offer an opinion +upon the subject, which I believe to be as little influenced by +any expectation of advantage from the future, as it is by any +disappointment at the past. + +Before, however, we proceed to sketch the plan of a campaign +against Paternoster Row, it will be fit to inform the reader of +the nature of the enemies' forces, and of his means of attack and +defence. Several of the great publishers find it convenient to be +the proprietors of reviews, magazines, journals, and even of +newspapers. The editors are paid, in some instances very +handsomely, for their superintendence; and it is scarcely to be +expected that they should always mete out the severest justice on +works by the sale of which their employers are enriched. The +great and popular works of the day are, of course, reviewed with +some care, and with deference to public opinion. Without this, +the journals would not sell; and it is convenient to be able to +quote such articles as instances of impartiality. Under shelter +of this, a host of ephemeral productions are written into a +transitory popularity; and by the aid of this process, the +shelves of the booksellers, as well as the pockets of the public, +are disencumbered. To such an extent are these means employed, +that some of the periodical publications of the day ought to be +regarded merely as advertising machines. That the reader may be +in some measure on his guard against such modes of influencing +his judgement, he should examine whether the work reviewed is +published by the bookseller who is the proprietor of the review; +a fact which can sometimes be ascertained from the title of the +book as given at the head of the article. But this is by no means +a certain criterion, because partnerships in various publications +exist between houses in the book trade, which are not generally +known to the public; so that, in fact, until reviews are +established in which booksellers have no interest, they can never +be safely trusted. + +401. In order to put down the combination of booksellers, no +plan appears so likely to succeed as a counter-association of +authors. If any considerable portion of the literary world were +to unite and form such an association; and if its affairs were +directed by an active committee, much might be accomplished. The +objects of such an union should be, to employ some person well +skilled in the printing, and in the bookselling trade; and to +establish him in some central situation as their agent. Each +member of the association to be at liberty to place any, or all +of his works in the hands of this agent for sale; to allow any +advertisements, or list of books published by members of the +association, to be stitched up at the end of each of his own +productions; the expense of preparing them being defrayed by the +proprietors of the books advertised. + +The duties of the agent would be to retail to the public, for +ready money, copies of books published by members of the +association. To sell to the trade, at prices agreed upon, any +copies they may require. To cause to be inserted in the journals, +or at the end of works published by members, any advertisements +which the committee or authors may direct. To prepare a general +catalogue of the works of members. To be the agent for any member +of the association respecting the printing of any work. + +Such a union would naturally present other advantages; and as +each author would retain the liberty of putting any price he +might think fit on his productions, the public would have the +advantage of reduction in price produced by competition between +authors on the same subject, as well as of that arising from a +cheaper mode of publishing the volumes sold to them. + +402. Possibly, one of the consequences resulting from such an +association, would be the establishment of a good and an +impartial review, a work the want of which has been felt for +several years. The two long-established and celebrated reviews, +the unbending champions of the most opposite political opinions. +are, from widely differing causes, exhibiting unequivocal signs +of decrepitude and decay. The quarterly advocate of despotic +principles is fast receding from the advancing intelligence of +the age; the new strength and new position which that +intelligence has acquired, demands for its expression, new +organs, equally the representatives of its intellectual power, +and of its moral energies: whilst, on the other hand, the sceptre +of the northern critics has passed, from the vigorous grasp of +those who established its dominion, into feebler hands. + +403. It may be stated as a difficulty in realizing this +suggestion, that those most competent to supply periodical +criticism, are already engaged. But it is to be observed, that +there are many who now supply literary criticisms to journals, +the political principles of which they disapprove; and that if +once a respectable and well-supported review(5*) were +established, capable of competing, in payment to its +contributors, with the wealthiest of its rivals, it would very +soon be supplied with the best materials the country can produce. +(6*) It may also be apprehended that such a combination of +authors would be favourable to each other. There are two +temptations to which an editor of a review is commonly exposed: +the first is, a tendency to consult too much, in the works he +criticizes, the interest of the proprietor of his review; the +second, a similar inclination to consult the interests of his +friends. The plan which has been proposed removes one of these +temptations, but it would be very difficult, if not impossible, +to destroy the other. + +NOTES: + +1. The whole of the subsequent details relate to the first +edition of this work. + +2. These details vary with different books and different +publishers; those given in the text are believed to substantially +correct, and are applicable to works like the present. + +3. It is now understood that the use of spies has been given up; +and it is also known that the system of underselling is again +privately resorted to by many, so that the injury arising from +this arbitrary system, pursued by the great booksellers, affects +only, or most severely, those whose adherence to an extorted +promise most deserves respect. Note to the second edition. + +4 The monopoly cases. Nos. 1. 2. and 3. of those published by Mr +Pickering, should be consulted upon this point; and, as the +public will be better able to form a judgement by hearing the +other side of the question, it is to be hoped the Chairman of the +Committee (Mr Richardson) will publish those regulations +respecting the trade, a copy of which. Mr Pickering states, is +refused by the Committee even to those who sign them. + +5. At the moment when this opinion as to the necessity for a new +review was passing through the press. I was informed that the +elements of such an undertaking were already organized. + +6. I have been suggested to me, that the doctrines maintained in +this chapter may subject the present volume to the opposition of +that combination which it has opposed. I do not entertain that +opinion; and for this reason, that the booksellers are too shrewd +a class to supply such an admirable passport to publicity as +their opposition would prove to be if generally suspected. But +should my readers take a different view of the question, they can +easily assist in remedying the evil, by each mentioning the +existence of this little volume to two of his friends. + +{I was wrong in this conjecture; all booksellers are not so +shrewd as I had imagined, for some did refuse to sell this +volume; consequently others sold a larger number of copies. + +In the preface to the second edition, at the commencement of +this volume, the reader will find some further observation on the +effect of the booksellers' combination.} + + + +Chapter 32 + +On the Effect of Machinery in Reducing the Demand for Labour + +404. One of the objections most frequently urged against +machinery is, that it has a tendency to supersede much of the +hand labour which was previously employed; and in fact unless a +machine diminished the labour necessary to make an article, it +could never come into use. But if it have that effect, its owner, +in order to extend the sale of his produce, will be obliged to +undersell his competitors; this will induce them also to +introduce the new machine, and the effect of this competition +will soon cause the article to fall, until the profits on +capital, under the new system, shall be reduced to the same rate +as under the old. Although, therefore, the use of machinery has +at first a tendency to throw labour out of employment, yet the +increased demand consequent upon the reduced price, almost +immediately absorbs a considerable portion of that labour, and +perhaps, in some cases, the whole of what would otherwise have +been displaced. + +That the effect of a new machine is to diminish the labour +required for the production of the same quantity of manufactured +commodities may be clearly perceived, by imagining a society, +in which occupations are not divided, each man himself manufacturing +all the articles he consumes. Supposing each individual to labour +during ten hours daily, one of which is devoted to making shoes, +it is evident that if any tool or machine be introduced, by the +use of which his shoes can be made in half the usual time, then +each member of the community will enjoy the same comforts as +before by only nine and one-half hours' labour. + +405. If, therefore, we wish to prove that the total quantity +of labour is not diminished by the introduction of machines, we must +have recourse to some other principle of our nature. But the same +motive which urges a man to activity will become additionally +powerful, when he finds his comforts procured with diminished +labour; and in such circumstances, it is probable, that many +would employ the time thus redeemed in contriving new tools for +other branches of their occupations. He who has habitually worked +ten hours a day, will employ the half hour saved by the new +machine in gratifying some other want; and as each new machine +adds to these gratifications, new luxuries will open to his view, +which continued enjoyment will as surely render necessary to his +happiness. + +406. In countries where occupations are divided, and where +the division of labour is practised, the ultimate consequence of +improvements in machinery is almost invariably to cause a greater +demand for labour. Frequently the new labour requires, at its +commencement, a higher degree of skill than the old; and, +unfortunately, the class of persons driven out of the old +employment are not always qualified for the new one; so that a +certain interval must elapse before the whole of their labour is +wanted. This, for a time, produces considerable suffering amongst +the working classes; and it is of great importance for their +happiness that they should be aware of these effects, and be +enabled to foresee them at an early period, in order to diminish, +as much as possible, the injury resulting from them. + +407. One very important enquiry which this subject presents +is the question whether it is more for the interest of the +working classes, that improved machinery should be so perfect as +to defy the competition of hand labour; and that they should thus +be at once driven out of the trade by it; or be gradually forced +to quit it by the slow and successive advances of the machine? +The suffering which arises from a quick transition is undoubtedly +more intense; but it is also much less permanent than that which +results from the slower process: and if the competition is +perceived to be perfectly hopeless, the workman will at once set +himself to learn a new department of his art. On the other hand, +although new machinery causes an increased demand for skill in +those who make and repair it, and in those who first superintend +its use; yet there are other cases in which it enables children +and inferior workmen to execute work that previously required +greater skill. In such circumstances, even though the increased +demand for the article, produced by its diminished price, should +speedily give occupation to all who were before employed, yet the +very diminution of the skill required, would open a wider field +of competition amongst the working classes themselves. + +That machines do not, even at their first introduction, +invariably throw human labour out of employment, must be +admitted; and it has been maintained, by persons very competent +to form an opinion on the subject, that they never produce that +effect. The solution of this question depends on facts, which, +unfortunately, have not yet been collected: and the circumstance +of our not possessing the data necessary for the full examination +of so important a subject, supplies an additional reason for +impressing, upon the minds of all who are interested in such +enquiries, the importance of procuring accurate registries, at +various times, of the number of persons employed in particular +branches of manufacture, of the number of machines used by them. +and of the wages they receive. + +408. In relation to the enquiry just mentioned, I shall offer +some remarks upon the facts within my knowledge; and only regret +that those which I can support by numerical statement are so few. +When the crushing mill, used in Cornwall and other mining +countries, superseded the labour of a great number of young +women, who worked very hard in breaking ores with flat hammers, +no distress followed. The reason of this appears to have been, +that the proprietors of the mines, having one portion of their +capital released by the superior cheapness of the process +executed by the mills, found it their interest to apply more +labour to other operations. The women, disengaged from mere +drudgery, were thus profitably employed in dressing the ores, a +work which required skill and judgement in the selection. + +409. The increased production arising from alterations in the +machinery, or from improved modes of using it, appears from the +following table. A machine called in the cotton manufacture a +'stretcher', worked by one man, produced as follows: + + Year; Pounds of cotton spun; Roving wages per score; Rate of +earning per week + s. d. s. d. + + 1810 400 1 31/2 25 10(1*) + 1811 600 0 10 25 0 + 1813 850 0 9 31 101/2 + 1823 1000 0 71/2 31 3 + + The same man working at another stretcher, the roving a little +finer, produced, + + 1823 900 0 71/2 28 11/2 + 1825 1000 0 7 27 6 + 1827 1200 0 6 30 0 + 1832 1200 0 6 30 0 + +In this instance, production has gradually increased until, at +the end of twenty-two years, three times as much work is done as +at the commencement, although the manual labour employed remains +the same. The weekly earnings of the workmen have not fluctuated +very much, and appear, on the whole, to have advanced: but it +would be imprudent to push too far reasonings founded upon a +single instance. + +410. The produce of 480 spindles of 'mule yarn spinning', at +different periods, was as follows: + +Year; Hanks about 40 to the pound; Wages per thousand (s. d.) + +1806; 6668; 9 2 +1823; 8000; 6 3 +1832; 10,000; 3 8 + + +411. The subjoined view of the state of weaving by hand- and +by power-looms, at Stockport, in the years 1822 and 1832, is +taken from an enumeration of the machines contained in 65 +factories, and was collected for the purpose of being given in +evidence before a Committee of the House of Commons. + + In 1822 In 1832 + Hand-loom weavers 2800 800 2000 decrease + Persons using power-looms 657 3059 2402 increase + Persons to dress the warp 98 388 290 increase + Total persons employed 3555 4247 692 increase + Power-looms 1970 9177 8207 increase + +During this period, the number of hand-looms in employment has +diminished to less than one-third, whilst that of power-looms has +increased to more than five times its former amount. The total +number of workmen has increased about one-third; but the amount +of manufactured goods (supposing each power-loom to do only the +work of three hand-looms) is three and a half times as large as +it was before. + +412. In considering this increase of employment, it must be +admitted, that the two thousand persons thrown out of work are +not exactly of the same class as those called into employment by +the power-looms. A hand-weaver must possess bodily strength, +which is not essential for a person attending a power-loom; +consequently, women and young persons of both sexes, from fifteen +to seventeen years of age, find employment in power-loom +factories. This, however, would be a very limited view of the +employment arising from the introduction of power-looms: the +skill called into action in building the new factories, in +constructing the new machinery, in making the steam-engines to +drive it, and in devising improvements in the structure of the +looms, as well as in regulating the economy of the establishment, +is of a much higher order than that which it had assisted in +superseding; and if we possessed any means of measuring this, it +would probably be found larger in amount. Nor, in this view of +the subject, must we omit the fact, that although hand-looms +would have increased in number if those moved by steam had not +been invented, yet it is the cheapness of the article +manufactured by power-looms which has caused this great extension +of their employment, and that by diminishing the price of one +article of commerce, we always call into additional activity the +energy of those who produce others. It appears that the number of +hand-looms in use in England and Scotland in 1830, was about +240,000; nearly the same number existed in the year 1820: whereas +the number of power-looms which, in 1830, was 55,000, had, in +1820, been 14,000. When it is considered that each of these +powerlooms did as much work as three worked by hand, the +increased producing power was equal to that of 123,000 +hand-looms. During the whole of this period the wages and +employment of hand-loom weavers have been very precarious. + +413. Increased intelligence amongst the working classes, may +enable them to foresee some of those improvements which are +likely for a time to affect the value of their labour; and the +assistance of savings banks and friendly societies, (the +advantages of which can never be too frequently, or too strongly, +pressed upon their attention), may be of some avail in remedying +the evil: but it may be useful also to suggest to them, that a +diversity of employments amongst the members of one family will +tend, in some measure, to mitigate the privations which arise +from fluctuation in the value of labour. + +NOTES: + +1. In 1810, the workman's wages were guaranteed not to be less +than 26s. + + + +Chapter 33 + +On the Effect of Taxes and of Legal Restrictions upon +Manufactures + +414. As soon as a tax is put upon any article, the ingenuity +of those who make, and of those who use it, is directed to the +means of evading as large a part of the tax as they can; and this +may often be accomplished in ways which are perfectly fair and +legal. An excise duty exists at present of 3d.(1*) per pound upon +all writing paper. The effect of this impost is, that much of the +paper which is employed, is made extremely thin, in order that +the weight of a given number of sheets may be as small as +possible. Soon after the first imposition of the tax upon +windows, which depended upon their number, and not upon their +size, new-built houses began to have fewer windows and those of +larger dimensions than before. Staircases were lighted by +extremely long windows, illuminating three or four flights of +stairs. When the tax was increased, and the size of windows +charged as single was limited, then still greater care was taken +to have as few windows as possible, and internal lights became +frequent. These internal lights in their turn became the subject +of taxation; but it was easy to evade the discovery of them, and +in the last Act of Parliament reducing the assessed taxes, they +ceased to be chargeable. From the changes thus successively +introduced in the number the forms, and the positions of the +windows, a tolerable conjecture might, in some instances, be +formed of the age of a house. + +415. A tax on windows is exposed to objection on the double +ground of its excluding air and light, and it is on both accounts +injurious to health. The importance of light to the enjoyment of +health is not perhaps sufficiently appreciated: in the cold and +more variable climates, it is of still greater importance than in +warmer countries. + +416. The effects of regulations of excise upon our home +manufactures are often productive of great inconvenience; and +check, materially, the natural progress of improvement. It is +frequently necessary, for the purposes of revenue, to oblige +manufacturers to take out a license, and to compel them to work +according to certain rules, and to make certain stated quantities +at each operation. When these quantities are large, as in general +they are, they deter manufacturers from making experiments, and +thus impede improvements both in the mode of conducting the +processes and in the introduction of new materials. Difficulties +of this nature have occurred in experimenting upon glass for +optical purposes; but in this case, permission has been obtained +by fit persons to make experiments, without the interference of +the excise. It ought, however, to be remembered, that such +permission, if frequently or indiscriminately granted, might be +abused: the greatest protection against such an abuse will be +found, in bringing the force of public opinion to bear upon +scientific men and thus enabling the proper authorities, although +themselves but moderately conversant with science, to judge of +the propriety of the permission, from the public character of the +applicant. + +417. From the evidence given, in 1808, before the Committee +of the House of Commons, On Distillation from Sugar and Molasses, +it appeared that, by a different mode of working from that +prescribed by the Excise, the spirits from a given weight of +corn, which then produced eighteen gallons, might easily have +been increased to twenty gallons. Nothing more is required for +this purpose, than to make what is called the wash weaker, the +consequence of which is, that fermentation goes on to a greater +extent. It was stated, however, that such a deviation would +render the collection of the duty liable to great difficulties; +and that it would not benefit the distiller much, since his price +was enhanced to the customer by any increase of expense in the +fabrication. Here then is a case in which a quantity, amounting +to one-ninth of the total produce, is actually lost to the +country. A similar effect arises in the coal trade, from the +effect of a duty, for, according to the evidence before the +House of Commons, it appears that a considerable quantity of the +very best coal is actually wasted. The extent of this waste is +very various in different mines; but in some cases it amounts to +one-third. + +418. The effects of duties upon the import of foreign +manufactures are equally curious. A singular instance occurred in +the United States, where bar-iron was, on its introduction. +liable to a duty of 140 per cent ad valorem, whilst hardware was +charged at 25 per cent only. In consequence of this tax, large +quantities of malleable iron rails for railroads were imported +into America under the denomination of hardware; the difference +of 115 per cent in duty more than counter balancing the expense +of fashioning the iron into rails prior to its importation. + +419. Duties, drawbacks, and bounties, when considerable in +amount, are all liable to objections of a very serious nature, +from the frauds to which they give rise. It has been stated +before Committees of the House of Commons, that calicoes made up +in the form, and with the appearance of linen, have frequently +been exported for the purpose of obtaining the bounty, for +calico made up in this way sells only at 1s. 4d. per yard, +whereas linen of equal fineness is worth from 2s. 8d. to 2s. 10d. +per yard. It appeared from the evidence, that one house in six +months sold five hundred such pieces of calico. + +In almost all cases heavy duties, or prohibitions, are +ineffective as well as injurious; for unless the articles +excluded are of very large dimensions, there constantly arises a +price at which they will be clandestinely imported by the +smuggler. The extent, therefore, to which smuggling can be +carried, should always be considered in the imposition of new +duties, or in the alteration of old ones. Unfortunately it has +been pushed so far, and is so systematically conducted between +this country and France, that the price per cent at which most +contraband articles can be procured is perfectly well known. From +the evidence of Mr Galloway, it appears that, from 30 to 40 per +cent was the rate of insurance on exporting prohibited machinery +from England, and that the larger the quantity the less was the +percentage demanded. From evidence given in the Report of the +Watch and Clock-makers' Committee, in 1817, it appears that +persons were constantly in the habit of receiving in France +watches, lace, silks, and other articles of value easily +portable, and delivering them in England at ten per cent on their +estimated worth, in which sum the cost of transport and the risk +of smuggling were included. + +420. The process employed in manufacturing often depends upon +the mode in which a tax is levied on the materials, or on the +article produced. W atch glasses are made in England by workmen +who purchase from the glass house globes of five or six inches in +diameter, out of which, by means of a piece of red-hot tobacco +pipe, guided round a pattern watch glass placed on the globe, +they crack five others: these are afterwards ground and smoothed +on the edges. In the Tyrol the rough watch glasses are supplied +at once from the glass house; the workman, applying a thick ring +of cold glass to each globe as soon as it is blown, causes a +piece, of the size of a watch glass, to be cracked out. The +remaining portion of the globe is immediately broken, and returns +to the melting pot. This process could not be adopted in England +with the same economy, because the whole of the glass taken out +of the pot is subject to the excise duty. + +421. The objections thus stated as incidental to particular +modes of taxation are not raised with a view to the removal of +those particular taxes; their fitness or unfitness must be +decided by a much wider enquiry, into which it is not the object +of this volume to enter. Taxes are essential for the security +both of liberty and property, and the evils which have been +mentioned may be the least amongst those which might have been +chosen. It is, however, important that the various effects of +every tax should be studied, and that those should be adopted +which, upon the whole, are found to give the least check to the +productive industry of the country. + +422. In enquiring into the effect produced, or to be +apprehended from any particular mode of taxation, it is necessary +to examine a little into the interests of the parties who approve +of the plan in question, as well as of those who object to it. +Instances have occurred where the persons paying a tax into the +hands of government have themselves been adverse to any +reduction. This happened in the case of one class of +calico-printers, whose interest really was injured by a removal +of the tax on the printing: they received from the manufacturers, +payment for the duty, about two months before they were +themselves called on to pay it to government; and the consequence +was, that a considerable capital always remained in their hands. +The evidence which states this circumstance is well calculated to +promote a reasonable circumspection in such enquiries. + +Question. Do you happen to know anything of an opposition +from calico printers to the repeal of the tax on printed calicoes? + +Answer. I have certainly heard of such an opposition, and am +not surprised at it. There are very few individuals who are, in +fact, interested in the nonrepeal of the tax; there are two +classes of calico-printers; one, who print their own cloth, send +their goods into the market, and sell them on their own account; +they frequently advance the duty to government, and pay it in +cash before their goods are sold, but generally before the goods +are paid for, being most commonly sold on a credit of six months: +they are of course interested on that account, as well as on +others that have been stated, in the repeal of the tax. The other +class of calico-printers print the cloth of other people; they +print for hire, and on re-delivery of the cloth when printed, +they receive the amount of the duty, which they are not called +upon to pay to government sooner, on an average, than nine weeks +from the stamping of the goods. Where the business is carried on +upon a large scale, the arrears of duty due to government often +amount to eight, or even ten thousand pounds, and furnish a +capital with which these gentlemen carry on their business; it is +not, therefore, to be wondered at that they should be opposed to +the prayer of our petition. + +423. The policy of giving bounties upon home productions, and +of enforcing restrictions against those which can be produced +more cheaply in other countries, is of a very questionable +nature: and, except for the purpose of introducing a new +manufacture, in a country where there is not much commercial or +manufacturing spirit, is scarcely to be defended. All incidental +modes of taxing one class of the community, the consumers, to an +unknown extent, for the sake of supporting another class, the +manufacturers, who would otherwise abandon that mode of employing +their capital, are highly objectionable. One part of the price of +any article produced under such circumstances, consists of the +expenditure, together with the ordinary profits of capital: the +other part of its price may be looked upon as charity, given to +induce the manufacturer to continue an unprofitable use of his +capital, in order to give employment to his workmen. If the sum +of what the consumers are thus forced to pay, merely on account +of these artificial restrictions, where generally known, its +amount would astonish even those who advocate them; and it would +be evident to both parties, that the employment of capital in +those branches of trade ought to be abandoned. + +424. The restriction of articles produced in a manufactory to +certain sizes, is attended with some good effect in an economical +view, arising chiefly from the smaller number of different tools +required in making them, as well as from less frequent change in +the adjustment of those tools. A similar source of economy is +employed in the Navy: by having ships divided into a certain +number of classes, each of which comprises vessels of the same +dimensions, the rigging made for one vessel will fit any other of +its class; a circumstance which renders the supply of distant +stations more easy. + +425. The effects of the removal of a monopoly are often very +important, and they were perhaps never more remarkable than in +the bobbin net trade, in the years 1824 and 1825. These effects +were, however, considerably enhanced by the general rage for +speculation which was so prevalent during that singular period. +One of the patents of Mr Heathcote for a bobbin net machine had +just then expired, whilst another, for an improvement in a +particular part of such machines, called a turn again, had yet a +few years to run. Many licenses had been granted to use the +former patent, which were charged at the rate of about five +pounds per annum for each quarter of a yard in width, so that +what is termed a six-quarter frame (which makes bobbin net a yard +and a half wide) paid thirty pounds a year. The second patent was +ultimately abandoned in August, 1823, infringements of it having +taken place. + +It was not surprising that, on the removal of the monopoly +arising from this patent, a multitude of persons became desirous +of embarking in a trade which had hitherto yielded a very large +profit. The bobbin net machine occupies little space; and is, +from that circumstance, well adapted for a domestic manufacture. +The machines which already existed, were principally in the hands +of the manufacturers; but, a kind of mania for obtaining them +seized on persons of all descriptions, who could raise a small +capital; and, under its influence, butchers, bakers, small +farmers, publicans, gentlemen's servants, and, in some cases, +even clergymen, became anxious to possess bobbin net machines. + +Some few machines were rented; but, in most of these cases, +the workman purchased the machine he employed, by instalments of +from L3 to L6 weekly, for a six quarter machine; and many +individuals, unacquainted with the mode of using the machines so +purchased, paid others of more experience for instructing them in +their use; L50 or L60 being sometimes given for this instruction. +The success of the first speculators induced others to follow the +example; and the machine-makers were almost overwhelmed with +orders for lace frames. Such was the desire to procure them, that +many persons deposited a large part, or the whole, of the price, +in the hands of the frame-makers, in order to insure their having +the earliest supply. This, as might naturally be expected, raised +the price of wages amongst the workmen employed in +machine-making; and the effect was felt at a considerable +distance from Nottingham, which was the centre of this mania. +Smiths not used to flat filing, coming from distant parts, earned +from 30s. to 42s. per week. Finishing smiths, accustomed to the +work, gained from L3 to L4 per week..The forging smith, if +accustomed to his work, gained from L5 to L6 per week, and some +few earned L10 per week. In making what are technically called +insides, those who were best paid, were generally clock- and +watchmakers, from all the districts round, who received from L3 +to L4 per week. The setters-up--persons who put the parts of the +machine together--charged L20 for their assistance; and, a six +quarter machine, could be put together in a fortnight or three +weeks. + +426. Good workmen, being thus induced to desert less +profitable branches of their business, in order to supply this +extraordinary demand, the masters, in other trades, soon found +their men leaving them, without being aware of the immediate +reason: some of the more intelligent, however, ascertained the +cause. They went from Birmingham to Nottingham, in order to +examine into the circumstances which had seduced almost all the +journeymen clockmakers from their own workshops; and it was soon +apparent, that the men who had been working as clockmakers in +Birmingham, at the rate of 25s. a week, could earn L2 by working +at lace frame-making in Nottingham. + +On examining the nature of this profitable work, the master +clockmakers perceived that one part of the bobbin net machines, +that which held the bobbins, could easily be made in their own +workshops. They therefore contracted with the machine-makers, who +had already more work ordered than they could execute, to supply +the bobbin carriers, at a price which enabled them, on their +return home, to give such increased wages as were sufficient to +retain their own workmen, as well as yield themselves a good +profit. Thus an additional facility was afforded for the +construction of these bobbin net machines: and the conclusion was +not difficult to be foreseen. The immense supply of bobbin net +thus poured into the market, speedily reduced its price; this +reduction in price, rendered the machines by which the net was +made, less valuable; some few of the earliest producers, for a +short time, carried on a profitable trade; but multitudes were +disappointed, and many ruined. The low price at which the fabric +sold, together with its lightness and beauty, combined to extend +the sale; and ultimately, new improvements in the machines, +rendered the older ones still less valuable. + +427. The bobbin net trade is, at present, both extensive and +increasing; and, as it may, probably, claim a larger portion of +public attention at some future time, it will be interesting to +describe briefly its actual state. + +A lace frame on the most improved principle, at the present +day, manufacturing a piece of net two yards wide, when worked +night and day, will produce six hundred and twenty racks per +week. A rack is two hundred and forty holes; and as in the +machine to which we refer, three racks are equal in length to one +yard, it will produce 21,493 square yards of bobbin net annually. +Three men keep this machine constantly working; and, they were +paid (by piece-work) about 25s. each per week, in 1830. Two boys, +working only in the day-time, can prepare the bobbins for this +machine, and are paid from 2s. to 4s. per week, according to +their skill. Forty-six square yards of this net weigh two pounds +three ounces; so that each square yard weighs a little more than +three-quarters of an ounce. + +428. For a condensed and general view of the present state of +this trade, we shall avail ourselves of a statement by Mr William +Felkin, of Nottingham, dated September, 1831, and entitled Facts +and Calculations illustrative of the Present State of the Bobbin +Net Trade. It appears to have been collected with care, and +contains, in a single sheet of paper, a body of facts of the +greatest importance. * + +429. The total capital employed in the factories, for +preparing the cotton, in those for weaving the bobbin net, and in +various processes to which it is subject, is estimated at above +L2,000,000, and the number of persons who receive wages, at above +two hundred thousand. + + Comparison of the value of the raw material imported, with the +value of the goods manufactured therefrom + +Amount of Sea Island cotton annually used 1,600,000 lbs., value +L120,000; this is manufactured into yarn, weighing 1,000,000 +lbs., value L500,000. + +There is also used 25,000 lbs. of raw silk, which costs +L30,000, and is doubled into 10,000 lbs. thrown, worth L40,000. + +Raw Material; Manufacture; Square yards produced; Value per sq. +yd.(s. d.); Total value (L) + +Cotton 1,600,000; lbs; Power Net; 6,750,000; 1 3; 421,875 + Hand ditto; 15,750,000; 1 9; 1,378,125 + Fancy ditto; 150,000; 3 6; 26,250 +Silk, 25,000 lbs; Silk Goods; 750,000; 1 9; 65,625 + + 23,400,000; 1,891,875 + + +* I cannot omit the opportunity of expressing my hope that this +example will be followed in other trades. We should thus obtain a +body of information equally important to the workman, the +capitalist, the philosopher, and the statesman. + + +The brown nets which are sold in the Nottingham market are +in part disposed of by the agents of twelve or fifteen of the +larger makers, i.e. to the amount of about L250,000 a year. The +principal part of the remainder, i.e. about L1,050,000 a year, is +sold by about two hundred agents, who take the goods from one +warehouse to another for sale. + +Of this production, about half is exported in the +unembroidered state. The exports of bobbin net are in great part +to Hamburgh, for sale at home and at Leipzic and Frankfort fairs. +Antwerp, and the rest of Belgium; to France, by contraband; to +Italy, and North and South America. Though a very suitable +article, yet the quantity sent eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, +has hitherto been too trifling for notice. Three-eighths of the +whole production are sold unembroidered at home. The remaining +one-eighth is embroidered in this country, and increases the +ultimate value as under, viz. + + Embroidery Increases value Ultimate worth + L L + On power net 131,840 553,715 + On hand net 1,205,860 2,583.985 + On fancy net 78,750 105,000 + On silk net 109,375 175,000 + + Total embroidery, wages and profits 1,525,825 + Ultimate total value 3,417,700 + + +From this it appears, that in the operations of this trade, +which had no existence twenty years ago, L120,000 original cost +of cotton becomes, when manufactured, of the ultimate value of +L3,242,700 sterling. + +As to weekly wages paid, I hazard the following as the +judgement of those conversant with the respective branches, viz. + +In fine spinning and doubling, adults 25s.; children 7s.: +work twelve hours per day. + +In bobbin net making; men working machines, 18s.; +apprentices, youths of fifteen or more, 10s.; by power, fifteen +hours; by hand, eight to twelve hours, according to width. + +In mending; children 4s.; women 8s.; work nine to fourteen +hours ad libitum. + +In winding, threading, etc., children and young women, 5s.: +irregular work, according to the progress of machines. + +In embroidery; children seven years old and upwards, 1s. to +3s.; work ten to twelve hours; women, if regularly at work, 5s. +to 7s. 6d.; twelve to fourteen hours. + +As an example of the effect of the wages of lace embroidery, +etc., it may be observed, it is often the case that a stocking +weaver in a country village will earn only 7s. a week, and his +wife and children 7s. to 14s. more at the embroidery frame. + +430. The principal part of the hand-machines employed in the +bobbin net manufacture are worked in shops, forming part of, or +attached to, private houses. The subjoined list will show the +kinds of machinery employed, and classes of persons to whom it +belongs. + + Bobbin net machinery now at work in the Kingdom + + Hand levers 6 quarter 500 Hand circulars 6 quarter 100 + 7 quarter 200 7 quarter 300 + 8 quarter 300 8 quarter 400 + 10 quarter 300 9 quarter 100 + 12 quarter 30 10 quarter 300 + 16 quarter 20 12 quarter 100 + 20 quarter 1 Hand transverse, pusher, + Hand rotary 10 quarter 50 straight bolt, etc. averaging 5 +quarters 750 + 12 quarter 50 + 2050 1451 + + Total hand machines 3501 + + Power 6 quarter 100 + 7 quarter 40 + 8 quarter 350 + 10 quarter 270 + 12 quarter 220 + 16 quarter 20 +Total power machines 1000 + +Total number of machines 4501 + + 700 persons own 1 machine, 700 machines. + 226 2 452 + 181 3 543 + 96 4 384 + 40 5 200 + 21 6 126 + 17 7 119 + 19 8 152 + 17 9 153 + 12 10 120 + 8 11 88 + 6 12 72 + 5 13 65 + 5 14 70 + 4 16 64 + 25 own respectively 18, + 19, 20, 21, + 23, 24, 25, + 26, 27, 28, + 29, 30, 32, + 33, 35, 36, + 37, 50, 60, + 68, 70, 75, + 95, 105, 206 + 1192 + +Number of owners of machines--1382 Holding together 4500 +machines. + +The hand workmen consist of the above-named owners 1000 +And of journeymen and apprentices 4000 + 5000 + + These machines are distributed as follows + Nottingham 1240 + New Radford 140 + Old Radford and Bloomsgrove 240 + Ison Green 160 + Beeston and Chilwell 130 + New and Old Snenton 180 + Derby and its vicinity 185 + Loughborough and its vicinity 385 + Leicester 95 + Mansfield 85 + Tiverton 220 + Barnstable l80 + Chard 190 + Isle of Wight 80 + In sundry other places 990 + + 4500 + + +Of the above owners, one thousand work in their own machines, +and enter into the class of journeymen as well as that of masters +in operating on the rate of wages. If they reduce the price of +their goods in the market, they reduce their own wages first; +and, of course, eventually the rate of wages throughout the +trade. It is a very lamentable fact, that one-half, or more, of +the one thousand one hundred persons specified in the list as +owning one, two, and three machines, have been compelled to +mortgage their machines for more than their worth in the market, +and are in many cases totally insolvent. Their machines are +principally narrow and making short pieces, while the absurd +system of bleaching at so much a piece goods of all lengths and +widths, and dressing at so much all widths, has caused the new +machines to be all wide, and capable of producing long pieces; of +course to the serious disadvantage, if not utter ruin, of the +small owner of narrow machines. + +It has been observed above, that wages have been reduced, say +25 per cent in the last two years, or from 24s. to 18s. a week. +Machines have increased in the same time one-eighth in number, or +from four thousand to four thousand five hundred, and one-sixth +in capacity of production. It is deserving the serious notice of +all proprietors of existing machines, that machines are now +introducing into the trade of such power of production as must +still more than ever depreciate (in the absence of an immensely +increased demand) the value of their property. + +431. From this abstract, we may form some judgement of the +importance of the bobbin net trade. But the extent to which it +bids fair to be carried in future, when the eastern markets shall +be more open to our industry, may be conjectured from the fact +which Mr Felkin subsequently states that 'We can export a durable +and elegant article in cotton bobbin net, at 4d. per square yard, +proper for certain useful and ornamental purposes, as curtains, +etc.; and another article used for many purposes in female dress +at 6d. the square yard.' + +432. Of patents. In order to encourage the invention, the +improvement, or the importation of machines, and of discoveries +relating to manufactures, it has been the practice in many +countries, to grant to the inventors or first introducers, an +exclusive privilege for a term of years. Such monopolies are +termed patents; and they are granted, on the payment of certain +fees, for different periods, from five to twenty years. + +The following table, compiled from the Report of the +Committee of the House of Commons on Patents, 1829, shows the +expense and duration of patents in various countries: + +Countries; Expense (L s. d.); Term of years; Number granted in +six years, ending in 1826.(Rep. p. 243.) + +England; 120 0 0; 14; 914 +Ireland; 125 0 0; 14; +Scotland; 100 0 0; 14; +America; 6 15 0; 14; +France; 12 0 0; 5; + 32 0 0; 10; + 60 0 0; 15; 1091 +Netherlands; L6 to L30; 5, 10. 15 +Austria; 42 10 0; 15; 1099 +Spain(3*) Inventor; 20 9 4; 15; + Improver; 12 5 7; 10; + Importer; 10 4 8; 6; + + +433. It is clearly of importance to preserve to each inventor +the sole use of his invention, until he shall have been amply +repaid for the risk and expense to which he has been exposed, as +well as for the talent he has exerted in completing it. But, the +degrees of merit are so various, and the difficulties of +legislating upon the subject so great, that it has been found +almost impossible to frame a law which shall not, practically, be +open to the most serious objections. + +The difficulty of defending an English patent in any judicial +trial, is very great; and the number of instances on record in +which the defence has succeeded, are comparatively few. This +circumstance has induced some manufacturers, no longer to regard +a patent as a privilege by which a monopoly price may be secured: +but they sell the patent article at such a price, as will merely +produce the ordinary profits of capital; and thus secure to +themselves the fabrication of it, because no competitors can +derive a profit from invading a patent so exercised. + +434. The law of copyright, is, in some measure, allied to +that of patents; and it is curious to observe, that those species +of property which require the highest talent, and the greatest +cultivation--which are, more than any other, the pure creations +of mind--should have been the latest to be recognized by the +State. Fortunately, the means of deciding on an infringement of +property in regard to a literary production, are not verv +difficult; but the present laws are, in some cases, productive of +considerable hardship, as well as of impediment to the +advancement of knowledge. + +435. Whilst discussing the general expediency of limitations +and restrictions, it may be desirable to point out one which +seems to promise advantage, though by no means free from grave +objections. The question of permitting by law, the existence of +partnerships in which the responsibility of one or more of the +partners is limited in amount, is peculiarly important in a +manufacturing, as well as a commercial point of view. In the +former light, it appears calculated to aid that division of +labour, which we have already proved to be as advantageous in +mental as it is in bodily operations; and it might possibly give +rise to a more advantageous distribution of talent, and its +combinations, than at present exists. There are in this country, +many persons possessed of moderate capital, who do not +themselves enjoy the power of invention in the mechanical and +chemical arts, but who are tolerable judges of such inventions, +and excellent judges of human character. Such persons might, with +great success, employ themselves in finding out inventive +workmen, whose want of capital prevents them from realizing their +projects. If they could enter into a limited partnership with +persons so circumstanced, they might restrain within proper +bounds the imagination of the inventor, and by supplying capital +to judicious schemes, render a service to the country, and secure +a profit for themselves. + +436. Amongst the restrictions intended for the general +benefit of our manufacturers, there existed a few years ago one +by which workmen were forbidden to go out of the country. A law +so completely at variance with everv principle of liberty, ought +never to have been enacted. It was not, however, until experience +had convinced the legislature of its inefficiency, that it was +repealed. * When, after the last war, the renewed intercourse +between England and the Continent became extensive, it was soon +found that it was impossible to discover the various disguises +which the workmen could assume; and the effect of the law was +rather, by the fear of punishment, to deter those who had left +the country from returning, than to check their disposition to +migrate. + +436. (4*) The principle, that government Ought to interfere +as little as possible between workmen and their employers, is so +well established, that it is important to guard against its +misapplication. It is not inconsistent with this principle to +insist on the workmen being paid in money--for this is merely to +protect them from being deceived; and still less is it a +deviation from it to limit the number of hours during which +children shall work in factories, or the age at which they shall +commence that species of labour--for they are not free agents, +nor are they capable of judging, if they were; and both policy +and humanity concur in demanding for them some legislative +protection. In both cases it is as right and politic to protect +the weaker party from fraud or force, as it would be impolitic +and unjust to interfere with the amount of the wages of either. + +NOTES: + +1. Twenty eight shillings per cwt for the finer, twenty one +shillings per cwt for the coarser papers. + +2. I cannot omit the opportunity of expressing my hope that this +example will be followed in other trades. We should thus obtain a +body of information equally important to the workman, the +capitalist, the philosopher, and the stateman. + +3. The expense of a patent in Spain is stated in the report to be +respectively 2000, 1200 and 1000 reals. If these are reals of +vellon, in which accounts are usually kept at Madrid, the above +sums are correct; but if they are reals of plate, the above sums +ought to be nearly doubled. + +4. In the year 1824 the law against workmen going abroad, as well +as the laws preventing them from combining, were repealed, after +the fullest enquiry by a Committee of the House of Commons. In +1825 an attempt to re-enact some of the most objectionable was +made, but it failed. + + + +Chapter 34 + +On the Exportation of Machinery + +437. A few years only have elapsed, since our workmen were +not merely prohibited by Act of Parliament from transporting +themselves to countries in which their industry would produce for +them higher wages, but were forbidden to export the greater part +of the machinery which they were employed to manufacture at home. +The reason assigned for this prohibition was, the apprehension +that foreigners might avail themselves of our improved +machinery, and thus compete with our manufacturers. It was, in +fact, a sacrifice of the interests of one class of persons, the +makers of machinery, for the imagined benefit of another class, +those who use it. Now, independently of the impolicy of +interfering, without necessity, between these two classes, it may +be observed, that the first class, or the makers of machinery, +are, as a body, far more intelligent than those who only use it; +and though, at present, they are not nearly so numerous, yet, +when the removal of the prohibition which cramps their ingenuity +shall have had time to operate, there appears good reason to +believe, that their number will be greatly increased, and may, in +time, even surpass that of those who use machinery. + +438. The advocates of these prohibitions in England seem to +rely greatly upon the possibility of preventing the knowledge of +new contrivances from being conveyed to other countries; and they +take much too limited a view of the possible, and even probable, +improvements in mechanics. + +439. For the purpose of examining this question, let us +consider the case of two manufacturers of the same article, one +situated in a country in which labour is very cheap, the +machinery bad, and the modes of transport slow and expensive; the +other engaged in manufacturing in a country in which the price of +labour is very high, the machinery excellent, and the means of +transport expeditious and economical. Let them both send their +produce to the same market, and let each receive such a price as +shall give to him the profit ordinarily produced by capital in +his own country. It is almost certain that in such circumstances +the first improvement in machinery will occur in the country +which is most advanced in civilization; because, even admitting +that the ingenuity to contrive were the same in the two +countries, the means of execution are very different. The effect +of improved machinery in the rich country will be perceived in +the common market, by a small fall in the price of the +manufactured article. This will be the first intimation to the +manufacturer of the poor country, who will endeavour to meet the +diminution in the selling price of his article by increased +industry and economy in his factory, but he will soon find that +this remedy is temporary, and that the market-price continues to +fall. He will thus be induced to examine the rival fabric, in +order to detect, from its structure, any improved mode of making +it. If, as would most usually happen, he should be unsuccessful +in this attempt, he must endeavour to contrive improvements in +his own machinery, or to acquire information respecting those +which have been made in the factories of the richer country. +Perhaps after an ineffectual attempt to obtain by letters the +information he requires, he sets out to visit in person the +factories of his competitors. To a foreigner and rival +manufacturer such establishments are not easily accessible, and +the more recent the improvements, the less likely he will be to +gain access to them. His next step, therefore, will be to obtain +the knowledge he is in search of from the workmen employed in +using or making the machines. Without drawings, or an examination +of the machines themselves, this process will be slow and +tedious; and he will be liable, after all, to be deceived by +artful and designing workmen, and be exposed to many chances of +failure. But suppose he returns to his own country with perfect +drawings and instructions, he must then begin to construct his +improved machines: and these he cannot execute either so cheaply +or so well as his rivals in the richer countries. But after the +lapse of some time, we shall suppose the machines thus +laboriously improved, to be at last completed, and in working +order. + +440. Let us now consider what will have occurred to the +manufacturer in the rich country. He will, in the first instance, +have realized a profit by supplying the home market, at the usual +price, with an article which it costs him less to produce; he +will then reduce the price both in the home and foreign market, +in order to produce a more extended sale. It is in this stage +that the manufacturer in the poor country first feels the effect +of the competition; and if we suppose only two or three years to +elapse between the first application of the new improvement in +the rich country, and the commencement of its employment in the +poor country, yet will the manufacturer who contrived the +improvement (even supposing that during the whole of this time he +has made only one step) have realized so large a portion of the +outlay which it required, that he can afford to make a much +greater reduction in the price of his produce, and thus to render +the gains of his rivals quite inferior to his own. + +441. It is contended that by admitting the exportation of +machinery, foreign manufacturers will be supplied with machines +equal to our own. The first answer which presents itself to this +argument is supplied by almost the whole of the present volume; +That in order to succeed in a manufacture, it is necessary not +merely to possess good machinery, but that the domestic economy +of the factory should be most carefully regulated. + +The truth, as well as the importance of this principle, is so +well established in the Report of a Committee of the House of +Commons 'On the Export of Tools and Machinery', that I shall +avail myself of the opinions and evidence there stated, before I +offer any observations of my own: + +Supposing, indeed, that the same machinery which is used in +England could be obtained on the Continent, it is the opinion of +some of the most intelligent of the witnesses that a want of +arrangement in foreign manufactories, of division of labour in +their work, of skill and perseverance in their workmen, and of +enterprise in the masters, together with the comparatively low +estimation in which the master manufacturers are held on the +Continent, and with the comparative want of capital, and of many +other advantageous circumstances detailed in the evidence, would +prevent foreigners from interfering in any great degree by +competition with our principal manufacturers; on which subject +the Committee submit the following evidence as worthy the +attention of the House: + +I would ask whether, upon the whole, you consider any danger +likely to arise to our manufactures from competition, even if the +French were supplied with machinery equally good and cheap as our +own? They will always be behind us until their general habits +approximate to ours; and they must be behind us for many reasons +that I have before given. + +Why must they be behind us? One other reason is, that a +cotton manufacturer who left Manchester seven years ago, would be +driven out of the market by the men who are now living in it, +provided his knowledge had not kept pace with those who have been +during that time constantly profiting by the progressive +improvements that have taken place in that period: this +progressive knowledge and experience is our great power and +advantage. + +It should also be observed, that the constant, nay, almost +daily, improvements which take place in our machinery itself, as +well as in the mode of its application, require that all those +means and advantages alluded to above should be in constant +operation: and that, in the opinion of several of the witnesses, +although Europe were possessed of every tool now used in the +United Kingdom, along with the assistance of English artisans, +which she may have in any number, yet, from the natural and +acquired advantages possessed by this country, the manufacturers +of the United Kingdom would for ages continue to retain the +superiority they now enjoy. It is indeed the opinion of many, +that if the exportation of machinery were permitted, the +exportation would often consist of those tools and machines, +which, although already superseded by new inventions, still +continue to be employed, from want of opportunity to get rid of +them: to the detriment, in many instances, of the trade and +manufactures of the country: and it is matter worthy of +consideration, and fully borne out by the evidence, that by such +increased foreign demand for machinery, the ingenuity and skill +of our workmen would have greater scope; and that, important as +the improvements in machinery have lately been, they might, under +such circumstances, be fairly expected to increase to a degree +beyond all precedent. + +The many important facilities for the construction of +machines and the manufacturing of commodities which we possess, +are enjoyed by no other country; nor is it likely that any +country can enjoy them to an equal extent for an indefinite +period. It is admitted by everyone, that our skill is unrivalled; +the industry and power of our people unequalled; their +ingenuity, as displayed in the continuol improvement in +machinery, and production of commodities, without parallel; and +apparently, without limit. The freedom which, under our +government, every man has, to use his capital, his labour, and +his talents, in the manner most conducive to his interests, is an +inestimable advantage; canals are cut, and railroads constructed, +by the voluntary association of persons whose local knowledge +enables them to place them in the most desirable situations; and +these great advantages cannot exist under less free governments. +These circumstances, when taken together, give such a decided +superiority to our people, that no injurious rivalry, either in +the construction of machinery or the manufacture of commodities, +can reasonably be anticipated. + +442. But, even if it were desirable to prevent the +exportation of a certain class of machinery, it is abdundantly +evident, that, whilst the exportation of other classes is +allowed, it is impossible to prevent the forbidden one from being +smuggled out; and that, in point of fact, the additional risk has +been well calculated by the smuggler. + +443. It would appear, also, from various circumstances, that +the immediate exportation of improved machinery is not quite so +certain as has been assumed; and that the powerful principle of +self-interest will urge the makers of it, rather to push the sale +in a different direction. When a great maker of machinery has +contrived a new machine for any particular process, or has made +some great improvement upon those in common use, to whom will he +naturally apply for the purpose of selling his new machines? +Undoubtedly, in by far the majority of cases, to his nearest and +best customers, those to whom he has immediate and personal +access, and whose capability to fulfil any contract is best known +to him. With these, he will communicate and offer to take their +orders for the new machine; nor will he think of writing to +foreign customers, so long as he finds the home demand sufficient +to employ the whole force of his establishment. Thus, therefore, +the machine-maker is himself interested in giving the first +advantage of any new improvement to his own countrymen. + +444. In point of fact, the machine-makers in London greatly +prefer home orders, and do usually charge an additional price to +their foreign customers. Even the measure of this preference may +be found in the evidence before the Committee on the Export of +Machinery. It is differently estimated by various engineers; but +appears to vary from five up to twenty-five per cent on the +amount of the order. The reasons are: 1. If the machinery be +complicated, one of the best workmen, well accustomed to the mode +of work in the factory, must be sent out to put it up; and there +is always a considerable chance of his having offers that will +induce him to remain abroad. 2. If the work be of a more simple +kind, and can be put up without the help of an English workman, +yet for the credit of the house which supplies it, and to prevent +the accidents likely to occur from the want of sufficient +instruction in those who use it, the parts are frequently made +stronger, and examined more attentively, than they would be for +an English purchaser. Any defect or accident also would be +attended with more expense to repair, if it occurred abroad, than +in England. + +445. The class of workmen who make machinery, possess much +more skill, and are paid much more highly than that class who +merely use it; and, if a free exportation were allowed, the more +valuable class would, undoubtedly, be greatly increased; for, +notwithstanding the high rate of wages, there is no country in +whichit can at this moment be made, either so well or so cheaply +as in England. We might, therefore, supply the whole world with +machinery, at an evident advantage, both to ourselves and our +customers. In Manchester, and the surrounding district, many +thousand men are wholly occupied in making the machinery, which +gives employment to many hundred thousands who use it; but the +period is not very remote, when the whole number of those who +used machines, was not greater than the number of those who at +present manufacture them. Hence, then, if England should ever +become a great exporter of machinery, she would necessarily +contain a large class of workmen, to whom skill would be +indispensable, and, consequently, to whom high wages would be +paid; and although her manufacturers might probably be +comparatively fewer in number, yet they would undoubtedly have +the advantage of being the first to derive profit from +improvement. Under such circumstances, any diminution in the +demand for machinery, would, in the first instance, be felt by a +class much better able to meet it, than that which now suffers +upon every check in the consumption of manufactured goods; and +the resulting misery would therefore assume a mitigated +character. + +446. It has been feared, that when other countries have +purchased our machines, they will cease to demand new ones: but +the statement which has been given of the usual progress in the +improvement of the machinery employed in any manufacture, and of +the average time which elapses before it is superseded by such +improvements, is a complete reply to this objection. If our +customers abroad did not adopt the new machinery contrived by us +as soon as they could procure it, then our manufacturers would +extend their establishments, and undersell their rivals in their +own markets. + +447. It may also be urged, that in each kind of machinery a +maximum of perfection may be imagined, beyond which it is +impossible to advance; and certainly the last advances are +usually the smallest when compared with those which precede them: +but it should be observed, that these advances are generally made +when the number of machines in employment is already large; and +when, consequently, their effects on the power of producing are +very considerable. But though it should be admitted that any one +species of machinery may, after a long period, arrive at a degree +of perfection which would render further improvement nearly +hopeless, yet it is impossible to suppose that this can be the +case with respect to all kinds of mechanism. In fact the limit of +improvement is rarely approached, except in extensive branches of +national manufactures; and the number of such branches is, even +at present, very small. + +448. Another argument in favour of the exportation of +machinery, is, that it would facilitate the transfer of capital +to any more advantageous mode of employment which might present +itself. If the exportation of machinery were permitted, there +would doubtless arise a new and increased demand; and, supposing +any particular branch of our manufactures to cease to produce the +average rate of profit, the loss to the capitalist would be much +less, if a market were open for the sale of his machinery to +customers more favourably circumstanced for its employment. If, +on the other hand, new improvements in machinery should be +imagined, the manufacturer would be more readily enabled to carry +them into effect, by having the foreign market opened where he +could sell his old machines. The fact, that England can, +notwithstanding her taxation and her high rate of wages, actually +undersell other nations, seems to be well established: and it +appears to depend on the superior goodness and cheapness of those +raw materials of machinery the metals--on the excellence of the +tools--and on the admirable arrangements of the domestic economy +of our factories. + +449. The different degrees of facility with which capital can +be transferred from one mode of employment to another, has an +important effect on the rate of profits in different trades and +in different countries. Supposing all the other causes which +influence the rate of profit at any period, to act equally on +capital employed in different occupations, yet the real rates of +profit would soon alter, on account of the different degrees of +loss incurred by removing the capital from one mode of investment +to another, or of any variation in the action of those causes. + +450. This principle will appear more clearly by taking an +example. Let two capitalists have embarked L10,000 each, in two +trades: A in supplying a district with water, by means of a +steam-engine and iron pipes; B in manufacturing bobbin net. The +capital of A will be expended in building a house and erecting a +steam-engine, which costs, we shall suppose, L3000; and in laying +down iron pipes to supply his customers, costing L7000. The +greatest part of this latter expense is payment for labour, and +if the pipes were to be taken up, the damage arising from that +operation would render them of little value, except as old metal; +whilst the expense of their removal would be considerable. Let +us, therefore, suppose, that if A were obliged to give up his +trade, he could realize only L4000 by the sale of his stock. Let +us suppose again that B, by the sale of his bobbin net factory +and machinery, could realize L8000 and let the usual profit on +the capital employed by each party be the same, say 20 per cent: +then we have + +Capital invested; Money which would arise from sale of machinery; +Annual rate of profit per cent; Income + + L L L L + Water works 10,000 4000 20 2000 + Bobbin net Factory 10,000 8000 20 2000 + + +Now, if, from competition, or any other cause, the rate of +profit arising from water-works should fall to 20 per cent, that +circumstance would not cause a transfer of capital from the +water-works to bobbin net making; because the reduced income from +the water-works, L1000 per annum, would still be greater than +that produced by investing L4000, (the whole sum arising from the +sale of the materials of the water-works), in a bobbin net +factory, which sum, at 20 per cent, would yield only L800 per +annum. In fact, the rate of profit, arising from the water-works, +must fall to less than 8 per cent before the proprietor could +increase his income by removing his capital into the bobbin net +trade. + +451. In any enquiry into the probability of the injury +arising to our manufacturers from the competition of foreign +countries, particular regard should be had to the facilities of +transport, and to the existence in our own country of a mass of +capital in roads, canals, machinery, etc., the greater portion of +which may fairly be considered as having repaid the expense of +its outlay, and also to the cheap rate at which the abundance of +our fuel enables us to produce iron, the basis of almost all +machinery. It has been justly remarked by M. de Villefosse, in +the memoir before alluded to, that Ce que l'on nomme en France, +la question du prix des fers, est, a proprement parler, la +question du prix des bois, et la question, des moyens de +communications interieures par les routes, fleuves, rivieres et +canaux. + +The price of iron in various countries in Europe has been +stated in section 215 of the present volume; and it appears, that +in England it is produced at the least expense, and in France at +the greatest. The length of the roads which cover England and +Wales may be estimated roughly at twenty thousand miles of +turnpike, and one hundred thousand miles of road not turnpike. +The internal water communication of England and France, as far as +I have been able to collect information on the subject, may be +stated as follows: + + In France + + Miles in length + + Navigable rivers 4668 + Navigable canals 915.5 + Navigable canals in progress of execution (1824) 1388 + + 6971.5 (1*) + +But, if we reduce these numbers in the proportion of 3.7 to 1, +which is the relative area of France as compared with England and +Wales, then we shall have the following comparison: + + Portion of France equal in size to England and Wales + + England(2*) + Miles Miles + + Navigable rivers 1275.5 1261.6 + Tidal navigation(3*) 545.9 + Canals, direct 2023.5 + Canals, branch 150.6 + + 2174.1 2174.1 247.4 + Canals commenced --- 375.1 + + Total 3995.5 1884.1 + + Population in 1831 13,894,500 8,608,500 + + +This comparison, between the internal communications of the +two countries, is not offered as complete; nor is it a fair view, +to contrast the wealthiest portion of one country with the whole +of the other: but it is inserted with the hope of inducing those +who possess more extensive information on the subject, to supply +the facts on which a better comparison may be instituted. The +information to be added, would consist of the number of miles in +each country, of seacoast, of public roads, of railroads, of +railroads on which locomotive engines are used. + +452. One point of view, in which rapid modes of conveyance +increase the power of a country, deserves attention. On the +Manchester Railroad, for example, above half a million of persons +travel annually; and supposing each person to save only one hour +in the time of transit, between Manchester and Liverpool, a +saving of five hundred thousand hours, or of fifty thousand +working days, of ten hours each, is effected. Now this is +equivalent to an addition to the actual power of the country of +one hundred and sixty-seven men, without increasing the quantity +of food consumed; and it should also be remarked, that the time +of the class of men thus supplied, is far more valuable than that +of mere labourers. + +NOTES: + +1. This table is extracted and reduced from one of Ravinet, +Dictionnaire Hydrographique. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris. 1824. + +2. I am indebted to F. Page. Esq. of Speen, for that portion of +this table which relates to the internal navigation of England. +Those only who have themselves collected statistical details can +be aware of the expense of time and labour, of which the few +lines it contains are the result. + +3. The tidal navigation includes: the Thames, from the mouth of +the Medway; the Severn, from the Holmes: the Trent, from Trent +Falls in the Humber; the Mersey from Runcorn Gap. + + + +Chapter 35 + +On the Future Prospects of Manufactures, as Connected with +Science + +453. In reviewing the various processes offered as +illustrations of those general principles which it has been the +main object of the present volume to support and establish, it is +impossible not to perceive that the arts and manufactures of the +country are intimately connected with the progress of the severer +sciences; and that, as we advance in the career of improvement, +every step requires, for its success, that this connection should +be rendered more intimate. + +The applied sciences derive their facts from experiment; but +the reasonings, on which their chief utility depends, are the +province of what is called abstract science. It has been shown, +that the division of labour is no less applicable to mental +productions than to those in which material bodies are concerned; +and it follows, that the efforts for the improvement of its +manufactures which any country can make with the greatest +probability of success, must arise from the combined exertions of +all those most skilled in the theory, as well as in the practice +of the arts; each labouring in that department for which his +natural capacity and acquired habits have rendered him most fit. + +454. The profit arising from the successful application to +practice of theoretical principles, will, in most cases, amply +reward, in a pecuniary sense, those by whom they are first +employed; yet even here, what has been stated with respect to +patents, will prove that there is room for considerable amendment +in our legislative enactments: but the discovery of the great +principles of nature demands a mind almost exclusively devoted to +such investigations; and these, in the present state of science, +frequently require costly apparatus, and exact an expense of time +quite incompatible with professional avocations. It becomes, +therefore, a fit subject for consideration, whether it would not +be politic in the State to compensate for some of those +privations, to which the cultivators of the higher departments of +science are exposed; and the best mode of effecting this +compensation, is a question which interests both the philosopher +and the statesman. Such considerations appear to have had their +just influence in other countries, where the pursuit of science +is regarded as a profession, and where those who are successful +in its cultivation are not shut out from almost every object of +honourable ambition to which their fellow countrymen may aspire. +Having, however, already expressed some opinion upon these +subjects in another publication,(1*) I shall here content myself +with referring to that work. + +455. There was, indeed, in our own country, one single +position to which science, when concurring with independent +fortune, might aspire, as conferring rank and station, an office +deriving, in the estimation of the public, more than half its +value from the commanding knowledge of its possessor; and it is +extraordinary, that even that solitary dignity--that barony by +tenure in the world of British science--the chair of the Royal +Society, should have been coveted for adventitious rank. It is +more extraordinary, that a Prince, distinguished by the liberal +views he has invariably taken of public affairs--and eminent for +his patronage of every institution calculated to alleviate those +miseries from which, by his rank, he is himself exempted--who is +stated by his friends to be the warm admirer of knowledge, and +most anxious for its advancement, should have been so imperfectly +informed by those friends, as to have wrested from the head of +science, the only civic wreath which could adorn its brow.(2*) + +In the meanwhile the President may learn, through the only +medium by which his elevated station admits approach, that those +evils which were anticipated from his election, have not proved +to be imaginary, and that the advantages by some expected to +result from it, have not yet become apparent. It may be right +also to state, that whilst many of the inconveniences, which have +been experienced by the President of the Royal Society, have +resulted from the conduct of his own supporters, those who were +compelled to differ from him, have subsequently offered no +vexatious opposition: they wait in patience, convinced that the +force of truth must ultimately work its certain, though silent +course; not doubting that when His Royal Highness is correctly +informed, he will himself be amongst the first to be influenced +by its power. + +456. But younger institutions have arisen to supply the +deficiencies of the old; and very recently a new combination, +differing entirely from the older societies, promises to give +additional steadiness to the future march of science. The British +Association for the Advancement of Science, which held its first +meeting at York(3*) in the year 1831, would have acted as a +powerful ally, even if the Royal Society were all that it might +be: but in the present state of that body such an association is +almost necessary for the purposes of science. The periodical +assemblage of persons, pursuing the same or different branches of +knowledge, always produces an excitement which is favourable to +the development of new ideas; whilst the long period of repose +which succeeds, is advantageous for the prosecution of the +reasonings or the experiments then suggested; and the recurrence +of the meeting in the succeeding year, will stimulate the +activity of the enquirer, by the hope of being then enabled to +produce the successful result of his labours. Another advantage +is, that such meetings bring together a much larger number of +persons actively engaged in science, or placed in positions in +which they can contribute to it, than can ever be found at the +ordinary meetings of other institutions, even in the most +populous capitals; and combined effort towards any particular +object can thus be more easily arranged. + +457. But perhaps the greatest benefit which will accrue from +these assemblies, is the intercourse which they cannot fail to +promote between the different classes of society. The man of +science will derive practical information from the great +manufacturers--the chemist will be indebted to the same source for +substances which exist in such minute quantity, as only to become +visible in most extensive operations--and persons of wealth and +property, resident in each neighbourhood visited by these +migratory assemblies, will derive greater advantages than either +of those classes, from the real instruction they may procure +respecting the produce and manufactures of their country, and the +enlightened gratification which is ever attendant on the +acquisition of knowledge.(4*) + +458. Thus it may be hoped that public opinion shall be +brought to bear upon the world of science; and that by this +intercourse light will be thrown upon the characters of men, and +the pretender and the charlatan be driven into merited obscurity. +Without the action of public opinion, any administration, however +anxious to countenance the pursuits of science, and however ready +toreward, by wealth or honours, those whom they might think most +eminent, would run the risk of acting like the blind man recently +couched, who, having no mode of estimating degrees of distance, +mistook the nearest and most insignificant for the largest +objects in nature: it becomes, therefore, doubly important, that +the man of science should mix with the world. + +459. It is highly probable that in the next generation, the +race of scientific men in England will spring from a class of +persons altogether different from that which has hitherto +scantily supplied them. Requiring, for the success of their +pursuits, previous education, leisure, and fortune, few are so +likely to unite these essentials as the sons of our wealthy +manufacturers, who, having been enriched by their own exertions, +in a field connected with science, will be ambitious of having +their children distinguished in its ranks. It must, however, be +admitted, that this desire in the parents would acquire great +additional intensity, if worldly honours occasionally followed +successful efforts; and that the country would thus gain for +science, talents which are frequently rendered useless by the +unsuitable situations in which they are placed. + +460. The discoverers of iodine and bromine, two substances +hitherto undecompounded, were both amongst the class of +manufacturers, one being a maker of saltpetre at Paris, the other +a manufacturing chemist at Marseilles; and the inventor of +balloons filled with rarefied air, was a paper manufacturer near +Lyons. The descendants of Mongolfier, the first aerial traveller, +still carry on the establishment of their progenitor, and combine +great scientific knowledge with skill in various departments of +the arts, to which the different branches of the family have +applied themselves. + +461. Chemical science may, in many instances, be of great +importance to the manufacturer, as well as to the merchant. The +quantity of Peruvian bark which is imported into Europe is very +considerable; but chemistry has recently proved that a large +portion of the bark itself is useless. The alkali Quinia which +has been extracted from it, possesses all the properties for +which the bark is valuable, and only forty ounces of this +substance, when in combination with sulphuric acid, can be +extracted from a hundred pounds of the bark. In this instance +then, with every ton of useful matter, thirty-nine tons of +rubbish are transported across the Atlantic. + +The greatest part of the sulphate of quinia now used in this +country is imported from France, where the low price of the +alcohol, by which it is extracted from the bark, renders the +process cheap; but it cannot be doubted, that when more settled +forms of government shall have given security to capital, and +when advancing civilization shall have spread itself over the +states of Southern America, the alkaline medicine will be +extracted from the woody matter by which its efficacy is +impaired, and that it will be exported in its most condensed +form. + +462. The aid of chemistry, in extracting and in concentrating +substances used for human food, is of great use in distant +voyages, where the space occupied by the stores must be +economized with the greatest care. Thus the essential oils supply +the voyager with flavour; the concentrated and crystallized +vegetable acids preserve his health; and alcohol, when +sufficiently diluted, supplies the spirit necessary for his daily +consumption. + +463. When we reflect on the very small number of species of +plants, compared with the multitude that are known to exist, +which have hitherto been cultivated, and rendered useful to man; +and when we apply the same observation to the animal world, and +even to the mineral kingdom, the field that natural science opens +to our view seems to be indeed unlimited. These productions of +nature, varied and innumerable as they are, may each, in some +future day, become the basis of extensive manufactures, and give +life, employment, and wealth, to millions of human beings. But +the crude treasures perpetually exposed before our eyes, contain +within them other and more valuable principles. All these, +likewise, in their numberless combinations, which ages of labour +and research can never exhaust, may be destined to furnish, in +perpetual succession, new sources of our wealth and of our +happiness. Science and knowledge are subject, in their extension +and increase, to laws quite opposite to those which regulate the +material world. Unlike the forces of molecular attraction, which +cease at sensible distances; or that of gravity, which decreases +rapidly with the increasing distance from the point of its +origin; the further we advance from the origin of our knowledge, +the larger it becomes, and the greater power it bestows upon its +cultivators, to add new fields to its dominions. Yet, does this +continually and rapidly increasing power, instead of giving us +any reason to anticipate the exhaustion of so fertile a field, +place us at each advance, on some higher eminence, from which the +mind contemplates the past, and feels irresistibly convinced, +that the whole, already gained, bears a constantly diminishing +ratio to that which is contained within the still more rapidly +expanding horizon of our knowledge. + +464. But, if the knowledge of the chemical and physical +properties of the bodies which surround us, as well as our +imperfect acquaintance with the less tangible elements, light, +electricity, and heat, which mysteriously modify or change their +combinations, concur to convince us of the same fact; we must +remember that another and a higher science, itself still more +boundless, is also advancing with a giant's stride, and having +grasped the mightier masses of the universe, and reduced their +wanderings to laws, has given to us in its own condensed +language, expressions, which are to the past as history, to the +future as prophecy. It is the same science which is now preparing +its fetters for the minutest atoms that nature has created: +already it has nearly chained the ethereal fluid, and bound in +one harmonious system all the intricate and splendid phenomena of +light. It is the science of calculation--which becomes +continually more necessary at each step of our progress, and +which must ultimately govern the whole of the applications of +science to the arts of life. + +465. But perhaps a doubt may arise in the mind, whilst +contemplating the continually increasing field of human +knowledge, that the weak arm of man may want the physical force +required to render that knowledge available. The experience of +the past, has stamped with the indelible character of truth, the +maxim, that knowledge is power. It not merely gives to its +votaries control over the mental faculties of their species, but +is itself the generator of physical force. The discovery of the +expansive power of steam, its condensation, and the doctrine of +latent heat, has already added to the population of this small +island, millions of hands. But the source of this power is not +without limit, and the coal-mines of the world may ultimately be +exhausted. Without adverting to the theory, that new deposits of +that mineral are not accumulating under the sea, at the estuaries +of some of our larger rivers; without anticipating the +application of other fluids requiring a less supply of caloric +than water--we may remark that the sea itself offers a perennial +source of power hitherto almost unapplied. The tides, twice in +each day, raise a vast mass of water, which might be made +available for driving machinery. But supposing heat still to +remain necessary, when the exhausted state of our coal fields +renders it expensive: long before that period arrives, other +methods will probably have been invented for producing it. In +some districts, there are springs of hot water, which have flowed +for centuries unchanged in temperature. In many parts of the +island of Ischia, by deepening the sources of the hot springs +only a few feet, the water boils; and there can be little doubt +that, by boring a short distance, steam of high pressure would +issue from the orifice.(5*) + +In Iceland, the sources of heat are still more plentiful; and +their proximity to large masses of ice, seems almost to point out +the future destiny of that island. The ice of its glaciers may +enable its inhabitants to liquefy the gases with the least +expenditure of mechanical force; and the heat of its volcanoes +may supply the power necessary for their condensation. Thus, in a +future age, power may become the staple commodity of the +Icelanders, and of the inhabitants of other volcanic +districts;(6*) and possibly the very process by which they will +procure this article of exchange for the luxuries of happier +climates may, in some measure, tame the tremendous element which +occasionally devastates their provinces. + +466. Perhaps to the sober eye of inductive philosophy, these +anticipations of the future may appear too faintly connected with +the history of the past. When time shall have revealed the future +progress of our race, those laws which are now obscurely +indicated, will then become distinctly apparent; and it may +possibly be found that the dominion of mind over the material +world advances with an everaccelerating force. + +Even now, the imprisoned winds which the earliest poet made +the Grecian warrior bear for the protection of his fragile bark; +or those which, in more modern times, the Lapland wizards sold to +the deluded sailors--these, the unreal creations of fancy or of +fraud, called at the command of science, from their shadowy +existence, obey a holier spell: and the unruly masters of the +poet and the seer become the obedient slaves of civilized man. + +Nor have the wild imaginings of the satirist been quite +unrivalled by the realities of after years: as if in mockery of +the College of Laputa, light almost solar has been extracted from +the refuse of fish; fire has been sifted by the lamp of Davy, and +machinery has been taught arithmetic instead of poetry. + +467. In whatever light we examine the triumphs and +achievements of our species over the creation submitted to its +power, we explore new sources of wonder. But if science has +called into real existence the visions of the poet--if the +accumulating knowledge of ages has blunted the sharpest and +distanced the loftiest of the shafts of the satirist, the +philosopher has conferred on the moralist an obligation of +surpassing weight. In unveiling to him the living miracles which +teem in rich exuberance around the minutest atom, as well as +throughout the largest masses of ever-active matter, he has +placed before him resistless evidence of immeasurable design. +Surrounded by every form of animate and inanimate existence, the +sun of science has yet penetrated but through the outer fold of +nature's majestic robe; but if the philosopher were required to +separate, from amongst those countless evidences of creative +power, one being, the masterpiece of its skill; and from that +being to select one gift, the choicest of all the attributes of +life; turning within his own breast, and conscious of those +powers which have subjugated to his race the external world, and +of those higher powers by which he has subjugated to himself that +creative faculty which aids his faltering conceptions of a deity, +the humble worshipper at the altar of truth would pronounce that +being, man; that endowment, human reason. + +But however large the interval that separates the lowest from +the highest of those sentient beings which inhabit our planet, +all the results of observation, enlightened by all the reasonings +of the philosopher, combine to render it probable that, in the +vast extent of creation, the proudest attribute of our race is +but, perchance, the lowest step in the gradation of intellectual +existence. For, since every portion of our own material globe, +and every animated being it supports, afford, on more +scrutinizing enquiry, more perfect evidence of design, it would +indeed be most unphilosophical to believe that those sister +spheres, obedient to the same law, and glowing with light and +heat radiant from the same central source--and that the members +of those kindred systems, almost lost in the remoteness of space, +and perceptible only from the countless multitude of their +congregated globes should each be no more than a floating chaos +of unformed matter; or, being all the work of the same Almighty +Architect, that no living eye should be gladdened by their forms +of beauty, that no intellectual being should expand its faculties +in decyphering their laws. + +NOTES: + +1. Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on some +of its Causes. 8vo. 1830. Fellowes. + +2. The Duke of Sussex was proposed as President of the Royal +Society in opposition to the wish of the Council in opposition to +the public declaration of a body of Fellows, comprising the +largest portion of those by whose labours the character of +English science had been maintained The aristocracy of rank and +of power, aided by such allies as it can always command, set +itself in array against the prouder aristocracy of science. Out +of about seven hundred members, only two hundred and thirty +balloted; and the Duke of Sussex had a majority of eight. Under +such circumstances, it was indeed extraordinary, that His Royal +Highness should have condescended to accept the fruits of that +doubtful and inauspicious victory. + +The circumstances preceding and attending this singular +contest have been most ably detailed in a pamphlet entitled A +Statement of the Circumstances connected with the late Election +for the, Presidency of the Royal Society, 1831, printed by R. +Taylor, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. The whole tone of the tract +is strikingly contrasted with that of the productions of some of +those persons by whom it was His Royal Highness's misfortune to +be supported. + +3. The second meeting took place at Oxford in June 1832, and +surpassed even the sanguine anticipations of its friends. The +third annual meeting will take place at Cambridge in June 1833. + +4 The advantages likely to arise from such an association, have +been so clearly stated in the address delivered by the Rev. Mr +Vernon Harcourt, at its first meeting, that I would strongly +recommend its perusal by all those who feel interested in the +success of English science. Vide First Report of the British +Association for the Advancement of Science, York. 1832. + +5 In 1828, the author of these pages visited Ischia, with a +committee of the Royal Academy of Naples, deputed to examine the +temperature and chemical constitution of the springs in that +island. During the few first days, several springs which had been +represented in the instructions as under the boiling temperature, +were found, on deepening the excavations, to rise to the boiling +point. + +6 See section 351. + + +THE END. + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg Etext of Economy Of Machinery And Manufactures +by Charles Babbage + diff --git a/4238.zip b/4238.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..76909b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/4238.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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