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Bird - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Among the Tibetans - -Author: Isabella L. Bird - -Illustrator: Edward Whymper - -Release Date: December 16, 2012 [EBook #41635] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMONG THE TIBETANS *** - - - - -Produced by Suzanne Shell, Asad Razzaki and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -[Illustration: USMAN SHAH] - - - AMONG THE TIBETANS - - Isabella L. Bird - - Illustrated by - Edward Whymper - - - DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. - Mineola, New York - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - CHAPTER I - - THE START 7 - - CHAPTER II - - SHERGOL AND LEH 40 - - CHAPTER III - - NUBRA 72 - - CHAPTER IV - - MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 101 - - CHAPTER V - - CLIMATE AND NATURAL FEATURES 130 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - Usman Shah _Frontispiece_ - - The Start from Srinagar 13 - - Camp at Gagangair 18 - - Sonamarg 21 - - A hand Prayer-Cylinder 42 - - Tibetan Girl 45 - - Gonpo of Spitak 51 - - Leh 57 - - A Chod-Ten 66 - - A Lama 74 - - Three Gopas 77 - - Some Instruments of Buddhist Worship 86 - - Monastic Buildings at Basgu 93 - - The Yak (_Bos grunniens_) 100 - - A Chang-pa Woman 102 - - Chang-pa Chief 110 - - The Castle of Stok 117 - - First Village in Kulu 125 - - A Tibetan Farm-house 133 - - Lahul Valley 141 - - Gonpo at Kylang 149 - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE START - - -The Vale of Kashmir is too well known to require description. It is the -'happy hunting-ground' of the Anglo-Indian sportsman and tourist, the -resort of artists and invalids, the home of _pashm_ shawls and -exquisitely embroidered fabrics, and the land of Lalla Rookh. Its -inhabitants, chiefly Moslems, infamously governed by Hindus, are a -feeble race, attracting little interest, valuable to travellers as -'coolies' or porters, and repulsive to them from the mingled cunning and -obsequiousness which have been fostered by ages of oppression. But even -for them there is the dawn of hope, for the Church Missionary Society -has a strong medical and educational mission at the capital, a hospital -and dispensary under the charge of a lady M.D. have been opened for -women, and a capable and upright 'settlement officer,' lent by the -Indian Government, is investigating the iniquitous land arrangements -with a view to a just settlement. - -I left the Panjāb railroad system at Rawul Pindi, bought my camp -equipage, and travelled through the grand ravines which lead to Kashmir -or the Jhelum Valley by hill-cart, on horseback, and by house-boat, -reaching Srinagar at the end of April, when the velvet lawns were at -their greenest, and the foliage was at its freshest, and the -deodar-skirted mountains which enclose this fairest gem of the Himalayas -still wore their winter mantle of unsullied snow. Making Srinagar my -headquarters, I spent two months in travelling in Kashmir, half the time -in a native house-boat on the Jhelum and Pohru rivers, and the other -half on horseback, camping wherever the scenery was most attractive. - -By the middle of June mosquitos were rampant, the grass was tawny, a -brown dust haze hung over the valley, the camp-fires of a multitude -glared through the hot nights and misty moonlight of the Munshibagh, -English tents dotted the landscape, there was no mountain, valley, or -plateau, however remote, free from the clatter of English voices and the -trained servility of Hindu servants, and even Sonamarg, at an altitude -of 8,000 feet and rough of access, had capitulated to lawn-tennis. To a -traveller this Anglo-Indian hubbub was intolerable, and I left Srinagar -and many kind friends on June 20 for the uplifted plateaux of Lesser -Tibet. My party consisted of myself, a thoroughly competent servant and -passable interpreter, Hassan Khan, a Panjābi; a _seis_, of whom the less -that is said the better; and Mando, a Kashmiri lad, a common coolie, -who, under Hassan Khan's training, developed into an efficient -travelling servant, and later into a smart _khītmatgar_. - -Gyalpo, my horse, must not be forgotten--indeed, he cannot be, for he -left the marks of his heels or teeth on every one. He was a beautiful -creature, Badakshani bred, of Arab blood, a silver-grey, as light as a -greyhound and as strong as a cart-horse. He was higher in the scale of -intellect than any horse of my acquaintance. His cleverness at times -suggested reasoning power, and his mischievousness a sense of humour. He -walked five miles an hour, jumped like a deer, climbed like a _yak_, was -strong and steady in perilous fords, tireless, hardy, hungry, frolicked -along ledges of precipices and over crevassed glaciers, was absolutely -fearless, and his slender legs and the use he made of them were the -marvel of all. He was an enigma to the end. He was quite untamable, -rejected all dainties with indignation, swung his heels into people's -faces when they went near him, ran at them with his teeth, seized unwary -passers-by by their _kamar bands_, and shook them as a dog shakes a rat, -would let no one go near him but Mando, for whom he formed at first -sight a most singular attachment, but kicked and struck with his -forefeet, his eyes all the time dancing with fun, so that one could -never decide whether his ceaseless pranks were play or vice. He was -always tethered in front of my tent with a rope twenty feet long, which -left him practically free; he was as good as a watchdog, and his antics -and enigmatical savagery were the life and terror of the camp. I was -never weary of watching him, the curves of his form were so exquisite, -his movements so lithe and rapid, his small head and restless little -ears so full of life and expression, the variations in his manner so -frequent, one moment savagely attacking some unwary stranger with a -scream of rage, the next laying his lovely head against Mando's cheek -with a soft cooing sound and a childlike gentleness. When he was -attacking anybody or frolicking, his movements and beauty can only be -described by a phrase of the Apostle James, 'the grace of the fashion of -it.' Colonel Durand, of Gilgit celebrity, to whom I am indebted for many -other kindnesses, gave him to me in exchange for a cowardly, heavy -Yarkand horse, and had previously vainly tried to tame him. His wild -eyes were like those of a seagull. He had no kinship with humanity. - -In addition, I had as escort an Afghan or Pathan, a soldier of the -Maharajah's irregular force of foreign mercenaries, who had been sent to -meet me when I entered Kashmir. This man, Usman Shah, was a stage -ruffian in appearance. He wore a turban of prodigious height ornamented -with poppies or birds' feathers, loved fantastic colours and ceaseless -change of raiment, walked in front of me carrying a big sword over his -shoulder, plundered and beat the people, terrified the women, and was -eventually recognised at Leh as a murderer, and as great a ruffian in -reality as he was in appearance. An attendant of this kind is a mistake. -The brutality and rapacity he exercises naturally make the people -cowardly or surly, and disinclined to trust a traveller so accompanied. - -Finally, I had a Cabul tent, 7 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 6 in., weighing, with -poles and iron pins, 75 lbs., a trestle bed and cork mattress, a folding -table and chair, and an Indian _dhurrie_ as a carpet. - -My servants had a tent 5 ft. 6 in. square, weighing only 10 lbs., which -served as a shelter tent for me during the noonday halt. A kettle, -copper pot, and frying pan, a few enamelled iron table equipments, -bedding, clothing, working and sketching materials, completed my outfit. -The servants carried wadded quilts for beds and bedding, and their own -cooking utensils, unwillingness to use those belonging to a Christian -being nearly the last rag of religion which they retained. The only -stores I carried were tea, a quantity of Edwards' desiccated soup, and a -little saccharin. The 'house,' furniture, clothing, &c., were a light -load for three mules, engaged at a shilling a day each, including the -muleteer. Sheep, coarse flour, milk, and barley were procurable at very -moderate prices on the road. - -[Illustration: THE START FROM SRINAGAR] - -Leh, the capital of Ladakh or Lesser Tibet, is nineteen marches from -Srinagar, but I occupied twenty-six days on the journey, and made the -first 'march' by water, taking my house-boat to Ganderbal, a few hours -from Srinagar, _viâ_ the Mar Nullah and Anchar Lake. Never had this -Venice of the Himalayas, with a broad rushing river for its high street -and winding canals for its back streets, looked so entrancingly -beautiful as in the slant sunshine of the late June afternoon. The light -fell brightly on the river at the Residency stairs where I embarked, on -_perindas_ and state barges, with their painted arabesques, gay -canopies, and 'banks' of thirty and forty crimson-clad, blue-turbaned, -paddling men; on the gay façade and gold-domed temple of the Maharajah's -Palace, on the massive deodar bridges which for centuries have defied -decay and the fierce flood of the Jhelum, and on the quaintly -picturesque wooden architecture and carved brown lattice fronts of the -houses along the swirling waterway, and glanced mirthfully through the -dense leafage of the superb planes which overhang the dark-green water. -But the mercury was 92° in the shade and the sun-blaze terrific, and it -was a relief when the boat swung round a corner, and left the stir of -the broad, rapid Jhelum for a still, narrow, and sharply winding canal, -which intersects a part of Srinagar lying between the Jhelum and the -hill-crowning fort of Hari Parbat. There the shadows were deep, and -chance lights alone fell on the red dresses of the women at the ghats, -and on the shaven, shiny heads of hundreds of amphibious boys who were -swimming and aquatically romping in the canal, which is at once the -sewer and the water supply of the district. - -Several hours were spent in a slow and tortuous progress through scenes -of indescribable picturesqueness--a narrow waterway spanned by -sharp-angled stone bridges, some of them with houses on the top, or by -old brown wooden bridges festooned with vines, hemmed in by lofty stone -embankments into which sculptured stones from ancient temples are -wrought, on the top of which are houses of rich men, fancifully built, -with windows of fretwork of wood, or gardens with kiosks, and lower -embankments sustaining many-balconied dwellings, rich in colour and -fantastic in design, their upper fronts projecting over the water and -supported on piles. There were gigantic poplars wreathed with vines, -great mulberry trees hanging their tempting fruit just out of reach, -huge planes overarching the water, their dense leafage scraping the mat -roof of the boat; filthy ghats thronged with white-robed Moslems -performing their scanty religious ablutions; great grain boats heavily -thatched, containing not only families, but their sheep and poultry; and -all the other sights of a crowded Srinagar waterway, the houses being -characteristically distorted and out of repair. This canal gradually -widens into the Anchar Lake, a reedy mere of indefinite boundaries, the -breeding-ground of legions of mosquitos; and after the tawny twilight -darkened into a stifling night we made fast to a reed bed, not reaching -Ganderbal till late the next morning, where my horse and caravan awaited -me under a splendid plane-tree. - -[Illustration: CAMP AT GAGANGAIR] - -For the next five days we marched up the Sind Valley, one of the most -beautiful in Kashmir from its grandeur and variety. Beginning among -quiet rice-fields and brown agricultural villages at an altitude of -5,000 feet, the track, usually bad and sometimes steep and perilous, -passes through flower-gemmed alpine meadows, along dark gorges above the -booming and rushing Sind, through woods matted with the sweet white -jasmine, the lower hem of the pine and deodar forests which ascend the -mountains to a considerable altitude, past rifts giving glimpses of -dazzling snow-peaks, over grassy slopes dotted with villages, houses, -and shrines embosomed in walnut groves, in sight of the frowning crags -of Haramuk, through wooded lanes and park-like country over which farms -are thinly scattered, over unrailed and shaky bridges, and across -avalanche slopes, till it reaches Gagangair, a dream of lonely beauty, -with a camping-ground of velvety sward under noble plane-trees. Above -this place the valley closes in between walls of precipices and crags, -which rise almost abruptly from the Sind to heights of 8,000 and 10,000 -feet. The road in many places is only a series of steep and shelving -ledges above the raging river, natural rock smoothed and polished into -riskiness by the passage for centuries of the trade into Central Asia -from Western India, Kashmir, and Afghanistan. Its precariousness for -animals was emphasised to me by five serious accidents which occurred in -the week of my journey, one of them involving the loss of the money, -clothing, and sporting kit of an English officer bound for Ladakh for -three months. Above this tremendous gorge the mountains open out, and -after crossing to the left bank of the Sind a sharp ascent brought me to -the beautiful alpine meadow of Sonamarg, bright with spring flowers, -gleaming with crystal streams, and fringed on all sides by deciduous and -coniferous trees, above and among which are great glaciers and the snowy -peaks of Tilail. Fashion has deserted Sonamarg, rough of access, for -Gulmarg, a caprice indicated by the ruins of several huts and of a -church. The pure bracing air, magnificent views, the proximity and -accessibility of glaciers, and the presence of a kind friend who was -'hutted' there for the summer, made Sonamarg a very pleasant halt before -entering upon the supposed severities of the journey to Lesser Tibet. - -[Illustration: SONAMARG] - -The five days' march, though propitious and full of the charm of -magnificent scenery, had opened my eyes to certain unpleasantnesses. I -found that Usman Shah maltreated the villagers, and not only robbed them -of their best fowls, but requisitioned all manner of things in my -name, though I scrupulously and personally paid for everything, beating -the people with his scabbarded sword if they showed any intention of -standing upon their rights. Then I found that my clever factotum, not -content with the legitimate 'squeeze' of ten per cent., was charging me -double price for everything and paying the sellers only half the actual -price, this legerdemain being perpetrated in my presence. He also by -threats got back from the coolies half their day's wages after I had -paid them, received money for barley for Gyalpo, and never bought it, a -fact brought to light by the growing feebleness of the horse, and -cheated in all sorts of mean and plausible ways, though I paid him -exceptionally high wages, and was prepared to 'wink' at a moderate -amount of dishonesty, so long as it affected only myself. It has a -lowering influence upon one to live in a fog of lies and fraud, and the -attempt to checkmate a fraudulent Asiatic ends in extreme discomfiture. - -I left Sonamarg late on a lovely afternoon for a short march through -forest-skirted alpine meadows to Baltal, the last camping-ground in -Kashmir, a grassy valley at the foot of the Zoji La, the first of three -gigantic steps by which the lofty plateaux of Central Asia are attained. -On the road a large affluent of the Sind, which tumbles down a -pine-hung gorge in broad sheets of foam, has to be crossed. My _seis_, a -rogue, was either half-witted or pretended to be so, and, in spite of -orders to the contrary, led Gyalpo upon a bridge at a considerable -height, formed of two poles with flat pieces of stone laid loosely over -them not more than a foot broad. As the horse reached the middle, the -structure gave a sort of turn, there was a vision of hoofs in air and a -gleam of scarlet, and Gyalpo, the hope of the next four months, after -rolling over more than once, vanished among rocks and surges of the -wildest description. He kept his presence of mind, however, recovered -himself, and by a desperate effort got ashore lower down, with legs -scratched and bleeding and one horn of the saddle incurably bent. - -Mr. Maconochie of the Panjāb Civil Service, and Dr. E. Neve of the C. M. -S. Medical Mission in Kashmir, accompanied me from Sonamarg over the -pass, and that night Mr. M. talked seriously to Usman Shah on the -subject of his misconduct, and with such singular results that -thereafter I had little cause for complaint. He came to me and said, -'The Commissioner Sahib thinks I give Mem Sahib a great deal of -trouble;' to which I replied in a cold tone, 'Take care you don't give -me any more.' The gist of the Sahib's words was the very pertinent -suggestion that it would eventually be more to his interest to serve me -honestly and faithfully than to cheat me. - -Baltal lies at the feet of a precipitous range, the peaks of which -exceed Mont Blanc in height. Two gorges unite there. There is not a hut -within ten miles. Big camp-fires blazed. A few shepherds lay under the -shelter of a mat screen. The silence and solitude were most impressive -under the frosty stars and the great Central Asian barrier. Sunrise the -following morning saw us on the way up a huge gorge with nearly -perpendicular sides, and filled to a great depth with snow. Then came -the Zoji La, which, with the Namika La and the Fotu La, respectively -11,300, 13,000, and 13,500 feet, are the three great steps from Kashmir -to the Tibetan heights. The two latter passes present no difficulties. -The Zoji La is a thoroughly severe pass, the worst, with the exception -perhaps of the Sasir, on the Yarkand caravan route. The track, cut, -broken, and worn on the side of a wall of rock nearly 2,000 feet in -abrupt elevation, is a series of rough narrow zigzags, rarely, if ever, -wide enough for laden animals to pass each other, composed of broken -ledges often nearly breast high, and shelving surfaces of abraded rock, -up which animals have to leap and scramble as best they may. - -Trees and trailers drooped over the path, ferns and lilies bloomed in -moist recesses, and among myriads of flowers a large blue and cream -columbine was conspicuous by its beauty and exquisite odour. The charm -of the detail tempted one to linger at every turn, and all the more so -because I knew that I should see nothing more of the grace and -bounteousness of Nature till my projected descent into Kulu in the late -autumn. The snow-filled gorge on whose abrupt side the path hangs, the -Zoji La (Pass), is geographically remarkable as being the lowest -depression in the great Himalayan range for 300 miles; and by it, in -spite of infamous bits of road on the Sind and Suru rivers, and -consequent losses of goods and animals, all the traffic of Kashmir, -Afghanistan, and the Western Panjāb finds its way into Central Asia. It -was too early in the season, however, for more than a few enterprising -caravans to be on the road. - -The last look upon Kashmir was a lingering one. Below, in shadow, lay -the Baltal camping-ground, a lonely deodar-belted flowery meadow, noisy -with the dash of icy torrents tumbling down from the snowfields and -glaciers upborne by the gigantic mountain range into which we had -penetrated by the Zoji Pass. The valley, lying in shadow at their base, -was a dream of beauty, green as an English lawn, starred with white -lilies, and dotted with clumps of trees which were festooned with red -and white roses, clematis, and white jasmine. Above the hardier -deciduous trees appeared the _Pinus excelsa_, the silver fir, and the -spruce; higher yet the stately grace of the deodar clothed the -hillsides; and above the forests rose the snow mountains of Tilail, pink -in the sunrise. High above the Zoji, itself 11,500 feet in altitude, a -mass of grey and red mountains, snow-slashed and snow-capped, rose in -the dewy rose-flushed atmosphere in peaks, walls, pinnacles, and jagged -ridges, above which towered yet loftier summits, bearing into the -heavenly blue sky fields of unsullied snow alone. The descent on the -Tibetan side is slight and gradual. The character of the scenery -undergoes an abrupt change. There are no more trees, and the large -shrubs which for a time take their place degenerate into thorny bushes, -and then disappear. There were mountains thinly clothed with grass here -and there, mountains of bare gravel and red rock, grey crags, stretches -of green turf, sunlit peaks with their snows, a deep, snow-filled -ravine, eastwards and beyond a long valley filled with a snowfield -fringed with pink primulas; and that was CENTRAL ASIA. - -We halted for breakfast, iced our cold tea in the snow, Mr. M. gave a -final charge to the Afghan, who swore by his Prophet to be faithful, -and I parted from my kind escorts with much reluctance, and started on -my Tibetan journey, with but a slender stock of Hindustani, and two men -who spoke not a word of English. On that day's march of fourteen miles -there is not a single hut. The snowfield extended for five miles, from -ten to seventy feet deep, much crevassed, and encumbered with -avalanches. In it the Dras, truly 'snow-born,' appeared, issuing from a -chasm under a blue arch of ice and snow, afterwards to rage down the -valley, to be forded many times or crossed on snow bridges. After -walking for some time, and getting a bad fall down an avalanche slope, I -mounted Gyalpo, and the clever, plucky fellow frolicked over the snow, -smelt and leapt crevasses which were too wide to be stepped over, put -his forelegs together and slid down slopes like a Swiss mule, and, -though carried off his feet in a ford by the fierce surges of the Dras, -struggled gamely to shore. Steep grassy hills, and peaks with gorges -cleft by the thundering Dras, and stretches of rolling grass succeeded -each other. Then came a wide valley mostly covered with stones brought -down by torrents, a few plots of miserable barley grown by irrigation, -and among them two buildings of round stones and mud, about six feet -high, with flat mud roofs, one of which might be called the village, -and the other the caravanserai. On the village roof were stacks of twigs -and of the dried dung of animals, which is used for fuel, and the whole -female population, adult and juvenile, engaged in picking wool. The -people of this village of Matayan are Kashmiris. As I had an hour to -wait for my tent, the women descended and sat in a circle round me with -a concentrated stare. They asked if I were dumb, and why I wore no -earrings or necklace, their own persons being loaded with heavy -ornaments. They brought children afflicted with skin-diseases, and asked -for ointment, and on hearing that I was hurt by a fall, seized on my -limbs and shampooed them energetically but not undexterously. I prefer -their sociability to the usual chilling aloofness of the people of -Kashmir. - -The Serai consisted of several dark and dirty cells, built round a -blazing piece of sloping dust, the only camping-ground, and under the -entrance two platforms of animated earth, on which my servants cooked -and slept. The next day was Sunday, sacred to a halt; but there was no -fodder for the animals, and we were obliged to march to Dras, following, -where possible, the course of the river of that name, which passes among -highly-coloured and snow-slashed mountains, except in places where it -suddenly finds itself pent between walls of flame-coloured or black -rock, not ten feet apart, through which it boils and rages, forming -gigantic pot-holes. With every mile the surroundings became more -markedly of the Central Asian type. All day long a white, scintillating -sun blazes out of a deep blue, rainless, cloudless sky. The air is -exhilarating. The traveller is conscious of daily-increasing energy and -vitality. There are no trees, and deep crimson roses along torrent beds -are the only shrubs. But for a brief fortnight in June, which chanced to -occur during my journey, the valleys and lower slope present a wonderful -aspect of beauty and joyousness. Rose and pale pink primulas fringe the -margin of the snow, the dainty _Pedicularis tubiflora_ covers moist -spots with its mantle of gold; great yellow and white, and small purple -and white anemones, pink and white dianthus, a very large myosotis, -bringing the intense blue of heaven down to earth, purple orchids by the -water, borage staining whole tracts deep blue, martagon lilies, pale -green lilies veined and spotted with brown, yellow, orange, and purple -vetches, painter's brush, dwarf dandelions, white clover, filling the -air with fragrance, pink and cream asters, chrysanthemums, lychnis, -irises, gentian, artemisia, and a hundred others, form the undergrowth -of millions of tall Umbelliferae and Compositae, many of them -peach-scented and mostly yellow. The wind is always strong, and the -millions of bright corollas, drinking in the sun-blaze which perfects -all too soon their brief but passionate existence, rippled in broad -waves of colour with an almost kaleidoscopic effect. About the eleventh -march from Srinagar, at Kargil, a change for the worse occurs, and the -remaining marches to the capital of Ladakh are over blazing gravel or -surfaces of denuded rock, the singular _Caprifolia horrida_, with its -dark-green mass of wavy ovate leaves on trailing stems, and its fair, -white, anemone-like blossom, and the graceful _Clematis orientalis_, the -only vegetation. - -Crossing a raging affluent of the Dras by a bridge which swayed and -shivered, the top of a steep hill offered a view of a great valley with -branches sloping up into the ravines of a complexity of mountain ranges, -from 18,000 to 21,000 feet in altitude, with glaciers at times -descending as low as 11,000 feet in their hollows. In consequence of -such possibilities of irrigation, the valley is green with irrigated -grass and barley, and villages with flat roofs scattered among the -crops, or perched on the spurs of flame-coloured mountains, give it a -wild cheerfulness. These Dras villages are inhabited by hardy Dards and -Baltis, short, jolly-looking, darker, and far less handsome than the -Kashmiris; but, unlike them, they showed so much friendliness, as well -as interest and curiosity, that I remained with them for two days, -visiting their villages and seeing the 'sights' they had to show me, -chiefly a great Sikh fort, a _yak_ bull, the _zho_, a hybrid, the -interiors of their houses, a magnificent view from a hilltop, and a Dard -dance to the music of Dard reed pipes. In return I sketched them -individually and collectively as far as time allowed, presenting them -with the results, truthful and ugly. I bought a sheep for 2_s._ 3_d._, -and regaled the camp upon it, the three which were brought for my -inspection being ridden by boys astride. - -The evenings in the Dras valley were exquisite. As soon as the sun went -behind the higher mountains, peak above peak, red and snow-slashed, -flamed against a lemon sky, the strong wind moderated into a pure stiff -breeze, bringing up to camp the thunder of the Dras, and the musical -tinkle of streams sparkling in absolute purity. There was no more need -for boiling and filtering. Icy water could be drunk in safety from every -crystal torrent. - -Leaving behind the Dras villages and their fertility, the narrow road -passes through a flaming valley above the Dras, walled in by bare, -riven, snow-patched peaks, with steep declivities of stones, huge -boulders, decaying avalanches, walls and spires of rock, some vermilion, -others pink, a few intense orange, some black, and many plum-coloured, -with a vitrified look, only to be represented by purple madder. Huge red -chasms with glacier-fed torrents, occasional snowfields, intense solar -heat radiating from dry and verdureless rock, a ravine so steep and -narrow that for miles together there is not space to pitch a five-foot -tent, the deafening roar of a river gathering volume and fury as it -goes, rare openings, where willows are planted with lucerne in their -irrigated shade, among which the traveller camps at night, and over all -a sky of pure, intense blue purpling into starry night, were the -features of the next three marches, noteworthy chiefly for the exchange -of the thundering Dras for the thundering Suru, and for some bad bridges -and infamous bits of road before reaching Kargil, where the mountains -swing apart, giving space to several villages. Miles of alluvium are -under irrigation there, poplars, willows, and apricots abound, and on -some damp sward under their shade at a great height I halted for two -days to enjoy the magnificence of the scenery and the refreshment of -the greenery. These Kargil villages are the capital of the small State -of Purik, under the Governorship of Baltistan or Little Tibet, and are -chiefly inhabited by Ladakhis who have become converts to Islam. Racial -characteristics, dress, and manners are everywhere effaced or toned down -by Mohammedanism, and the chilling aloofness and haughty bearing of -Islam were very pronounced among these converts. - -The daily routine of the journey was as follows: By six a.m. I sent on a -coolie carrying the small tent and lunch basket to await me half-way. -Before seven I started myself, with Usman Shah in front of me, leaving -the servants to follow with the caravan. On reaching the shelter tent I -halted for two hours, or till the caravan had got a good start after -passing me. At the end of the march I usually found the tent pitched on -irrigated ground, near a hamlet, the headman of which provided milk, -fuel, fodder, and other necessaries at fixed prices. 'Afternoon tea' was -speedily prepared, and dinner, consisting of roast meat and boiled rice, -was ready two hours later. After dinner I usually conversed with the -headman on local interests, and was in bed soon after eight. The -servants and muleteers fed and talked till nine, when the sound of their -'hubble-bubbles' indicated that they were going to sleep, like most -Orientals, with their heads closely covered with their wadded quilts. -Before starting each morning the account was made out, and I paid the -headman personally. - -The vagaries of the Afghan soldier, when they were not a cause of -annoyance, were a constant amusement, though his ceaseless changes of -finery and the daily growth of his baggage awakened grave suspicions. -The swashbuckler marched four miles an hour in front of me with a -swinging military stride, a large scimitar in a heavily ornamented -scabbard over his shoulder. Tanned socks and sandals, black or white -leggings wound round from ankle to knee with broad bands of orange or -scarlet serge, white cambric knickerbockers, a white cambric shirt, with -a short white muslin frock with hanging sleeves and a leather girdle -over it, a red-peaked cap with a dark-blue _pagri_ wound round it, with -one end hanging over his back, earrings, a necklace, bracelets, and a -profusion of rings, were his ordinary costume; and in his girdle he wore -a dirk and a revolver, and suspended from it a long tobacco pouch made -of the furry skin of some animal, a large leather purse, and etceteras. -As the days went on he blossomed into blue and white muslin with a -scarlet sash, wore a gold embroidered peak and a huge white muslin -turban, with much change of ornaments, and appeared frequently with a -great bunch of poppies or a cluster of crimson roses surmounting all. -His headgear was colossal. It and the head together must have been fully -a third of his total height. He was a most fantastic object, and very -observant and skilful in his attentions to me; but if I had known what I -afterwards knew, I should have hesitated about taking these long lonely -marches with him for my sole attendant. Between Hassan Khan and this -Afghan violent hatred and jealousy existed. - -I have mentioned roads, and my road as the great caravan route from -Western India into Central Asia. This is a fitting time for an -explanation. The traveller who aspires to reach the highlands of Tibet -from Kashmir cannot be borne along in a carriage or hill-cart. For much -of the way he is limited to a foot pace, and if he has regard to his -horse he walks down all rugged and steep descents, which are many, and -dismounts at most bridges. By 'roads' must be understood bridle-paths, -worn by traffic alone across the gravelly valleys, but elsewhere -constructed with great toil and expense, as Nature compels the -road-maker to follow her lead, and carry his track along the narrow -valleys, ravines, gorges, and chasms which she has marked out for him. -For miles at a time this road has been blasted out of precipices from -1,000 feet to 3,000 feet in depth, and is merely a ledge above a raging -torrent, the worst parts, chiefly those round rocky projections, being -'scaffolded,' i.e. poles are lodged horizontally among the crevices of -the cliff, and the roadway of slabs, planks, and brushwood, or branches -and sods, is laid loosely upon them. This track is always amply wide -enough for a loaded beast, but in many places, when two caravans meet, -the animals of one must give way and scramble up the mountain-side, -where foothold is often perilous, and always difficult. In passing a -caravan near Kargil my servant's horse was pushed over the precipice by -a loaded mule and drowned in the Suru, and at another time my Afghan -caused the loss of a baggage mule of a Leh caravan by driving it off the -track. To scatter a caravan so as to allow me to pass in solitary -dignity he regarded as one of his functions, and on one occasion, on a -very dangerous part of the road, as he was driving heavily laden mules -up the steep rocks above, to their imminent peril and the distraction of -their drivers, I was obliged to strike up his sword with my alpenstock -to emphasise my abhorrence of his violence. The bridges are unrailed, -and many of them are made by placing two or more logs across the stream, -laying twigs across, and covering these with sods, but often so scantily -that the wild rush of the water is seen below. Primitive as these -bridges are, they involve great expense and difficulty in the bringing -of long poplar logs for great distances along narrow mountain tracks by -coolie labour, fifty men being required for the average log. The Ladakhi -roads are admirable as compared with those of Kashmir, and are being -constantly improved under the supervision of H. B. M.'s Joint -Commissioner in Leh. - -Up to Kargil the scenery, though growing more Tibetan with every march, -had exhibited at intervals some traces of natural verdure; but beyond, -after leaving the Suru, there is not a green thing, and on the next -march the road crosses a lofty, sandy plateau, on which the heat was -terrible--blazing gravel and a blazing heaven, then fiery cliffs and -scorched hillsides, then a deep ravine and the large village of Paskim -(dominated by a fort-crowned rock), and some planted and irrigated -acres; then a narrow ravine and magnificent scenery flaming with colour, -which opens out after some miles on a burning chaos of rocks and sand, -mountain-girdled, and on some remarkable dwellings on a steep slope, -with religious buildings singularly painted. This is Shergol, the first -village of Buddhists, and there I was 'among the Tibetans.' - - - - -CHAPTER II - -SHERGOL AND LEH - - -The chaos of rocks and sand, walled in by vermilion and orange -mountains, on which the village of Shergol stands, offered no facilities -for camping; but somehow the men managed to pitch my tent on a steep -slope, where I had to place my trestle bed astride an irrigation -channel, down which the water bubbled noisily, on its way to keep alive -some miserable patches of barley. At Shergol and elsewhere fodder is so -scarce that the grain is not cut, but pulled up by the roots. - -The intensely human interest of the journey began at that point. Not -greater is the contrast between the grassy slopes and deodar-clothed -mountains of Kashmir and the flaming aridity of Lesser Tibet, than -between the tall, dark, handsome natives of the one, with their -statuesque and shrinking women, and the ugly, short, squat, -yellow-skinned, flat-nosed, oblique-eyed, uncouth-looking people of the -other. The Kashmiris are false, cringing, and suspicious; the Tibetans -truthful, independent, and friendly, one of the pleasantest of peoples. -I 'took' to them at once at Shergol, and terribly faulty though their -morals are in some respects, I found no reason to change my good opinion -of them in the succeeding four months. - -The headman or _go-pa_ came to see me, introduced me to the objects of -interest, which are a _gonpo_, or monastery, built into the rock, with a -brightly coloured front, and three _chod-tens_, or relic-holders, -painted blue, red, and yellow, and daubed with coarse arabesques and -representations of deities, one having a striking resemblance to Mr. -Gladstone. The houses are of mud, with flat roofs; but, being summer, -many of them were roofless, the poplar rods which support the mud having -been used for fuel. Conical stacks of the dried excreta of animals, the -chief fuel of the country, adorned the roofs, but the general aspect was -ruinous and poor. The people all invited me into their dark and dirty -rooms, inhabited also by goats, offered tea and cheese, and felt my -clothes. They looked the wildest of savages, but they are not. No house -was so poor as not to have its 'family altar,' its shelf of wooden gods, -and table of offerings. A religious atmosphere pervades Tibet, and gives -it a singular sense of novelty. Not only were there _chod-tens_ and a -_gonpo_ in this poor place, and family altars, but prayer-wheels, i.e. -wooden cylinders filled with rolls of paper inscribed with prayers, -revolving on sticks, to be turned by passers-by, inscribed cotton -bannerets on poles planted in cairns, and on the roofs long sticks, to -which strips of cotton bearing the universal prayer, _Aum mani padne -hun_ (O jewel of the lotus-flower), are attached. As these wave in the -wind the occupants of the house gain the merit of repeating this -sentence. - -[Illustration: A HAND PRAYER-CYLINDER] - -The remaining marches to Leh, the capital of Lesser Tibet, were full of -fascination and novelty. Everywhere the Tibetans were friendly and -cordial. In each village I was invited to the headman's house, and taken -by him to visit the chief inhabitants; every traveller, lay and -clerical, passed by with the cheerful salutation _Tzu_, asked me where I -came from and whither I was going, wished me a good journey, admired -Gyalpo, and when he scaled rock ladders and scrambled gamely through -difficult torrents, cheered him like Englishmen, the general jollity and -cordiality of manners contrasting cheerily with the chilling aloofness -of Moslems. - -The irredeemable ugliness of the Tibetans produced a deeper impression -daily. It is grotesque, and is heightened, not modified, by their -costume and ornament. They have high cheekbones, broad flat noses -without visible bridges, small, dark, oblique eyes, with heavy lids and -imperceptible eyebrows, wide mouths, full lips, thick, big, projecting -ears, deformed by great hoops, straight black hair nearly as coarse as -horsehair, and short, square, ungainly figures. The faces of the men are -smooth. The women seldom exceed five feet in height, and a man is tall -at five feet four. - -The male costume is a long, loose, woollen coat with a girdle, -trousers, under-garments, woollen leggings, and a cap with a turned-up -point over each ear. The girdle is the depository of many things dear to -a Tibetan--his purse, rude knife, heavy tinder-box, tobacco pouch, pipe, -distaff, and sundry charms and amulets. In the capacious breast of his -coat he carries wool for spinning--for he spins as he walks--balls of -cold barley dough, and much besides. He wears his hair in a pigtail. The -women wear short, big-sleeved jackets, shortish, full-plaited skirts, -tight trousers a yard too long, the superfluous length forming folds -above the ankle, a sheepskin with the fur outside hangs over the back, -and on gala occasions a sort of drapery is worn over the usual dress. -Felt or straw shoes and many heavy ornaments are worn by both sexes. -Great _ears_ of brocade, lined and edged with fur and attached to the -hair, are worn by the women. Their hair is dressed once a month in many -much-greased plaits, fastened together at the back by a long tassel. The -head-dress is a strip of cloth or leather, sewn over with large -turquoises, carbuncles, and silver ornaments. This hangs in a point over -the brow, broadens over the top of the head, and tapers as it reaches -the waist behind. The ambition of every Tibetan girl is centred in this -singular headgear. Hoops in the ears, necklaces, amulets, clasps, -bangles of brass or silver, and various implements stuck in the girdle -and depending from it, complete a costume pre-eminent in ugliness. The -Tibetans are dirty. They wash once a year, and, except for festivals, -seldom change their clothes till they begin to drop off. They are -healthy and hardy, even the women can carry weights of sixty pounds over -the passes; they attain extreme old age; their voices are harsh and -loud, and their laughter is noisy and hearty. - -[Illustration: TIBETAN GIRL] - -After leaving Shergol the signs of Buddhism were universal and imposing, -and the same may be said of the whole of the inhabited part of Lesser -Tibet. Colossal figures of Shakya Thubba (Buddha) are carved on faces of -rock, or in wood, stone, or gilded copper sit on lotus thrones in -endless calm near villages of votaries. _Chod-tens_ from twenty to a -hundred feet in height, dedicated to 'holy' men, are scattered over -elevated ground, or in imposing avenues line the approaches to hamlets -and _gonpos_. There are also countless _manis_, dykes of stone from six -to sixteen feet in width and from twenty feet to a fourth of a mile in -length, roofed with flattish stones, inscribed by the _lamas_ (monks) -with the phrase _Aum_, &c., and purchased and deposited by those who -wish to obtain any special benefit from the gods, such as a safe -journey. Then there are prayer-mills, sometimes 150 in a row, which -revolve easily by being brushed by the hand of the passer-by, larger -prayer-cylinders which are turned by pulling ropes, and others larger -still by water-power. The finest of the latter was in a temple -overarching a perennial torrent, and was said to contain 20,000 -repetitions of the mystic phrase, the fee to the worshipper for each -revolution of the cylinder being from 1_d._ to 1_s._ 4_d._, according to -his means or urgency. - -The glory and pride of Ladak and Nubra are the _gonpos_, of which the -illustrations give a slight idea. Their picturesqueness is absolutely -enchanting. They are vast irregular piles of fantastic buildings, almost -invariably crowning lofty isolated rocks or mountain spurs, reached by -steep, rude rock staircases, _chod-tens_ below and battlemented towers -above, with temples, domes, bridges over chasms, spires, and scaffolded -projections gleaming with gold, looking, as at Lamayuru, the outgrowth -of the rock itself. The outer walls are usually whitewashed, and red, -yellow, and brown wooden buildings, broad bands of red and blue on the -whitewash, tridents, prayer-mills, _yaks_' tails, and flags on poles -give colour and movement, while the jangle of cymbals, the ringing of -bells, the incessant beating of big drums and gongs, and the braying at -intervals of six-foot silver horns, attest the ritualistic activities of -the communities within. The _gonpos_ contain from two up to three -hundred _lamas_. These are not cloistered, and their duties take them -freely among the people, with whom they are closely linked, a younger -son in every family being a monk. Every act in trade, agriculture, and -social life needs the sanction of sacerdotalism, whatever exists of -wealth is in the _gonpos_, which also have a monopoly of learning, and -11,000 monks, linked with the people, yet ruling all affairs of life and -death and beyond death, are connected closely by education, tradition, -and authority with Lhassa. - -Passing along faces of precipices and over waterless plateaux of blazing -red gravel--'waste places,' truly--the journey was cheered by the -meeting of red and yellow _lamas_ in companies, each _lama_ twirling his -prayer-cylinder, abbots, and _skushoks_ (the latter believed to be -incarnations of Buddha) with many retainers, or gay groups of priestly -students, intoning in harsh and high-pitched monotones, _Aum mani padne -hun_. And so past fascinating monastic buildings, through crystal -torrents rushing over red rock, through flaming ravines, on rock ledges -by scaffolded paths, camping in the afternoons near friendly villages on -oases of irrigated alluvium, and down the Wanla water by the steepest -and narrowest cleft ever used for traffic, I reached the Indus, crossed -it by a wooden bridge where its broad, fierce current is narrowed by -rocks to a width of sixty-five feet, and entered Ladak proper. A -picturesque fort guards the bridge, and there travellers inscribe their -names and are reported to Leh. I camped at Khalsi, a mile higher, but -returned to the bridge in the evening to sketch, if I could, the grim -nudity and repulsive horror of the surrounding mountains, attended only -by Usman Shah. A few months earlier, this ruffian was sent down from Leh -with six other soldiers and an officer to guard the fort, where they -became the terror of all who crossed the bridge by their outrageous -levies of blackmail. My swashbuckler quarrelled with the officer over a -disreputable affair, and one night stabbed him mortally, induced his six -comrades to plunge their knives into the body, sewed it up in a blanket, -and threw it into the Indus, which disgorged it a little lower down. The -men were all arrested and marched to Srinagar, where Usman turned -'king's evidence.' - -The remaining marches were alongside of the tremendous granite ranges -which divide the Indus from its great tributary, the Shayok. Colossal -scenery, desperate aridity, tremendous solar heat, and an atmosphere -highly rarefied and of nearly intolerable dryness, were the chief -characteristics. At these Tibetan altitudes, where the valleys exceed -11,000 feet, the sun's rays are even more powerful than on the 'burning -plains of India.' The day wind, rising at 9 a.m., and only falling near -sunset, blows with great heat and force. The solar heat at noon was from -120° to 130°, and at night the mercury frequently fell below the -freezing point. I did not suffer from the climate, but in the case of -most Europeans the air passages become irritated, the skin cracks, and -after a time the action of the heart is affected. The hair when released -stands out from the head, leather shrivels and splits, horn combs break -to pieces, food dries up, rapid evaporation renders water-colour -sketching nearly impossible, and tea made with water from fifteen to -twenty below the boiling-point of 212 degrees, is flavourless and flat. - -[Illustration: GONPO OF SPITAK] - -After a delightful journey of twenty-five days I camped at Spitak, among -the _chod-tens_ and _manis_ which cluster round the base of a lofty and -isolated rock, crowned with one of the most striking monasteries in -Ladak, and very early the next morning, under a sun of terrific -fierceness, rode up a five-mile slope of blazing gravel to the goal of -my long march. Even at a short distance off, the Tibetan capital can -scarcely be distinguished from the bare, ribbed, scored, jagged, -vermilion and rose-red mountains which nearly surround it, were it -not for the palace of the former kings or Gyalpos of Ladak, a huge -building attaining ten storeys in height, with massive walls sloping -inwards, while long balconies and galleries, carved projections of brown -wood, and prominent windows, give it a singular picturesqueness. It can -be seen for many miles, and dwarfs the little Central Asian town which -clusters round its base. - -Long lines of _chod-tens_ and _manis_ mark the approach to Leh. Then -come barley fields and poplar and willow plantations, bright streams are -crossed, and a small gateway, within which is a colony of very poor -Baltis, gives access to the city. In consequence of 'the vigilance of -the guard at the bridge of Khalsi,' I was expected, and was met at the -gate by the wazir's _jemadar_, or head of police, in artistic attire, -with _spahis_ in apricot turbans, violet _chogas_, and green leggings, -who cleared the way with spears, Gyalpo frolicking as merrily and as -ready to bite, and the Afghan striding in front as firmly, as though -they had not marched for twenty-five days through the rugged passes of -the Himalayas. In such wise I was escorted to a shady bungalow of three -rooms, in the grounds of H. B. M.'s Joint Commissioner, who lives at -Leh during the four months of the 'caravan season,' to assist in -regulating the traffic and to guard the interests of the numerous -British subjects who pass through Leh with merchandise. For their -benefit also, the Indian Government aids in the support of a small -hospital, open, however, to all, which, with a largely attended -dispensary, is under the charge of a Moravian medical missionary. - -Just outside the Commissioner's grounds are two very humble whitewashed -dwellings, with small gardens brilliant with European flowers; and in -these the two Moravian missionaries, the only permanent European -residents in Leh, were living, Mr. Redslob and Dr. Karl Marx, with their -wives. Dr. Marx was at his gate to welcome me. - -To these two men, especially the former, I owe a debt of gratitude which -in no shape, not even by the hearty acknowledgment of it, can ever be -repaid, for they died within a few days of each other, of an epidemic, -last year, Dr. Marx and a new-born son being buried in one grave. For -twenty-five years Mr. Redslob, a man of noble physique and intellect, a -scholar and linguist, an expert botanist and an admirable artist, -devoted himself to the welfare of the Tibetans, and though his great aim -was to Christianize them, he gained their confidence so thoroughly by -his virtues, kindness, profound Tibetan scholarship, and manliness, that -he was loved and welcomed everywhere, and is now mourned for as the best -and truest friend the people ever had. - -I had scarcely finished breakfast when he called; a man of great height -and strong voice, with a cheery manner, a face beaming with kindness, -and speaking excellent English. Leh was the goal of my journey, but Mr. -Redslob came with a proposal to escort me over the great passes to the -northward for a three weeks' journey to Nubra, a district formed of the -combined valleys of the Shayok and Nubra rivers, tributaries of the -Indus, and abounding in interest. Of course I at once accepted an offer -so full of advantages, and the performance was better even than the -promise. - -Two days were occupied in making preparations, but afterwards I spent a -fortnight in my tent at Leh, a city by no means to be passed over -without remark, for, though it and the region of which it is the capital -are very remote from the thoughts of most readers, it is one of the -centres of Central Asian commerce. There all traders from India, -Kashmir, and Afghanistan must halt for animals and supplies on their way -to Yarkand and Khotan, and there also merchants from the mysterious city -of Lhassa do a great business in brick tea and in Lhassa wares, chiefly -ecclesiastical. - -[Illustration: LEH] - -The situation of Leh is a grand one, the great Kailas range, with its -glaciers and snowfields, rising just behind it to the north, its passes -alone reaching an altitude of nearly 18,000 feet; while to the south, -across a gravelly descent and the Indus Valley, rise great red ranges -dominated by snow-peaks exceeding 21,000 feet in altitude. The centre of -Leh is a wide bazaar, where much polo is played in the afternoons; and -above this the irregular, flat-roofed, many-balconied houses of the town -cluster round the palace and a gigantic _chod-ten_ alongside it. The -rugged crest of the rock on a spur of which the palace stands is crowned -by the fantastic buildings of an ancient _gonpo_. Beyond the crops and -plantations which surround the town lies a flaming desert of gravel or -rock. The architectural features of Leh, except of the palace, are mean. -A new mosque glaring with vulgar colour, a treasury and court of -justice, the wazir's bungalow, a Moslem cemetery, and Buddhist cremation -grounds, in which each family has its separate burning place, are all -that is noteworthy. The narrow alleys, which would be abominably dirty -if dirt were possible in a climate of such intense dryness, house a very -mixed population, in which the Moslem element is always increasing, -partly owing to the renewal of that proselytising energy which is making -itself felt throughout Asia, and partly to the marriages of Moslem -traders with Ladaki women, who embrace the faith of their husbands and -bring up their families in the same. - -On my arrival few of the shops in the great _place_, or bazaar, were -open, and there was no business; but a few weeks later the little desert -capital nearly doubled its population, and during August the din and -stir of trade and amusements ceased not by day or night, and the -shifting scenes were as gay in colouring and as full of variety as could -be desired. - -Great caravans _en route_ for Khotan, Yarkand, and even Chinese Tibet -arrived daily from Kashmir, the Panjāb, and Afghanistan, and stacked -their bales of goods in the _place_; the Lhassa traders opened shops in -which the specialties were brick tea and instruments of worship; -merchants from Amritsar, Cabul, Bokhara, and Yarkand, stately in costume -and gait, thronged the bazaar and opened bales of costly goods in -tantalising fashion; mules, asses, horses, and _yaks_ kicked, squealed, -and bellowed; the dissonance of bargaining tongues rose high; there were -mendicant monks, Indian fakirs, Moslem dervishes, Mecca pilgrims, -itinerant musicians, and Buddhist ballad howlers; bold-faced women with -creels on their backs brought in lucerne; Ladakis, Baltis, and Lahulis -tended the beasts, and the wazir's _jemadar_ and gay _spahis_ moved -about among the throngs. In the midst of this picturesque confusion, the -short, square-built, Lhassa traders, who face the blazing sun in heavy -winter clothing, exchange their expensive tea for Nubra and Baltistan -dried apricots, Kashmir saffron, and rich stuffs from India; and -merchants from Yarkand on big Turkestan horses offer hemp, which is -smoked as opium, and Russian trifles and dress goods, under cloudless -skies. With the huge Kailas range as a background, this great rendezvous -of Central Asian traffic has a great fascination, even though moral -shadows of the darkest kind abound. - -On the second morning, while I was taking the sketch of Usman Shah which -appears as the frontispiece, he was recognised both by the Joint -Commissioner and the chief of police as a mutineer and murderer, and was -marched out of Leh. I was asked to look over my baggage, but did not. I -had trusted him, he had been faithful in his way, and later I found that -nothing was missing. He was a brutal ruffian, one of a band of -irregulars sent by the Maharajah of Kashmir to garrison the fort at Leh. -From it they used to descend on the town, plunder the bazaar, insult the -women, take all they wanted without payment, and when one of their -number was being tried for some offence, they dragged the judge out of -court and beat him! After holding Leh in terror for some time the -British Commissioner obtained their removal. It was, however, at the -fort at the Indus bridge, as related before, that the crime of murder -was committed. Still there was something almost grand in the defiant -attitude of the fantastic swashbuckler, as, standing outside the -bungalow, he faced the British Commissioner, to him the embodiment of -all earthly power, and the chief of police, and defied them. Not an inch -would he stir till the wazir gave him a coolie to carry his baggage. He -had been acquitted of the murder, he said, 'and though I killed the man, -it was according to the custom of my country--he gave me an insult which -could only be wiped out in blood!' The guard dared not touch him, and he -went to the wazir, demanded a coolie, and got one! - -Our party left Leh early on a glorious morning, travelling light, Mr. -Redslob, a very learned Lhassa monk, named Gergan, Mr. R.'s servant, my -three, and four baggage horses, with two drivers engaged for the -journey. The great Kailas range was to be crossed, and the first day's -march up long, barren, stony valleys, without interest, took us to a -piece of level ground, with a small semi-subterranean refuge on which -there was barely room for two tents, at the altitude of the summit of -Mont Blanc. For two hours before we reached it the men and animals -showed great distress. Gyalpo stopped every few yards, gasping, with -blood trickling from his nostrils, and turned his head so as to look at -me, with the question in his eyes, What does this mean? Hassan Khan was -reeling from vertigo, but would not give in; the _seis_, a creature -without pluck, was carried in a blanket slung on my tent poles, and even -the Tibetans suffered. I felt no inconvenience, but as I unsaddled -Gyalpo I was glad that there was no more work to do! This -'mountain-sickness,' called by the natives _ladug_, or 'pass-poison,' is -supposed by them to be the result of the odour or pollen of certain -plants which grow on the passes. Horses and mules are unable to carry -their loads, and men suffer from vertigo, vomiting, violent headache and -bleeding from the nose, mouth, and ears, as well as prostration of -strength, sometimes complete, and occasionally ending fatally. - -After a bitterly cold night I was awakened at dawn by novel sounds, -gruntings, and low, resonant bellowing round my tent, and the grey light -revealed several _yaks_ (the _Bos grunniens_, the Tibetan ox), the pride -of the Tibetan highlands. This magnificent animal, though not exceeding -an English shorthorn cow in height, looks gigantic, with his thick -curved horns, his wild eyes glaring from under a mass of curls, his long -thick hair hanging to his fetlocks, and his huge bushy tail. He is -usually black or tawny, but the tail is often white, and is the length -of his long hair. The nose is fine and has a look of breeding as well as -power. He only flourishes at altitudes exceeding 12,000 feet. Even after -generations of semi-domestication he is very wild, and can only be -managed by being led with a rope attached to a ring in the nostrils. He -disdains the plough, but condescends to carry burdens, and numbers of -the Ladak and Nubra people get their living by carrying goods for the -traders on his broad back over the great passes. His legs are very -short, and he has a sensible way of measuring distance with his eyes and -planting his feet, which enables him to carry loads where it might be -supposed that only a goat could climb. He picks up a living anyhow, in -that respect resembling the camel. - -He has an uncertain temper, and is not favourably disposed towards his -rider. Indeed, my experience was that just as one was about to mount him -he usually made a lunge at one with his horns. Some of my _yak_ steeds -shied, plunged, kicked, executed fantastic movements on the ledges of -precipices, knocked down their leaders, bellowed defiance, and rushed -madly down mountain sides, leaping from boulder to boulder, till they -landed me among their fellows. The rush of a herd of bellowing _yaks_ at -a wild gallop, waving their huge tails, is a grand sight. - -My first _yak_ was fairly quiet, and looked a noble steed, with my -Mexican saddle and gay blanket among rather than upon his thick black -locks. His back seemed as broad as that of an elephant, and with his -slow, sure, resolute step, he was like a mountain in motion. We took -five hours for the ascent of the Digar Pass, our loads and some of us on -_yaks_, some walking, and those who suffered most from the 'pass-poison' -and could not sit on _yaks_ were carried. A number of Tibetans went up -with us. It was a new thing for a European lady to travel in Nubra, and -they took a friendly interest in my getting through all right. The -dreary stretches of the ascent, though at first white with _edelweiss_, -of which the people make their tinder, are surmounted for the most part -by steep, short zigzags of broken stone. The heavens were dark with -snow-showers, the wind was high and the cold severe, and gasping horses, -and men prostrate on their faces unable to move, suggested a -considerable amount of suffering; but all safely reached the summit, -17,930 feet, where in a snowstorm the guides huzzaed, praised their -gods, and tucked rag streamers into a cairn. The loads were replaced on -the horses, and over wastes of ice, across snowfields margined by broad -splashes of rose-red primulas, down desert valleys and along irrigated -hillsides, we descended 3,700 feet to the village of Digar in Nubra, -where under a cloudless sky the mercury stood at 90°! - -[Illustration: A CHOD-TEN] - -Upper and Lower Nubra consist of the valleys of the Nubra and Shayok -rivers. These are deep, fierce, variable streams, which have buried the -lower levels under great stretches of shingle, patched with jungles of -_hippophaë_ and tamarisk, affording cover for innumerable wolves. Great -lateral torrents descend to these rivers, and on alluvial ridges formed -at the junctions are the villages with their pleasant surroundings of -barley, lucerne, wheat, with poplar and fruit trees, and their -picturesque _gonpos_ crowning spurs of rock above them. The first view -of Nubra is not beautiful. Yellow, absolutely barren mountains, cleft by -yellow gorges, and apparently formed of yellow gravel, the huge rifts in -their sides alone showing their substructure of rock, look as if they -had never been finished, or had been finished so long that they had -returned to chaos. These hem in a valley of grey sand and shingle, -threaded by a greyish stream. From the second view point mountains are -seen descending on a pleasanter part of the Shayok valley in grey, -yellow, or vermilion masses of naked rock, 7,000 and 8,000 feet in -height, above which rise snow-capped peaks sending out fantastic spurs -and buttresses, while the colossal walls of rock are cleft by rifts as -colossal. The central ridge between the Nubra and Upper Shayok valleys -is 20,000 feet in altitude, and on this are superimposed five peaks of -rock, ascertained by survey to be from 24,000 to 25,000 feet in height, -while at one point the eye takes in a nearly vertical height of 14,000 -feet from the level of the Shayok River! The Shayok and Nubra valleys -are only five and four miles in width respectively at their widest -parts. The early winter traffic chiefly follows along river beds, then -nearly dry, while summer caravans have to labour along difficult tracks -at great heights, where mud and snow avalanches are common, to climb -dangerous rock ladders, and to cross glaciers and the risky fords of the -Shayok. Nubra is similar in character to Ladak, but it is hotter and -more fertile, the mountains are loftier, the _gonpos_ are more numerous, -and the people are simpler, more religious, and more purely Tibetan. Mr. -Redslob loved Nubra, and as love begets love he received a hearty -welcome at Digar and everywhere else. - -The descent to the Shayok River gave us a most severe day of twelve -hours. The river had covered the usual track, and we had to take to -torrent beds and precipice ledges, I on one _yak_, and my tent on -another. In years of travel I have never seen such difficulties. -Eventually at dusk Mr. Redslob, Gergan, the servants, and I descended -on a broad shingle bed by the rushing Shayok; but it was not till dawn -on the following day that, by means of our two _yaks_ and the muleteers, -our baggage and food arrived, the baggage horses being brought down -unloaded, with men holding the head and tail of each. Our saddle horses, -which we led with us, were much cut by falls. Gyalpo fell fully twenty -feet, and got his side laid open. The baggage horses, according to their -owners, had all gone over one precipice, which delayed them five hours. - -Below us lay two leaky scows, and eight men from Sati, on the other side -of the Shayok, are pledged to the Government to ferry travellers; but no -amount of shouting and yelling, or burning of brushwood, or even firing, -brought them to the rescue, though their pleasant lights were only a -mile off. Snow fell, the wind was strong and keen, and our tent-pegs -were only kept down by heavy stones. Blankets in abundance were laid -down, yet failed to soften the 'paving stones' on which I slept that -night! We had tea and rice, but our men, whose baggage was astray on the -mountains, were without food for twenty-two hours, positively refusing -to eat our food or cook fresh rice in our cooking pots! To such an -extent has Hindu caste-feeling infected Moslems! The disasters of that -day's march, besides various breakages, were, two servants helpless from -'pass-poison' and bruises; a Ladaki, who had rolled over a precipice, -with a broken arm, and Gergan bleeding from an ugly scalp wound, also -from a fall. - -By eight o'clock the next morning the sun was high and brilliant, the -snows of the ravines under its fierce heat were melting fast, and the -river, roaring hoarsely, was a mad rush of grey rapids and grey foam; -but three weeks later in the season, lower down, its many branches are -only two feet deep. This Shayok, which cannot in any way be -circumvented, is the great obstacle on this Yarkand trade route. -Travellers and their goods make the perilous passage in the scow, but -their animals swim, and are often paralysed by the ice-cold water and -drowned. My Moslem servants, white-lipped and trembling, committed -themselves to Allah on the river bank, and the Buddhists worshipped -their sleeve idols. The _gopa_, or headman of Sati, a splendid fellow, -who accompanied us through Nubra, and eight wild-looking, half-naked -satellites, were the Charons of that Styx. They poled and paddled with -yells of excitement; the rapids seized the scow, and carried her -broadside down into hissing and raging surges; then there was a plash, a -leap of maddened water half filling the boat, a struggle, a whirl, -violent efforts, and a united yell, and far down the torrent we were in -smooth water on the opposite shore. The ferrymen recrossed, pulled our -saddle horses by ropes into the river, the _gopa_ held them; again the -scow and her frantic crew, poling, paddling, and yelling, were hurried -broadside down, and as they swept past there were glimpses above and -among the foam-crested surges of the wild-looking heads and drifting -forelocks of two grey horses swimming desperately for their lives,--a -splendid sight. They landed safely, but of the baggage animals one was -sucked under the boat and drowned, and as the others refused to face the -rapids, we had to obtain other transport. A few days later the scow, -which was brought up in pieces from Kashmir on coolies' backs at a cost -of four hundred rupees, was dashed to pieces! - -A halt for Sunday in an apricot grove in the pleasant village of Sati -refreshed us all for the long marches which followed, by which we -crossed the Sasir Pass, full of difficulties from snow and glaciers, -which extend for many miles, to the Dipsang Plain, the bleakest and -dreariest of Central Asian wastes, from which the gentle ascent of the -Karakorum Pass rises, and returned, varying our route slightly, to the -pleasant villages of the Nubra valley. Everywhere Mr. Redslob's Tibetan -scholarship, his old-world courtesy, his kindness and adaptability, and -his medical skill, ensured us a welcome the heartiness of which I cannot -describe. The headmen and elders of the villages came to meet us when we -arrived, and escorted us when we left; the monasteries and houses with -the best they contained were thrown open to us; the men sat round our -camp-fires at night, telling stories and local gossip, and asking -questions, everything being translated to me by my kind guide, and so we -actually lived 'among the Tibetans.' - - - - -CHAPTER III - -NUBRA - - -In order to visit Lower Nubra and return to Leh we were obliged to cross -the great fords of the Shayok at the most dangerous season of the year. -This transit had been the bugbear of the journey ever since news reached -us of the destruction of the Sati scow. Mr. Redslob questioned every man -we met on the subject, solemn and noisy conclaves were held upon it -round the camp-fires, it was said that the 'European woman' and her -'spider-legged horse' could never get across, and for days before we -reached the stream, the _chupas_, or government water-guides, made -nightly reports to the village headmen of the state of the waters, which -were steadily rising, the final verdict being that they were only just -practicable for strong horses. To delay till the waters fell was -impossible. Mr. Redslob had engagements in Leh, and I was already -somewhat late for the passage of the lofty passes between Tibet and -British India before the winter, so we decided on crossing with every -precaution which experience could suggest. - -At Lagshung, the evening before, the Tibetans made prayers and offerings -for a day cloudy enough to keep the water down, but in the morning from -a cloudless sky a scintillating sun blazed down like a magnesium light, -and every glacier and snowfield sent its tribute torrent to the Shayok. -In crossing a stretch of white sand the solar heat was so fierce that -our European skins were blistered through our clothing. We halted at -Lagshung, at the house of a friendly _zemindar_, who pressed upon me the -loan of a big Yarkand horse for the ford, a kindness which nearly proved -fatal; and then by shingle paths through lacerating thickets of the -horrid _Hippophaë rhamnoides_, we reached a _chod-ten_ on the shingly -bank of the river, where the Tibetans renewed their prayers and -offerings, and the final orders for the crossing were issued. We had -twelve horses, carrying only quarter loads each, all led; the servants -were mounted, 'water-guides' with ten-foot poles sounded the river -ahead, one led Mr. Redslob's horse (the rider being bare-legged) in -front of mine with a long rope, and two more led mine, while the _gopas_ -of three villages and the _zemindar_ steadied my horse against the -stream. The water-guides only wore girdles, and with elf-locks and -pigtails streaming from their heads, and their uncouth yells and wild -gesticulations, they looked true river-demons. - -[Illustration: A LAMA] - -The Shayok presented an expanse of eight branches and a main stream, -divided by shallows and shingle banks, the whole a mile and a half in -width. On the brink the _chupas_ made us all drink good draughts of the -turbid river water, 'to prevent giddiness,' they said, and they added -that I must not think them rude if they dashed water at my face -frequently with the same object. Hassan Khan, and Mando, who was livid -with fright, wore dark-green goggles, that they might not see the -rapids. In the second branch the water reached the horses' bodies, and -my animal tottered and swerved. There were bursts of wild laughter, not -merriment but excitement, accompanied by yells as the streams grew -fiercer, a loud chorus of _Kabadar! Sharbaz!_ ('Caution!' 'Well done!') -was yelled to encourage the horses, and the boom and hiss of the Shayok -made a wild accompaniment. Gyalpo, for whose legs of steel I longed, -frolicked as usual, making mirthful lunges at his leader when the pair -halted. Hassan Khan, in the deepest branch, shakily said to me, 'I not -afraid, Mem Sahib.' During the hour spent in crossing the eight -branches, I thought that the risk had been exaggerated, and that -giddiness was the chief peril. - -But when we halted, cold and dripping, on the shingle bank of the main -stream I changed my mind. A deep, fierce, swirling rapid, with a calmer -depth below its farther bank, and fully a quarter of a mile wide, was -yet to be crossed. The business was serious. All the _chupas_ went up -and down, sounding, long before they found a possible passage. All loads -were raised higher, the men roped their soaked clothing on their -shoulders, water was dashed repeatedly at our faces, girths were -tightened, and then, with shouts and yells, the whole caravan plunged -into deep water, strong, and almost ice-cold. Half an hour was spent in -that devious ford, without any apparent progress, for in the dizzy swirl -the horses simply seemed treading the water backwards. Louder grew the -yells as the torrent raged more hoarsely, the chorus of _kabadar_ grew -frantic, the water was up to the men's armpits and the seat of my -saddle, my horse tottered and swerved several times, the nearing shore -presented an abrupt bank underscooped by the stream. There was a deeper -plunge, an encouraging shout, and Mr. Redslob's strong horse leapt the -bank. The _gopas_ encouraged mine; he made a desperate effort, but fell -short and rolled over backwards into the Shayok with his rider under -him. A struggle, a moment of suffocation, and I was extricated by strong -arms, to be knocked down again by the rush of the water, to be again -dragged up and hauled and hoisted up the crumbling bank. I escaped with -a broken rib and some severe bruises, but the horse was drowned. Mr. -Redslob, who had thought that my life could not be saved, and the -Tibetans were so distressed by the accident that I made very light of -it, and only took one day of rest. The following morning some men and -animals were carried away, and afterwards the ford was impassable for a -fortnight. Such risks are among the amenities of the great trade route -from India into Central Asia! - -[Illustration: THREE GOPAS] - -The Lower Nubra valley is wilder and narrower than the Upper, its -apricot orchards more luxuriant, its wolf-haunted _hippophaë_ and -tamarisk thickets more dense. Its villages are always close to ravines, -the mouths of which are filled with _chod-tens_, _manis_, prayer-wheels, -and religious buildings. Access to them is usually up the stony beds of -streams over-arched by apricots. The camping-grounds are apricot -orchards. The apricot foliage is rich, and the fruit small but -delicious. The largest fruit tree I saw measured nine feet six inches in -girth six feet from the ground. Strangers are welcome to eat as much of -the fruit as they please, provided that they return the stones to the -proprietor. It is true that Nubra exports dried apricots, and the women -were splitting and drying the fruit on every house roof, but the special -_raison d'être_ of the tree is the clear, white, fragrant, and highly -illuminating oil made from the kernels by the simple process of crushing -them between two stones. In every _gonpo_ temple a silver bowl holding -from four to six gallons is replenished annually with this -almond-scented oil for the ever-burning light before the shrine of -Buddha. It is used for lamps, and very largely in cookery. Children, -instead of being washed, are rubbed daily with it, and on being weaned -at the age of four or five, are fed for some time, or rather crammed, -with balls of barley-meal made into a paste with it. - -At Hundar, a superbly situated village, which we visited twice, we were -received at the house of Gergan the monk, who had accompanied us -throughout. He is a _zemindar_, and the large house in which he made us -welcome stands in his own patrimony. Everything was prepared for us. The -mud floors were swept, cotton quilts were laid down on the balconies, -blue cornflowers and marigolds, cultivated for religious ornament, were -in all the rooms, and the women were in gala dress and loaded with -coarse jewellery. Right hearty was the welcome. Mr. Redslob loved, and -therefore was loved. The Tibetans to him were not 'natives,' but -brothers. He drew the best out of them. Their superstitions and beliefs -were not to him 'rubbish,' but subjects for minute investigation and -study. His courtesy to all was frank and dignified. In his dealings he -was scrupulously just. He was intensely interested in their interests. -His Tibetan scholarship and knowledge of Tibetan sacred literature gave -him almost the standing of an abbot among them, and his medical skill -and knowledge, joyfully used for their benefit on former occasions, had -won their regard. So at Hundar, as everywhere else, the elders came out -to meet us and cut the apricot branches away on our road, and the silver -horns of the _gonpo_ above brayed a dissonant welcome. Along the Indus -valley the servants of Englishmen beat the Tibetans, in the Shayok and -Nubra valleys the Yarkand traders beat and cheat them, and the women are -shy with strangers, but at Hundar they were frank and friendly with me, -saying, as many others had said, 'We will trust any one who comes with -the missionary.' - -Gergan's home was typical of the dwellings of the richer cultivators and -landholders. It was a large, rambling, three-storeyed house, the lower -part of stone, the upper of huge sun-dried bricks. It was adorned with -projecting windows and brown wooden balconies. Fuel--the dried excreta -of animals--is too scarce to be used for any but cooking purposes, and -on these balconies in the severe cold of winter the people sit to imbibe -the warm sunshine. The rooms were large, ceiled with peeled poplar rods, -and floored with split white pebbles set in clay. There was a temple on -the roof, and in it, on a platform, were life-size images of Buddha, -seated in eternal calm, with his downcast eyes and mild Hindu face, the -thousand-armed Chan-ra-zigs (the great Mercy), Jam-pal-yangs (the -Wisdom), and Chag-na-dorje (the Justice). In front on a table or altar -were seven small lamps, burning apricot oil, and twenty small brass -cups, containing minute offerings of rice and other things, changed -daily. There were prayer-wheels, cymbals, horns and drums, and a -prayer-cylinder six feet high, which it took the strength of two men to -turn. On a shelf immediately below the idols were the brazen sceptre, -bell, and thunderbolt, a brass lotus blossom, and the spouted brass -flagon decorated with peacocks' feathers, which is used at baptisms, and -for pouring holy water upon the hands at festivals. In houses in which -there is not a roof temple the best room is set apart for religious use -and for these divinities, which are always surrounded with musical -instruments and symbols of power, and receive worship and offerings -daily, Tibetan Buddhism being a religion of the family and household. In -his family temple Gergan offered gifts and thanks for the deliverances -of the journey. He had been assisting Mr. Redslob for two years in the -translation of the New Testament, and had wept over the love and -sufferings of our Lord Jesus Christ. He had even desired that his son -should receive baptism and be brought up as a Christian, but for -himself he 'could not break with custom and his ancestral creed.' - -In the usual living-room of the family a platform, raised only a few -inches, ran partly round the wall. In the middle of the floor there was -a clay fireplace, with a prayer-wheel and some clay and brass cooking -pots upon it. A few shelves, fire-bars for roasting barley, a wooden -churn, and some spinning arrangements were the furniture. A number of -small dark rooms used for sleeping and storage opened from this, and -above were the balconies and reception rooms. Wooden posts supported the -roofs, and these were wreathed with lucerne, the first fruits of the -field. Narrow, steep staircases in all Tibetan houses lead to the family -rooms. In winter the people live below, alongside of the animals and -fodder. In summer they sleep in loosely built booths of poplar branches -on the roof. Gergan's roof was covered, like others at the time, to the -depth of two feet, with hay, i.e. grass and lucerne, which are wound -into long ropes, experience having taught the Tibetans that their scarce -fodder is best preserved thus from breakage and waste. I bought hay by -the yard for Gyalpo. - -Our food in this hospitable house was simple--apricots, fresh, or dried -and stewed with honey; _zho's_ milk, curds and cheese, sour cream, peas, -beans, balls of barley dough, barley porridge, and 'broth of abominable -things.' _Chang_, a dirty-looking beer made from barley, was offered -with each meal, and tea frequently, but I took my own 'on the sly.' I -have mentioned a churn as part of the 'plenishings' of the living-room. -In Tibet the churn is used for making tea! I give the recipe. 'For six -persons. Boil a teacupful of tea in three pints of water for ten minutes -with a heaped dessert-spoonful of soda. Put the infusion into the chum -with one pound of butter and a small tablespoonful of salt. Churn until -as thick as cream.' Tea made after this fashion holds the second place -to _chang_ in Tibetan affections. The butter according to our thinking -is always rancid, the mode of making it is uncleanly, and it always has -a rank flavour from the goatskin in which it was kept. Its value is -enhanced by age. I saw skins of it forty, fifty, and even sixty years -old, which were very highly prized, and would only be opened at some -special family festival or funeral. - -During the three days of our visits to Hundar both men and women wore -their festival dresses, and apparently abandoned most of their ordinary -occupations in our honour. The men were very anxious that I should be -'amused,' and made many grotesque suggestions on the subject. 'Why is -the European woman always writing or sewing?' they asked. 'Is she very -poor, or has she made a vow?' Visits to some of the neighbouring -monasteries were eventually proposed, and turned out most interesting. - -The monastery of Deskyid, to which we made a three days' expedition, is -from its size and picturesque situation the most imposing in Nubra. -Built on a majestic spur of rock rising on one side 2,000 feet -perpendicularly from a torrent, the spur itself having an altitude of -11,000 feet, with red peaks, snow-capped, rising to a height of over -20,000 feet behind the vast irregular pile of red, white, and yellow -temples, towers, storehouses, cloisters, galleries, and balconies, -rising for 300 feet one above another, hanging over chasms, built out on -wooden buttresses, and surmounted with flags, tridents, and _yaks'_ -tails, a central tower or keep dominating the whole, it is perhaps the -most picturesque object I have ever seen, well worth the crossing of the -Shayok fords, my painful accident, and much besides. It looks -inaccessible, but in fact can be attained by rude zigzags of a thousand -steps of rock, some natural, others roughly hewn, getting worse and -worse as they rise higher, till the later zigzags suggest the -difficulties of the ascent of the Great Pyramid. The day was fearfully -hot, 99° in the shade, and the naked, shining surfaces of purple rock -with a metallic lustre radiated heat. My 'gallant grey' took me up -half-way--a great feat--and the Tibetans cheered and shouted -'_Sharbaz!_' ('Well done!') as he pluckily leapt up the great slippery -rock ledges. After I dismounted, any number of willing hands hauled and -helped me up the remaining horrible ascent, the rugged rudeness of which -is quite indescribable. The inner entrance is a gateway decorated with a -_yak's_ head and many Buddhist emblems. High above, on a rude gallery, -fifty monks were gathered with their musical instruments. As soon as the -_Kan-po_ or abbot, Punt-sog-sogman (the most perfect Merit), received us -at the gate, the monkish orchestra broke forth in a tornado of sound of -a most tremendous and thrilling quality, which was all but overwhelming, -as the mountain echoes took up and prolonged the sound of fearful blasts -on six-foot silver horns, the bellowing thunder of six-foot drums, the -clash of cymbals, and the dissonance of a number of monster gongs. It -was not music, but it was sublime. The blasts on the horns are to -welcome a great personage, and such to the monks who despised his -teaching was the devout and learned German missionary. Mr. Redslob -explained that I had seen much of Buddhism in Ceylon and Japan, and -wished to see their temples. So with our train of _gopas_, _zemindar_, -peasants, and muleteers, we mounted to a corridor full of _lamas_ in -ragged red dresses, yellow girdles, and yellow caps, where we were -presented with plates of apricots, and the door of the lowest of the -seven temples heavily grated backwards. - -[Illustration: SOME INSTRUMENTS OF BUDDHIST WORSHIP] - -The first view, and indeed the whole view of this temple of _Wrath_ or -_Justice_, was suggestive of a frightful _Inferno_, with its rows of -demon gods, hideous beyond Western conception, engaged in torturing -writhing and bleeding specimens of humanity. Demon masks of ancient -lacquer hung from the pillars, naked swords gleamed in motionless hands, -and in a deep recess whose 'darkness' was rendered 'visible' by one -lamp, was that indescribable horror the executioner of the Lord of Hell, -his many brandished arms holding instruments of torture, and before him -the bell, the thunderbolt and sceptre, the holy water, and the baptismal -flagon. Our joss-sticks fumed on the still air, monks waved censers, and -blasts of dissonant music woke the semi-subterranean echoes. In this -temple of Justice the younger _lamas_ spend some hours daily in the -supposed contemplation of the torments reserved for the unholy. In the -highest temple, that of Peace, the summer sunshine fell on Shakya Thubba -and the Buddhist triad seated in endless serenity. The walls were -covered with frescoes of great _lamas_, and a series of alcoves, each -with an image representing an incarnation of Buddha, ran round the -temple. In a chapel full of monstrous images and piles of medallions -made of the ashes of 'holy' men, the sub-abbot was discoursing to the -acolytes on the religious classics. In the chapel of meditations, among -lighted incense sticks, monks seated before images were telling their -beads with the object of working themselves into a state of ecstatic -contemplation (somewhat resembling a certain hypnotic trance), for there -are undoubtedly devout _lamas_, though the majority are idle and unholy. -It must be understood that all Tibetan literature is 'sacred,' though -some of the volumes of exquisite calligraphy on parchment, which for our -benefit were divested of their silken and brocaded wrappings, contain -nothing better than fairy tales and stories of doubtful morality, which -are recited by the _lamas_ to the accompaniment of incessant cups of -_chang_, as a religious duty when they visit their 'flocks' in the -winter. - -The Deskyid _gonpo_ contains 150 _lamas_, all of whom have been educated -at Lhassa. A younger son in every household becomes a monk, and -occasionally enters upon his vocation as an acolyte pupil as soon as -weaned. At the age of thirteen these acolytes are sent to study at -Lhassa for five or seven years, their departure being made the occasion -of a great village feast, with several days of religious observances. -The close connection with Lhassa, especially in the case of the yellow -_lamas_, gives Nubra Buddhism a singular interest. All the larger -_gonpos_ have their prototype in Lhassa, all ceremonial has originated -in Lhassa, every instrument of worship has been consecrated in Lhassa, -and every _lama_ is educated in the learning only to be obtained at -Lhassa. Buddhism is indeed the most salient feature of Nubra. There are -_gonpos_ everywhere, the roads are lined by miles of _chod-tens_, -_manis_, and prayer-mills, and flags inscribed with sacred words in -Sanskrit flutter from every roof. There are processions of red and -yellow _lamas_; every act in trade, agriculture, and social life needs -the sanction of sacerdotalism; whatever exists of wealth is in the -_gonpos_, which also have a monopoly of learning, and 11,000 monks -closely linked with the laity, yet ruling all affairs of life and death -and beyond death, are all connected by education, tradition, and -authority with Lhassa. - -We remained long on the blazing roof of the highest tower of the -_gonpo_, while good Mr. Redslob disputed with the abbot 'concerning the -things pertaining to the kingdom of God.' The monks standing round -laughed sneeringly. They had shown a little interest, Mr. R. said, on -his earlier visits. The abbot accepted a copy of the Gospel of St. John. -'St. Matthew,' he observed, 'is very laughable reading.' Blasts of wild -music and the braying of colossal horns honoured our departure, and our -difficult descent to the apricot groves of Deskyid. On our return to -Hundar the grain was ripe on Gergan's fields. The first ripe ears were -cut off, offered to the family divinity, and were then bound to the -pillars of the house. In the comparatively fertile Nubra valley the -wheat and barley are cut, not rooted up. While they cut the grain the -men chant, 'May it increase, We will give to the poor, we will give to -the _lamas_,' with every stroke. They believe that it can be made to -multiply both under the sickle and in the threshing, and perform many -religious rites for its increase while it is in sheaves. After eight -days the corn is trodden out by oxen on a threshing-floor renewed every -year. After winnowing with wooden forks, they make the grain into a -pyramid, insert a sacred symbol, and pile upon it the threshing -instruments and sacks, erecting an axe on the apex with its blade turned -to the west, as that is the quarter from which demons are supposed to -come. In the afternoon they feast round it, always giving a portion to -the axe, saying, 'It is yours, it belongs not to me.' At dusk they pour -it into the sacks again, chanting, 'May it increase.' But these are not -removed to the granary until late at night, at an hour when the hands of -the demons are too much benumbed by the nightly frost to diminish the -store. At the beginning of every one of these operations the presence of -_lamas_ is essential, to announce the auspicious moment, and conduct -religious ceremonies. They receive fees, and are regaled with abundant -_chang_ and the fat of the land. - -In Hundar, as elsewhere, we were made very welcome in all the houses. I -have described the dwelling of Gergan. The poorer peasants occupy -similar houses, but roughly built, and only two-storeyed, and the floors -are merely clay. In them also the very numerous lower rooms are used for -cattle and fodder only, while the upper part consists of an inner or -winter room, an outer or supper room, a verandah room, and a family -temple. Among their rude plenishings are large stone corn chests like -sarcophagi, stone bowls from Baltistan, cauldrons, cooking pots, a -tripod, wooden bowls, spoons, and dishes, earthen pots, and _yaks_' and -sheep's packsaddles. The garments of the household are kept in long -wooden boxes. - -Family life presents some curious features. In the disposal in marriage -of a girl, her eldest brother has more 'say' than the parents. The -eldest son brings home the bride to his father's house, but at a given -age the old people are 'shelved,' i.e. they retire to a small house, -which may be termed a 'jointure house,' and the eldest son assumes the -patrimony and the rule of affairs. I have not met with a similar custom -anywhere in the East. It is difficult to speak of Tibetan life, with all -its affection and jollity, as '_family life_,' for Buddhism, which -enjoins monastic life, and usually celibacy along with it, on eleven -thousand out of a total population of a hundred and twenty thousand, -farther restrains the increase of population within the limits of -sustenance by inculcating and rigidly upholding the system of polyandry, -permitting marriage only to the eldest son, the heir of the land, while -the bride accepts all his brothers as inferior or subordinate husbands, -thus attaching the whole family to the soil and family roof-tree, the -children being regarded legally as the property of the eldest son, who -is addressed by them as 'Big Father,' his brothers receiving the title -of 'Little Father.' The resolute determination, on economic as well as -religious grounds, not to abandon this ancient custom, is the most -formidable obstacle in the way of the reception of Christianity by the -Tibetans. The women cling to it. They say, 'We have three or four men to -help us instead of one,' and sneer at the dulness and monotony of -European, monogamous life! A woman said to me, 'If I had only one -husband, and he died, I should be a widow; if I have two or three I am -never a widow!' The word 'widow' is with them a term of reproach, and is -applied abusively to animals and men. Children are brought up to be very -obedient to fathers and mother, and to take great care of little ones -and cattle. Parental affection is strong. Husbands and wives beat each -other, but separation usually follows a violent outbreak of this kind. -It is the custom for the men and women of a village to assemble when a -bride enters the house of her husbands, each of them presenting her with -three rupees. The Tibetan wife, far from spending these gifts on -personal adornment, looks ahead, contemplating possible contingencies, -and immediately hires a field, the produce of which is her own, and -which accumulates year after year in a separate granary, so that she may -not be portionless in case she leaves her husband! - -[Illustration: MONASTIC BUILDINGS AT BASGU] - -It was impossible not to become attached to the Nubra people, we lived -so completely among them, and met with such unbounded goodwill. Feasts -were given in our honour, every _gonpo_ was open to us, monkish blasts -on colossal horns brayed out welcomes, and while nothing could exceed -the helpfulness and alacrity of kindness shown by all, there was not a -thought or suggestion of _backsheesh_. The men of the villages always -sat by our camp-fires at night, friendly and jolly, but never obtrusive, -telling stories, discussing local news and the oppressions exercised by -the Kashmiri officials, the designs of Russia, the advance of the -Central Asian Railway, and what they consider as the weakness of the -Indian Government in not annexing the provinces of the northern -frontier. Many of their ideas and feelings are akin to ours, and a -mutual understanding is not only possible, but inevitable[1]. - -[1] Mr. Redslob said that when on different occasions he was smitten by -heavy sorrows, he felt no difference between the Tibetan feeling and -expression of sympathy and that of Europeans. A stronger testimony to -the effect produced by his twenty-five years of loving service could -scarcely be given than our welcome in Nubra. During the dangerous -illness which followed, anxious faces thronged his humble doorway as -early as break of day, and the stream of friendly inquiries never ceased -till sunset, and when he died the people of Ladak and Nubra wept and -'made a great mourning for him,' as for their truest friend. - -Industry in Nubra is the condition of existence, and both sexes work -hard enough to give a great zest to the holidays on religious festival -days. Whether in the house or journeying the men are never seen without -the distaff. They weave also, and make the clothes of the women and -children! The people are all cultivators, and make money also by -undertaking the transit of the goods of the Yarkand traders over the -lofty passes. The men plough with the _zho_, or hybrid _yak_, and the -women break the clods and share in all other agricultural operations. -The soil, destitute of manure, which is dried and hoarded for fuel, -rarely produces more than tenfold. The 'three acres and a cow' is with -them four acres of alluvial soil to a family on an average, with 'runs' -for _yaks_ and sheep on the mountains. The farms, planted with apricot -and other fruit trees, a prolific loose-grained barley, wheat, peas, and -lucerne, are oases in the surrounding deserts. The people export apricot -oil, dried apricots, sheep's wool, heavy undyed woollens, a coarse cloth -made from _yaks'_ hair, and _pashm_, the under fleece of the shawl goat. -They complained, and I think with good reason, of the merciless -exactions of the Kashmiri officials, but there were no evidences of -severe poverty, and not one beggar was seen. - -It was not an easy matter to get back to Leh. The rise of the Shayok -made it impossible to reach and return by the Digar Pass, and the -alternative route over the Kharzong glacier continued for some time -impracticable--that is, it was perfectly smooth ice. At length the news -came that a fall of snow had roughened its surface. A number of men -worked for two days at scaffolding a path, and with great difficulty, -and the loss of one _yak_ from a falling rock, a fruitful source of -fatalities in Tibet, we reached Khalsar, where with great regret we -parted with _Tse-ring-don-drub_ (Life's purpose fulfilled), the _gopa_ -of Sati, whose friendship had been a real pleasure, and to whose courage -and promptitude, in Mr. Redslob's opinion, I owed my rescue from -drowning. Two days of very severe marching and long and steep ascents -brought us to the wretched hamlet of Kharzong Lar-sa, in a snowstorm, at -an altitude higher than the summit of Mont Blanc. The servants were all -ill of 'pass-poison,' and crept into a cave along with a number of big -Tibetan mastiffs, where they enjoyed the comfort of semi-suffocation -till the next morning, Mr. R. and I, with some willing Tibetan helpers, -pitching our own tents. The wind was strong and keen, and with the -mercury down at 15° Fahrenheit it was impossible to do anything but to -go to bed in the early afternoon, and stay there till the next day. Mr. -Redslob took a severe chill, which produced an alarming attack of -pleurisy, from the effects of which he never fully recovered. - -We started on a grim snowy morning, with six _yaks_ carrying our baggage -or ridden by ourselves, four led horses, and a number of Tibetans, -several more having been sent on in advance to cut steps in the glacier -and roughen them with gravel. Within certain limits the ground grows -greener as one ascends, and we passed upwards among primulas, asters, a -large blue myosotis, gentians, potentillas, and great sheets of -_edelweiss_. At the glacier foot we skirted a deep green lake on snow -with a glorious view of the Kharzong glacier and the pass, a nearly -perpendicular wall of rock, bearing up a steep glacier and a snowfield -of great width and depth, above which tower pinnacles of naked rock. It -presented to all appearance an impassable barrier rising 2,500 feet -above the lake, grand and awful in the dazzling whiteness of the -new-fallen snow. Thanks to the ice steps our _yaks_ took us over in four -hours without a false step, and from the summit, a sharp ridge 17,500 -feet in altitude, we looked our last on grimness, blackness, and snow, -and southward for many a weary mile to the Indus valley lying in -sunshine and summer. Fully two dozen carcases of horses newly dead lay -in cavities of the glacier. Our animals were ill of 'pass-poison,' and -nearly blind, and I was obliged to ride my _yak_ into Leh, a severe -march of thirteen hours, down miles of crumbling zigzags, and then among -villages of irrigated terraces, till the grand view of the Gyalpo's -palace, with its air-hung _gonpo_ and clustering _chod-tens_, and of the -desert city itself, burst suddenly upon us, and our benumbed and -stiffened limbs thawed in the hot sunshine. I pitched my tent in a -poplar grove for a fortnight, near the Moravian compounds and close to -the travellers' bungalow, in which is a British Postal Agency, with a -Tibetan postmaster who speaks English, a Christian, much trusted and -respected, named Joldan, in whose intelligence, kindness, and friendship -I found both interest and pleasure. - -[Illustration: THE YAK (_Bos grunniens_)] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -MANNERS AND CUSTOMS - - -Joldan, the Tibetan British postmaster in Leh, is a Christian of -spotless reputation. Every one places unlimited confidence in his -integrity and truthfulness, and his religious sincerity has been -attested by many sacrifices. He is a Ladaki, and the family property was -at Stok, a few miles from Leh. He was baptized in Lahul at twenty-three, -his father having been a Christian. He learned Urdu, and was for ten -years mission schoolmaster in Kylang, but returned to Leh a few years -ago as postmaster. His 'ancestral dwelling' at Stok was destroyed by -order of the wazir, and his property confiscated, after many -unsuccessful efforts had been made to win him back to Buddhism. -Afterwards he was detained by the wazir, and compelled to serve as a -sepoy, till Mr. Heyde went to the council and obtained his release. His -house in Leh has been more than once burned by incendiaries. But he -pursues a quiet, even course, brings up his family after the best -Christian traditions, refuses Buddhist suitors for his daughters, -unobtrusively but capably helps the Moravian missionaries, supports his -family by steady industry, although of noble birth, and asks nothing of -any one. His 'good morning' and 'good night,' as he daily passed my tent -with clockwork regularity, were full of cheery friendliness; he gave -much useful information about Tibetan customs, and his ready helpfulness -greatly facilitated the difficult arrangements for my farther journey. - -[Illustration: A CHANG-PA WOMAN] - -The Leh, which I had left so dull and quiet, was full of strangers, -traffic, and noise. The neat little Moravian church was filled by a -motley crowd each Sunday, in which the few Christians were -distinguishable by their clean faces and clothes and their devout air; -and the Medical Mission Hospital and Dispensary, which in winter have an -average attendance of only a hundred patients a month, were daily -thronged with natives of India and Kashmir, Baltis, Yarkandis, Dards, -and Tibetans. In my visits with Dr. Marx I observed, what was confirmed -by four months' experience of the Tibetan villagers, that rheumatism, -inflamed eyes and eyelids, and old age are the chief Tibetan maladies. -Some of the Dards and Baltis were lepers, and the natives of India -brought malarial fever, dysentery, and other serious diseases. The -hospital, which is supported by the Indian Government, is most -comfortable, a haven of rest for those who fall sick by the way. The -hospital assistants are intelligent, thoroughly kind-hearted young -Tibetans, who, by dint of careful drilling and an affectionate desire to -please 'the teacher with the medicine box,' have become fairly -trustworthy. They are not Christians. - -In the neat dispensary at 9 a.m. a gong summons the patients to the -operating room for a short religious service. Usually about fifty were -present, and a number more, who had some curiosity about 'the way,' but -did not care to be seen at Christian worship, hung about the doorways. -Dr. Marx read a few verses from the Gospels, explaining them in a homely -manner, and concluded with the Lord's Prayer. Then the out-patients were -carefully and gently treated, leprous limbs were bathed and anointed, -the wards were visited at noon and again at sunset, and in the -afternoons operations were performed with the most careful antiseptic -precautions, which are supposed to be used for the purpose of keeping -away evil spirits from the wounds! The Tibetans, in practice, are very -simple in their applications of medical remedies. Rubbing with butter is -their great panacea. They have a dread of small-pox, and instead of -burning its victims they throw them into their rapid torrents. If an -isolated case occur, the sufferer is carried to a mountain-top, where he -is left to recover or die. If a small-pox epidemic is in the province, -the people of the villages in which it has not yet appeared place thorns -on their bridges and boundaries, to scare away the evil spirits which -are supposed to carry the disease. In ordinary illnesses, if butter -taken internally as well as rubbed into the skin does not cure the -patient, the _lamas_ are summoned to the rescue. They make a _mitsap_, a -half life-size figure of the sick person, dress it in his or her clothes -and ornaments, and place it in the courtyard, where they sit round it, -reading passages from the sacred classics fitted for the occasion. After -a time, all rise except the superior _lama_, who continues reading, and -taking small drums in their left hands, they recite incantations, and -dance wildly round the _mitsap_, believing, or at least leading the -people to believe, that by this ceremony the malady, supposed to be the -work of a demon, will be transferred to the image. Afterwards the -clothes and ornaments are presented to them, and the figure is carried -in procession out of the yard and village and is burned. If the patient -becomes worse, the friends are apt to resort to the medical skill of the -missionaries. If he dies they are blamed, and if he recovers the _lamas_ -take the credit. - -At some little distance outside Leh are the cremation grounds--desert -places, destitute of any other vegetation than the _Caprifolia horrida_. -Each family has its furnace kept in good repair. The place is doleful, -and a funeral scene on the only sunless day I experienced in Ladak was -indescribably dismal. After death no one touches the corpse but the -_lamas_, who assemble in numbers in the case of a rich man. The senior -_lama_ offers the first prayers, and lifts the lock which all Tibetans -wear at the back of the head, in order to liberate the soul if it is -still clinging to the body. At the same time he touches the region of -the heart with a dagger. The people believe that a drop of blood on the -head marks the spot where the soul has made its exit. Any good clothing -in which the person has died is then removed. The blacksmith beats a -drum, and the corpse, covered with a white sheet next the dress and a -coloured one above, is carried out of the house to be worshipped by the -relatives, who walk seven times round it. The women then retire to the -house, and the chief _lama_ recites liturgical passages from the -formularies. Afterwards, the relatives retire, and the corpse is carried -to the burning-ground by men who have the same tutelar deity as the -deceased. The leading _lama_ walks first, then come men with flags, -followed by the blacksmith with the drum, and next the corpse, with -another man beating a drum behind it. Meanwhile, the _lamas_ are praying -for the repose and quieting of the soul, which is hovering about, -desiring to return. The attendant friends, each of whom has carried a -piece of wood to the burning-ground, arrange the fuel with butter on the -furnace, the corpse wrapped in the white sheet is put in, and fire is -applied. The process of destruction in a rich man's case takes about an -hour. During the burning the _lamas_ read in high, hoarse monotones, and -the blacksmiths beat their drums. The _lamas_ depart first, and the -blacksmiths, after worshipping the ashes, shout, 'Have nothing to do -with us now,' and run rapidly away. At dawn the following day, a man -whose business it is searches among the ashes for the footprints of -animals, and according to the footprints found, so it is believed will -be the re-birth of the soul. - -Some of the ashes are taken to the _gonpos_, where the _lamas_ mix them -with clay, put them into oval or circular moulds, and stamp them with -the image of Buddha. These are preserved in _chod-tens_, and in the -house of the nearest relative of the deceased; but in the case of 'holy' -men, they are retained in the _gonpos_, where they can be purchased by -the devout. After a cremation much _chang_ is consumed by the friends, -who make presents to the bereaved family. The value of each is carefully -entered in a book, so that a precise return may be made when a similar -occasion occurs. Until the fourth day after death it is believed to be -impossible to quiet the soul. On that day a piece of paper is inscribed -with prayers and requests to the soul to be quiet, and this is burned by -the _lamas_ with suitable ceremonies; and rites of a more or less -elaborate kind are afterwards performed for the repose of the soul, -accompanied with prayers that it may get 'a good path' for its re-birth, -and food is placed in conspicuous places about the house, that it may -understand that its relatives are willing to support it. The mourners -for some time wear wretched clothes, and neither dress their hair nor -wash their faces. Every year the _lamas_ sell by auction the clothing -and ornaments, which are their perquisites at funerals[1]. - -[1] For these and other curious details concerning Tibetan customs I am -indebted to the kindness and careful investigations of the late Rev. W. -Redslob, of Leh, and the Rev. A. Heyde, of Kylang. - -The Moravian missionaries have opened a school in Leh, and the wazir, -finding that the Leh people are the worst educated in the country, -ordered that one child at least in each family should be sent to it. -This awakened grave suspicions, and the people hunted for reasons for -it. 'The boys are to be trained as porters, and made to carry burdens -over the mountains,' said some. 'Nay,' said others, 'they are to be sent -to England and made Christians of.' [All foreigners, no matter what -their nationality is, are supposed to be English.] Others again said, -'They are to be kidnapped,' and so the decree was ignored, till Mr. -Redslob and Dr. Marx went among the parents and explained matters, and a -large attendance was the result; for the Tibetans of the trade route -have come to look upon the acquisition of 'foreign learning' as the -stepping-stone to Government appointments at ten rupees per month. -Attendance on religious instruction was left optional, but after a time -sixty pupils were regularly present at the daily reading and explanation -of the Gospels. Tibetan fathers teach their sons to write, to read the -sacred classics, and to calculate with a frame of balls on wires. If -farther instruction is thought desirable, the boys are sent to the -_lamas_, and even to the schools at Lhassa. The Tibetans willingly -receive and read translations of our Christian books, and some go so far -as to think that their teachings are 'stronger' than those of their -own, indicating their opinions by tearing pages out of the Gospels and -rolling them up into pills, which are swallowed in the belief that they -are an effective charm. Sorcery is largely used in the treatment of the -sick. The books which instruct in the black art are known as 'black -books.' Those which treat of medicine are termed 'blue books.' Medical -knowledge is handed down from father to son. The doctors know the -virtues of many of the plants of the country, quantities of which they -mix up together while reciting magical formulas. - -[Illustration: CHANG-PA CHIEF] - -I was heartily sorry to leave Leh, with its dazzling skies and abounding -colour and movement, its stirring topics of talk, and the culture and -exceeding kindness of the Moravian missionaries. Helpfulness was the -rule. Gergan came over the Kharzong glacier on purpose to bring me a -prayer-wheel; Lob-sang and Tse-ring-don-drub, the hospital assistants, -made me a tent carpet of _yak's_ hair cloth, singing as they sewed; and -Joldan helped to secure transport for the twenty-two days' journey to -Kylang. Leh has few of what Europeans regard as travelling necessaries. -The brick tea which I purchased from a Lhassa trader was disgusting. I -afterwards understood that blood is used in making up the blocks. The -flour was gritty, and a leg of mutton turned out to be a limb of a goat -of much experience. There were no straps, or leather to make them of, in -the bazaar, and no buckles; and when the latter were provided by Mr. -Redslob, the old man who came to sew them upon a warm rug which I had -made for Gyalpo out of pieces of carpet and hair-cloth put them on -wrongly three times, saying after each failure, 'I'm very foolish. -Foreign ways are so wonderful!' At times the Tibetans say, 'We're as -stupid as oxen,' and I was inclined to think so, as I stood for two -hours instructing the blacksmith about making shoes for Gyalpo, which -kept turning out either too small for a mule or too big for a -dray-horse. - -I obtained two Lahul muleteers with four horses, quiet, obliging men, -and two superb _yaks_, which were loaded with twelve days' hay and -barley for my horse. Provisions for the whole party for the same time -had to be carried, for the route is over an uninhabited and arid desert. -Not the least important part of my outfit was a letter from Mr. Redslob -to the headman or chief of the Chang-pas or Champas, the nomadic tribes -of Rupchu, to whose encampment I purposed to make a _détour_. These -nomads had on two occasions borrowed money from the Moravian -missionaries for the payment of the Kashmiri tribute, and had repaid it -before it was due, showing much gratitude for the loans. - -Dr. Marx accompanied me for the three first days. The few native -Christians in Leh assembled in the gay garden plot of the lowly -mission-house to shake hands and wish me a good journey, and not a few -who were not Christians, some of them walking for the first hour beside -our horses. The road from Leh descends to a rude wooden bridge over the -Indus, a mighty stream even there, over blazing slopes of gravel -dignified by colossal _manis_ and _chod-tens_ in long lines, built by -the former kings of Ladak. On the other side of the river gravel slopes -ascend towards red mountains 20,000 feet in height. Then comes a rocky -spur crowned by the imposing castle of the Gyalpo, the son of the -dethroned king of Ladak, surmounted by a forest of poles from which -flutter _yaks'_ tails and long streamers inscribed with prayers. Others -bear aloft the trident, the emblem of Siva. Carefully hewn zigzags, -entered through a much-decorated and colossal _chod-ten_, lead to the -castle. The village of Stok, the prettiest and most prosperous in Ladak, -fills up the mouth of a gorge with its large farm-houses among poplar, -apricot, and willow plantations, and irrigated terraces of barley; and -is imposing as well as pretty, for the two roads by which it is -approached are avenues of lofty _chod-tens_ and broad _manis_, all in -excellent repair. Knolls, and deeply coloured spurs of naked rock, most -picturesquely crowded with _chod-tens_, rise above the greenery, -breaking the purple gloom of the gorge which cuts deeply into the -mountains, and supplies from its rushing glacier torrent the living -waters which create this delightful oasis. - -The _gopa_ came forth to meet us, bearing apricots and cheeses as the -Gyalpo's greeting, and conducted us to the camping-ground, a sloping -lawn in a willow-wood, with many a natural bower of the graceful -_Clematis orientalis_. The tents were pitched, afternoon tea was on a -table outside, a clear, swift stream made fitting music, the dissonance -of the ceaseless beating of gongs and drums in the castle temple was -softened by distance, the air was cool, a lemon light bathed the -foreground, and to the north, across the Indus, the great mountains of -the Leh range, with every cleft defined in purple or blue, lifted their -vermilion peaks into a rosy sky. It was the poetry and luxury of travel. - -At Leh I was obliged to dismiss the _seis_ for prolonged misconduct and -cruelty to Gyalpo, and Mando undertook to take care of him. The animal -had always been held by two men while the _seis_ groomed him with -difficulty, but at Stok, when Mando rubbed him down, he quietly went on -feeding and laid his lovely head on the lad's shoulder with a soft -cooing sound. From that moment Mando could do anything with him, and a -singular attachment grew up between man and horse. - -Towards sunset we were received by the Gyalpo. The castle loses nothing -of its picturesqueness on a nearer view, and everything about it is trim -and in good order. It is a substantial mass of stone building on a lofty -rock, the irregularities of which have been taken most artistic -advantage of in order to give picturesque irregularity to the edifice, -which, while six storeys high in some places, is only three in others. -As in the palace of Leh, the walls slope inwards from the base, where -they are ten feet thick, and projecting balconies of brown wood and grey -stone relieve their monotony. We were received at the entrance by a -number of red _lamas_, who took us up five flights of rude stairs to the -reception room, where we were introduced to the Gyalpo, who was in the -midst of a crowd of monks, and, except that his hair was not shorn, and -that he wore a silver brocade cap and large gold earrings and bracelets, -was dressed in red like them. Throneless and childless, the Gyalpo has -given himself up to religion. He has covered the castle roof with -Buddhist emblems (not represented in the sketch). From a pole, forty -feet long, on the terrace floats a broad streamer of equal length, -completely covered with _Aum mani padne hun_, and he has surrounded -himself with _lamas_, who conduct nearly ceaseless services in the -sanctuary. The attainment of merit, as his creed leads him to -understand it, is his one aim in life. He loves the seclusion of Stok, -and rarely visits the palace in Leh, except at the time of the winter -games, when the whole population assembles in cheery, orderly crowds, to -witness races, polo and archery matches, and a species of hockey. He -interests himself in the prosperity of Stok, plants poplars, willows, -and fruit trees, and keeps the castle _manis_ and _chod-tens_ in -admirable repair. - -Stok Castle is as massive as any of our mediaeval buildings, but is far -lighter and roomier. It is most interesting to see a style of -architecture and civilisation which bears not a solitary trace of -European influence, not even in Manchester cottons or Russian gimcracks. -The Gyalpo's room was only roofed for six feet within the walls, where -it was supported by red pillars. Above, the deep blue Tibetan sky was -flushing with the red of sunset, and from a noble window with a covered -stone balcony there was an enchanting prospect of red ranges passing -into translucent amethyst. The partial ceiling is painted in arabesques, -and at one end of the room is an alcove, much enriched with bold wood -carving. - -[Illustration: THE CASTLE OF STOK] - -The Gyalpo was seated on a carpet on the floor, a smooth-faced, rather -stupid-looking man of twenty-eight. He placed us on a carpet beside -him, and coffee, honey, and apricots were brought in, but the -conversation flagged. He neither suggested anything nor took up Dr. -Marx's suggestions. Fortunately, we had brought our sketch-books, and -the views of several places were recognised, and were found interesting. -The _lamas_ and servants, who had remained respectfully standing, sat -down on the floor, and even the Gyalpo became animated. So our visit -ended successfully. - -There is a doorway from the reception room into the sanctuary, and after -a time fully thirty _lamas_ passed in and began service, but the Gyalpo -only stood on his carpet. There is only a half light in this temple, -which is further obscured by scores of smoked and dusty bannerets of -gold and silver brocade hanging from the roof. In addition to the usual -Buddhist emblems there are musical instruments, exquisitely inlaid, or -enriched with _niello_ work of gold and silver of great antiquity, and -bows of singular strength, requiring two men to bend them, which are -made of small pieces of horn cleverly joined. _Lamas_ gabbled liturgies -at railroad speed, beating drums and clashing cymbals as an -accompaniment, while others blew occasional blasts on the colossal -silver horns or trumpets, which probably resemble those with which -Jericho was encompassed. The music, the discordant and high-pitched -monotones, and the revolting odours of stale smoke of juniper chips, of -rancid butter, and of unwashed woollen clothes which drifted through the -doorway, were overpowering. Attempted fights among the horses woke me -often during the night, and the sound of worship was always borne over -the still air. - -Dr. Marx left on the third day, after we had visited the monastery of -Hemis, the richest in Ladak, holding large landed property and -possessing much metallic wealth, including a _chod-ten_ of silver and -gold, thirty feet high, in one of its many halls, approached by -gold-plated silver steps and incrusted with precious stones; there is -also much fine work in brass and bronze. Hemis abounds in decorated -buildings most picturesquely placed, it has three hundred _lamas_, and -is regarded as 'the sight' of Ladak. - -At Upschi, after a day's march over blazing gravel, I left the rushing -olive-green Indus, which I had followed from the bridge of Khalsi, where -a turbulent torrent, the Upshi water, joins it, descending through a -gorge so narrow that the track, which at all times is blasted on the -face of the precipice, is occasionally scaffolded. A very extensive -rock-slip had carried away the path and rendered several fords -necessary, and before I reached it rumour was busy with the peril. It -was true that the day before several mules had been carried away and -drowned, that many loads had been sacrificed, and that one native -traveller had lost his life. So I started my caravan at daybreak, to get -the water at its lowest, and ascended the gorge, which is an absolutely -verdureless rift in mountains of most brilliant and fantastic -stratification. At the first ford Mando was carried down the river for a -short distance. The second was deep and strong, and a caravan of -valuable goods had been there for two days, afraid to risk the crossing. -My Lahulis, who always showed a great lack of stamina, sat down, sobbing -and beating their breasts. Their sole wealth, they said, was in their -baggage animals, and the river was 'wicked,' and 'a demon' lived in it -who paralysed the horses' legs. Much experience of Orientals and of -travel has taught me to surmount difficulties in my own way, so, -beckoning to two men from the opposite side, who came over shakily with -linked arms, I took the two strong ropes which I always carry on my -saddle, and roped these men together and to Gyalpo's halter with one, -and lashed Mando and the guide together with the other, giving them the -stout thongs behind the saddle to hold on to, and in this compact mass -we stood the strong rush of the river safely, the paralysing chill of -its icy waters being a far more obvious peril. All the baggage animals -were brought over in the same way, and the Lahulis praised their gods. - -At Gya, a wild hamlet, the last in Ladak proper, I met a working -naturalist whom I had seen twice before, and 'forgathered' with him much -of the way. Eleven days of solitary desert succeeded. The reader has -probably understood that no part of the Indus, Shayok, and Nubra -valleys, which make up most of the province of Ladak, is less than 9,500 -feet in altitude, and that the remainder is composed of precipitous -mountains with glaciers and snowfields, ranging from 18,000 to 25,000 -feet, and that the villages are built mainly on alluvial soil where -possibilities of irrigation exist. But Rupchu has peculiarities of its -own. - -Between Gya and Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, are three huge -passes, the Toglang, 18,150 feet in altitude, the Lachalang, 17,500, and -the Baralacha, 16,000,--all easy, except for the difficulties arising -from the highly rarefied air. The mountains of the region, which are -from 20,000 to 23,000 feet in altitude, are seldom precipitous or -picturesque, except the huge red needles which guard the Lachalang Pass, -but are rather 'monstrous protuberances,' with arid surfaces of -disintegrated rock. Among these are remarkable plateaux, which are taken -advantage of by caravans, and which have elevations of from 14,000 to -15,000 feet. There are few permanent rivers or streams, the lakes are -salt, beside the springs, and on the plateaux there is scanty -vegetation, chiefly aromatic herbs; but on the whole Rupchu is a desert -of arid gravel. Its only inhabitants are 500 nomads, and on the ten -marches of the trade route, the bridle paths, on which in some places -labour has been spent, the tracks, not always very legible, made by the -passage of caravans, and rude dykes, behind which travellers may shelter -themselves from the wind, are the only traces of man. Herds of the -_kyang_, the wild horse of some naturalists, and the wild ass of others, -graceful and beautiful creatures, graze within gunshot of the track -without alarm. - -I had thought Ladak windy, but Rupchu is the home of the winds, and the -marches must be arranged for the quietest time of the day. Happily the -gales blow with clockwork regularity, the day wind from the south and -south-west rising punctually at 9 a.m. and attaining its maximum at -2.30, while the night wind from the north and north-east rises about 9 -p.m. and ceases about 5 a.m. Perfect silence is rare. The highly -rarefied air, rushing at great speed, when at its worst deprives the -traveller of breath, skins his face and hands, and paralyses the baggage -animals. In fact, neither man nor beast can face it. The horses 'turn -tail' and crowd together, and the men build up the baggage into a wall -and crouch in the lee of it. The heat of the solar rays is at the same -time fearful. At Lachalang, at a height of over 15,000 feet, I noted a -solar temperature of 152°, only 35° below the boiling point of water in -the same region, which is about 187°. To make up for this, the mercury -falls below the freezing point every night of the year, even in August -the difference of temperature in twelve hours often exceeding 120°! The -Rupchu nomads, however, delight in this climate of extremes, and regard -Leh as a place only to be visited in winter, and Kulu and Kashmir as if -they were the malarial swamps of the Congo! - -[Illustration: FIRST VILLAGE IN KULU] - -We crossed the Toglang Pass, at a height of 18,150 feet, with less -suffering from _ladug_ than on either the Digar or Kharzong Passes. -Indeed Gyalpo carried me over it, stopping to take breath every few -yards. It was then a long dreary march to the camping-ground of Tsala, -where the Chang-pas spend the four summer months; the guides and baggage -animals lost the way and did not appear until the next day, and in -consequence the servants slept unsheltered in the snow. News travels -as if by magic in desert places. Towards evening, while riding by a -stream up a long and tedious valley, I saw a number of moving specks on -the crest of a hill, and down came a surge of horsemen riding furiously. -Just as they threatened to sweep Gyalpo away, they threw their horses on -their haunches, in one moment were on the ground, which they touched -with their foreheads, presented me with a plate of apricots, and the -next vaulted into their saddles, and dashing up the valley were soon out -of sight. In another half-hour there was a second wild rush of horsemen, -the headman dismounted, threw himself on his face, kissed my hand, -vaulted into the saddle, and then led a swirl of his tribesmen at a -gallop in ever-narrowing circles round me till they subsided into the -decorum of an escort. An elevated plateau with some vegetation on it, a -row of forty tents, 'black' but not 'comely,' a bright rapid river, wild -hills, long lines of white sheep converging towards the camp, _yaks_ -rampaging down the hillsides, men running to meet us, and women and -children in the distance were singularly idealised in the golden glow of -a cool, moist evening. - -Two men took my bridle, and two more proceeded to put their hands on my -stirrups; but Gyalpo kicked them to the right and left amidst shrieks of -laughter, after which, with frantic gesticulations and yells of -'_Kabardar!_' I was led through the river in triumph and hauled off my -horse. The tribesmen were much excited. Some dashed about, performing -feats of horsemanship; others brought apricots and dough-balls made with -apricot oil, or rushed to the tents, returning with rugs; some cleared -the camping-ground of stones and raised a stone platform, and a flock of -goats, exquisitely white from the daily swims across the river, were -brought to be milked. Gradually and shrinkingly the women and children -drew near; but Mr. ----'s Bengali servant threatened them with a whip, -when there was a general stampede, the women running like hares. I had -trained my servants to treat the natives courteously, and addressed some -rather strong language to the offender, and afterwards succeeded in -enticing all the fugitives back by showing my sketches, which gave -boundless pleasure and led to very numerous requests for portraits! The -_gopa_, though he had the oblique Mongolian eyes, was a handsome young -man, with a good nose and mouth. He was dressed like the others in a -girdled _chaga_ of coarse serge, but wore a red cap turned up over the -ears with fine fur, a silver inkhorn, and a Yarkand knife in a chased -silver sheath in his girdle, and canary-coloured leather shoes with -turned-up points. The people prepared one of their own tents for me, and -laying down a number of rugs of their own dyeing and weaving, assured me -of an unbounded welcome as a friend of their 'benefactor,' Mr. Redslob, -and then proposed that I should visit their tents accompanied by all the -elders of the tribe. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CLIMATE AND NATURAL FEATURES - - -The last chapter left me with the chief and elders of the Chang-pas -starting on 'a round of visits,' and it was not till nightfall that the -solemn ceremony was concluded. Each of the fifty tents was visited: at -every one a huge, savage Tibetan mastiff made an attempt to fly at me, -and was pounced upon and held down by a woman little bigger than -himself, and in each cheese and milk were offered and refused. In all I -received a hearty welcome for the sake of the 'great father,' Mr. -Redslob, who designated these people as 'the simplest and kindliest -people on earth.' - -This Chang-pa tribe, numbering five hundred souls, makes four moves in -the year, dividing in summer, and uniting in a valley very free from -snow in the winter. They are an exclusively pastoral people, and possess -large herds of _yaks_ and ponies and immense flocks of sheep and goats, -the latter almost entirely the beautiful 'shawl goat,' from the -undergrowth at the base of the long hair of which the fine Kashmir -shawls are made. This _pashm_ is a provision which Nature makes against -the intense cold of these altitudes, and grows on _yaks_, sheep, and -dogs, as well as on most of the wild animals. The sheep is the big, -hornless, flop-eared _huniya_. The _yaks_ and sheep are the load -carriers of Rupchu. Small or easily divided merchandise is carried by -sheep, and bulkier goods by _yaks_, and the Chang-pas make a great deal -of money by carrying for the Lahul, Central Ladak, and Rudok merchants, -their sheep travelling as far as Gar in Chinese Tibet. They are paid in -grain as well as coin, their own country producing no farinaceous food. -They have only two uses for silver money. With part of their gains they -pay the tribute to Kashmir, and they melt the rest, and work it into -rude personal ornaments. According to an old arrangement between Lhassa -and Leh, they carry brick tea free for the Lhassa merchants. They are -Buddhists, and practise polyandry, but their young men do not become -_lamas_, and owing to the scarcity of fuel, instead of burning their -dead, they expose them with religious rites face upwards in desolate -places, to be made away with by the birds of the air. All their tents -have a god-shelf, on which are placed small images and sacred emblems. -They dress as the Ladakis, except that the men wear shoes with very high -turned-up points, and that the women, in addition to the _perak_, the -usual ornament, place on the top of the head a large silver coronet with -three tassels. In physiognomy they resemble the Ladakis, but the -Mongolian type is purer, the eyes are more oblique, and the eyelids have -a greater droop, the chins project more, and the mouths are handsomer. -Many of the men, including the headman, were quite good-looking, but the -upper lips of the women were apt to be 'tucked up,' displaying very -square teeth, as we have shown in the preceding chapter. - -[Illustration: A TIBETAN FARM-HOUSE] - -The roofs of the Tsala tents are nearly flat, and the middle has an -opening six inches wide along its whole length. An excavation from -twelve to twenty-four inches deep is made in the soil, and a rude wall -of stones, about one foot high, is built round it, over which the tent -cloth, made in narrow widths of _yak's_ or goat's hair, is extended by -ropes led over forked sticks. There is no ridge pole, and the centre is -supported on short poles, to the projecting tops of which prayer flags -and _yaks'_ tails are attached. The interior, though dark, is not too -dark for weaving, and each tent has its loom, for the Chang-pas not only -weave their coarse woollen clothing and hair cloth for saddlebags and -tents, but rugs of wool dyed in rich colours made from native roots. The -largest tent was twenty feet by fifteen, but the majority measured only -fourteen feet by eight and ten feet. The height in no case exceeded six -feet. In these much ventilated and scarcely warmed shelters these hardy -nomads brave the tremendous winds and winter rigours of their climate at -altitudes varying from 13,000 to 14,500 feet. Water freezes every night -of the year, and continually there are differences in temperature of -100° between noon and midnight. In addition to the fifty dwelling tents -there was one considerably larger, in which the people store their wool -and goat's hair till the time arrives for taking them to market. The -floor of several of the tents was covered with rugs, and besides looms -and confused heaps of what looked like rubbish, there were tea-churns, -goatskin churns, sheep and goat skins, children's bows and arrows, -cooking pots, and heaps of the furze root, which is used as fuel. - -They expended much of this scarce commodity upon me in their -hospitality, and kept up a bonfire all night. They mounted their wiry -ponies and performed feats of horsemanship, in one of which all the -animals threw themselves on their hind legs in a circle when a man in -the centre clapped his hands; and they crowded my tent to see my -sketches, and were not satisfied till I executed some daubs professing -to represent some of the elders. The excitement of their first visit -from a European woman lasted late into the night, and when they at last -retired they persisted in placing a guard of honour round my tent. - -In the morning there was ice on the pools, and the snow lay three inches -deep. Savage life had returned to its usual monotony, and the care of -flocks and herds. In the early afternoon the chief and many of the men -accompanied us across the ford, and we parted with mutual expressions of -good will. The march was through broad gravelly valleys, among -'monstrous protuberances' of red and yellow gravel, elevated by their -height alone to the dignity of mountains. Hail came on, and Gyalpo -showed his high breeding by facing it when the other animals 'turned -tail' and huddled together, and a storm of heavy sleet of some hours' -duration burst upon us just as we reached the dismal camping-ground of -Rukchen, guarded by mountain giants which now and then showed glimpses -of their white skirts through the dark driving mists. That was the only -'weather' in four months. - -A large caravan from the heat and sunshine of Amritsar was there. The -goods were stacked under goat's hair shelters, the mules were huddled -together without food, and their shivering Panjābi drivers, muffled in -blankets which only left one eye exposed, were grubbing up furze roots -wherewith to make smoky fires. My baggage, which had arrived previously, -was lying soaking in the sleet, while the wretched servants were trying -to pitch the tent in the high wind. They had slept out in the snow the -night before, and were mentally as well as physically benumbed. Their -misery had a comic side to it, and as the temperature made me feel -specially well, I enjoyed bestirring myself, and terrified Mando, who -was feebly 'fadding' with a rag, by giving Gyalpo a vigorous rub-down -with a bath-towel. Hassan Khan, with chattering teeth and severe -neuralgia, muffled in my 'fisherman's hood' under his turban, was trying -to do his work with his unfailing pluck. Mando was shedding futile tears -over wet furze which would not light, the small wet corrie was dotted -over with the Amritsar men sheltering under rocks and nursing hopeless -fires, and fifty mules and horses, with dejected heads and dripping -tails, and their backs to the merciless wind, were attempting to pick -some food from scanty herbage already nibbled to the root. My tent was -a picture of grotesque discomfort. The big stones had not been picked -out from the gravel, the bed stood in puddles, the thick horse blanket -was draining over the one chair, the servant's spare clothing and stores -were on the table, the _yaks'_ loads of wet hay and the soaked grain -sack filled up most of the space; a wet candle sputtered and went out, -wet clothes dripped from the tent hook, and every now and then Hassan -Khan looked in with one eye, gasping out, 'Mem Sahib, I can no light the -fire!' Perseverance succeeds eventually, and cups of a strong stimulant -made of Burroughes and Wellcome's vigorous 'valoid' tincture of ginger -and hot water, revived the men all round. Such was its good but innocent -effect, that early the next morning Hassan came into my tent with two -eyes, and convulsed with laughter. 'The pony men' and Mando, he said, -were crying, and the coolie from Leh, who before the storm had wanted to -go the whole way to Simla, after refusing his supper had sobbed all -night under the 'flys' of my tent, while I was sleeping soundly. -Afterwards I harangued them, and told them I would let them go, and help -them back; I could not take such poor-spirited miserable creatures with -me, and I would keep the Tartars who had accompanied me from Tsala. On -this they protested, and said, with a significant gesture, I might cut -their throats if they cried any more, and begged me to try them again; -and as we had no more bad weather, there was no more trouble. - -The marches which followed were along valleys, plains, and -mountain-sides of gravel, destitute of herbage, except a shrivelled -artemisia, and on one occasion the baggage animals were forty hours -without food. Fresh water was usually very scarce, and on the Lingti -plains was only obtainable by scooping it up from the holes left by the -feet of animals. Insect life was rare, and except grey doves, the 'dove -of the valleys,' which often flew before us for miles down the ravines, -no birds were to be seen. On the other hand, there were numerous herds -of _kyang_, which in the early mornings came to drink of the water by -which the camps were pitched. By looking through a crevice of my tent I -saw them distinctly, without alarming them. In one herd I counted forty. -They kept together in families, sire, dam, and foal. The animal -certainly is under fourteen hands, and resembles a mule rather than a -horse or ass. The noise, which I had several opportunities of hearing, -is more like a neigh than a bray, but lacks completeness. The creature -is light brown, almost fawn colour, fading into white under his body, -and he has a dark stripe on his back, but not a cross. His ears are -long, and his tail is like that of a mule. He trots and gallops, and -when alarmed gallops fast, but as he is not worth hunting, he has not a -great dread of humanity, and families of _kyang_ frequently grazed -within two hundred and fifty yards of us. He is about as untamable as -the zebra, and with his family affectionateness leads apparently a very -happy life. - -[Illustration: LAHUL VALLEY] - -On the Kwangchu plateau, at an elevation of 15,000 feet, I met with a -form of life which has a great interest of its own, sheep caravans, -numbering among them 7,000 sheep, each animal with its wool on, and -equipped with a neat packsaddle and two leather or hair-cloth bags, and -loaded with from twenty-five to thirty-two pounds of salt or borax. -These, and many more which we passed, were carrying their loads to -Patseo, a mountain valley in Lahul, where they are met by traders from -Northern British India. The sheep are shorn, and the wool and loads are -exchanged for wheat and a few other commodities, with which they return -to Tibet, the whole journey taking from nine months to a year. As the -sheep live by grazing the scanty herbage on the march, they never -accomplish more than ten miles a day, and as they often become footsore, -halts of several days are frequently required. Sheep, dead or dying, -with the birds of prey picking out their eyes, were often met with. -Ordinarily these caravans are led by a man, followed by a large goat -much bedecked and wearing a large bell. Each driver has charge of one -hundred sheep. These men, of small stature but very thickset, with their -wide smooth faces, loose clothing of sheepskin with the wool outside, -with their long coarse hair flying in the wind, and their uncouth shouts -in a barbarous tongue, are much like savages. They sing wild chants as -they picket their sheep in long double lines at night, and with their -savage mastiffs sleep unsheltered under the frosty skies under the lee -of their piled-up saddlebags. On three nights I camped beside their -caravans, and walked round their orderly lines of sheep and their neat -walls of saddlebags; and, far from showing any discourtesy or rude -curiosity, they held down their fierce dogs and exhibited their -ingenious mode of tethering their animals, and not one of the many -articles which my servants were in the habit of leaving outside the -tents was on any occasion abstracted. The dogs, however, were less -honest than their masters, and on one night ran away with half a sheep, -and I should have fared poorly had not Mr. ---- shot some grey doves. - -Marches across sandy and gravelly valleys, and along arid mountain-sides -spotted with a creeping furze and cushions of a yellow-green moss which -seems able to exist without moisture, fords of the Sumgyal and Tserap -rivers, and the crossing of the Lachalang Pass at an altitude of 17,500 -feet in severe frost, occupied several uneventful days. Of the three -lofty passes on this route, the Toglang, which is higher, and the -Baralacha, which is lower, are featureless billows of gravel, over which -a carriage might easily be driven. Not so is the Lachalang, though its -well-made zigzags are easy for laden animals. The approach to it is -fantastic, among precipitous mountains of red sandstone, and red rocks -weathered into pillars, men's heads, and numerous groups of gossipy old -women from thirty to fifty feet high, in flat hats and long circular -cloaks! Entering by red gates of rock into a region of gigantic -mountains, and following up a crystal torrent, the valley narrowing to a -gorge, and the gorge to a chasm guarded by nearly perpendicular needles -of rock flaming in the westering sun, we forded the river at the chasm's -throat, and camped on a velvety green lawn just large enough for a few -tents, absolutely walled in by abrupt mountains 18,000 and 19,000 feet -in height. Long after the twilight settled down on us, the pinnacles -above glowed in warm sunshine, and the following morning, when it was -only dawn below, and the still river pools were frozen and the grass -was white with hoar-frost, the morning sun reddened the snow-peaks and -kindled into vermilion the red needles of Lachalang. That camping-ground -under such conditions is the grandest and most romantic spot of the -whole journey. - -Verdureless and waterless stretches, in crossing which our poor animals -were two nights without food, brought us to the glacier-blue waters of -the Serchu, tumbling along in a deep broad gash, and farther on to a -lateral torrent which is the boundary between Rupchu, tributary to -Kashmir, and Lahul or British Tibet, under the rule of the Empress of -India. The tents were ready pitched in a grassy hollow by the river; -horses, cows, and goats were grazing near them, and a number of men were -preparing food. A Tibetan approached me, accompanied by a creature in a -nondescript dress speaking Hindustani volubly. On a band across his -breast were the British crown, and a plate with the words -'Commissioner's _chaprassie_, Kulu district.' I never felt so -extinguished. Liberty seemed lost, and the romance of the desert to have -died out in one moment! At the camping-ground I found rows of salaaming -Lahulis drawn up, and Hassan Khan in a state which was a compound of -pomposity and jubilant excitement. The _tahsildar_ (really the Tibetan -honorary magistrate), he said, had received instructions from the -Lieutenant-Governor of the Panjāb that I was on the way to Kylang, and -was to 'want for nothing.' So twenty-four men, nine horses, a flock of -goats, and two cows had been waiting for me for three days in the Serchu -valley. I wrote a polite note to the magistrate, and sent all back -except the _chaprassie_, the cows, and the cowherd, my servants looking -much crestfallen. - -We crossed the Baralacha Pass in wind and snow showers into a climate in -which moisture began to be obvious. At short distances along the pass, -which extends for many miles, there are rude semicircular walls, three -feet high, all turned in one direction, in the shelter of which -travellers crouch to escape from the strong cutting wind. My men -suffered far more than on the two higher passes, and it was difficult to -dislodge them from these shelters, where they lay groaning, gasping, and -suffering from vertigo and nose-bleeding. The cold was so severe that I -walked over the loftiest part of the pass, and for the first time felt -slight effects of the _ladug_. At a height of 15,000 feet, in the midst -of general desolation, grew, in the shelter of rocks, poppies -(_Mecanopsis aculeata_), blue as the Tibetan skies, their centres filled -with a cluster of golden-yellow stamens,--a most charming sight. Ten or -twelve of these exquisite blossoms grow on one stalk, and stalk, leaf, -and seed-vessels are guarded by very stiff thorns. Lower down flowers -abounded, and at the camping-ground of Patseo (12,000 feet), where the -Tibetan sheep caravans exchange their wool, salt, and borax for grain, -the ground was covered with soft greensward, and real rain fell. Seen -from the Baralacha Pass are vast snowfields, glaciers, and avalanche -slopes. This barrier, and the Rotang, farther south, close this trade -route practically for seven months of the year, for they catch the -monsoon rains, which at that altitude are snows from fifteen to thirty -feet deep; while on the other side of the Baralacha and throughout -Rupchu and Ladak the snowfall is insignificant. So late as August, when -I crossed, there were four perfect snow bridges over the Bhaga, and -snowfields thirty-six feet deep along its margin. At Patseo the -_tahsildar_, with a retinue and animals laden with fodder, came to pay -his respects to me, and invited me to his house, three days' journey. -These were the first human beings we had seen for three days. - -A few miles south of the Baralacha Pass some birch trees appeared on a -slope, the first natural growth of timber that I had seen since crossing -the Zoji La. Lower down there were a few more, then stunted specimens -of the pencil cedar, and the mountains began to show a shade of green on -their lower slopes. Butterflies appeared also, and a vulture, a grand -bird on the wing, hovered ominously over us for some miles, and was -succeeded by an equally ominous raven. On the excellent bridle-track cut -on the face of the precipices which overhang the Bhaga, there is in nine -miles only one spot in which it is possible to pitch a five-foot tent, -and at Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, the only camping-ground is on -the house roofs. There the Chang-pas and their _yaks_ and horses who had -served me pleasantly and faithfully from Tsala left me, and returned to -the freedom of their desert life. At Kolang, the next hamlet, where the -thunder of the Bhaga was almost intolerable, Hara Chang, the magistrate, -one of the _thakurs_ or feudal proprietors of Lahul, with his son and -nephew and a large retinue, called on me; and the next morning Mr. ---- -and I went by invitation to visit him in his castle, a magnificently -situated building on a rocky spur 1,000 feet above the camping-ground, -attained by a difficult climb, and nearly on a level with the glittering -glaciers and ice-falls on the other side of the Bhaga. It only differs -from Leh and Stok castles in having blue glass in some of the smaller -windows. In the family temple, in addition to the usual life-size -images of Buddha and the Triad, there was a female divinity, carved at -Jallandhur in India, copied from a statue representing Queen Victoria in -her younger days--a very fitting possession for the highest government -official in Lahul. The _thakur_, Hara Chang, is wealthy and a rigid -Buddhist, and uses his very considerable influence against the work of -the Moravian missionaries in the valley. The rude path down to the -bridle-road, through fields of barley and buckwheat, is bordered by -roses, gooseberries, and masses of wild flowers. - -[Illustration: GONPO AT KYLANG] - -The later marches after reaching Darcha are grand beyond all -description. The track, scaffolded or blasted out of the rock at a -height of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the thundering Bhaga, is -scarcely a rifle-shot from the mountain mass dividing it from the -Chandra, a mass covered with nearly unbroken ice and snowfields, out of -which rise pinnacles of naked rock 21,000 and 22,000 feet in altitude. -The region is the 'abode of snow,' and glaciers of great size fill up -every depression. Humidity, vegetation, and beauty reappear together, -wild flowers and ferns abound, and pencil cedars in clumps rise above -the artificial plantations of the valley. Wheat ripens at an altitude of -12,000 feet. Picturesque villages, surrounded by orchards, adorn the -mountain spurs; _chod-tens_ and _gonpos_, with white walls and -fluttering flags, brighten the scene; feudal castles crown the heights, -and where the mountains are loftiest, the snowfields and glaciers most -imposing, and the greenery densest, the village of Kylang, the most -important in Lahul as the centre of trade, government, and Christian -missions, hangs on ledges of the mountain-side 1,000 feet above Bhaga, -whose furious course can be traced far down the valley by flashes of -sunlit foam. - -The Lahul valley, which is a part of British Tibet, has an altitude of -10,000 feet. It prospers under British rule, its population has -increased, Hindu merchants have settled in Kylang, the route through -Lahul to Central Asia is finding increasing favour with the Panjābi -traders, and the Moravian missionaries, by a bolder system of irrigation -and the provision of storage for water, have largely increased the -quantity of arable land. The Lahulis are chiefly Tibetans, but Hinduism -is largely mixed up with Buddhism in the lower villages. All the -_gonpos_, however, have been restored and enlarged during the last -twenty years. In winter the snow lies fifteen feet deep, and for four or -five months, owing to the perils of the Rotang Pass, the valley rarely -has any communication with the outer world. - -At the foot of the village of Kylang, which is built in tier above tier -of houses up the steep side of a mountain with a height of 21,000 feet, -are the Moravian mission buildings, long, low, whitewashed erections, of -the simplest possible construction, the design and much of the actual -erection being the work of these capable Germans. The large building, -which has a deep verandah, the only place in which exercise can be taken -in the winter, contains the native church, three rooms for each -missionary, and two guest-rooms. Round the garden are the printing -rooms, the medicine and store room (stores arriving once in two years), -and another guest-room. Round an adjacent enclosure are the houses -occupied in winter by the Christians when they come down with their -sheep and cattle from the hill farms. All is absolutely plain, and as -absolutely clean and trim. The guest-rooms and one or two of the Tibetan -rooms are papered with engravings from the _Illustrated London News_, -but the rooms of the missionaries are only whitewashed, and by their -extreme bareness reminded me of those of very poor pastors in the -Fatherland. A garden, brilliant with zinnias, dianthus, and petunias, -all of immense size, and planted with European trees, is an oasis, and -in it I camped for some weeks under a willow tree, covered, as many are, -with a sweet secretion so abundant as to drop on the roof of the tent, -and which the people collect and use as honey. - -The mission party consisted of Mr. and Mrs. Shreve, lately arrived, and -now in a distant exile at Poo, and Mr. and Mrs. Heyde, who had been in -Tibet for nearly forty years, chiefly spent at Kylang, without going -home. 'Plain living and high thinking' were the rule. Books and -periodicals were numerous, and were read and assimilated. The culture -was simply wonderful, and the acquaintance with the latest ideas in -theology and natural science, the latest political and social -developments, and the latest conceptions in European art, would have led -me to suppose that these admirable people had only just left Europe. -Mrs. Heyde had no servant, and in the long winters, when household and -mission work are over for the day, and there are no mails to write for, -she pursues her tailoring and other needlework, while her husband reads -aloud till midnight. At the time of my visit (September) busy -preparations for the winter were being made. Every day the wood piles -grew. Hay, cut with sickles on the steep hillsides, was carried on human -backs into the farmyard, apples were cored and dried in the sun, -cucumbers were pickled, vinegar was made, potatoes were stored, and meat -was killed and salted. - -It is in winter, when the Christians have come down from the mountain, -that most of the mission work is done. Mrs. Heyde has a school of forty -girls, mostly Buddhists. The teaching is simple and practical, and -includes the knitting of socks, of which from four to five hundred pairs -are turned out each winter, and find a ready sale. The converts meet for -instruction and discussion twice daily, and there is daily worship. The -mission press is kept actively employed in printing the parts of the -Bible which have been translated during the summer, as well as simple -tracts written or translated by Mr. Heyde. No converts are better -instructed, and like those of Leh they seem of good quality, and are -industrious and self-supporting. Winter work is severe, as ponies, -cattle, and sheep must always be hand-fed, and often hand-watered. Mr. -Heyde has great repute as a doctor, and in summer people travel long -distances for his advice and medicine. He is universally respected, and -his judgment in worldly affairs is highly thought of; but if one were to -judge merely by apparent results, the devoted labour of nearly forty -years and complete self-sacrifice for the good of Kylang must be -pronounced unsuccessful. Christianity has been most strongly opposed by -men of influence, and converts have been exposed to persecution and -loss. The abbot of the Kylang monastery lately said to Mr. Heyde, 'Your -Christian teaching has given Buddhism a resurrection.' The actual words -used were, 'When you came here people were quite indifferent about their -religion, but since it has been attacked they have become zealous, and -now they _know_.' It is only by sharing their circumstances of -isolation, and by getting glimpses of their everyday life and work, that -one can realise at all what the heroic perseverance and self-sacrificing -toil of these forty years have been, and what is the weighty influence -on the people and on the standard of morals, even though the number of -converts is so small. All honour to these noble German missionaries, -learned, genial, cultured, radiant, who, whether teaching, preaching, -farming, gardening, printing, or doctoring, are always and everywhere -'living epistles of Christ, known and read of all men!' Close by the -mission house, in a green spot under shady trees, is God's Acre, where -many children of the mission families sleep, and a few adults. - -As the winter is the busiest season in mission work, so it is the great -time in which the _lamas_ make house-to-house peregrinations and attend -at festivals. Then also there is much spinning and weaving by both -sexes, and tobogganing and other games, and much drinking of _chang_ by -priests and people. The cattle remain out till nearly Christmas, and are -then taken into the houses. At the time of the variable new year, the -_lamas_ and nuns retire to the monasteries, and dulness reigns in the -valleys. At the end of a month they emerge, life and noise begin, and -all men to whom sons have been born during the previous year give -_chang_ freely. During the festival which follows, all these jubilant -fathers go out of the village as a gaudily dressed procession, and form -a circle round a picture of a _yak_, painted by the _lamas_, which is -used as a target to be shot at with bows and arrows, and it is believed -that the man who hits it in the centre will be blessed with a son in the -coming year. After this, all the Kylang men and women collect in one -house by annual rotation, and sing and drink immense quantities of -_chang_ till 10 p.m. - -The religious festivals begin soon after. One, the worshipping of the -_lamas_ by the laity, occurs in every village, and lasts from two to -three days. It consists chiefly of music and dancing, while the _lamas_ -sit in rows, swilling _chang_ and arrack. At another, which is -celebrated annually in every house, the _lamas_ assemble, and in front -of certain gods prepare a number of mystical figures made of dough, -which are hung up and are worshipped by the family. Afterwards the -_lamas_ make little balls which are worshipped, and one of the family -mounts the roof and invites the neighbours, who receive the balls from -the _lamas'_ hands and drink moderately of _chang_. Next, the figures -are thrown to the demons as a propitiatory offering, amidst 'hellish -whistlings' and the firing of guns. These ceremonies are called _ise -drup_ (a full life), and it is believed that if they were neglected life -would be cut short. - -One of the most important of the winter religious duties of the _lamas_ -is the reading of the sacred classics under the roof of each -householder. By this means the family accumulate merit, and the longer -the reading is protracted the greater is the accumulation. A -twelve-volume book is taken in the houses of the richer householders, -each one of the twelve or fifteen _lamas_ taking a page, all reading at -an immense pace in a loud chant at the same time. The reading of these -volumes, which consist of Buddhist metaphysics and philosophy, takes -five days, and while reading each _lama_ has his _chang_ cup constantly -replenished. In the poorer households a classic of but one volume is -taken, to lessen the expense of feeding the _lamas_. Festivals and -ceremonies follow each other closely until March, when archery practice -begins, and in April and May the people prepare for the operations of -husbandry. - -The weather in Kylang breaks in the middle of September, but so -fascinating were the beauties and sublimity of Nature, and the virtues -and culture of my Moravian friends, that, shutting my eyes to the -possible perils of the Rotang, I remained until the harvest was brought -home with joy and revelry, and the flush of autumn faded, and the first -snows of winter gave an added majesty to the glorious valley. Then, -reluctantly folding my tent, and taking the same faithful fellows who -brought my baggage from Leh, I spent five weeks on the descent to the -Panjāb, journeying through the paradise of Upper Kulu and the -interesting native states of Mandi, Sukket, Bilaspur, and Bhaghat; and -early in November reached the amenities and restraints of the -civilisation of Simla. - -THE END. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Among the Tibetans, by Isabella L. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Among the Tibetans - -Author: Isabella L. Bird - -Illustrator: Edward Whymper - -Release Date: December 16, 2012 [EBook #41635] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMONG THE TIBETANS *** - - - - -Produced by Suzanne Shell, Asad Razzaki and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -[Illustration: USMAN SHAH] - - - AMONG THE TIBETANS - - Isabella L. Bird - - Illustrated by - Edward Whymper - - - DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. - Mineola, New York - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - CHAPTER I - - THE START 7 - - CHAPTER II - - SHERGOL AND LEH 40 - - CHAPTER III - - NUBRA 72 - - CHAPTER IV - - MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 101 - - CHAPTER V - - CLIMATE AND NATURAL FEATURES 130 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - Usman Shah _Frontispiece_ - - The Start from Srinagar 13 - - Camp at Gagangair 18 - - Sonamarg 21 - - A hand Prayer-Cylinder 42 - - Tibetan Girl 45 - - Gonpo of Spitak 51 - - Leh 57 - - A Chod-Ten 66 - - A Lama 74 - - Three Gopas 77 - - Some Instruments of Buddhist Worship 86 - - Monastic Buildings at Basgu 93 - - The Yak (_Bos grunniens_) 100 - - A Chang-pa Woman 102 - - Chang-pa Chief 110 - - The Castle of Stok 117 - - First Village in Kulu 125 - - A Tibetan Farm-house 133 - - Lahul Valley 141 - - Gonpo at Kylang 149 - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE START - - -The Vale of Kashmir is too well known to require description. It is the -'happy hunting-ground' of the Anglo-Indian sportsman and tourist, the -resort of artists and invalids, the home of _pashm_ shawls and -exquisitely embroidered fabrics, and the land of Lalla Rookh. Its -inhabitants, chiefly Moslems, infamously governed by Hindus, are a -feeble race, attracting little interest, valuable to travellers as -'coolies' or porters, and repulsive to them from the mingled cunning and -obsequiousness which have been fostered by ages of oppression. But even -for them there is the dawn of hope, for the Church Missionary Society -has a strong medical and educational mission at the capital, a hospital -and dispensary under the charge of a lady M.D. have been opened for -women, and a capable and upright 'settlement officer,' lent by the -Indian Government, is investigating the iniquitous land arrangements -with a view to a just settlement. - -I left the Panjab railroad system at Rawul Pindi, bought my camp -equipage, and travelled through the grand ravines which lead to Kashmir -or the Jhelum Valley by hill-cart, on horseback, and by house-boat, -reaching Srinagar at the end of April, when the velvet lawns were at -their greenest, and the foliage was at its freshest, and the -deodar-skirted mountains which enclose this fairest gem of the Himalayas -still wore their winter mantle of unsullied snow. Making Srinagar my -headquarters, I spent two months in travelling in Kashmir, half the time -in a native house-boat on the Jhelum and Pohru rivers, and the other -half on horseback, camping wherever the scenery was most attractive. - -By the middle of June mosquitos were rampant, the grass was tawny, a -brown dust haze hung over the valley, the camp-fires of a multitude -glared through the hot nights and misty moonlight of the Munshibagh, -English tents dotted the landscape, there was no mountain, valley, or -plateau, however remote, free from the clatter of English voices and the -trained servility of Hindu servants, and even Sonamarg, at an altitude -of 8,000 feet and rough of access, had capitulated to lawn-tennis. To a -traveller this Anglo-Indian hubbub was intolerable, and I left Srinagar -and many kind friends on June 20 for the uplifted plateaux of Lesser -Tibet. My party consisted of myself, a thoroughly competent servant and -passable interpreter, Hassan Khan, a Panjabi; a _seis_, of whom the less -that is said the better; and Mando, a Kashmiri lad, a common coolie, -who, under Hassan Khan's training, developed into an efficient -travelling servant, and later into a smart _khitmatgar_. - -Gyalpo, my horse, must not be forgotten--indeed, he cannot be, for he -left the marks of his heels or teeth on every one. He was a beautiful -creature, Badakshani bred, of Arab blood, a silver-grey, as light as a -greyhound and as strong as a cart-horse. He was higher in the scale of -intellect than any horse of my acquaintance. His cleverness at times -suggested reasoning power, and his mischievousness a sense of humour. He -walked five miles an hour, jumped like a deer, climbed like a _yak_, was -strong and steady in perilous fords, tireless, hardy, hungry, frolicked -along ledges of precipices and over crevassed glaciers, was absolutely -fearless, and his slender legs and the use he made of them were the -marvel of all. He was an enigma to the end. He was quite untamable, -rejected all dainties with indignation, swung his heels into people's -faces when they went near him, ran at them with his teeth, seized unwary -passers-by by their _kamar bands_, and shook them as a dog shakes a rat, -would let no one go near him but Mando, for whom he formed at first -sight a most singular attachment, but kicked and struck with his -forefeet, his eyes all the time dancing with fun, so that one could -never decide whether his ceaseless pranks were play or vice. He was -always tethered in front of my tent with a rope twenty feet long, which -left him practically free; he was as good as a watchdog, and his antics -and enigmatical savagery were the life and terror of the camp. I was -never weary of watching him, the curves of his form were so exquisite, -his movements so lithe and rapid, his small head and restless little -ears so full of life and expression, the variations in his manner so -frequent, one moment savagely attacking some unwary stranger with a -scream of rage, the next laying his lovely head against Mando's cheek -with a soft cooing sound and a childlike gentleness. When he was -attacking anybody or frolicking, his movements and beauty can only be -described by a phrase of the Apostle James, 'the grace of the fashion of -it.' Colonel Durand, of Gilgit celebrity, to whom I am indebted for many -other kindnesses, gave him to me in exchange for a cowardly, heavy -Yarkand horse, and had previously vainly tried to tame him. His wild -eyes were like those of a seagull. He had no kinship with humanity. - -In addition, I had as escort an Afghan or Pathan, a soldier of the -Maharajah's irregular force of foreign mercenaries, who had been sent to -meet me when I entered Kashmir. This man, Usman Shah, was a stage -ruffian in appearance. He wore a turban of prodigious height ornamented -with poppies or birds' feathers, loved fantastic colours and ceaseless -change of raiment, walked in front of me carrying a big sword over his -shoulder, plundered and beat the people, terrified the women, and was -eventually recognised at Leh as a murderer, and as great a ruffian in -reality as he was in appearance. An attendant of this kind is a mistake. -The brutality and rapacity he exercises naturally make the people -cowardly or surly, and disinclined to trust a traveller so accompanied. - -Finally, I had a Cabul tent, 7 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 6 in., weighing, with -poles and iron pins, 75 lbs., a trestle bed and cork mattress, a folding -table and chair, and an Indian _dhurrie_ as a carpet. - -My servants had a tent 5 ft. 6 in. square, weighing only 10 lbs., which -served as a shelter tent for me during the noonday halt. A kettle, -copper pot, and frying pan, a few enamelled iron table equipments, -bedding, clothing, working and sketching materials, completed my outfit. -The servants carried wadded quilts for beds and bedding, and their own -cooking utensils, unwillingness to use those belonging to a Christian -being nearly the last rag of religion which they retained. The only -stores I carried were tea, a quantity of Edwards' desiccated soup, and a -little saccharin. The 'house,' furniture, clothing, &c., were a light -load for three mules, engaged at a shilling a day each, including the -muleteer. Sheep, coarse flour, milk, and barley were procurable at very -moderate prices on the road. - -[Illustration: THE START FROM SRINAGAR] - -Leh, the capital of Ladakh or Lesser Tibet, is nineteen marches from -Srinagar, but I occupied twenty-six days on the journey, and made the -first 'march' by water, taking my house-boat to Ganderbal, a few hours -from Srinagar, _vi_ the Mar Nullah and Anchar Lake. Never had this -Venice of the Himalayas, with a broad rushing river for its high street -and winding canals for its back streets, looked so entrancingly -beautiful as in the slant sunshine of the late June afternoon. The light -fell brightly on the river at the Residency stairs where I embarked, on -_perindas_ and state barges, with their painted arabesques, gay -canopies, and 'banks' of thirty and forty crimson-clad, blue-turbaned, -paddling men; on the gay faade and gold-domed temple of the Maharajah's -Palace, on the massive deodar bridges which for centuries have defied -decay and the fierce flood of the Jhelum, and on the quaintly -picturesque wooden architecture and carved brown lattice fronts of the -houses along the swirling waterway, and glanced mirthfully through the -dense leafage of the superb planes which overhang the dark-green water. -But the mercury was 92 in the shade and the sun-blaze terrific, and it -was a relief when the boat swung round a corner, and left the stir of -the broad, rapid Jhelum for a still, narrow, and sharply winding canal, -which intersects a part of Srinagar lying between the Jhelum and the -hill-crowning fort of Hari Parbat. There the shadows were deep, and -chance lights alone fell on the red dresses of the women at the ghats, -and on the shaven, shiny heads of hundreds of amphibious boys who were -swimming and aquatically romping in the canal, which is at once the -sewer and the water supply of the district. - -Several hours were spent in a slow and tortuous progress through scenes -of indescribable picturesqueness--a narrow waterway spanned by -sharp-angled stone bridges, some of them with houses on the top, or by -old brown wooden bridges festooned with vines, hemmed in by lofty stone -embankments into which sculptured stones from ancient temples are -wrought, on the top of which are houses of rich men, fancifully built, -with windows of fretwork of wood, or gardens with kiosks, and lower -embankments sustaining many-balconied dwellings, rich in colour and -fantastic in design, their upper fronts projecting over the water and -supported on piles. There were gigantic poplars wreathed with vines, -great mulberry trees hanging their tempting fruit just out of reach, -huge planes overarching the water, their dense leafage scraping the mat -roof of the boat; filthy ghats thronged with white-robed Moslems -performing their scanty religious ablutions; great grain boats heavily -thatched, containing not only families, but their sheep and poultry; and -all the other sights of a crowded Srinagar waterway, the houses being -characteristically distorted and out of repair. This canal gradually -widens into the Anchar Lake, a reedy mere of indefinite boundaries, the -breeding-ground of legions of mosquitos; and after the tawny twilight -darkened into a stifling night we made fast to a reed bed, not reaching -Ganderbal till late the next morning, where my horse and caravan awaited -me under a splendid plane-tree. - -[Illustration: CAMP AT GAGANGAIR] - -For the next five days we marched up the Sind Valley, one of the most -beautiful in Kashmir from its grandeur and variety. Beginning among -quiet rice-fields and brown agricultural villages at an altitude of -5,000 feet, the track, usually bad and sometimes steep and perilous, -passes through flower-gemmed alpine meadows, along dark gorges above the -booming and rushing Sind, through woods matted with the sweet white -jasmine, the lower hem of the pine and deodar forests which ascend the -mountains to a considerable altitude, past rifts giving glimpses of -dazzling snow-peaks, over grassy slopes dotted with villages, houses, -and shrines embosomed in walnut groves, in sight of the frowning crags -of Haramuk, through wooded lanes and park-like country over which farms -are thinly scattered, over unrailed and shaky bridges, and across -avalanche slopes, till it reaches Gagangair, a dream of lonely beauty, -with a camping-ground of velvety sward under noble plane-trees. Above -this place the valley closes in between walls of precipices and crags, -which rise almost abruptly from the Sind to heights of 8,000 and 10,000 -feet. The road in many places is only a series of steep and shelving -ledges above the raging river, natural rock smoothed and polished into -riskiness by the passage for centuries of the trade into Central Asia -from Western India, Kashmir, and Afghanistan. Its precariousness for -animals was emphasised to me by five serious accidents which occurred in -the week of my journey, one of them involving the loss of the money, -clothing, and sporting kit of an English officer bound for Ladakh for -three months. Above this tremendous gorge the mountains open out, and -after crossing to the left bank of the Sind a sharp ascent brought me to -the beautiful alpine meadow of Sonamarg, bright with spring flowers, -gleaming with crystal streams, and fringed on all sides by deciduous and -coniferous trees, above and among which are great glaciers and the snowy -peaks of Tilail. Fashion has deserted Sonamarg, rough of access, for -Gulmarg, a caprice indicated by the ruins of several huts and of a -church. The pure bracing air, magnificent views, the proximity and -accessibility of glaciers, and the presence of a kind friend who was -'hutted' there for the summer, made Sonamarg a very pleasant halt before -entering upon the supposed severities of the journey to Lesser Tibet. - -[Illustration: SONAMARG] - -The five days' march, though propitious and full of the charm of -magnificent scenery, had opened my eyes to certain unpleasantnesses. I -found that Usman Shah maltreated the villagers, and not only robbed them -of their best fowls, but requisitioned all manner of things in my -name, though I scrupulously and personally paid for everything, beating -the people with his scabbarded sword if they showed any intention of -standing upon their rights. Then I found that my clever factotum, not -content with the legitimate 'squeeze' of ten per cent., was charging me -double price for everything and paying the sellers only half the actual -price, this legerdemain being perpetrated in my presence. He also by -threats got back from the coolies half their day's wages after I had -paid them, received money for barley for Gyalpo, and never bought it, a -fact brought to light by the growing feebleness of the horse, and -cheated in all sorts of mean and plausible ways, though I paid him -exceptionally high wages, and was prepared to 'wink' at a moderate -amount of dishonesty, so long as it affected only myself. It has a -lowering influence upon one to live in a fog of lies and fraud, and the -attempt to checkmate a fraudulent Asiatic ends in extreme discomfiture. - -I left Sonamarg late on a lovely afternoon for a short march through -forest-skirted alpine meadows to Baltal, the last camping-ground in -Kashmir, a grassy valley at the foot of the Zoji La, the first of three -gigantic steps by which the lofty plateaux of Central Asia are attained. -On the road a large affluent of the Sind, which tumbles down a -pine-hung gorge in broad sheets of foam, has to be crossed. My _seis_, a -rogue, was either half-witted or pretended to be so, and, in spite of -orders to the contrary, led Gyalpo upon a bridge at a considerable -height, formed of two poles with flat pieces of stone laid loosely over -them not more than a foot broad. As the horse reached the middle, the -structure gave a sort of turn, there was a vision of hoofs in air and a -gleam of scarlet, and Gyalpo, the hope of the next four months, after -rolling over more than once, vanished among rocks and surges of the -wildest description. He kept his presence of mind, however, recovered -himself, and by a desperate effort got ashore lower down, with legs -scratched and bleeding and one horn of the saddle incurably bent. - -Mr. Maconochie of the Panjab Civil Service, and Dr. E. Neve of the C. M. -S. Medical Mission in Kashmir, accompanied me from Sonamarg over the -pass, and that night Mr. M. talked seriously to Usman Shah on the -subject of his misconduct, and with such singular results that -thereafter I had little cause for complaint. He came to me and said, -'The Commissioner Sahib thinks I give Mem Sahib a great deal of -trouble;' to which I replied in a cold tone, 'Take care you don't give -me any more.' The gist of the Sahib's words was the very pertinent -suggestion that it would eventually be more to his interest to serve me -honestly and faithfully than to cheat me. - -Baltal lies at the feet of a precipitous range, the peaks of which -exceed Mont Blanc in height. Two gorges unite there. There is not a hut -within ten miles. Big camp-fires blazed. A few shepherds lay under the -shelter of a mat screen. The silence and solitude were most impressive -under the frosty stars and the great Central Asian barrier. Sunrise the -following morning saw us on the way up a huge gorge with nearly -perpendicular sides, and filled to a great depth with snow. Then came -the Zoji La, which, with the Namika La and the Fotu La, respectively -11,300, 13,000, and 13,500 feet, are the three great steps from Kashmir -to the Tibetan heights. The two latter passes present no difficulties. -The Zoji La is a thoroughly severe pass, the worst, with the exception -perhaps of the Sasir, on the Yarkand caravan route. The track, cut, -broken, and worn on the side of a wall of rock nearly 2,000 feet in -abrupt elevation, is a series of rough narrow zigzags, rarely, if ever, -wide enough for laden animals to pass each other, composed of broken -ledges often nearly breast high, and shelving surfaces of abraded rock, -up which animals have to leap and scramble as best they may. - -Trees and trailers drooped over the path, ferns and lilies bloomed in -moist recesses, and among myriads of flowers a large blue and cream -columbine was conspicuous by its beauty and exquisite odour. The charm -of the detail tempted one to linger at every turn, and all the more so -because I knew that I should see nothing more of the grace and -bounteousness of Nature till my projected descent into Kulu in the late -autumn. The snow-filled gorge on whose abrupt side the path hangs, the -Zoji La (Pass), is geographically remarkable as being the lowest -depression in the great Himalayan range for 300 miles; and by it, in -spite of infamous bits of road on the Sind and Suru rivers, and -consequent losses of goods and animals, all the traffic of Kashmir, -Afghanistan, and the Western Panjab finds its way into Central Asia. It -was too early in the season, however, for more than a few enterprising -caravans to be on the road. - -The last look upon Kashmir was a lingering one. Below, in shadow, lay -the Baltal camping-ground, a lonely deodar-belted flowery meadow, noisy -with the dash of icy torrents tumbling down from the snowfields and -glaciers upborne by the gigantic mountain range into which we had -penetrated by the Zoji Pass. The valley, lying in shadow at their base, -was a dream of beauty, green as an English lawn, starred with white -lilies, and dotted with clumps of trees which were festooned with red -and white roses, clematis, and white jasmine. Above the hardier -deciduous trees appeared the _Pinus excelsa_, the silver fir, and the -spruce; higher yet the stately grace of the deodar clothed the -hillsides; and above the forests rose the snow mountains of Tilail, pink -in the sunrise. High above the Zoji, itself 11,500 feet in altitude, a -mass of grey and red mountains, snow-slashed and snow-capped, rose in -the dewy rose-flushed atmosphere in peaks, walls, pinnacles, and jagged -ridges, above which towered yet loftier summits, bearing into the -heavenly blue sky fields of unsullied snow alone. The descent on the -Tibetan side is slight and gradual. The character of the scenery -undergoes an abrupt change. There are no more trees, and the large -shrubs which for a time take their place degenerate into thorny bushes, -and then disappear. There were mountains thinly clothed with grass here -and there, mountains of bare gravel and red rock, grey crags, stretches -of green turf, sunlit peaks with their snows, a deep, snow-filled -ravine, eastwards and beyond a long valley filled with a snowfield -fringed with pink primulas; and that was CENTRAL ASIA. - -We halted for breakfast, iced our cold tea in the snow, Mr. M. gave a -final charge to the Afghan, who swore by his Prophet to be faithful, -and I parted from my kind escorts with much reluctance, and started on -my Tibetan journey, with but a slender stock of Hindustani, and two men -who spoke not a word of English. On that day's march of fourteen miles -there is not a single hut. The snowfield extended for five miles, from -ten to seventy feet deep, much crevassed, and encumbered with -avalanches. In it the Dras, truly 'snow-born,' appeared, issuing from a -chasm under a blue arch of ice and snow, afterwards to rage down the -valley, to be forded many times or crossed on snow bridges. After -walking for some time, and getting a bad fall down an avalanche slope, I -mounted Gyalpo, and the clever, plucky fellow frolicked over the snow, -smelt and leapt crevasses which were too wide to be stepped over, put -his forelegs together and slid down slopes like a Swiss mule, and, -though carried off his feet in a ford by the fierce surges of the Dras, -struggled gamely to shore. Steep grassy hills, and peaks with gorges -cleft by the thundering Dras, and stretches of rolling grass succeeded -each other. Then came a wide valley mostly covered with stones brought -down by torrents, a few plots of miserable barley grown by irrigation, -and among them two buildings of round stones and mud, about six feet -high, with flat mud roofs, one of which might be called the village, -and the other the caravanserai. On the village roof were stacks of twigs -and of the dried dung of animals, which is used for fuel, and the whole -female population, adult and juvenile, engaged in picking wool. The -people of this village of Matayan are Kashmiris. As I had an hour to -wait for my tent, the women descended and sat in a circle round me with -a concentrated stare. They asked if I were dumb, and why I wore no -earrings or necklace, their own persons being loaded with heavy -ornaments. They brought children afflicted with skin-diseases, and asked -for ointment, and on hearing that I was hurt by a fall, seized on my -limbs and shampooed them energetically but not undexterously. I prefer -their sociability to the usual chilling aloofness of the people of -Kashmir. - -The Serai consisted of several dark and dirty cells, built round a -blazing piece of sloping dust, the only camping-ground, and under the -entrance two platforms of animated earth, on which my servants cooked -and slept. The next day was Sunday, sacred to a halt; but there was no -fodder for the animals, and we were obliged to march to Dras, following, -where possible, the course of the river of that name, which passes among -highly-coloured and snow-slashed mountains, except in places where it -suddenly finds itself pent between walls of flame-coloured or black -rock, not ten feet apart, through which it boils and rages, forming -gigantic pot-holes. With every mile the surroundings became more -markedly of the Central Asian type. All day long a white, scintillating -sun blazes out of a deep blue, rainless, cloudless sky. The air is -exhilarating. The traveller is conscious of daily-increasing energy and -vitality. There are no trees, and deep crimson roses along torrent beds -are the only shrubs. But for a brief fortnight in June, which chanced to -occur during my journey, the valleys and lower slope present a wonderful -aspect of beauty and joyousness. Rose and pale pink primulas fringe the -margin of the snow, the dainty _Pedicularis tubiflora_ covers moist -spots with its mantle of gold; great yellow and white, and small purple -and white anemones, pink and white dianthus, a very large myosotis, -bringing the intense blue of heaven down to earth, purple orchids by the -water, borage staining whole tracts deep blue, martagon lilies, pale -green lilies veined and spotted with brown, yellow, orange, and purple -vetches, painter's brush, dwarf dandelions, white clover, filling the -air with fragrance, pink and cream asters, chrysanthemums, lychnis, -irises, gentian, artemisia, and a hundred others, form the undergrowth -of millions of tall Umbelliferae and Compositae, many of them -peach-scented and mostly yellow. The wind is always strong, and the -millions of bright corollas, drinking in the sun-blaze which perfects -all too soon their brief but passionate existence, rippled in broad -waves of colour with an almost kaleidoscopic effect. About the eleventh -march from Srinagar, at Kargil, a change for the worse occurs, and the -remaining marches to the capital of Ladakh are over blazing gravel or -surfaces of denuded rock, the singular _Caprifolia horrida_, with its -dark-green mass of wavy ovate leaves on trailing stems, and its fair, -white, anemone-like blossom, and the graceful _Clematis orientalis_, the -only vegetation. - -Crossing a raging affluent of the Dras by a bridge which swayed and -shivered, the top of a steep hill offered a view of a great valley with -branches sloping up into the ravines of a complexity of mountain ranges, -from 18,000 to 21,000 feet in altitude, with glaciers at times -descending as low as 11,000 feet in their hollows. In consequence of -such possibilities of irrigation, the valley is green with irrigated -grass and barley, and villages with flat roofs scattered among the -crops, or perched on the spurs of flame-coloured mountains, give it a -wild cheerfulness. These Dras villages are inhabited by hardy Dards and -Baltis, short, jolly-looking, darker, and far less handsome than the -Kashmiris; but, unlike them, they showed so much friendliness, as well -as interest and curiosity, that I remained with them for two days, -visiting their villages and seeing the 'sights' they had to show me, -chiefly a great Sikh fort, a _yak_ bull, the _zho_, a hybrid, the -interiors of their houses, a magnificent view from a hilltop, and a Dard -dance to the music of Dard reed pipes. In return I sketched them -individually and collectively as far as time allowed, presenting them -with the results, truthful and ugly. I bought a sheep for 2_s._ 3_d._, -and regaled the camp upon it, the three which were brought for my -inspection being ridden by boys astride. - -The evenings in the Dras valley were exquisite. As soon as the sun went -behind the higher mountains, peak above peak, red and snow-slashed, -flamed against a lemon sky, the strong wind moderated into a pure stiff -breeze, bringing up to camp the thunder of the Dras, and the musical -tinkle of streams sparkling in absolute purity. There was no more need -for boiling and filtering. Icy water could be drunk in safety from every -crystal torrent. - -Leaving behind the Dras villages and their fertility, the narrow road -passes through a flaming valley above the Dras, walled in by bare, -riven, snow-patched peaks, with steep declivities of stones, huge -boulders, decaying avalanches, walls and spires of rock, some vermilion, -others pink, a few intense orange, some black, and many plum-coloured, -with a vitrified look, only to be represented by purple madder. Huge red -chasms with glacier-fed torrents, occasional snowfields, intense solar -heat radiating from dry and verdureless rock, a ravine so steep and -narrow that for miles together there is not space to pitch a five-foot -tent, the deafening roar of a river gathering volume and fury as it -goes, rare openings, where willows are planted with lucerne in their -irrigated shade, among which the traveller camps at night, and over all -a sky of pure, intense blue purpling into starry night, were the -features of the next three marches, noteworthy chiefly for the exchange -of the thundering Dras for the thundering Suru, and for some bad bridges -and infamous bits of road before reaching Kargil, where the mountains -swing apart, giving space to several villages. Miles of alluvium are -under irrigation there, poplars, willows, and apricots abound, and on -some damp sward under their shade at a great height I halted for two -days to enjoy the magnificence of the scenery and the refreshment of -the greenery. These Kargil villages are the capital of the small State -of Purik, under the Governorship of Baltistan or Little Tibet, and are -chiefly inhabited by Ladakhis who have become converts to Islam. Racial -characteristics, dress, and manners are everywhere effaced or toned down -by Mohammedanism, and the chilling aloofness and haughty bearing of -Islam were very pronounced among these converts. - -The daily routine of the journey was as follows: By six a.m. I sent on a -coolie carrying the small tent and lunch basket to await me half-way. -Before seven I started myself, with Usman Shah in front of me, leaving -the servants to follow with the caravan. On reaching the shelter tent I -halted for two hours, or till the caravan had got a good start after -passing me. At the end of the march I usually found the tent pitched on -irrigated ground, near a hamlet, the headman of which provided milk, -fuel, fodder, and other necessaries at fixed prices. 'Afternoon tea' was -speedily prepared, and dinner, consisting of roast meat and boiled rice, -was ready two hours later. After dinner I usually conversed with the -headman on local interests, and was in bed soon after eight. The -servants and muleteers fed and talked till nine, when the sound of their -'hubble-bubbles' indicated that they were going to sleep, like most -Orientals, with their heads closely covered with their wadded quilts. -Before starting each morning the account was made out, and I paid the -headman personally. - -The vagaries of the Afghan soldier, when they were not a cause of -annoyance, were a constant amusement, though his ceaseless changes of -finery and the daily growth of his baggage awakened grave suspicions. -The swashbuckler marched four miles an hour in front of me with a -swinging military stride, a large scimitar in a heavily ornamented -scabbard over his shoulder. Tanned socks and sandals, black or white -leggings wound round from ankle to knee with broad bands of orange or -scarlet serge, white cambric knickerbockers, a white cambric shirt, with -a short white muslin frock with hanging sleeves and a leather girdle -over it, a red-peaked cap with a dark-blue _pagri_ wound round it, with -one end hanging over his back, earrings, a necklace, bracelets, and a -profusion of rings, were his ordinary costume; and in his girdle he wore -a dirk and a revolver, and suspended from it a long tobacco pouch made -of the furry skin of some animal, a large leather purse, and etceteras. -As the days went on he blossomed into blue and white muslin with a -scarlet sash, wore a gold embroidered peak and a huge white muslin -turban, with much change of ornaments, and appeared frequently with a -great bunch of poppies or a cluster of crimson roses surmounting all. -His headgear was colossal. It and the head together must have been fully -a third of his total height. He was a most fantastic object, and very -observant and skilful in his attentions to me; but if I had known what I -afterwards knew, I should have hesitated about taking these long lonely -marches with him for my sole attendant. Between Hassan Khan and this -Afghan violent hatred and jealousy existed. - -I have mentioned roads, and my road as the great caravan route from -Western India into Central Asia. This is a fitting time for an -explanation. The traveller who aspires to reach the highlands of Tibet -from Kashmir cannot be borne along in a carriage or hill-cart. For much -of the way he is limited to a foot pace, and if he has regard to his -horse he walks down all rugged and steep descents, which are many, and -dismounts at most bridges. By 'roads' must be understood bridle-paths, -worn by traffic alone across the gravelly valleys, but elsewhere -constructed with great toil and expense, as Nature compels the -road-maker to follow her lead, and carry his track along the narrow -valleys, ravines, gorges, and chasms which she has marked out for him. -For miles at a time this road has been blasted out of precipices from -1,000 feet to 3,000 feet in depth, and is merely a ledge above a raging -torrent, the worst parts, chiefly those round rocky projections, being -'scaffolded,' i.e. poles are lodged horizontally among the crevices of -the cliff, and the roadway of slabs, planks, and brushwood, or branches -and sods, is laid loosely upon them. This track is always amply wide -enough for a loaded beast, but in many places, when two caravans meet, -the animals of one must give way and scramble up the mountain-side, -where foothold is often perilous, and always difficult. In passing a -caravan near Kargil my servant's horse was pushed over the precipice by -a loaded mule and drowned in the Suru, and at another time my Afghan -caused the loss of a baggage mule of a Leh caravan by driving it off the -track. To scatter a caravan so as to allow me to pass in solitary -dignity he regarded as one of his functions, and on one occasion, on a -very dangerous part of the road, as he was driving heavily laden mules -up the steep rocks above, to their imminent peril and the distraction of -their drivers, I was obliged to strike up his sword with my alpenstock -to emphasise my abhorrence of his violence. The bridges are unrailed, -and many of them are made by placing two or more logs across the stream, -laying twigs across, and covering these with sods, but often so scantily -that the wild rush of the water is seen below. Primitive as these -bridges are, they involve great expense and difficulty in the bringing -of long poplar logs for great distances along narrow mountain tracks by -coolie labour, fifty men being required for the average log. The Ladakhi -roads are admirable as compared with those of Kashmir, and are being -constantly improved under the supervision of H. B. M.'s Joint -Commissioner in Leh. - -Up to Kargil the scenery, though growing more Tibetan with every march, -had exhibited at intervals some traces of natural verdure; but beyond, -after leaving the Suru, there is not a green thing, and on the next -march the road crosses a lofty, sandy plateau, on which the heat was -terrible--blazing gravel and a blazing heaven, then fiery cliffs and -scorched hillsides, then a deep ravine and the large village of Paskim -(dominated by a fort-crowned rock), and some planted and irrigated -acres; then a narrow ravine and magnificent scenery flaming with colour, -which opens out after some miles on a burning chaos of rocks and sand, -mountain-girdled, and on some remarkable dwellings on a steep slope, -with religious buildings singularly painted. This is Shergol, the first -village of Buddhists, and there I was 'among the Tibetans.' - - - - -CHAPTER II - -SHERGOL AND LEH - - -The chaos of rocks and sand, walled in by vermilion and orange -mountains, on which the village of Shergol stands, offered no facilities -for camping; but somehow the men managed to pitch my tent on a steep -slope, where I had to place my trestle bed astride an irrigation -channel, down which the water bubbled noisily, on its way to keep alive -some miserable patches of barley. At Shergol and elsewhere fodder is so -scarce that the grain is not cut, but pulled up by the roots. - -The intensely human interest of the journey began at that point. Not -greater is the contrast between the grassy slopes and deodar-clothed -mountains of Kashmir and the flaming aridity of Lesser Tibet, than -between the tall, dark, handsome natives of the one, with their -statuesque and shrinking women, and the ugly, short, squat, -yellow-skinned, flat-nosed, oblique-eyed, uncouth-looking people of the -other. The Kashmiris are false, cringing, and suspicious; the Tibetans -truthful, independent, and friendly, one of the pleasantest of peoples. -I 'took' to them at once at Shergol, and terribly faulty though their -morals are in some respects, I found no reason to change my good opinion -of them in the succeeding four months. - -The headman or _go-pa_ came to see me, introduced me to the objects of -interest, which are a _gonpo_, or monastery, built into the rock, with a -brightly coloured front, and three _chod-tens_, or relic-holders, -painted blue, red, and yellow, and daubed with coarse arabesques and -representations of deities, one having a striking resemblance to Mr. -Gladstone. The houses are of mud, with flat roofs; but, being summer, -many of them were roofless, the poplar rods which support the mud having -been used for fuel. Conical stacks of the dried excreta of animals, the -chief fuel of the country, adorned the roofs, but the general aspect was -ruinous and poor. The people all invited me into their dark and dirty -rooms, inhabited also by goats, offered tea and cheese, and felt my -clothes. They looked the wildest of savages, but they are not. No house -was so poor as not to have its 'family altar,' its shelf of wooden gods, -and table of offerings. A religious atmosphere pervades Tibet, and gives -it a singular sense of novelty. Not only were there _chod-tens_ and a -_gonpo_ in this poor place, and family altars, but prayer-wheels, i.e. -wooden cylinders filled with rolls of paper inscribed with prayers, -revolving on sticks, to be turned by passers-by, inscribed cotton -bannerets on poles planted in cairns, and on the roofs long sticks, to -which strips of cotton bearing the universal prayer, _Aum mani padne -hun_ (O jewel of the lotus-flower), are attached. As these wave in the -wind the occupants of the house gain the merit of repeating this -sentence. - -[Illustration: A HAND PRAYER-CYLINDER] - -The remaining marches to Leh, the capital of Lesser Tibet, were full of -fascination and novelty. Everywhere the Tibetans were friendly and -cordial. In each village I was invited to the headman's house, and taken -by him to visit the chief inhabitants; every traveller, lay and -clerical, passed by with the cheerful salutation _Tzu_, asked me where I -came from and whither I was going, wished me a good journey, admired -Gyalpo, and when he scaled rock ladders and scrambled gamely through -difficult torrents, cheered him like Englishmen, the general jollity and -cordiality of manners contrasting cheerily with the chilling aloofness -of Moslems. - -The irredeemable ugliness of the Tibetans produced a deeper impression -daily. It is grotesque, and is heightened, not modified, by their -costume and ornament. They have high cheekbones, broad flat noses -without visible bridges, small, dark, oblique eyes, with heavy lids and -imperceptible eyebrows, wide mouths, full lips, thick, big, projecting -ears, deformed by great hoops, straight black hair nearly as coarse as -horsehair, and short, square, ungainly figures. The faces of the men are -smooth. The women seldom exceed five feet in height, and a man is tall -at five feet four. - -The male costume is a long, loose, woollen coat with a girdle, -trousers, under-garments, woollen leggings, and a cap with a turned-up -point over each ear. The girdle is the depository of many things dear to -a Tibetan--his purse, rude knife, heavy tinder-box, tobacco pouch, pipe, -distaff, and sundry charms and amulets. In the capacious breast of his -coat he carries wool for spinning--for he spins as he walks--balls of -cold barley dough, and much besides. He wears his hair in a pigtail. The -women wear short, big-sleeved jackets, shortish, full-plaited skirts, -tight trousers a yard too long, the superfluous length forming folds -above the ankle, a sheepskin with the fur outside hangs over the back, -and on gala occasions a sort of drapery is worn over the usual dress. -Felt or straw shoes and many heavy ornaments are worn by both sexes. -Great _ears_ of brocade, lined and edged with fur and attached to the -hair, are worn by the women. Their hair is dressed once a month in many -much-greased plaits, fastened together at the back by a long tassel. The -head-dress is a strip of cloth or leather, sewn over with large -turquoises, carbuncles, and silver ornaments. This hangs in a point over -the brow, broadens over the top of the head, and tapers as it reaches -the waist behind. The ambition of every Tibetan girl is centred in this -singular headgear. Hoops in the ears, necklaces, amulets, clasps, -bangles of brass or silver, and various implements stuck in the girdle -and depending from it, complete a costume pre-eminent in ugliness. The -Tibetans are dirty. They wash once a year, and, except for festivals, -seldom change their clothes till they begin to drop off. They are -healthy and hardy, even the women can carry weights of sixty pounds over -the passes; they attain extreme old age; their voices are harsh and -loud, and their laughter is noisy and hearty. - -[Illustration: TIBETAN GIRL] - -After leaving Shergol the signs of Buddhism were universal and imposing, -and the same may be said of the whole of the inhabited part of Lesser -Tibet. Colossal figures of Shakya Thubba (Buddha) are carved on faces of -rock, or in wood, stone, or gilded copper sit on lotus thrones in -endless calm near villages of votaries. _Chod-tens_ from twenty to a -hundred feet in height, dedicated to 'holy' men, are scattered over -elevated ground, or in imposing avenues line the approaches to hamlets -and _gonpos_. There are also countless _manis_, dykes of stone from six -to sixteen feet in width and from twenty feet to a fourth of a mile in -length, roofed with flattish stones, inscribed by the _lamas_ (monks) -with the phrase _Aum_, &c., and purchased and deposited by those who -wish to obtain any special benefit from the gods, such as a safe -journey. Then there are prayer-mills, sometimes 150 in a row, which -revolve easily by being brushed by the hand of the passer-by, larger -prayer-cylinders which are turned by pulling ropes, and others larger -still by water-power. The finest of the latter was in a temple -overarching a perennial torrent, and was said to contain 20,000 -repetitions of the mystic phrase, the fee to the worshipper for each -revolution of the cylinder being from 1_d._ to 1_s._ 4_d._, according to -his means or urgency. - -The glory and pride of Ladak and Nubra are the _gonpos_, of which the -illustrations give a slight idea. Their picturesqueness is absolutely -enchanting. They are vast irregular piles of fantastic buildings, almost -invariably crowning lofty isolated rocks or mountain spurs, reached by -steep, rude rock staircases, _chod-tens_ below and battlemented towers -above, with temples, domes, bridges over chasms, spires, and scaffolded -projections gleaming with gold, looking, as at Lamayuru, the outgrowth -of the rock itself. The outer walls are usually whitewashed, and red, -yellow, and brown wooden buildings, broad bands of red and blue on the -whitewash, tridents, prayer-mills, _yaks_' tails, and flags on poles -give colour and movement, while the jangle of cymbals, the ringing of -bells, the incessant beating of big drums and gongs, and the braying at -intervals of six-foot silver horns, attest the ritualistic activities of -the communities within. The _gonpos_ contain from two up to three -hundred _lamas_. These are not cloistered, and their duties take them -freely among the people, with whom they are closely linked, a younger -son in every family being a monk. Every act in trade, agriculture, and -social life needs the sanction of sacerdotalism, whatever exists of -wealth is in the _gonpos_, which also have a monopoly of learning, and -11,000 monks, linked with the people, yet ruling all affairs of life and -death and beyond death, are connected closely by education, tradition, -and authority with Lhassa. - -Passing along faces of precipices and over waterless plateaux of blazing -red gravel--'waste places,' truly--the journey was cheered by the -meeting of red and yellow _lamas_ in companies, each _lama_ twirling his -prayer-cylinder, abbots, and _skushoks_ (the latter believed to be -incarnations of Buddha) with many retainers, or gay groups of priestly -students, intoning in harsh and high-pitched monotones, _Aum mani padne -hun_. And so past fascinating monastic buildings, through crystal -torrents rushing over red rock, through flaming ravines, on rock ledges -by scaffolded paths, camping in the afternoons near friendly villages on -oases of irrigated alluvium, and down the Wanla water by the steepest -and narrowest cleft ever used for traffic, I reached the Indus, crossed -it by a wooden bridge where its broad, fierce current is narrowed by -rocks to a width of sixty-five feet, and entered Ladak proper. A -picturesque fort guards the bridge, and there travellers inscribe their -names and are reported to Leh. I camped at Khalsi, a mile higher, but -returned to the bridge in the evening to sketch, if I could, the grim -nudity and repulsive horror of the surrounding mountains, attended only -by Usman Shah. A few months earlier, this ruffian was sent down from Leh -with six other soldiers and an officer to guard the fort, where they -became the terror of all who crossed the bridge by their outrageous -levies of blackmail. My swashbuckler quarrelled with the officer over a -disreputable affair, and one night stabbed him mortally, induced his six -comrades to plunge their knives into the body, sewed it up in a blanket, -and threw it into the Indus, which disgorged it a little lower down. The -men were all arrested and marched to Srinagar, where Usman turned -'king's evidence.' - -The remaining marches were alongside of the tremendous granite ranges -which divide the Indus from its great tributary, the Shayok. Colossal -scenery, desperate aridity, tremendous solar heat, and an atmosphere -highly rarefied and of nearly intolerable dryness, were the chief -characteristics. At these Tibetan altitudes, where the valleys exceed -11,000 feet, the sun's rays are even more powerful than on the 'burning -plains of India.' The day wind, rising at 9 a.m., and only falling near -sunset, blows with great heat and force. The solar heat at noon was from -120 to 130, and at night the mercury frequently fell below the -freezing point. I did not suffer from the climate, but in the case of -most Europeans the air passages become irritated, the skin cracks, and -after a time the action of the heart is affected. The hair when released -stands out from the head, leather shrivels and splits, horn combs break -to pieces, food dries up, rapid evaporation renders water-colour -sketching nearly impossible, and tea made with water from fifteen to -twenty below the boiling-point of 212 degrees, is flavourless and flat. - -[Illustration: GONPO OF SPITAK] - -After a delightful journey of twenty-five days I camped at Spitak, among -the _chod-tens_ and _manis_ which cluster round the base of a lofty and -isolated rock, crowned with one of the most striking monasteries in -Ladak, and very early the next morning, under a sun of terrific -fierceness, rode up a five-mile slope of blazing gravel to the goal of -my long march. Even at a short distance off, the Tibetan capital can -scarcely be distinguished from the bare, ribbed, scored, jagged, -vermilion and rose-red mountains which nearly surround it, were it -not for the palace of the former kings or Gyalpos of Ladak, a huge -building attaining ten storeys in height, with massive walls sloping -inwards, while long balconies and galleries, carved projections of brown -wood, and prominent windows, give it a singular picturesqueness. It can -be seen for many miles, and dwarfs the little Central Asian town which -clusters round its base. - -Long lines of _chod-tens_ and _manis_ mark the approach to Leh. Then -come barley fields and poplar and willow plantations, bright streams are -crossed, and a small gateway, within which is a colony of very poor -Baltis, gives access to the city. In consequence of 'the vigilance of -the guard at the bridge of Khalsi,' I was expected, and was met at the -gate by the wazir's _jemadar_, or head of police, in artistic attire, -with _spahis_ in apricot turbans, violet _chogas_, and green leggings, -who cleared the way with spears, Gyalpo frolicking as merrily and as -ready to bite, and the Afghan striding in front as firmly, as though -they had not marched for twenty-five days through the rugged passes of -the Himalayas. In such wise I was escorted to a shady bungalow of three -rooms, in the grounds of H. B. M.'s Joint Commissioner, who lives at -Leh during the four months of the 'caravan season,' to assist in -regulating the traffic and to guard the interests of the numerous -British subjects who pass through Leh with merchandise. For their -benefit also, the Indian Government aids in the support of a small -hospital, open, however, to all, which, with a largely attended -dispensary, is under the charge of a Moravian medical missionary. - -Just outside the Commissioner's grounds are two very humble whitewashed -dwellings, with small gardens brilliant with European flowers; and in -these the two Moravian missionaries, the only permanent European -residents in Leh, were living, Mr. Redslob and Dr. Karl Marx, with their -wives. Dr. Marx was at his gate to welcome me. - -To these two men, especially the former, I owe a debt of gratitude which -in no shape, not even by the hearty acknowledgment of it, can ever be -repaid, for they died within a few days of each other, of an epidemic, -last year, Dr. Marx and a new-born son being buried in one grave. For -twenty-five years Mr. Redslob, a man of noble physique and intellect, a -scholar and linguist, an expert botanist and an admirable artist, -devoted himself to the welfare of the Tibetans, and though his great aim -was to Christianize them, he gained their confidence so thoroughly by -his virtues, kindness, profound Tibetan scholarship, and manliness, that -he was loved and welcomed everywhere, and is now mourned for as the best -and truest friend the people ever had. - -I had scarcely finished breakfast when he called; a man of great height -and strong voice, with a cheery manner, a face beaming with kindness, -and speaking excellent English. Leh was the goal of my journey, but Mr. -Redslob came with a proposal to escort me over the great passes to the -northward for a three weeks' journey to Nubra, a district formed of the -combined valleys of the Shayok and Nubra rivers, tributaries of the -Indus, and abounding in interest. Of course I at once accepted an offer -so full of advantages, and the performance was better even than the -promise. - -Two days were occupied in making preparations, but afterwards I spent a -fortnight in my tent at Leh, a city by no means to be passed over -without remark, for, though it and the region of which it is the capital -are very remote from the thoughts of most readers, it is one of the -centres of Central Asian commerce. There all traders from India, -Kashmir, and Afghanistan must halt for animals and supplies on their way -to Yarkand and Khotan, and there also merchants from the mysterious city -of Lhassa do a great business in brick tea and in Lhassa wares, chiefly -ecclesiastical. - -[Illustration: LEH] - -The situation of Leh is a grand one, the great Kailas range, with its -glaciers and snowfields, rising just behind it to the north, its passes -alone reaching an altitude of nearly 18,000 feet; while to the south, -across a gravelly descent and the Indus Valley, rise great red ranges -dominated by snow-peaks exceeding 21,000 feet in altitude. The centre of -Leh is a wide bazaar, where much polo is played in the afternoons; and -above this the irregular, flat-roofed, many-balconied houses of the town -cluster round the palace and a gigantic _chod-ten_ alongside it. The -rugged crest of the rock on a spur of which the palace stands is crowned -by the fantastic buildings of an ancient _gonpo_. Beyond the crops and -plantations which surround the town lies a flaming desert of gravel or -rock. The architectural features of Leh, except of the palace, are mean. -A new mosque glaring with vulgar colour, a treasury and court of -justice, the wazir's bungalow, a Moslem cemetery, and Buddhist cremation -grounds, in which each family has its separate burning place, are all -that is noteworthy. The narrow alleys, which would be abominably dirty -if dirt were possible in a climate of such intense dryness, house a very -mixed population, in which the Moslem element is always increasing, -partly owing to the renewal of that proselytising energy which is making -itself felt throughout Asia, and partly to the marriages of Moslem -traders with Ladaki women, who embrace the faith of their husbands and -bring up their families in the same. - -On my arrival few of the shops in the great _place_, or bazaar, were -open, and there was no business; but a few weeks later the little desert -capital nearly doubled its population, and during August the din and -stir of trade and amusements ceased not by day or night, and the -shifting scenes were as gay in colouring and as full of variety as could -be desired. - -Great caravans _en route_ for Khotan, Yarkand, and even Chinese Tibet -arrived daily from Kashmir, the Panjab, and Afghanistan, and stacked -their bales of goods in the _place_; the Lhassa traders opened shops in -which the specialties were brick tea and instruments of worship; -merchants from Amritsar, Cabul, Bokhara, and Yarkand, stately in costume -and gait, thronged the bazaar and opened bales of costly goods in -tantalising fashion; mules, asses, horses, and _yaks_ kicked, squealed, -and bellowed; the dissonance of bargaining tongues rose high; there were -mendicant monks, Indian fakirs, Moslem dervishes, Mecca pilgrims, -itinerant musicians, and Buddhist ballad howlers; bold-faced women with -creels on their backs brought in lucerne; Ladakis, Baltis, and Lahulis -tended the beasts, and the wazir's _jemadar_ and gay _spahis_ moved -about among the throngs. In the midst of this picturesque confusion, the -short, square-built, Lhassa traders, who face the blazing sun in heavy -winter clothing, exchange their expensive tea for Nubra and Baltistan -dried apricots, Kashmir saffron, and rich stuffs from India; and -merchants from Yarkand on big Turkestan horses offer hemp, which is -smoked as opium, and Russian trifles and dress goods, under cloudless -skies. With the huge Kailas range as a background, this great rendezvous -of Central Asian traffic has a great fascination, even though moral -shadows of the darkest kind abound. - -On the second morning, while I was taking the sketch of Usman Shah which -appears as the frontispiece, he was recognised both by the Joint -Commissioner and the chief of police as a mutineer and murderer, and was -marched out of Leh. I was asked to look over my baggage, but did not. I -had trusted him, he had been faithful in his way, and later I found that -nothing was missing. He was a brutal ruffian, one of a band of -irregulars sent by the Maharajah of Kashmir to garrison the fort at Leh. -From it they used to descend on the town, plunder the bazaar, insult the -women, take all they wanted without payment, and when one of their -number was being tried for some offence, they dragged the judge out of -court and beat him! After holding Leh in terror for some time the -British Commissioner obtained their removal. It was, however, at the -fort at the Indus bridge, as related before, that the crime of murder -was committed. Still there was something almost grand in the defiant -attitude of the fantastic swashbuckler, as, standing outside the -bungalow, he faced the British Commissioner, to him the embodiment of -all earthly power, and the chief of police, and defied them. Not an inch -would he stir till the wazir gave him a coolie to carry his baggage. He -had been acquitted of the murder, he said, 'and though I killed the man, -it was according to the custom of my country--he gave me an insult which -could only be wiped out in blood!' The guard dared not touch him, and he -went to the wazir, demanded a coolie, and got one! - -Our party left Leh early on a glorious morning, travelling light, Mr. -Redslob, a very learned Lhassa monk, named Gergan, Mr. R.'s servant, my -three, and four baggage horses, with two drivers engaged for the -journey. The great Kailas range was to be crossed, and the first day's -march up long, barren, stony valleys, without interest, took us to a -piece of level ground, with a small semi-subterranean refuge on which -there was barely room for two tents, at the altitude of the summit of -Mont Blanc. For two hours before we reached it the men and animals -showed great distress. Gyalpo stopped every few yards, gasping, with -blood trickling from his nostrils, and turned his head so as to look at -me, with the question in his eyes, What does this mean? Hassan Khan was -reeling from vertigo, but would not give in; the _seis_, a creature -without pluck, was carried in a blanket slung on my tent poles, and even -the Tibetans suffered. I felt no inconvenience, but as I unsaddled -Gyalpo I was glad that there was no more work to do! This -'mountain-sickness,' called by the natives _ladug_, or 'pass-poison,' is -supposed by them to be the result of the odour or pollen of certain -plants which grow on the passes. Horses and mules are unable to carry -their loads, and men suffer from vertigo, vomiting, violent headache and -bleeding from the nose, mouth, and ears, as well as prostration of -strength, sometimes complete, and occasionally ending fatally. - -After a bitterly cold night I was awakened at dawn by novel sounds, -gruntings, and low, resonant bellowing round my tent, and the grey light -revealed several _yaks_ (the _Bos grunniens_, the Tibetan ox), the pride -of the Tibetan highlands. This magnificent animal, though not exceeding -an English shorthorn cow in height, looks gigantic, with his thick -curved horns, his wild eyes glaring from under a mass of curls, his long -thick hair hanging to his fetlocks, and his huge bushy tail. He is -usually black or tawny, but the tail is often white, and is the length -of his long hair. The nose is fine and has a look of breeding as well as -power. He only flourishes at altitudes exceeding 12,000 feet. Even after -generations of semi-domestication he is very wild, and can only be -managed by being led with a rope attached to a ring in the nostrils. He -disdains the plough, but condescends to carry burdens, and numbers of -the Ladak and Nubra people get their living by carrying goods for the -traders on his broad back over the great passes. His legs are very -short, and he has a sensible way of measuring distance with his eyes and -planting his feet, which enables him to carry loads where it might be -supposed that only a goat could climb. He picks up a living anyhow, in -that respect resembling the camel. - -He has an uncertain temper, and is not favourably disposed towards his -rider. Indeed, my experience was that just as one was about to mount him -he usually made a lunge at one with his horns. Some of my _yak_ steeds -shied, plunged, kicked, executed fantastic movements on the ledges of -precipices, knocked down their leaders, bellowed defiance, and rushed -madly down mountain sides, leaping from boulder to boulder, till they -landed me among their fellows. The rush of a herd of bellowing _yaks_ at -a wild gallop, waving their huge tails, is a grand sight. - -My first _yak_ was fairly quiet, and looked a noble steed, with my -Mexican saddle and gay blanket among rather than upon his thick black -locks. His back seemed as broad as that of an elephant, and with his -slow, sure, resolute step, he was like a mountain in motion. We took -five hours for the ascent of the Digar Pass, our loads and some of us on -_yaks_, some walking, and those who suffered most from the 'pass-poison' -and could not sit on _yaks_ were carried. A number of Tibetans went up -with us. It was a new thing for a European lady to travel in Nubra, and -they took a friendly interest in my getting through all right. The -dreary stretches of the ascent, though at first white with _edelweiss_, -of which the people make their tinder, are surmounted for the most part -by steep, short zigzags of broken stone. The heavens were dark with -snow-showers, the wind was high and the cold severe, and gasping horses, -and men prostrate on their faces unable to move, suggested a -considerable amount of suffering; but all safely reached the summit, -17,930 feet, where in a snowstorm the guides huzzaed, praised their -gods, and tucked rag streamers into a cairn. The loads were replaced on -the horses, and over wastes of ice, across snowfields margined by broad -splashes of rose-red primulas, down desert valleys and along irrigated -hillsides, we descended 3,700 feet to the village of Digar in Nubra, -where under a cloudless sky the mercury stood at 90! - -[Illustration: A CHOD-TEN] - -Upper and Lower Nubra consist of the valleys of the Nubra and Shayok -rivers. These are deep, fierce, variable streams, which have buried the -lower levels under great stretches of shingle, patched with jungles of -_hippopha_ and tamarisk, affording cover for innumerable wolves. Great -lateral torrents descend to these rivers, and on alluvial ridges formed -at the junctions are the villages with their pleasant surroundings of -barley, lucerne, wheat, with poplar and fruit trees, and their -picturesque _gonpos_ crowning spurs of rock above them. The first view -of Nubra is not beautiful. Yellow, absolutely barren mountains, cleft by -yellow gorges, and apparently formed of yellow gravel, the huge rifts in -their sides alone showing their substructure of rock, look as if they -had never been finished, or had been finished so long that they had -returned to chaos. These hem in a valley of grey sand and shingle, -threaded by a greyish stream. From the second view point mountains are -seen descending on a pleasanter part of the Shayok valley in grey, -yellow, or vermilion masses of naked rock, 7,000 and 8,000 feet in -height, above which rise snow-capped peaks sending out fantastic spurs -and buttresses, while the colossal walls of rock are cleft by rifts as -colossal. The central ridge between the Nubra and Upper Shayok valleys -is 20,000 feet in altitude, and on this are superimposed five peaks of -rock, ascertained by survey to be from 24,000 to 25,000 feet in height, -while at one point the eye takes in a nearly vertical height of 14,000 -feet from the level of the Shayok River! The Shayok and Nubra valleys -are only five and four miles in width respectively at their widest -parts. The early winter traffic chiefly follows along river beds, then -nearly dry, while summer caravans have to labour along difficult tracks -at great heights, where mud and snow avalanches are common, to climb -dangerous rock ladders, and to cross glaciers and the risky fords of the -Shayok. Nubra is similar in character to Ladak, but it is hotter and -more fertile, the mountains are loftier, the _gonpos_ are more numerous, -and the people are simpler, more religious, and more purely Tibetan. Mr. -Redslob loved Nubra, and as love begets love he received a hearty -welcome at Digar and everywhere else. - -The descent to the Shayok River gave us a most severe day of twelve -hours. The river had covered the usual track, and we had to take to -torrent beds and precipice ledges, I on one _yak_, and my tent on -another. In years of travel I have never seen such difficulties. -Eventually at dusk Mr. Redslob, Gergan, the servants, and I descended -on a broad shingle bed by the rushing Shayok; but it was not till dawn -on the following day that, by means of our two _yaks_ and the muleteers, -our baggage and food arrived, the baggage horses being brought down -unloaded, with men holding the head and tail of each. Our saddle horses, -which we led with us, were much cut by falls. Gyalpo fell fully twenty -feet, and got his side laid open. The baggage horses, according to their -owners, had all gone over one precipice, which delayed them five hours. - -Below us lay two leaky scows, and eight men from Sati, on the other side -of the Shayok, are pledged to the Government to ferry travellers; but no -amount of shouting and yelling, or burning of brushwood, or even firing, -brought them to the rescue, though their pleasant lights were only a -mile off. Snow fell, the wind was strong and keen, and our tent-pegs -were only kept down by heavy stones. Blankets in abundance were laid -down, yet failed to soften the 'paving stones' on which I slept that -night! We had tea and rice, but our men, whose baggage was astray on the -mountains, were without food for twenty-two hours, positively refusing -to eat our food or cook fresh rice in our cooking pots! To such an -extent has Hindu caste-feeling infected Moslems! The disasters of that -day's march, besides various breakages, were, two servants helpless from -'pass-poison' and bruises; a Ladaki, who had rolled over a precipice, -with a broken arm, and Gergan bleeding from an ugly scalp wound, also -from a fall. - -By eight o'clock the next morning the sun was high and brilliant, the -snows of the ravines under its fierce heat were melting fast, and the -river, roaring hoarsely, was a mad rush of grey rapids and grey foam; -but three weeks later in the season, lower down, its many branches are -only two feet deep. This Shayok, which cannot in any way be -circumvented, is the great obstacle on this Yarkand trade route. -Travellers and their goods make the perilous passage in the scow, but -their animals swim, and are often paralysed by the ice-cold water and -drowned. My Moslem servants, white-lipped and trembling, committed -themselves to Allah on the river bank, and the Buddhists worshipped -their sleeve idols. The _gopa_, or headman of Sati, a splendid fellow, -who accompanied us through Nubra, and eight wild-looking, half-naked -satellites, were the Charons of that Styx. They poled and paddled with -yells of excitement; the rapids seized the scow, and carried her -broadside down into hissing and raging surges; then there was a plash, a -leap of maddened water half filling the boat, a struggle, a whirl, -violent efforts, and a united yell, and far down the torrent we were in -smooth water on the opposite shore. The ferrymen recrossed, pulled our -saddle horses by ropes into the river, the _gopa_ held them; again the -scow and her frantic crew, poling, paddling, and yelling, were hurried -broadside down, and as they swept past there were glimpses above and -among the foam-crested surges of the wild-looking heads and drifting -forelocks of two grey horses swimming desperately for their lives,--a -splendid sight. They landed safely, but of the baggage animals one was -sucked under the boat and drowned, and as the others refused to face the -rapids, we had to obtain other transport. A few days later the scow, -which was brought up in pieces from Kashmir on coolies' backs at a cost -of four hundred rupees, was dashed to pieces! - -A halt for Sunday in an apricot grove in the pleasant village of Sati -refreshed us all for the long marches which followed, by which we -crossed the Sasir Pass, full of difficulties from snow and glaciers, -which extend for many miles, to the Dipsang Plain, the bleakest and -dreariest of Central Asian wastes, from which the gentle ascent of the -Karakorum Pass rises, and returned, varying our route slightly, to the -pleasant villages of the Nubra valley. Everywhere Mr. Redslob's Tibetan -scholarship, his old-world courtesy, his kindness and adaptability, and -his medical skill, ensured us a welcome the heartiness of which I cannot -describe. The headmen and elders of the villages came to meet us when we -arrived, and escorted us when we left; the monasteries and houses with -the best they contained were thrown open to us; the men sat round our -camp-fires at night, telling stories and local gossip, and asking -questions, everything being translated to me by my kind guide, and so we -actually lived 'among the Tibetans.' - - - - -CHAPTER III - -NUBRA - - -In order to visit Lower Nubra and return to Leh we were obliged to cross -the great fords of the Shayok at the most dangerous season of the year. -This transit had been the bugbear of the journey ever since news reached -us of the destruction of the Sati scow. Mr. Redslob questioned every man -we met on the subject, solemn and noisy conclaves were held upon it -round the camp-fires, it was said that the 'European woman' and her -'spider-legged horse' could never get across, and for days before we -reached the stream, the _chupas_, or government water-guides, made -nightly reports to the village headmen of the state of the waters, which -were steadily rising, the final verdict being that they were only just -practicable for strong horses. To delay till the waters fell was -impossible. Mr. Redslob had engagements in Leh, and I was already -somewhat late for the passage of the lofty passes between Tibet and -British India before the winter, so we decided on crossing with every -precaution which experience could suggest. - -At Lagshung, the evening before, the Tibetans made prayers and offerings -for a day cloudy enough to keep the water down, but in the morning from -a cloudless sky a scintillating sun blazed down like a magnesium light, -and every glacier and snowfield sent its tribute torrent to the Shayok. -In crossing a stretch of white sand the solar heat was so fierce that -our European skins were blistered through our clothing. We halted at -Lagshung, at the house of a friendly _zemindar_, who pressed upon me the -loan of a big Yarkand horse for the ford, a kindness which nearly proved -fatal; and then by shingle paths through lacerating thickets of the -horrid _Hippopha rhamnoides_, we reached a _chod-ten_ on the shingly -bank of the river, where the Tibetans renewed their prayers and -offerings, and the final orders for the crossing were issued. We had -twelve horses, carrying only quarter loads each, all led; the servants -were mounted, 'water-guides' with ten-foot poles sounded the river -ahead, one led Mr. Redslob's horse (the rider being bare-legged) in -front of mine with a long rope, and two more led mine, while the _gopas_ -of three villages and the _zemindar_ steadied my horse against the -stream. The water-guides only wore girdles, and with elf-locks and -pigtails streaming from their heads, and their uncouth yells and wild -gesticulations, they looked true river-demons. - -[Illustration: A LAMA] - -The Shayok presented an expanse of eight branches and a main stream, -divided by shallows and shingle banks, the whole a mile and a half in -width. On the brink the _chupas_ made us all drink good draughts of the -turbid river water, 'to prevent giddiness,' they said, and they added -that I must not think them rude if they dashed water at my face -frequently with the same object. Hassan Khan, and Mando, who was livid -with fright, wore dark-green goggles, that they might not see the -rapids. In the second branch the water reached the horses' bodies, and -my animal tottered and swerved. There were bursts of wild laughter, not -merriment but excitement, accompanied by yells as the streams grew -fiercer, a loud chorus of _Kabadar! Sharbaz!_ ('Caution!' 'Well done!') -was yelled to encourage the horses, and the boom and hiss of the Shayok -made a wild accompaniment. Gyalpo, for whose legs of steel I longed, -frolicked as usual, making mirthful lunges at his leader when the pair -halted. Hassan Khan, in the deepest branch, shakily said to me, 'I not -afraid, Mem Sahib.' During the hour spent in crossing the eight -branches, I thought that the risk had been exaggerated, and that -giddiness was the chief peril. - -But when we halted, cold and dripping, on the shingle bank of the main -stream I changed my mind. A deep, fierce, swirling rapid, with a calmer -depth below its farther bank, and fully a quarter of a mile wide, was -yet to be crossed. The business was serious. All the _chupas_ went up -and down, sounding, long before they found a possible passage. All loads -were raised higher, the men roped their soaked clothing on their -shoulders, water was dashed repeatedly at our faces, girths were -tightened, and then, with shouts and yells, the whole caravan plunged -into deep water, strong, and almost ice-cold. Half an hour was spent in -that devious ford, without any apparent progress, for in the dizzy swirl -the horses simply seemed treading the water backwards. Louder grew the -yells as the torrent raged more hoarsely, the chorus of _kabadar_ grew -frantic, the water was up to the men's armpits and the seat of my -saddle, my horse tottered and swerved several times, the nearing shore -presented an abrupt bank underscooped by the stream. There was a deeper -plunge, an encouraging shout, and Mr. Redslob's strong horse leapt the -bank. The _gopas_ encouraged mine; he made a desperate effort, but fell -short and rolled over backwards into the Shayok with his rider under -him. A struggle, a moment of suffocation, and I was extricated by strong -arms, to be knocked down again by the rush of the water, to be again -dragged up and hauled and hoisted up the crumbling bank. I escaped with -a broken rib and some severe bruises, but the horse was drowned. Mr. -Redslob, who had thought that my life could not be saved, and the -Tibetans were so distressed by the accident that I made very light of -it, and only took one day of rest. The following morning some men and -animals were carried away, and afterwards the ford was impassable for a -fortnight. Such risks are among the amenities of the great trade route -from India into Central Asia! - -[Illustration: THREE GOPAS] - -The Lower Nubra valley is wilder and narrower than the Upper, its -apricot orchards more luxuriant, its wolf-haunted _hippopha_ and -tamarisk thickets more dense. Its villages are always close to ravines, -the mouths of which are filled with _chod-tens_, _manis_, prayer-wheels, -and religious buildings. Access to them is usually up the stony beds of -streams over-arched by apricots. The camping-grounds are apricot -orchards. The apricot foliage is rich, and the fruit small but -delicious. The largest fruit tree I saw measured nine feet six inches in -girth six feet from the ground. Strangers are welcome to eat as much of -the fruit as they please, provided that they return the stones to the -proprietor. It is true that Nubra exports dried apricots, and the women -were splitting and drying the fruit on every house roof, but the special -_raison d'tre_ of the tree is the clear, white, fragrant, and highly -illuminating oil made from the kernels by the simple process of crushing -them between two stones. In every _gonpo_ temple a silver bowl holding -from four to six gallons is replenished annually with this -almond-scented oil for the ever-burning light before the shrine of -Buddha. It is used for lamps, and very largely in cookery. Children, -instead of being washed, are rubbed daily with it, and on being weaned -at the age of four or five, are fed for some time, or rather crammed, -with balls of barley-meal made into a paste with it. - -At Hundar, a superbly situated village, which we visited twice, we were -received at the house of Gergan the monk, who had accompanied us -throughout. He is a _zemindar_, and the large house in which he made us -welcome stands in his own patrimony. Everything was prepared for us. The -mud floors were swept, cotton quilts were laid down on the balconies, -blue cornflowers and marigolds, cultivated for religious ornament, were -in all the rooms, and the women were in gala dress and loaded with -coarse jewellery. Right hearty was the welcome. Mr. Redslob loved, and -therefore was loved. The Tibetans to him were not 'natives,' but -brothers. He drew the best out of them. Their superstitions and beliefs -were not to him 'rubbish,' but subjects for minute investigation and -study. His courtesy to all was frank and dignified. In his dealings he -was scrupulously just. He was intensely interested in their interests. -His Tibetan scholarship and knowledge of Tibetan sacred literature gave -him almost the standing of an abbot among them, and his medical skill -and knowledge, joyfully used for their benefit on former occasions, had -won their regard. So at Hundar, as everywhere else, the elders came out -to meet us and cut the apricot branches away on our road, and the silver -horns of the _gonpo_ above brayed a dissonant welcome. Along the Indus -valley the servants of Englishmen beat the Tibetans, in the Shayok and -Nubra valleys the Yarkand traders beat and cheat them, and the women are -shy with strangers, but at Hundar they were frank and friendly with me, -saying, as many others had said, 'We will trust any one who comes with -the missionary.' - -Gergan's home was typical of the dwellings of the richer cultivators and -landholders. It was a large, rambling, three-storeyed house, the lower -part of stone, the upper of huge sun-dried bricks. It was adorned with -projecting windows and brown wooden balconies. Fuel--the dried excreta -of animals--is too scarce to be used for any but cooking purposes, and -on these balconies in the severe cold of winter the people sit to imbibe -the warm sunshine. The rooms were large, ceiled with peeled poplar rods, -and floored with split white pebbles set in clay. There was a temple on -the roof, and in it, on a platform, were life-size images of Buddha, -seated in eternal calm, with his downcast eyes and mild Hindu face, the -thousand-armed Chan-ra-zigs (the great Mercy), Jam-pal-yangs (the -Wisdom), and Chag-na-dorje (the Justice). In front on a table or altar -were seven small lamps, burning apricot oil, and twenty small brass -cups, containing minute offerings of rice and other things, changed -daily. There were prayer-wheels, cymbals, horns and drums, and a -prayer-cylinder six feet high, which it took the strength of two men to -turn. On a shelf immediately below the idols were the brazen sceptre, -bell, and thunderbolt, a brass lotus blossom, and the spouted brass -flagon decorated with peacocks' feathers, which is used at baptisms, and -for pouring holy water upon the hands at festivals. In houses in which -there is not a roof temple the best room is set apart for religious use -and for these divinities, which are always surrounded with musical -instruments and symbols of power, and receive worship and offerings -daily, Tibetan Buddhism being a religion of the family and household. In -his family temple Gergan offered gifts and thanks for the deliverances -of the journey. He had been assisting Mr. Redslob for two years in the -translation of the New Testament, and had wept over the love and -sufferings of our Lord Jesus Christ. He had even desired that his son -should receive baptism and be brought up as a Christian, but for -himself he 'could not break with custom and his ancestral creed.' - -In the usual living-room of the family a platform, raised only a few -inches, ran partly round the wall. In the middle of the floor there was -a clay fireplace, with a prayer-wheel and some clay and brass cooking -pots upon it. A few shelves, fire-bars for roasting barley, a wooden -churn, and some spinning arrangements were the furniture. A number of -small dark rooms used for sleeping and storage opened from this, and -above were the balconies and reception rooms. Wooden posts supported the -roofs, and these were wreathed with lucerne, the first fruits of the -field. Narrow, steep staircases in all Tibetan houses lead to the family -rooms. In winter the people live below, alongside of the animals and -fodder. In summer they sleep in loosely built booths of poplar branches -on the roof. Gergan's roof was covered, like others at the time, to the -depth of two feet, with hay, i.e. grass and lucerne, which are wound -into long ropes, experience having taught the Tibetans that their scarce -fodder is best preserved thus from breakage and waste. I bought hay by -the yard for Gyalpo. - -Our food in this hospitable house was simple--apricots, fresh, or dried -and stewed with honey; _zho's_ milk, curds and cheese, sour cream, peas, -beans, balls of barley dough, barley porridge, and 'broth of abominable -things.' _Chang_, a dirty-looking beer made from barley, was offered -with each meal, and tea frequently, but I took my own 'on the sly.' I -have mentioned a churn as part of the 'plenishings' of the living-room. -In Tibet the churn is used for making tea! I give the recipe. 'For six -persons. Boil a teacupful of tea in three pints of water for ten minutes -with a heaped dessert-spoonful of soda. Put the infusion into the chum -with one pound of butter and a small tablespoonful of salt. Churn until -as thick as cream.' Tea made after this fashion holds the second place -to _chang_ in Tibetan affections. The butter according to our thinking -is always rancid, the mode of making it is uncleanly, and it always has -a rank flavour from the goatskin in which it was kept. Its value is -enhanced by age. I saw skins of it forty, fifty, and even sixty years -old, which were very highly prized, and would only be opened at some -special family festival or funeral. - -During the three days of our visits to Hundar both men and women wore -their festival dresses, and apparently abandoned most of their ordinary -occupations in our honour. The men were very anxious that I should be -'amused,' and made many grotesque suggestions on the subject. 'Why is -the European woman always writing or sewing?' they asked. 'Is she very -poor, or has she made a vow?' Visits to some of the neighbouring -monasteries were eventually proposed, and turned out most interesting. - -The monastery of Deskyid, to which we made a three days' expedition, is -from its size and picturesque situation the most imposing in Nubra. -Built on a majestic spur of rock rising on one side 2,000 feet -perpendicularly from a torrent, the spur itself having an altitude of -11,000 feet, with red peaks, snow-capped, rising to a height of over -20,000 feet behind the vast irregular pile of red, white, and yellow -temples, towers, storehouses, cloisters, galleries, and balconies, -rising for 300 feet one above another, hanging over chasms, built out on -wooden buttresses, and surmounted with flags, tridents, and _yaks'_ -tails, a central tower or keep dominating the whole, it is perhaps the -most picturesque object I have ever seen, well worth the crossing of the -Shayok fords, my painful accident, and much besides. It looks -inaccessible, but in fact can be attained by rude zigzags of a thousand -steps of rock, some natural, others roughly hewn, getting worse and -worse as they rise higher, till the later zigzags suggest the -difficulties of the ascent of the Great Pyramid. The day was fearfully -hot, 99 in the shade, and the naked, shining surfaces of purple rock -with a metallic lustre radiated heat. My 'gallant grey' took me up -half-way--a great feat--and the Tibetans cheered and shouted -'_Sharbaz!_' ('Well done!') as he pluckily leapt up the great slippery -rock ledges. After I dismounted, any number of willing hands hauled and -helped me up the remaining horrible ascent, the rugged rudeness of which -is quite indescribable. The inner entrance is a gateway decorated with a -_yak's_ head and many Buddhist emblems. High above, on a rude gallery, -fifty monks were gathered with their musical instruments. As soon as the -_Kan-po_ or abbot, Punt-sog-sogman (the most perfect Merit), received us -at the gate, the monkish orchestra broke forth in a tornado of sound of -a most tremendous and thrilling quality, which was all but overwhelming, -as the mountain echoes took up and prolonged the sound of fearful blasts -on six-foot silver horns, the bellowing thunder of six-foot drums, the -clash of cymbals, and the dissonance of a number of monster gongs. It -was not music, but it was sublime. The blasts on the horns are to -welcome a great personage, and such to the monks who despised his -teaching was the devout and learned German missionary. Mr. Redslob -explained that I had seen much of Buddhism in Ceylon and Japan, and -wished to see their temples. So with our train of _gopas_, _zemindar_, -peasants, and muleteers, we mounted to a corridor full of _lamas_ in -ragged red dresses, yellow girdles, and yellow caps, where we were -presented with plates of apricots, and the door of the lowest of the -seven temples heavily grated backwards. - -[Illustration: SOME INSTRUMENTS OF BUDDHIST WORSHIP] - -The first view, and indeed the whole view of this temple of _Wrath_ or -_Justice_, was suggestive of a frightful _Inferno_, with its rows of -demon gods, hideous beyond Western conception, engaged in torturing -writhing and bleeding specimens of humanity. Demon masks of ancient -lacquer hung from the pillars, naked swords gleamed in motionless hands, -and in a deep recess whose 'darkness' was rendered 'visible' by one -lamp, was that indescribable horror the executioner of the Lord of Hell, -his many brandished arms holding instruments of torture, and before him -the bell, the thunderbolt and sceptre, the holy water, and the baptismal -flagon. Our joss-sticks fumed on the still air, monks waved censers, and -blasts of dissonant music woke the semi-subterranean echoes. In this -temple of Justice the younger _lamas_ spend some hours daily in the -supposed contemplation of the torments reserved for the unholy. In the -highest temple, that of Peace, the summer sunshine fell on Shakya Thubba -and the Buddhist triad seated in endless serenity. The walls were -covered with frescoes of great _lamas_, and a series of alcoves, each -with an image representing an incarnation of Buddha, ran round the -temple. In a chapel full of monstrous images and piles of medallions -made of the ashes of 'holy' men, the sub-abbot was discoursing to the -acolytes on the religious classics. In the chapel of meditations, among -lighted incense sticks, monks seated before images were telling their -beads with the object of working themselves into a state of ecstatic -contemplation (somewhat resembling a certain hypnotic trance), for there -are undoubtedly devout _lamas_, though the majority are idle and unholy. -It must be understood that all Tibetan literature is 'sacred,' though -some of the volumes of exquisite calligraphy on parchment, which for our -benefit were divested of their silken and brocaded wrappings, contain -nothing better than fairy tales and stories of doubtful morality, which -are recited by the _lamas_ to the accompaniment of incessant cups of -_chang_, as a religious duty when they visit their 'flocks' in the -winter. - -The Deskyid _gonpo_ contains 150 _lamas_, all of whom have been educated -at Lhassa. A younger son in every household becomes a monk, and -occasionally enters upon his vocation as an acolyte pupil as soon as -weaned. At the age of thirteen these acolytes are sent to study at -Lhassa for five or seven years, their departure being made the occasion -of a great village feast, with several days of religious observances. -The close connection with Lhassa, especially in the case of the yellow -_lamas_, gives Nubra Buddhism a singular interest. All the larger -_gonpos_ have their prototype in Lhassa, all ceremonial has originated -in Lhassa, every instrument of worship has been consecrated in Lhassa, -and every _lama_ is educated in the learning only to be obtained at -Lhassa. Buddhism is indeed the most salient feature of Nubra. There are -_gonpos_ everywhere, the roads are lined by miles of _chod-tens_, -_manis_, and prayer-mills, and flags inscribed with sacred words in -Sanskrit flutter from every roof. There are processions of red and -yellow _lamas_; every act in trade, agriculture, and social life needs -the sanction of sacerdotalism; whatever exists of wealth is in the -_gonpos_, which also have a monopoly of learning, and 11,000 monks -closely linked with the laity, yet ruling all affairs of life and death -and beyond death, are all connected by education, tradition, and -authority with Lhassa. - -We remained long on the blazing roof of the highest tower of the -_gonpo_, while good Mr. Redslob disputed with the abbot 'concerning the -things pertaining to the kingdom of God.' The monks standing round -laughed sneeringly. They had shown a little interest, Mr. R. said, on -his earlier visits. The abbot accepted a copy of the Gospel of St. John. -'St. Matthew,' he observed, 'is very laughable reading.' Blasts of wild -music and the braying of colossal horns honoured our departure, and our -difficult descent to the apricot groves of Deskyid. On our return to -Hundar the grain was ripe on Gergan's fields. The first ripe ears were -cut off, offered to the family divinity, and were then bound to the -pillars of the house. In the comparatively fertile Nubra valley the -wheat and barley are cut, not rooted up. While they cut the grain the -men chant, 'May it increase, We will give to the poor, we will give to -the _lamas_,' with every stroke. They believe that it can be made to -multiply both under the sickle and in the threshing, and perform many -religious rites for its increase while it is in sheaves. After eight -days the corn is trodden out by oxen on a threshing-floor renewed every -year. After winnowing with wooden forks, they make the grain into a -pyramid, insert a sacred symbol, and pile upon it the threshing -instruments and sacks, erecting an axe on the apex with its blade turned -to the west, as that is the quarter from which demons are supposed to -come. In the afternoon they feast round it, always giving a portion to -the axe, saying, 'It is yours, it belongs not to me.' At dusk they pour -it into the sacks again, chanting, 'May it increase.' But these are not -removed to the granary until late at night, at an hour when the hands of -the demons are too much benumbed by the nightly frost to diminish the -store. At the beginning of every one of these operations the presence of -_lamas_ is essential, to announce the auspicious moment, and conduct -religious ceremonies. They receive fees, and are regaled with abundant -_chang_ and the fat of the land. - -In Hundar, as elsewhere, we were made very welcome in all the houses. I -have described the dwelling of Gergan. The poorer peasants occupy -similar houses, but roughly built, and only two-storeyed, and the floors -are merely clay. In them also the very numerous lower rooms are used for -cattle and fodder only, while the upper part consists of an inner or -winter room, an outer or supper room, a verandah room, and a family -temple. Among their rude plenishings are large stone corn chests like -sarcophagi, stone bowls from Baltistan, cauldrons, cooking pots, a -tripod, wooden bowls, spoons, and dishes, earthen pots, and _yaks_' and -sheep's packsaddles. The garments of the household are kept in long -wooden boxes. - -Family life presents some curious features. In the disposal in marriage -of a girl, her eldest brother has more 'say' than the parents. The -eldest son brings home the bride to his father's house, but at a given -age the old people are 'shelved,' i.e. they retire to a small house, -which may be termed a 'jointure house,' and the eldest son assumes the -patrimony and the rule of affairs. I have not met with a similar custom -anywhere in the East. It is difficult to speak of Tibetan life, with all -its affection and jollity, as '_family life_,' for Buddhism, which -enjoins monastic life, and usually celibacy along with it, on eleven -thousand out of a total population of a hundred and twenty thousand, -farther restrains the increase of population within the limits of -sustenance by inculcating and rigidly upholding the system of polyandry, -permitting marriage only to the eldest son, the heir of the land, while -the bride accepts all his brothers as inferior or subordinate husbands, -thus attaching the whole family to the soil and family roof-tree, the -children being regarded legally as the property of the eldest son, who -is addressed by them as 'Big Father,' his brothers receiving the title -of 'Little Father.' The resolute determination, on economic as well as -religious grounds, not to abandon this ancient custom, is the most -formidable obstacle in the way of the reception of Christianity by the -Tibetans. The women cling to it. They say, 'We have three or four men to -help us instead of one,' and sneer at the dulness and monotony of -European, monogamous life! A woman said to me, 'If I had only one -husband, and he died, I should be a widow; if I have two or three I am -never a widow!' The word 'widow' is with them a term of reproach, and is -applied abusively to animals and men. Children are brought up to be very -obedient to fathers and mother, and to take great care of little ones -and cattle. Parental affection is strong. Husbands and wives beat each -other, but separation usually follows a violent outbreak of this kind. -It is the custom for the men and women of a village to assemble when a -bride enters the house of her husbands, each of them presenting her with -three rupees. The Tibetan wife, far from spending these gifts on -personal adornment, looks ahead, contemplating possible contingencies, -and immediately hires a field, the produce of which is her own, and -which accumulates year after year in a separate granary, so that she may -not be portionless in case she leaves her husband! - -[Illustration: MONASTIC BUILDINGS AT BASGU] - -It was impossible not to become attached to the Nubra people, we lived -so completely among them, and met with such unbounded goodwill. Feasts -were given in our honour, every _gonpo_ was open to us, monkish blasts -on colossal horns brayed out welcomes, and while nothing could exceed -the helpfulness and alacrity of kindness shown by all, there was not a -thought or suggestion of _backsheesh_. The men of the villages always -sat by our camp-fires at night, friendly and jolly, but never obtrusive, -telling stories, discussing local news and the oppressions exercised by -the Kashmiri officials, the designs of Russia, the advance of the -Central Asian Railway, and what they consider as the weakness of the -Indian Government in not annexing the provinces of the northern -frontier. Many of their ideas and feelings are akin to ours, and a -mutual understanding is not only possible, but inevitable[1]. - -[1] Mr. Redslob said that when on different occasions he was smitten by -heavy sorrows, he felt no difference between the Tibetan feeling and -expression of sympathy and that of Europeans. A stronger testimony to -the effect produced by his twenty-five years of loving service could -scarcely be given than our welcome in Nubra. During the dangerous -illness which followed, anxious faces thronged his humble doorway as -early as break of day, and the stream of friendly inquiries never ceased -till sunset, and when he died the people of Ladak and Nubra wept and -'made a great mourning for him,' as for their truest friend. - -Industry in Nubra is the condition of existence, and both sexes work -hard enough to give a great zest to the holidays on religious festival -days. Whether in the house or journeying the men are never seen without -the distaff. They weave also, and make the clothes of the women and -children! The people are all cultivators, and make money also by -undertaking the transit of the goods of the Yarkand traders over the -lofty passes. The men plough with the _zho_, or hybrid _yak_, and the -women break the clods and share in all other agricultural operations. -The soil, destitute of manure, which is dried and hoarded for fuel, -rarely produces more than tenfold. The 'three acres and a cow' is with -them four acres of alluvial soil to a family on an average, with 'runs' -for _yaks_ and sheep on the mountains. The farms, planted with apricot -and other fruit trees, a prolific loose-grained barley, wheat, peas, and -lucerne, are oases in the surrounding deserts. The people export apricot -oil, dried apricots, sheep's wool, heavy undyed woollens, a coarse cloth -made from _yaks'_ hair, and _pashm_, the under fleece of the shawl goat. -They complained, and I think with good reason, of the merciless -exactions of the Kashmiri officials, but there were no evidences of -severe poverty, and not one beggar was seen. - -It was not an easy matter to get back to Leh. The rise of the Shayok -made it impossible to reach and return by the Digar Pass, and the -alternative route over the Kharzong glacier continued for some time -impracticable--that is, it was perfectly smooth ice. At length the news -came that a fall of snow had roughened its surface. A number of men -worked for two days at scaffolding a path, and with great difficulty, -and the loss of one _yak_ from a falling rock, a fruitful source of -fatalities in Tibet, we reached Khalsar, where with great regret we -parted with _Tse-ring-don-drub_ (Life's purpose fulfilled), the _gopa_ -of Sati, whose friendship had been a real pleasure, and to whose courage -and promptitude, in Mr. Redslob's opinion, I owed my rescue from -drowning. Two days of very severe marching and long and steep ascents -brought us to the wretched hamlet of Kharzong Lar-sa, in a snowstorm, at -an altitude higher than the summit of Mont Blanc. The servants were all -ill of 'pass-poison,' and crept into a cave along with a number of big -Tibetan mastiffs, where they enjoyed the comfort of semi-suffocation -till the next morning, Mr. R. and I, with some willing Tibetan helpers, -pitching our own tents. The wind was strong and keen, and with the -mercury down at 15 Fahrenheit it was impossible to do anything but to -go to bed in the early afternoon, and stay there till the next day. Mr. -Redslob took a severe chill, which produced an alarming attack of -pleurisy, from the effects of which he never fully recovered. - -We started on a grim snowy morning, with six _yaks_ carrying our baggage -or ridden by ourselves, four led horses, and a number of Tibetans, -several more having been sent on in advance to cut steps in the glacier -and roughen them with gravel. Within certain limits the ground grows -greener as one ascends, and we passed upwards among primulas, asters, a -large blue myosotis, gentians, potentillas, and great sheets of -_edelweiss_. At the glacier foot we skirted a deep green lake on snow -with a glorious view of the Kharzong glacier and the pass, a nearly -perpendicular wall of rock, bearing up a steep glacier and a snowfield -of great width and depth, above which tower pinnacles of naked rock. It -presented to all appearance an impassable barrier rising 2,500 feet -above the lake, grand and awful in the dazzling whiteness of the -new-fallen snow. Thanks to the ice steps our _yaks_ took us over in four -hours without a false step, and from the summit, a sharp ridge 17,500 -feet in altitude, we looked our last on grimness, blackness, and snow, -and southward for many a weary mile to the Indus valley lying in -sunshine and summer. Fully two dozen carcases of horses newly dead lay -in cavities of the glacier. Our animals were ill of 'pass-poison,' and -nearly blind, and I was obliged to ride my _yak_ into Leh, a severe -march of thirteen hours, down miles of crumbling zigzags, and then among -villages of irrigated terraces, till the grand view of the Gyalpo's -palace, with its air-hung _gonpo_ and clustering _chod-tens_, and of the -desert city itself, burst suddenly upon us, and our benumbed and -stiffened limbs thawed in the hot sunshine. I pitched my tent in a -poplar grove for a fortnight, near the Moravian compounds and close to -the travellers' bungalow, in which is a British Postal Agency, with a -Tibetan postmaster who speaks English, a Christian, much trusted and -respected, named Joldan, in whose intelligence, kindness, and friendship -I found both interest and pleasure. - -[Illustration: THE YAK (_Bos grunniens_)] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -MANNERS AND CUSTOMS - - -Joldan, the Tibetan British postmaster in Leh, is a Christian of -spotless reputation. Every one places unlimited confidence in his -integrity and truthfulness, and his religious sincerity has been -attested by many sacrifices. He is a Ladaki, and the family property was -at Stok, a few miles from Leh. He was baptized in Lahul at twenty-three, -his father having been a Christian. He learned Urdu, and was for ten -years mission schoolmaster in Kylang, but returned to Leh a few years -ago as postmaster. His 'ancestral dwelling' at Stok was destroyed by -order of the wazir, and his property confiscated, after many -unsuccessful efforts had been made to win him back to Buddhism. -Afterwards he was detained by the wazir, and compelled to serve as a -sepoy, till Mr. Heyde went to the council and obtained his release. His -house in Leh has been more than once burned by incendiaries. But he -pursues a quiet, even course, brings up his family after the best -Christian traditions, refuses Buddhist suitors for his daughters, -unobtrusively but capably helps the Moravian missionaries, supports his -family by steady industry, although of noble birth, and asks nothing of -any one. His 'good morning' and 'good night,' as he daily passed my tent -with clockwork regularity, were full of cheery friendliness; he gave -much useful information about Tibetan customs, and his ready helpfulness -greatly facilitated the difficult arrangements for my farther journey. - -[Illustration: A CHANG-PA WOMAN] - -The Leh, which I had left so dull and quiet, was full of strangers, -traffic, and noise. The neat little Moravian church was filled by a -motley crowd each Sunday, in which the few Christians were -distinguishable by their clean faces and clothes and their devout air; -and the Medical Mission Hospital and Dispensary, which in winter have an -average attendance of only a hundred patients a month, were daily -thronged with natives of India and Kashmir, Baltis, Yarkandis, Dards, -and Tibetans. In my visits with Dr. Marx I observed, what was confirmed -by four months' experience of the Tibetan villagers, that rheumatism, -inflamed eyes and eyelids, and old age are the chief Tibetan maladies. -Some of the Dards and Baltis were lepers, and the natives of India -brought malarial fever, dysentery, and other serious diseases. The -hospital, which is supported by the Indian Government, is most -comfortable, a haven of rest for those who fall sick by the way. The -hospital assistants are intelligent, thoroughly kind-hearted young -Tibetans, who, by dint of careful drilling and an affectionate desire to -please 'the teacher with the medicine box,' have become fairly -trustworthy. They are not Christians. - -In the neat dispensary at 9 a.m. a gong summons the patients to the -operating room for a short religious service. Usually about fifty were -present, and a number more, who had some curiosity about 'the way,' but -did not care to be seen at Christian worship, hung about the doorways. -Dr. Marx read a few verses from the Gospels, explaining them in a homely -manner, and concluded with the Lord's Prayer. Then the out-patients were -carefully and gently treated, leprous limbs were bathed and anointed, -the wards were visited at noon and again at sunset, and in the -afternoons operations were performed with the most careful antiseptic -precautions, which are supposed to be used for the purpose of keeping -away evil spirits from the wounds! The Tibetans, in practice, are very -simple in their applications of medical remedies. Rubbing with butter is -their great panacea. They have a dread of small-pox, and instead of -burning its victims they throw them into their rapid torrents. If an -isolated case occur, the sufferer is carried to a mountain-top, where he -is left to recover or die. If a small-pox epidemic is in the province, -the people of the villages in which it has not yet appeared place thorns -on their bridges and boundaries, to scare away the evil spirits which -are supposed to carry the disease. In ordinary illnesses, if butter -taken internally as well as rubbed into the skin does not cure the -patient, the _lamas_ are summoned to the rescue. They make a _mitsap_, a -half life-size figure of the sick person, dress it in his or her clothes -and ornaments, and place it in the courtyard, where they sit round it, -reading passages from the sacred classics fitted for the occasion. After -a time, all rise except the superior _lama_, who continues reading, and -taking small drums in their left hands, they recite incantations, and -dance wildly round the _mitsap_, believing, or at least leading the -people to believe, that by this ceremony the malady, supposed to be the -work of a demon, will be transferred to the image. Afterwards the -clothes and ornaments are presented to them, and the figure is carried -in procession out of the yard and village and is burned. If the patient -becomes worse, the friends are apt to resort to the medical skill of the -missionaries. If he dies they are blamed, and if he recovers the _lamas_ -take the credit. - -At some little distance outside Leh are the cremation grounds--desert -places, destitute of any other vegetation than the _Caprifolia horrida_. -Each family has its furnace kept in good repair. The place is doleful, -and a funeral scene on the only sunless day I experienced in Ladak was -indescribably dismal. After death no one touches the corpse but the -_lamas_, who assemble in numbers in the case of a rich man. The senior -_lama_ offers the first prayers, and lifts the lock which all Tibetans -wear at the back of the head, in order to liberate the soul if it is -still clinging to the body. At the same time he touches the region of -the heart with a dagger. The people believe that a drop of blood on the -head marks the spot where the soul has made its exit. Any good clothing -in which the person has died is then removed. The blacksmith beats a -drum, and the corpse, covered with a white sheet next the dress and a -coloured one above, is carried out of the house to be worshipped by the -relatives, who walk seven times round it. The women then retire to the -house, and the chief _lama_ recites liturgical passages from the -formularies. Afterwards, the relatives retire, and the corpse is carried -to the burning-ground by men who have the same tutelar deity as the -deceased. The leading _lama_ walks first, then come men with flags, -followed by the blacksmith with the drum, and next the corpse, with -another man beating a drum behind it. Meanwhile, the _lamas_ are praying -for the repose and quieting of the soul, which is hovering about, -desiring to return. The attendant friends, each of whom has carried a -piece of wood to the burning-ground, arrange the fuel with butter on the -furnace, the corpse wrapped in the white sheet is put in, and fire is -applied. The process of destruction in a rich man's case takes about an -hour. During the burning the _lamas_ read in high, hoarse monotones, and -the blacksmiths beat their drums. The _lamas_ depart first, and the -blacksmiths, after worshipping the ashes, shout, 'Have nothing to do -with us now,' and run rapidly away. At dawn the following day, a man -whose business it is searches among the ashes for the footprints of -animals, and according to the footprints found, so it is believed will -be the re-birth of the soul. - -Some of the ashes are taken to the _gonpos_, where the _lamas_ mix them -with clay, put them into oval or circular moulds, and stamp them with -the image of Buddha. These are preserved in _chod-tens_, and in the -house of the nearest relative of the deceased; but in the case of 'holy' -men, they are retained in the _gonpos_, where they can be purchased by -the devout. After a cremation much _chang_ is consumed by the friends, -who make presents to the bereaved family. The value of each is carefully -entered in a book, so that a precise return may be made when a similar -occasion occurs. Until the fourth day after death it is believed to be -impossible to quiet the soul. On that day a piece of paper is inscribed -with prayers and requests to the soul to be quiet, and this is burned by -the _lamas_ with suitable ceremonies; and rites of a more or less -elaborate kind are afterwards performed for the repose of the soul, -accompanied with prayers that it may get 'a good path' for its re-birth, -and food is placed in conspicuous places about the house, that it may -understand that its relatives are willing to support it. The mourners -for some time wear wretched clothes, and neither dress their hair nor -wash their faces. Every year the _lamas_ sell by auction the clothing -and ornaments, which are their perquisites at funerals[1]. - -[1] For these and other curious details concerning Tibetan customs I am -indebted to the kindness and careful investigations of the late Rev. W. -Redslob, of Leh, and the Rev. A. Heyde, of Kylang. - -The Moravian missionaries have opened a school in Leh, and the wazir, -finding that the Leh people are the worst educated in the country, -ordered that one child at least in each family should be sent to it. -This awakened grave suspicions, and the people hunted for reasons for -it. 'The boys are to be trained as porters, and made to carry burdens -over the mountains,' said some. 'Nay,' said others, 'they are to be sent -to England and made Christians of.' [All foreigners, no matter what -their nationality is, are supposed to be English.] Others again said, -'They are to be kidnapped,' and so the decree was ignored, till Mr. -Redslob and Dr. Marx went among the parents and explained matters, and a -large attendance was the result; for the Tibetans of the trade route -have come to look upon the acquisition of 'foreign learning' as the -stepping-stone to Government appointments at ten rupees per month. -Attendance on religious instruction was left optional, but after a time -sixty pupils were regularly present at the daily reading and explanation -of the Gospels. Tibetan fathers teach their sons to write, to read the -sacred classics, and to calculate with a frame of balls on wires. If -farther instruction is thought desirable, the boys are sent to the -_lamas_, and even to the schools at Lhassa. The Tibetans willingly -receive and read translations of our Christian books, and some go so far -as to think that their teachings are 'stronger' than those of their -own, indicating their opinions by tearing pages out of the Gospels and -rolling them up into pills, which are swallowed in the belief that they -are an effective charm. Sorcery is largely used in the treatment of the -sick. The books which instruct in the black art are known as 'black -books.' Those which treat of medicine are termed 'blue books.' Medical -knowledge is handed down from father to son. The doctors know the -virtues of many of the plants of the country, quantities of which they -mix up together while reciting magical formulas. - -[Illustration: CHANG-PA CHIEF] - -I was heartily sorry to leave Leh, with its dazzling skies and abounding -colour and movement, its stirring topics of talk, and the culture and -exceeding kindness of the Moravian missionaries. Helpfulness was the -rule. Gergan came over the Kharzong glacier on purpose to bring me a -prayer-wheel; Lob-sang and Tse-ring-don-drub, the hospital assistants, -made me a tent carpet of _yak's_ hair cloth, singing as they sewed; and -Joldan helped to secure transport for the twenty-two days' journey to -Kylang. Leh has few of what Europeans regard as travelling necessaries. -The brick tea which I purchased from a Lhassa trader was disgusting. I -afterwards understood that blood is used in making up the blocks. The -flour was gritty, and a leg of mutton turned out to be a limb of a goat -of much experience. There were no straps, or leather to make them of, in -the bazaar, and no buckles; and when the latter were provided by Mr. -Redslob, the old man who came to sew them upon a warm rug which I had -made for Gyalpo out of pieces of carpet and hair-cloth put them on -wrongly three times, saying after each failure, 'I'm very foolish. -Foreign ways are so wonderful!' At times the Tibetans say, 'We're as -stupid as oxen,' and I was inclined to think so, as I stood for two -hours instructing the blacksmith about making shoes for Gyalpo, which -kept turning out either too small for a mule or too big for a -dray-horse. - -I obtained two Lahul muleteers with four horses, quiet, obliging men, -and two superb _yaks_, which were loaded with twelve days' hay and -barley for my horse. Provisions for the whole party for the same time -had to be carried, for the route is over an uninhabited and arid desert. -Not the least important part of my outfit was a letter from Mr. Redslob -to the headman or chief of the Chang-pas or Champas, the nomadic tribes -of Rupchu, to whose encampment I purposed to make a _dtour_. These -nomads had on two occasions borrowed money from the Moravian -missionaries for the payment of the Kashmiri tribute, and had repaid it -before it was due, showing much gratitude for the loans. - -Dr. Marx accompanied me for the three first days. The few native -Christians in Leh assembled in the gay garden plot of the lowly -mission-house to shake hands and wish me a good journey, and not a few -who were not Christians, some of them walking for the first hour beside -our horses. The road from Leh descends to a rude wooden bridge over the -Indus, a mighty stream even there, over blazing slopes of gravel -dignified by colossal _manis_ and _chod-tens_ in long lines, built by -the former kings of Ladak. On the other side of the river gravel slopes -ascend towards red mountains 20,000 feet in height. Then comes a rocky -spur crowned by the imposing castle of the Gyalpo, the son of the -dethroned king of Ladak, surmounted by a forest of poles from which -flutter _yaks'_ tails and long streamers inscribed with prayers. Others -bear aloft the trident, the emblem of Siva. Carefully hewn zigzags, -entered through a much-decorated and colossal _chod-ten_, lead to the -castle. The village of Stok, the prettiest and most prosperous in Ladak, -fills up the mouth of a gorge with its large farm-houses among poplar, -apricot, and willow plantations, and irrigated terraces of barley; and -is imposing as well as pretty, for the two roads by which it is -approached are avenues of lofty _chod-tens_ and broad _manis_, all in -excellent repair. Knolls, and deeply coloured spurs of naked rock, most -picturesquely crowded with _chod-tens_, rise above the greenery, -breaking the purple gloom of the gorge which cuts deeply into the -mountains, and supplies from its rushing glacier torrent the living -waters which create this delightful oasis. - -The _gopa_ came forth to meet us, bearing apricots and cheeses as the -Gyalpo's greeting, and conducted us to the camping-ground, a sloping -lawn in a willow-wood, with many a natural bower of the graceful -_Clematis orientalis_. The tents were pitched, afternoon tea was on a -table outside, a clear, swift stream made fitting music, the dissonance -of the ceaseless beating of gongs and drums in the castle temple was -softened by distance, the air was cool, a lemon light bathed the -foreground, and to the north, across the Indus, the great mountains of -the Leh range, with every cleft defined in purple or blue, lifted their -vermilion peaks into a rosy sky. It was the poetry and luxury of travel. - -At Leh I was obliged to dismiss the _seis_ for prolonged misconduct and -cruelty to Gyalpo, and Mando undertook to take care of him. The animal -had always been held by two men while the _seis_ groomed him with -difficulty, but at Stok, when Mando rubbed him down, he quietly went on -feeding and laid his lovely head on the lad's shoulder with a soft -cooing sound. From that moment Mando could do anything with him, and a -singular attachment grew up between man and horse. - -Towards sunset we were received by the Gyalpo. The castle loses nothing -of its picturesqueness on a nearer view, and everything about it is trim -and in good order. It is a substantial mass of stone building on a lofty -rock, the irregularities of which have been taken most artistic -advantage of in order to give picturesque irregularity to the edifice, -which, while six storeys high in some places, is only three in others. -As in the palace of Leh, the walls slope inwards from the base, where -they are ten feet thick, and projecting balconies of brown wood and grey -stone relieve their monotony. We were received at the entrance by a -number of red _lamas_, who took us up five flights of rude stairs to the -reception room, where we were introduced to the Gyalpo, who was in the -midst of a crowd of monks, and, except that his hair was not shorn, and -that he wore a silver brocade cap and large gold earrings and bracelets, -was dressed in red like them. Throneless and childless, the Gyalpo has -given himself up to religion. He has covered the castle roof with -Buddhist emblems (not represented in the sketch). From a pole, forty -feet long, on the terrace floats a broad streamer of equal length, -completely covered with _Aum mani padne hun_, and he has surrounded -himself with _lamas_, who conduct nearly ceaseless services in the -sanctuary. The attainment of merit, as his creed leads him to -understand it, is his one aim in life. He loves the seclusion of Stok, -and rarely visits the palace in Leh, except at the time of the winter -games, when the whole population assembles in cheery, orderly crowds, to -witness races, polo and archery matches, and a species of hockey. He -interests himself in the prosperity of Stok, plants poplars, willows, -and fruit trees, and keeps the castle _manis_ and _chod-tens_ in -admirable repair. - -Stok Castle is as massive as any of our mediaeval buildings, but is far -lighter and roomier. It is most interesting to see a style of -architecture and civilisation which bears not a solitary trace of -European influence, not even in Manchester cottons or Russian gimcracks. -The Gyalpo's room was only roofed for six feet within the walls, where -it was supported by red pillars. Above, the deep blue Tibetan sky was -flushing with the red of sunset, and from a noble window with a covered -stone balcony there was an enchanting prospect of red ranges passing -into translucent amethyst. The partial ceiling is painted in arabesques, -and at one end of the room is an alcove, much enriched with bold wood -carving. - -[Illustration: THE CASTLE OF STOK] - -The Gyalpo was seated on a carpet on the floor, a smooth-faced, rather -stupid-looking man of twenty-eight. He placed us on a carpet beside -him, and coffee, honey, and apricots were brought in, but the -conversation flagged. He neither suggested anything nor took up Dr. -Marx's suggestions. Fortunately, we had brought our sketch-books, and -the views of several places were recognised, and were found interesting. -The _lamas_ and servants, who had remained respectfully standing, sat -down on the floor, and even the Gyalpo became animated. So our visit -ended successfully. - -There is a doorway from the reception room into the sanctuary, and after -a time fully thirty _lamas_ passed in and began service, but the Gyalpo -only stood on his carpet. There is only a half light in this temple, -which is further obscured by scores of smoked and dusty bannerets of -gold and silver brocade hanging from the roof. In addition to the usual -Buddhist emblems there are musical instruments, exquisitely inlaid, or -enriched with _niello_ work of gold and silver of great antiquity, and -bows of singular strength, requiring two men to bend them, which are -made of small pieces of horn cleverly joined. _Lamas_ gabbled liturgies -at railroad speed, beating drums and clashing cymbals as an -accompaniment, while others blew occasional blasts on the colossal -silver horns or trumpets, which probably resemble those with which -Jericho was encompassed. The music, the discordant and high-pitched -monotones, and the revolting odours of stale smoke of juniper chips, of -rancid butter, and of unwashed woollen clothes which drifted through the -doorway, were overpowering. Attempted fights among the horses woke me -often during the night, and the sound of worship was always borne over -the still air. - -Dr. Marx left on the third day, after we had visited the monastery of -Hemis, the richest in Ladak, holding large landed property and -possessing much metallic wealth, including a _chod-ten_ of silver and -gold, thirty feet high, in one of its many halls, approached by -gold-plated silver steps and incrusted with precious stones; there is -also much fine work in brass and bronze. Hemis abounds in decorated -buildings most picturesquely placed, it has three hundred _lamas_, and -is regarded as 'the sight' of Ladak. - -At Upschi, after a day's march over blazing gravel, I left the rushing -olive-green Indus, which I had followed from the bridge of Khalsi, where -a turbulent torrent, the Upshi water, joins it, descending through a -gorge so narrow that the track, which at all times is blasted on the -face of the precipice, is occasionally scaffolded. A very extensive -rock-slip had carried away the path and rendered several fords -necessary, and before I reached it rumour was busy with the peril. It -was true that the day before several mules had been carried away and -drowned, that many loads had been sacrificed, and that one native -traveller had lost his life. So I started my caravan at daybreak, to get -the water at its lowest, and ascended the gorge, which is an absolutely -verdureless rift in mountains of most brilliant and fantastic -stratification. At the first ford Mando was carried down the river for a -short distance. The second was deep and strong, and a caravan of -valuable goods had been there for two days, afraid to risk the crossing. -My Lahulis, who always showed a great lack of stamina, sat down, sobbing -and beating their breasts. Their sole wealth, they said, was in their -baggage animals, and the river was 'wicked,' and 'a demon' lived in it -who paralysed the horses' legs. Much experience of Orientals and of -travel has taught me to surmount difficulties in my own way, so, -beckoning to two men from the opposite side, who came over shakily with -linked arms, I took the two strong ropes which I always carry on my -saddle, and roped these men together and to Gyalpo's halter with one, -and lashed Mando and the guide together with the other, giving them the -stout thongs behind the saddle to hold on to, and in this compact mass -we stood the strong rush of the river safely, the paralysing chill of -its icy waters being a far more obvious peril. All the baggage animals -were brought over in the same way, and the Lahulis praised their gods. - -At Gya, a wild hamlet, the last in Ladak proper, I met a working -naturalist whom I had seen twice before, and 'forgathered' with him much -of the way. Eleven days of solitary desert succeeded. The reader has -probably understood that no part of the Indus, Shayok, and Nubra -valleys, which make up most of the province of Ladak, is less than 9,500 -feet in altitude, and that the remainder is composed of precipitous -mountains with glaciers and snowfields, ranging from 18,000 to 25,000 -feet, and that the villages are built mainly on alluvial soil where -possibilities of irrigation exist. But Rupchu has peculiarities of its -own. - -Between Gya and Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, are three huge -passes, the Toglang, 18,150 feet in altitude, the Lachalang, 17,500, and -the Baralacha, 16,000,--all easy, except for the difficulties arising -from the highly rarefied air. The mountains of the region, which are -from 20,000 to 23,000 feet in altitude, are seldom precipitous or -picturesque, except the huge red needles which guard the Lachalang Pass, -but are rather 'monstrous protuberances,' with arid surfaces of -disintegrated rock. Among these are remarkable plateaux, which are taken -advantage of by caravans, and which have elevations of from 14,000 to -15,000 feet. There are few permanent rivers or streams, the lakes are -salt, beside the springs, and on the plateaux there is scanty -vegetation, chiefly aromatic herbs; but on the whole Rupchu is a desert -of arid gravel. Its only inhabitants are 500 nomads, and on the ten -marches of the trade route, the bridle paths, on which in some places -labour has been spent, the tracks, not always very legible, made by the -passage of caravans, and rude dykes, behind which travellers may shelter -themselves from the wind, are the only traces of man. Herds of the -_kyang_, the wild horse of some naturalists, and the wild ass of others, -graceful and beautiful creatures, graze within gunshot of the track -without alarm. - -I had thought Ladak windy, but Rupchu is the home of the winds, and the -marches must be arranged for the quietest time of the day. Happily the -gales blow with clockwork regularity, the day wind from the south and -south-west rising punctually at 9 a.m. and attaining its maximum at -2.30, while the night wind from the north and north-east rises about 9 -p.m. and ceases about 5 a.m. Perfect silence is rare. The highly -rarefied air, rushing at great speed, when at its worst deprives the -traveller of breath, skins his face and hands, and paralyses the baggage -animals. In fact, neither man nor beast can face it. The horses 'turn -tail' and crowd together, and the men build up the baggage into a wall -and crouch in the lee of it. The heat of the solar rays is at the same -time fearful. At Lachalang, at a height of over 15,000 feet, I noted a -solar temperature of 152, only 35 below the boiling point of water in -the same region, which is about 187. To make up for this, the mercury -falls below the freezing point every night of the year, even in August -the difference of temperature in twelve hours often exceeding 120! The -Rupchu nomads, however, delight in this climate of extremes, and regard -Leh as a place only to be visited in winter, and Kulu and Kashmir as if -they were the malarial swamps of the Congo! - -[Illustration: FIRST VILLAGE IN KULU] - -We crossed the Toglang Pass, at a height of 18,150 feet, with less -suffering from _ladug_ than on either the Digar or Kharzong Passes. -Indeed Gyalpo carried me over it, stopping to take breath every few -yards. It was then a long dreary march to the camping-ground of Tsala, -where the Chang-pas spend the four summer months; the guides and baggage -animals lost the way and did not appear until the next day, and in -consequence the servants slept unsheltered in the snow. News travels -as if by magic in desert places. Towards evening, while riding by a -stream up a long and tedious valley, I saw a number of moving specks on -the crest of a hill, and down came a surge of horsemen riding furiously. -Just as they threatened to sweep Gyalpo away, they threw their horses on -their haunches, in one moment were on the ground, which they touched -with their foreheads, presented me with a plate of apricots, and the -next vaulted into their saddles, and dashing up the valley were soon out -of sight. In another half-hour there was a second wild rush of horsemen, -the headman dismounted, threw himself on his face, kissed my hand, -vaulted into the saddle, and then led a swirl of his tribesmen at a -gallop in ever-narrowing circles round me till they subsided into the -decorum of an escort. An elevated plateau with some vegetation on it, a -row of forty tents, 'black' but not 'comely,' a bright rapid river, wild -hills, long lines of white sheep converging towards the camp, _yaks_ -rampaging down the hillsides, men running to meet us, and women and -children in the distance were singularly idealised in the golden glow of -a cool, moist evening. - -Two men took my bridle, and two more proceeded to put their hands on my -stirrups; but Gyalpo kicked them to the right and left amidst shrieks of -laughter, after which, with frantic gesticulations and yells of -'_Kabardar!_' I was led through the river in triumph and hauled off my -horse. The tribesmen were much excited. Some dashed about, performing -feats of horsemanship; others brought apricots and dough-balls made with -apricot oil, or rushed to the tents, returning with rugs; some cleared -the camping-ground of stones and raised a stone platform, and a flock of -goats, exquisitely white from the daily swims across the river, were -brought to be milked. Gradually and shrinkingly the women and children -drew near; but Mr. ----'s Bengali servant threatened them with a whip, -when there was a general stampede, the women running like hares. I had -trained my servants to treat the natives courteously, and addressed some -rather strong language to the offender, and afterwards succeeded in -enticing all the fugitives back by showing my sketches, which gave -boundless pleasure and led to very numerous requests for portraits! The -_gopa_, though he had the oblique Mongolian eyes, was a handsome young -man, with a good nose and mouth. He was dressed like the others in a -girdled _chaga_ of coarse serge, but wore a red cap turned up over the -ears with fine fur, a silver inkhorn, and a Yarkand knife in a chased -silver sheath in his girdle, and canary-coloured leather shoes with -turned-up points. The people prepared one of their own tents for me, and -laying down a number of rugs of their own dyeing and weaving, assured me -of an unbounded welcome as a friend of their 'benefactor,' Mr. Redslob, -and then proposed that I should visit their tents accompanied by all the -elders of the tribe. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CLIMATE AND NATURAL FEATURES - - -The last chapter left me with the chief and elders of the Chang-pas -starting on 'a round of visits,' and it was not till nightfall that the -solemn ceremony was concluded. Each of the fifty tents was visited: at -every one a huge, savage Tibetan mastiff made an attempt to fly at me, -and was pounced upon and held down by a woman little bigger than -himself, and in each cheese and milk were offered and refused. In all I -received a hearty welcome for the sake of the 'great father,' Mr. -Redslob, who designated these people as 'the simplest and kindliest -people on earth.' - -This Chang-pa tribe, numbering five hundred souls, makes four moves in -the year, dividing in summer, and uniting in a valley very free from -snow in the winter. They are an exclusively pastoral people, and possess -large herds of _yaks_ and ponies and immense flocks of sheep and goats, -the latter almost entirely the beautiful 'shawl goat,' from the -undergrowth at the base of the long hair of which the fine Kashmir -shawls are made. This _pashm_ is a provision which Nature makes against -the intense cold of these altitudes, and grows on _yaks_, sheep, and -dogs, as well as on most of the wild animals. The sheep is the big, -hornless, flop-eared _huniya_. The _yaks_ and sheep are the load -carriers of Rupchu. Small or easily divided merchandise is carried by -sheep, and bulkier goods by _yaks_, and the Chang-pas make a great deal -of money by carrying for the Lahul, Central Ladak, and Rudok merchants, -their sheep travelling as far as Gar in Chinese Tibet. They are paid in -grain as well as coin, their own country producing no farinaceous food. -They have only two uses for silver money. With part of their gains they -pay the tribute to Kashmir, and they melt the rest, and work it into -rude personal ornaments. According to an old arrangement between Lhassa -and Leh, they carry brick tea free for the Lhassa merchants. They are -Buddhists, and practise polyandry, but their young men do not become -_lamas_, and owing to the scarcity of fuel, instead of burning their -dead, they expose them with religious rites face upwards in desolate -places, to be made away with by the birds of the air. All their tents -have a god-shelf, on which are placed small images and sacred emblems. -They dress as the Ladakis, except that the men wear shoes with very high -turned-up points, and that the women, in addition to the _perak_, the -usual ornament, place on the top of the head a large silver coronet with -three tassels. In physiognomy they resemble the Ladakis, but the -Mongolian type is purer, the eyes are more oblique, and the eyelids have -a greater droop, the chins project more, and the mouths are handsomer. -Many of the men, including the headman, were quite good-looking, but the -upper lips of the women were apt to be 'tucked up,' displaying very -square teeth, as we have shown in the preceding chapter. - -[Illustration: A TIBETAN FARM-HOUSE] - -The roofs of the Tsala tents are nearly flat, and the middle has an -opening six inches wide along its whole length. An excavation from -twelve to twenty-four inches deep is made in the soil, and a rude wall -of stones, about one foot high, is built round it, over which the tent -cloth, made in narrow widths of _yak's_ or goat's hair, is extended by -ropes led over forked sticks. There is no ridge pole, and the centre is -supported on short poles, to the projecting tops of which prayer flags -and _yaks'_ tails are attached. The interior, though dark, is not too -dark for weaving, and each tent has its loom, for the Chang-pas not only -weave their coarse woollen clothing and hair cloth for saddlebags and -tents, but rugs of wool dyed in rich colours made from native roots. The -largest tent was twenty feet by fifteen, but the majority measured only -fourteen feet by eight and ten feet. The height in no case exceeded six -feet. In these much ventilated and scarcely warmed shelters these hardy -nomads brave the tremendous winds and winter rigours of their climate at -altitudes varying from 13,000 to 14,500 feet. Water freezes every night -of the year, and continually there are differences in temperature of -100 between noon and midnight. In addition to the fifty dwelling tents -there was one considerably larger, in which the people store their wool -and goat's hair till the time arrives for taking them to market. The -floor of several of the tents was covered with rugs, and besides looms -and confused heaps of what looked like rubbish, there were tea-churns, -goatskin churns, sheep and goat skins, children's bows and arrows, -cooking pots, and heaps of the furze root, which is used as fuel. - -They expended much of this scarce commodity upon me in their -hospitality, and kept up a bonfire all night. They mounted their wiry -ponies and performed feats of horsemanship, in one of which all the -animals threw themselves on their hind legs in a circle when a man in -the centre clapped his hands; and they crowded my tent to see my -sketches, and were not satisfied till I executed some daubs professing -to represent some of the elders. The excitement of their first visit -from a European woman lasted late into the night, and when they at last -retired they persisted in placing a guard of honour round my tent. - -In the morning there was ice on the pools, and the snow lay three inches -deep. Savage life had returned to its usual monotony, and the care of -flocks and herds. In the early afternoon the chief and many of the men -accompanied us across the ford, and we parted with mutual expressions of -good will. The march was through broad gravelly valleys, among -'monstrous protuberances' of red and yellow gravel, elevated by their -height alone to the dignity of mountains. Hail came on, and Gyalpo -showed his high breeding by facing it when the other animals 'turned -tail' and huddled together, and a storm of heavy sleet of some hours' -duration burst upon us just as we reached the dismal camping-ground of -Rukchen, guarded by mountain giants which now and then showed glimpses -of their white skirts through the dark driving mists. That was the only -'weather' in four months. - -A large caravan from the heat and sunshine of Amritsar was there. The -goods were stacked under goat's hair shelters, the mules were huddled -together without food, and their shivering Panjabi drivers, muffled in -blankets which only left one eye exposed, were grubbing up furze roots -wherewith to make smoky fires. My baggage, which had arrived previously, -was lying soaking in the sleet, while the wretched servants were trying -to pitch the tent in the high wind. They had slept out in the snow the -night before, and were mentally as well as physically benumbed. Their -misery had a comic side to it, and as the temperature made me feel -specially well, I enjoyed bestirring myself, and terrified Mando, who -was feebly 'fadding' with a rag, by giving Gyalpo a vigorous rub-down -with a bath-towel. Hassan Khan, with chattering teeth and severe -neuralgia, muffled in my 'fisherman's hood' under his turban, was trying -to do his work with his unfailing pluck. Mando was shedding futile tears -over wet furze which would not light, the small wet corrie was dotted -over with the Amritsar men sheltering under rocks and nursing hopeless -fires, and fifty mules and horses, with dejected heads and dripping -tails, and their backs to the merciless wind, were attempting to pick -some food from scanty herbage already nibbled to the root. My tent was -a picture of grotesque discomfort. The big stones had not been picked -out from the gravel, the bed stood in puddles, the thick horse blanket -was draining over the one chair, the servant's spare clothing and stores -were on the table, the _yaks'_ loads of wet hay and the soaked grain -sack filled up most of the space; a wet candle sputtered and went out, -wet clothes dripped from the tent hook, and every now and then Hassan -Khan looked in with one eye, gasping out, 'Mem Sahib, I can no light the -fire!' Perseverance succeeds eventually, and cups of a strong stimulant -made of Burroughes and Wellcome's vigorous 'valoid' tincture of ginger -and hot water, revived the men all round. Such was its good but innocent -effect, that early the next morning Hassan came into my tent with two -eyes, and convulsed with laughter. 'The pony men' and Mando, he said, -were crying, and the coolie from Leh, who before the storm had wanted to -go the whole way to Simla, after refusing his supper had sobbed all -night under the 'flys' of my tent, while I was sleeping soundly. -Afterwards I harangued them, and told them I would let them go, and help -them back; I could not take such poor-spirited miserable creatures with -me, and I would keep the Tartars who had accompanied me from Tsala. On -this they protested, and said, with a significant gesture, I might cut -their throats if they cried any more, and begged me to try them again; -and as we had no more bad weather, there was no more trouble. - -The marches which followed were along valleys, plains, and -mountain-sides of gravel, destitute of herbage, except a shrivelled -artemisia, and on one occasion the baggage animals were forty hours -without food. Fresh water was usually very scarce, and on the Lingti -plains was only obtainable by scooping it up from the holes left by the -feet of animals. Insect life was rare, and except grey doves, the 'dove -of the valleys,' which often flew before us for miles down the ravines, -no birds were to be seen. On the other hand, there were numerous herds -of _kyang_, which in the early mornings came to drink of the water by -which the camps were pitched. By looking through a crevice of my tent I -saw them distinctly, without alarming them. In one herd I counted forty. -They kept together in families, sire, dam, and foal. The animal -certainly is under fourteen hands, and resembles a mule rather than a -horse or ass. The noise, which I had several opportunities of hearing, -is more like a neigh than a bray, but lacks completeness. The creature -is light brown, almost fawn colour, fading into white under his body, -and he has a dark stripe on his back, but not a cross. His ears are -long, and his tail is like that of a mule. He trots and gallops, and -when alarmed gallops fast, but as he is not worth hunting, he has not a -great dread of humanity, and families of _kyang_ frequently grazed -within two hundred and fifty yards of us. He is about as untamable as -the zebra, and with his family affectionateness leads apparently a very -happy life. - -[Illustration: LAHUL VALLEY] - -On the Kwangchu plateau, at an elevation of 15,000 feet, I met with a -form of life which has a great interest of its own, sheep caravans, -numbering among them 7,000 sheep, each animal with its wool on, and -equipped with a neat packsaddle and two leather or hair-cloth bags, and -loaded with from twenty-five to thirty-two pounds of salt or borax. -These, and many more which we passed, were carrying their loads to -Patseo, a mountain valley in Lahul, where they are met by traders from -Northern British India. The sheep are shorn, and the wool and loads are -exchanged for wheat and a few other commodities, with which they return -to Tibet, the whole journey taking from nine months to a year. As the -sheep live by grazing the scanty herbage on the march, they never -accomplish more than ten miles a day, and as they often become footsore, -halts of several days are frequently required. Sheep, dead or dying, -with the birds of prey picking out their eyes, were often met with. -Ordinarily these caravans are led by a man, followed by a large goat -much bedecked and wearing a large bell. Each driver has charge of one -hundred sheep. These men, of small stature but very thickset, with their -wide smooth faces, loose clothing of sheepskin with the wool outside, -with their long coarse hair flying in the wind, and their uncouth shouts -in a barbarous tongue, are much like savages. They sing wild chants as -they picket their sheep in long double lines at night, and with their -savage mastiffs sleep unsheltered under the frosty skies under the lee -of their piled-up saddlebags. On three nights I camped beside their -caravans, and walked round their orderly lines of sheep and their neat -walls of saddlebags; and, far from showing any discourtesy or rude -curiosity, they held down their fierce dogs and exhibited their -ingenious mode of tethering their animals, and not one of the many -articles which my servants were in the habit of leaving outside the -tents was on any occasion abstracted. The dogs, however, were less -honest than their masters, and on one night ran away with half a sheep, -and I should have fared poorly had not Mr. ---- shot some grey doves. - -Marches across sandy and gravelly valleys, and along arid mountain-sides -spotted with a creeping furze and cushions of a yellow-green moss which -seems able to exist without moisture, fords of the Sumgyal and Tserap -rivers, and the crossing of the Lachalang Pass at an altitude of 17,500 -feet in severe frost, occupied several uneventful days. Of the three -lofty passes on this route, the Toglang, which is higher, and the -Baralacha, which is lower, are featureless billows of gravel, over which -a carriage might easily be driven. Not so is the Lachalang, though its -well-made zigzags are easy for laden animals. The approach to it is -fantastic, among precipitous mountains of red sandstone, and red rocks -weathered into pillars, men's heads, and numerous groups of gossipy old -women from thirty to fifty feet high, in flat hats and long circular -cloaks! Entering by red gates of rock into a region of gigantic -mountains, and following up a crystal torrent, the valley narrowing to a -gorge, and the gorge to a chasm guarded by nearly perpendicular needles -of rock flaming in the westering sun, we forded the river at the chasm's -throat, and camped on a velvety green lawn just large enough for a few -tents, absolutely walled in by abrupt mountains 18,000 and 19,000 feet -in height. Long after the twilight settled down on us, the pinnacles -above glowed in warm sunshine, and the following morning, when it was -only dawn below, and the still river pools were frozen and the grass -was white with hoar-frost, the morning sun reddened the snow-peaks and -kindled into vermilion the red needles of Lachalang. That camping-ground -under such conditions is the grandest and most romantic spot of the -whole journey. - -Verdureless and waterless stretches, in crossing which our poor animals -were two nights without food, brought us to the glacier-blue waters of -the Serchu, tumbling along in a deep broad gash, and farther on to a -lateral torrent which is the boundary between Rupchu, tributary to -Kashmir, and Lahul or British Tibet, under the rule of the Empress of -India. The tents were ready pitched in a grassy hollow by the river; -horses, cows, and goats were grazing near them, and a number of men were -preparing food. A Tibetan approached me, accompanied by a creature in a -nondescript dress speaking Hindustani volubly. On a band across his -breast were the British crown, and a plate with the words -'Commissioner's _chaprassie_, Kulu district.' I never felt so -extinguished. Liberty seemed lost, and the romance of the desert to have -died out in one moment! At the camping-ground I found rows of salaaming -Lahulis drawn up, and Hassan Khan in a state which was a compound of -pomposity and jubilant excitement. The _tahsildar_ (really the Tibetan -honorary magistrate), he said, had received instructions from the -Lieutenant-Governor of the Panjab that I was on the way to Kylang, and -was to 'want for nothing.' So twenty-four men, nine horses, a flock of -goats, and two cows had been waiting for me for three days in the Serchu -valley. I wrote a polite note to the magistrate, and sent all back -except the _chaprassie_, the cows, and the cowherd, my servants looking -much crestfallen. - -We crossed the Baralacha Pass in wind and snow showers into a climate in -which moisture began to be obvious. At short distances along the pass, -which extends for many miles, there are rude semicircular walls, three -feet high, all turned in one direction, in the shelter of which -travellers crouch to escape from the strong cutting wind. My men -suffered far more than on the two higher passes, and it was difficult to -dislodge them from these shelters, where they lay groaning, gasping, and -suffering from vertigo and nose-bleeding. The cold was so severe that I -walked over the loftiest part of the pass, and for the first time felt -slight effects of the _ladug_. At a height of 15,000 feet, in the midst -of general desolation, grew, in the shelter of rocks, poppies -(_Mecanopsis aculeata_), blue as the Tibetan skies, their centres filled -with a cluster of golden-yellow stamens,--a most charming sight. Ten or -twelve of these exquisite blossoms grow on one stalk, and stalk, leaf, -and seed-vessels are guarded by very stiff thorns. Lower down flowers -abounded, and at the camping-ground of Patseo (12,000 feet), where the -Tibetan sheep caravans exchange their wool, salt, and borax for grain, -the ground was covered with soft greensward, and real rain fell. Seen -from the Baralacha Pass are vast snowfields, glaciers, and avalanche -slopes. This barrier, and the Rotang, farther south, close this trade -route practically for seven months of the year, for they catch the -monsoon rains, which at that altitude are snows from fifteen to thirty -feet deep; while on the other side of the Baralacha and throughout -Rupchu and Ladak the snowfall is insignificant. So late as August, when -I crossed, there were four perfect snow bridges over the Bhaga, and -snowfields thirty-six feet deep along its margin. At Patseo the -_tahsildar_, with a retinue and animals laden with fodder, came to pay -his respects to me, and invited me to his house, three days' journey. -These were the first human beings we had seen for three days. - -A few miles south of the Baralacha Pass some birch trees appeared on a -slope, the first natural growth of timber that I had seen since crossing -the Zoji La. Lower down there were a few more, then stunted specimens -of the pencil cedar, and the mountains began to show a shade of green on -their lower slopes. Butterflies appeared also, and a vulture, a grand -bird on the wing, hovered ominously over us for some miles, and was -succeeded by an equally ominous raven. On the excellent bridle-track cut -on the face of the precipices which overhang the Bhaga, there is in nine -miles only one spot in which it is possible to pitch a five-foot tent, -and at Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, the only camping-ground is on -the house roofs. There the Chang-pas and their _yaks_ and horses who had -served me pleasantly and faithfully from Tsala left me, and returned to -the freedom of their desert life. At Kolang, the next hamlet, where the -thunder of the Bhaga was almost intolerable, Hara Chang, the magistrate, -one of the _thakurs_ or feudal proprietors of Lahul, with his son and -nephew and a large retinue, called on me; and the next morning Mr. ---- -and I went by invitation to visit him in his castle, a magnificently -situated building on a rocky spur 1,000 feet above the camping-ground, -attained by a difficult climb, and nearly on a level with the glittering -glaciers and ice-falls on the other side of the Bhaga. It only differs -from Leh and Stok castles in having blue glass in some of the smaller -windows. In the family temple, in addition to the usual life-size -images of Buddha and the Triad, there was a female divinity, carved at -Jallandhur in India, copied from a statue representing Queen Victoria in -her younger days--a very fitting possession for the highest government -official in Lahul. The _thakur_, Hara Chang, is wealthy and a rigid -Buddhist, and uses his very considerable influence against the work of -the Moravian missionaries in the valley. The rude path down to the -bridle-road, through fields of barley and buckwheat, is bordered by -roses, gooseberries, and masses of wild flowers. - -[Illustration: GONPO AT KYLANG] - -The later marches after reaching Darcha are grand beyond all -description. The track, scaffolded or blasted out of the rock at a -height of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the thundering Bhaga, is -scarcely a rifle-shot from the mountain mass dividing it from the -Chandra, a mass covered with nearly unbroken ice and snowfields, out of -which rise pinnacles of naked rock 21,000 and 22,000 feet in altitude. -The region is the 'abode of snow,' and glaciers of great size fill up -every depression. Humidity, vegetation, and beauty reappear together, -wild flowers and ferns abound, and pencil cedars in clumps rise above -the artificial plantations of the valley. Wheat ripens at an altitude of -12,000 feet. Picturesque villages, surrounded by orchards, adorn the -mountain spurs; _chod-tens_ and _gonpos_, with white walls and -fluttering flags, brighten the scene; feudal castles crown the heights, -and where the mountains are loftiest, the snowfields and glaciers most -imposing, and the greenery densest, the village of Kylang, the most -important in Lahul as the centre of trade, government, and Christian -missions, hangs on ledges of the mountain-side 1,000 feet above Bhaga, -whose furious course can be traced far down the valley by flashes of -sunlit foam. - -The Lahul valley, which is a part of British Tibet, has an altitude of -10,000 feet. It prospers under British rule, its population has -increased, Hindu merchants have settled in Kylang, the route through -Lahul to Central Asia is finding increasing favour with the Panjabi -traders, and the Moravian missionaries, by a bolder system of irrigation -and the provision of storage for water, have largely increased the -quantity of arable land. The Lahulis are chiefly Tibetans, but Hinduism -is largely mixed up with Buddhism in the lower villages. All the -_gonpos_, however, have been restored and enlarged during the last -twenty years. In winter the snow lies fifteen feet deep, and for four or -five months, owing to the perils of the Rotang Pass, the valley rarely -has any communication with the outer world. - -At the foot of the village of Kylang, which is built in tier above tier -of houses up the steep side of a mountain with a height of 21,000 feet, -are the Moravian mission buildings, long, low, whitewashed erections, of -the simplest possible construction, the design and much of the actual -erection being the work of these capable Germans. The large building, -which has a deep verandah, the only place in which exercise can be taken -in the winter, contains the native church, three rooms for each -missionary, and two guest-rooms. Round the garden are the printing -rooms, the medicine and store room (stores arriving once in two years), -and another guest-room. Round an adjacent enclosure are the houses -occupied in winter by the Christians when they come down with their -sheep and cattle from the hill farms. All is absolutely plain, and as -absolutely clean and trim. The guest-rooms and one or two of the Tibetan -rooms are papered with engravings from the _Illustrated London News_, -but the rooms of the missionaries are only whitewashed, and by their -extreme bareness reminded me of those of very poor pastors in the -Fatherland. A garden, brilliant with zinnias, dianthus, and petunias, -all of immense size, and planted with European trees, is an oasis, and -in it I camped for some weeks under a willow tree, covered, as many are, -with a sweet secretion so abundant as to drop on the roof of the tent, -and which the people collect and use as honey. - -The mission party consisted of Mr. and Mrs. Shreve, lately arrived, and -now in a distant exile at Poo, and Mr. and Mrs. Heyde, who had been in -Tibet for nearly forty years, chiefly spent at Kylang, without going -home. 'Plain living and high thinking' were the rule. Books and -periodicals were numerous, and were read and assimilated. The culture -was simply wonderful, and the acquaintance with the latest ideas in -theology and natural science, the latest political and social -developments, and the latest conceptions in European art, would have led -me to suppose that these admirable people had only just left Europe. -Mrs. Heyde had no servant, and in the long winters, when household and -mission work are over for the day, and there are no mails to write for, -she pursues her tailoring and other needlework, while her husband reads -aloud till midnight. At the time of my visit (September) busy -preparations for the winter were being made. Every day the wood piles -grew. Hay, cut with sickles on the steep hillsides, was carried on human -backs into the farmyard, apples were cored and dried in the sun, -cucumbers were pickled, vinegar was made, potatoes were stored, and meat -was killed and salted. - -It is in winter, when the Christians have come down from the mountain, -that most of the mission work is done. Mrs. Heyde has a school of forty -girls, mostly Buddhists. The teaching is simple and practical, and -includes the knitting of socks, of which from four to five hundred pairs -are turned out each winter, and find a ready sale. The converts meet for -instruction and discussion twice daily, and there is daily worship. The -mission press is kept actively employed in printing the parts of the -Bible which have been translated during the summer, as well as simple -tracts written or translated by Mr. Heyde. No converts are better -instructed, and like those of Leh they seem of good quality, and are -industrious and self-supporting. Winter work is severe, as ponies, -cattle, and sheep must always be hand-fed, and often hand-watered. Mr. -Heyde has great repute as a doctor, and in summer people travel long -distances for his advice and medicine. He is universally respected, and -his judgment in worldly affairs is highly thought of; but if one were to -judge merely by apparent results, the devoted labour of nearly forty -years and complete self-sacrifice for the good of Kylang must be -pronounced unsuccessful. Christianity has been most strongly opposed by -men of influence, and converts have been exposed to persecution and -loss. The abbot of the Kylang monastery lately said to Mr. Heyde, 'Your -Christian teaching has given Buddhism a resurrection.' The actual words -used were, 'When you came here people were quite indifferent about their -religion, but since it has been attacked they have become zealous, and -now they _know_.' It is only by sharing their circumstances of -isolation, and by getting glimpses of their everyday life and work, that -one can realise at all what the heroic perseverance and self-sacrificing -toil of these forty years have been, and what is the weighty influence -on the people and on the standard of morals, even though the number of -converts is so small. All honour to these noble German missionaries, -learned, genial, cultured, radiant, who, whether teaching, preaching, -farming, gardening, printing, or doctoring, are always and everywhere -'living epistles of Christ, known and read of all men!' Close by the -mission house, in a green spot under shady trees, is God's Acre, where -many children of the mission families sleep, and a few adults. - -As the winter is the busiest season in mission work, so it is the great -time in which the _lamas_ make house-to-house peregrinations and attend -at festivals. Then also there is much spinning and weaving by both -sexes, and tobogganing and other games, and much drinking of _chang_ by -priests and people. The cattle remain out till nearly Christmas, and are -then taken into the houses. At the time of the variable new year, the -_lamas_ and nuns retire to the monasteries, and dulness reigns in the -valleys. At the end of a month they emerge, life and noise begin, and -all men to whom sons have been born during the previous year give -_chang_ freely. During the festival which follows, all these jubilant -fathers go out of the village as a gaudily dressed procession, and form -a circle round a picture of a _yak_, painted by the _lamas_, which is -used as a target to be shot at with bows and arrows, and it is believed -that the man who hits it in the centre will be blessed with a son in the -coming year. After this, all the Kylang men and women collect in one -house by annual rotation, and sing and drink immense quantities of -_chang_ till 10 p.m. - -The religious festivals begin soon after. One, the worshipping of the -_lamas_ by the laity, occurs in every village, and lasts from two to -three days. It consists chiefly of music and dancing, while the _lamas_ -sit in rows, swilling _chang_ and arrack. At another, which is -celebrated annually in every house, the _lamas_ assemble, and in front -of certain gods prepare a number of mystical figures made of dough, -which are hung up and are worshipped by the family. Afterwards the -_lamas_ make little balls which are worshipped, and one of the family -mounts the roof and invites the neighbours, who receive the balls from -the _lamas'_ hands and drink moderately of _chang_. Next, the figures -are thrown to the demons as a propitiatory offering, amidst 'hellish -whistlings' and the firing of guns. These ceremonies are called _ise -drup_ (a full life), and it is believed that if they were neglected life -would be cut short. - -One of the most important of the winter religious duties of the _lamas_ -is the reading of the sacred classics under the roof of each -householder. By this means the family accumulate merit, and the longer -the reading is protracted the greater is the accumulation. A -twelve-volume book is taken in the houses of the richer householders, -each one of the twelve or fifteen _lamas_ taking a page, all reading at -an immense pace in a loud chant at the same time. The reading of these -volumes, which consist of Buddhist metaphysics and philosophy, takes -five days, and while reading each _lama_ has his _chang_ cup constantly -replenished. In the poorer households a classic of but one volume is -taken, to lessen the expense of feeding the _lamas_. Festivals and -ceremonies follow each other closely until March, when archery practice -begins, and in April and May the people prepare for the operations of -husbandry. - -The weather in Kylang breaks in the middle of September, but so -fascinating were the beauties and sublimity of Nature, and the virtues -and culture of my Moravian friends, that, shutting my eyes to the -possible perils of the Rotang, I remained until the harvest was brought -home with joy and revelry, and the flush of autumn faded, and the first -snows of winter gave an added majesty to the glorious valley. Then, -reluctantly folding my tent, and taking the same faithful fellows who -brought my baggage from Leh, I spent five weeks on the descent to the -Panjab, journeying through the paradise of Upper Kulu and the -interesting native states of Mandi, Sukket, Bilaspur, and Bhaghat; and -early in November reached the amenities and restraints of the -civilisation of Simla. - -THE END. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Among the Tibetans, by Isabella L. 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Bird—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> - -body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } -h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { text-align: center; clear: both;} -h1 span, h2 span { display: block; margin-bottom: .5em; } -h1 br, h2 br -p { margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent:1em; } -hr { width: 34%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; clear: both;} -table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} - -#author { font-size: 80%; } -div.chapter { page-break-before: always; padding-top: 2em; } -div.chapter h2 { page-break-before: avoid; } -span.chapsub1 { font-size: 80%; } - -td.chap { text-align: center; font-weight: bold; padding-top: 1em; } -td.desc { text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; - padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; } -td.pgno { text-align: right; padding-left: 1em; vertical-align: bottom; } - -a img { border: solid white 2px; } -a img:hover { border: solid blue 2px; } -a:visited img:hover { border: solid purple 2px; } - -.center {text-align: center;} -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.u {text-decoration: underline;} -.caption {font-size: 90%;} -.figcenter { margin: auto; text-align: center;} -.footnote {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em; - padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; } -.fnanchor { vertical-align: top; font-size: .7em; text-decoration: none; } -.label { text-decoration: none; } - - </style> - </head> - <body> -<pre xml:space="preserve"> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Among the Tibetans, by Isabella L. Bird - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Among the Tibetans - -Author: Isabella L. Bird - -Illustrator: Edward Whymper - -Release Date: December 16, 2012 [EBook #41635] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMONG THE TIBETANS *** - - - - -Produced by Suzanne Shell, Asad Razzaki and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_01"></a> <a href="images/gs01.png"><img src="images/gs01s.png" - alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />USMAN SHAH</span> - </div> - <hr /> - <h1> - <span id="title">AMONG THE TIBETANS</span><br /><br /> <span id="author">Isabella - L. Bird</span><br /><br /> <span><small><small>Illustrated by</small></small></span><br /> - <span><small>Edward Whymper</small></span> - </h1> - <p class="center"> - <br /><br /><br />DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.<br /> Mineola, New York - </p> - <hr /> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CONTENTS"></a><span>CONTENTS</span> - </h2> - <div class="center"> - <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - <small>PAGE</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">The Start</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 7 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Shergol and Leh</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 40 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Nubra</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 72 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Manners and Customs</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 101 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Climate and Natural Features</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 130 - </td> - </tr> - </table> - </div> - <h2> - <a id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a><span>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</span> - </h2> - <div class="center"> - <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - <small>PAGE</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_01">Usman Shah</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - <i>Frontispiece</i> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_02">The Start from Srinagar</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 13 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_03">Camp at Gagangair</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 18 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_04">Sonamarg</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 21 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_05">A hand Prayer-Cylinder</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 42 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_06">Tibetan Girl</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 45 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_07">Gonpo of Spitak</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 51 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_08">Leh</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 57 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_09">A Chod-Ten</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 66 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_10">A Lama</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 74 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_11">Three Gopas</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 77 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_12">Some Instruments of Buddhist Worship</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 86 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_13">Monastic Buildings at Basgu</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 93 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_14">The Yak (<i>Bos grunniens</i>)</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 100 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_15">A Chang-pa Woman</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 102 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_16">Chang-pa Chief</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 110 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_17">The Castle of Stok</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 117 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_18">First Village in Kulu</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 125 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_19">A Tibetan Farm-house</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 133 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_20">Lahul Valley</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 141 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_21">Gonpo at Kylang</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 149 - </td> - </tr> - </table> - </div> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_I"></a><span>CHAPTER I</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">THE START</span> - </h2> - <p> - The Vale of Kashmir is too well known to require description. It is the - 'happy hunting-ground' of the Anglo-Indian sportsman and tourist, the - resort of artists and invalids, the home of <i>pashm</i> shawls and - exquisitely embroidered fabrics, and the land of Lalla Rookh. Its - inhabitants, chiefly Moslems, infamously governed by Hindus, are a - feeble race, attracting little interest, valuable to travellers as - 'coolies' or porters, and repulsive to them from the mingled cunning and - obsequiousness which have been fostered by ages of oppression. But even - for them there is the dawn of hope, for the Church Missionary Society - has a strong medical and educational mission at the capital, a hospital - and dispensary under the charge of a lady M.D. have been opened for - women, and a capable and upright 'settlement officer,' lent by the - Indian Government, is investigating the iniquitous land arrangements - with a view to a just settlement. - </p> - <p> - I left the Panjāb railroad system at Rawul Pindi, bought my camp - equipage, and travelled through the grand ravines which lead to Kashmir - or the Jhelum Valley by hill-cart, on horseback, and by house-boat, - reaching Srinagar at the end of April, when the velvet lawns were at - their greenest, and the foliage was at its freshest, and the - deodar-skirted mountains which enclose this fairest gem of the Himalayas - still wore their winter mantle of unsullied snow. Making Srinagar my - headquarters, I spent two months in travelling in Kashmir, half the time - in a native house-boat on the Jhelum and Pohru rivers, and the other - half on horseback, camping wherever the scenery was most attractive. - </p> - <p> - By the middle of June mosquitos were rampant, the grass was tawny, a - brown dust haze hung over the valley, the camp-fires of a multitude - glared through the hot nights and misty moonlight of the Munshibagh, - English tents dotted the landscape, there was no mountain, valley, or - plateau, however remote, free from the clatter of English voices and the - trained servility of Hindu servants, and even Sonamarg, at an altitude - of 8,000 feet and rough of access, had capitulated to lawn-tennis. To a - traveller this Anglo-Indian hubbub was intolerable, and I left Srinagar - and many kind friends on June 20 for the uplifted plateaux of Lesser - Tibet. My party consisted of myself, a thoroughly competent servant and - passable interpreter, Hassan Khan, a Panjābi; a <i>seis</i>, of whom the - less that is said the better; and Mando, a Kashmiri lad, a common - coolie, who, under Hassan Khan's training, developed into an efficient - travelling servant, and later into a smart <i>khītmatgar</i>. - </p> - <p> - Gyalpo, my horse, must not be forgotten—indeed, he cannot be, for - he left the marks of his heels or teeth on every one. He was a beautiful - creature, Badakshani bred, of Arab blood, a silver-grey, as light as a - greyhound and as strong as a cart-horse. He was higher in the scale of - intellect than any horse of my acquaintance. His cleverness at times - suggested reasoning power, and his mischievousness a sense of humour. He - walked five miles an hour, jumped like a deer, climbed like a <i>yak</i>, - was strong and steady in perilous fords, tireless, hardy, hungry, - frolicked along ledges of precipices and over crevassed glaciers, was - absolutely fearless, and his slender legs and the use he made of them - were the marvel of all. He was an enigma to the end. He was quite - untamable, rejected all dainties with indignation, swung his heels into - people's faces when they went near him, ran at them with his teeth, - seized unwary passers-by by their <i>kamar bands</i>, and shook them as - a dog shakes a rat, would let no one go near him but Mando, for whom he - formed at first sight a most singular attachment, but kicked and struck - with his forefeet, his eyes all the time dancing with fun, so that one - could never decide whether his ceaseless pranks were play or vice. He - was always tethered in front of my tent with a rope twenty feet long, - which left him practically free; he was as good as a watchdog, and his - antics and enigmatical savagery were the life and terror of the camp. I - was never weary of watching him, the curves of his form were so - exquisite, his movements so lithe and rapid, his small head and restless - little ears so full of life and expression, the variations in his manner - so frequent, one moment savagely attacking some unwary stranger with a - scream of rage, the next laying his lovely head against Mando's cheek - with a soft cooing sound and a childlike gentleness. When he was - attacking anybody or frolicking, his movements and beauty can only be - described by a phrase of the Apostle James, 'the grace of the fashion of - it.' Colonel Durand, of Gilgit celebrity, to whom I am indebted for many - other kindnesses, gave him to me in exchange for a cowardly, heavy - Yarkand horse, and had previously vainly tried to tame him. His wild - eyes were like those of a seagull. He had no kinship with humanity. - </p> - <p> - In addition, I had as escort an Afghan or Pathan, a soldier of the - Maharajah's irregular force of foreign mercenaries, who had been sent to - meet me when I entered Kashmir. This man, Usman Shah, was a stage - ruffian in appearance. He wore a turban of prodigious height ornamented - with poppies or birds' feathers, loved fantastic colours and ceaseless - change of raiment, walked in front of me carrying a big sword over his - shoulder, plundered and beat the people, terrified the women, and was - eventually recognised at Leh as a murderer, and as great a ruffian in - reality as he was in appearance. An attendant of this kind is a mistake. - The brutality and rapacity he exercises naturally make the people - cowardly or surly, and disinclined to trust a traveller so accompanied. - </p> - <p> - Finally, I had a Cabul tent, 7 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 6 in., weighing, with - poles and iron pins, 75 lbs., a trestle bed and cork mattress, a folding - table and chair, and an Indian <i>dhurrie</i> as a carpet. - </p> - <p> - My servants had a tent 5 ft. 6 in. square, weighing only 10 lbs., which - served as a shelter tent for me during the noonday halt. A kettle, - copper pot, and frying pan, a few enamelled iron table equipments, - bedding, clothing, working and sketching materials, completed my outfit. - The servants carried wadded quilts for beds and bedding, and their own - cooking utensils, unwillingness to use those belonging to a Christian - being nearly the last rag of religion which they retained. The only - stores I carried were tea, a quantity of Edwards' desiccated soup, and a - little saccharin. The 'house,' furniture, clothing, &c., were a - light load for three mules, engaged at a shilling a day each, including - the muleteer. Sheep, coarse flour, milk, and barley were procurable at - very moderate prices on the road. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_02"></a> <a href="images/gs02.png"><img - src="images/gs02s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THE - START FROM SRINAGAR</span> - </div> - <p> - Leh, the capital of Ladakh or Lesser Tibet, is nineteen marches from - Srinagar, but I occupied twenty-six days on the journey, and made the - first 'march' by water, taking my house-boat to Ganderbal, a few hours - from Srinagar, <i>viâ</i> the Mar Nullah and Anchar Lake. Never had this - Venice of the Himalayas, with a broad rushing river for its high street - and winding canals for its back streets, looked so entrancingly - beautiful as in the slant sunshine of the late June afternoon. The light - fell brightly on the river at the Residency stairs where I embarked, on - <i>perindas</i> and state barges, with their painted arabesques, gay - canopies, and 'banks' of thirty and forty crimson-clad, blue-turbaned, - paddling men; on the gay façade and gold-domed temple of the Maharajah's - Palace, on the massive deodar bridges which for centuries have defied - decay and the fierce flood of the Jhelum, and on the quaintly - picturesque wooden architecture and carved brown lattice fronts of the - houses along the swirling waterway, and glanced mirthfully through the - dense leafage of the superb planes which overhang the dark-green water. - But the mercury was 92° in the shade and the sun-blaze terrific, and it - was a relief when the boat swung round a corner, and left the stir of - the broad, rapid Jhelum for a still, narrow, and sharply winding canal, - which intersects a part of Srinagar lying between the Jhelum and the - hill-crowning fort of Hari Parbat. There the shadows were deep, and - chance lights alone fell on the red dresses of the women at the ghats, - and on the shaven, shiny heads of hundreds of amphibious boys who were - swimming and aquatically romping in the canal, which is at once the - sewer and the water supply of the district. - </p> - <p> - Several hours were spent in a slow and tortuous progress through scenes - of indescribable picturesqueness—a narrow waterway spanned by - sharp-angled stone bridges, some of them with houses on the top, or by - old brown wooden bridges festooned with vines, hemmed in by lofty stone - embankments into which sculptured stones from ancient temples are - wrought, on the top of which are houses of rich men, fancifully built, - with windows of fretwork of wood, or gardens with kiosks, and lower - embankments sustaining many-balconied dwellings, rich in colour and - fantastic in design, their upper fronts projecting over the water and - supported on piles. There were gigantic poplars wreathed with vines, - great mulberry trees hanging their tempting fruit just out of reach, - huge planes overarching the water, their dense leafage scraping the mat - roof of the boat; filthy ghats thronged with white-robed Moslems - performing their scanty religious ablutions; great grain boats heavily - thatched, containing not only families, but their sheep and poultry; and - all the other sights of a crowded Srinagar waterway, the houses being - characteristically distorted and out of repair. This canal gradually - widens into the Anchar Lake, a reedy mere of indefinite boundaries, the - breeding-ground of legions of mosquitos; and after the tawny twilight - darkened into a stifling night we made fast to a reed bed, not reaching - Ganderbal till late the next morning, where my horse and caravan awaited - me under a splendid plane-tree. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_03"></a> <a href="images/gs03.png"><img - src="images/gs03s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />CAMP - AT GAGANGAIR</span> - </div> - <p> - For the next five days we marched up the Sind Valley, one of the most - beautiful in Kashmir from its grandeur and variety. Beginning among - quiet rice-fields and brown agricultural villages at an altitude of - 5,000 feet, the track, usually bad and sometimes steep and perilous, - passes through flower-gemmed alpine meadows, along dark gorges above the - booming and rushing Sind, through woods matted with the sweet white - jasmine, the lower hem of the pine and deodar forests which ascend the - mountains to a considerable altitude, past rifts giving glimpses of - dazzling snow-peaks, over grassy slopes dotted with villages, houses, - and shrines embosomed in walnut groves, in sight of the frowning crags - of Haramuk, through wooded lanes and park-like country over which farms - are thinly scattered, over unrailed and shaky bridges, and across - avalanche slopes, till it reaches Gagangair, a dream of lonely beauty, - with a camping-ground of velvety sward under noble plane-trees. Above - this place the valley closes in between walls of precipices and crags, - which rise almost abruptly from the Sind to heights of 8,000 and 10,000 - feet. The road in many places is only a series of steep and shelving - ledges above the raging river, natural rock smoothed and polished into - riskiness by the passage for centuries of the trade into Central Asia - from Western India, Kashmir, and Afghanistan. Its precariousness for - animals was emphasised to me by five serious accidents which occurred in - the week of my journey, one of them involving the loss of the money, - clothing, and sporting kit of an English officer bound for Ladakh for - three months. Above this tremendous gorge the mountains open out, and - after crossing to the left bank of the Sind a sharp ascent brought me to - the beautiful alpine meadow of Sonamarg, bright with spring flowers, - gleaming with crystal streams, and fringed on all sides by deciduous and - coniferous trees, above and among which are great glaciers and the snowy - peaks of Tilail. Fashion has deserted Sonamarg, rough of access, for - Gulmarg, a caprice indicated by the ruins of several huts and of a - church. The pure bracing air, magnificent views, the proximity and - accessibility of glaciers, and the presence of a kind friend who was - 'hutted' there for the summer, made Sonamarg a very pleasant halt before - entering upon the supposed severities of the journey to Lesser Tibet. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_04"></a> <a href="images/gs04.png"><img - src="images/gs04s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />SONAMARG</span> - </div> - <p> - The five days' march, though propitious and full of the charm of - magnificent scenery, had opened my eyes to certain unpleasantnesses. I - found that Usman Shah maltreated the villagers, and not only robbed them - of their best fowls, but requisitioned all manner of things in my name, - though I scrupulously and personally paid for everything, beating the - people with his scabbarded sword if they showed any intention of - standing upon their rights. Then I found that my clever factotum, not - content with the legitimate 'squeeze' of ten per cent., was charging me - double price for everything and paying the sellers only half the actual - price, this legerdemain being perpetrated in my presence. He also by - threats got back from the coolies half their day's wages after I had - paid them, received money for barley for Gyalpo, and never bought it, a - fact brought to light by the growing feebleness of the horse, and - cheated in all sorts of mean and plausible ways, though I paid him - exceptionally high wages, and was prepared to 'wink' at a moderate - amount of dishonesty, so long as it affected only myself. It has a - lowering influence upon one to live in a fog of lies and fraud, and the - attempt to checkmate a fraudulent Asiatic ends in extreme discomfiture. - </p> - <p> - I left Sonamarg late on a lovely afternoon for a short march through - forest-skirted alpine meadows to Baltal, the last camping-ground in - Kashmir, a grassy valley at the foot of the Zoji La, the first of three - gigantic steps by which the lofty plateaux of Central Asia are attained. - On the road a large affluent of the Sind, which tumbles down a pine-hung - gorge in broad sheets of foam, has to be crossed. My <i>seis</i>, a - rogue, was either half-witted or pretended to be so, and, in spite of - orders to the contrary, led Gyalpo upon a bridge at a considerable - height, formed of two poles with flat pieces of stone laid loosely over - them not more than a foot broad. As the horse reached the middle, the - structure gave a sort of turn, there was a vision of hoofs in air and a - gleam of scarlet, and Gyalpo, the hope of the next four months, after - rolling over more than once, vanished among rocks and surges of the - wildest description. He kept his presence of mind, however, recovered - himself, and by a desperate effort got ashore lower down, with legs - scratched and bleeding and one horn of the saddle incurably bent. - </p> - <p> - Mr. Maconochie of the Panjāb Civil Service, and Dr. E. Neve of the C. M. - S. Medical Mission in Kashmir, accompanied me from Sonamarg over the - pass, and that night Mr. M. talked seriously to Usman Shah on the - subject of his misconduct, and with such singular results that - thereafter I had little cause for complaint. He came to me and said, - 'The Commissioner Sahib thinks I give Mem Sahib a great deal of - trouble;' to which I replied in a cold tone, 'Take care you don't give - me any more.' The gist of the Sahib's words was the very pertinent - suggestion that it would eventually be more to his interest to serve me - honestly and faithfully than to cheat me. - </p> - <p> - Baltal lies at the feet of a precipitous range, the peaks of which - exceed Mont Blanc in height. Two gorges unite there. There is not a hut - within ten miles. Big camp-fires blazed. A few shepherds lay under the - shelter of a mat screen. The silence and solitude were most impressive - under the frosty stars and the great Central Asian barrier. Sunrise the - following morning saw us on the way up a huge gorge with nearly - perpendicular sides, and filled to a great depth with snow. Then came - the Zoji La, which, with the Namika La and the Fotu La, respectively - 11,300, 13,000, and 13,500 feet, are the three great steps from Kashmir - to the Tibetan heights. The two latter passes present no difficulties. - The Zoji La is a thoroughly severe pass, the worst, with the exception - perhaps of the Sasir, on the Yarkand caravan route. The track, cut, - broken, and worn on the side of a wall of rock nearly 2,000 feet in - abrupt elevation, is a series of rough narrow zigzags, rarely, if ever, - wide enough for laden animals to pass each other, composed of broken - ledges often nearly breast high, and shelving surfaces of abraded rock, - up which animals have to leap and scramble as best they may. - </p> - <p> - Trees and trailers drooped over the path, ferns and lilies bloomed in - moist recesses, and among myriads of flowers a large blue and cream - columbine was conspicuous by its beauty and exquisite odour. The charm - of the detail tempted one to linger at every turn, and all the more so - because I knew that I should see nothing more of the grace and - bounteousness of Nature till my projected descent into Kulu in the late - autumn. The snow-filled gorge on whose abrupt side the path hangs, the - Zoji La (Pass), is geographically remarkable as being the lowest - depression in the great Himalayan range for 300 miles; and by it, in - spite of infamous bits of road on the Sind and Suru rivers, and - consequent losses of goods and animals, all the traffic of Kashmir, - Afghanistan, and the Western Panjāb finds its way into Central Asia. It - was too early in the season, however, for more than a few enterprising - caravans to be on the road. - </p> - <p> - The last look upon Kashmir was a lingering one. Below, in shadow, lay - the Baltal camping-ground, a lonely deodar-belted flowery meadow, noisy - with the dash of icy torrents tumbling down from the snowfields and - glaciers upborne by the gigantic mountain range into which we had - penetrated by the Zoji Pass. The valley, lying in shadow at their base, - was a dream of beauty, green as an English lawn, starred with white - lilies, and dotted with clumps of trees which were festooned with red - and white roses, clematis, and white jasmine. Above the hardier - deciduous trees appeared the <i>Pinus excelsa</i>, the silver fir, and - the spruce; higher yet the stately grace of the deodar clothed the - hillsides; and above the forests rose the snow mountains of Tilail, pink - in the sunrise. High above the Zoji, itself 11,500 feet in altitude, a - mass of grey and red mountains, snow-slashed and snow-capped, rose in - the dewy rose-flushed atmosphere in peaks, walls, pinnacles, and jagged - ridges, above which towered yet loftier summits, bearing into the - heavenly blue sky fields of unsullied snow alone. The descent on the - Tibetan side is slight and gradual. The character of the scenery - undergoes an abrupt change. There are no more trees, and the large - shrubs which for a time take their place degenerate into thorny bushes, - and then disappear. There were mountains thinly clothed with grass here - and there, mountains of bare gravel and red rock, grey crags, stretches - of green turf, sunlit peaks with their snows, a deep, snow-filled - ravine, eastwards and beyond a long valley filled with a snowfield - fringed with pink primulas; and that was <span class="smcap">Central - Asia</span>. - </p> - <p> - We halted for breakfast, iced our cold tea in the snow, Mr. M. gave a - final charge to the Afghan, who swore by his Prophet to be faithful, and - I parted from my kind escorts with much reluctance, and started on my - Tibetan journey, with but a slender stock of Hindustani, and two men who - spoke not a word of English. On that day's march of fourteen miles there - is not a single hut. The snowfield extended for five miles, from ten to - seventy feet deep, much crevassed, and encumbered with avalanches. In it - the Dras, truly 'snow-born,' appeared, issuing from a chasm under a blue - arch of ice and snow, afterwards to rage down the valley, to be forded - many times or crossed on snow bridges. After walking for some time, and - getting a bad fall down an avalanche slope, I mounted Gyalpo, and the - clever, plucky fellow frolicked over the snow, smelt and leapt crevasses - which were too wide to be stepped over, put his forelegs together and - slid down slopes like a Swiss mule, and, though carried off his feet in - a ford by the fierce surges of the Dras, struggled gamely to shore. - Steep grassy hills, and peaks with gorges cleft by the thundering Dras, - and stretches of rolling grass succeeded each other. Then came a wide - valley mostly covered with stones brought down by torrents, a few plots - of miserable barley grown by irrigation, and among them two buildings of - round stones and mud, about six feet high, with flat mud roofs, one of - which might be called the village, and the other the caravanserai. On - the village roof were stacks of twigs and of the dried dung of animals, - which is used for fuel, and the whole female population, adult and - juvenile, engaged in picking wool. The people of this village of Matayan - are Kashmiris. As I had an hour to wait for my tent, the women descended - and sat in a circle round me with a concentrated stare. They asked if I - were dumb, and why I wore no earrings or necklace, their own persons - being loaded with heavy ornaments. They brought children afflicted with - skin-diseases, and asked for ointment, and on hearing that I was hurt by - a fall, seized on my limbs and shampooed them energetically but not - undexterously. I prefer their sociability to the usual chilling - aloofness of the people of Kashmir. - </p> - <p> - The Serai consisted of several dark and dirty cells, built round a - blazing piece of sloping dust, the only camping-ground, and under the - entrance two platforms of animated earth, on which my servants cooked - and slept. The next day was Sunday, sacred to a halt; but there was no - fodder for the animals, and we were obliged to march to Dras, following, - where possible, the course of the river of that name, which passes among - highly-coloured and snow-slashed mountains, except in places where it - suddenly finds itself pent between walls of flame-coloured or black - rock, not ten feet apart, through which it boils and rages, forming - gigantic pot-holes. With every mile the surroundings became more - markedly of the Central Asian type. All day long a white, scintillating - sun blazes out of a deep blue, rainless, cloudless sky. The air is - exhilarating. The traveller is conscious of daily-increasing energy and - vitality. There are no trees, and deep crimson roses along torrent beds - are the only shrubs. But for a brief fortnight in June, which chanced to - occur during my journey, the valleys and lower slope present a wonderful - aspect of beauty and joyousness. Rose and pale pink primulas fringe the - margin of the snow, the dainty <i>Pedicularis tubiflora</i> covers moist - spots with its mantle of gold; great yellow and white, and small purple - and white anemones, pink and white dianthus, a very large myosotis, - bringing the intense blue of heaven down to earth, purple orchids by the - water, borage staining whole tracts deep blue, martagon lilies, pale - green lilies veined and spotted with brown, yellow, orange, and purple - vetches, painter's brush, dwarf dandelions, white clover, filling the - air with fragrance, pink and cream asters, chrysanthemums, lychnis, - irises, gentian, artemisia, and a hundred others, form the undergrowth - of millions of tall Umbelliferae and Compositae, many of them - peach-scented and mostly yellow. The wind is always strong, and the - millions of bright corollas, drinking in the sun-blaze which perfects - all too soon their brief but passionate existence, rippled in broad - waves of colour with an almost kaleidoscopic effect. About the eleventh - march from Srinagar, at Kargil, a change for the worse occurs, and the - remaining marches to the capital of Ladakh are over blazing gravel or - surfaces of denuded rock, the singular <i>Caprifolia horrida</i>, with - its dark-green mass of wavy ovate leaves on trailing stems, and its - fair, white, anemone-like blossom, and the graceful <i>Clematis - orientalis</i>, the only vegetation. - </p> - <p> - Crossing a raging affluent of the Dras by a bridge which swayed and - shivered, the top of a steep hill offered a view of a great valley with - branches sloping up into the ravines of a complexity of mountain ranges, - from 18,000 to 21,000 feet in altitude, with glaciers at times - descending as low as 11,000 feet in their hollows. In consequence of - such possibilities of irrigation, the valley is green with irrigated - grass and barley, and villages with flat roofs scattered among the - crops, or perched on the spurs of flame-coloured mountains, give it a - wild cheerfulness. These Dras villages are inhabited by hardy Dards and - Baltis, short, jolly-looking, darker, and far less handsome than the - Kashmiris; but, unlike them, they showed so much friendliness, as well - as interest and curiosity, that I remained with them for two days, - visiting their villages and seeing the 'sights' they had to show me, - chiefly a great Sikh fort, a <i>yak</i> bull, the <i>zho</i>, a hybrid, - the interiors of their houses, a magnificent view from a hilltop, and a - Dard dance to the music of Dard reed pipes. In return I sketched them - individually and collectively as far as time allowed, presenting them - with the results, truthful and ugly. I bought a sheep for 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i>, - and regaled the camp upon it, the three which were brought for my - inspection being ridden by boys astride. - </p> - <p> - The evenings in the Dras valley were exquisite. As soon as the sun went - behind the higher mountains, peak above peak, red and snow-slashed, - flamed against a lemon sky, the strong wind moderated into a pure stiff - breeze, bringing up to camp the thunder of the Dras, and the musical - tinkle of streams sparkling in absolute purity. There was no more need - for boiling and filtering. Icy water could be drunk in safety from every - crystal torrent. - </p> - <p> - Leaving behind the Dras villages and their fertility, the narrow road - passes through a flaming valley above the Dras, walled in by bare, - riven, snow-patched peaks, with steep declivities of stones, huge - boulders, decaying avalanches, walls and spires of rock, some vermilion, - others pink, a few intense orange, some black, and many plum-coloured, - with a vitrified look, only to be represented by purple madder. Huge red - chasms with glacier-fed torrents, occasional snowfields, intense solar - heat radiating from dry and verdureless rock, a ravine so steep and - narrow that for miles together there is not space to pitch a five-foot - tent, the deafening roar of a river gathering volume and fury as it - goes, rare openings, where willows are planted with lucerne in their - irrigated shade, among which the traveller camps at night, and over all - a sky of pure, intense blue purpling into starry night, were the - features of the next three marches, noteworthy chiefly for the exchange - of the thundering Dras for the thundering Suru, and for some bad bridges - and infamous bits of road before reaching Kargil, where the mountains - swing apart, giving space to several villages. Miles of alluvium are - under irrigation there, poplars, willows, and apricots abound, and on - some damp sward under their shade at a great height I halted for two - days to enjoy the magnificence of the scenery and the refreshment of the - greenery. These Kargil villages are the capital of the small State of - Purik, under the Governorship of Baltistan or Little Tibet, and are - chiefly inhabited by Ladakhis who have become converts to Islam. Racial - characteristics, dress, and manners are everywhere effaced or toned down - by Mohammedanism, and the chilling aloofness and haughty bearing of - Islam were very pronounced among these converts. - </p> - <p> - The daily routine of the journey was as follows: By six a.m. I sent on a - coolie carrying the small tent and lunch basket to await me half-way. - Before seven I started myself, with Usman Shah in front of me, leaving - the servants to follow with the caravan. On reaching the shelter tent I - halted for two hours, or till the caravan had got a good start after - passing me. At the end of the march I usually found the tent pitched on - irrigated ground, near a hamlet, the headman of which provided milk, - fuel, fodder, and other necessaries at fixed prices. 'Afternoon tea' was - speedily prepared, and dinner, consisting of roast meat and boiled rice, - was ready two hours later. After dinner I usually conversed with the - headman on local interests, and was in bed soon after eight. The - servants and muleteers fed and talked till nine, when the sound of their - 'hubble-bubbles' indicated that they were going to sleep, like most - Orientals, with their heads closely covered with their wadded quilts. - Before starting each morning the account was made out, and I paid the - headman personally. - </p> - <p> - The vagaries of the Afghan soldier, when they were not a cause of - annoyance, were a constant amusement, though his ceaseless changes of - finery and the daily growth of his baggage awakened grave suspicions. - The swashbuckler marched four miles an hour in front of me with a - swinging military stride, a large scimitar in a heavily ornamented - scabbard over his shoulder. Tanned socks and sandals, black or white - leggings wound round from ankle to knee with broad bands of orange or - scarlet serge, white cambric knickerbockers, a white cambric shirt, with - a short white muslin frock with hanging sleeves and a leather girdle - over it, a red-peaked cap with a dark-blue <i>pagri</i> wound round it, - with one end hanging over his back, earrings, a necklace, bracelets, and - a profusion of rings, were his ordinary costume; and in his girdle he - wore a dirk and a revolver, and suspended from it a long tobacco pouch - made of the furry skin of some animal, a large leather purse, and - etceteras. As the days went on he blossomed into blue and white muslin - with a scarlet sash, wore a gold embroidered peak and a huge white - muslin turban, with much change of ornaments, and appeared frequently - with a great bunch of poppies or a cluster of crimson roses surmounting - all. His headgear was colossal. It and the head together must have been - fully a third of his total height. He was a most fantastic object, and - very observant and skilful in his attentions to me; but if I had known - what I afterwards knew, I should have hesitated about taking these long - lonely marches with him for my sole attendant. Between Hassan Khan and - this Afghan violent hatred and jealousy existed. - </p> - <p> - I have mentioned roads, and my road as the great caravan route from - Western India into Central Asia. This is a fitting time for an - explanation. The traveller who aspires to reach the highlands of Tibet - from Kashmir cannot be borne along in a carriage or hill-cart. For much - of the way he is limited to a foot pace, and if he has regard to his - horse he walks down all rugged and steep descents, which are many, and - dismounts at most bridges. By 'roads' must be understood bridle-paths, - worn by traffic alone across the gravelly valleys, but elsewhere - constructed with great toil and expense, as Nature compels the - road-maker to follow her lead, and carry his track along the narrow - valleys, ravines, gorges, and chasms which she has marked out for him. - For miles at a time this road has been blasted out of precipices from - 1,000 feet to 3,000 feet in depth, and is merely a ledge above a raging - torrent, the worst parts, chiefly those round rocky projections, being - 'scaffolded,' i. e. poles are lodged horizontally among the crevices of - the cliff, and the roadway of slabs, planks, and brushwood, or branches - and sods, is laid loosely upon them. This track is always amply wide - enough for a loaded beast, but in many places, when two caravans meet, - the animals of one must give way and scramble up the mountain-side, - where foothold is often perilous, and always difficult. In passing a - caravan near Kargil my servant's horse was pushed over the precipice by - a loaded mule and drowned in the Suru, and at another time my Afghan - caused the loss of a baggage mule of a Leh caravan by driving it off the - track. To scatter a caravan so as to allow me to pass in solitary - dignity he regarded as one of his functions, and on one occasion, on a - very dangerous part of the road, as he was driving heavily laden mules - up the steep rocks above, to their imminent peril and the distraction of - their drivers, I was obliged to strike up his sword with my alpenstock - to emphasise my abhorrence of his violence. The bridges are unrailed, - and many of them are made by placing two or more logs across the stream, - laying twigs across, and covering these with sods, but often so scantily - that the wild rush of the water is seen below. Primitive as these - bridges are, they involve great expense and difficulty in the bringing - of long poplar logs for great distances along narrow mountain tracks by - coolie labour, fifty men being required for the average log. The Ladakhi - roads are admirable as compared with those of Kashmir, and are being - constantly improved under the supervision of H. B. M.'s Joint - Commissioner in Leh. - </p> - <p> - Up to Kargil the scenery, though growing more Tibetan with every march, - had exhibited at intervals some traces of natural verdure; but beyond, - after leaving the Suru, there is not a green thing, and on the next - march the road crosses a lofty, sandy plateau, on which the heat was - terrible—blazing gravel and a blazing heaven, then fiery cliffs - and scorched hillsides, then a deep ravine and the large village of - Paskim (dominated by a fort-crowned rock), and some planted and - irrigated acres; then a narrow ravine and magnificent scenery flaming - with colour, which opens out after some miles on a burning chaos of - rocks and sand, mountain-girdled, and on some remarkable dwellings on a - steep slope, with religious buildings singularly painted. This is - Shergol, the first village of Buddhists, and there I was 'among the - Tibetans.' - </p> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_II"></a><span>CHAPTER II</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">SHERGOL AND LEH</span> - </h2> - <p> - The chaos of rocks and sand, walled in by vermilion and orange - mountains, on which the village of Shergol stands, offered no facilities - for camping; but somehow the men managed to pitch my tent on a steep - slope, where I had to place my trestle bed astride an irrigation - channel, down which the water bubbled noisily, on its way to keep alive - some miserable patches of barley. At Shergol and elsewhere fodder is so - scarce that the grain is not cut, but pulled up by the roots. - </p> - <p> - The intensely human interest of the journey began at that point. Not - greater is the contrast between the grassy slopes and deodar-clothed - mountains of Kashmir and the flaming aridity of Lesser Tibet, than - between the tall, dark, handsome natives of the one, with their - statuesque and shrinking women, and the ugly, short, squat, - yellow-skinned, flat-nosed, oblique-eyed, uncouth-looking people of the - other. The Kashmiris are false, cringing, and suspicious; the Tibetans - truthful, independent, and friendly, one of the pleasantest of peoples. - I 'took' to them at once at Shergol, and terribly faulty though their - morals are in some respects, I found no reason to change my good opinion - of them in the succeeding four months. - </p> - <p> - The headman or <i>go-pa</i> came to see me, introduced me to the objects - of interest, which are a <i>gonpo</i>, or monastery, built into the - rock, with a brightly coloured front, and three <i>chod-tens</i>, or - relic-holders, painted blue, red, and yellow, and daubed with coarse - arabesques and representations of deities, one having a striking - resemblance to Mr. Gladstone. The houses are of mud, with flat roofs; - but, being summer, many of them were roofless, the poplar rods which - support the mud having been used for fuel. Conical stacks of the dried - excreta of animals, the chief fuel of the country, adorned the roofs, - but the general aspect was ruinous and poor. The people all invited me - into their dark and dirty rooms, inhabited also by goats, offered tea - and cheese, and felt my clothes. They looked the wildest of savages, but - they are not. No house was so poor as not to have its 'family altar,' - its shelf of wooden gods, and table of offerings. A religious atmosphere - pervades Tibet, and gives it a singular sense of novelty. Not only were - there <i>chod-tens</i> and a <i>gonpo</i> in this poor place, and family - altars, but prayer-wheels, i.e. wooden cylinders filled with rolls of - paper inscribed with prayers, revolving on sticks, to be turned by - passers-by, inscribed cotton bannerets on poles planted in cairns, and - on the roofs long sticks, to which strips of cotton bearing the - universal prayer, <i>Aum mani padne hun</i> (O jewel of the - lotus-flower), are attached. As these wave in the wind the occupants of - the house gain the merit of repeating this sentence. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_05"></a> <a href="images/gs05.png"><img - src="images/gs05s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - HAND PRAYER-CYLINDER</span> - </div> - <p> - The remaining marches to Leh, the capital of Lesser Tibet, were full of - fascination and novelty. Everywhere the Tibetans were friendly and - cordial. In each village I was invited to the headman's house, and taken - by him to visit the chief inhabitants; every traveller, lay and - clerical, passed by with the cheerful salutation <i>Tzu</i>, asked me - where I came from and whither I was going, wished me a good journey, - admired Gyalpo, and when he scaled rock ladders and scrambled gamely - through difficult torrents, cheered him like Englishmen, the general - jollity and cordiality of manners contrasting cheerily with the chilling - aloofness of Moslems. - </p> - <p> - The irredeemable ugliness of the Tibetans produced a deeper impression - daily. It is grotesque, and is heightened, not modified, by their - costume and ornament. They have high cheekbones, broad flat noses - without visible bridges, small, dark, oblique eyes, with heavy lids and - imperceptible eyebrows, wide mouths, full lips, thick, big, projecting - ears, deformed by great hoops, straight black hair nearly as coarse as - horsehair, and short, square, ungainly figures. The faces of the men are - smooth. The women seldom exceed five feet in height, and a man is tall - at five feet four. - </p> - <p> - The male costume is a long, loose, woollen coat with a girdle, trousers, - under-garments, woollen leggings, and a cap with a turned-up point over - each ear. The girdle is the depository of many things dear to a Tibetan—his - purse, rude knife, heavy tinder-box, tobacco pouch, pipe, distaff, and - sundry charms and amulets. In the capacious breast of his coat he - carries wool for spinning—for he spins as he walks—balls of - cold barley dough, and much besides. He wears his hair in a pigtail. The - women wear short, big-sleeved jackets, shortish, full-plaited skirts, - tight trousers a yard too long, the superfluous length forming folds - above the ankle, a sheepskin with the fur outside hangs over the back, - and on gala occasions a sort of drapery is worn over the usual dress. - Felt or straw shoes and many heavy ornaments are worn by both sexes. - Great <i>ears</i> of brocade, lined and edged with fur and attached to - the hair, are worn by the women. Their hair is dressed once a month in - many much-greased plaits, fastened together at the back by a long - tassel. The head-dress is a strip of cloth or leather, sewn over with - large turquoises, carbuncles, and silver ornaments. This hangs in a - point over the brow, broadens over the top of the head, and tapers as it - reaches the waist behind. The ambition of every Tibetan girl is centred - in this singular headgear. Hoops in the ears, necklaces, amulets, - clasps, bangles of brass or silver, and various implements stuck in the - girdle and depending from it, complete a costume pre-eminent in - ugliness. The Tibetans are dirty. They wash once a year, and, except for - festivals, seldom change their clothes till they begin to drop off. They - are healthy and hardy, even the women can carry weights of sixty pounds - over the passes; they attain extreme old age; their voices are harsh and - loud, and their laughter is noisy and hearty. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_06"></a> <a href="images/gs06.png"><img - src="images/gs06s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />TIBETAN - GIRL</span> - </div> - <p> - After leaving Shergol the signs of Buddhism were universal and imposing, - and the same may be said of the whole of the inhabited part of Lesser - Tibet. Colossal figures of Shakya Thubba (Buddha) are carved on faces of - rock, or in wood, stone, or gilded copper sit on lotus thrones in - endless calm near villages of votaries. <i>Chod-tens</i> from twenty to - a hundred feet in height, dedicated to 'holy' men, are scattered over - elevated ground, or in imposing avenues line the approaches to hamlets - and <i>gonpos</i>. There are also countless <i>manis</i>, dykes of stone - from six to sixteen feet in width and from twenty feet to a fourth of a - mile in length, roofed with flattish stones, inscribed by the <i>lamas</i> - (monks) with the phrase <i>Aum</i>, &c., and purchased and deposited - by those who wish to obtain any special benefit from the gods, such as a - safe journey. Then there are prayer-mills, sometimes 150 in a row, which - revolve easily by being brushed by the hand of the passer-by, larger - prayer-cylinders which are turned by pulling ropes, and others larger - still by water-power. The finest of the latter was in a temple - overarching a perennial torrent, and was said to contain 20,000 - repetitions of the mystic phrase, the fee to the worshipper for each - revolution of the cylinder being from 1<i>d.</i> to 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, - according to his means or urgency. - </p> - <p> - The glory and pride of Ladak and Nubra are the <i>gonpos</i>, of which - the illustrations give a slight idea. Their picturesqueness is - absolutely enchanting. They are vast irregular piles of fantastic - buildings, almost invariably crowning lofty isolated rocks or mountain - spurs, reached by steep, rude rock staircases, <i>chod-tens</i> below - and battlemented towers above, with temples, domes, bridges over chasms, - spires, and scaffolded projections gleaming with gold, looking, as at - Lamayuru, the outgrowth of the rock itself. The outer walls are usually - whitewashed, and red, yellow, and brown wooden buildings, broad bands of - red and blue on the whitewash, tridents, prayer-mills, <i>yaks</i>' - tails, and flags on poles give colour and movement, while the jangle of - cymbals, the ringing of bells, the incessant beating of big drums and - gongs, and the braying at intervals of six-foot silver horns, attest the - ritualistic activities of the communities within. The <i>gonpos</i> - contain from two up to three hundred <i>lamas</i>. These are not - cloistered, and their duties take them freely among the people, with - whom they are closely linked, a younger son in every family being a - monk. Every act in trade, agriculture, and social life needs the - sanction of sacerdotalism, whatever exists of wealth is in the <i>gonpos</i>, - which also have a monopoly of learning, and 11,000 monks, linked with - the people, yet ruling all affairs of life and death and beyond death, - are connected closely by education, tradition, and authority with - Lhassa. - </p> - <p> - Passing along faces of precipices and over waterless plateaux of blazing - red gravel—'waste places,' truly—the journey was cheered by - the meeting of red and yellow <i>lamas</i> in companies, each <i>lama</i> - twirling his prayer-cylinder, abbots, and <i>skushoks</i> (the latter - believed to be incarnations of Buddha) with many retainers, or gay - groups of priestly students, intoning in harsh and high-pitched - monotones, <i>Aum mani padne hun</i>. And so past fascinating monastic - buildings, through crystal torrents rushing over red rock, through - flaming ravines, on rock ledges by scaffolded paths, camping in the - afternoons near friendly villages on oases of irrigated alluvium, and - down the Wanla water by the steepest and narrowest cleft ever used for - traffic, I reached the Indus, crossed it by a wooden bridge where its - broad, fierce current is narrowed by rocks to a width of sixty-five - feet, and entered Ladak proper. A picturesque fort guards the bridge, - and there travellers inscribe their names and are reported to Leh. I - camped at Khalsi, a mile higher, but returned to the bridge in the - evening to sketch, if I could, the grim nudity and repulsive horror of - the surrounding mountains, attended only by Usman Shah. A few months - earlier, this ruffian was sent down from Leh with six other soldiers and - an officer to guard the fort, where they became the terror of all who - crossed the bridge by their outrageous levies of blackmail. My - swashbuckler quarrelled with the officer over a disreputable affair, and - one night stabbed him mortally, induced his six comrades to plunge their - knives into the body, sewed it up in a blanket, and threw it into the - Indus, which disgorged it a little lower down. The men were all arrested - and marched to Srinagar, where Usman turned 'king's evidence.' - </p> - <p> - The remaining marches were alongside of the tremendous granite ranges - which divide the Indus from its great tributary, the Shayok. Colossal - scenery, desperate aridity, tremendous solar heat, and an atmosphere - highly rarefied and of nearly intolerable dryness, were the chief - characteristics. At these Tibetan altitudes, where the valleys exceed - 11,000 feet, the sun's rays are even more powerful than on the 'burning - plains of India.' The day wind, rising at 9 a.m., and only falling near - sunset, blows with great heat and force. The solar heat at noon was from - 120° to 130°, and at night the mercury frequently fell below the - freezing point. I did not suffer from the climate, but in the case of - most Europeans the air passages become irritated, the skin cracks, and - after a time the action of the heart is affected. The hair when released - stands out from the head, leather shrivels and splits, horn combs break - to pieces, food dries up, rapid evaporation renders water-colour - sketching nearly impossible, and tea made with water from fifteen to - twenty below the boiling-point of 212 degrees, is flavourless and flat. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_07"></a> <a href="images/gs07.png"><img - src="images/gs07s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />GONPO - OF SPITAK</span> - </div> - <p> - After a delightful journey of twenty-five days I camped at Spitak, among - the <i>chod-tens</i> and <i>manis</i> which cluster round the base of a - lofty and isolated rock, crowned with one of the most striking - monasteries in Ladak, and very early the next morning, under a sun of - terrific fierceness, rode up a five-mile slope of blazing gravel to the - goal of my long march. Even at a short distance off, the Tibetan capital - can scarcely be distinguished from the bare, ribbed, scored, jagged, - vermilion and rose-red mountains which nearly surround it, were it not - for the palace of the former kings or Gyalpos of Ladak, a huge building - attaining ten storeys in height, with massive walls sloping inwards, - while long balconies and galleries, carved projections of brown wood, - and prominent windows, give it a singular picturesqueness. It can be - seen for many miles, and dwarfs the little Central Asian town which - clusters round its base. - </p> - <p> - Long lines of <i>chod-tens</i> and <i>manis</i> mark the approach to - Leh. Then come barley fields and poplar and willow plantations, bright - streams are crossed, and a small gateway, within which is a colony of - very poor Baltis, gives access to the city. In consequence of 'the - vigilance of the guard at the bridge of Khalsi,' I was expected, and was - met at the gate by the wazir's <i>jemadar</i>, or head of police, in - artistic attire, with <i>spahis</i> in apricot turbans, violet <i>chogas</i>, - and green leggings, who cleared the way with spears, Gyalpo frolicking - as merrily and as ready to bite, and the Afghan striding in front as - firmly, as though they had not marched for twenty-five days through the - rugged passes of the Himalayas. In such wise I was escorted to a shady - bungalow of three rooms, in the grounds of H. B. M.'s Joint - Commissioner, who lives at Leh during the four months of the 'caravan - season,' to assist in regulating the traffic and to guard the interests - of the numerous British subjects who pass through Leh with merchandise. - For their benefit also, the Indian Government aids in the support of a - small hospital, open, however, to all, which, with a largely attended - dispensary, is under the charge of a Moravian medical missionary. - </p> - <p> - Just outside the Commissioner's grounds are two very humble whitewashed - dwellings, with small gardens brilliant with European flowers; and in - these the two Moravian missionaries, the only permanent European - residents in Leh, were living, Mr. Redslob and Dr. Karl Marx, with their - wives. Dr. Marx was at his gate to welcome me. - </p> - <p> - To these two men, especially the former, I owe a debt of gratitude which - in no shape, not even by the hearty acknowledgment of it, can ever be - repaid, for they died within a few days of each other, of an epidemic, - last year, Dr. Marx and a new-born son being buried in one grave. For - twenty-five years Mr. Redslob, a man of noble physique and intellect, a - scholar and linguist, an expert botanist and an admirable artist, - devoted himself to the welfare of the Tibetans, and though his great aim - was to Christianize them, he gained their confidence so thoroughly by - his virtues, kindness, profound Tibetan scholarship, and manliness, that - he was loved and welcomed everywhere, and is now mourned for as the best - and truest friend the people ever had. - </p> - <p> - I had scarcely finished breakfast when he called; a man of great height - and strong voice, with a cheery manner, a face beaming with kindness, - and speaking excellent English. Leh was the goal of my journey, but Mr. - Redslob came with a proposal to escort me over the great passes to the - northward for a three weeks' journey to Nubra, a district formed of the - combined valleys of the Shayok and Nubra rivers, tributaries of the - Indus, and abounding in interest. Of course I at once accepted an offer - so full of advantages, and the performance was better even than the - promise. - </p> - <p> - Two days were occupied in making preparations, but afterwards I spent a - fortnight in my tent at Leh, a city by no means to be passed over - without remark, for, though it and the region of which it is the capital - are very remote from the thoughts of most readers, it is one of the - centres of Central Asian commerce. There all traders from India, - Kashmir, and Afghanistan must halt for animals and supplies on their way - to Yarkand and Khotan, and there also merchants from the mysterious city - of Lhassa do a great business in brick tea and in Lhassa wares, chiefly - ecclesiastical. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_08"></a> <a href="images/gs08.png"><img - src="images/gs08s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />LEH</span> - </div> - <p> - The situation of Leh is a grand one, the great Kailas range, with its - glaciers and snowfields, rising just behind it to the north, its passes - alone reaching an altitude of nearly 18,000 feet; while to the south, - across a gravelly descent and the Indus Valley, rise great red ranges - dominated by snow-peaks exceeding 21,000 feet in altitude. The centre of - Leh is a wide bazaar, where much polo is played in the afternoons; and - above this the irregular, flat-roofed, many-balconied houses of the town - cluster round the palace and a gigantic <i>chod-ten</i> alongside it. - The rugged crest of the rock on a spur of which the palace stands is - crowned by the fantastic buildings of an ancient <i>gonpo</i>. Beyond - the crops and plantations which surround the town lies a flaming desert - of gravel or rock. The architectural features of Leh, except of the - palace, are mean. A new mosque glaring with vulgar colour, a treasury - and court of justice, the wazir's bungalow, a Moslem cemetery, and - Buddhist cremation grounds, in which each family has its separate - burning place, are all that is noteworthy. The narrow alleys, which - would be abominably dirty if dirt were possible in a climate of such - intense dryness, house a very mixed population, in which the Moslem - element is always increasing, partly owing to the renewal of that - proselytising energy which is making itself felt throughout Asia, and - partly to the marriages of Moslem traders with Ladaki women, who embrace - the faith of their husbands and bring up their families in the same. - </p> - <p> - On my arrival few of the shops in the great <i>place</i>, or bazaar, - were open, and there was no business; but a few weeks later the little - desert capital nearly doubled its population, and during August the din - and stir of trade and amusements ceased not by day or night, and the - shifting scenes were as gay in colouring and as full of variety as could - be desired. - </p> - <p> - Great caravans <i>en route</i> for Khotan, Yarkand, and even Chinese - Tibet arrived daily from Kashmir, the Panjāb, and Afghanistan, and - stacked their bales of goods in the <i>place</i>; the Lhassa traders - opened shops in which the specialties were brick tea and instruments of - worship; merchants from Amritsar, Cabul, Bokhara, and Yarkand, stately - in costume and gait, thronged the bazaar and opened bales of costly - goods in tantalising fashion; mules, asses, horses, and <i>yaks</i> - kicked, squealed, and bellowed; the dissonance of bargaining tongues - rose high; there were mendicant monks, Indian fakirs, Moslem dervishes, - Mecca pilgrims, itinerant musicians, and Buddhist ballad howlers; - bold-faced women with creels on their backs brought in lucerne; Ladakis, - Baltis, and Lahulis tended the beasts, and the wazir's <i>jemadar</i> - and gay <i>spahis</i> moved about among the throngs. In the midst of - this picturesque confusion, the short, square-built, Lhassa traders, who - face the blazing sun in heavy winter clothing, exchange their expensive - tea for Nubra and Baltistan dried apricots, Kashmir saffron, and rich - stuffs from India; and merchants from Yarkand on big Turkestan horses - offer hemp, which is smoked as opium, and Russian trifles and dress - goods, under cloudless skies. With the huge Kailas range as a - background, this great rendezvous of Central Asian traffic has a great - fascination, even though moral shadows of the darkest kind abound. - </p> - <p> - On the second morning, while I was taking the sketch of Usman Shah which - appears as the frontispiece, he was recognised both by the Joint - Commissioner and the chief of police as a mutineer and murderer, and was - marched out of Leh. I was asked to look over my baggage, but did not. I - had trusted him, he had been faithful in his way, and later I found that - nothing was missing. He was a brutal ruffian, one of a band of - irregulars sent by the Maharajah of Kashmir to garrison the fort at Leh. - From it they used to descend on the town, plunder the bazaar, insult the - women, take all they wanted without payment, and when one of their - number was being tried for some offence, they dragged the judge out of - court and beat him! After holding Leh in terror for some time the - British Commissioner obtained their removal. It was, however, at the - fort at the Indus bridge, as related before, that the crime of murder - was committed. Still there was something almost grand in the defiant - attitude of the fantastic swashbuckler, as, standing outside the - bungalow, he faced the British Commissioner, to him the embodiment of - all earthly power, and the chief of police, and defied them. Not an inch - would he stir till the wazir gave him a coolie to carry his baggage. He - had been acquitted of the murder, he said, 'and though I killed the man, - it was according to the custom of my country—he gave me an insult - which could only be wiped out in blood!' The guard dared not touch him, - and he went to the wazir, demanded a coolie, and got one! - </p> - <p> - Our party left Leh early on a glorious morning, travelling light, Mr. - Redslob, a very learned Lhassa monk, named Gergan, Mr. R.'s servant, my - three, and four baggage horses, with two drivers engaged for the - journey. The great Kailas range was to be crossed, and the first day's - march up long, barren, stony valleys, without interest, took us to a - piece of level ground, with a small semi-subterranean refuge on which - there was barely room for two tents, at the altitude of the summit of - Mont Blanc. For two hours before we reached it the men and animals - showed great distress. Gyalpo stopped every few yards, gasping, with - blood trickling from his nostrils, and turned his head so as to look at - me, with the question in his eyes, What does this mean? Hassan Khan was - reeling from vertigo, but would not give in; the <i>seis</i>, a creature - without pluck, was carried in a blanket slung on my tent poles, and even - the Tibetans suffered. I felt no inconvenience, but as I unsaddled - Gyalpo I was glad that there was no more work to do! This - 'mountain-sickness,' called by the natives <i>ladug</i>, or - 'pass-poison,' is supposed by them to be the result of the odour or - pollen of certain plants which grow on the passes. Horses and mules are - unable to carry their loads, and men suffer from vertigo, vomiting, - violent headache and bleeding from the nose, mouth, and ears, as well as - prostration of strength, sometimes complete, and occasionally ending - fatally. - </p> - <p> - After a bitterly cold night I was awakened at dawn by novel sounds, - gruntings, and low, resonant bellowing round my tent, and the grey light - revealed several <i>yaks</i> (the <i>Bos grunniens</i>, the Tibetan ox), - the pride of the Tibetan highlands. This magnificent animal, though not - exceeding an English shorthorn cow in height, looks gigantic, with his - thick curved horns, his wild eyes glaring from under a mass of curls, - his long thick hair hanging to his fetlocks, and his huge bushy tail. He - is usually black or tawny, but the tail is often white, and is the - length of his long hair. The nose is fine and has a look of breeding as - well as power. He only flourishes at altitudes exceeding 12,000 feet. - Even after generations of semi-domestication he is very wild, and can - only be managed by being led with a rope attached to a ring in the - nostrils. He disdains the plough, but condescends to carry burdens, and - numbers of the Ladak and Nubra people get their living by carrying goods - for the traders on his broad back over the great passes. His legs are - very short, and he has a sensible way of measuring distance with his - eyes and planting his feet, which enables him to carry loads where it - might be supposed that only a goat could climb. He picks up a living - anyhow, in that respect resembling the camel. - </p> - <p> - He has an uncertain temper, and is not favourably disposed towards his - rider. Indeed, my experience was that just as one was about to mount him - he usually made a lunge at one with his horns. Some of my <i>yak</i> - steeds shied, plunged, kicked, executed fantastic movements on the - ledges of precipices, knocked down their leaders, bellowed defiance, and - rushed madly down mountain sides, leaping from boulder to boulder, till - they landed me among their fellows. The rush of a herd of bellowing <i>yaks</i> - at a wild gallop, waving their huge tails, is a grand sight. - </p> - <p> - My first <i>yak</i> was fairly quiet, and looked a noble steed, with my - Mexican saddle and gay blanket among rather than upon his thick black - locks. His back seemed as broad as that of an elephant, and with his - slow, sure, resolute step, he was like a mountain in motion. We took - five hours for the ascent of the Digar Pass, our loads and some of us on - <i>yaks</i>, some walking, and those who suffered most from the - 'pass-poison' and could not sit on <i>yaks</i> were carried. A number of - Tibetans went up with us. It was a new thing for a European lady to - travel in Nubra, and they took a friendly interest in my getting through - all right. The dreary stretches of the ascent, though at first white - with <i>edelweiss</i>, of which the people make their tinder, are - surmounted for the most part by steep, short zigzags of broken stone. - The heavens were dark with snow-showers, the wind was high and the cold - severe, and gasping horses, and men prostrate on their faces unable to - move, suggested a considerable amount of suffering; but all safely - reached the summit, 17,930 feet, where in a snowstorm the guides - huzzaed, praised their gods, and tucked rag streamers into a cairn. The - loads were replaced on the horses, and over wastes of ice, across - snowfields margined by broad splashes of rose-red primulas, down desert - valleys and along irrigated hillsides, we descended 3,700 feet to the - village of Digar in Nubra, where under a cloudless sky the mercury stood - at 90°! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_09"></a> <a href="images/gs09.png"><img - src="images/gs09s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - CHOD-TEN</span> - </div> - <p> - Upper and Lower Nubra consist of the valleys of the Nubra and Shayok - rivers. These are deep, fierce, variable streams, which have buried the - lower levels under great stretches of shingle, patched with jungles of - <i>hippophaë</i> and tamarisk, affording cover for innumerable wolves. - Great lateral torrents descend to these rivers, and on alluvial ridges - formed at the junctions are the villages with their pleasant - surroundings of barley, lucerne, wheat, with poplar and fruit trees, and - their picturesque <i>gonpos</i> crowning spurs of rock above them. The - first view of Nubra is not beautiful. Yellow, absolutely barren - mountains, cleft by yellow gorges, and apparently formed of yellow - gravel, the huge rifts in their sides alone showing their substructure - of rock, look as if they had never been finished, or had been finished - so long that they had returned to chaos. These hem in a valley of grey - sand and shingle, threaded by a greyish stream. From the second view - point mountains are seen descending on a pleasanter part of the Shayok - valley in grey, yellow, or vermilion masses of naked rock, 7,000 and - 8,000 feet in height, above which rise snow-capped peaks sending out - fantastic spurs and buttresses, while the colossal walls of rock are - cleft by rifts as colossal. The central ridge between the Nubra and - Upper Shayok valleys is 20,000 feet in altitude, and on this are - superimposed five peaks of rock, ascertained by survey to be from 24,000 - to 25,000 feet in height, while at one point the eye takes in a nearly - vertical height of 14,000 feet from the level of the Shayok River! The - Shayok and Nubra valleys are only five and four miles in width - respectively at their widest parts. The early winter traffic chiefly - follows along river beds, then nearly dry, while summer caravans have to - labour along difficult tracks at great heights, where mud and snow - avalanches are common, to climb dangerous rock ladders, and to cross - glaciers and the risky fords of the Shayok. Nubra is similar in - character to Ladak, but it is hotter and more fertile, the mountains are - loftier, the <i>gonpos</i> are more numerous, and the people are - simpler, more religious, and more purely Tibetan. Mr. Redslob loved - Nubra, and as love begets love he received a hearty welcome at Digar and - everywhere else. - </p> - <p> - The descent to the Shayok River gave us a most severe day of twelve - hours. The river had covered the usual track, and we had to take to - torrent beds and precipice ledges, I on one <i>yak</i>, and my tent on - another. In years of travel I have never seen such difficulties. - Eventually at dusk Mr. Redslob, Gergan, the servants, and I descended on - a broad shingle bed by the rushing Shayok; but it was not till dawn on - the following day that, by means of our two <i>yaks</i> and the - muleteers, our baggage and food arrived, the baggage horses being - brought down unloaded, with men holding the head and tail of each. Our - saddle horses, which we led with us, were much cut by falls. Gyalpo fell - fully twenty feet, and got his side laid open. The baggage horses, - according to their owners, had all gone over one precipice, which - delayed them five hours. - </p> - <p> - Below us lay two leaky scows, and eight men from Sati, on the other side - of the Shayok, are pledged to the Government to ferry travellers; but no - amount of shouting and yelling, or burning of brushwood, or even firing, - brought them to the rescue, though their pleasant lights were only a - mile off. Snow fell, the wind was strong and keen, and our tent-pegs - were only kept down by heavy stones. Blankets in abundance were laid - down, yet failed to soften the 'paving stones' on which I slept that - night! We had tea and rice, but our men, whose baggage was astray on the - mountains, were without food for twenty-two hours, positively refusing - to eat our food or cook fresh rice in our cooking pots! To such an - extent has Hindu caste-feeling infected Moslems! The disasters of that - day's march, besides various breakages, were, two servants helpless from - 'pass-poison' and bruises; a Ladaki, who had rolled over a precipice, - with a broken arm, and Gergan bleeding from an ugly scalp wound, also - from a fall. - </p> - <p> - By eight o'clock the next morning the sun was high and brilliant, the - snows of the ravines under its fierce heat were melting fast, and the - river, roaring hoarsely, was a mad rush of grey rapids and grey foam; - but three weeks later in the season, lower down, its many branches are - only two feet deep. This Shayok, which cannot in any way be - circumvented, is the great obstacle on this Yarkand trade route. - Travellers and their goods make the perilous passage in the scow, but - their animals swim, and are often paralysed by the ice-cold water and - drowned. My Moslem servants, white-lipped and trembling, committed - themselves to Allah on the river bank, and the Buddhists worshipped - their sleeve idols. The <i>gopa</i>, or headman of Sati, a splendid - fellow, who accompanied us through Nubra, and eight wild-looking, - half-naked satellites, were the Charons of that Styx. They poled and - paddled with yells of excitement; the rapids seized the scow, and - carried her broadside down into hissing and raging surges; then there - was a plash, a leap of maddened water half filling the boat, a struggle, - a whirl, violent efforts, and a united yell, and far down the torrent we - were in smooth water on the opposite shore. The ferrymen recrossed, - pulled our saddle horses by ropes into the river, the <i>gopa</i> held - them; again the scow and her frantic crew, poling, paddling, and - yelling, were hurried broadside down, and as they swept past there were - glimpses above and among the foam-crested surges of the wild-looking - heads and drifting forelocks of two grey horses swimming desperately for - their lives,—a splendid sight. They landed safely, but of the - baggage animals one was sucked under the boat and drowned, and as the - others refused to face the rapids, we had to obtain other transport. A - few days later the scow, which was brought up in pieces from Kashmir on - coolies' backs at a cost of four hundred rupees, was dashed to pieces! - </p> - <p> - A halt for Sunday in an apricot grove in the pleasant village of Sati - refreshed us all for the long marches which followed, by which we - crossed the Sasir Pass, full of difficulties from snow and glaciers, - which extend for many miles, to the Dipsang Plain, the bleakest and - dreariest of Central Asian wastes, from which the gentle ascent of the - Karakorum Pass rises, and returned, varying our route slightly, to the - pleasant villages of the Nubra valley. Everywhere Mr. Redslob's Tibetan - scholarship, his old-world courtesy, his kindness and adaptability, and - his medical skill, ensured us a welcome the heartiness of which I cannot - describe. The headmen and elders of the villages came to meet us when we - arrived, and escorted us when we left; the monasteries and houses with - the best they contained were thrown open to us; the men sat round our - camp-fires at night, telling stories and local gossip, and asking - questions, everything being translated to me by my kind guide, and so we - actually lived 'among the Tibetans.' - </p> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_III"></a><span>CHAPTER III</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">NUBRA</span> - </h2> - <p> - In order to visit Lower Nubra and return to Leh we were obliged to cross - the great fords of the Shayok at the most dangerous season of the year. - This transit had been the bugbear of the journey ever since news reached - us of the destruction of the Sati scow. Mr. Redslob questioned every man - we met on the subject, solemn and noisy conclaves were held upon it - round the camp-fires, it was said that the 'European woman' and her - 'spider-legged horse' could never get across, and for days before we - reached the stream, the <i>chupas</i>, or government water-guides, made - nightly reports to the village headmen of the state of the waters, which - were steadily rising, the final verdict being that they were only just - practicable for strong horses. To delay till the waters fell was - impossible. Mr. Redslob had engagements in Leh, and I was already - somewhat late for the passage of the lofty passes between Tibet and - British India before the winter, so we decided on crossing with every - precaution which experience could suggest. - </p> - <p> - At Lagshung, the evening before, the Tibetans made prayers and offerings - for a day cloudy enough to keep the water down, but in the morning from - a cloudless sky a scintillating sun blazed down like a magnesium light, - and every glacier and snowfield sent its tribute torrent to the Shayok. - In crossing a stretch of white sand the solar heat was so fierce that - our European skins were blistered through our clothing. We halted at - Lagshung, at the house of a friendly <i>zemindar</i>, who pressed upon - me the loan of a big Yarkand horse for the ford, a kindness which nearly - proved fatal; and then by shingle paths through lacerating thickets of - the horrid <i>Hippophaë rhamnoides</i>, we reached a <i>chod-ten</i> on - the shingly bank of the river, where the Tibetans renewed their prayers - and offerings, and the final orders for the crossing were issued. We had - twelve horses, carrying only quarter loads each, all led; the servants - were mounted, 'water-guides' with ten-foot poles sounded the river - ahead, one led Mr. Redslob's horse (the rider being bare-legged) in - front of mine with a long rope, and two more led mine, while the <i>gopas</i> - of three villages and the <i>zemindar</i> steadied my horse against the - stream. The water-guides only wore girdles, and with elf-locks and - pigtails streaming from their heads, and their uncouth yells and wild - gesticulations, they looked true river-demons. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_10"></a> <a href="images/gs10.png"><img - src="images/gs10s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - LAMA</span> - </div> - <p> - The Shayok presented an expanse of eight branches and a main stream, - divided by shallows and shingle banks, the whole a mile and a half in - width. On the brink the <i>chupas</i> made us all drink good draughts of - the turbid river water, 'to prevent giddiness,' they said, and they - added that I must not think them rude if they dashed water at my face - frequently with the same object. Hassan Khan, and Mando, who was livid - with fright, wore dark-green goggles, that they might not see the - rapids. In the second branch the water reached the horses' bodies, and - my animal tottered and swerved. There were bursts of wild laughter, not - merriment but excitement, accompanied by yells as the streams grew - fiercer, a loud chorus of <i>Kabadar! Sharbaz!</i> ('Caution!' 'Well - done!') was yelled to encourage the horses, and the boom and hiss of the - Shayok made a wild accompaniment. Gyalpo, for whose legs of steel I - longed, frolicked as usual, making mirthful lunges at his leader when - the pair halted. Hassan Khan, in the deepest branch, shakily said to me, - 'I not afraid, Mem Sahib.' During the hour spent in crossing the eight - branches, I thought that the risk had been exaggerated, and that - giddiness was the chief peril. - </p> - <p> - But when we halted, cold and dripping, on the shingle bank of the main - stream I changed my mind. A deep, fierce, swirling rapid, with a calmer - depth below its farther bank, and fully a quarter of a mile wide, was - yet to be crossed. The business was serious. All the <i>chupas</i> went - up and down, sounding, long before they found a possible passage. All - loads were raised higher, the men roped their soaked clothing on their - shoulders, water was dashed repeatedly at our faces, girths were - tightened, and then, with shouts and yells, the whole caravan plunged - into deep water, strong, and almost ice-cold. Half an hour was spent in - that devious ford, without any apparent progress, for in the dizzy swirl - the horses simply seemed treading the water backwards. Louder grew the - yells as the torrent raged more hoarsely, the chorus of <i>kabadar</i> - grew frantic, the water was up to the men's armpits and the seat of my - saddle, my horse tottered and swerved several times, the nearing shore - presented an abrupt bank underscooped by the stream. There was a deeper - plunge, an encouraging shout, and Mr. Redslob's strong horse leapt the - bank. The <i>gopas</i> encouraged mine; he made a desperate effort, but - fell short and rolled over backwards into the Shayok with his rider - under him. A struggle, a moment of suffocation, and I was extricated by - strong arms, to be knocked down again by the rush of the water, to be - again dragged up and hauled and hoisted up the crumbling bank. I escaped - with a broken rib and some severe bruises, but the horse was drowned. - Mr. Redslob, who had thought that my life could not be saved, and the - Tibetans were so distressed by the accident that I made very light of - it, and only took one day of rest. The following morning some men and - animals were carried away, and afterwards the ford was impassable for a - fortnight. Such risks are among the amenities of the great trade route - from India into Central Asia! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_11"></a> <a href="images/gs11.png"><img - src="images/gs11s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THREE - GOPAS</span> - </div> - <p> - The Lower Nubra valley is wilder and narrower than the Upper, its - apricot orchards more luxuriant, its wolf-haunted <i>hippophaë</i> and - tamarisk thickets more dense. Its villages are always close to ravines, - the mouths of which are filled with <i>chod-tens</i>, <i>manis</i>, - prayer-wheels, and religious buildings. Access to them is usually up the - stony beds of streams over-arched by apricots. The camping-grounds are - apricot orchards. The apricot foliage is rich, and the fruit small but - delicious. The largest fruit tree I saw measured nine feet six inches in - girth six feet from the ground. Strangers are welcome to eat as much of - the fruit as they please, provided that they return the stones to the - proprietor. It is true that Nubra exports dried apricots, and the women - were splitting and drying the fruit on every house roof, but the special - <i>raison d'être</i> of the tree is the clear, white, fragrant, and - highly illuminating oil made from the kernels by the simple process of - crushing them between two stones. In every <i>gonpo</i> temple a silver - bowl holding from four to six gallons is replenished annually with this - almond-scented oil for the ever-burning light before the shrine of - Buddha. It is used for lamps, and very largely in cookery. Children, - instead of being washed, are rubbed daily with it, and on being weaned - at the age of four or five, are fed for some time, or rather crammed, - with balls of barley-meal made into a paste with it. - </p> - <p> - At Hundar, a superbly situated village, which we visited twice, we were - received at the house of Gergan the monk, who had accompanied us - throughout. He is a <i>zemindar</i>, and the large house in which he - made us welcome stands in his own patrimony. Everything was prepared for - us. The mud floors were swept, cotton quilts were laid down on the - balconies, blue cornflowers and marigolds, cultivated for religious - ornament, were in all the rooms, and the women were in gala dress and - loaded with coarse jewellery. Right hearty was the welcome. Mr. Redslob - loved, and therefore was loved. The Tibetans to him were not 'natives,' - but brothers. He drew the best out of them. Their superstitions and - beliefs were not to him 'rubbish,' but subjects for minute investigation - and study. His courtesy to all was frank and dignified. In his dealings - he was scrupulously just. He was intensely interested in their - interests. His Tibetan scholarship and knowledge of Tibetan sacred - literature gave him almost the standing of an abbot among them, and his - medical skill and knowledge, joyfully used for their benefit on former - occasions, had won their regard. So at Hundar, as everywhere else, the - elders came out to meet us and cut the apricot branches away on our - road, and the silver horns of the <i>gonpo</i> above brayed a dissonant - welcome. Along the Indus valley the servants of Englishmen beat the - Tibetans, in the Shayok and Nubra valleys the Yarkand traders beat and - cheat them, and the women are shy with strangers, but at Hundar they - were frank and friendly with me, saying, as many others had said, 'We - will trust any one who comes with the missionary.' - </p> - <p> - Gergan's home was typical of the dwellings of the richer cultivators and - landholders. It was a large, rambling, three-storeyed house, the lower - part of stone, the upper of huge sun-dried bricks. It was adorned with - projecting windows and brown wooden balconies. Fuel—the dried - excreta of animals—is too scarce to be used for any but cooking - purposes, and on these balconies in the severe cold of winter the people - sit to imbibe the warm sunshine. The rooms were large, ceiled with - peeled poplar rods, and floored with split white pebbles set in clay. - There was a temple on the roof, and in it, on a platform, were life-size - images of Buddha, seated in eternal calm, with his downcast eyes and - mild Hindu face, the thousand-armed Chan-ra-zigs (the great Mercy), - Jam-pal-yangs (the Wisdom), and Chag-na-dorje (the Justice). In front on - a table or altar were seven small lamps, burning apricot oil, and twenty - small brass cups, containing minute offerings of rice and other things, - changed daily. There were prayer-wheels, cymbals, horns and drums, and a - prayer-cylinder six feet high, which it took the strength of two men to - turn. On a shelf immediately below the idols were the brazen sceptre, - bell, and thunderbolt, a brass lotus blossom, and the spouted brass - flagon decorated with peacocks' feathers, which is used at baptisms, and - for pouring holy water upon the hands at festivals. In houses in which - there is not a roof temple the best room is set apart for religious use - and for these divinities, which are always surrounded with musical - instruments and symbols of power, and receive worship and offerings - daily, Tibetan Buddhism being a religion of the family and household. In - his family temple Gergan offered gifts and thanks for the deliverances - of the journey. He had been assisting Mr. Redslob for two years in the - translation of the New Testament, and had wept over the love and - sufferings of our Lord Jesus Christ. He had even desired that his son - should receive baptism and be brought up as a Christian, but for himself - he 'could not break with custom and his ancestral creed.' - </p> - <p> - In the usual living-room of the family a platform, raised only a few - inches, ran partly round the wall. In the middle of the floor there was - a clay fireplace, with a prayer-wheel and some clay and brass cooking - pots upon it. A few shelves, fire-bars for roasting barley, a wooden - churn, and some spinning arrangements were the furniture. A number of - small dark rooms used for sleeping and storage opened from this, and - above were the balconies and reception rooms. Wooden posts supported the - roofs, and these were wreathed with lucerne, the first fruits of the - field. Narrow, steep staircases in all Tibetan houses lead to the family - rooms. In winter the people live below, alongside of the animals and - fodder. In summer they sleep in loosely built booths of poplar branches - on the roof. Gergan's roof was covered, like others at the time, to the - depth of two feet, with hay, i. e. grass and lucerne, which are wound - into long ropes, experience having taught the Tibetans that their scarce - fodder is best preserved thus from breakage and waste. I bought hay by - the yard for Gyalpo. - </p> - <p> - Our food in this hospitable house was simple—apricots, fresh, or - dried and stewed with honey; <i>zho's</i> milk, curds and cheese, sour - cream, peas, beans, balls of barley dough, barley porridge, and 'broth - of abominable things.' <i>Chang</i>, a dirty-looking beer made from - barley, was offered with each meal, and tea frequently, but I took my - own 'on the sly.' I have mentioned a churn as part of the 'plenishings' - of the living-room. In Tibet the churn is used for making tea! I give - the recipe. 'For six persons. Boil a teacupful of tea in three pints of - water for ten minutes with a heaped dessert-spoonful of soda. Put the - infusion into the chum with one pound of butter and a small - tablespoonful of salt. Churn until as thick as cream.' Tea made after - this fashion holds the second place to <i>chang</i> in Tibetan - affections. The butter according to our thinking is always rancid, the - mode of making it is uncleanly, and it always has a rank flavour from - the goatskin in which it was kept. Its value is enhanced by age. I saw - skins of it forty, fifty, and even sixty years old, which were very - highly prized, and would only be opened at some special family festival - or funeral. - </p> - <p> - During the three days of our visits to Hundar both men and women wore - their festival dresses, and apparently abandoned most of their ordinary - occupations in our honour. The men were very anxious that I should be - 'amused,' and made many grotesque suggestions on the subject. 'Why is - the European woman always writing or sewing?' they asked. 'Is she very - poor, or has she made a vow?' Visits to some of the neighbouring - monasteries were eventually proposed, and turned out most interesting. - </p> - <p> - The monastery of Deskyid, to which we made a three days' expedition, is - from its size and picturesque situation the most imposing in Nubra. - Built on a majestic spur of rock rising on one side 2,000 feet - perpendicularly from a torrent, the spur itself having an altitude of - 11,000 feet, with red peaks, snow-capped, rising to a height of over - 20,000 feet behind the vast irregular pile of red, white, and yellow - temples, towers, storehouses, cloisters, galleries, and balconies, - rising for 300 feet one above another, hanging over chasms, built out on - wooden buttresses, and surmounted with flags, tridents, and <i>yaks'</i> - tails, a central tower or keep dominating the whole, it is perhaps the - most picturesque object I have ever seen, well worth the crossing of the - Shayok fords, my painful accident, and much besides. It looks - inaccessible, but in fact can be attained by rude zigzags of a thousand - steps of rock, some natural, others roughly hewn, getting worse and - worse as they rise higher, till the later zigzags suggest the - difficulties of the ascent of the Great Pyramid. The day was fearfully - hot, 99° in the shade, and the naked, shining surfaces of purple rock - with a metallic lustre radiated heat. My 'gallant grey' took me up - half-way—a great feat—and the Tibetans cheered and shouted '<i>Sharbaz!</i>' - ('Well done!') as he pluckily leapt up the great slippery rock ledges. - After I dismounted, any number of willing hands hauled and helped me up - the remaining horrible ascent, the rugged rudeness of which is quite - indescribable. The inner entrance is a gateway decorated with a <i>yak's</i> - head and many Buddhist emblems. High above, on a rude gallery, fifty - monks were gathered with their musical instruments. As soon as the <i>Kan-po</i> - or abbot, Punt-sog-sogman (the most perfect Merit), received us at the - gate, the monkish orchestra broke forth in a tornado of sound of a most - tremendous and thrilling quality, which was all but overwhelming, as the - mountain echoes took up and prolonged the sound of fearful blasts on - six-foot silver horns, the bellowing thunder of six-foot drums, the - clash of cymbals, and the dissonance of a number of monster gongs. It - was not music, but it was sublime. The blasts on the horns are to - welcome a great personage, and such to the monks who despised his - teaching was the devout and learned German missionary. Mr. Redslob - explained that I had seen much of Buddhism in Ceylon and Japan, and - wished to see their temples. So with our train of <i>gopas</i>, <i>zemindar</i>, - peasants, and muleteers, we mounted to a corridor full of <i>lamas</i> - in ragged red dresses, yellow girdles, and yellow caps, where we were - presented with plates of apricots, and the door of the lowest of the - seven temples heavily grated backwards. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_12"></a> <a href="images/gs12.png"><img - src="images/gs12s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />SOME - INSTRUMENTS OF BUDDHIST WORSHIP</span> - </div> - <p> - The first view, and indeed the whole view of this temple of <i>Wrath</i> - or <i>Justice</i>, was suggestive of a frightful <i>Inferno</i>, with - its rows of demon gods, hideous beyond Western conception, engaged in - torturing writhing and bleeding specimens of humanity. Demon masks of - ancient lacquer hung from the pillars, naked swords gleamed in - motionless hands, and in a deep recess whose 'darkness' was rendered - 'visible' by one lamp, was that indescribable horror the executioner of - the Lord of Hell, his many brandished arms holding instruments of - torture, and before him the bell, the thunderbolt and sceptre, the holy - water, and the baptismal flagon. Our joss-sticks fumed on the still air, - monks waved censers, and blasts of dissonant music woke the - semi-subterranean echoes. In this temple of Justice the younger <i>lamas</i> - spend some hours daily in the supposed contemplation of the torments - reserved for the unholy. In the highest temple, that of Peace, the - summer sunshine fell on Shakya Thubba and the Buddhist triad seated in - endless serenity. The walls were covered with frescoes of great <i>lamas</i>, - and a series of alcoves, each with an image representing an incarnation - of Buddha, ran round the temple. In a chapel full of monstrous images - and piles of medallions made of the ashes of 'holy' men, the sub-abbot - was discoursing to the acolytes on the religious classics. In the chapel - of meditations, among lighted incense sticks, monks seated before images - were telling their beads with the object of working themselves into a - state of ecstatic contemplation (somewhat resembling a certain hypnotic - trance), for there are undoubtedly devout <i>lamas</i>, though the - majority are idle and unholy. It must be understood that all Tibetan - literature is 'sacred,' though some of the volumes of exquisite - calligraphy on parchment, which for our benefit were divested of their - silken and brocaded wrappings, contain nothing better than fairy tales - and stories of doubtful morality, which are recited by the <i>lamas</i> - to the accompaniment of incessant cups of <i>chang</i>, as a religious - duty when they visit their 'flocks' in the winter. - </p> - <p> - The Deskyid <i>gonpo</i> contains 150 <i>lamas</i>, all of whom have - been educated at Lhassa. A younger son in every household becomes a - monk, and occasionally enters upon his vocation as an acolyte pupil as - soon as weaned. At the age of thirteen these acolytes are sent to study - at Lhassa for five or seven years, their departure being made the - occasion of a great village feast, with several days of religious - observances. The close connection with Lhassa, especially in the case of - the yellow <i>lamas</i>, gives Nubra Buddhism a singular interest. All - the larger <i>gonpos</i> have their prototype in Lhassa, all ceremonial - has originated in Lhassa, every instrument of worship has been - consecrated in Lhassa, and every <i>lama</i> is educated in the learning - only to be obtained at Lhassa. Buddhism is indeed the most salient - feature of Nubra. There are <i>gonpos</i> everywhere, the roads are - lined by miles of <i>chod-tens</i>, <i>manis</i>, and prayer-mills, and - flags inscribed with sacred words in Sanskrit flutter from every roof. - There are processions of red and yellow <i>lamas</i>; every act in - trade, agriculture, and social life needs the sanction of sacerdotalism; - whatever exists of wealth is in the <i>gonpos</i>, which also have a - monopoly of learning, and 11,000 monks closely linked with the laity, - yet ruling all affairs of life and death and beyond death, are all - connected by education, tradition, and authority with Lhassa. - </p> - <p> - We remained long on the blazing roof of the highest tower of the <i>gonpo</i>, - while good Mr. Redslob disputed with the abbot 'concerning the things - pertaining to the kingdom of God.' The monks standing round laughed - sneeringly. They had shown a little interest, Mr. R. said, on his - earlier visits. The abbot accepted a copy of the Gospel of St. John. - 'St. Matthew,' he observed, 'is very laughable reading.' Blasts of wild - music and the braying of colossal horns honoured our departure, and our - difficult descent to the apricot groves of Deskyid. On our return to - Hundar the grain was ripe on Gergan's fields. The first ripe ears were - cut off, offered to the family divinity, and were then bound to the - pillars of the house. In the comparatively fertile Nubra valley the - wheat and barley are cut, not rooted up. While they cut the grain the - men chant, 'May it increase, We will give to the poor, we will give to - the <i>lamas</i>,' with every stroke. They believe that it can be made - to multiply both under the sickle and in the threshing, and perform many - religious rites for its increase while it is in sheaves. After eight - days the corn is trodden out by oxen on a threshing-floor renewed every - year. After winnowing with wooden forks, they make the grain into a - pyramid, insert a sacred symbol, and pile upon it the threshing - instruments and sacks, erecting an axe on the apex with its blade turned - to the west, as that is the quarter from which demons are supposed to - come. In the afternoon they feast round it, always giving a portion to - the axe, saying, 'It is yours, it belongs not to me.' At dusk they pour - it into the sacks again, chanting, 'May it increase.' But these are not - removed to the granary until late at night, at an hour when the hands of - the demons are too much benumbed by the nightly frost to diminish the - store. At the beginning of every one of these operations the presence of - <i>lamas</i> is essential, to announce the auspicious moment, and - conduct religious ceremonies. They receive fees, and are regaled with - abundant <i>chang</i> and the fat of the land. - </p> - <p> - In Hundar, as elsewhere, we were made very welcome in all the houses. I - have described the dwelling of Gergan. The poorer peasants occupy - similar houses, but roughly built, and only two-storeyed, and the floors - are merely clay. In them also the very numerous lower rooms are used for - cattle and fodder only, while the upper part consists of an inner or - winter room, an outer or supper room, a verandah room, and a family - temple. Among their rude plenishings are large stone corn chests like - sarcophagi, stone bowls from Baltistan, cauldrons, cooking pots, a - tripod, wooden bowls, spoons, and dishes, earthen pots, and <i>yaks</i>' - and sheep's packsaddles. The garments of the household are kept in long - wooden boxes. - </p> - <p> - Family life presents some curious features. In the disposal in marriage - of a girl, her eldest brother has more 'say' than the parents. The - eldest son brings home the bride to his father's house, but at a given - age the old people are 'shelved,' i.e. they retire to a small house, - which may be termed a 'jointure house,' and the eldest son assumes the - patrimony and the rule of affairs. I have not met with a similar custom - anywhere in the East. It is difficult to speak of Tibetan life, with all - its affection and jollity, as '<i>family life</i>,' for Buddhism, which - enjoins monastic life, and usually celibacy along with it, on eleven - thousand out of a total population of a hundred and twenty thousand, - farther restrains the increase of population within the limits of - sustenance by inculcating and rigidly upholding the system of polyandry, - permitting marriage only to the eldest son, the heir of the land, while - the bride accepts all his brothers as inferior or subordinate husbands, - thus attaching the whole family to the soil and family roof-tree, the - children being regarded legally as the property of the eldest son, who - is addressed by them as 'Big Father,' his brothers receiving the title - of 'Little Father.' The resolute determination, on economic as well as - religious grounds, not to abandon this ancient custom, is the most - formidable obstacle in the way of the reception of Christianity by the - Tibetans. The women cling to it. They say, 'We have three or four men to - help us instead of one,' and sneer at the dulness and monotony of - European, monogamous life! A woman said to me, 'If I had only one - husband, and he died, I should be a widow; if I have two or three I am - never a widow!' The word 'widow' is with them a term of reproach, and is - applied abusively to animals and men. Children are brought up to be very - obedient to fathers and mother, and to take great care of little ones - and cattle. Parental affection is strong. Husbands and wives beat each - other, but separation usually follows a violent outbreak of this kind. - It is the custom for the men and women of a village to assemble when a - bride enters the house of her husbands, each of them presenting her with - three rupees. The Tibetan wife, far from spending these gifts on - personal adornment, looks ahead, contemplating possible contingencies, - and immediately hires a field, the produce of which is her own, and - which accumulates year after year in a separate granary, so that she may - not be portionless in case she leaves her husband! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_13"></a> <a href="images/gs13.png"><img - src="images/gs13s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />MONASTIC - BUILDINGS AT BASGU</span> - </div> - <p> - It was impossible not to become attached to the Nubra people, we lived - so completely among them, and met with such unbounded goodwill. Feasts - were given in our honour, every <i>gonpo</i> was open to us, monkish - blasts on colossal horns brayed out welcomes, and while nothing could - exceed the helpfulness and alacrity of kindness shown by all, there was - not a thought or suggestion of <i>backsheesh</i>. The men of the - villages always sat by our camp-fires at night, friendly and jolly, but - never obtrusive, telling stories, discussing local news and the - oppressions exercised by the Kashmiri officials, the designs of Russia, - the advance of the Central Asian Railway, and what they consider as the - weakness of the Indian Government in not annexing the provinces of the - northern frontier. Many of their ideas and feelings are akin to ours, - and a mutual understanding is not only possible, but inevitable<a - id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>. - </p> - <p class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1" class="label"> [1]</a> Mr. - Redslob said that when on different occasions he was smitten by heavy - sorrows, he felt no difference between the Tibetan feeling and - expression of sympathy and that of Europeans. A stronger testimony to - the effect produced by his twenty-five years of loving service could - scarcely be given than our welcome in Nubra. During the dangerous - illness which followed, anxious faces thronged his humble doorway as - early as break of day, and the stream of friendly inquiries never ceased - till sunset, and when he died the people of Ladak and Nubra wept and - 'made a great mourning for him,' as for their truest friend. - </p> - <p> - Industry in Nubra is the condition of existence, and both sexes work - hard enough to give a great zest to the holidays on religious festival - days. Whether in the house or journeying the men are never seen without - the distaff. They weave also, and make the clothes of the women and - children! The people are all cultivators, and make money also by - undertaking the transit of the goods of the Yarkand traders over the - lofty passes. The men plough with the <i>zho</i>, or hybrid <i>yak</i>, - and the women break the clods and share in all other agricultural - operations. The soil, destitute of manure, which is dried and hoarded - for fuel, rarely produces more than tenfold. The 'three acres and a cow' - is with them four acres of alluvial soil to a family on an average, with - 'runs' for <i>yaks</i> and sheep on the mountains. The farms, planted - with apricot and other fruit trees, a prolific loose-grained barley, - wheat, peas, and lucerne, are oases in the surrounding deserts. The - people export apricot oil, dried apricots, sheep's wool, heavy undyed - woollens, a coarse cloth made from <i>yaks'</i> hair, and <i>pashm</i>, - the under fleece of the shawl goat. They complained, and I think with - good reason, of the merciless exactions of the Kashmiri officials, but - there were no evidences of severe poverty, and not one beggar was seen. - </p> - <p> - It was not an easy matter to get back to Leh. The rise of the Shayok - made it impossible to reach and return by the Digar Pass, and the - alternative route over the Kharzong glacier continued for some time - impracticable—that is, it was perfectly smooth ice. At length the - news came that a fall of snow had roughened its surface. A number of men - worked for two days at scaffolding a path, and with great difficulty, - and the loss of one <i>yak</i> from a falling rock, a fruitful source of - fatalities in Tibet, we reached Khalsar, where with great regret we - parted with <i>Tse-ring-don-drub</i> (Life's purpose fulfilled), the <i>gopa</i> - of Sati, whose friendship had been a real pleasure, and to whose courage - and promptitude, in Mr. Redslob's opinion, I owed my rescue from - drowning. Two days of very severe marching and long and steep ascents - brought us to the wretched hamlet of Kharzong Lar-sa, in a snowstorm, at - an altitude higher than the summit of Mont Blanc. The servants were all - ill of 'pass-poison,' and crept into a cave along with a number of big - Tibetan mastiffs, where they enjoyed the comfort of semi-suffocation - till the next morning, Mr. R. and I, with some willing Tibetan helpers, - pitching our own tents. The wind was strong and keen, and with the - mercury down at 15° Fahrenheit it was impossible to do anything but to - go to bed in the early afternoon, and stay there till the next day. Mr. - Redslob took a severe chill, which produced an alarming attack of - pleurisy, from the effects of which he never fully recovered. - </p> - <p> - We started on a grim snowy morning, with six <i>yaks</i> carrying our - baggage or ridden by ourselves, four led horses, and a number of - Tibetans, several more having been sent on in advance to cut steps in - the glacier and roughen them with gravel. Within certain limits the - ground grows greener as one ascends, and we passed upwards among - primulas, asters, a large blue myosotis, gentians, potentillas, and - great sheets of <i>edelweiss</i>. At the glacier foot we skirted a deep - green lake on snow with a glorious view of the Kharzong glacier and the - pass, a nearly perpendicular wall of rock, bearing up a steep glacier - and a snowfield of great width and depth, above which tower pinnacles of - naked rock. It presented to all appearance an impassable barrier rising - 2,500 feet above the lake, grand and awful in the dazzling whiteness of - the new-fallen snow. Thanks to the ice steps our <i>yaks</i> took us - over in four hours without a false step, and from the summit, a sharp - ridge 17,500 feet in altitude, we looked our last on grimness, - blackness, and snow, and southward for many a weary mile to the Indus - valley lying in sunshine and summer. Fully two dozen carcases of horses - newly dead lay in cavities of the glacier. Our animals were ill of - 'pass-poison,' and nearly blind, and I was obliged to ride my <i>yak</i> - into Leh, a severe march of thirteen hours, down miles of crumbling - zigzags, and then among villages of irrigated terraces, till the grand - view of the Gyalpo's palace, with its air-hung <i>gonpo</i> and - clustering <i>chod-tens</i>, and of the desert city itself, burst - suddenly upon us, and our benumbed and stiffened limbs thawed in the hot - sunshine. I pitched my tent in a poplar grove for a fortnight, near the - Moravian compounds and close to the travellers' bungalow, in which is a - British Postal Agency, with a Tibetan postmaster who speaks English, a - Christian, much trusted and respected, named Joldan, in whose - intelligence, kindness, and friendship I found both interest and - pleasure. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_14"></a> <a href="images/gs14.png"><img - src="images/gs14s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THE - YAK (<i>Bos grunniens</i>)</span> - </div> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><span>CHAPTER IV</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">MANNERS AND CUSTOMS</span> - </h2> - <p> - Joldan, the Tibetan British postmaster in Leh, is a Christian of - spotless reputation. Every one places unlimited confidence in his - integrity and truthfulness, and his religious sincerity has been - attested by many sacrifices. He is a Ladaki, and the family property was - at Stok, a few miles from Leh. He was baptized in Lahul at twenty-three, - his father having been a Christian. He learned Urdu, and was for ten - years mission schoolmaster in Kylang, but returned to Leh a few years - ago as postmaster. His 'ancestral dwelling' at Stok was destroyed by - order of the wazir, and his property confiscated, after many - unsuccessful efforts had been made to win him back to Buddhism. - Afterwards he was detained by the wazir, and compelled to serve as a - sepoy, till Mr. Heyde went to the council and obtained his release. His - house in Leh has been more than once burned by incendiaries. But he - pursues a quiet, even course, brings up his family after the best - Christian traditions, refuses Buddhist suitors for his daughters, - unobtrusively but capably helps the Moravian missionaries, supports his - family by steady industry, although of noble birth, and asks nothing of - any one. His 'good morning' and 'good night,' as he daily passed my tent - with clockwork regularity, were full of cheery friendliness; he gave - much useful information about Tibetan customs, and his ready helpfulness - greatly facilitated the difficult arrangements for my farther journey. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_15"></a> <a href="images/gs15.png"><img - src="images/gs15s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - CHANG-PA WOMAN</span> - </div> - <p> - The Leh, which I had left so dull and quiet, was full of strangers, - traffic, and noise. The neat little Moravian church was filled by a - motley crowd each Sunday, in which the few Christians were - distinguishable by their clean faces and clothes and their devout air; - and the Medical Mission Hospital and Dispensary, which in winter have an - average attendance of only a hundred patients a month, were daily - thronged with natives of India and Kashmir, Baltis, Yarkandis, Dards, - and Tibetans. In my visits with Dr. Marx I observed, what was confirmed - by four months' experience of the Tibetan villagers, that rheumatism, - inflamed eyes and eyelids, and old age are the chief Tibetan maladies. - Some of the Dards and Baltis were lepers, and the natives of India - brought malarial fever, dysentery, and other serious diseases. The - hospital, which is supported by the Indian Government, is most - comfortable, a haven of rest for those who fall sick by the way. The - hospital assistants are intelligent, thoroughly kind-hearted young - Tibetans, who, by dint of careful drilling and an affectionate desire to - please 'the teacher with the medicine box,' have become fairly - trustworthy. They are not Christians. - </p> - <p> - In the neat dispensary at 9 a.m. a gong summons the patients to the - operating room for a short religious service. Usually about fifty were - present, and a number more, who had some curiosity about 'the way,' but - did not care to be seen at Christian worship, hung about the doorways. - Dr. Marx read a few verses from the Gospels, explaining them in a homely - manner, and concluded with the Lord's Prayer. Then the out-patients were - carefully and gently treated, leprous limbs were bathed and anointed, - the wards were visited at noon and again at sunset, and in the - afternoons operations were performed with the most careful antiseptic - precautions, which are supposed to be used for the purpose of keeping - away evil spirits from the wounds! The Tibetans, in practice, are very - simple in their applications of medical remedies. Rubbing with butter is - their great panacea. They have a dread of small-pox, and instead of - burning its victims they throw them into their rapid torrents. If an - isolated case occur, the sufferer is carried to a mountain-top, where he - is left to recover or die. If a small-pox epidemic is in the province, - the people of the villages in which it has not yet appeared place thorns - on their bridges and boundaries, to scare away the evil spirits which - are supposed to carry the disease. In ordinary illnesses, if butter - taken internally as well as rubbed into the skin does not cure the - patient, the <i>lamas</i> are summoned to the rescue. They make a <i>mitsap</i>, - a half life-size figure of the sick person, dress it in his or her - clothes and ornaments, and place it in the courtyard, where they sit - round it, reading passages from the sacred classics fitted for the - occasion. After a time, all rise except the superior <i>lama</i>, who - continues reading, and taking small drums in their left hands, they - recite incantations, and dance wildly round the <i>mitsap</i>, - believing, or at least leading the people to believe, that by this - ceremony the malady, supposed to be the work of a demon, will be - transferred to the image. Afterwards the clothes and ornaments are - presented to them, and the figure is carried in procession out of the - yard and village and is burned. If the patient becomes worse, the - friends are apt to resort to the medical skill of the missionaries. If - he dies they are blamed, and if he recovers the <i>lamas</i> take the - credit. - </p> - <p> - At some little distance outside Leh are the cremation grounds—desert - places, destitute of any other vegetation than the <i>Caprifolia horrida</i>. - Each family has its furnace kept in good repair. The place is doleful, - and a funeral scene on the only sunless day I experienced in Ladak was - indescribably dismal. After death no one touches the corpse but the <i>lamas</i>, - who assemble in numbers in the case of a rich man. The senior <i>lama</i> - offers the first prayers, and lifts the lock which all Tibetans wear at - the back of the head, in order to liberate the soul if it is still - clinging to the body. At the same time he touches the region of the - heart with a dagger. The people believe that a drop of blood on the head - marks the spot where the soul has made its exit. Any good clothing in - which the person has died is then removed. The blacksmith beats a drum, - and the corpse, covered with a white sheet next the dress and a coloured - one above, is carried out of the house to be worshipped by the - relatives, who walk seven times round it. The women then retire to the - house, and the chief <i>lama</i> recites liturgical passages from the - formularies. Afterwards, the relatives retire, and the corpse is carried - to the burning-ground by men who have the same tutelar deity as the - deceased. The leading <i>lama</i> walks first, then come men with flags, - followed by the blacksmith with the drum, and next the corpse, with - another man beating a drum behind it. Meanwhile, the <i>lamas</i> are - praying for the repose and quieting of the soul, which is hovering - about, desiring to return. The attendant friends, each of whom has - carried a piece of wood to the burning-ground, arrange the fuel with - butter on the furnace, the corpse wrapped in the white sheet is put in, - and fire is applied. The process of destruction in a rich man's case - takes about an hour. During the burning the <i>lamas</i> read in high, - hoarse monotones, and the blacksmiths beat their drums. The <i>lamas</i> - depart first, and the blacksmiths, after worshipping the ashes, shout, - 'Have nothing to do with us now,' and run rapidly away. At dawn the - following day, a man whose business it is searches among the ashes for - the footprints of animals, and according to the footprints found, so it - is believed will be the re-birth of the soul. - </p> - <p> - Some of the ashes are taken to the <i>gonpos</i>, where the <i>lamas</i> - mix them with clay, put them into oval or circular moulds, and stamp - them with the image of Buddha. These are preserved in <i>chod-tens</i>, - and in the house of the nearest relative of the deceased; but in the - case of 'holy' men, they are retained in the <i>gonpos</i>, where they - can be purchased by the devout. After a cremation much <i>chang</i> is - consumed by the friends, who make presents to the bereaved family. The - value of each is carefully entered in a book, so that a precise return - may be made when a similar occasion occurs. Until the fourth day after - death it is believed to be impossible to quiet the soul. On that day a - piece of paper is inscribed with prayers and requests to the soul to be - quiet, and this is burned by the <i>lamas</i> with suitable ceremonies; - and rites of a more or less elaborate kind are afterwards performed for - the repose of the soul, accompanied with prayers that it may get 'a good - path' for its re-birth, and food is placed in conspicuous places about - the house, that it may understand that its relatives are willing to - support it. The mourners for some time wear wretched clothes, and - neither dress their hair nor wash their faces. Every year the <i>lamas</i> - sell by auction the clothing and ornaments, which are their perquisites - at funerals<a id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>. - </p> - <p class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2" class="label"> [2]</a> For - these and other curious details concerning Tibetan customs I am indebted - to the kindness and careful investigations of the late Rev. W. Redslob, - of Leh, and the Rev. A. Heyde, of Kylang. - </p> - <p> - The Moravian missionaries have opened a school in Leh, and the wazir, - finding that the Leh people are the worst educated in the country, - ordered that one child at least in each family should be sent to it. - This awakened grave suspicions, and the people hunted for reasons for - it. 'The boys are to be trained as porters, and made to carry burdens - over the mountains,' said some. 'Nay,' said others, 'they are to be sent - to England and made Christians of.' [All foreigners, no matter what - their nationality is, are supposed to be English.] Others again said, - 'They are to be kidnapped,' and so the decree was ignored, till Mr. - Redslob and Dr. Marx went among the parents and explained matters, and a - large attendance was the result; for the Tibetans of the trade route - have come to look upon the acquisition of 'foreign learning' as the - stepping-stone to Government appointments at ten rupees per month. - Attendance on religious instruction was left optional, but after a time - sixty pupils were regularly present at the daily reading and explanation - of the Gospels. Tibetan fathers teach their sons to write, to read the - sacred classics, and to calculate with a frame of balls on wires. If - farther instruction is thought desirable, the boys are sent to the <i>lamas</i>, - and even to the schools at Lhassa. The Tibetans willingly receive and - read translations of our Christian books, and some go so far as to think - that their teachings are 'stronger' than those of their own, indicating - their opinions by tearing pages out of the Gospels and rolling them up - into pills, which are swallowed in the belief that they are an effective - charm. Sorcery is largely used in the treatment of the sick. The books - which instruct in the black art are known as 'black books.' Those which - treat of medicine are termed 'blue books.' Medical knowledge is handed - down from father to son. The doctors know the virtues of many of the - plants of the country, quantities of which they mix up together while - reciting magical formulas. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_16"></a> <a href="images/gs16.png"><img - src="images/gs16s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />CHANG-PA - CHIEF</span> - </div> - <p> - I was heartily sorry to leave Leh, with its dazzling skies and abounding - colour and movement, its stirring topics of talk, and the culture and - exceeding kindness of the Moravian missionaries. Helpfulness was the - rule. Gergan came over the Kharzong glacier on purpose to bring me a - prayer-wheel; Lob-sang and Tse-ring-don-drub, the hospital assistants, - made me a tent carpet of <i>yak's</i> hair cloth, singing as they sewed; - and Joldan helped to secure transport for the twenty-two days' journey - to Kylang. Leh has few of what Europeans regard as travelling - necessaries. The brick tea which I purchased from a Lhassa trader was - disgusting. I afterwards understood that blood is used in making up the - blocks. The flour was gritty, and a leg of mutton turned out to be a - limb of a goat of much experience. There were no straps, or leather to - make them of, in the bazaar, and no buckles; and when the latter were - provided by Mr. Redslob, the old man who came to sew them upon a warm - rug which I had made for Gyalpo out of pieces of carpet and hair-cloth - put them on wrongly three times, saying after each failure, 'I'm very - foolish. Foreign ways are so wonderful!' At times the Tibetans say, - 'We're as stupid as oxen,' and I was inclined to think so, as I stood - for two hours instructing the blacksmith about making shoes for Gyalpo, - which kept turning out either too small for a mule or too big for a - dray-horse. - </p> - <p> - I obtained two Lahul muleteers with four horses, quiet, obliging men, - and two superb <i>yaks</i>, which were loaded with twelve days' hay and - barley for my horse. Provisions for the whole party for the same time - had to be carried, for the route is over an uninhabited and arid desert. - Not the least important part of my outfit was a letter from Mr. Redslob - to the headman or chief of the Chang-pas or Champas, the nomadic tribes - of Rupchu, to whose encampment I purposed to make a <i>détour</i>. These - nomads had on two occasions borrowed money from the Moravian - missionaries for the payment of the Kashmiri tribute, and had repaid it - before it was due, showing much gratitude for the loans. - </p> - <p> - Dr. Marx accompanied me for the three first days. The few native - Christians in Leh assembled in the gay garden plot of the lowly - mission-house to shake hands and wish me a good journey, and not a few - who were not Christians, some of them walking for the first hour beside - our horses. The road from Leh descends to a rude wooden bridge over the - Indus, a mighty stream even there, over blazing slopes of gravel - dignified by colossal <i>manis</i> and <i>chod-tens</i> in long lines, - built by the former kings of Ladak. On the other side of the river - gravel slopes ascend towards red mountains 20,000 feet in height. Then - comes a rocky spur crowned by the imposing castle of the Gyalpo, the son - of the dethroned king of Ladak, surmounted by a forest of poles from - which flutter <i>yaks'</i> tails and long streamers inscribed with - prayers. Others bear aloft the trident, the emblem of Siva. Carefully - hewn zigzags, entered through a much-decorated and colossal <i>chod-ten</i>, - lead to the castle. The village of Stok, the prettiest and most - prosperous in Ladak, fills up the mouth of a gorge with its large - farm-houses among poplar, apricot, and willow plantations, and irrigated - terraces of barley; and is imposing as well as pretty, for the two roads - by which it is approached are avenues of lofty <i>chod-tens</i> and - broad <i>manis</i>, all in excellent repair. Knolls, and deeply coloured - spurs of naked rock, most picturesquely crowded with <i>chod-tens</i>, - rise above the greenery, breaking the purple gloom of the gorge which - cuts deeply into the mountains, and supplies from its rushing glacier - torrent the living waters which create this delightful oasis. - </p> - <p> - The <i>gopa</i> came forth to meet us, bearing apricots and cheeses as - the Gyalpo's greeting, and conducted us to the camping-ground, a sloping - lawn in a willow-wood, with many a natural bower of the graceful <i>Clematis - orientalis</i>. The tents were pitched, afternoon tea was on a table - outside, a clear, swift stream made fitting music, the dissonance of the - ceaseless beating of gongs and drums in the castle temple was softened - by distance, the air was cool, a lemon light bathed the foreground, and - to the north, across the Indus, the great mountains of the Leh range, - with every cleft defined in purple or blue, lifted their vermilion peaks - into a rosy sky. It was the poetry and luxury of travel. - </p> - <p> - At Leh I was obliged to dismiss the <i>seis</i> for prolonged misconduct - and cruelty to Gyalpo, and Mando undertook to take care of him. The - animal had always been held by two men while the <i>seis</i> groomed him - with difficulty, but at Stok, when Mando rubbed him down, he quietly - went on feeding and laid his lovely head on the lad's shoulder with a - soft cooing sound. From that moment Mando could do anything with him, - and a singular attachment grew up between man and horse. - </p> - <p> - Towards sunset we were received by the Gyalpo. The castle loses nothing - of its picturesqueness on a nearer view, and everything about it is trim - and in good order. It is a substantial mass of stone building on a lofty - rock, the irregularities of which have been taken most artistic - advantage of in order to give picturesque irregularity to the edifice, - which, while six storeys high in some places, is only three in others. - As in the palace of Leh, the walls slope inwards from the base, where - they are ten feet thick, and projecting balconies of brown wood and grey - stone relieve their monotony. We were received at the entrance by a - number of red <i>lamas</i>, who took us up five flights of rude stairs - to the reception room, where we were introduced to the Gyalpo, who was - in the midst of a crowd of monks, and, except that his hair was not - shorn, and that he wore a silver brocade cap and large gold earrings and - bracelets, was dressed in red like them. Throneless and childless, the - Gyalpo has given himself up to religion. He has covered the castle roof - with Buddhist emblems (not represented in the sketch). From a pole, - forty feet long, on the terrace floats a broad streamer of equal length, - completely covered with <i>Aum mani padne hun</i>, and he has surrounded - himself with <i>lamas</i>, who conduct nearly ceaseless services in the - sanctuary. The attainment of merit, as his creed leads him to understand - it, is his one aim in life. He loves the seclusion of Stok, and rarely - visits the palace in Leh, except at the time of the winter games, when - the whole population assembles in cheery, orderly crowds, to witness - races, polo and archery matches, and a species of hockey. He interests - himself in the prosperity of Stok, plants poplars, willows, and fruit - trees, and keeps the castle <i>manis</i> and <i>chod-tens</i> in - admirable repair. - </p> - <p> - Stok Castle is as massive as any of our mediaeval buildings, but is far - lighter and roomier. It is most interesting to see a style of - architecture and civilisation which bears not a solitary trace of - European influence, not even in Manchester cottons or Russian gimcracks. - The Gyalpo's room was only roofed for six feet within the walls, where - it was supported by red pillars. Above, the deep blue Tibetan sky was - flushing with the red of sunset, and from a noble window with a covered - stone balcony there was an enchanting prospect of red ranges passing - into translucent amethyst. The partial ceiling is painted in arabesques, - and at one end of the room is an alcove, much enriched with bold wood - carving. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_17"></a> <a href="images/gs17.png"><img - src="images/gs17s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THE - CASTLE OF STOK</span> - </div> - <p> - The Gyalpo was seated on a carpet on the floor, a smooth-faced, rather - stupid-looking man of twenty-eight. He placed us on a carpet beside him, - and coffee, honey, and apricots were brought in, but the conversation - flagged. He neither suggested anything nor took up Dr. Marx's - suggestions. Fortunately, we had brought our sketch-books, and the views - of several places were recognised, and were found interesting. The <i>lamas</i> - and servants, who had remained respectfully standing, sat down on the - floor, and even the Gyalpo became animated. So our visit ended - successfully. - </p> - <p> - There is a doorway from the reception room into the sanctuary, and after - a time fully thirty <i>lamas</i> passed in and began service, but the - Gyalpo only stood on his carpet. There is only a half light in this - temple, which is further obscured by scores of smoked and dusty - bannerets of gold and silver brocade hanging from the roof. In addition - to the usual Buddhist emblems there are musical instruments, exquisitely - inlaid, or enriched with <i>niello</i> work of gold and silver of great - antiquity, and bows of singular strength, requiring two men to bend - them, which are made of small pieces of horn cleverly joined. <i>Lamas</i> - gabbled liturgies at railroad speed, beating drums and clashing cymbals - as an accompaniment, while others blew occasional blasts on the colossal - silver horns or trumpets, which probably resemble those with which - Jericho was encompassed. The music, the discordant and high-pitched - monotones, and the revolting odours of stale smoke of juniper chips, of - rancid butter, and of unwashed woollen clothes which drifted through the - doorway, were overpowering. Attempted fights among the horses woke me - often during the night, and the sound of worship was always borne over - the still air. - </p> - <p> - Dr. Marx left on the third day, after we had visited the monastery of - Hemis, the richest in Ladak, holding large landed property and - possessing much metallic wealth, including a <i>chod-ten</i> of silver - and gold, thirty feet high, in one of its many halls, approached by - gold-plated silver steps and incrusted with precious stones; there is - also much fine work in brass and bronze. Hemis abounds in decorated - buildings most picturesquely placed, it has three hundred <i>lamas</i>, - and is regarded as 'the sight' of Ladak. - </p> - <p> - At Upschi, after a day's march over blazing gravel, I left the rushing - olive-green Indus, which I had followed from the bridge of Khalsi, where - a turbulent torrent, the Upshi water, joins it, descending through a - gorge so narrow that the track, which at all times is blasted on the - face of the precipice, is occasionally scaffolded. A very extensive - rock-slip had carried away the path and rendered several fords - necessary, and before I reached it rumour was busy with the peril. It - was true that the day before several mules had been carried away and - drowned, that many loads had been sacrificed, and that one native - traveller had lost his life. So I started my caravan at daybreak, to get - the water at its lowest, and ascended the gorge, which is an absolutely - verdureless rift in mountains of most brilliant and fantastic - stratification. At the first ford Mando was carried down the river for a - short distance. The second was deep and strong, and a caravan of - valuable goods had been there for two days, afraid to risk the crossing. - My Lahulis, who always showed a great lack of stamina, sat down, sobbing - and beating their breasts. Their sole wealth, they said, was in their - baggage animals, and the river was 'wicked,' and 'a demon' lived in it - who paralysed the horses' legs. Much experience of Orientals and of - travel has taught me to surmount difficulties in my own way, so, - beckoning to two men from the opposite side, who came over shakily with - linked arms, I took the two strong ropes which I always carry on my - saddle, and roped these men together and to Gyalpo's halter with one, - and lashed Mando and the guide together with the other, giving them the - stout thongs behind the saddle to hold on to, and in this compact mass - we stood the strong rush of the river safely, the paralysing chill of - its icy waters being a far more obvious peril. All the baggage animals - were brought over in the same way, and the Lahulis praised their gods. - </p> - <p> - At Gya, a wild hamlet, the last in Ladak proper, I met a working - naturalist whom I had seen twice before, and 'forgathered' with him much - of the way. Eleven days of solitary desert succeeded. The reader has - probably understood that no part of the Indus, Shayok, and Nubra - valleys, which make up most of the province of Ladak, is less than 9,500 - feet in altitude, and that the remainder is composed of precipitous - mountains with glaciers and snowfields, ranging from 18,000 to 25,000 - feet, and that the villages are built mainly on alluvial soil where - possibilities of irrigation exist. But Rupchu has peculiarities of its - own. - </p> - <p> - Between Gya and Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, are three huge - passes, the Toglang, 18,150 feet in altitude, the Lachalang, 17,500, and - the Baralacha, 16,000,—all easy, except for the difficulties - arising from the highly rarefied air. The mountains of the region, which - are from 20,000 to 23,000 feet in altitude, are seldom precipitous or - picturesque, except the huge red needles which guard the Lachalang Pass, - but are rather 'monstrous protuberances,' with arid surfaces of - disintegrated rock. Among these are remarkable plateaux, which are taken - advantage of by caravans, and which have elevations of from 14,000 to - 15,000 feet. There are few permanent rivers or streams, the lakes are - salt, beside the springs, and on the plateaux there is scanty - vegetation, chiefly aromatic herbs; but on the whole Rupchu is a desert - of arid gravel. Its only inhabitants are 500 nomads, and on the ten - marches of the trade route, the bridle paths, on which in some places - labour has been spent, the tracks, not always very legible, made by the - passage of caravans, and rude dykes, behind which travellers may shelter - themselves from the wind, are the only traces of man. Herds of the <i>kyang</i>, - the wild horse of some naturalists, and the wild ass of others, graceful - and beautiful creatures, graze within gunshot of the track without - alarm. - </p> - <p> - I had thought Ladak windy, but Rupchu is the home of the winds, and the - marches must be arranged for the quietest time of the day. Happily the - gales blow with clockwork regularity, the day wind from the south and - south-west rising punctually at 9 a.m. and attaining its maximum at - 2.30, while the night wind from the north and north-east rises about 9 - p.m. and ceases about 5 a.m. Perfect silence is rare. The highly - rarefied air, rushing at great speed, when at its worst deprives the - traveller of breath, skins his face and hands, and paralyses the baggage - animals. In fact, neither man nor beast can face it. The horses 'turn - tail' and crowd together, and the men build up the baggage into a wall - and crouch in the lee of it. The heat of the solar rays is at the same - time fearful. At Lachalang, at a height of over 15,000 feet, I noted a - solar temperature of 152°, only 35° below the boiling point of water in - the same region, which is about 187°. To make up for this, the mercury - falls below the freezing point every night of the year, even in August - the difference of temperature in twelve hours often exceeding 120°! The - Rupchu nomads, however, delight in this climate of extremes, and regard - Leh as a place only to be visited in winter, and Kulu and Kashmir as if - they were the malarial swamps of the Congo! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_18"></a> <a href="images/gs18.png"><img - src="images/gs18s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />FIRST - VILLAGE IN KULU</span> - </div> - <p> - We crossed the Toglang Pass, at a height of 18,150 feet, with less - suffering from <i>ladug</i> than on either the Digar or Kharzong Passes. - Indeed Gyalpo carried me over it, stopping to take breath every few - yards. It was then a long dreary march to the camping-ground of Tsala, - where the Chang-pas spend the four summer months; the guides and baggage - animals lost the way and did not appear until the next day, and in - consequence the servants slept unsheltered in the snow. News travels as - if by magic in desert places. Towards evening, while riding by a stream - up a long and tedious valley, I saw a number of moving specks on the - crest of a hill, and down came a surge of horsemen riding furiously. - Just as they threatened to sweep Gyalpo away, they threw their horses on - their haunches, in one moment were on the ground, which they touched - with their foreheads, presented me with a plate of apricots, and the - next vaulted into their saddles, and dashing up the valley were soon out - of sight. In another half-hour there was a second wild rush of horsemen, - the headman dismounted, threw himself on his face, kissed my hand, - vaulted into the saddle, and then led a swirl of his tribesmen at a - gallop in ever-narrowing circles round me till they subsided into the - decorum of an escort. An elevated plateau with some vegetation on it, a - row of forty tents, 'black' but not 'comely,' a bright rapid river, wild - hills, long lines of white sheep converging towards the camp, <i>yaks</i> - rampaging down the hillsides, men running to meet us, and women and - children in the distance were singularly idealised in the golden glow of - a cool, moist evening. - </p> - <p> - Two men took my bridle, and two more proceeded to put their hands on my - stirrups; but Gyalpo kicked them to the right and left amidst shrieks of - laughter, after which, with frantic gesticulations and yells of '<i>Kabardar!</i>' - I was led through the river in triumph and hauled off my horse. The - tribesmen were much excited. Some dashed about, performing feats of - horsemanship; others brought apricots and dough-balls made with apricot - oil, or rushed to the tents, returning with rugs; some cleared the - camping-ground of stones and raised a stone platform, and a flock of - goats, exquisitely white from the daily swims across the river, were - brought to be milked. Gradually and shrinkingly the women and children - drew near; but Mr. ——'s Bengali servant threatened them with - a whip, when there was a general stampede, the women running like hares. - I had trained my servants to treat the natives courteously, and - addressed some rather strong language to the offender, and afterwards - succeeded in enticing all the fugitives back by showing my sketches, - which gave boundless pleasure and led to very numerous requests for - portraits! The <i>gopa</i>, though he had the oblique Mongolian eyes, - was a handsome young man, with a good nose and mouth. He was dressed - like the others in a girdled <i>chaga</i> of coarse serge, but wore a - red cap turned up over the ears with fine fur, a silver inkhorn, and a - Yarkand knife in a chased silver sheath in his girdle, and - canary-coloured leather shoes with turned-up points. The people prepared - one of their own tents for me, and laying down a number of rugs of their - own dyeing and weaving, assured me of an unbounded welcome as a friend - of their 'benefactor,' Mr. Redslob, and then proposed that I should - visit their tents accompanied by all the elders of the tribe. - </p> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_V"></a><span>CHAPTER V</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">CLIMATE AND NATURAL FEATURES</span> - </h2> - <p> - The last chapter left me with the chief and elders of the Chang-pas - starting on 'a round of visits,' and it was not till nightfall that the - solemn ceremony was concluded. Each of the fifty tents was visited: at - every one a huge, savage Tibetan mastiff made an attempt to fly at me, - and was pounced upon and held down by a woman little bigger than - himself, and in each cheese and milk were offered and refused. In all I - received a hearty welcome for the sake of the 'great father,' Mr. - Redslob, who designated these people as 'the simplest and kindliest - people on earth.' - </p> - <p> - This Chang-pa tribe, numbering five hundred souls, makes four moves in - the year, dividing in summer, and uniting in a valley very free from - snow in the winter. They are an exclusively pastoral people, and possess - large herds of <i>yaks</i> and ponies and immense flocks of sheep and - goats, the latter almost entirely the beautiful 'shawl goat,' from the - undergrowth at the base of the long hair of which the fine Kashmir - shawls are made. This <i>pashm</i> is a provision which Nature makes - against the intense cold of these altitudes, and grows on <i>yaks</i>, - sheep, and dogs, as well as on most of the wild animals. The sheep is - the big, hornless, flop-eared <i>huniya</i>. The <i>yaks</i> and sheep - are the load carriers of Rupchu. Small or easily divided merchandise is - carried by sheep, and bulkier goods by <i>yaks</i>, and the Chang-pas - make a great deal of money by carrying for the Lahul, Central Ladak, and - Rudok merchants, their sheep travelling as far as Gar in Chinese Tibet. - They are paid in grain as well as coin, their own country producing no - farinaceous food. They have only two uses for silver money. With part of - their gains they pay the tribute to Kashmir, and they melt the rest, and - work it into rude personal ornaments. According to an old arrangement - between Lhassa and Leh, they carry brick tea free for the Lhassa - merchants. They are Buddhists, and practise polyandry, but their young - men do not become <i>lamas</i>, and owing to the scarcity of fuel, - instead of burning their dead, they expose them with religious rites - face upwards in desolate places, to be made away with by the birds of - the air. All their tents have a god-shelf, on which are placed small - images and sacred emblems. They dress as the Ladakis, except that the - men wear shoes with very high turned-up points, and that the women, in - addition to the <i>perak</i>, the usual ornament, place on the top of - the head a large silver coronet with three tassels. In physiognomy they - resemble the Ladakis, but the Mongolian type is purer, the eyes are more - oblique, and the eyelids have a greater droop, the chins project more, - and the mouths are handsomer. Many of the men, including the headman, - were quite good-looking, but the upper lips of the women were apt to be - 'tucked up,' displaying very square teeth, as we have shown in the - preceding chapter. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_19"></a> <a href="images/gs19.png"><img - src="images/gs19s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - TIBETAN FARM-HOUSE</span> - </div> - <p> - The roofs of the Tsala tents are nearly flat, and the middle has an - opening six inches wide along its whole length. An excavation from - twelve to twenty-four inches deep is made in the soil, and a rude wall - of stones, about one foot high, is built round it, over which the tent - cloth, made in narrow widths of <i>yak's</i> or goat's hair, is extended - by ropes led over forked sticks. There is no ridge pole, and the centre - is supported on short poles, to the projecting tops of which prayer - flags and <i>yaks'</i> tails are attached. The interior, though dark, is - not too dark for weaving, and each tent has its loom, for the Chang-pas - not only weave their coarse woollen clothing and hair cloth for - saddlebags and tents, but rugs of wool dyed in rich colours made from - native roots. The largest tent was twenty feet by fifteen, but the - majority measured only fourteen feet by eight and ten feet. The height - in no case exceeded six feet. In these much ventilated and scarcely - warmed shelters these hardy nomads brave the tremendous winds and winter - rigours of their climate at altitudes varying from 13,000 to 14,500 - feet. Water freezes every night of the year, and continually there are - differences in temperature of 100° between noon and midnight. In - addition to the fifty dwelling tents there was one considerably larger, - in which the people store their wool and goat's hair till the time - arrives for taking them to market. The floor of several of the tents was - covered with rugs, and besides looms and confused heaps of what looked - like rubbish, there were tea-churns, goatskin churns, sheep and goat - skins, children's bows and arrows, cooking pots, and heaps of the furze - root, which is used as fuel. - </p> - <p> - They expended much of this scarce commodity upon me in their - hospitality, and kept up a bonfire all night. They mounted their wiry - ponies and performed feats of horsemanship, in one of which all the - animals threw themselves on their hind legs in a circle when a man in - the centre clapped his hands; and they crowded my tent to see my - sketches, and were not satisfied till I executed some daubs professing - to represent some of the elders. The excitement of their first visit - from a European woman lasted late into the night, and when they at last - retired they persisted in placing a guard of honour round my tent. - </p> - <p> - In the morning there was ice on the pools, and the snow lay three inches - deep. Savage life had returned to its usual monotony, and the care of - flocks and herds. In the early afternoon the chief and many of the men - accompanied us across the ford, and we parted with mutual expressions of - good will. The march was through broad gravelly valleys, among - 'monstrous protuberances' of red and yellow gravel, elevated by their - height alone to the dignity of mountains. Hail came on, and Gyalpo - showed his high breeding by facing it when the other animals 'turned - tail' and huddled together, and a storm of heavy sleet of some hours' - duration burst upon us just as we reached the dismal camping-ground of - Rukchen, guarded by mountain giants which now and then showed glimpses - of their white skirts through the dark driving mists. That was the only - 'weather' in four months. - </p> - <p> - A large caravan from the heat and sunshine of Amritsar was there. The - goods were stacked under goat's hair shelters, the mules were huddled - together without food, and their shivering Panjābi drivers, muffled in - blankets which only left one eye exposed, were grubbing up furze roots - wherewith to make smoky fires. My baggage, which had arrived previously, - was lying soaking in the sleet, while the wretched servants were trying - to pitch the tent in the high wind. They had slept out in the snow the - night before, and were mentally as well as physically benumbed. Their - misery had a comic side to it, and as the temperature made me feel - specially well, I enjoyed bestirring myself, and terrified Mando, who - was feebly 'fadding' with a rag, by giving Gyalpo a vigorous rub-down - with a bath-towel. Hassan Khan, with chattering teeth and severe - neuralgia, muffled in my 'fisherman's hood' under his turban, was trying - to do his work with his unfailing pluck. Mando was shedding futile tears - over wet furze which would not light, the small wet corrie was dotted - over with the Amritsar men sheltering under rocks and nursing hopeless - fires, and fifty mules and horses, with dejected heads and dripping - tails, and their backs to the merciless wind, were attempting to pick - some food from scanty herbage already nibbled to the root. My tent was a - picture of grotesque discomfort. The big stones had not been picked out - from the gravel, the bed stood in puddles, the thick horse blanket was - draining over the one chair, the servant's spare clothing and stores - were on the table, the <i>yaks'</i> loads of wet hay and the soaked - grain sack filled up most of the space; a wet candle sputtered and went - out, wet clothes dripped from the tent hook, and every now and then - Hassan Khan looked in with one eye, gasping out, 'Mem Sahib, I can no - light the fire!' Perseverance succeeds eventually, and cups of a strong - stimulant made of Burroughes and Wellcome's vigorous 'valoid' tincture - of ginger and hot water, revived the men all round. Such was its good - but innocent effect, that early the next morning Hassan came into my - tent with two eyes, and convulsed with laughter. 'The pony men' and - Mando, he said, were crying, and the coolie from Leh, who before the - storm had wanted to go the whole way to Simla, after refusing his supper - had sobbed all night under the 'flys' of my tent, while I was sleeping - soundly. Afterwards I harangued them, and told them I would let them go, - and help them back; I could not take such poor-spirited miserable - creatures with me, and I would keep the Tartars who had accompanied me - from Tsala. On this they protested, and said, with a significant - gesture, I might cut their throats if they cried any more, and begged me - to try them again; and as we had no more bad weather, there was no more - trouble. - </p> - <p> - The marches which followed were along valleys, plains, and - mountain-sides of gravel, destitute of herbage, except a shrivelled - artemisia, and on one occasion the baggage animals were forty hours - without food. Fresh water was usually very scarce, and on the Lingti - plains was only obtainable by scooping it up from the holes left by the - feet of animals. Insect life was rare, and except grey doves, the 'dove - of the valleys,' which often flew before us for miles down the ravines, - no birds were to be seen. On the other hand, there were numerous herds - of <i>kyang</i>, which in the early mornings came to drink of the water - by which the camps were pitched. By looking through a crevice of my tent - I saw them distinctly, without alarming them. In one herd I counted - forty. They kept together in families, sire, dam, and foal. The animal - certainly is under fourteen hands, and resembles a mule rather than a - horse or ass. The noise, which I had several opportunities of hearing, - is more like a neigh than a bray, but lacks completeness. The creature - is light brown, almost fawn colour, fading into white under his body, - and he has a dark stripe on his back, but not a cross. His ears are - long, and his tail is like that of a mule. He trots and gallops, and - when alarmed gallops fast, but as he is not worth hunting, he has not a - great dread of humanity, and families of <i>kyang</i> frequently grazed - within two hundred and fifty yards of us. He is about as untamable as - the zebra, and with his family affectionateness leads apparently a very - happy life. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_20"></a> <a href="images/gs20.png"><img - src="images/gs20s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />LAHUL - VALLEY</span> - </div> - <p> - On the Kwangchu plateau, at an elevation of 15,000 feet, I met with a - form of life which has a great interest of its own, sheep caravans, - numbering among them 7,000 sheep, each animal with its wool on, and - equipped with a neat packsaddle and two leather or hair-cloth bags, and - loaded with from twenty-five to thirty-two pounds of salt or borax. - These, and many more which we passed, were carrying their loads to - Patseo, a mountain valley in Lahul, where they are met by traders from - Northern British India. The sheep are shorn, and the wool and loads are - exchanged for wheat and a few other commodities, with which they return - to Tibet, the whole journey taking from nine months to a year. As the - sheep live by grazing the scanty herbage on the march, they never - accomplish more than ten miles a day, and as they often become footsore, - halts of several days are frequently required. Sheep, dead or dying, - with the birds of prey picking out their eyes, were often met with. - Ordinarily these caravans are led by a man, followed by a large goat - much bedecked and wearing a large bell. Each driver has charge of one - hundred sheep. These men, of small stature but very thickset, with their - wide smooth faces, loose clothing of sheepskin with the wool outside, - with their long coarse hair flying in the wind, and their uncouth shouts - in a barbarous tongue, are much like savages. They sing wild chants as - they picket their sheep in long double lines at night, and with their - savage mastiffs sleep unsheltered under the frosty skies under the lee - of their piled-up saddlebags. On three nights I camped beside their - caravans, and walked round their orderly lines of sheep and their neat - walls of saddlebags; and, far from showing any discourtesy or rude - curiosity, they held down their fierce dogs and exhibited their - ingenious mode of tethering their animals, and not one of the many - articles which my servants were in the habit of leaving outside the - tents was on any occasion abstracted. The dogs, however, were less - honest than their masters, and on one night ran away with half a sheep, - and I should have fared poorly had not Mr. —— shot some grey - doves. - </p> - <p> - Marches across sandy and gravelly valleys, and along arid mountain-sides - spotted with a creeping furze and cushions of a yellow-green moss which - seems able to exist without moisture, fords of the Sumgyal and Tserap - rivers, and the crossing of the Lachalang Pass at an altitude of 17,500 - feet in severe frost, occupied several uneventful days. Of the three - lofty passes on this route, the Toglang, which is higher, and the - Baralacha, which is lower, are featureless billows of gravel, over which - a carriage might easily be driven. Not so is the Lachalang, though its - well-made zigzags are easy for laden animals. The approach to it is - fantastic, among precipitous mountains of red sandstone, and red rocks - weathered into pillars, men's heads, and numerous groups of gossipy old - women from thirty to fifty feet high, in flat hats and long circular - cloaks! Entering by red gates of rock into a region of gigantic - mountains, and following up a crystal torrent, the valley narrowing to a - gorge, and the gorge to a chasm guarded by nearly perpendicular needles - of rock flaming in the westering sun, we forded the river at the chasm's - throat, and camped on a velvety green lawn just large enough for a few - tents, absolutely walled in by abrupt mountains 18,000 and 19,000 feet - in height. Long after the twilight settled down on us, the pinnacles - above glowed in warm sunshine, and the following morning, when it was - only dawn below, and the still river pools were frozen and the grass was - white with hoar-frost, the morning sun reddened the snow-peaks and - kindled into vermilion the red needles of Lachalang. That camping-ground - under such conditions is the grandest and most romantic spot of the - whole journey. - </p> - <p> - Verdureless and waterless stretches, in crossing which our poor animals - were two nights without food, brought us to the glacier-blue waters of - the Serchu, tumbling along in a deep broad gash, and farther on to a - lateral torrent which is the boundary between Rupchu, tributary to - Kashmir, and Lahul or British Tibet, under the rule of the Empress of - India. The tents were ready pitched in a grassy hollow by the river; - horses, cows, and goats were grazing near them, and a number of men were - preparing food. A Tibetan approached me, accompanied by a creature in a - nondescript dress speaking Hindustani volubly. On a band across his - breast were the British crown, and a plate with the words - 'Commissioner's <i>chaprassie</i>, Kulu district.' I never felt so - extinguished. Liberty seemed lost, and the romance of the desert to have - died out in one moment! At the camping-ground I found rows of salaaming - Lahulis drawn up, and Hassan Khan in a state which was a compound of - pomposity and jubilant excitement. The <i>tahsildar</i> (really the - Tibetan honorary magistrate), he said, had received instructions from - the Lieutenant-Governor of the Panjāb that I was on the way to Kylang, - and was to 'want for nothing.' So twenty-four men, nine horses, a flock - of goats, and two cows had been waiting for me for three days in the - Serchu valley. I wrote a polite note to the magistrate, and sent all - back except the <i>chaprassie</i>, the cows, and the cowherd, my - servants looking much crestfallen. - </p> - <p> - We crossed the Baralacha Pass in wind and snow showers into a climate in - which moisture began to be obvious. At short distances along the pass, - which extends for many miles, there are rude semicircular walls, three - feet high, all turned in one direction, in the shelter of which - travellers crouch to escape from the strong cutting wind. My men - suffered far more than on the two higher passes, and it was difficult to - dislodge them from these shelters, where they lay groaning, gasping, and - suffering from vertigo and nose-bleeding. The cold was so severe that I - walked over the loftiest part of the pass, and for the first time felt - slight effects of the <i>ladug</i>. At a height of 15,000 feet, in the - midst of general desolation, grew, in the shelter of rocks, poppies (<i>Mecanopsis - aculeata</i>), blue as the Tibetan skies, their centres filled with a - cluster of golden-yellow stamens,—a most charming sight. Ten or - twelve of these exquisite blossoms grow on one stalk, and stalk, leaf, - and seed-vessels are guarded by very stiff thorns. Lower down flowers - abounded, and at the camping-ground of Patseo (12,000 feet), where the - Tibetan sheep caravans exchange their wool, salt, and borax for grain, - the ground was covered with soft greensward, and real rain fell. Seen - from the Baralacha Pass are vast snowfields, glaciers, and avalanche - slopes. This barrier, and the Rotang, farther south, close this trade - route practically for seven months of the year, for they catch the - monsoon rains, which at that altitude are snows from fifteen to thirty - feet deep; while on the other side of the Baralacha and throughout - Rupchu and Ladak the snowfall is insignificant. So late as August, when - I crossed, there were four perfect snow bridges over the Bhaga, and - snowfields thirty-six feet deep along its margin. At Patseo the <i>tahsildar</i>, - with a retinue and animals laden with fodder, came to pay his respects - to me, and invited me to his house, three days' journey. These were the - first human beings we had seen for three days. - </p> - <p> - A few miles south of the Baralacha Pass some birch trees appeared on a - slope, the first natural growth of timber that I had seen since crossing - the Zoji La. Lower down there were a few more, then stunted specimens of - the pencil cedar, and the mountains began to show a shade of green on - their lower slopes. Butterflies appeared also, and a vulture, a grand - bird on the wing, hovered ominously over us for some miles, and was - succeeded by an equally ominous raven. On the excellent bridle-track cut - on the face of the precipices which overhang the Bhaga, there is in nine - miles only one spot in which it is possible to pitch a five-foot tent, - and at Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, the only camping-ground is on - the house roofs. There the Chang-pas and their <i>yaks</i> and horses - who had served me pleasantly and faithfully from Tsala left me, and - returned to the freedom of their desert life. At Kolang, the next - hamlet, where the thunder of the Bhaga was almost intolerable, Hara - Chang, the magistrate, one of the <i>thakurs</i> or feudal proprietors - of Lahul, with his son and nephew and a large retinue, called on me; and - the next morning Mr. —— and I went by invitation to visit - him in his castle, a magnificently situated building on a rocky spur - 1,000 feet above the camping-ground, attained by a difficult climb, and - nearly on a level with the glittering glaciers and ice-falls on the - other side of the Bhaga. It only differs from Leh and Stok castles in - having blue glass in some of the smaller windows. In the family temple, - in addition to the usual life-size images of Buddha and the Triad, there - was a female divinity, carved at Jallandhur in India, copied from a - statue representing Queen Victoria in her younger days—a very - fitting possession for the highest government official in Lahul. The <i>thakur</i>, - Hara Chang, is wealthy and a rigid Buddhist, and uses his very - considerable influence against the work of the Moravian missionaries in - the valley. The rude path down to the bridle-road, through fields of - barley and buckwheat, is bordered by roses, gooseberries, and masses of - wild flowers. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_21"></a> <a href="images/gs21.png"><img - src="images/gs21s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />GONPO - AT KYLANG</span> - </div> - <p> - The later marches after reaching Darcha are grand beyond all - description. The track, scaffolded or blasted out of the rock at a - height of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the thundering Bhaga, is - scarcely a rifle-shot from the mountain mass dividing it from the - Chandra, a mass covered with nearly unbroken ice and snowfields, out of - which rise pinnacles of naked rock 21,000 and 22,000 feet in altitude. - The region is the 'abode of snow,' and glaciers of great size fill up - every depression. Humidity, vegetation, and beauty reappear together, - wild flowers and ferns abound, and pencil cedars in clumps rise above - the artificial plantations of the valley. Wheat ripens at an altitude of - 12,000 feet. Picturesque villages, surrounded by orchards, adorn the - mountain spurs; <i>chod-tens</i> and <i>gonpos</i>, with white walls and - fluttering flags, brighten the scene; feudal castles crown the heights, - and where the mountains are loftiest, the snowfields and glaciers most - imposing, and the greenery densest, the village of Kylang, the most - important in Lahul as the centre of trade, government, and Christian - missions, hangs on ledges of the mountain-side 1,000 feet above Bhaga, - whose furious course can be traced far down the valley by flashes of - sunlit foam. - </p> - <p> - The Lahul valley, which is a part of British Tibet, has an altitude of - 10,000 feet. It prospers under British rule, its population has - increased, Hindu merchants have settled in Kylang, the route through - Lahul to Central Asia is finding increasing favour with the Panjābi - traders, and the Moravian missionaries, by a bolder system of irrigation - and the provision of storage for water, have largely increased the - quantity of arable land. The Lahulis are chiefly Tibetans, but Hinduism - is largely mixed up with Buddhism in the lower villages. All the <i>gonpos</i>, - however, have been restored and enlarged during the last twenty years. - In winter the snow lies fifteen feet deep, and for four or five months, - owing to the perils of the Rotang Pass, the valley rarely has any - communication with the outer world. - </p> - <p> - At the foot of the village of Kylang, which is built in tier above tier - of houses up the steep side of a mountain with a height of 21,000 feet, - are the Moravian mission buildings, long, low, whitewashed erections, of - the simplest possible construction, the design and much of the actual - erection being the work of these capable Germans. The large building, - which has a deep verandah, the only place in which exercise can be taken - in the winter, contains the native church, three rooms for each - missionary, and two guest-rooms. Round the garden are the printing - rooms, the medicine and store room (stores arriving once in two years), - and another guest-room. Round an adjacent enclosure are the houses - occupied in winter by the Christians when they come down with their - sheep and cattle from the hill farms. All is absolutely plain, and as - absolutely clean and trim. The guest-rooms and one or two of the Tibetan - rooms are papered with engravings from the <i>Illustrated London News</i>, - but the rooms of the missionaries are only whitewashed, and by their - extreme bareness reminded me of those of very poor pastors in the - Fatherland. A garden, brilliant with zinnias, dianthus, and petunias, - all of immense size, and planted with European trees, is an oasis, and - in it I camped for some weeks under a willow tree, covered, as many are, - with a sweet secretion so abundant as to drop on the roof of the tent, - and which the people collect and use as honey. - </p> - <p> - The mission party consisted of Mr. and Mrs. Shreve, lately arrived, and - now in a distant exile at Poo, and Mr. and Mrs. Heyde, who had been in - Tibet for nearly forty years, chiefly spent at Kylang, without going - home. 'Plain living and high thinking' were the rule. Books and - periodicals were numerous, and were read and assimilated. The culture - was simply wonderful, and the acquaintance with the latest ideas in - theology and natural science, the latest political and social - developments, and the latest conceptions in European art, would have led - me to suppose that these admirable people had only just left Europe. - Mrs. Heyde had no servant, and in the long winters, when household and - mission work are over for the day, and there are no mails to write for, - she pursues her tailoring and other needlework, while her husband reads - aloud till midnight. At the time of my visit (September) busy - preparations for the winter were being made. Every day the wood piles - grew. Hay, cut with sickles on the steep hillsides, was carried on human - backs into the farmyard, apples were cored and dried in the sun, - cucumbers were pickled, vinegar was made, potatoes were stored, and meat - was killed and salted. - </p> - <p> - It is in winter, when the Christians have come down from the mountain, - that most of the mission work is done. Mrs. Heyde has a school of forty - girls, mostly Buddhists. The teaching is simple and practical, and - includes the knitting of socks, of which from four to five hundred pairs - are turned out each winter, and find a ready sale. The converts meet for - instruction and discussion twice daily, and there is daily worship. The - mission press is kept actively employed in printing the parts of the - Bible which have been translated during the summer, as well as simple - tracts written or translated by Mr. Heyde. No converts are better - instructed, and like those of Leh they seem of good quality, and are - industrious and self-supporting. Winter work is severe, as ponies, - cattle, and sheep must always be hand-fed, and often hand-watered. Mr. - Heyde has great repute as a doctor, and in summer people travel long - distances for his advice and medicine. He is universally respected, and - his judgment in worldly affairs is highly thought of; but if one were to - judge merely by apparent results, the devoted labour of nearly forty - years and complete self-sacrifice for the good of Kylang must be - pronounced unsuccessful. Christianity has been most strongly opposed by - men of influence, and converts have been exposed to persecution and - loss. The abbot of the Kylang monastery lately said to Mr. Heyde, 'Your - Christian teaching has given Buddhism a resurrection.' The actual words - used were, 'When you came here people were quite indifferent about their - religion, but since it has been attacked they have become zealous, and - now they <i>know</i>.' It is only by sharing their circumstances of - isolation, and by getting glimpses of their everyday life and work, that - one can realise at all what the heroic perseverance and self-sacrificing - toil of these forty years have been, and what is the weighty influence - on the people and on the standard of morals, even though the number of - converts is so small. All honour to these noble German missionaries, - learned, genial, cultured, radiant, who, whether teaching, preaching, - farming, gardening, printing, or doctoring, are always and everywhere - 'living epistles of Christ, known and read of all men!' Close by the - mission house, in a green spot under shady trees, is God's Acre, where - many children of the mission families sleep, and a few adults. - </p> - <p> - As the winter is the busiest season in mission work, so it is the great - time in which the <i>lamas</i> make house-to-house peregrinations and - attend at festivals. Then also there is much spinning and weaving by - both sexes, and tobogganing and other games, and much drinking of <i>chang</i> - by priests and people. The cattle remain out till nearly Christmas, and - are then taken into the houses. At the time of the variable new year, - the <i>lamas</i> and nuns retire to the monasteries, and dulness reigns - in the valleys. At the end of a month they emerge, life and noise begin, - and all men to whom sons have been born during the previous year give <i>chang</i> - freely. During the festival which follows, all these jubilant fathers go - out of the village as a gaudily dressed procession, and form a circle - round a picture of a <i>yak</i>, painted by the <i>lamas</i>, which is - used as a target to be shot at with bows and arrows, and it is believed - that the man who hits it in the centre will be blessed with a son in the - coming year. After this, all the Kylang men and women collect in one - house by annual rotation, and sing and drink immense quantities of <i>chang</i> - till 10 p.m. - </p> - <p> - The religious festivals begin soon after. One, the worshipping of the <i>lamas</i> - by the laity, occurs in every village, and lasts from two to three days. - It consists chiefly of music and dancing, while the <i>lamas</i> sit in - rows, swilling <i>chang</i> and arrack. At another, which is celebrated - annually in every house, the <i>lamas</i> assemble, and in front of - certain gods prepare a number of mystical figures made of dough, which - are hung up and are worshipped by the family. Afterwards the <i>lamas</i> - make little balls which are worshipped, and one of the family mounts the - roof and invites the neighbours, who receive the balls from the <i>lamas'</i> - hands and drink moderately of <i>chang</i>. Next, the figures are thrown - to the demons as a propitiatory offering, amidst 'hellish whistlings' - and the firing of guns. These ceremonies are called <i>ise drup</i> (a - full life), and it is believed that if they were neglected life would be - cut short. - </p> - <p> - One of the most important of the winter religious duties of the <i>lamas</i> - is the reading of the sacred classics under the roof of each - householder. By this means the family accumulate merit, and the longer - the reading is protracted the greater is the accumulation. A - twelve-volume book is taken in the houses of the richer householders, - each one of the twelve or fifteen <i>lamas</i> taking a page, all - reading at an immense pace in a loud chant at the same time. The reading - of these volumes, which consist of Buddhist metaphysics and philosophy, - takes five days, and while reading each <i>lama</i> has his <i>chang</i> - cup constantly replenished. In the poorer households a classic of but - one volume is taken, to lessen the expense of feeding the <i>lamas</i>. - Festivals and ceremonies follow each other closely until March, when - archery practice begins, and in April and May the people prepare for the - operations of husbandry. - </p> - <p> - The weather in Kylang breaks in the middle of September, but so - fascinating were the beauties and sublimity of Nature, and the virtues - and culture of my Moravian friends, that, shutting my eyes to the - possible perils of the Rotang, I remained until the harvest was brought - home with joy and revelry, and the flush of autumn faded, and the first - snows of winter gave an added majesty to the glorious valley. Then, - reluctantly folding my tent, and taking the same faithful fellows who - brought my baggage from Leh, I spent five weeks on the descent to the - Panjāb, journeying through the paradise of Upper Kulu and the - interesting native states of Mandi, Sukket, Bilaspur, and Bhaghat; and - early in November reached the amenities and restraints of the - civilisation of Simla. - </p> - <p class="center"> - <b>THE END.</b> - </p> - </div> -<pre xml:space="preserve"> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Among the Tibetans, by Isabella L. 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Bird—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> - -body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } -h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { text-align: center; clear: both;} -h1 span, h2 span { display: block; margin-bottom: .5em; } -h1 br, h2 br -p { margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent:1em; } -hr { width: 34%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; clear: both;} -table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} - -#author { font-size: 80%; } -div.chapter { page-break-before: always; padding-top: 2em; } -div.chapter h2 { page-break-before: avoid; } -span.chapsub1 { font-size: 80%; } - -td.chap { text-align: center; font-weight: bold; padding-top: 1em; } -td.desc { text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; - padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; } -td.pgno { text-align: right; padding-left: 1em; vertical-align: bottom; } - -a img { border: solid white 2px; } -a img:hover { border: solid blue 2px; } -a:visited img:hover { border: solid purple 2px; } - -.center {text-align: center;} -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.u {text-decoration: underline;} -.caption {font-size: 90%;} -.figcenter { margin: auto; text-align: center;} -.footnote {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em; - padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; } -.fnanchor { vertical-align: top; font-size: .7em; text-decoration: none; } -.label { text-decoration: none; } - - </style> - </head> - <body> -<pre xml:space="preserve"> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Among the Tibetans, by Isabella L. Bird - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Among the Tibetans - -Author: Isabella L. Bird - -Illustrator: Edward Whymper - -Release Date: December 16, 2012 [EBook #41635] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMONG THE TIBETANS *** - - - - -Produced by Suzanne Shell, Asad Razzaki and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_01"></a> <a href="images/gs01.png"><img src="images/gs01s.png" - alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />USMAN SHAH</span> - </div> - <hr /> - <h1> - <span id="title">AMONG THE TIBETANS</span><br /><br /> <span id="author">Isabella - L. Bird</span><br /><br /> <span><small><small>Illustrated by</small></small></span><br /> - <span><small>Edward Whymper</small></span> - </h1> - <p class="center"> - <br /><br /><br />DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.<br /> Mineola, New York - </p> - <hr /> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CONTENTS"></a><span>CONTENTS</span> - </h2> - <div class="center"> - <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - <small>PAGE</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">The Start</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 7 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Shergol and Leh</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 40 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Nubra</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 72 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Manners and Customs</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 101 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Climate and Natural Features</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 130 - </td> - </tr> - </table> - </div> - <h2> - <a id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a><span>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</span> - </h2> - <div class="center"> - <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - <small>PAGE</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_01">Usman Shah</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - <i>Frontispiece</i> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_02">The Start from Srinagar</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 13 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_03">Camp at Gagangair</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 18 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_04">Sonamarg</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 21 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_05">A hand Prayer-Cylinder</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 42 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_06">Tibetan Girl</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 45 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_07">Gonpo of Spitak</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 51 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_08">Leh</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 57 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_09">A Chod-Ten</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 66 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_10">A Lama</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 74 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_11">Three Gopas</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 77 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_12">Some Instruments of Buddhist Worship</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 86 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_13">Monastic Buildings at Basgu</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 93 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_14">The Yak (<i>Bos grunniens</i>)</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 100 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_15">A Chang-pa Woman</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 102 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_16">Chang-pa Chief</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 110 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_17">The Castle of Stok</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 117 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_18">First Village in Kulu</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 125 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_19">A Tibetan Farm-house</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 133 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_20">Lahul Valley</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 141 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_21">Gonpo at Kylang</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 149 - </td> - </tr> - </table> - </div> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_I"></a><span>CHAPTER I</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">THE START</span> - </h2> - <p> - The Vale of Kashmir is too well known to require description. It is the - 'happy hunting-ground' of the Anglo-Indian sportsman and tourist, the - resort of artists and invalids, the home of <i>pashm</i> shawls and - exquisitely embroidered fabrics, and the land of Lalla Rookh. Its - inhabitants, chiefly Moslems, infamously governed by Hindus, are a - feeble race, attracting little interest, valuable to travellers as - 'coolies' or porters, and repulsive to them from the mingled cunning and - obsequiousness which have been fostered by ages of oppression. But even - for them there is the dawn of hope, for the Church Missionary Society - has a strong medical and educational mission at the capital, a hospital - and dispensary under the charge of a lady M.D. have been opened for - women, and a capable and upright 'settlement officer,' lent by the - Indian Government, is investigating the iniquitous land arrangements - with a view to a just settlement. - </p> - <p> - I left the Panjāb railroad system at Rawul Pindi, bought my camp - equipage, and travelled through the grand ravines which lead to Kashmir - or the Jhelum Valley by hill-cart, on horseback, and by house-boat, - reaching Srinagar at the end of April, when the velvet lawns were at - their greenest, and the foliage was at its freshest, and the - deodar-skirted mountains which enclose this fairest gem of the Himalayas - still wore their winter mantle of unsullied snow. Making Srinagar my - headquarters, I spent two months in travelling in Kashmir, half the time - in a native house-boat on the Jhelum and Pohru rivers, and the other - half on horseback, camping wherever the scenery was most attractive. - </p> - <p> - By the middle of June mosquitos were rampant, the grass was tawny, a - brown dust haze hung over the valley, the camp-fires of a multitude - glared through the hot nights and misty moonlight of the Munshibagh, - English tents dotted the landscape, there was no mountain, valley, or - plateau, however remote, free from the clatter of English voices and the - trained servility of Hindu servants, and even Sonamarg, at an altitude - of 8,000 feet and rough of access, had capitulated to lawn-tennis. To a - traveller this Anglo-Indian hubbub was intolerable, and I left Srinagar - and many kind friends on June 20 for the uplifted plateaux of Lesser - Tibet. My party consisted of myself, a thoroughly competent servant and - passable interpreter, Hassan Khan, a Panjābi; a <i>seis</i>, of whom the - less that is said the better; and Mando, a Kashmiri lad, a common - coolie, who, under Hassan Khan's training, developed into an efficient - travelling servant, and later into a smart <i>khītmatgar</i>. - </p> - <p> - Gyalpo, my horse, must not be forgotten—indeed, he cannot be, for - he left the marks of his heels or teeth on every one. He was a beautiful - creature, Badakshani bred, of Arab blood, a silver-grey, as light as a - greyhound and as strong as a cart-horse. He was higher in the scale of - intellect than any horse of my acquaintance. His cleverness at times - suggested reasoning power, and his mischievousness a sense of humour. He - walked five miles an hour, jumped like a deer, climbed like a <i>yak</i>, - was strong and steady in perilous fords, tireless, hardy, hungry, - frolicked along ledges of precipices and over crevassed glaciers, was - absolutely fearless, and his slender legs and the use he made of them - were the marvel of all. He was an enigma to the end. He was quite - untamable, rejected all dainties with indignation, swung his heels into - people's faces when they went near him, ran at them with his teeth, - seized unwary passers-by by their <i>kamar bands</i>, and shook them as - a dog shakes a rat, would let no one go near him but Mando, for whom he - formed at first sight a most singular attachment, but kicked and struck - with his forefeet, his eyes all the time dancing with fun, so that one - could never decide whether his ceaseless pranks were play or vice. He - was always tethered in front of my tent with a rope twenty feet long, - which left him practically free; he was as good as a watchdog, and his - antics and enigmatical savagery were the life and terror of the camp. I - was never weary of watching him, the curves of his form were so - exquisite, his movements so lithe and rapid, his small head and restless - little ears so full of life and expression, the variations in his manner - so frequent, one moment savagely attacking some unwary stranger with a - scream of rage, the next laying his lovely head against Mando's cheek - with a soft cooing sound and a childlike gentleness. When he was - attacking anybody or frolicking, his movements and beauty can only be - described by a phrase of the Apostle James, 'the grace of the fashion of - it.' Colonel Durand, of Gilgit celebrity, to whom I am indebted for many - other kindnesses, gave him to me in exchange for a cowardly, heavy - Yarkand horse, and had previously vainly tried to tame him. His wild - eyes were like those of a seagull. He had no kinship with humanity. - </p> - <p> - In addition, I had as escort an Afghan or Pathan, a soldier of the - Maharajah's irregular force of foreign mercenaries, who had been sent to - meet me when I entered Kashmir. This man, Usman Shah, was a stage - ruffian in appearance. He wore a turban of prodigious height ornamented - with poppies or birds' feathers, loved fantastic colours and ceaseless - change of raiment, walked in front of me carrying a big sword over his - shoulder, plundered and beat the people, terrified the women, and was - eventually recognised at Leh as a murderer, and as great a ruffian in - reality as he was in appearance. An attendant of this kind is a mistake. - The brutality and rapacity he exercises naturally make the people - cowardly or surly, and disinclined to trust a traveller so accompanied. - </p> - <p> - Finally, I had a Cabul tent, 7 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 6 in., weighing, with - poles and iron pins, 75 lbs., a trestle bed and cork mattress, a folding - table and chair, and an Indian <i>dhurrie</i> as a carpet. - </p> - <p> - My servants had a tent 5 ft. 6 in. square, weighing only 10 lbs., which - served as a shelter tent for me during the noonday halt. A kettle, - copper pot, and frying pan, a few enamelled iron table equipments, - bedding, clothing, working and sketching materials, completed my outfit. - The servants carried wadded quilts for beds and bedding, and their own - cooking utensils, unwillingness to use those belonging to a Christian - being nearly the last rag of religion which they retained. The only - stores I carried were tea, a quantity of Edwards' desiccated soup, and a - little saccharin. The 'house,' furniture, clothing, &c., were a - light load for three mules, engaged at a shilling a day each, including - the muleteer. Sheep, coarse flour, milk, and barley were procurable at - very moderate prices on the road. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_02"></a> <a href="images/gs02.png"><img - src="images/gs02s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THE - START FROM SRINAGAR</span> - </div> - <p> - Leh, the capital of Ladakh or Lesser Tibet, is nineteen marches from - Srinagar, but I occupied twenty-six days on the journey, and made the - first 'march' by water, taking my house-boat to Ganderbal, a few hours - from Srinagar, <i>viâ</i> the Mar Nullah and Anchar Lake. Never had this - Venice of the Himalayas, with a broad rushing river for its high street - and winding canals for its back streets, looked so entrancingly - beautiful as in the slant sunshine of the late June afternoon. The light - fell brightly on the river at the Residency stairs where I embarked, on - <i>perindas</i> and state barges, with their painted arabesques, gay - canopies, and 'banks' of thirty and forty crimson-clad, blue-turbaned, - paddling men; on the gay façade and gold-domed temple of the Maharajah's - Palace, on the massive deodar bridges which for centuries have defied - decay and the fierce flood of the Jhelum, and on the quaintly - picturesque wooden architecture and carved brown lattice fronts of the - houses along the swirling waterway, and glanced mirthfully through the - dense leafage of the superb planes which overhang the dark-green water. - But the mercury was 92° in the shade and the sun-blaze terrific, and it - was a relief when the boat swung round a corner, and left the stir of - the broad, rapid Jhelum for a still, narrow, and sharply winding canal, - which intersects a part of Srinagar lying between the Jhelum and the - hill-crowning fort of Hari Parbat. There the shadows were deep, and - chance lights alone fell on the red dresses of the women at the ghats, - and on the shaven, shiny heads of hundreds of amphibious boys who were - swimming and aquatically romping in the canal, which is at once the - sewer and the water supply of the district. - </p> - <p> - Several hours were spent in a slow and tortuous progress through scenes - of indescribable picturesqueness—a narrow waterway spanned by - sharp-angled stone bridges, some of them with houses on the top, or by - old brown wooden bridges festooned with vines, hemmed in by lofty stone - embankments into which sculptured stones from ancient temples are - wrought, on the top of which are houses of rich men, fancifully built, - with windows of fretwork of wood, or gardens with kiosks, and lower - embankments sustaining many-balconied dwellings, rich in colour and - fantastic in design, their upper fronts projecting over the water and - supported on piles. There were gigantic poplars wreathed with vines, - great mulberry trees hanging their tempting fruit just out of reach, - huge planes overarching the water, their dense leafage scraping the mat - roof of the boat; filthy ghats thronged with white-robed Moslems - performing their scanty religious ablutions; great grain boats heavily - thatched, containing not only families, but their sheep and poultry; and - all the other sights of a crowded Srinagar waterway, the houses being - characteristically distorted and out of repair. This canal gradually - widens into the Anchar Lake, a reedy mere of indefinite boundaries, the - breeding-ground of legions of mosquitos; and after the tawny twilight - darkened into a stifling night we made fast to a reed bed, not reaching - Ganderbal till late the next morning, where my horse and caravan awaited - me under a splendid plane-tree. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_03"></a> <a href="images/gs03.png"><img - src="images/gs03s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />CAMP - AT GAGANGAIR</span> - </div> - <p> - For the next five days we marched up the Sind Valley, one of the most - beautiful in Kashmir from its grandeur and variety. Beginning among - quiet rice-fields and brown agricultural villages at an altitude of - 5,000 feet, the track, usually bad and sometimes steep and perilous, - passes through flower-gemmed alpine meadows, along dark gorges above the - booming and rushing Sind, through woods matted with the sweet white - jasmine, the lower hem of the pine and deodar forests which ascend the - mountains to a considerable altitude, past rifts giving glimpses of - dazzling snow-peaks, over grassy slopes dotted with villages, houses, - and shrines embosomed in walnut groves, in sight of the frowning crags - of Haramuk, through wooded lanes and park-like country over which farms - are thinly scattered, over unrailed and shaky bridges, and across - avalanche slopes, till it reaches Gagangair, a dream of lonely beauty, - with a camping-ground of velvety sward under noble plane-trees. Above - this place the valley closes in between walls of precipices and crags, - which rise almost abruptly from the Sind to heights of 8,000 and 10,000 - feet. The road in many places is only a series of steep and shelving - ledges above the raging river, natural rock smoothed and polished into - riskiness by the passage for centuries of the trade into Central Asia - from Western India, Kashmir, and Afghanistan. Its precariousness for - animals was emphasised to me by five serious accidents which occurred in - the week of my journey, one of them involving the loss of the money, - clothing, and sporting kit of an English officer bound for Ladakh for - three months. Above this tremendous gorge the mountains open out, and - after crossing to the left bank of the Sind a sharp ascent brought me to - the beautiful alpine meadow of Sonamarg, bright with spring flowers, - gleaming with crystal streams, and fringed on all sides by deciduous and - coniferous trees, above and among which are great glaciers and the snowy - peaks of Tilail. Fashion has deserted Sonamarg, rough of access, for - Gulmarg, a caprice indicated by the ruins of several huts and of a - church. The pure bracing air, magnificent views, the proximity and - accessibility of glaciers, and the presence of a kind friend who was - 'hutted' there for the summer, made Sonamarg a very pleasant halt before - entering upon the supposed severities of the journey to Lesser Tibet. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_04"></a> <a href="images/gs04.png"><img - src="images/gs04s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />SONAMARG</span> - </div> - <p> - The five days' march, though propitious and full of the charm of - magnificent scenery, had opened my eyes to certain unpleasantnesses. I - found that Usman Shah maltreated the villagers, and not only robbed them - of their best fowls, but requisitioned all manner of things in my name, - though I scrupulously and personally paid for everything, beating the - people with his scabbarded sword if they showed any intention of - standing upon their rights. Then I found that my clever factotum, not - content with the legitimate 'squeeze' of ten per cent., was charging me - double price for everything and paying the sellers only half the actual - price, this legerdemain being perpetrated in my presence. He also by - threats got back from the coolies half their day's wages after I had - paid them, received money for barley for Gyalpo, and never bought it, a - fact brought to light by the growing feebleness of the horse, and - cheated in all sorts of mean and plausible ways, though I paid him - exceptionally high wages, and was prepared to 'wink' at a moderate - amount of dishonesty, so long as it affected only myself. It has a - lowering influence upon one to live in a fog of lies and fraud, and the - attempt to checkmate a fraudulent Asiatic ends in extreme discomfiture. - </p> - <p> - I left Sonamarg late on a lovely afternoon for a short march through - forest-skirted alpine meadows to Baltal, the last camping-ground in - Kashmir, a grassy valley at the foot of the Zoji La, the first of three - gigantic steps by which the lofty plateaux of Central Asia are attained. - On the road a large affluent of the Sind, which tumbles down a pine-hung - gorge in broad sheets of foam, has to be crossed. My <i>seis</i>, a - rogue, was either half-witted or pretended to be so, and, in spite of - orders to the contrary, led Gyalpo upon a bridge at a considerable - height, formed of two poles with flat pieces of stone laid loosely over - them not more than a foot broad. As the horse reached the middle, the - structure gave a sort of turn, there was a vision of hoofs in air and a - gleam of scarlet, and Gyalpo, the hope of the next four months, after - rolling over more than once, vanished among rocks and surges of the - wildest description. He kept his presence of mind, however, recovered - himself, and by a desperate effort got ashore lower down, with legs - scratched and bleeding and one horn of the saddle incurably bent. - </p> - <p> - Mr. Maconochie of the Panjāb Civil Service, and Dr. E. Neve of the C. M. - S. Medical Mission in Kashmir, accompanied me from Sonamarg over the - pass, and that night Mr. M. talked seriously to Usman Shah on the - subject of his misconduct, and with such singular results that - thereafter I had little cause for complaint. He came to me and said, - 'The Commissioner Sahib thinks I give Mem Sahib a great deal of - trouble;' to which I replied in a cold tone, 'Take care you don't give - me any more.' The gist of the Sahib's words was the very pertinent - suggestion that it would eventually be more to his interest to serve me - honestly and faithfully than to cheat me. - </p> - <p> - Baltal lies at the feet of a precipitous range, the peaks of which - exceed Mont Blanc in height. Two gorges unite there. There is not a hut - within ten miles. Big camp-fires blazed. A few shepherds lay under the - shelter of a mat screen. The silence and solitude were most impressive - under the frosty stars and the great Central Asian barrier. Sunrise the - following morning saw us on the way up a huge gorge with nearly - perpendicular sides, and filled to a great depth with snow. Then came - the Zoji La, which, with the Namika La and the Fotu La, respectively - 11,300, 13,000, and 13,500 feet, are the three great steps from Kashmir - to the Tibetan heights. The two latter passes present no difficulties. - The Zoji La is a thoroughly severe pass, the worst, with the exception - perhaps of the Sasir, on the Yarkand caravan route. The track, cut, - broken, and worn on the side of a wall of rock nearly 2,000 feet in - abrupt elevation, is a series of rough narrow zigzags, rarely, if ever, - wide enough for laden animals to pass each other, composed of broken - ledges often nearly breast high, and shelving surfaces of abraded rock, - up which animals have to leap and scramble as best they may. - </p> - <p> - Trees and trailers drooped over the path, ferns and lilies bloomed in - moist recesses, and among myriads of flowers a large blue and cream - columbine was conspicuous by its beauty and exquisite odour. The charm - of the detail tempted one to linger at every turn, and all the more so - because I knew that I should see nothing more of the grace and - bounteousness of Nature till my projected descent into Kulu in the late - autumn. The snow-filled gorge on whose abrupt side the path hangs, the - Zoji La (Pass), is geographically remarkable as being the lowest - depression in the great Himalayan range for 300 miles; and by it, in - spite of infamous bits of road on the Sind and Suru rivers, and - consequent losses of goods and animals, all the traffic of Kashmir, - Afghanistan, and the Western Panjāb finds its way into Central Asia. It - was too early in the season, however, for more than a few enterprising - caravans to be on the road. - </p> - <p> - The last look upon Kashmir was a lingering one. Below, in shadow, lay - the Baltal camping-ground, a lonely deodar-belted flowery meadow, noisy - with the dash of icy torrents tumbling down from the snowfields and - glaciers upborne by the gigantic mountain range into which we had - penetrated by the Zoji Pass. The valley, lying in shadow at their base, - was a dream of beauty, green as an English lawn, starred with white - lilies, and dotted with clumps of trees which were festooned with red - and white roses, clematis, and white jasmine. Above the hardier - deciduous trees appeared the <i>Pinus excelsa</i>, the silver fir, and - the spruce; higher yet the stately grace of the deodar clothed the - hillsides; and above the forests rose the snow mountains of Tilail, pink - in the sunrise. High above the Zoji, itself 11,500 feet in altitude, a - mass of grey and red mountains, snow-slashed and snow-capped, rose in - the dewy rose-flushed atmosphere in peaks, walls, pinnacles, and jagged - ridges, above which towered yet loftier summits, bearing into the - heavenly blue sky fields of unsullied snow alone. The descent on the - Tibetan side is slight and gradual. The character of the scenery - undergoes an abrupt change. There are no more trees, and the large - shrubs which for a time take their place degenerate into thorny bushes, - and then disappear. There were mountains thinly clothed with grass here - and there, mountains of bare gravel and red rock, grey crags, stretches - of green turf, sunlit peaks with their snows, a deep, snow-filled - ravine, eastwards and beyond a long valley filled with a snowfield - fringed with pink primulas; and that was <span class="smcap">Central - Asia</span>. - </p> - <p> - We halted for breakfast, iced our cold tea in the snow, Mr. M. gave a - final charge to the Afghan, who swore by his Prophet to be faithful, and - I parted from my kind escorts with much reluctance, and started on my - Tibetan journey, with but a slender stock of Hindustani, and two men who - spoke not a word of English. On that day's march of fourteen miles there - is not a single hut. The snowfield extended for five miles, from ten to - seventy feet deep, much crevassed, and encumbered with avalanches. In it - the Dras, truly 'snow-born,' appeared, issuing from a chasm under a blue - arch of ice and snow, afterwards to rage down the valley, to be forded - many times or crossed on snow bridges. After walking for some time, and - getting a bad fall down an avalanche slope, I mounted Gyalpo, and the - clever, plucky fellow frolicked over the snow, smelt and leapt crevasses - which were too wide to be stepped over, put his forelegs together and - slid down slopes like a Swiss mule, and, though carried off his feet in - a ford by the fierce surges of the Dras, struggled gamely to shore. - Steep grassy hills, and peaks with gorges cleft by the thundering Dras, - and stretches of rolling grass succeeded each other. Then came a wide - valley mostly covered with stones brought down by torrents, a few plots - of miserable barley grown by irrigation, and among them two buildings of - round stones and mud, about six feet high, with flat mud roofs, one of - which might be called the village, and the other the caravanserai. On - the village roof were stacks of twigs and of the dried dung of animals, - which is used for fuel, and the whole female population, adult and - juvenile, engaged in picking wool. The people of this village of Matayan - are Kashmiris. As I had an hour to wait for my tent, the women descended - and sat in a circle round me with a concentrated stare. They asked if I - were dumb, and why I wore no earrings or necklace, their own persons - being loaded with heavy ornaments. They brought children afflicted with - skin-diseases, and asked for ointment, and on hearing that I was hurt by - a fall, seized on my limbs and shampooed them energetically but not - undexterously. I prefer their sociability to the usual chilling - aloofness of the people of Kashmir. - </p> - <p> - The Serai consisted of several dark and dirty cells, built round a - blazing piece of sloping dust, the only camping-ground, and under the - entrance two platforms of animated earth, on which my servants cooked - and slept. The next day was Sunday, sacred to a halt; but there was no - fodder for the animals, and we were obliged to march to Dras, following, - where possible, the course of the river of that name, which passes among - highly-coloured and snow-slashed mountains, except in places where it - suddenly finds itself pent between walls of flame-coloured or black - rock, not ten feet apart, through which it boils and rages, forming - gigantic pot-holes. With every mile the surroundings became more - markedly of the Central Asian type. All day long a white, scintillating - sun blazes out of a deep blue, rainless, cloudless sky. The air is - exhilarating. The traveller is conscious of daily-increasing energy and - vitality. There are no trees, and deep crimson roses along torrent beds - are the only shrubs. But for a brief fortnight in June, which chanced to - occur during my journey, the valleys and lower slope present a wonderful - aspect of beauty and joyousness. Rose and pale pink primulas fringe the - margin of the snow, the dainty <i>Pedicularis tubiflora</i> covers moist - spots with its mantle of gold; great yellow and white, and small purple - and white anemones, pink and white dianthus, a very large myosotis, - bringing the intense blue of heaven down to earth, purple orchids by the - water, borage staining whole tracts deep blue, martagon lilies, pale - green lilies veined and spotted with brown, yellow, orange, and purple - vetches, painter's brush, dwarf dandelions, white clover, filling the - air with fragrance, pink and cream asters, chrysanthemums, lychnis, - irises, gentian, artemisia, and a hundred others, form the undergrowth - of millions of tall Umbelliferae and Compositae, many of them - peach-scented and mostly yellow. The wind is always strong, and the - millions of bright corollas, drinking in the sun-blaze which perfects - all too soon their brief but passionate existence, rippled in broad - waves of colour with an almost kaleidoscopic effect. About the eleventh - march from Srinagar, at Kargil, a change for the worse occurs, and the - remaining marches to the capital of Ladakh are over blazing gravel or - surfaces of denuded rock, the singular <i>Caprifolia horrida</i>, with - its dark-green mass of wavy ovate leaves on trailing stems, and its - fair, white, anemone-like blossom, and the graceful <i>Clematis - orientalis</i>, the only vegetation. - </p> - <p> - Crossing a raging affluent of the Dras by a bridge which swayed and - shivered, the top of a steep hill offered a view of a great valley with - branches sloping up into the ravines of a complexity of mountain ranges, - from 18,000 to 21,000 feet in altitude, with glaciers at times - descending as low as 11,000 feet in their hollows. In consequence of - such possibilities of irrigation, the valley is green with irrigated - grass and barley, and villages with flat roofs scattered among the - crops, or perched on the spurs of flame-coloured mountains, give it a - wild cheerfulness. These Dras villages are inhabited by hardy Dards and - Baltis, short, jolly-looking, darker, and far less handsome than the - Kashmiris; but, unlike them, they showed so much friendliness, as well - as interest and curiosity, that I remained with them for two days, - visiting their villages and seeing the 'sights' they had to show me, - chiefly a great Sikh fort, a <i>yak</i> bull, the <i>zho</i>, a hybrid, - the interiors of their houses, a magnificent view from a hilltop, and a - Dard dance to the music of Dard reed pipes. In return I sketched them - individually and collectively as far as time allowed, presenting them - with the results, truthful and ugly. I bought a sheep for 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i>, - and regaled the camp upon it, the three which were brought for my - inspection being ridden by boys astride. - </p> - <p> - The evenings in the Dras valley were exquisite. As soon as the sun went - behind the higher mountains, peak above peak, red and snow-slashed, - flamed against a lemon sky, the strong wind moderated into a pure stiff - breeze, bringing up to camp the thunder of the Dras, and the musical - tinkle of streams sparkling in absolute purity. There was no more need - for boiling and filtering. Icy water could be drunk in safety from every - crystal torrent. - </p> - <p> - Leaving behind the Dras villages and their fertility, the narrow road - passes through a flaming valley above the Dras, walled in by bare, - riven, snow-patched peaks, with steep declivities of stones, huge - boulders, decaying avalanches, walls and spires of rock, some vermilion, - others pink, a few intense orange, some black, and many plum-coloured, - with a vitrified look, only to be represented by purple madder. Huge red - chasms with glacier-fed torrents, occasional snowfields, intense solar - heat radiating from dry and verdureless rock, a ravine so steep and - narrow that for miles together there is not space to pitch a five-foot - tent, the deafening roar of a river gathering volume and fury as it - goes, rare openings, where willows are planted with lucerne in their - irrigated shade, among which the traveller camps at night, and over all - a sky of pure, intense blue purpling into starry night, were the - features of the next three marches, noteworthy chiefly for the exchange - of the thundering Dras for the thundering Suru, and for some bad bridges - and infamous bits of road before reaching Kargil, where the mountains - swing apart, giving space to several villages. Miles of alluvium are - under irrigation there, poplars, willows, and apricots abound, and on - some damp sward under their shade at a great height I halted for two - days to enjoy the magnificence of the scenery and the refreshment of the - greenery. These Kargil villages are the capital of the small State of - Purik, under the Governorship of Baltistan or Little Tibet, and are - chiefly inhabited by Ladakhis who have become converts to Islam. Racial - characteristics, dress, and manners are everywhere effaced or toned down - by Mohammedanism, and the chilling aloofness and haughty bearing of - Islam were very pronounced among these converts. - </p> - <p> - The daily routine of the journey was as follows: By six a.m. I sent on a - coolie carrying the small tent and lunch basket to await me half-way. - Before seven I started myself, with Usman Shah in front of me, leaving - the servants to follow with the caravan. On reaching the shelter tent I - halted for two hours, or till the caravan had got a good start after - passing me. At the end of the march I usually found the tent pitched on - irrigated ground, near a hamlet, the headman of which provided milk, - fuel, fodder, and other necessaries at fixed prices. 'Afternoon tea' was - speedily prepared, and dinner, consisting of roast meat and boiled rice, - was ready two hours later. After dinner I usually conversed with the - headman on local interests, and was in bed soon after eight. The - servants and muleteers fed and talked till nine, when the sound of their - 'hubble-bubbles' indicated that they were going to sleep, like most - Orientals, with their heads closely covered with their wadded quilts. - Before starting each morning the account was made out, and I paid the - headman personally. - </p> - <p> - The vagaries of the Afghan soldier, when they were not a cause of - annoyance, were a constant amusement, though his ceaseless changes of - finery and the daily growth of his baggage awakened grave suspicions. - The swashbuckler marched four miles an hour in front of me with a - swinging military stride, a large scimitar in a heavily ornamented - scabbard over his shoulder. Tanned socks and sandals, black or white - leggings wound round from ankle to knee with broad bands of orange or - scarlet serge, white cambric knickerbockers, a white cambric shirt, with - a short white muslin frock with hanging sleeves and a leather girdle - over it, a red-peaked cap with a dark-blue <i>pagri</i> wound round it, - with one end hanging over his back, earrings, a necklace, bracelets, and - a profusion of rings, were his ordinary costume; and in his girdle he - wore a dirk and a revolver, and suspended from it a long tobacco pouch - made of the furry skin of some animal, a large leather purse, and - etceteras. As the days went on he blossomed into blue and white muslin - with a scarlet sash, wore a gold embroidered peak and a huge white - muslin turban, with much change of ornaments, and appeared frequently - with a great bunch of poppies or a cluster of crimson roses surmounting - all. His headgear was colossal. It and the head together must have been - fully a third of his total height. He was a most fantastic object, and - very observant and skilful in his attentions to me; but if I had known - what I afterwards knew, I should have hesitated about taking these long - lonely marches with him for my sole attendant. Between Hassan Khan and - this Afghan violent hatred and jealousy existed. - </p> - <p> - I have mentioned roads, and my road as the great caravan route from - Western India into Central Asia. This is a fitting time for an - explanation. The traveller who aspires to reach the highlands of Tibet - from Kashmir cannot be borne along in a carriage or hill-cart. For much - of the way he is limited to a foot pace, and if he has regard to his - horse he walks down all rugged and steep descents, which are many, and - dismounts at most bridges. By 'roads' must be understood bridle-paths, - worn by traffic alone across the gravelly valleys, but elsewhere - constructed with great toil and expense, as Nature compels the - road-maker to follow her lead, and carry his track along the narrow - valleys, ravines, gorges, and chasms which she has marked out for him. - For miles at a time this road has been blasted out of precipices from - 1,000 feet to 3,000 feet in depth, and is merely a ledge above a raging - torrent, the worst parts, chiefly those round rocky projections, being - 'scaffolded,' i. e. poles are lodged horizontally among the crevices of - the cliff, and the roadway of slabs, planks, and brushwood, or branches - and sods, is laid loosely upon them. This track is always amply wide - enough for a loaded beast, but in many places, when two caravans meet, - the animals of one must give way and scramble up the mountain-side, - where foothold is often perilous, and always difficult. In passing a - caravan near Kargil my servant's horse was pushed over the precipice by - a loaded mule and drowned in the Suru, and at another time my Afghan - caused the loss of a baggage mule of a Leh caravan by driving it off the - track. To scatter a caravan so as to allow me to pass in solitary - dignity he regarded as one of his functions, and on one occasion, on a - very dangerous part of the road, as he was driving heavily laden mules - up the steep rocks above, to their imminent peril and the distraction of - their drivers, I was obliged to strike up his sword with my alpenstock - to emphasise my abhorrence of his violence. The bridges are unrailed, - and many of them are made by placing two or more logs across the stream, - laying twigs across, and covering these with sods, but often so scantily - that the wild rush of the water is seen below. Primitive as these - bridges are, they involve great expense and difficulty in the bringing - of long poplar logs for great distances along narrow mountain tracks by - coolie labour, fifty men being required for the average log. The Ladakhi - roads are admirable as compared with those of Kashmir, and are being - constantly improved under the supervision of H. B. M.'s Joint - Commissioner in Leh. - </p> - <p> - Up to Kargil the scenery, though growing more Tibetan with every march, - had exhibited at intervals some traces of natural verdure; but beyond, - after leaving the Suru, there is not a green thing, and on the next - march the road crosses a lofty, sandy plateau, on which the heat was - terrible—blazing gravel and a blazing heaven, then fiery cliffs - and scorched hillsides, then a deep ravine and the large village of - Paskim (dominated by a fort-crowned rock), and some planted and - irrigated acres; then a narrow ravine and magnificent scenery flaming - with colour, which opens out after some miles on a burning chaos of - rocks and sand, mountain-girdled, and on some remarkable dwellings on a - steep slope, with religious buildings singularly painted. This is - Shergol, the first village of Buddhists, and there I was 'among the - Tibetans.' - </p> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_II"></a><span>CHAPTER II</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">SHERGOL AND LEH</span> - </h2> - <p> - The chaos of rocks and sand, walled in by vermilion and orange - mountains, on which the village of Shergol stands, offered no facilities - for camping; but somehow the men managed to pitch my tent on a steep - slope, where I had to place my trestle bed astride an irrigation - channel, down which the water bubbled noisily, on its way to keep alive - some miserable patches of barley. At Shergol and elsewhere fodder is so - scarce that the grain is not cut, but pulled up by the roots. - </p> - <p> - The intensely human interest of the journey began at that point. Not - greater is the contrast between the grassy slopes and deodar-clothed - mountains of Kashmir and the flaming aridity of Lesser Tibet, than - between the tall, dark, handsome natives of the one, with their - statuesque and shrinking women, and the ugly, short, squat, - yellow-skinned, flat-nosed, oblique-eyed, uncouth-looking people of the - other. The Kashmiris are false, cringing, and suspicious; the Tibetans - truthful, independent, and friendly, one of the pleasantest of peoples. - I 'took' to them at once at Shergol, and terribly faulty though their - morals are in some respects, I found no reason to change my good opinion - of them in the succeeding four months. - </p> - <p> - The headman or <i>go-pa</i> came to see me, introduced me to the objects - of interest, which are a <i>gonpo</i>, or monastery, built into the - rock, with a brightly coloured front, and three <i>chod-tens</i>, or - relic-holders, painted blue, red, and yellow, and daubed with coarse - arabesques and representations of deities, one having a striking - resemblance to Mr. Gladstone. The houses are of mud, with flat roofs; - but, being summer, many of them were roofless, the poplar rods which - support the mud having been used for fuel. Conical stacks of the dried - excreta of animals, the chief fuel of the country, adorned the roofs, - but the general aspect was ruinous and poor. The people all invited me - into their dark and dirty rooms, inhabited also by goats, offered tea - and cheese, and felt my clothes. They looked the wildest of savages, but - they are not. No house was so poor as not to have its 'family altar,' - its shelf of wooden gods, and table of offerings. A religious atmosphere - pervades Tibet, and gives it a singular sense of novelty. Not only were - there <i>chod-tens</i> and a <i>gonpo</i> in this poor place, and family - altars, but prayer-wheels, i.e. wooden cylinders filled with rolls of - paper inscribed with prayers, revolving on sticks, to be turned by - passers-by, inscribed cotton bannerets on poles planted in cairns, and - on the roofs long sticks, to which strips of cotton bearing the - universal prayer, <i>Aum mani padne hun</i> (O jewel of the - lotus-flower), are attached. As these wave in the wind the occupants of - the house gain the merit of repeating this sentence. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_05"></a> <a href="images/gs05.png"><img - src="images/gs05s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - HAND PRAYER-CYLINDER</span> - </div> - <p> - The remaining marches to Leh, the capital of Lesser Tibet, were full of - fascination and novelty. Everywhere the Tibetans were friendly and - cordial. In each village I was invited to the headman's house, and taken - by him to visit the chief inhabitants; every traveller, lay and - clerical, passed by with the cheerful salutation <i>Tzu</i>, asked me - where I came from and whither I was going, wished me a good journey, - admired Gyalpo, and when he scaled rock ladders and scrambled gamely - through difficult torrents, cheered him like Englishmen, the general - jollity and cordiality of manners contrasting cheerily with the chilling - aloofness of Moslems. - </p> - <p> - The irredeemable ugliness of the Tibetans produced a deeper impression - daily. It is grotesque, and is heightened, not modified, by their - costume and ornament. They have high cheekbones, broad flat noses - without visible bridges, small, dark, oblique eyes, with heavy lids and - imperceptible eyebrows, wide mouths, full lips, thick, big, projecting - ears, deformed by great hoops, straight black hair nearly as coarse as - horsehair, and short, square, ungainly figures. The faces of the men are - smooth. The women seldom exceed five feet in height, and a man is tall - at five feet four. - </p> - <p> - The male costume is a long, loose, woollen coat with a girdle, trousers, - under-garments, woollen leggings, and a cap with a turned-up point over - each ear. The girdle is the depository of many things dear to a Tibetan—his - purse, rude knife, heavy tinder-box, tobacco pouch, pipe, distaff, and - sundry charms and amulets. In the capacious breast of his coat he - carries wool for spinning—for he spins as he walks—balls of - cold barley dough, and much besides. He wears his hair in a pigtail. The - women wear short, big-sleeved jackets, shortish, full-plaited skirts, - tight trousers a yard too long, the superfluous length forming folds - above the ankle, a sheepskin with the fur outside hangs over the back, - and on gala occasions a sort of drapery is worn over the usual dress. - Felt or straw shoes and many heavy ornaments are worn by both sexes. - Great <i>ears</i> of brocade, lined and edged with fur and attached to - the hair, are worn by the women. Their hair is dressed once a month in - many much-greased plaits, fastened together at the back by a long - tassel. The head-dress is a strip of cloth or leather, sewn over with - large turquoises, carbuncles, and silver ornaments. This hangs in a - point over the brow, broadens over the top of the head, and tapers as it - reaches the waist behind. The ambition of every Tibetan girl is centred - in this singular headgear. Hoops in the ears, necklaces, amulets, - clasps, bangles of brass or silver, and various implements stuck in the - girdle and depending from it, complete a costume pre-eminent in - ugliness. The Tibetans are dirty. They wash once a year, and, except for - festivals, seldom change their clothes till they begin to drop off. They - are healthy and hardy, even the women can carry weights of sixty pounds - over the passes; they attain extreme old age; their voices are harsh and - loud, and their laughter is noisy and hearty. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_06"></a> <a href="images/gs06.png"><img - src="images/gs06s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />TIBETAN - GIRL</span> - </div> - <p> - After leaving Shergol the signs of Buddhism were universal and imposing, - and the same may be said of the whole of the inhabited part of Lesser - Tibet. Colossal figures of Shakya Thubba (Buddha) are carved on faces of - rock, or in wood, stone, or gilded copper sit on lotus thrones in - endless calm near villages of votaries. <i>Chod-tens</i> from twenty to - a hundred feet in height, dedicated to 'holy' men, are scattered over - elevated ground, or in imposing avenues line the approaches to hamlets - and <i>gonpos</i>. There are also countless <i>manis</i>, dykes of stone - from six to sixteen feet in width and from twenty feet to a fourth of a - mile in length, roofed with flattish stones, inscribed by the <i>lamas</i> - (monks) with the phrase <i>Aum</i>, &c., and purchased and deposited - by those who wish to obtain any special benefit from the gods, such as a - safe journey. Then there are prayer-mills, sometimes 150 in a row, which - revolve easily by being brushed by the hand of the passer-by, larger - prayer-cylinders which are turned by pulling ropes, and others larger - still by water-power. The finest of the latter was in a temple - overarching a perennial torrent, and was said to contain 20,000 - repetitions of the mystic phrase, the fee to the worshipper for each - revolution of the cylinder being from 1<i>d.</i> to 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, - according to his means or urgency. - </p> - <p> - The glory and pride of Ladak and Nubra are the <i>gonpos</i>, of which - the illustrations give a slight idea. Their picturesqueness is - absolutely enchanting. They are vast irregular piles of fantastic - buildings, almost invariably crowning lofty isolated rocks or mountain - spurs, reached by steep, rude rock staircases, <i>chod-tens</i> below - and battlemented towers above, with temples, domes, bridges over chasms, - spires, and scaffolded projections gleaming with gold, looking, as at - Lamayuru, the outgrowth of the rock itself. The outer walls are usually - whitewashed, and red, yellow, and brown wooden buildings, broad bands of - red and blue on the whitewash, tridents, prayer-mills, <i>yaks</i>' - tails, and flags on poles give colour and movement, while the jangle of - cymbals, the ringing of bells, the incessant beating of big drums and - gongs, and the braying at intervals of six-foot silver horns, attest the - ritualistic activities of the communities within. The <i>gonpos</i> - contain from two up to three hundred <i>lamas</i>. These are not - cloistered, and their duties take them freely among the people, with - whom they are closely linked, a younger son in every family being a - monk. Every act in trade, agriculture, and social life needs the - sanction of sacerdotalism, whatever exists of wealth is in the <i>gonpos</i>, - which also have a monopoly of learning, and 11,000 monks, linked with - the people, yet ruling all affairs of life and death and beyond death, - are connected closely by education, tradition, and authority with - Lhassa. - </p> - <p> - Passing along faces of precipices and over waterless plateaux of blazing - red gravel—'waste places,' truly—the journey was cheered by - the meeting of red and yellow <i>lamas</i> in companies, each <i>lama</i> - twirling his prayer-cylinder, abbots, and <i>skushoks</i> (the latter - believed to be incarnations of Buddha) with many retainers, or gay - groups of priestly students, intoning in harsh and high-pitched - monotones, <i>Aum mani padne hun</i>. And so past fascinating monastic - buildings, through crystal torrents rushing over red rock, through - flaming ravines, on rock ledges by scaffolded paths, camping in the - afternoons near friendly villages on oases of irrigated alluvium, and - down the Wanla water by the steepest and narrowest cleft ever used for - traffic, I reached the Indus, crossed it by a wooden bridge where its - broad, fierce current is narrowed by rocks to a width of sixty-five - feet, and entered Ladak proper. A picturesque fort guards the bridge, - and there travellers inscribe their names and are reported to Leh. I - camped at Khalsi, a mile higher, but returned to the bridge in the - evening to sketch, if I could, the grim nudity and repulsive horror of - the surrounding mountains, attended only by Usman Shah. A few months - earlier, this ruffian was sent down from Leh with six other soldiers and - an officer to guard the fort, where they became the terror of all who - crossed the bridge by their outrageous levies of blackmail. My - swashbuckler quarrelled with the officer over a disreputable affair, and - one night stabbed him mortally, induced his six comrades to plunge their - knives into the body, sewed it up in a blanket, and threw it into the - Indus, which disgorged it a little lower down. The men were all arrested - and marched to Srinagar, where Usman turned 'king's evidence.' - </p> - <p> - The remaining marches were alongside of the tremendous granite ranges - which divide the Indus from its great tributary, the Shayok. Colossal - scenery, desperate aridity, tremendous solar heat, and an atmosphere - highly rarefied and of nearly intolerable dryness, were the chief - characteristics. At these Tibetan altitudes, where the valleys exceed - 11,000 feet, the sun's rays are even more powerful than on the 'burning - plains of India.' The day wind, rising at 9 a.m., and only falling near - sunset, blows with great heat and force. The solar heat at noon was from - 120° to 130°, and at night the mercury frequently fell below the - freezing point. I did not suffer from the climate, but in the case of - most Europeans the air passages become irritated, the skin cracks, and - after a time the action of the heart is affected. The hair when released - stands out from the head, leather shrivels and splits, horn combs break - to pieces, food dries up, rapid evaporation renders water-colour - sketching nearly impossible, and tea made with water from fifteen to - twenty below the boiling-point of 212 degrees, is flavourless and flat. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_07"></a> <a href="images/gs07.png"><img - src="images/gs07s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />GONPO - OF SPITAK</span> - </div> - <p> - After a delightful journey of twenty-five days I camped at Spitak, among - the <i>chod-tens</i> and <i>manis</i> which cluster round the base of a - lofty and isolated rock, crowned with one of the most striking - monasteries in Ladak, and very early the next morning, under a sun of - terrific fierceness, rode up a five-mile slope of blazing gravel to the - goal of my long march. Even at a short distance off, the Tibetan capital - can scarcely be distinguished from the bare, ribbed, scored, jagged, - vermilion and rose-red mountains which nearly surround it, were it not - for the palace of the former kings or Gyalpos of Ladak, a huge building - attaining ten storeys in height, with massive walls sloping inwards, - while long balconies and galleries, carved projections of brown wood, - and prominent windows, give it a singular picturesqueness. It can be - seen for many miles, and dwarfs the little Central Asian town which - clusters round its base. - </p> - <p> - Long lines of <i>chod-tens</i> and <i>manis</i> mark the approach to - Leh. Then come barley fields and poplar and willow plantations, bright - streams are crossed, and a small gateway, within which is a colony of - very poor Baltis, gives access to the city. In consequence of 'the - vigilance of the guard at the bridge of Khalsi,' I was expected, and was - met at the gate by the wazir's <i>jemadar</i>, or head of police, in - artistic attire, with <i>spahis</i> in apricot turbans, violet <i>chogas</i>, - and green leggings, who cleared the way with spears, Gyalpo frolicking - as merrily and as ready to bite, and the Afghan striding in front as - firmly, as though they had not marched for twenty-five days through the - rugged passes of the Himalayas. In such wise I was escorted to a shady - bungalow of three rooms, in the grounds of H. B. M.'s Joint - Commissioner, who lives at Leh during the four months of the 'caravan - season,' to assist in regulating the traffic and to guard the interests - of the numerous British subjects who pass through Leh with merchandise. - For their benefit also, the Indian Government aids in the support of a - small hospital, open, however, to all, which, with a largely attended - dispensary, is under the charge of a Moravian medical missionary. - </p> - <p> - Just outside the Commissioner's grounds are two very humble whitewashed - dwellings, with small gardens brilliant with European flowers; and in - these the two Moravian missionaries, the only permanent European - residents in Leh, were living, Mr. Redslob and Dr. Karl Marx, with their - wives. Dr. Marx was at his gate to welcome me. - </p> - <p> - To these two men, especially the former, I owe a debt of gratitude which - in no shape, not even by the hearty acknowledgment of it, can ever be - repaid, for they died within a few days of each other, of an epidemic, - last year, Dr. Marx and a new-born son being buried in one grave. For - twenty-five years Mr. Redslob, a man of noble physique and intellect, a - scholar and linguist, an expert botanist and an admirable artist, - devoted himself to the welfare of the Tibetans, and though his great aim - was to Christianize them, he gained their confidence so thoroughly by - his virtues, kindness, profound Tibetan scholarship, and manliness, that - he was loved and welcomed everywhere, and is now mourned for as the best - and truest friend the people ever had. - </p> - <p> - I had scarcely finished breakfast when he called; a man of great height - and strong voice, with a cheery manner, a face beaming with kindness, - and speaking excellent English. Leh was the goal of my journey, but Mr. - Redslob came with a proposal to escort me over the great passes to the - northward for a three weeks' journey to Nubra, a district formed of the - combined valleys of the Shayok and Nubra rivers, tributaries of the - Indus, and abounding in interest. Of course I at once accepted an offer - so full of advantages, and the performance was better even than the - promise. - </p> - <p> - Two days were occupied in making preparations, but afterwards I spent a - fortnight in my tent at Leh, a city by no means to be passed over - without remark, for, though it and the region of which it is the capital - are very remote from the thoughts of most readers, it is one of the - centres of Central Asian commerce. There all traders from India, - Kashmir, and Afghanistan must halt for animals and supplies on their way - to Yarkand and Khotan, and there also merchants from the mysterious city - of Lhassa do a great business in brick tea and in Lhassa wares, chiefly - ecclesiastical. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_08"></a> <a href="images/gs08.png"><img - src="images/gs08s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />LEH</span> - </div> - <p> - The situation of Leh is a grand one, the great Kailas range, with its - glaciers and snowfields, rising just behind it to the north, its passes - alone reaching an altitude of nearly 18,000 feet; while to the south, - across a gravelly descent and the Indus Valley, rise great red ranges - dominated by snow-peaks exceeding 21,000 feet in altitude. The centre of - Leh is a wide bazaar, where much polo is played in the afternoons; and - above this the irregular, flat-roofed, many-balconied houses of the town - cluster round the palace and a gigantic <i>chod-ten</i> alongside it. - The rugged crest of the rock on a spur of which the palace stands is - crowned by the fantastic buildings of an ancient <i>gonpo</i>. Beyond - the crops and plantations which surround the town lies a flaming desert - of gravel or rock. The architectural features of Leh, except of the - palace, are mean. A new mosque glaring with vulgar colour, a treasury - and court of justice, the wazir's bungalow, a Moslem cemetery, and - Buddhist cremation grounds, in which each family has its separate - burning place, are all that is noteworthy. The narrow alleys, which - would be abominably dirty if dirt were possible in a climate of such - intense dryness, house a very mixed population, in which the Moslem - element is always increasing, partly owing to the renewal of that - proselytising energy which is making itself felt throughout Asia, and - partly to the marriages of Moslem traders with Ladaki women, who embrace - the faith of their husbands and bring up their families in the same. - </p> - <p> - On my arrival few of the shops in the great <i>place</i>, or bazaar, - were open, and there was no business; but a few weeks later the little - desert capital nearly doubled its population, and during August the din - and stir of trade and amusements ceased not by day or night, and the - shifting scenes were as gay in colouring and as full of variety as could - be desired. - </p> - <p> - Great caravans <i>en route</i> for Khotan, Yarkand, and even Chinese - Tibet arrived daily from Kashmir, the Panjāb, and Afghanistan, and - stacked their bales of goods in the <i>place</i>; the Lhassa traders - opened shops in which the specialties were brick tea and instruments of - worship; merchants from Amritsar, Cabul, Bokhara, and Yarkand, stately - in costume and gait, thronged the bazaar and opened bales of costly - goods in tantalising fashion; mules, asses, horses, and <i>yaks</i> - kicked, squealed, and bellowed; the dissonance of bargaining tongues - rose high; there were mendicant monks, Indian fakirs, Moslem dervishes, - Mecca pilgrims, itinerant musicians, and Buddhist ballad howlers; - bold-faced women with creels on their backs brought in lucerne; Ladakis, - Baltis, and Lahulis tended the beasts, and the wazir's <i>jemadar</i> - and gay <i>spahis</i> moved about among the throngs. In the midst of - this picturesque confusion, the short, square-built, Lhassa traders, who - face the blazing sun in heavy winter clothing, exchange their expensive - tea for Nubra and Baltistan dried apricots, Kashmir saffron, and rich - stuffs from India; and merchants from Yarkand on big Turkestan horses - offer hemp, which is smoked as opium, and Russian trifles and dress - goods, under cloudless skies. With the huge Kailas range as a - background, this great rendezvous of Central Asian traffic has a great - fascination, even though moral shadows of the darkest kind abound. - </p> - <p> - On the second morning, while I was taking the sketch of Usman Shah which - appears as the frontispiece, he was recognised both by the Joint - Commissioner and the chief of police as a mutineer and murderer, and was - marched out of Leh. I was asked to look over my baggage, but did not. I - had trusted him, he had been faithful in his way, and later I found that - nothing was missing. He was a brutal ruffian, one of a band of - irregulars sent by the Maharajah of Kashmir to garrison the fort at Leh. - From it they used to descend on the town, plunder the bazaar, insult the - women, take all they wanted without payment, and when one of their - number was being tried for some offence, they dragged the judge out of - court and beat him! After holding Leh in terror for some time the - British Commissioner obtained their removal. It was, however, at the - fort at the Indus bridge, as related before, that the crime of murder - was committed. Still there was something almost grand in the defiant - attitude of the fantastic swashbuckler, as, standing outside the - bungalow, he faced the British Commissioner, to him the embodiment of - all earthly power, and the chief of police, and defied them. Not an inch - would he stir till the wazir gave him a coolie to carry his baggage. He - had been acquitted of the murder, he said, 'and though I killed the man, - it was according to the custom of my country—he gave me an insult - which could only be wiped out in blood!' The guard dared not touch him, - and he went to the wazir, demanded a coolie, and got one! - </p> - <p> - Our party left Leh early on a glorious morning, travelling light, Mr. - Redslob, a very learned Lhassa monk, named Gergan, Mr. R.'s servant, my - three, and four baggage horses, with two drivers engaged for the - journey. The great Kailas range was to be crossed, and the first day's - march up long, barren, stony valleys, without interest, took us to a - piece of level ground, with a small semi-subterranean refuge on which - there was barely room for two tents, at the altitude of the summit of - Mont Blanc. For two hours before we reached it the men and animals - showed great distress. Gyalpo stopped every few yards, gasping, with - blood trickling from his nostrils, and turned his head so as to look at - me, with the question in his eyes, What does this mean? Hassan Khan was - reeling from vertigo, but would not give in; the <i>seis</i>, a creature - without pluck, was carried in a blanket slung on my tent poles, and even - the Tibetans suffered. I felt no inconvenience, but as I unsaddled - Gyalpo I was glad that there was no more work to do! This - 'mountain-sickness,' called by the natives <i>ladug</i>, or - 'pass-poison,' is supposed by them to be the result of the odour or - pollen of certain plants which grow on the passes. Horses and mules are - unable to carry their loads, and men suffer from vertigo, vomiting, - violent headache and bleeding from the nose, mouth, and ears, as well as - prostration of strength, sometimes complete, and occasionally ending - fatally. - </p> - <p> - After a bitterly cold night I was awakened at dawn by novel sounds, - gruntings, and low, resonant bellowing round my tent, and the grey light - revealed several <i>yaks</i> (the <i>Bos grunniens</i>, the Tibetan ox), - the pride of the Tibetan highlands. This magnificent animal, though not - exceeding an English shorthorn cow in height, looks gigantic, with his - thick curved horns, his wild eyes glaring from under a mass of curls, - his long thick hair hanging to his fetlocks, and his huge bushy tail. He - is usually black or tawny, but the tail is often white, and is the - length of his long hair. The nose is fine and has a look of breeding as - well as power. He only flourishes at altitudes exceeding 12,000 feet. - Even after generations of semi-domestication he is very wild, and can - only be managed by being led with a rope attached to a ring in the - nostrils. He disdains the plough, but condescends to carry burdens, and - numbers of the Ladak and Nubra people get their living by carrying goods - for the traders on his broad back over the great passes. His legs are - very short, and he has a sensible way of measuring distance with his - eyes and planting his feet, which enables him to carry loads where it - might be supposed that only a goat could climb. He picks up a living - anyhow, in that respect resembling the camel. - </p> - <p> - He has an uncertain temper, and is not favourably disposed towards his - rider. Indeed, my experience was that just as one was about to mount him - he usually made a lunge at one with his horns. Some of my <i>yak</i> - steeds shied, plunged, kicked, executed fantastic movements on the - ledges of precipices, knocked down their leaders, bellowed defiance, and - rushed madly down mountain sides, leaping from boulder to boulder, till - they landed me among their fellows. The rush of a herd of bellowing <i>yaks</i> - at a wild gallop, waving their huge tails, is a grand sight. - </p> - <p> - My first <i>yak</i> was fairly quiet, and looked a noble steed, with my - Mexican saddle and gay blanket among rather than upon his thick black - locks. His back seemed as broad as that of an elephant, and with his - slow, sure, resolute step, he was like a mountain in motion. We took - five hours for the ascent of the Digar Pass, our loads and some of us on - <i>yaks</i>, some walking, and those who suffered most from the - 'pass-poison' and could not sit on <i>yaks</i> were carried. A number of - Tibetans went up with us. It was a new thing for a European lady to - travel in Nubra, and they took a friendly interest in my getting through - all right. The dreary stretches of the ascent, though at first white - with <i>edelweiss</i>, of which the people make their tinder, are - surmounted for the most part by steep, short zigzags of broken stone. - The heavens were dark with snow-showers, the wind was high and the cold - severe, and gasping horses, and men prostrate on their faces unable to - move, suggested a considerable amount of suffering; but all safely - reached the summit, 17,930 feet, where in a snowstorm the guides - huzzaed, praised their gods, and tucked rag streamers into a cairn. The - loads were replaced on the horses, and over wastes of ice, across - snowfields margined by broad splashes of rose-red primulas, down desert - valleys and along irrigated hillsides, we descended 3,700 feet to the - village of Digar in Nubra, where under a cloudless sky the mercury stood - at 90°! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_09"></a> <a href="images/gs09.png"><img - src="images/gs09s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - CHOD-TEN</span> - </div> - <p> - Upper and Lower Nubra consist of the valleys of the Nubra and Shayok - rivers. These are deep, fierce, variable streams, which have buried the - lower levels under great stretches of shingle, patched with jungles of - <i>hippophaë</i> and tamarisk, affording cover for innumerable wolves. - Great lateral torrents descend to these rivers, and on alluvial ridges - formed at the junctions are the villages with their pleasant - surroundings of barley, lucerne, wheat, with poplar and fruit trees, and - their picturesque <i>gonpos</i> crowning spurs of rock above them. The - first view of Nubra is not beautiful. Yellow, absolutely barren - mountains, cleft by yellow gorges, and apparently formed of yellow - gravel, the huge rifts in their sides alone showing their substructure - of rock, look as if they had never been finished, or had been finished - so long that they had returned to chaos. These hem in a valley of grey - sand and shingle, threaded by a greyish stream. From the second view - point mountains are seen descending on a pleasanter part of the Shayok - valley in grey, yellow, or vermilion masses of naked rock, 7,000 and - 8,000 feet in height, above which rise snow-capped peaks sending out - fantastic spurs and buttresses, while the colossal walls of rock are - cleft by rifts as colossal. The central ridge between the Nubra and - Upper Shayok valleys is 20,000 feet in altitude, and on this are - superimposed five peaks of rock, ascertained by survey to be from 24,000 - to 25,000 feet in height, while at one point the eye takes in a nearly - vertical height of 14,000 feet from the level of the Shayok River! The - Shayok and Nubra valleys are only five and four miles in width - respectively at their widest parts. The early winter traffic chiefly - follows along river beds, then nearly dry, while summer caravans have to - labour along difficult tracks at great heights, where mud and snow - avalanches are common, to climb dangerous rock ladders, and to cross - glaciers and the risky fords of the Shayok. Nubra is similar in - character to Ladak, but it is hotter and more fertile, the mountains are - loftier, the <i>gonpos</i> are more numerous, and the people are - simpler, more religious, and more purely Tibetan. Mr. Redslob loved - Nubra, and as love begets love he received a hearty welcome at Digar and - everywhere else. - </p> - <p> - The descent to the Shayok River gave us a most severe day of twelve - hours. The river had covered the usual track, and we had to take to - torrent beds and precipice ledges, I on one <i>yak</i>, and my tent on - another. In years of travel I have never seen such difficulties. - Eventually at dusk Mr. Redslob, Gergan, the servants, and I descended on - a broad shingle bed by the rushing Shayok; but it was not till dawn on - the following day that, by means of our two <i>yaks</i> and the - muleteers, our baggage and food arrived, the baggage horses being - brought down unloaded, with men holding the head and tail of each. Our - saddle horses, which we led with us, were much cut by falls. Gyalpo fell - fully twenty feet, and got his side laid open. The baggage horses, - according to their owners, had all gone over one precipice, which - delayed them five hours. - </p> - <p> - Below us lay two leaky scows, and eight men from Sati, on the other side - of the Shayok, are pledged to the Government to ferry travellers; but no - amount of shouting and yelling, or burning of brushwood, or even firing, - brought them to the rescue, though their pleasant lights were only a - mile off. Snow fell, the wind was strong and keen, and our tent-pegs - were only kept down by heavy stones. Blankets in abundance were laid - down, yet failed to soften the 'paving stones' on which I slept that - night! We had tea and rice, but our men, whose baggage was astray on the - mountains, were without food for twenty-two hours, positively refusing - to eat our food or cook fresh rice in our cooking pots! To such an - extent has Hindu caste-feeling infected Moslems! The disasters of that - day's march, besides various breakages, were, two servants helpless from - 'pass-poison' and bruises; a Ladaki, who had rolled over a precipice, - with a broken arm, and Gergan bleeding from an ugly scalp wound, also - from a fall. - </p> - <p> - By eight o'clock the next morning the sun was high and brilliant, the - snows of the ravines under its fierce heat were melting fast, and the - river, roaring hoarsely, was a mad rush of grey rapids and grey foam; - but three weeks later in the season, lower down, its many branches are - only two feet deep. This Shayok, which cannot in any way be - circumvented, is the great obstacle on this Yarkand trade route. - Travellers and their goods make the perilous passage in the scow, but - their animals swim, and are often paralysed by the ice-cold water and - drowned. My Moslem servants, white-lipped and trembling, committed - themselves to Allah on the river bank, and the Buddhists worshipped - their sleeve idols. The <i>gopa</i>, or headman of Sati, a splendid - fellow, who accompanied us through Nubra, and eight wild-looking, - half-naked satellites, were the Charons of that Styx. They poled and - paddled with yells of excitement; the rapids seized the scow, and - carried her broadside down into hissing and raging surges; then there - was a plash, a leap of maddened water half filling the boat, a struggle, - a whirl, violent efforts, and a united yell, and far down the torrent we - were in smooth water on the opposite shore. The ferrymen recrossed, - pulled our saddle horses by ropes into the river, the <i>gopa</i> held - them; again the scow and her frantic crew, poling, paddling, and - yelling, were hurried broadside down, and as they swept past there were - glimpses above and among the foam-crested surges of the wild-looking - heads and drifting forelocks of two grey horses swimming desperately for - their lives,—a splendid sight. They landed safely, but of the - baggage animals one was sucked under the boat and drowned, and as the - others refused to face the rapids, we had to obtain other transport. A - few days later the scow, which was brought up in pieces from Kashmir on - coolies' backs at a cost of four hundred rupees, was dashed to pieces! - </p> - <p> - A halt for Sunday in an apricot grove in the pleasant village of Sati - refreshed us all for the long marches which followed, by which we - crossed the Sasir Pass, full of difficulties from snow and glaciers, - which extend for many miles, to the Dipsang Plain, the bleakest and - dreariest of Central Asian wastes, from which the gentle ascent of the - Karakorum Pass rises, and returned, varying our route slightly, to the - pleasant villages of the Nubra valley. Everywhere Mr. Redslob's Tibetan - scholarship, his old-world courtesy, his kindness and adaptability, and - his medical skill, ensured us a welcome the heartiness of which I cannot - describe. The headmen and elders of the villages came to meet us when we - arrived, and escorted us when we left; the monasteries and houses with - the best they contained were thrown open to us; the men sat round our - camp-fires at night, telling stories and local gossip, and asking - questions, everything being translated to me by my kind guide, and so we - actually lived 'among the Tibetans.' - </p> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_III"></a><span>CHAPTER III</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">NUBRA</span> - </h2> - <p> - In order to visit Lower Nubra and return to Leh we were obliged to cross - the great fords of the Shayok at the most dangerous season of the year. - This transit had been the bugbear of the journey ever since news reached - us of the destruction of the Sati scow. Mr. Redslob questioned every man - we met on the subject, solemn and noisy conclaves were held upon it - round the camp-fires, it was said that the 'European woman' and her - 'spider-legged horse' could never get across, and for days before we - reached the stream, the <i>chupas</i>, or government water-guides, made - nightly reports to the village headmen of the state of the waters, which - were steadily rising, the final verdict being that they were only just - practicable for strong horses. To delay till the waters fell was - impossible. Mr. Redslob had engagements in Leh, and I was already - somewhat late for the passage of the lofty passes between Tibet and - British India before the winter, so we decided on crossing with every - precaution which experience could suggest. - </p> - <p> - At Lagshung, the evening before, the Tibetans made prayers and offerings - for a day cloudy enough to keep the water down, but in the morning from - a cloudless sky a scintillating sun blazed down like a magnesium light, - and every glacier and snowfield sent its tribute torrent to the Shayok. - In crossing a stretch of white sand the solar heat was so fierce that - our European skins were blistered through our clothing. We halted at - Lagshung, at the house of a friendly <i>zemindar</i>, who pressed upon - me the loan of a big Yarkand horse for the ford, a kindness which nearly - proved fatal; and then by shingle paths through lacerating thickets of - the horrid <i>Hippophaë rhamnoides</i>, we reached a <i>chod-ten</i> on - the shingly bank of the river, where the Tibetans renewed their prayers - and offerings, and the final orders for the crossing were issued. We had - twelve horses, carrying only quarter loads each, all led; the servants - were mounted, 'water-guides' with ten-foot poles sounded the river - ahead, one led Mr. Redslob's horse (the rider being bare-legged) in - front of mine with a long rope, and two more led mine, while the <i>gopas</i> - of three villages and the <i>zemindar</i> steadied my horse against the - stream. The water-guides only wore girdles, and with elf-locks and - pigtails streaming from their heads, and their uncouth yells and wild - gesticulations, they looked true river-demons. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_10"></a> <a href="images/gs10.png"><img - src="images/gs10s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - LAMA</span> - </div> - <p> - The Shayok presented an expanse of eight branches and a main stream, - divided by shallows and shingle banks, the whole a mile and a half in - width. On the brink the <i>chupas</i> made us all drink good draughts of - the turbid river water, 'to prevent giddiness,' they said, and they - added that I must not think them rude if they dashed water at my face - frequently with the same object. Hassan Khan, and Mando, who was livid - with fright, wore dark-green goggles, that they might not see the - rapids. In the second branch the water reached the horses' bodies, and - my animal tottered and swerved. There were bursts of wild laughter, not - merriment but excitement, accompanied by yells as the streams grew - fiercer, a loud chorus of <i>Kabadar! Sharbaz!</i> ('Caution!' 'Well - done!') was yelled to encourage the horses, and the boom and hiss of the - Shayok made a wild accompaniment. Gyalpo, for whose legs of steel I - longed, frolicked as usual, making mirthful lunges at his leader when - the pair halted. Hassan Khan, in the deepest branch, shakily said to me, - 'I not afraid, Mem Sahib.' During the hour spent in crossing the eight - branches, I thought that the risk had been exaggerated, and that - giddiness was the chief peril. - </p> - <p> - But when we halted, cold and dripping, on the shingle bank of the main - stream I changed my mind. A deep, fierce, swirling rapid, with a calmer - depth below its farther bank, and fully a quarter of a mile wide, was - yet to be crossed. The business was serious. All the <i>chupas</i> went - up and down, sounding, long before they found a possible passage. All - loads were raised higher, the men roped their soaked clothing on their - shoulders, water was dashed repeatedly at our faces, girths were - tightened, and then, with shouts and yells, the whole caravan plunged - into deep water, strong, and almost ice-cold. Half an hour was spent in - that devious ford, without any apparent progress, for in the dizzy swirl - the horses simply seemed treading the water backwards. Louder grew the - yells as the torrent raged more hoarsely, the chorus of <i>kabadar</i> - grew frantic, the water was up to the men's armpits and the seat of my - saddle, my horse tottered and swerved several times, the nearing shore - presented an abrupt bank underscooped by the stream. There was a deeper - plunge, an encouraging shout, and Mr. Redslob's strong horse leapt the - bank. The <i>gopas</i> encouraged mine; he made a desperate effort, but - fell short and rolled over backwards into the Shayok with his rider - under him. A struggle, a moment of suffocation, and I was extricated by - strong arms, to be knocked down again by the rush of the water, to be - again dragged up and hauled and hoisted up the crumbling bank. I escaped - with a broken rib and some severe bruises, but the horse was drowned. - Mr. Redslob, who had thought that my life could not be saved, and the - Tibetans were so distressed by the accident that I made very light of - it, and only took one day of rest. The following morning some men and - animals were carried away, and afterwards the ford was impassable for a - fortnight. Such risks are among the amenities of the great trade route - from India into Central Asia! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_11"></a> <a href="images/gs11.png"><img - src="images/gs11s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THREE - GOPAS</span> - </div> - <p> - The Lower Nubra valley is wilder and narrower than the Upper, its - apricot orchards more luxuriant, its wolf-haunted <i>hippophaë</i> and - tamarisk thickets more dense. Its villages are always close to ravines, - the mouths of which are filled with <i>chod-tens</i>, <i>manis</i>, - prayer-wheels, and religious buildings. Access to them is usually up the - stony beds of streams over-arched by apricots. The camping-grounds are - apricot orchards. The apricot foliage is rich, and the fruit small but - delicious. The largest fruit tree I saw measured nine feet six inches in - girth six feet from the ground. Strangers are welcome to eat as much of - the fruit as they please, provided that they return the stones to the - proprietor. It is true that Nubra exports dried apricots, and the women - were splitting and drying the fruit on every house roof, but the special - <i>raison d'être</i> of the tree is the clear, white, fragrant, and - highly illuminating oil made from the kernels by the simple process of - crushing them between two stones. In every <i>gonpo</i> temple a silver - bowl holding from four to six gallons is replenished annually with this - almond-scented oil for the ever-burning light before the shrine of - Buddha. It is used for lamps, and very largely in cookery. Children, - instead of being washed, are rubbed daily with it, and on being weaned - at the age of four or five, are fed for some time, or rather crammed, - with balls of barley-meal made into a paste with it. - </p> - <p> - At Hundar, a superbly situated village, which we visited twice, we were - received at the house of Gergan the monk, who had accompanied us - throughout. He is a <i>zemindar</i>, and the large house in which he - made us welcome stands in his own patrimony. Everything was prepared for - us. The mud floors were swept, cotton quilts were laid down on the - balconies, blue cornflowers and marigolds, cultivated for religious - ornament, were in all the rooms, and the women were in gala dress and - loaded with coarse jewellery. Right hearty was the welcome. Mr. Redslob - loved, and therefore was loved. The Tibetans to him were not 'natives,' - but brothers. He drew the best out of them. Their superstitions and - beliefs were not to him 'rubbish,' but subjects for minute investigation - and study. His courtesy to all was frank and dignified. In his dealings - he was scrupulously just. He was intensely interested in their - interests. His Tibetan scholarship and knowledge of Tibetan sacred - literature gave him almost the standing of an abbot among them, and his - medical skill and knowledge, joyfully used for their benefit on former - occasions, had won their regard. So at Hundar, as everywhere else, the - elders came out to meet us and cut the apricot branches away on our - road, and the silver horns of the <i>gonpo</i> above brayed a dissonant - welcome. Along the Indus valley the servants of Englishmen beat the - Tibetans, in the Shayok and Nubra valleys the Yarkand traders beat and - cheat them, and the women are shy with strangers, but at Hundar they - were frank and friendly with me, saying, as many others had said, 'We - will trust any one who comes with the missionary.' - </p> - <p> - Gergan's home was typical of the dwellings of the richer cultivators and - landholders. It was a large, rambling, three-storeyed house, the lower - part of stone, the upper of huge sun-dried bricks. It was adorned with - projecting windows and brown wooden balconies. Fuel—the dried - excreta of animals—is too scarce to be used for any but cooking - purposes, and on these balconies in the severe cold of winter the people - sit to imbibe the warm sunshine. The rooms were large, ceiled with - peeled poplar rods, and floored with split white pebbles set in clay. - There was a temple on the roof, and in it, on a platform, were life-size - images of Buddha, seated in eternal calm, with his downcast eyes and - mild Hindu face, the thousand-armed Chan-ra-zigs (the great Mercy), - Jam-pal-yangs (the Wisdom), and Chag-na-dorje (the Justice). In front on - a table or altar were seven small lamps, burning apricot oil, and twenty - small brass cups, containing minute offerings of rice and other things, - changed daily. There were prayer-wheels, cymbals, horns and drums, and a - prayer-cylinder six feet high, which it took the strength of two men to - turn. On a shelf immediately below the idols were the brazen sceptre, - bell, and thunderbolt, a brass lotus blossom, and the spouted brass - flagon decorated with peacocks' feathers, which is used at baptisms, and - for pouring holy water upon the hands at festivals. In houses in which - there is not a roof temple the best room is set apart for religious use - and for these divinities, which are always surrounded with musical - instruments and symbols of power, and receive worship and offerings - daily, Tibetan Buddhism being a religion of the family and household. In - his family temple Gergan offered gifts and thanks for the deliverances - of the journey. He had been assisting Mr. Redslob for two years in the - translation of the New Testament, and had wept over the love and - sufferings of our Lord Jesus Christ. He had even desired that his son - should receive baptism and be brought up as a Christian, but for himself - he 'could not break with custom and his ancestral creed.' - </p> - <p> - In the usual living-room of the family a platform, raised only a few - inches, ran partly round the wall. In the middle of the floor there was - a clay fireplace, with a prayer-wheel and some clay and brass cooking - pots upon it. A few shelves, fire-bars for roasting barley, a wooden - churn, and some spinning arrangements were the furniture. A number of - small dark rooms used for sleeping and storage opened from this, and - above were the balconies and reception rooms. Wooden posts supported the - roofs, and these were wreathed with lucerne, the first fruits of the - field. Narrow, steep staircases in all Tibetan houses lead to the family - rooms. In winter the people live below, alongside of the animals and - fodder. In summer they sleep in loosely built booths of poplar branches - on the roof. Gergan's roof was covered, like others at the time, to the - depth of two feet, with hay, i. e. grass and lucerne, which are wound - into long ropes, experience having taught the Tibetans that their scarce - fodder is best preserved thus from breakage and waste. I bought hay by - the yard for Gyalpo. - </p> - <p> - Our food in this hospitable house was simple—apricots, fresh, or - dried and stewed with honey; <i>zho's</i> milk, curds and cheese, sour - cream, peas, beans, balls of barley dough, barley porridge, and 'broth - of abominable things.' <i>Chang</i>, a dirty-looking beer made from - barley, was offered with each meal, and tea frequently, but I took my - own 'on the sly.' I have mentioned a churn as part of the 'plenishings' - of the living-room. In Tibet the churn is used for making tea! I give - the recipe. 'For six persons. Boil a teacupful of tea in three pints of - water for ten minutes with a heaped dessert-spoonful of soda. Put the - infusion into the chum with one pound of butter and a small - tablespoonful of salt. Churn until as thick as cream.' Tea made after - this fashion holds the second place to <i>chang</i> in Tibetan - affections. The butter according to our thinking is always rancid, the - mode of making it is uncleanly, and it always has a rank flavour from - the goatskin in which it was kept. Its value is enhanced by age. I saw - skins of it forty, fifty, and even sixty years old, which were very - highly prized, and would only be opened at some special family festival - or funeral. - </p> - <p> - During the three days of our visits to Hundar both men and women wore - their festival dresses, and apparently abandoned most of their ordinary - occupations in our honour. The men were very anxious that I should be - 'amused,' and made many grotesque suggestions on the subject. 'Why is - the European woman always writing or sewing?' they asked. 'Is she very - poor, or has she made a vow?' Visits to some of the neighbouring - monasteries were eventually proposed, and turned out most interesting. - </p> - <p> - The monastery of Deskyid, to which we made a three days' expedition, is - from its size and picturesque situation the most imposing in Nubra. - Built on a majestic spur of rock rising on one side 2,000 feet - perpendicularly from a torrent, the spur itself having an altitude of - 11,000 feet, with red peaks, snow-capped, rising to a height of over - 20,000 feet behind the vast irregular pile of red, white, and yellow - temples, towers, storehouses, cloisters, galleries, and balconies, - rising for 300 feet one above another, hanging over chasms, built out on - wooden buttresses, and surmounted with flags, tridents, and <i>yaks'</i> - tails, a central tower or keep dominating the whole, it is perhaps the - most picturesque object I have ever seen, well worth the crossing of the - Shayok fords, my painful accident, and much besides. It looks - inaccessible, but in fact can be attained by rude zigzags of a thousand - steps of rock, some natural, others roughly hewn, getting worse and - worse as they rise higher, till the later zigzags suggest the - difficulties of the ascent of the Great Pyramid. The day was fearfully - hot, 99° in the shade, and the naked, shining surfaces of purple rock - with a metallic lustre radiated heat. My 'gallant grey' took me up - half-way—a great feat—and the Tibetans cheered and shouted '<i>Sharbaz!</i>' - ('Well done!') as he pluckily leapt up the great slippery rock ledges. - After I dismounted, any number of willing hands hauled and helped me up - the remaining horrible ascent, the rugged rudeness of which is quite - indescribable. The inner entrance is a gateway decorated with a <i>yak's</i> - head and many Buddhist emblems. High above, on a rude gallery, fifty - monks were gathered with their musical instruments. As soon as the <i>Kan-po</i> - or abbot, Punt-sog-sogman (the most perfect Merit), received us at the - gate, the monkish orchestra broke forth in a tornado of sound of a most - tremendous and thrilling quality, which was all but overwhelming, as the - mountain echoes took up and prolonged the sound of fearful blasts on - six-foot silver horns, the bellowing thunder of six-foot drums, the - clash of cymbals, and the dissonance of a number of monster gongs. It - was not music, but it was sublime. The blasts on the horns are to - welcome a great personage, and such to the monks who despised his - teaching was the devout and learned German missionary. Mr. Redslob - explained that I had seen much of Buddhism in Ceylon and Japan, and - wished to see their temples. So with our train of <i>gopas</i>, <i>zemindar</i>, - peasants, and muleteers, we mounted to a corridor full of <i>lamas</i> - in ragged red dresses, yellow girdles, and yellow caps, where we were - presented with plates of apricots, and the door of the lowest of the - seven temples heavily grated backwards. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_12"></a> <a href="images/gs12.png"><img - src="images/gs12s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />SOME - INSTRUMENTS OF BUDDHIST WORSHIP</span> - </div> - <p> - The first view, and indeed the whole view of this temple of <i>Wrath</i> - or <i>Justice</i>, was suggestive of a frightful <i>Inferno</i>, with - its rows of demon gods, hideous beyond Western conception, engaged in - torturing writhing and bleeding specimens of humanity. Demon masks of - ancient lacquer hung from the pillars, naked swords gleamed in - motionless hands, and in a deep recess whose 'darkness' was rendered - 'visible' by one lamp, was that indescribable horror the executioner of - the Lord of Hell, his many brandished arms holding instruments of - torture, and before him the bell, the thunderbolt and sceptre, the holy - water, and the baptismal flagon. Our joss-sticks fumed on the still air, - monks waved censers, and blasts of dissonant music woke the - semi-subterranean echoes. In this temple of Justice the younger <i>lamas</i> - spend some hours daily in the supposed contemplation of the torments - reserved for the unholy. In the highest temple, that of Peace, the - summer sunshine fell on Shakya Thubba and the Buddhist triad seated in - endless serenity. The walls were covered with frescoes of great <i>lamas</i>, - and a series of alcoves, each with an image representing an incarnation - of Buddha, ran round the temple. In a chapel full of monstrous images - and piles of medallions made of the ashes of 'holy' men, the sub-abbot - was discoursing to the acolytes on the religious classics. In the chapel - of meditations, among lighted incense sticks, monks seated before images - were telling their beads with the object of working themselves into a - state of ecstatic contemplation (somewhat resembling a certain hypnotic - trance), for there are undoubtedly devout <i>lamas</i>, though the - majority are idle and unholy. It must be understood that all Tibetan - literature is 'sacred,' though some of the volumes of exquisite - calligraphy on parchment, which for our benefit were divested of their - silken and brocaded wrappings, contain nothing better than fairy tales - and stories of doubtful morality, which are recited by the <i>lamas</i> - to the accompaniment of incessant cups of <i>chang</i>, as a religious - duty when they visit their 'flocks' in the winter. - </p> - <p> - The Deskyid <i>gonpo</i> contains 150 <i>lamas</i>, all of whom have - been educated at Lhassa. A younger son in every household becomes a - monk, and occasionally enters upon his vocation as an acolyte pupil as - soon as weaned. At the age of thirteen these acolytes are sent to study - at Lhassa for five or seven years, their departure being made the - occasion of a great village feast, with several days of religious - observances. The close connection with Lhassa, especially in the case of - the yellow <i>lamas</i>, gives Nubra Buddhism a singular interest. All - the larger <i>gonpos</i> have their prototype in Lhassa, all ceremonial - has originated in Lhassa, every instrument of worship has been - consecrated in Lhassa, and every <i>lama</i> is educated in the learning - only to be obtained at Lhassa. Buddhism is indeed the most salient - feature of Nubra. There are <i>gonpos</i> everywhere, the roads are - lined by miles of <i>chod-tens</i>, <i>manis</i>, and prayer-mills, and - flags inscribed with sacred words in Sanskrit flutter from every roof. - There are processions of red and yellow <i>lamas</i>; every act in - trade, agriculture, and social life needs the sanction of sacerdotalism; - whatever exists of wealth is in the <i>gonpos</i>, which also have a - monopoly of learning, and 11,000 monks closely linked with the laity, - yet ruling all affairs of life and death and beyond death, are all - connected by education, tradition, and authority with Lhassa. - </p> - <p> - We remained long on the blazing roof of the highest tower of the <i>gonpo</i>, - while good Mr. Redslob disputed with the abbot 'concerning the things - pertaining to the kingdom of God.' The monks standing round laughed - sneeringly. They had shown a little interest, Mr. R. said, on his - earlier visits. The abbot accepted a copy of the Gospel of St. John. - 'St. Matthew,' he observed, 'is very laughable reading.' Blasts of wild - music and the braying of colossal horns honoured our departure, and our - difficult descent to the apricot groves of Deskyid. On our return to - Hundar the grain was ripe on Gergan's fields. The first ripe ears were - cut off, offered to the family divinity, and were then bound to the - pillars of the house. In the comparatively fertile Nubra valley the - wheat and barley are cut, not rooted up. While they cut the grain the - men chant, 'May it increase, We will give to the poor, we will give to - the <i>lamas</i>,' with every stroke. They believe that it can be made - to multiply both under the sickle and in the threshing, and perform many - religious rites for its increase while it is in sheaves. After eight - days the corn is trodden out by oxen on a threshing-floor renewed every - year. After winnowing with wooden forks, they make the grain into a - pyramid, insert a sacred symbol, and pile upon it the threshing - instruments and sacks, erecting an axe on the apex with its blade turned - to the west, as that is the quarter from which demons are supposed to - come. In the afternoon they feast round it, always giving a portion to - the axe, saying, 'It is yours, it belongs not to me.' At dusk they pour - it into the sacks again, chanting, 'May it increase.' But these are not - removed to the granary until late at night, at an hour when the hands of - the demons are too much benumbed by the nightly frost to diminish the - store. At the beginning of every one of these operations the presence of - <i>lamas</i> is essential, to announce the auspicious moment, and - conduct religious ceremonies. They receive fees, and are regaled with - abundant <i>chang</i> and the fat of the land. - </p> - <p> - In Hundar, as elsewhere, we were made very welcome in all the houses. I - have described the dwelling of Gergan. The poorer peasants occupy - similar houses, but roughly built, and only two-storeyed, and the floors - are merely clay. In them also the very numerous lower rooms are used for - cattle and fodder only, while the upper part consists of an inner or - winter room, an outer or supper room, a verandah room, and a family - temple. Among their rude plenishings are large stone corn chests like - sarcophagi, stone bowls from Baltistan, cauldrons, cooking pots, a - tripod, wooden bowls, spoons, and dishes, earthen pots, and <i>yaks</i>' - and sheep's packsaddles. The garments of the household are kept in long - wooden boxes. - </p> - <p> - Family life presents some curious features. In the disposal in marriage - of a girl, her eldest brother has more 'say' than the parents. The - eldest son brings home the bride to his father's house, but at a given - age the old people are 'shelved,' i.e. they retire to a small house, - which may be termed a 'jointure house,' and the eldest son assumes the - patrimony and the rule of affairs. I have not met with a similar custom - anywhere in the East. It is difficult to speak of Tibetan life, with all - its affection and jollity, as '<i>family life</i>,' for Buddhism, which - enjoins monastic life, and usually celibacy along with it, on eleven - thousand out of a total population of a hundred and twenty thousand, - farther restrains the increase of population within the limits of - sustenance by inculcating and rigidly upholding the system of polyandry, - permitting marriage only to the eldest son, the heir of the land, while - the bride accepts all his brothers as inferior or subordinate husbands, - thus attaching the whole family to the soil and family roof-tree, the - children being regarded legally as the property of the eldest son, who - is addressed by them as 'Big Father,' his brothers receiving the title - of 'Little Father.' The resolute determination, on economic as well as - religious grounds, not to abandon this ancient custom, is the most - formidable obstacle in the way of the reception of Christianity by the - Tibetans. The women cling to it. They say, 'We have three or four men to - help us instead of one,' and sneer at the dulness and monotony of - European, monogamous life! A woman said to me, 'If I had only one - husband, and he died, I should be a widow; if I have two or three I am - never a widow!' The word 'widow' is with them a term of reproach, and is - applied abusively to animals and men. Children are brought up to be very - obedient to fathers and mother, and to take great care of little ones - and cattle. Parental affection is strong. Husbands and wives beat each - other, but separation usually follows a violent outbreak of this kind. - It is the custom for the men and women of a village to assemble when a - bride enters the house of her husbands, each of them presenting her with - three rupees. The Tibetan wife, far from spending these gifts on - personal adornment, looks ahead, contemplating possible contingencies, - and immediately hires a field, the produce of which is her own, and - which accumulates year after year in a separate granary, so that she may - not be portionless in case she leaves her husband! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_13"></a> <a href="images/gs13.png"><img - src="images/gs13s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />MONASTIC - BUILDINGS AT BASGU</span> - </div> - <p> - It was impossible not to become attached to the Nubra people, we lived - so completely among them, and met with such unbounded goodwill. Feasts - were given in our honour, every <i>gonpo</i> was open to us, monkish - blasts on colossal horns brayed out welcomes, and while nothing could - exceed the helpfulness and alacrity of kindness shown by all, there was - not a thought or suggestion of <i>backsheesh</i>. The men of the - villages always sat by our camp-fires at night, friendly and jolly, but - never obtrusive, telling stories, discussing local news and the - oppressions exercised by the Kashmiri officials, the designs of Russia, - the advance of the Central Asian Railway, and what they consider as the - weakness of the Indian Government in not annexing the provinces of the - northern frontier. Many of their ideas and feelings are akin to ours, - and a mutual understanding is not only possible, but inevitable<a - id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>. - </p> - <p class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1" class="label"> [1]</a> Mr. - Redslob said that when on different occasions he was smitten by heavy - sorrows, he felt no difference between the Tibetan feeling and - expression of sympathy and that of Europeans. A stronger testimony to - the effect produced by his twenty-five years of loving service could - scarcely be given than our welcome in Nubra. During the dangerous - illness which followed, anxious faces thronged his humble doorway as - early as break of day, and the stream of friendly inquiries never ceased - till sunset, and when he died the people of Ladak and Nubra wept and - 'made a great mourning for him,' as for their truest friend. - </p> - <p> - Industry in Nubra is the condition of existence, and both sexes work - hard enough to give a great zest to the holidays on religious festival - days. Whether in the house or journeying the men are never seen without - the distaff. They weave also, and make the clothes of the women and - children! The people are all cultivators, and make money also by - undertaking the transit of the goods of the Yarkand traders over the - lofty passes. The men plough with the <i>zho</i>, or hybrid <i>yak</i>, - and the women break the clods and share in all other agricultural - operations. The soil, destitute of manure, which is dried and hoarded - for fuel, rarely produces more than tenfold. The 'three acres and a cow' - is with them four acres of alluvial soil to a family on an average, with - 'runs' for <i>yaks</i> and sheep on the mountains. The farms, planted - with apricot and other fruit trees, a prolific loose-grained barley, - wheat, peas, and lucerne, are oases in the surrounding deserts. The - people export apricot oil, dried apricots, sheep's wool, heavy undyed - woollens, a coarse cloth made from <i>yaks'</i> hair, and <i>pashm</i>, - the under fleece of the shawl goat. They complained, and I think with - good reason, of the merciless exactions of the Kashmiri officials, but - there were no evidences of severe poverty, and not one beggar was seen. - </p> - <p> - It was not an easy matter to get back to Leh. The rise of the Shayok - made it impossible to reach and return by the Digar Pass, and the - alternative route over the Kharzong glacier continued for some time - impracticable—that is, it was perfectly smooth ice. At length the - news came that a fall of snow had roughened its surface. A number of men - worked for two days at scaffolding a path, and with great difficulty, - and the loss of one <i>yak</i> from a falling rock, a fruitful source of - fatalities in Tibet, we reached Khalsar, where with great regret we - parted with <i>Tse-ring-don-drub</i> (Life's purpose fulfilled), the <i>gopa</i> - of Sati, whose friendship had been a real pleasure, and to whose courage - and promptitude, in Mr. Redslob's opinion, I owed my rescue from - drowning. Two days of very severe marching and long and steep ascents - brought us to the wretched hamlet of Kharzong Lar-sa, in a snowstorm, at - an altitude higher than the summit of Mont Blanc. The servants were all - ill of 'pass-poison,' and crept into a cave along with a number of big - Tibetan mastiffs, where they enjoyed the comfort of semi-suffocation - till the next morning, Mr. R. and I, with some willing Tibetan helpers, - pitching our own tents. The wind was strong and keen, and with the - mercury down at 15° Fahrenheit it was impossible to do anything but to - go to bed in the early afternoon, and stay there till the next day. Mr. - Redslob took a severe chill, which produced an alarming attack of - pleurisy, from the effects of which he never fully recovered. - </p> - <p> - We started on a grim snowy morning, with six <i>yaks</i> carrying our - baggage or ridden by ourselves, four led horses, and a number of - Tibetans, several more having been sent on in advance to cut steps in - the glacier and roughen them with gravel. Within certain limits the - ground grows greener as one ascends, and we passed upwards among - primulas, asters, a large blue myosotis, gentians, potentillas, and - great sheets of <i>edelweiss</i>. At the glacier foot we skirted a deep - green lake on snow with a glorious view of the Kharzong glacier and the - pass, a nearly perpendicular wall of rock, bearing up a steep glacier - and a snowfield of great width and depth, above which tower pinnacles of - naked rock. It presented to all appearance an impassable barrier rising - 2,500 feet above the lake, grand and awful in the dazzling whiteness of - the new-fallen snow. Thanks to the ice steps our <i>yaks</i> took us - over in four hours without a false step, and from the summit, a sharp - ridge 17,500 feet in altitude, we looked our last on grimness, - blackness, and snow, and southward for many a weary mile to the Indus - valley lying in sunshine and summer. Fully two dozen carcases of horses - newly dead lay in cavities of the glacier. Our animals were ill of - 'pass-poison,' and nearly blind, and I was obliged to ride my <i>yak</i> - into Leh, a severe march of thirteen hours, down miles of crumbling - zigzags, and then among villages of irrigated terraces, till the grand - view of the Gyalpo's palace, with its air-hung <i>gonpo</i> and - clustering <i>chod-tens</i>, and of the desert city itself, burst - suddenly upon us, and our benumbed and stiffened limbs thawed in the hot - sunshine. I pitched my tent in a poplar grove for a fortnight, near the - Moravian compounds and close to the travellers' bungalow, in which is a - British Postal Agency, with a Tibetan postmaster who speaks English, a - Christian, much trusted and respected, named Joldan, in whose - intelligence, kindness, and friendship I found both interest and - pleasure. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_14"></a> <a href="images/gs14.png"><img - src="images/gs14s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THE - YAK (<i>Bos grunniens</i>)</span> - </div> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><span>CHAPTER IV</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">MANNERS AND CUSTOMS</span> - </h2> - <p> - Joldan, the Tibetan British postmaster in Leh, is a Christian of - spotless reputation. Every one places unlimited confidence in his - integrity and truthfulness, and his religious sincerity has been - attested by many sacrifices. He is a Ladaki, and the family property was - at Stok, a few miles from Leh. He was baptized in Lahul at twenty-three, - his father having been a Christian. He learned Urdu, and was for ten - years mission schoolmaster in Kylang, but returned to Leh a few years - ago as postmaster. His 'ancestral dwelling' at Stok was destroyed by - order of the wazir, and his property confiscated, after many - unsuccessful efforts had been made to win him back to Buddhism. - Afterwards he was detained by the wazir, and compelled to serve as a - sepoy, till Mr. Heyde went to the council and obtained his release. His - house in Leh has been more than once burned by incendiaries. But he - pursues a quiet, even course, brings up his family after the best - Christian traditions, refuses Buddhist suitors for his daughters, - unobtrusively but capably helps the Moravian missionaries, supports his - family by steady industry, although of noble birth, and asks nothing of - any one. His 'good morning' and 'good night,' as he daily passed my tent - with clockwork regularity, were full of cheery friendliness; he gave - much useful information about Tibetan customs, and his ready helpfulness - greatly facilitated the difficult arrangements for my farther journey. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_15"></a> <a href="images/gs15.png"><img - src="images/gs15s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - CHANG-PA WOMAN</span> - </div> - <p> - The Leh, which I had left so dull and quiet, was full of strangers, - traffic, and noise. The neat little Moravian church was filled by a - motley crowd each Sunday, in which the few Christians were - distinguishable by their clean faces and clothes and their devout air; - and the Medical Mission Hospital and Dispensary, which in winter have an - average attendance of only a hundred patients a month, were daily - thronged with natives of India and Kashmir, Baltis, Yarkandis, Dards, - and Tibetans. In my visits with Dr. Marx I observed, what was confirmed - by four months' experience of the Tibetan villagers, that rheumatism, - inflamed eyes and eyelids, and old age are the chief Tibetan maladies. - Some of the Dards and Baltis were lepers, and the natives of India - brought malarial fever, dysentery, and other serious diseases. The - hospital, which is supported by the Indian Government, is most - comfortable, a haven of rest for those who fall sick by the way. The - hospital assistants are intelligent, thoroughly kind-hearted young - Tibetans, who, by dint of careful drilling and an affectionate desire to - please 'the teacher with the medicine box,' have become fairly - trustworthy. They are not Christians. - </p> - <p> - In the neat dispensary at 9 a.m. a gong summons the patients to the - operating room for a short religious service. Usually about fifty were - present, and a number more, who had some curiosity about 'the way,' but - did not care to be seen at Christian worship, hung about the doorways. - Dr. Marx read a few verses from the Gospels, explaining them in a homely - manner, and concluded with the Lord's Prayer. Then the out-patients were - carefully and gently treated, leprous limbs were bathed and anointed, - the wards were visited at noon and again at sunset, and in the - afternoons operations were performed with the most careful antiseptic - precautions, which are supposed to be used for the purpose of keeping - away evil spirits from the wounds! The Tibetans, in practice, are very - simple in their applications of medical remedies. Rubbing with butter is - their great panacea. They have a dread of small-pox, and instead of - burning its victims they throw them into their rapid torrents. If an - isolated case occur, the sufferer is carried to a mountain-top, where he - is left to recover or die. If a small-pox epidemic is in the province, - the people of the villages in which it has not yet appeared place thorns - on their bridges and boundaries, to scare away the evil spirits which - are supposed to carry the disease. In ordinary illnesses, if butter - taken internally as well as rubbed into the skin does not cure the - patient, the <i>lamas</i> are summoned to the rescue. They make a <i>mitsap</i>, - a half life-size figure of the sick person, dress it in his or her - clothes and ornaments, and place it in the courtyard, where they sit - round it, reading passages from the sacred classics fitted for the - occasion. After a time, all rise except the superior <i>lama</i>, who - continues reading, and taking small drums in their left hands, they - recite incantations, and dance wildly round the <i>mitsap</i>, - believing, or at least leading the people to believe, that by this - ceremony the malady, supposed to be the work of a demon, will be - transferred to the image. Afterwards the clothes and ornaments are - presented to them, and the figure is carried in procession out of the - yard and village and is burned. If the patient becomes worse, the - friends are apt to resort to the medical skill of the missionaries. If - he dies they are blamed, and if he recovers the <i>lamas</i> take the - credit. - </p> - <p> - At some little distance outside Leh are the cremation grounds—desert - places, destitute of any other vegetation than the <i>Caprifolia horrida</i>. - Each family has its furnace kept in good repair. The place is doleful, - and a funeral scene on the only sunless day I experienced in Ladak was - indescribably dismal. After death no one touches the corpse but the <i>lamas</i>, - who assemble in numbers in the case of a rich man. The senior <i>lama</i> - offers the first prayers, and lifts the lock which all Tibetans wear at - the back of the head, in order to liberate the soul if it is still - clinging to the body. At the same time he touches the region of the - heart with a dagger. The people believe that a drop of blood on the head - marks the spot where the soul has made its exit. Any good clothing in - which the person has died is then removed. The blacksmith beats a drum, - and the corpse, covered with a white sheet next the dress and a coloured - one above, is carried out of the house to be worshipped by the - relatives, who walk seven times round it. The women then retire to the - house, and the chief <i>lama</i> recites liturgical passages from the - formularies. Afterwards, the relatives retire, and the corpse is carried - to the burning-ground by men who have the same tutelar deity as the - deceased. The leading <i>lama</i> walks first, then come men with flags, - followed by the blacksmith with the drum, and next the corpse, with - another man beating a drum behind it. Meanwhile, the <i>lamas</i> are - praying for the repose and quieting of the soul, which is hovering - about, desiring to return. The attendant friends, each of whom has - carried a piece of wood to the burning-ground, arrange the fuel with - butter on the furnace, the corpse wrapped in the white sheet is put in, - and fire is applied. The process of destruction in a rich man's case - takes about an hour. During the burning the <i>lamas</i> read in high, - hoarse monotones, and the blacksmiths beat their drums. The <i>lamas</i> - depart first, and the blacksmiths, after worshipping the ashes, shout, - 'Have nothing to do with us now,' and run rapidly away. At dawn the - following day, a man whose business it is searches among the ashes for - the footprints of animals, and according to the footprints found, so it - is believed will be the re-birth of the soul. - </p> - <p> - Some of the ashes are taken to the <i>gonpos</i>, where the <i>lamas</i> - mix them with clay, put them into oval or circular moulds, and stamp - them with the image of Buddha. These are preserved in <i>chod-tens</i>, - and in the house of the nearest relative of the deceased; but in the - case of 'holy' men, they are retained in the <i>gonpos</i>, where they - can be purchased by the devout. After a cremation much <i>chang</i> is - consumed by the friends, who make presents to the bereaved family. The - value of each is carefully entered in a book, so that a precise return - may be made when a similar occasion occurs. Until the fourth day after - death it is believed to be impossible to quiet the soul. On that day a - piece of paper is inscribed with prayers and requests to the soul to be - quiet, and this is burned by the <i>lamas</i> with suitable ceremonies; - and rites of a more or less elaborate kind are afterwards performed for - the repose of the soul, accompanied with prayers that it may get 'a good - path' for its re-birth, and food is placed in conspicuous places about - the house, that it may understand that its relatives are willing to - support it. The mourners for some time wear wretched clothes, and - neither dress their hair nor wash their faces. Every year the <i>lamas</i> - sell by auction the clothing and ornaments, which are their perquisites - at funerals<a id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>. - </p> - <p class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2" class="label"> [2]</a> For - these and other curious details concerning Tibetan customs I am indebted - to the kindness and careful investigations of the late Rev. W. Redslob, - of Leh, and the Rev. A. Heyde, of Kylang. - </p> - <p> - The Moravian missionaries have opened a school in Leh, and the wazir, - finding that the Leh people are the worst educated in the country, - ordered that one child at least in each family should be sent to it. - This awakened grave suspicions, and the people hunted for reasons for - it. 'The boys are to be trained as porters, and made to carry burdens - over the mountains,' said some. 'Nay,' said others, 'they are to be sent - to England and made Christians of.' [All foreigners, no matter what - their nationality is, are supposed to be English.] Others again said, - 'They are to be kidnapped,' and so the decree was ignored, till Mr. - Redslob and Dr. Marx went among the parents and explained matters, and a - large attendance was the result; for the Tibetans of the trade route - have come to look upon the acquisition of 'foreign learning' as the - stepping-stone to Government appointments at ten rupees per month. - Attendance on religious instruction was left optional, but after a time - sixty pupils were regularly present at the daily reading and explanation - of the Gospels. Tibetan fathers teach their sons to write, to read the - sacred classics, and to calculate with a frame of balls on wires. If - farther instruction is thought desirable, the boys are sent to the <i>lamas</i>, - and even to the schools at Lhassa. The Tibetans willingly receive and - read translations of our Christian books, and some go so far as to think - that their teachings are 'stronger' than those of their own, indicating - their opinions by tearing pages out of the Gospels and rolling them up - into pills, which are swallowed in the belief that they are an effective - charm. Sorcery is largely used in the treatment of the sick. The books - which instruct in the black art are known as 'black books.' Those which - treat of medicine are termed 'blue books.' Medical knowledge is handed - down from father to son. The doctors know the virtues of many of the - plants of the country, quantities of which they mix up together while - reciting magical formulas. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_16"></a> <a href="images/gs16.png"><img - src="images/gs16s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />CHANG-PA - CHIEF</span> - </div> - <p> - I was heartily sorry to leave Leh, with its dazzling skies and abounding - colour and movement, its stirring topics of talk, and the culture and - exceeding kindness of the Moravian missionaries. Helpfulness was the - rule. Gergan came over the Kharzong glacier on purpose to bring me a - prayer-wheel; Lob-sang and Tse-ring-don-drub, the hospital assistants, - made me a tent carpet of <i>yak's</i> hair cloth, singing as they sewed; - and Joldan helped to secure transport for the twenty-two days' journey - to Kylang. Leh has few of what Europeans regard as travelling - necessaries. The brick tea which I purchased from a Lhassa trader was - disgusting. I afterwards understood that blood is used in making up the - blocks. The flour was gritty, and a leg of mutton turned out to be a - limb of a goat of much experience. There were no straps, or leather to - make them of, in the bazaar, and no buckles; and when the latter were - provided by Mr. Redslob, the old man who came to sew them upon a warm - rug which I had made for Gyalpo out of pieces of carpet and hair-cloth - put them on wrongly three times, saying after each failure, 'I'm very - foolish. Foreign ways are so wonderful!' At times the Tibetans say, - 'We're as stupid as oxen,' and I was inclined to think so, as I stood - for two hours instructing the blacksmith about making shoes for Gyalpo, - which kept turning out either too small for a mule or too big for a - dray-horse. - </p> - <p> - I obtained two Lahul muleteers with four horses, quiet, obliging men, - and two superb <i>yaks</i>, which were loaded with twelve days' hay and - barley for my horse. Provisions for the whole party for the same time - had to be carried, for the route is over an uninhabited and arid desert. - Not the least important part of my outfit was a letter from Mr. Redslob - to the headman or chief of the Chang-pas or Champas, the nomadic tribes - of Rupchu, to whose encampment I purposed to make a <i>détour</i>. These - nomads had on two occasions borrowed money from the Moravian - missionaries for the payment of the Kashmiri tribute, and had repaid it - before it was due, showing much gratitude for the loans. - </p> - <p> - Dr. Marx accompanied me for the three first days. The few native - Christians in Leh assembled in the gay garden plot of the lowly - mission-house to shake hands and wish me a good journey, and not a few - who were not Christians, some of them walking for the first hour beside - our horses. The road from Leh descends to a rude wooden bridge over the - Indus, a mighty stream even there, over blazing slopes of gravel - dignified by colossal <i>manis</i> and <i>chod-tens</i> in long lines, - built by the former kings of Ladak. On the other side of the river - gravel slopes ascend towards red mountains 20,000 feet in height. Then - comes a rocky spur crowned by the imposing castle of the Gyalpo, the son - of the dethroned king of Ladak, surmounted by a forest of poles from - which flutter <i>yaks'</i> tails and long streamers inscribed with - prayers. Others bear aloft the trident, the emblem of Siva. Carefully - hewn zigzags, entered through a much-decorated and colossal <i>chod-ten</i>, - lead to the castle. The village of Stok, the prettiest and most - prosperous in Ladak, fills up the mouth of a gorge with its large - farm-houses among poplar, apricot, and willow plantations, and irrigated - terraces of barley; and is imposing as well as pretty, for the two roads - by which it is approached are avenues of lofty <i>chod-tens</i> and - broad <i>manis</i>, all in excellent repair. Knolls, and deeply coloured - spurs of naked rock, most picturesquely crowded with <i>chod-tens</i>, - rise above the greenery, breaking the purple gloom of the gorge which - cuts deeply into the mountains, and supplies from its rushing glacier - torrent the living waters which create this delightful oasis. - </p> - <p> - The <i>gopa</i> came forth to meet us, bearing apricots and cheeses as - the Gyalpo's greeting, and conducted us to the camping-ground, a sloping - lawn in a willow-wood, with many a natural bower of the graceful <i>Clematis - orientalis</i>. The tents were pitched, afternoon tea was on a table - outside, a clear, swift stream made fitting music, the dissonance of the - ceaseless beating of gongs and drums in the castle temple was softened - by distance, the air was cool, a lemon light bathed the foreground, and - to the north, across the Indus, the great mountains of the Leh range, - with every cleft defined in purple or blue, lifted their vermilion peaks - into a rosy sky. It was the poetry and luxury of travel. - </p> - <p> - At Leh I was obliged to dismiss the <i>seis</i> for prolonged misconduct - and cruelty to Gyalpo, and Mando undertook to take care of him. The - animal had always been held by two men while the <i>seis</i> groomed him - with difficulty, but at Stok, when Mando rubbed him down, he quietly - went on feeding and laid his lovely head on the lad's shoulder with a - soft cooing sound. From that moment Mando could do anything with him, - and a singular attachment grew up between man and horse. - </p> - <p> - Towards sunset we were received by the Gyalpo. The castle loses nothing - of its picturesqueness on a nearer view, and everything about it is trim - and in good order. It is a substantial mass of stone building on a lofty - rock, the irregularities of which have been taken most artistic - advantage of in order to give picturesque irregularity to the edifice, - which, while six storeys high in some places, is only three in others. - As in the palace of Leh, the walls slope inwards from the base, where - they are ten feet thick, and projecting balconies of brown wood and grey - stone relieve their monotony. We were received at the entrance by a - number of red <i>lamas</i>, who took us up five flights of rude stairs - to the reception room, where we were introduced to the Gyalpo, who was - in the midst of a crowd of monks, and, except that his hair was not - shorn, and that he wore a silver brocade cap and large gold earrings and - bracelets, was dressed in red like them. Throneless and childless, the - Gyalpo has given himself up to religion. He has covered the castle roof - with Buddhist emblems (not represented in the sketch). From a pole, - forty feet long, on the terrace floats a broad streamer of equal length, - completely covered with <i>Aum mani padne hun</i>, and he has surrounded - himself with <i>lamas</i>, who conduct nearly ceaseless services in the - sanctuary. The attainment of merit, as his creed leads him to understand - it, is his one aim in life. He loves the seclusion of Stok, and rarely - visits the palace in Leh, except at the time of the winter games, when - the whole population assembles in cheery, orderly crowds, to witness - races, polo and archery matches, and a species of hockey. He interests - himself in the prosperity of Stok, plants poplars, willows, and fruit - trees, and keeps the castle <i>manis</i> and <i>chod-tens</i> in - admirable repair. - </p> - <p> - Stok Castle is as massive as any of our mediaeval buildings, but is far - lighter and roomier. It is most interesting to see a style of - architecture and civilisation which bears not a solitary trace of - European influence, not even in Manchester cottons or Russian gimcracks. - The Gyalpo's room was only roofed for six feet within the walls, where - it was supported by red pillars. Above, the deep blue Tibetan sky was - flushing with the red of sunset, and from a noble window with a covered - stone balcony there was an enchanting prospect of red ranges passing - into translucent amethyst. The partial ceiling is painted in arabesques, - and at one end of the room is an alcove, much enriched with bold wood - carving. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_17"></a> <a href="images/gs17.png"><img - src="images/gs17s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THE - CASTLE OF STOK</span> - </div> - <p> - The Gyalpo was seated on a carpet on the floor, a smooth-faced, rather - stupid-looking man of twenty-eight. He placed us on a carpet beside him, - and coffee, honey, and apricots were brought in, but the conversation - flagged. He neither suggested anything nor took up Dr. Marx's - suggestions. Fortunately, we had brought our sketch-books, and the views - of several places were recognised, and were found interesting. The <i>lamas</i> - and servants, who had remained respectfully standing, sat down on the - floor, and even the Gyalpo became animated. So our visit ended - successfully. - </p> - <p> - There is a doorway from the reception room into the sanctuary, and after - a time fully thirty <i>lamas</i> passed in and began service, but the - Gyalpo only stood on his carpet. There is only a half light in this - temple, which is further obscured by scores of smoked and dusty - bannerets of gold and silver brocade hanging from the roof. In addition - to the usual Buddhist emblems there are musical instruments, exquisitely - inlaid, or enriched with <i>niello</i> work of gold and silver of great - antiquity, and bows of singular strength, requiring two men to bend - them, which are made of small pieces of horn cleverly joined. <i>Lamas</i> - gabbled liturgies at railroad speed, beating drums and clashing cymbals - as an accompaniment, while others blew occasional blasts on the colossal - silver horns or trumpets, which probably resemble those with which - Jericho was encompassed. The music, the discordant and high-pitched - monotones, and the revolting odours of stale smoke of juniper chips, of - rancid butter, and of unwashed woollen clothes which drifted through the - doorway, were overpowering. Attempted fights among the horses woke me - often during the night, and the sound of worship was always borne over - the still air. - </p> - <p> - Dr. Marx left on the third day, after we had visited the monastery of - Hemis, the richest in Ladak, holding large landed property and - possessing much metallic wealth, including a <i>chod-ten</i> of silver - and gold, thirty feet high, in one of its many halls, approached by - gold-plated silver steps and incrusted with precious stones; there is - also much fine work in brass and bronze. Hemis abounds in decorated - buildings most picturesquely placed, it has three hundred <i>lamas</i>, - and is regarded as 'the sight' of Ladak. - </p> - <p> - At Upschi, after a day's march over blazing gravel, I left the rushing - olive-green Indus, which I had followed from the bridge of Khalsi, where - a turbulent torrent, the Upshi water, joins it, descending through a - gorge so narrow that the track, which at all times is blasted on the - face of the precipice, is occasionally scaffolded. A very extensive - rock-slip had carried away the path and rendered several fords - necessary, and before I reached it rumour was busy with the peril. It - was true that the day before several mules had been carried away and - drowned, that many loads had been sacrificed, and that one native - traveller had lost his life. So I started my caravan at daybreak, to get - the water at its lowest, and ascended the gorge, which is an absolutely - verdureless rift in mountains of most brilliant and fantastic - stratification. At the first ford Mando was carried down the river for a - short distance. The second was deep and strong, and a caravan of - valuable goods had been there for two days, afraid to risk the crossing. - My Lahulis, who always showed a great lack of stamina, sat down, sobbing - and beating their breasts. Their sole wealth, they said, was in their - baggage animals, and the river was 'wicked,' and 'a demon' lived in it - who paralysed the horses' legs. Much experience of Orientals and of - travel has taught me to surmount difficulties in my own way, so, - beckoning to two men from the opposite side, who came over shakily with - linked arms, I took the two strong ropes which I always carry on my - saddle, and roped these men together and to Gyalpo's halter with one, - and lashed Mando and the guide together with the other, giving them the - stout thongs behind the saddle to hold on to, and in this compact mass - we stood the strong rush of the river safely, the paralysing chill of - its icy waters being a far more obvious peril. All the baggage animals - were brought over in the same way, and the Lahulis praised their gods. - </p> - <p> - At Gya, a wild hamlet, the last in Ladak proper, I met a working - naturalist whom I had seen twice before, and 'forgathered' with him much - of the way. Eleven days of solitary desert succeeded. The reader has - probably understood that no part of the Indus, Shayok, and Nubra - valleys, which make up most of the province of Ladak, is less than 9,500 - feet in altitude, and that the remainder is composed of precipitous - mountains with glaciers and snowfields, ranging from 18,000 to 25,000 - feet, and that the villages are built mainly on alluvial soil where - possibilities of irrigation exist. But Rupchu has peculiarities of its - own. - </p> - <p> - Between Gya and Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, are three huge - passes, the Toglang, 18,150 feet in altitude, the Lachalang, 17,500, and - the Baralacha, 16,000,—all easy, except for the difficulties - arising from the highly rarefied air. The mountains of the region, which - are from 20,000 to 23,000 feet in altitude, are seldom precipitous or - picturesque, except the huge red needles which guard the Lachalang Pass, - but are rather 'monstrous protuberances,' with arid surfaces of - disintegrated rock. Among these are remarkable plateaux, which are taken - advantage of by caravans, and which have elevations of from 14,000 to - 15,000 feet. There are few permanent rivers or streams, the lakes are - salt, beside the springs, and on the plateaux there is scanty - vegetation, chiefly aromatic herbs; but on the whole Rupchu is a desert - of arid gravel. Its only inhabitants are 500 nomads, and on the ten - marches of the trade route, the bridle paths, on which in some places - labour has been spent, the tracks, not always very legible, made by the - passage of caravans, and rude dykes, behind which travellers may shelter - themselves from the wind, are the only traces of man. Herds of the <i>kyang</i>, - the wild horse of some naturalists, and the wild ass of others, graceful - and beautiful creatures, graze within gunshot of the track without - alarm. - </p> - <p> - I had thought Ladak windy, but Rupchu is the home of the winds, and the - marches must be arranged for the quietest time of the day. Happily the - gales blow with clockwork regularity, the day wind from the south and - south-west rising punctually at 9 a.m. and attaining its maximum at - 2.30, while the night wind from the north and north-east rises about 9 - p.m. and ceases about 5 a.m. Perfect silence is rare. The highly - rarefied air, rushing at great speed, when at its worst deprives the - traveller of breath, skins his face and hands, and paralyses the baggage - animals. In fact, neither man nor beast can face it. The horses 'turn - tail' and crowd together, and the men build up the baggage into a wall - and crouch in the lee of it. The heat of the solar rays is at the same - time fearful. At Lachalang, at a height of over 15,000 feet, I noted a - solar temperature of 152°, only 35° below the boiling point of water in - the same region, which is about 187°. To make up for this, the mercury - falls below the freezing point every night of the year, even in August - the difference of temperature in twelve hours often exceeding 120°! The - Rupchu nomads, however, delight in this climate of extremes, and regard - Leh as a place only to be visited in winter, and Kulu and Kashmir as if - they were the malarial swamps of the Congo! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_18"></a> <a href="images/gs18.png"><img - src="images/gs18s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />FIRST - VILLAGE IN KULU</span> - </div> - <p> - We crossed the Toglang Pass, at a height of 18,150 feet, with less - suffering from <i>ladug</i> than on either the Digar or Kharzong Passes. - Indeed Gyalpo carried me over it, stopping to take breath every few - yards. It was then a long dreary march to the camping-ground of Tsala, - where the Chang-pas spend the four summer months; the guides and baggage - animals lost the way and did not appear until the next day, and in - consequence the servants slept unsheltered in the snow. News travels as - if by magic in desert places. Towards evening, while riding by a stream - up a long and tedious valley, I saw a number of moving specks on the - crest of a hill, and down came a surge of horsemen riding furiously. - Just as they threatened to sweep Gyalpo away, they threw their horses on - their haunches, in one moment were on the ground, which they touched - with their foreheads, presented me with a plate of apricots, and the - next vaulted into their saddles, and dashing up the valley were soon out - of sight. In another half-hour there was a second wild rush of horsemen, - the headman dismounted, threw himself on his face, kissed my hand, - vaulted into the saddle, and then led a swirl of his tribesmen at a - gallop in ever-narrowing circles round me till they subsided into the - decorum of an escort. An elevated plateau with some vegetation on it, a - row of forty tents, 'black' but not 'comely,' a bright rapid river, wild - hills, long lines of white sheep converging towards the camp, <i>yaks</i> - rampaging down the hillsides, men running to meet us, and women and - children in the distance were singularly idealised in the golden glow of - a cool, moist evening. - </p> - <p> - Two men took my bridle, and two more proceeded to put their hands on my - stirrups; but Gyalpo kicked them to the right and left amidst shrieks of - laughter, after which, with frantic gesticulations and yells of '<i>Kabardar!</i>' - I was led through the river in triumph and hauled off my horse. The - tribesmen were much excited. Some dashed about, performing feats of - horsemanship; others brought apricots and dough-balls made with apricot - oil, or rushed to the tents, returning with rugs; some cleared the - camping-ground of stones and raised a stone platform, and a flock of - goats, exquisitely white from the daily swims across the river, were - brought to be milked. Gradually and shrinkingly the women and children - drew near; but Mr. ——'s Bengali servant threatened them with - a whip, when there was a general stampede, the women running like hares. - I had trained my servants to treat the natives courteously, and - addressed some rather strong language to the offender, and afterwards - succeeded in enticing all the fugitives back by showing my sketches, - which gave boundless pleasure and led to very numerous requests for - portraits! The <i>gopa</i>, though he had the oblique Mongolian eyes, - was a handsome young man, with a good nose and mouth. He was dressed - like the others in a girdled <i>chaga</i> of coarse serge, but wore a - red cap turned up over the ears with fine fur, a silver inkhorn, and a - Yarkand knife in a chased silver sheath in his girdle, and - canary-coloured leather shoes with turned-up points. The people prepared - one of their own tents for me, and laying down a number of rugs of their - own dyeing and weaving, assured me of an unbounded welcome as a friend - of their 'benefactor,' Mr. Redslob, and then proposed that I should - visit their tents accompanied by all the elders of the tribe. - </p> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_V"></a><span>CHAPTER V</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">CLIMATE AND NATURAL FEATURES</span> - </h2> - <p> - The last chapter left me with the chief and elders of the Chang-pas - starting on 'a round of visits,' and it was not till nightfall that the - solemn ceremony was concluded. Each of the fifty tents was visited: at - every one a huge, savage Tibetan mastiff made an attempt to fly at me, - and was pounced upon and held down by a woman little bigger than - himself, and in each cheese and milk were offered and refused. In all I - received a hearty welcome for the sake of the 'great father,' Mr. - Redslob, who designated these people as 'the simplest and kindliest - people on earth.' - </p> - <p> - This Chang-pa tribe, numbering five hundred souls, makes four moves in - the year, dividing in summer, and uniting in a valley very free from - snow in the winter. They are an exclusively pastoral people, and possess - large herds of <i>yaks</i> and ponies and immense flocks of sheep and - goats, the latter almost entirely the beautiful 'shawl goat,' from the - undergrowth at the base of the long hair of which the fine Kashmir - shawls are made. This <i>pashm</i> is a provision which Nature makes - against the intense cold of these altitudes, and grows on <i>yaks</i>, - sheep, and dogs, as well as on most of the wild animals. The sheep is - the big, hornless, flop-eared <i>huniya</i>. The <i>yaks</i> and sheep - are the load carriers of Rupchu. Small or easily divided merchandise is - carried by sheep, and bulkier goods by <i>yaks</i>, and the Chang-pas - make a great deal of money by carrying for the Lahul, Central Ladak, and - Rudok merchants, their sheep travelling as far as Gar in Chinese Tibet. - They are paid in grain as well as coin, their own country producing no - farinaceous food. They have only two uses for silver money. With part of - their gains they pay the tribute to Kashmir, and they melt the rest, and - work it into rude personal ornaments. According to an old arrangement - between Lhassa and Leh, they carry brick tea free for the Lhassa - merchants. They are Buddhists, and practise polyandry, but their young - men do not become <i>lamas</i>, and owing to the scarcity of fuel, - instead of burning their dead, they expose them with religious rites - face upwards in desolate places, to be made away with by the birds of - the air. All their tents have a god-shelf, on which are placed small - images and sacred emblems. They dress as the Ladakis, except that the - men wear shoes with very high turned-up points, and that the women, in - addition to the <i>perak</i>, the usual ornament, place on the top of - the head a large silver coronet with three tassels. In physiognomy they - resemble the Ladakis, but the Mongolian type is purer, the eyes are more - oblique, and the eyelids have a greater droop, the chins project more, - and the mouths are handsomer. Many of the men, including the headman, - were quite good-looking, but the upper lips of the women were apt to be - 'tucked up,' displaying very square teeth, as we have shown in the - preceding chapter. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_19"></a> <a href="images/gs19.png"><img - src="images/gs19s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - TIBETAN FARM-HOUSE</span> - </div> - <p> - The roofs of the Tsala tents are nearly flat, and the middle has an - opening six inches wide along its whole length. An excavation from - twelve to twenty-four inches deep is made in the soil, and a rude wall - of stones, about one foot high, is built round it, over which the tent - cloth, made in narrow widths of <i>yak's</i> or goat's hair, is extended - by ropes led over forked sticks. There is no ridge pole, and the centre - is supported on short poles, to the projecting tops of which prayer - flags and <i>yaks'</i> tails are attached. The interior, though dark, is - not too dark for weaving, and each tent has its loom, for the Chang-pas - not only weave their coarse woollen clothing and hair cloth for - saddlebags and tents, but rugs of wool dyed in rich colours made from - native roots. The largest tent was twenty feet by fifteen, but the - majority measured only fourteen feet by eight and ten feet. The height - in no case exceeded six feet. In these much ventilated and scarcely - warmed shelters these hardy nomads brave the tremendous winds and winter - rigours of their climate at altitudes varying from 13,000 to 14,500 - feet. Water freezes every night of the year, and continually there are - differences in temperature of 100° between noon and midnight. In - addition to the fifty dwelling tents there was one considerably larger, - in which the people store their wool and goat's hair till the time - arrives for taking them to market. The floor of several of the tents was - covered with rugs, and besides looms and confused heaps of what looked - like rubbish, there were tea-churns, goatskin churns, sheep and goat - skins, children's bows and arrows, cooking pots, and heaps of the furze - root, which is used as fuel. - </p> - <p> - They expended much of this scarce commodity upon me in their - hospitality, and kept up a bonfire all night. They mounted their wiry - ponies and performed feats of horsemanship, in one of which all the - animals threw themselves on their hind legs in a circle when a man in - the centre clapped his hands; and they crowded my tent to see my - sketches, and were not satisfied till I executed some daubs professing - to represent some of the elders. The excitement of their first visit - from a European woman lasted late into the night, and when they at last - retired they persisted in placing a guard of honour round my tent. - </p> - <p> - In the morning there was ice on the pools, and the snow lay three inches - deep. Savage life had returned to its usual monotony, and the care of - flocks and herds. In the early afternoon the chief and many of the men - accompanied us across the ford, and we parted with mutual expressions of - good will. The march was through broad gravelly valleys, among - 'monstrous protuberances' of red and yellow gravel, elevated by their - height alone to the dignity of mountains. Hail came on, and Gyalpo - showed his high breeding by facing it when the other animals 'turned - tail' and huddled together, and a storm of heavy sleet of some hours' - duration burst upon us just as we reached the dismal camping-ground of - Rukchen, guarded by mountain giants which now and then showed glimpses - of their white skirts through the dark driving mists. That was the only - 'weather' in four months. - </p> - <p> - A large caravan from the heat and sunshine of Amritsar was there. The - goods were stacked under goat's hair shelters, the mules were huddled - together without food, and their shivering Panjābi drivers, muffled in - blankets which only left one eye exposed, were grubbing up furze roots - wherewith to make smoky fires. My baggage, which had arrived previously, - was lying soaking in the sleet, while the wretched servants were trying - to pitch the tent in the high wind. They had slept out in the snow the - night before, and were mentally as well as physically benumbed. Their - misery had a comic side to it, and as the temperature made me feel - specially well, I enjoyed bestirring myself, and terrified Mando, who - was feebly 'fadding' with a rag, by giving Gyalpo a vigorous rub-down - with a bath-towel. Hassan Khan, with chattering teeth and severe - neuralgia, muffled in my 'fisherman's hood' under his turban, was trying - to do his work with his unfailing pluck. Mando was shedding futile tears - over wet furze which would not light, the small wet corrie was dotted - over with the Amritsar men sheltering under rocks and nursing hopeless - fires, and fifty mules and horses, with dejected heads and dripping - tails, and their backs to the merciless wind, were attempting to pick - some food from scanty herbage already nibbled to the root. My tent was a - picture of grotesque discomfort. The big stones had not been picked out - from the gravel, the bed stood in puddles, the thick horse blanket was - draining over the one chair, the servant's spare clothing and stores - were on the table, the <i>yaks'</i> loads of wet hay and the soaked - grain sack filled up most of the space; a wet candle sputtered and went - out, wet clothes dripped from the tent hook, and every now and then - Hassan Khan looked in with one eye, gasping out, 'Mem Sahib, I can no - light the fire!' Perseverance succeeds eventually, and cups of a strong - stimulant made of Burroughes and Wellcome's vigorous 'valoid' tincture - of ginger and hot water, revived the men all round. Such was its good - but innocent effect, that early the next morning Hassan came into my - tent with two eyes, and convulsed with laughter. 'The pony men' and - Mando, he said, were crying, and the coolie from Leh, who before the - storm had wanted to go the whole way to Simla, after refusing his supper - had sobbed all night under the 'flys' of my tent, while I was sleeping - soundly. Afterwards I harangued them, and told them I would let them go, - and help them back; I could not take such poor-spirited miserable - creatures with me, and I would keep the Tartars who had accompanied me - from Tsala. On this they protested, and said, with a significant - gesture, I might cut their throats if they cried any more, and begged me - to try them again; and as we had no more bad weather, there was no more - trouble. - </p> - <p> - The marches which followed were along valleys, plains, and - mountain-sides of gravel, destitute of herbage, except a shrivelled - artemisia, and on one occasion the baggage animals were forty hours - without food. Fresh water was usually very scarce, and on the Lingti - plains was only obtainable by scooping it up from the holes left by the - feet of animals. Insect life was rare, and except grey doves, the 'dove - of the valleys,' which often flew before us for miles down the ravines, - no birds were to be seen. On the other hand, there were numerous herds - of <i>kyang</i>, which in the early mornings came to drink of the water - by which the camps were pitched. By looking through a crevice of my tent - I saw them distinctly, without alarming them. In one herd I counted - forty. They kept together in families, sire, dam, and foal. The animal - certainly is under fourteen hands, and resembles a mule rather than a - horse or ass. The noise, which I had several opportunities of hearing, - is more like a neigh than a bray, but lacks completeness. The creature - is light brown, almost fawn colour, fading into white under his body, - and he has a dark stripe on his back, but not a cross. His ears are - long, and his tail is like that of a mule. He trots and gallops, and - when alarmed gallops fast, but as he is not worth hunting, he has not a - great dread of humanity, and families of <i>kyang</i> frequently grazed - within two hundred and fifty yards of us. He is about as untamable as - the zebra, and with his family affectionateness leads apparently a very - happy life. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_20"></a> <a href="images/gs20.png"><img - src="images/gs20s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />LAHUL - VALLEY</span> - </div> - <p> - On the Kwangchu plateau, at an elevation of 15,000 feet, I met with a - form of life which has a great interest of its own, sheep caravans, - numbering among them 7,000 sheep, each animal with its wool on, and - equipped with a neat packsaddle and two leather or hair-cloth bags, and - loaded with from twenty-five to thirty-two pounds of salt or borax. - These, and many more which we passed, were carrying their loads to - Patseo, a mountain valley in Lahul, where they are met by traders from - Northern British India. The sheep are shorn, and the wool and loads are - exchanged for wheat and a few other commodities, with which they return - to Tibet, the whole journey taking from nine months to a year. As the - sheep live by grazing the scanty herbage on the march, they never - accomplish more than ten miles a day, and as they often become footsore, - halts of several days are frequently required. Sheep, dead or dying, - with the birds of prey picking out their eyes, were often met with. - Ordinarily these caravans are led by a man, followed by a large goat - much bedecked and wearing a large bell. Each driver has charge of one - hundred sheep. These men, of small stature but very thickset, with their - wide smooth faces, loose clothing of sheepskin with the wool outside, - with their long coarse hair flying in the wind, and their uncouth shouts - in a barbarous tongue, are much like savages. They sing wild chants as - they picket their sheep in long double lines at night, and with their - savage mastiffs sleep unsheltered under the frosty skies under the lee - of their piled-up saddlebags. On three nights I camped beside their - caravans, and walked round their orderly lines of sheep and their neat - walls of saddlebags; and, far from showing any discourtesy or rude - curiosity, they held down their fierce dogs and exhibited their - ingenious mode of tethering their animals, and not one of the many - articles which my servants were in the habit of leaving outside the - tents was on any occasion abstracted. The dogs, however, were less - honest than their masters, and on one night ran away with half a sheep, - and I should have fared poorly had not Mr. —— shot some grey - doves. - </p> - <p> - Marches across sandy and gravelly valleys, and along arid mountain-sides - spotted with a creeping furze and cushions of a yellow-green moss which - seems able to exist without moisture, fords of the Sumgyal and Tserap - rivers, and the crossing of the Lachalang Pass at an altitude of 17,500 - feet in severe frost, occupied several uneventful days. Of the three - lofty passes on this route, the Toglang, which is higher, and the - Baralacha, which is lower, are featureless billows of gravel, over which - a carriage might easily be driven. Not so is the Lachalang, though its - well-made zigzags are easy for laden animals. The approach to it is - fantastic, among precipitous mountains of red sandstone, and red rocks - weathered into pillars, men's heads, and numerous groups of gossipy old - women from thirty to fifty feet high, in flat hats and long circular - cloaks! Entering by red gates of rock into a region of gigantic - mountains, and following up a crystal torrent, the valley narrowing to a - gorge, and the gorge to a chasm guarded by nearly perpendicular needles - of rock flaming in the westering sun, we forded the river at the chasm's - throat, and camped on a velvety green lawn just large enough for a few - tents, absolutely walled in by abrupt mountains 18,000 and 19,000 feet - in height. Long after the twilight settled down on us, the pinnacles - above glowed in warm sunshine, and the following morning, when it was - only dawn below, and the still river pools were frozen and the grass was - white with hoar-frost, the morning sun reddened the snow-peaks and - kindled into vermilion the red needles of Lachalang. That camping-ground - under such conditions is the grandest and most romantic spot of the - whole journey. - </p> - <p> - Verdureless and waterless stretches, in crossing which our poor animals - were two nights without food, brought us to the glacier-blue waters of - the Serchu, tumbling along in a deep broad gash, and farther on to a - lateral torrent which is the boundary between Rupchu, tributary to - Kashmir, and Lahul or British Tibet, under the rule of the Empress of - India. The tents were ready pitched in a grassy hollow by the river; - horses, cows, and goats were grazing near them, and a number of men were - preparing food. A Tibetan approached me, accompanied by a creature in a - nondescript dress speaking Hindustani volubly. On a band across his - breast were the British crown, and a plate with the words - 'Commissioner's <i>chaprassie</i>, Kulu district.' I never felt so - extinguished. Liberty seemed lost, and the romance of the desert to have - died out in one moment! At the camping-ground I found rows of salaaming - Lahulis drawn up, and Hassan Khan in a state which was a compound of - pomposity and jubilant excitement. The <i>tahsildar</i> (really the - Tibetan honorary magistrate), he said, had received instructions from - the Lieutenant-Governor of the Panjāb that I was on the way to Kylang, - and was to 'want for nothing.' So twenty-four men, nine horses, a flock - of goats, and two cows had been waiting for me for three days in the - Serchu valley. I wrote a polite note to the magistrate, and sent all - back except the <i>chaprassie</i>, the cows, and the cowherd, my - servants looking much crestfallen. - </p> - <p> - We crossed the Baralacha Pass in wind and snow showers into a climate in - which moisture began to be obvious. At short distances along the pass, - which extends for many miles, there are rude semicircular walls, three - feet high, all turned in one direction, in the shelter of which - travellers crouch to escape from the strong cutting wind. My men - suffered far more than on the two higher passes, and it was difficult to - dislodge them from these shelters, where they lay groaning, gasping, and - suffering from vertigo and nose-bleeding. The cold was so severe that I - walked over the loftiest part of the pass, and for the first time felt - slight effects of the <i>ladug</i>. At a height of 15,000 feet, in the - midst of general desolation, grew, in the shelter of rocks, poppies (<i>Mecanopsis - aculeata</i>), blue as the Tibetan skies, their centres filled with a - cluster of golden-yellow stamens,—a most charming sight. Ten or - twelve of these exquisite blossoms grow on one stalk, and stalk, leaf, - and seed-vessels are guarded by very stiff thorns. Lower down flowers - abounded, and at the camping-ground of Patseo (12,000 feet), where the - Tibetan sheep caravans exchange their wool, salt, and borax for grain, - the ground was covered with soft greensward, and real rain fell. Seen - from the Baralacha Pass are vast snowfields, glaciers, and avalanche - slopes. This barrier, and the Rotang, farther south, close this trade - route practically for seven months of the year, for they catch the - monsoon rains, which at that altitude are snows from fifteen to thirty - feet deep; while on the other side of the Baralacha and throughout - Rupchu and Ladak the snowfall is insignificant. So late as August, when - I crossed, there were four perfect snow bridges over the Bhaga, and - snowfields thirty-six feet deep along its margin. At Patseo the <i>tahsildar</i>, - with a retinue and animals laden with fodder, came to pay his respects - to me, and invited me to his house, three days' journey. These were the - first human beings we had seen for three days. - </p> - <p> - A few miles south of the Baralacha Pass some birch trees appeared on a - slope, the first natural growth of timber that I had seen since crossing - the Zoji La. Lower down there were a few more, then stunted specimens of - the pencil cedar, and the mountains began to show a shade of green on - their lower slopes. Butterflies appeared also, and a vulture, a grand - bird on the wing, hovered ominously over us for some miles, and was - succeeded by an equally ominous raven. On the excellent bridle-track cut - on the face of the precipices which overhang the Bhaga, there is in nine - miles only one spot in which it is possible to pitch a five-foot tent, - and at Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, the only camping-ground is on - the house roofs. There the Chang-pas and their <i>yaks</i> and horses - who had served me pleasantly and faithfully from Tsala left me, and - returned to the freedom of their desert life. At Kolang, the next - hamlet, where the thunder of the Bhaga was almost intolerable, Hara - Chang, the magistrate, one of the <i>thakurs</i> or feudal proprietors - of Lahul, with his son and nephew and a large retinue, called on me; and - the next morning Mr. —— and I went by invitation to visit - him in his castle, a magnificently situated building on a rocky spur - 1,000 feet above the camping-ground, attained by a difficult climb, and - nearly on a level with the glittering glaciers and ice-falls on the - other side of the Bhaga. It only differs from Leh and Stok castles in - having blue glass in some of the smaller windows. In the family temple, - in addition to the usual life-size images of Buddha and the Triad, there - was a female divinity, carved at Jallandhur in India, copied from a - statue representing Queen Victoria in her younger days—a very - fitting possession for the highest government official in Lahul. The <i>thakur</i>, - Hara Chang, is wealthy and a rigid Buddhist, and uses his very - considerable influence against the work of the Moravian missionaries in - the valley. The rude path down to the bridle-road, through fields of - barley and buckwheat, is bordered by roses, gooseberries, and masses of - wild flowers. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_21"></a> <a href="images/gs21.png"><img - src="images/gs21s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />GONPO - AT KYLANG</span> - </div> - <p> - The later marches after reaching Darcha are grand beyond all - description. The track, scaffolded or blasted out of the rock at a - height of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the thundering Bhaga, is - scarcely a rifle-shot from the mountain mass dividing it from the - Chandra, a mass covered with nearly unbroken ice and snowfields, out of - which rise pinnacles of naked rock 21,000 and 22,000 feet in altitude. - The region is the 'abode of snow,' and glaciers of great size fill up - every depression. Humidity, vegetation, and beauty reappear together, - wild flowers and ferns abound, and pencil cedars in clumps rise above - the artificial plantations of the valley. Wheat ripens at an altitude of - 12,000 feet. Picturesque villages, surrounded by orchards, adorn the - mountain spurs; <i>chod-tens</i> and <i>gonpos</i>, with white walls and - fluttering flags, brighten the scene; feudal castles crown the heights, - and where the mountains are loftiest, the snowfields and glaciers most - imposing, and the greenery densest, the village of Kylang, the most - important in Lahul as the centre of trade, government, and Christian - missions, hangs on ledges of the mountain-side 1,000 feet above Bhaga, - whose furious course can be traced far down the valley by flashes of - sunlit foam. - </p> - <p> - The Lahul valley, which is a part of British Tibet, has an altitude of - 10,000 feet. It prospers under British rule, its population has - increased, Hindu merchants have settled in Kylang, the route through - Lahul to Central Asia is finding increasing favour with the Panjābi - traders, and the Moravian missionaries, by a bolder system of irrigation - and the provision of storage for water, have largely increased the - quantity of arable land. The Lahulis are chiefly Tibetans, but Hinduism - is largely mixed up with Buddhism in the lower villages. All the <i>gonpos</i>, - however, have been restored and enlarged during the last twenty years. - In winter the snow lies fifteen feet deep, and for four or five months, - owing to the perils of the Rotang Pass, the valley rarely has any - communication with the outer world. - </p> - <p> - At the foot of the village of Kylang, which is built in tier above tier - of houses up the steep side of a mountain with a height of 21,000 feet, - are the Moravian mission buildings, long, low, whitewashed erections, of - the simplest possible construction, the design and much of the actual - erection being the work of these capable Germans. The large building, - which has a deep verandah, the only place in which exercise can be taken - in the winter, contains the native church, three rooms for each - missionary, and two guest-rooms. Round the garden are the printing - rooms, the medicine and store room (stores arriving once in two years), - and another guest-room. Round an adjacent enclosure are the houses - occupied in winter by the Christians when they come down with their - sheep and cattle from the hill farms. All is absolutely plain, and as - absolutely clean and trim. The guest-rooms and one or two of the Tibetan - rooms are papered with engravings from the <i>Illustrated London News</i>, - but the rooms of the missionaries are only whitewashed, and by their - extreme bareness reminded me of those of very poor pastors in the - Fatherland. A garden, brilliant with zinnias, dianthus, and petunias, - all of immense size, and planted with European trees, is an oasis, and - in it I camped for some weeks under a willow tree, covered, as many are, - with a sweet secretion so abundant as to drop on the roof of the tent, - and which the people collect and use as honey. - </p> - <p> - The mission party consisted of Mr. and Mrs. Shreve, lately arrived, and - now in a distant exile at Poo, and Mr. and Mrs. Heyde, who had been in - Tibet for nearly forty years, chiefly spent at Kylang, without going - home. 'Plain living and high thinking' were the rule. Books and - periodicals were numerous, and were read and assimilated. The culture - was simply wonderful, and the acquaintance with the latest ideas in - theology and natural science, the latest political and social - developments, and the latest conceptions in European art, would have led - me to suppose that these admirable people had only just left Europe. - Mrs. Heyde had no servant, and in the long winters, when household and - mission work are over for the day, and there are no mails to write for, - she pursues her tailoring and other needlework, while her husband reads - aloud till midnight. At the time of my visit (September) busy - preparations for the winter were being made. Every day the wood piles - grew. Hay, cut with sickles on the steep hillsides, was carried on human - backs into the farmyard, apples were cored and dried in the sun, - cucumbers were pickled, vinegar was made, potatoes were stored, and meat - was killed and salted. - </p> - <p> - It is in winter, when the Christians have come down from the mountain, - that most of the mission work is done. Mrs. Heyde has a school of forty - girls, mostly Buddhists. The teaching is simple and practical, and - includes the knitting of socks, of which from four to five hundred pairs - are turned out each winter, and find a ready sale. The converts meet for - instruction and discussion twice daily, and there is daily worship. The - mission press is kept actively employed in printing the parts of the - Bible which have been translated during the summer, as well as simple - tracts written or translated by Mr. Heyde. No converts are better - instructed, and like those of Leh they seem of good quality, and are - industrious and self-supporting. Winter work is severe, as ponies, - cattle, and sheep must always be hand-fed, and often hand-watered. Mr. - Heyde has great repute as a doctor, and in summer people travel long - distances for his advice and medicine. He is universally respected, and - his judgment in worldly affairs is highly thought of; but if one were to - judge merely by apparent results, the devoted labour of nearly forty - years and complete self-sacrifice for the good of Kylang must be - pronounced unsuccessful. Christianity has been most strongly opposed by - men of influence, and converts have been exposed to persecution and - loss. The abbot of the Kylang monastery lately said to Mr. Heyde, 'Your - Christian teaching has given Buddhism a resurrection.' The actual words - used were, 'When you came here people were quite indifferent about their - religion, but since it has been attacked they have become zealous, and - now they <i>know</i>.' It is only by sharing their circumstances of - isolation, and by getting glimpses of their everyday life and work, that - one can realise at all what the heroic perseverance and self-sacrificing - toil of these forty years have been, and what is the weighty influence - on the people and on the standard of morals, even though the number of - converts is so small. All honour to these noble German missionaries, - learned, genial, cultured, radiant, who, whether teaching, preaching, - farming, gardening, printing, or doctoring, are always and everywhere - 'living epistles of Christ, known and read of all men!' Close by the - mission house, in a green spot under shady trees, is God's Acre, where - many children of the mission families sleep, and a few adults. - </p> - <p> - As the winter is the busiest season in mission work, so it is the great - time in which the <i>lamas</i> make house-to-house peregrinations and - attend at festivals. Then also there is much spinning and weaving by - both sexes, and tobogganing and other games, and much drinking of <i>chang</i> - by priests and people. The cattle remain out till nearly Christmas, and - are then taken into the houses. At the time of the variable new year, - the <i>lamas</i> and nuns retire to the monasteries, and dulness reigns - in the valleys. At the end of a month they emerge, life and noise begin, - and all men to whom sons have been born during the previous year give <i>chang</i> - freely. During the festival which follows, all these jubilant fathers go - out of the village as a gaudily dressed procession, and form a circle - round a picture of a <i>yak</i>, painted by the <i>lamas</i>, which is - used as a target to be shot at with bows and arrows, and it is believed - that the man who hits it in the centre will be blessed with a son in the - coming year. After this, all the Kylang men and women collect in one - house by annual rotation, and sing and drink immense quantities of <i>chang</i> - till 10 p.m. - </p> - <p> - The religious festivals begin soon after. One, the worshipping of the <i>lamas</i> - by the laity, occurs in every village, and lasts from two to three days. - It consists chiefly of music and dancing, while the <i>lamas</i> sit in - rows, swilling <i>chang</i> and arrack. At another, which is celebrated - annually in every house, the <i>lamas</i> assemble, and in front of - certain gods prepare a number of mystical figures made of dough, which - are hung up and are worshipped by the family. Afterwards the <i>lamas</i> - make little balls which are worshipped, and one of the family mounts the - roof and invites the neighbours, who receive the balls from the <i>lamas'</i> - hands and drink moderately of <i>chang</i>. Next, the figures are thrown - to the demons as a propitiatory offering, amidst 'hellish whistlings' - and the firing of guns. These ceremonies are called <i>ise drup</i> (a - full life), and it is believed that if they were neglected life would be - cut short. - </p> - <p> - One of the most important of the winter religious duties of the <i>lamas</i> - is the reading of the sacred classics under the roof of each - householder. By this means the family accumulate merit, and the longer - the reading is protracted the greater is the accumulation. A - twelve-volume book is taken in the houses of the richer householders, - each one of the twelve or fifteen <i>lamas</i> taking a page, all - reading at an immense pace in a loud chant at the same time. The reading - of these volumes, which consist of Buddhist metaphysics and philosophy, - takes five days, and while reading each <i>lama</i> has his <i>chang</i> - cup constantly replenished. In the poorer households a classic of but - one volume is taken, to lessen the expense of feeding the <i>lamas</i>. - Festivals and ceremonies follow each other closely until March, when - archery practice begins, and in April and May the people prepare for the - operations of husbandry. - </p> - <p> - The weather in Kylang breaks in the middle of September, but so - fascinating were the beauties and sublimity of Nature, and the virtues - and culture of my Moravian friends, that, shutting my eyes to the - possible perils of the Rotang, I remained until the harvest was brought - home with joy and revelry, and the flush of autumn faded, and the first - snows of winter gave an added majesty to the glorious valley. Then, - reluctantly folding my tent, and taking the same faithful fellows who - brought my baggage from Leh, I spent five weeks on the descent to the - Panjāb, journeying through the paradise of Upper Kulu and the - interesting native states of Mandi, Sukket, Bilaspur, and Bhaghat; and - early in November reached the amenities and restraints of the - civilisation of Simla. - </p> - <p class="center"> - <b>THE END.</b> - </p> - </div> -<pre xml:space="preserve"> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Among the Tibetans, by Isabella L. 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Bird - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Among the Tibetans - -Author: Isabella L. Bird - -Illustrator: Edward Whymper - -Release Date: December 16, 2012 [EBook #41635] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMONG THE TIBETANS *** - - - - -Produced by Suzanne Shell, Asad Razzaki and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -[Illustration: USMAN SHAH] - - - AMONG THE TIBETANS - - Isabella L. Bird - - Illustrated by - Edward Whymper - - - DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. - Mineola, New York - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - CHAPTER I - - THE START 7 - - CHAPTER II - - SHERGOL AND LEH 40 - - CHAPTER III - - NUBRA 72 - - CHAPTER IV - - MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 101 - - CHAPTER V - - CLIMATE AND NATURAL FEATURES 130 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - Usman Shah _Frontispiece_ - - The Start from Srinagar 13 - - Camp at Gagangair 18 - - Sonamarg 21 - - A hand Prayer-Cylinder 42 - - Tibetan Girl 45 - - Gonpo of Spitak 51 - - Leh 57 - - A Chod-Ten 66 - - A Lama 74 - - Three Gopas 77 - - Some Instruments of Buddhist Worship 86 - - Monastic Buildings at Basgu 93 - - The Yak (_Bos grunniens_) 100 - - A Chang-pa Woman 102 - - Chang-pa Chief 110 - - The Castle of Stok 117 - - First Village in Kulu 125 - - A Tibetan Farm-house 133 - - Lahul Valley 141 - - Gonpo at Kylang 149 - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE START - - -The Vale of Kashmir is too well known to require description. It is the -'happy hunting-ground' of the Anglo-Indian sportsman and tourist, the -resort of artists and invalids, the home of _pashm_ shawls and -exquisitely embroidered fabrics, and the land of Lalla Rookh. Its -inhabitants, chiefly Moslems, infamously governed by Hindus, are a -feeble race, attracting little interest, valuable to travellers as -'coolies' or porters, and repulsive to them from the mingled cunning and -obsequiousness which have been fostered by ages of oppression. But even -for them there is the dawn of hope, for the Church Missionary Society -has a strong medical and educational mission at the capital, a hospital -and dispensary under the charge of a lady M.D. have been opened for -women, and a capable and upright 'settlement officer,' lent by the -Indian Government, is investigating the iniquitous land arrangements -with a view to a just settlement. - -I left the Panjab railroad system at Rawul Pindi, bought my camp -equipage, and travelled through the grand ravines which lead to Kashmir -or the Jhelum Valley by hill-cart, on horseback, and by house-boat, -reaching Srinagar at the end of April, when the velvet lawns were at -their greenest, and the foliage was at its freshest, and the -deodar-skirted mountains which enclose this fairest gem of the Himalayas -still wore their winter mantle of unsullied snow. Making Srinagar my -headquarters, I spent two months in travelling in Kashmir, half the time -in a native house-boat on the Jhelum and Pohru rivers, and the other -half on horseback, camping wherever the scenery was most attractive. - -By the middle of June mosquitos were rampant, the grass was tawny, a -brown dust haze hung over the valley, the camp-fires of a multitude -glared through the hot nights and misty moonlight of the Munshibagh, -English tents dotted the landscape, there was no mountain, valley, or -plateau, however remote, free from the clatter of English voices and the -trained servility of Hindu servants, and even Sonamarg, at an altitude -of 8,000 feet and rough of access, had capitulated to lawn-tennis. To a -traveller this Anglo-Indian hubbub was intolerable, and I left Srinagar -and many kind friends on June 20 for the uplifted plateaux of Lesser -Tibet. My party consisted of myself, a thoroughly competent servant and -passable interpreter, Hassan Khan, a Panjabi; a _seis_, of whom the less -that is said the better; and Mando, a Kashmiri lad, a common coolie, -who, under Hassan Khan's training, developed into an efficient -travelling servant, and later into a smart _khitmatgar_. - -Gyalpo, my horse, must not be forgotten--indeed, he cannot be, for he -left the marks of his heels or teeth on every one. He was a beautiful -creature, Badakshani bred, of Arab blood, a silver-grey, as light as a -greyhound and as strong as a cart-horse. He was higher in the scale of -intellect than any horse of my acquaintance. His cleverness at times -suggested reasoning power, and his mischievousness a sense of humour. He -walked five miles an hour, jumped like a deer, climbed like a _yak_, was -strong and steady in perilous fords, tireless, hardy, hungry, frolicked -along ledges of precipices and over crevassed glaciers, was absolutely -fearless, and his slender legs and the use he made of them were the -marvel of all. He was an enigma to the end. He was quite untamable, -rejected all dainties with indignation, swung his heels into people's -faces when they went near him, ran at them with his teeth, seized unwary -passers-by by their _kamar bands_, and shook them as a dog shakes a rat, -would let no one go near him but Mando, for whom he formed at first -sight a most singular attachment, but kicked and struck with his -forefeet, his eyes all the time dancing with fun, so that one could -never decide whether his ceaseless pranks were play or vice. He was -always tethered in front of my tent with a rope twenty feet long, which -left him practically free; he was as good as a watchdog, and his antics -and enigmatical savagery were the life and terror of the camp. I was -never weary of watching him, the curves of his form were so exquisite, -his movements so lithe and rapid, his small head and restless little -ears so full of life and expression, the variations in his manner so -frequent, one moment savagely attacking some unwary stranger with a -scream of rage, the next laying his lovely head against Mando's cheek -with a soft cooing sound and a childlike gentleness. When he was -attacking anybody or frolicking, his movements and beauty can only be -described by a phrase of the Apostle James, 'the grace of the fashion of -it.' Colonel Durand, of Gilgit celebrity, to whom I am indebted for many -other kindnesses, gave him to me in exchange for a cowardly, heavy -Yarkand horse, and had previously vainly tried to tame him. His wild -eyes were like those of a seagull. He had no kinship with humanity. - -In addition, I had as escort an Afghan or Pathan, a soldier of the -Maharajah's irregular force of foreign mercenaries, who had been sent to -meet me when I entered Kashmir. This man, Usman Shah, was a stage -ruffian in appearance. He wore a turban of prodigious height ornamented -with poppies or birds' feathers, loved fantastic colours and ceaseless -change of raiment, walked in front of me carrying a big sword over his -shoulder, plundered and beat the people, terrified the women, and was -eventually recognised at Leh as a murderer, and as great a ruffian in -reality as he was in appearance. An attendant of this kind is a mistake. -The brutality and rapacity he exercises naturally make the people -cowardly or surly, and disinclined to trust a traveller so accompanied. - -Finally, I had a Cabul tent, 7 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 6 in., weighing, with -poles and iron pins, 75 lbs., a trestle bed and cork mattress, a folding -table and chair, and an Indian _dhurrie_ as a carpet. - -My servants had a tent 5 ft. 6 in. square, weighing only 10 lbs., which -served as a shelter tent for me during the noonday halt. A kettle, -copper pot, and frying pan, a few enamelled iron table equipments, -bedding, clothing, working and sketching materials, completed my outfit. -The servants carried wadded quilts for beds and bedding, and their own -cooking utensils, unwillingness to use those belonging to a Christian -being nearly the last rag of religion which they retained. The only -stores I carried were tea, a quantity of Edwards' desiccated soup, and a -little saccharin. The 'house,' furniture, clothing, &c., were a light -load for three mules, engaged at a shilling a day each, including the -muleteer. Sheep, coarse flour, milk, and barley were procurable at very -moderate prices on the road. - -[Illustration: THE START FROM SRINAGAR] - -Leh, the capital of Ladakh or Lesser Tibet, is nineteen marches from -Srinagar, but I occupied twenty-six days on the journey, and made the -first 'march' by water, taking my house-boat to Ganderbal, a few hours -from Srinagar, _via_ the Mar Nullah and Anchar Lake. Never had this -Venice of the Himalayas, with a broad rushing river for its high street -and winding canals for its back streets, looked so entrancingly -beautiful as in the slant sunshine of the late June afternoon. The light -fell brightly on the river at the Residency stairs where I embarked, on -_perindas_ and state barges, with their painted arabesques, gay -canopies, and 'banks' of thirty and forty crimson-clad, blue-turbaned, -paddling men; on the gay facade and gold-domed temple of the Maharajah's -Palace, on the massive deodar bridges which for centuries have defied -decay and the fierce flood of the Jhelum, and on the quaintly -picturesque wooden architecture and carved brown lattice fronts of the -houses along the swirling waterway, and glanced mirthfully through the -dense leafage of the superb planes which overhang the dark-green water. -But the mercury was 92 deg. in the shade and the sun-blaze terrific, and it -was a relief when the boat swung round a corner, and left the stir of -the broad, rapid Jhelum for a still, narrow, and sharply winding canal, -which intersects a part of Srinagar lying between the Jhelum and the -hill-crowning fort of Hari Parbat. There the shadows were deep, and -chance lights alone fell on the red dresses of the women at the ghats, -and on the shaven, shiny heads of hundreds of amphibious boys who were -swimming and aquatically romping in the canal, which is at once the -sewer and the water supply of the district. - -Several hours were spent in a slow and tortuous progress through scenes -of indescribable picturesqueness--a narrow waterway spanned by -sharp-angled stone bridges, some of them with houses on the top, or by -old brown wooden bridges festooned with vines, hemmed in by lofty stone -embankments into which sculptured stones from ancient temples are -wrought, on the top of which are houses of rich men, fancifully built, -with windows of fretwork of wood, or gardens with kiosks, and lower -embankments sustaining many-balconied dwellings, rich in colour and -fantastic in design, their upper fronts projecting over the water and -supported on piles. There were gigantic poplars wreathed with vines, -great mulberry trees hanging their tempting fruit just out of reach, -huge planes overarching the water, their dense leafage scraping the mat -roof of the boat; filthy ghats thronged with white-robed Moslems -performing their scanty religious ablutions; great grain boats heavily -thatched, containing not only families, but their sheep and poultry; and -all the other sights of a crowded Srinagar waterway, the houses being -characteristically distorted and out of repair. This canal gradually -widens into the Anchar Lake, a reedy mere of indefinite boundaries, the -breeding-ground of legions of mosquitos; and after the tawny twilight -darkened into a stifling night we made fast to a reed bed, not reaching -Ganderbal till late the next morning, where my horse and caravan awaited -me under a splendid plane-tree. - -[Illustration: CAMP AT GAGANGAIR] - -For the next five days we marched up the Sind Valley, one of the most -beautiful in Kashmir from its grandeur and variety. Beginning among -quiet rice-fields and brown agricultural villages at an altitude of -5,000 feet, the track, usually bad and sometimes steep and perilous, -passes through flower-gemmed alpine meadows, along dark gorges above the -booming and rushing Sind, through woods matted with the sweet white -jasmine, the lower hem of the pine and deodar forests which ascend the -mountains to a considerable altitude, past rifts giving glimpses of -dazzling snow-peaks, over grassy slopes dotted with villages, houses, -and shrines embosomed in walnut groves, in sight of the frowning crags -of Haramuk, through wooded lanes and park-like country over which farms -are thinly scattered, over unrailed and shaky bridges, and across -avalanche slopes, till it reaches Gagangair, a dream of lonely beauty, -with a camping-ground of velvety sward under noble plane-trees. Above -this place the valley closes in between walls of precipices and crags, -which rise almost abruptly from the Sind to heights of 8,000 and 10,000 -feet. The road in many places is only a series of steep and shelving -ledges above the raging river, natural rock smoothed and polished into -riskiness by the passage for centuries of the trade into Central Asia -from Western India, Kashmir, and Afghanistan. Its precariousness for -animals was emphasised to me by five serious accidents which occurred in -the week of my journey, one of them involving the loss of the money, -clothing, and sporting kit of an English officer bound for Ladakh for -three months. Above this tremendous gorge the mountains open out, and -after crossing to the left bank of the Sind a sharp ascent brought me to -the beautiful alpine meadow of Sonamarg, bright with spring flowers, -gleaming with crystal streams, and fringed on all sides by deciduous and -coniferous trees, above and among which are great glaciers and the snowy -peaks of Tilail. Fashion has deserted Sonamarg, rough of access, for -Gulmarg, a caprice indicated by the ruins of several huts and of a -church. The pure bracing air, magnificent views, the proximity and -accessibility of glaciers, and the presence of a kind friend who was -'hutted' there for the summer, made Sonamarg a very pleasant halt before -entering upon the supposed severities of the journey to Lesser Tibet. - -[Illustration: SONAMARG] - -The five days' march, though propitious and full of the charm of -magnificent scenery, had opened my eyes to certain unpleasantnesses. I -found that Usman Shah maltreated the villagers, and not only robbed them -of their best fowls, but requisitioned all manner of things in my -name, though I scrupulously and personally paid for everything, beating -the people with his scabbarded sword if they showed any intention of -standing upon their rights. Then I found that my clever factotum, not -content with the legitimate 'squeeze' of ten per cent., was charging me -double price for everything and paying the sellers only half the actual -price, this legerdemain being perpetrated in my presence. He also by -threats got back from the coolies half their day's wages after I had -paid them, received money for barley for Gyalpo, and never bought it, a -fact brought to light by the growing feebleness of the horse, and -cheated in all sorts of mean and plausible ways, though I paid him -exceptionally high wages, and was prepared to 'wink' at a moderate -amount of dishonesty, so long as it affected only myself. It has a -lowering influence upon one to live in a fog of lies and fraud, and the -attempt to checkmate a fraudulent Asiatic ends in extreme discomfiture. - -I left Sonamarg late on a lovely afternoon for a short march through -forest-skirted alpine meadows to Baltal, the last camping-ground in -Kashmir, a grassy valley at the foot of the Zoji La, the first of three -gigantic steps by which the lofty plateaux of Central Asia are attained. -On the road a large affluent of the Sind, which tumbles down a -pine-hung gorge in broad sheets of foam, has to be crossed. My _seis_, a -rogue, was either half-witted or pretended to be so, and, in spite of -orders to the contrary, led Gyalpo upon a bridge at a considerable -height, formed of two poles with flat pieces of stone laid loosely over -them not more than a foot broad. As the horse reached the middle, the -structure gave a sort of turn, there was a vision of hoofs in air and a -gleam of scarlet, and Gyalpo, the hope of the next four months, after -rolling over more than once, vanished among rocks and surges of the -wildest description. He kept his presence of mind, however, recovered -himself, and by a desperate effort got ashore lower down, with legs -scratched and bleeding and one horn of the saddle incurably bent. - -Mr. Maconochie of the Panjab Civil Service, and Dr. E. Neve of the C. M. -S. Medical Mission in Kashmir, accompanied me from Sonamarg over the -pass, and that night Mr. M. talked seriously to Usman Shah on the -subject of his misconduct, and with such singular results that -thereafter I had little cause for complaint. He came to me and said, -'The Commissioner Sahib thinks I give Mem Sahib a great deal of -trouble;' to which I replied in a cold tone, 'Take care you don't give -me any more.' The gist of the Sahib's words was the very pertinent -suggestion that it would eventually be more to his interest to serve me -honestly and faithfully than to cheat me. - -Baltal lies at the feet of a precipitous range, the peaks of which -exceed Mont Blanc in height. Two gorges unite there. There is not a hut -within ten miles. Big camp-fires blazed. A few shepherds lay under the -shelter of a mat screen. The silence and solitude were most impressive -under the frosty stars and the great Central Asian barrier. Sunrise the -following morning saw us on the way up a huge gorge with nearly -perpendicular sides, and filled to a great depth with snow. Then came -the Zoji La, which, with the Namika La and the Fotu La, respectively -11,300, 13,000, and 13,500 feet, are the three great steps from Kashmir -to the Tibetan heights. The two latter passes present no difficulties. -The Zoji La is a thoroughly severe pass, the worst, with the exception -perhaps of the Sasir, on the Yarkand caravan route. The track, cut, -broken, and worn on the side of a wall of rock nearly 2,000 feet in -abrupt elevation, is a series of rough narrow zigzags, rarely, if ever, -wide enough for laden animals to pass each other, composed of broken -ledges often nearly breast high, and shelving surfaces of abraded rock, -up which animals have to leap and scramble as best they may. - -Trees and trailers drooped over the path, ferns and lilies bloomed in -moist recesses, and among myriads of flowers a large blue and cream -columbine was conspicuous by its beauty and exquisite odour. The charm -of the detail tempted one to linger at every turn, and all the more so -because I knew that I should see nothing more of the grace and -bounteousness of Nature till my projected descent into Kulu in the late -autumn. The snow-filled gorge on whose abrupt side the path hangs, the -Zoji La (Pass), is geographically remarkable as being the lowest -depression in the great Himalayan range for 300 miles; and by it, in -spite of infamous bits of road on the Sind and Suru rivers, and -consequent losses of goods and animals, all the traffic of Kashmir, -Afghanistan, and the Western Panjab finds its way into Central Asia. It -was too early in the season, however, for more than a few enterprising -caravans to be on the road. - -The last look upon Kashmir was a lingering one. Below, in shadow, lay -the Baltal camping-ground, a lonely deodar-belted flowery meadow, noisy -with the dash of icy torrents tumbling down from the snowfields and -glaciers upborne by the gigantic mountain range into which we had -penetrated by the Zoji Pass. The valley, lying in shadow at their base, -was a dream of beauty, green as an English lawn, starred with white -lilies, and dotted with clumps of trees which were festooned with red -and white roses, clematis, and white jasmine. Above the hardier -deciduous trees appeared the _Pinus excelsa_, the silver fir, and the -spruce; higher yet the stately grace of the deodar clothed the -hillsides; and above the forests rose the snow mountains of Tilail, pink -in the sunrise. High above the Zoji, itself 11,500 feet in altitude, a -mass of grey and red mountains, snow-slashed and snow-capped, rose in -the dewy rose-flushed atmosphere in peaks, walls, pinnacles, and jagged -ridges, above which towered yet loftier summits, bearing into the -heavenly blue sky fields of unsullied snow alone. The descent on the -Tibetan side is slight and gradual. The character of the scenery -undergoes an abrupt change. There are no more trees, and the large -shrubs which for a time take their place degenerate into thorny bushes, -and then disappear. There were mountains thinly clothed with grass here -and there, mountains of bare gravel and red rock, grey crags, stretches -of green turf, sunlit peaks with their snows, a deep, snow-filled -ravine, eastwards and beyond a long valley filled with a snowfield -fringed with pink primulas; and that was CENTRAL ASIA. - -We halted for breakfast, iced our cold tea in the snow, Mr. M. gave a -final charge to the Afghan, who swore by his Prophet to be faithful, -and I parted from my kind escorts with much reluctance, and started on -my Tibetan journey, with but a slender stock of Hindustani, and two men -who spoke not a word of English. On that day's march of fourteen miles -there is not a single hut. The snowfield extended for five miles, from -ten to seventy feet deep, much crevassed, and encumbered with -avalanches. In it the Dras, truly 'snow-born,' appeared, issuing from a -chasm under a blue arch of ice and snow, afterwards to rage down the -valley, to be forded many times or crossed on snow bridges. After -walking for some time, and getting a bad fall down an avalanche slope, I -mounted Gyalpo, and the clever, plucky fellow frolicked over the snow, -smelt and leapt crevasses which were too wide to be stepped over, put -his forelegs together and slid down slopes like a Swiss mule, and, -though carried off his feet in a ford by the fierce surges of the Dras, -struggled gamely to shore. Steep grassy hills, and peaks with gorges -cleft by the thundering Dras, and stretches of rolling grass succeeded -each other. Then came a wide valley mostly covered with stones brought -down by torrents, a few plots of miserable barley grown by irrigation, -and among them two buildings of round stones and mud, about six feet -high, with flat mud roofs, one of which might be called the village, -and the other the caravanserai. On the village roof were stacks of twigs -and of the dried dung of animals, which is used for fuel, and the whole -female population, adult and juvenile, engaged in picking wool. The -people of this village of Matayan are Kashmiris. As I had an hour to -wait for my tent, the women descended and sat in a circle round me with -a concentrated stare. They asked if I were dumb, and why I wore no -earrings or necklace, their own persons being loaded with heavy -ornaments. They brought children afflicted with skin-diseases, and asked -for ointment, and on hearing that I was hurt by a fall, seized on my -limbs and shampooed them energetically but not undexterously. I prefer -their sociability to the usual chilling aloofness of the people of -Kashmir. - -The Serai consisted of several dark and dirty cells, built round a -blazing piece of sloping dust, the only camping-ground, and under the -entrance two platforms of animated earth, on which my servants cooked -and slept. The next day was Sunday, sacred to a halt; but there was no -fodder for the animals, and we were obliged to march to Dras, following, -where possible, the course of the river of that name, which passes among -highly-coloured and snow-slashed mountains, except in places where it -suddenly finds itself pent between walls of flame-coloured or black -rock, not ten feet apart, through which it boils and rages, forming -gigantic pot-holes. With every mile the surroundings became more -markedly of the Central Asian type. All day long a white, scintillating -sun blazes out of a deep blue, rainless, cloudless sky. The air is -exhilarating. The traveller is conscious of daily-increasing energy and -vitality. There are no trees, and deep crimson roses along torrent beds -are the only shrubs. But for a brief fortnight in June, which chanced to -occur during my journey, the valleys and lower slope present a wonderful -aspect of beauty and joyousness. Rose and pale pink primulas fringe the -margin of the snow, the dainty _Pedicularis tubiflora_ covers moist -spots with its mantle of gold; great yellow and white, and small purple -and white anemones, pink and white dianthus, a very large myosotis, -bringing the intense blue of heaven down to earth, purple orchids by the -water, borage staining whole tracts deep blue, martagon lilies, pale -green lilies veined and spotted with brown, yellow, orange, and purple -vetches, painter's brush, dwarf dandelions, white clover, filling the -air with fragrance, pink and cream asters, chrysanthemums, lychnis, -irises, gentian, artemisia, and a hundred others, form the undergrowth -of millions of tall Umbelliferae and Compositae, many of them -peach-scented and mostly yellow. The wind is always strong, and the -millions of bright corollas, drinking in the sun-blaze which perfects -all too soon their brief but passionate existence, rippled in broad -waves of colour with an almost kaleidoscopic effect. About the eleventh -march from Srinagar, at Kargil, a change for the worse occurs, and the -remaining marches to the capital of Ladakh are over blazing gravel or -surfaces of denuded rock, the singular _Caprifolia horrida_, with its -dark-green mass of wavy ovate leaves on trailing stems, and its fair, -white, anemone-like blossom, and the graceful _Clematis orientalis_, the -only vegetation. - -Crossing a raging affluent of the Dras by a bridge which swayed and -shivered, the top of a steep hill offered a view of a great valley with -branches sloping up into the ravines of a complexity of mountain ranges, -from 18,000 to 21,000 feet in altitude, with glaciers at times -descending as low as 11,000 feet in their hollows. In consequence of -such possibilities of irrigation, the valley is green with irrigated -grass and barley, and villages with flat roofs scattered among the -crops, or perched on the spurs of flame-coloured mountains, give it a -wild cheerfulness. These Dras villages are inhabited by hardy Dards and -Baltis, short, jolly-looking, darker, and far less handsome than the -Kashmiris; but, unlike them, they showed so much friendliness, as well -as interest and curiosity, that I remained with them for two days, -visiting their villages and seeing the 'sights' they had to show me, -chiefly a great Sikh fort, a _yak_ bull, the _zho_, a hybrid, the -interiors of their houses, a magnificent view from a hilltop, and a Dard -dance to the music of Dard reed pipes. In return I sketched them -individually and collectively as far as time allowed, presenting them -with the results, truthful and ugly. I bought a sheep for 2_s._ 3_d._, -and regaled the camp upon it, the three which were brought for my -inspection being ridden by boys astride. - -The evenings in the Dras valley were exquisite. As soon as the sun went -behind the higher mountains, peak above peak, red and snow-slashed, -flamed against a lemon sky, the strong wind moderated into a pure stiff -breeze, bringing up to camp the thunder of the Dras, and the musical -tinkle of streams sparkling in absolute purity. There was no more need -for boiling and filtering. Icy water could be drunk in safety from every -crystal torrent. - -Leaving behind the Dras villages and their fertility, the narrow road -passes through a flaming valley above the Dras, walled in by bare, -riven, snow-patched peaks, with steep declivities of stones, huge -boulders, decaying avalanches, walls and spires of rock, some vermilion, -others pink, a few intense orange, some black, and many plum-coloured, -with a vitrified look, only to be represented by purple madder. Huge red -chasms with glacier-fed torrents, occasional snowfields, intense solar -heat radiating from dry and verdureless rock, a ravine so steep and -narrow that for miles together there is not space to pitch a five-foot -tent, the deafening roar of a river gathering volume and fury as it -goes, rare openings, where willows are planted with lucerne in their -irrigated shade, among which the traveller camps at night, and over all -a sky of pure, intense blue purpling into starry night, were the -features of the next three marches, noteworthy chiefly for the exchange -of the thundering Dras for the thundering Suru, and for some bad bridges -and infamous bits of road before reaching Kargil, where the mountains -swing apart, giving space to several villages. Miles of alluvium are -under irrigation there, poplars, willows, and apricots abound, and on -some damp sward under their shade at a great height I halted for two -days to enjoy the magnificence of the scenery and the refreshment of -the greenery. These Kargil villages are the capital of the small State -of Purik, under the Governorship of Baltistan or Little Tibet, and are -chiefly inhabited by Ladakhis who have become converts to Islam. Racial -characteristics, dress, and manners are everywhere effaced or toned down -by Mohammedanism, and the chilling aloofness and haughty bearing of -Islam were very pronounced among these converts. - -The daily routine of the journey was as follows: By six a.m. I sent on a -coolie carrying the small tent and lunch basket to await me half-way. -Before seven I started myself, with Usman Shah in front of me, leaving -the servants to follow with the caravan. On reaching the shelter tent I -halted for two hours, or till the caravan had got a good start after -passing me. At the end of the march I usually found the tent pitched on -irrigated ground, near a hamlet, the headman of which provided milk, -fuel, fodder, and other necessaries at fixed prices. 'Afternoon tea' was -speedily prepared, and dinner, consisting of roast meat and boiled rice, -was ready two hours later. After dinner I usually conversed with the -headman on local interests, and was in bed soon after eight. The -servants and muleteers fed and talked till nine, when the sound of their -'hubble-bubbles' indicated that they were going to sleep, like most -Orientals, with their heads closely covered with their wadded quilts. -Before starting each morning the account was made out, and I paid the -headman personally. - -The vagaries of the Afghan soldier, when they were not a cause of -annoyance, were a constant amusement, though his ceaseless changes of -finery and the daily growth of his baggage awakened grave suspicions. -The swashbuckler marched four miles an hour in front of me with a -swinging military stride, a large scimitar in a heavily ornamented -scabbard over his shoulder. Tanned socks and sandals, black or white -leggings wound round from ankle to knee with broad bands of orange or -scarlet serge, white cambric knickerbockers, a white cambric shirt, with -a short white muslin frock with hanging sleeves and a leather girdle -over it, a red-peaked cap with a dark-blue _pagri_ wound round it, with -one end hanging over his back, earrings, a necklace, bracelets, and a -profusion of rings, were his ordinary costume; and in his girdle he wore -a dirk and a revolver, and suspended from it a long tobacco pouch made -of the furry skin of some animal, a large leather purse, and etceteras. -As the days went on he blossomed into blue and white muslin with a -scarlet sash, wore a gold embroidered peak and a huge white muslin -turban, with much change of ornaments, and appeared frequently with a -great bunch of poppies or a cluster of crimson roses surmounting all. -His headgear was colossal. It and the head together must have been fully -a third of his total height. He was a most fantastic object, and very -observant and skilful in his attentions to me; but if I had known what I -afterwards knew, I should have hesitated about taking these long lonely -marches with him for my sole attendant. Between Hassan Khan and this -Afghan violent hatred and jealousy existed. - -I have mentioned roads, and my road as the great caravan route from -Western India into Central Asia. This is a fitting time for an -explanation. The traveller who aspires to reach the highlands of Tibet -from Kashmir cannot be borne along in a carriage or hill-cart. For much -of the way he is limited to a foot pace, and if he has regard to his -horse he walks down all rugged and steep descents, which are many, and -dismounts at most bridges. By 'roads' must be understood bridle-paths, -worn by traffic alone across the gravelly valleys, but elsewhere -constructed with great toil and expense, as Nature compels the -road-maker to follow her lead, and carry his track along the narrow -valleys, ravines, gorges, and chasms which she has marked out for him. -For miles at a time this road has been blasted out of precipices from -1,000 feet to 3,000 feet in depth, and is merely a ledge above a raging -torrent, the worst parts, chiefly those round rocky projections, being -'scaffolded,' i.e. poles are lodged horizontally among the crevices of -the cliff, and the roadway of slabs, planks, and brushwood, or branches -and sods, is laid loosely upon them. This track is always amply wide -enough for a loaded beast, but in many places, when two caravans meet, -the animals of one must give way and scramble up the mountain-side, -where foothold is often perilous, and always difficult. In passing a -caravan near Kargil my servant's horse was pushed over the precipice by -a loaded mule and drowned in the Suru, and at another time my Afghan -caused the loss of a baggage mule of a Leh caravan by driving it off the -track. To scatter a caravan so as to allow me to pass in solitary -dignity he regarded as one of his functions, and on one occasion, on a -very dangerous part of the road, as he was driving heavily laden mules -up the steep rocks above, to their imminent peril and the distraction of -their drivers, I was obliged to strike up his sword with my alpenstock -to emphasise my abhorrence of his violence. The bridges are unrailed, -and many of them are made by placing two or more logs across the stream, -laying twigs across, and covering these with sods, but often so scantily -that the wild rush of the water is seen below. Primitive as these -bridges are, they involve great expense and difficulty in the bringing -of long poplar logs for great distances along narrow mountain tracks by -coolie labour, fifty men being required for the average log. The Ladakhi -roads are admirable as compared with those of Kashmir, and are being -constantly improved under the supervision of H. B. M.'s Joint -Commissioner in Leh. - -Up to Kargil the scenery, though growing more Tibetan with every march, -had exhibited at intervals some traces of natural verdure; but beyond, -after leaving the Suru, there is not a green thing, and on the next -march the road crosses a lofty, sandy plateau, on which the heat was -terrible--blazing gravel and a blazing heaven, then fiery cliffs and -scorched hillsides, then a deep ravine and the large village of Paskim -(dominated by a fort-crowned rock), and some planted and irrigated -acres; then a narrow ravine and magnificent scenery flaming with colour, -which opens out after some miles on a burning chaos of rocks and sand, -mountain-girdled, and on some remarkable dwellings on a steep slope, -with religious buildings singularly painted. This is Shergol, the first -village of Buddhists, and there I was 'among the Tibetans.' - - - - -CHAPTER II - -SHERGOL AND LEH - - -The chaos of rocks and sand, walled in by vermilion and orange -mountains, on which the village of Shergol stands, offered no facilities -for camping; but somehow the men managed to pitch my tent on a steep -slope, where I had to place my trestle bed astride an irrigation -channel, down which the water bubbled noisily, on its way to keep alive -some miserable patches of barley. At Shergol and elsewhere fodder is so -scarce that the grain is not cut, but pulled up by the roots. - -The intensely human interest of the journey began at that point. Not -greater is the contrast between the grassy slopes and deodar-clothed -mountains of Kashmir and the flaming aridity of Lesser Tibet, than -between the tall, dark, handsome natives of the one, with their -statuesque and shrinking women, and the ugly, short, squat, -yellow-skinned, flat-nosed, oblique-eyed, uncouth-looking people of the -other. The Kashmiris are false, cringing, and suspicious; the Tibetans -truthful, independent, and friendly, one of the pleasantest of peoples. -I 'took' to them at once at Shergol, and terribly faulty though their -morals are in some respects, I found no reason to change my good opinion -of them in the succeeding four months. - -The headman or _go-pa_ came to see me, introduced me to the objects of -interest, which are a _gonpo_, or monastery, built into the rock, with a -brightly coloured front, and three _chod-tens_, or relic-holders, -painted blue, red, and yellow, and daubed with coarse arabesques and -representations of deities, one having a striking resemblance to Mr. -Gladstone. The houses are of mud, with flat roofs; but, being summer, -many of them were roofless, the poplar rods which support the mud having -been used for fuel. Conical stacks of the dried excreta of animals, the -chief fuel of the country, adorned the roofs, but the general aspect was -ruinous and poor. The people all invited me into their dark and dirty -rooms, inhabited also by goats, offered tea and cheese, and felt my -clothes. They looked the wildest of savages, but they are not. No house -was so poor as not to have its 'family altar,' its shelf of wooden gods, -and table of offerings. A religious atmosphere pervades Tibet, and gives -it a singular sense of novelty. Not only were there _chod-tens_ and a -_gonpo_ in this poor place, and family altars, but prayer-wheels, i.e. -wooden cylinders filled with rolls of paper inscribed with prayers, -revolving on sticks, to be turned by passers-by, inscribed cotton -bannerets on poles planted in cairns, and on the roofs long sticks, to -which strips of cotton bearing the universal prayer, _Aum mani padne -hun_ (O jewel of the lotus-flower), are attached. As these wave in the -wind the occupants of the house gain the merit of repeating this -sentence. - -[Illustration: A HAND PRAYER-CYLINDER] - -The remaining marches to Leh, the capital of Lesser Tibet, were full of -fascination and novelty. Everywhere the Tibetans were friendly and -cordial. In each village I was invited to the headman's house, and taken -by him to visit the chief inhabitants; every traveller, lay and -clerical, passed by with the cheerful salutation _Tzu_, asked me where I -came from and whither I was going, wished me a good journey, admired -Gyalpo, and when he scaled rock ladders and scrambled gamely through -difficult torrents, cheered him like Englishmen, the general jollity and -cordiality of manners contrasting cheerily with the chilling aloofness -of Moslems. - -The irredeemable ugliness of the Tibetans produced a deeper impression -daily. It is grotesque, and is heightened, not modified, by their -costume and ornament. They have high cheekbones, broad flat noses -without visible bridges, small, dark, oblique eyes, with heavy lids and -imperceptible eyebrows, wide mouths, full lips, thick, big, projecting -ears, deformed by great hoops, straight black hair nearly as coarse as -horsehair, and short, square, ungainly figures. The faces of the men are -smooth. The women seldom exceed five feet in height, and a man is tall -at five feet four. - -The male costume is a long, loose, woollen coat with a girdle, -trousers, under-garments, woollen leggings, and a cap with a turned-up -point over each ear. The girdle is the depository of many things dear to -a Tibetan--his purse, rude knife, heavy tinder-box, tobacco pouch, pipe, -distaff, and sundry charms and amulets. In the capacious breast of his -coat he carries wool for spinning--for he spins as he walks--balls of -cold barley dough, and much besides. He wears his hair in a pigtail. The -women wear short, big-sleeved jackets, shortish, full-plaited skirts, -tight trousers a yard too long, the superfluous length forming folds -above the ankle, a sheepskin with the fur outside hangs over the back, -and on gala occasions a sort of drapery is worn over the usual dress. -Felt or straw shoes and many heavy ornaments are worn by both sexes. -Great _ears_ of brocade, lined and edged with fur and attached to the -hair, are worn by the women. Their hair is dressed once a month in many -much-greased plaits, fastened together at the back by a long tassel. The -head-dress is a strip of cloth or leather, sewn over with large -turquoises, carbuncles, and silver ornaments. This hangs in a point over -the brow, broadens over the top of the head, and tapers as it reaches -the waist behind. The ambition of every Tibetan girl is centred in this -singular headgear. Hoops in the ears, necklaces, amulets, clasps, -bangles of brass or silver, and various implements stuck in the girdle -and depending from it, complete a costume pre-eminent in ugliness. The -Tibetans are dirty. They wash once a year, and, except for festivals, -seldom change their clothes till they begin to drop off. They are -healthy and hardy, even the women can carry weights of sixty pounds over -the passes; they attain extreme old age; their voices are harsh and -loud, and their laughter is noisy and hearty. - -[Illustration: TIBETAN GIRL] - -After leaving Shergol the signs of Buddhism were universal and imposing, -and the same may be said of the whole of the inhabited part of Lesser -Tibet. Colossal figures of Shakya Thubba (Buddha) are carved on faces of -rock, or in wood, stone, or gilded copper sit on lotus thrones in -endless calm near villages of votaries. _Chod-tens_ from twenty to a -hundred feet in height, dedicated to 'holy' men, are scattered over -elevated ground, or in imposing avenues line the approaches to hamlets -and _gonpos_. There are also countless _manis_, dykes of stone from six -to sixteen feet in width and from twenty feet to a fourth of a mile in -length, roofed with flattish stones, inscribed by the _lamas_ (monks) -with the phrase _Aum_, &c., and purchased and deposited by those who -wish to obtain any special benefit from the gods, such as a safe -journey. Then there are prayer-mills, sometimes 150 in a row, which -revolve easily by being brushed by the hand of the passer-by, larger -prayer-cylinders which are turned by pulling ropes, and others larger -still by water-power. The finest of the latter was in a temple -overarching a perennial torrent, and was said to contain 20,000 -repetitions of the mystic phrase, the fee to the worshipper for each -revolution of the cylinder being from 1_d._ to 1_s._ 4_d._, according to -his means or urgency. - -The glory and pride of Ladak and Nubra are the _gonpos_, of which the -illustrations give a slight idea. Their picturesqueness is absolutely -enchanting. They are vast irregular piles of fantastic buildings, almost -invariably crowning lofty isolated rocks or mountain spurs, reached by -steep, rude rock staircases, _chod-tens_ below and battlemented towers -above, with temples, domes, bridges over chasms, spires, and scaffolded -projections gleaming with gold, looking, as at Lamayuru, the outgrowth -of the rock itself. The outer walls are usually whitewashed, and red, -yellow, and brown wooden buildings, broad bands of red and blue on the -whitewash, tridents, prayer-mills, _yaks_' tails, and flags on poles -give colour and movement, while the jangle of cymbals, the ringing of -bells, the incessant beating of big drums and gongs, and the braying at -intervals of six-foot silver horns, attest the ritualistic activities of -the communities within. The _gonpos_ contain from two up to three -hundred _lamas_. These are not cloistered, and their duties take them -freely among the people, with whom they are closely linked, a younger -son in every family being a monk. Every act in trade, agriculture, and -social life needs the sanction of sacerdotalism, whatever exists of -wealth is in the _gonpos_, which also have a monopoly of learning, and -11,000 monks, linked with the people, yet ruling all affairs of life and -death and beyond death, are connected closely by education, tradition, -and authority with Lhassa. - -Passing along faces of precipices and over waterless plateaux of blazing -red gravel--'waste places,' truly--the journey was cheered by the -meeting of red and yellow _lamas_ in companies, each _lama_ twirling his -prayer-cylinder, abbots, and _skushoks_ (the latter believed to be -incarnations of Buddha) with many retainers, or gay groups of priestly -students, intoning in harsh and high-pitched monotones, _Aum mani padne -hun_. And so past fascinating monastic buildings, through crystal -torrents rushing over red rock, through flaming ravines, on rock ledges -by scaffolded paths, camping in the afternoons near friendly villages on -oases of irrigated alluvium, and down the Wanla water by the steepest -and narrowest cleft ever used for traffic, I reached the Indus, crossed -it by a wooden bridge where its broad, fierce current is narrowed by -rocks to a width of sixty-five feet, and entered Ladak proper. A -picturesque fort guards the bridge, and there travellers inscribe their -names and are reported to Leh. I camped at Khalsi, a mile higher, but -returned to the bridge in the evening to sketch, if I could, the grim -nudity and repulsive horror of the surrounding mountains, attended only -by Usman Shah. A few months earlier, this ruffian was sent down from Leh -with six other soldiers and an officer to guard the fort, where they -became the terror of all who crossed the bridge by their outrageous -levies of blackmail. My swashbuckler quarrelled with the officer over a -disreputable affair, and one night stabbed him mortally, induced his six -comrades to plunge their knives into the body, sewed it up in a blanket, -and threw it into the Indus, which disgorged it a little lower down. The -men were all arrested and marched to Srinagar, where Usman turned -'king's evidence.' - -The remaining marches were alongside of the tremendous granite ranges -which divide the Indus from its great tributary, the Shayok. Colossal -scenery, desperate aridity, tremendous solar heat, and an atmosphere -highly rarefied and of nearly intolerable dryness, were the chief -characteristics. At these Tibetan altitudes, where the valleys exceed -11,000 feet, the sun's rays are even more powerful than on the 'burning -plains of India.' The day wind, rising at 9 a.m., and only falling near -sunset, blows with great heat and force. The solar heat at noon was from -120 deg. to 130 deg., and at night the mercury frequently fell below the -freezing point. I did not suffer from the climate, but in the case of -most Europeans the air passages become irritated, the skin cracks, and -after a time the action of the heart is affected. The hair when released -stands out from the head, leather shrivels and splits, horn combs break -to pieces, food dries up, rapid evaporation renders water-colour -sketching nearly impossible, and tea made with water from fifteen to -twenty below the boiling-point of 212 degrees, is flavourless and flat. - -[Illustration: GONPO OF SPITAK] - -After a delightful journey of twenty-five days I camped at Spitak, among -the _chod-tens_ and _manis_ which cluster round the base of a lofty and -isolated rock, crowned with one of the most striking monasteries in -Ladak, and very early the next morning, under a sun of terrific -fierceness, rode up a five-mile slope of blazing gravel to the goal of -my long march. Even at a short distance off, the Tibetan capital can -scarcely be distinguished from the bare, ribbed, scored, jagged, -vermilion and rose-red mountains which nearly surround it, were it -not for the palace of the former kings or Gyalpos of Ladak, a huge -building attaining ten storeys in height, with massive walls sloping -inwards, while long balconies and galleries, carved projections of brown -wood, and prominent windows, give it a singular picturesqueness. It can -be seen for many miles, and dwarfs the little Central Asian town which -clusters round its base. - -Long lines of _chod-tens_ and _manis_ mark the approach to Leh. Then -come barley fields and poplar and willow plantations, bright streams are -crossed, and a small gateway, within which is a colony of very poor -Baltis, gives access to the city. In consequence of 'the vigilance of -the guard at the bridge of Khalsi,' I was expected, and was met at the -gate by the wazir's _jemadar_, or head of police, in artistic attire, -with _spahis_ in apricot turbans, violet _chogas_, and green leggings, -who cleared the way with spears, Gyalpo frolicking as merrily and as -ready to bite, and the Afghan striding in front as firmly, as though -they had not marched for twenty-five days through the rugged passes of -the Himalayas. In such wise I was escorted to a shady bungalow of three -rooms, in the grounds of H. B. M.'s Joint Commissioner, who lives at -Leh during the four months of the 'caravan season,' to assist in -regulating the traffic and to guard the interests of the numerous -British subjects who pass through Leh with merchandise. For their -benefit also, the Indian Government aids in the support of a small -hospital, open, however, to all, which, with a largely attended -dispensary, is under the charge of a Moravian medical missionary. - -Just outside the Commissioner's grounds are two very humble whitewashed -dwellings, with small gardens brilliant with European flowers; and in -these the two Moravian missionaries, the only permanent European -residents in Leh, were living, Mr. Redslob and Dr. Karl Marx, with their -wives. Dr. Marx was at his gate to welcome me. - -To these two men, especially the former, I owe a debt of gratitude which -in no shape, not even by the hearty acknowledgment of it, can ever be -repaid, for they died within a few days of each other, of an epidemic, -last year, Dr. Marx and a new-born son being buried in one grave. For -twenty-five years Mr. Redslob, a man of noble physique and intellect, a -scholar and linguist, an expert botanist and an admirable artist, -devoted himself to the welfare of the Tibetans, and though his great aim -was to Christianize them, he gained their confidence so thoroughly by -his virtues, kindness, profound Tibetan scholarship, and manliness, that -he was loved and welcomed everywhere, and is now mourned for as the best -and truest friend the people ever had. - -I had scarcely finished breakfast when he called; a man of great height -and strong voice, with a cheery manner, a face beaming with kindness, -and speaking excellent English. Leh was the goal of my journey, but Mr. -Redslob came with a proposal to escort me over the great passes to the -northward for a three weeks' journey to Nubra, a district formed of the -combined valleys of the Shayok and Nubra rivers, tributaries of the -Indus, and abounding in interest. Of course I at once accepted an offer -so full of advantages, and the performance was better even than the -promise. - -Two days were occupied in making preparations, but afterwards I spent a -fortnight in my tent at Leh, a city by no means to be passed over -without remark, for, though it and the region of which it is the capital -are very remote from the thoughts of most readers, it is one of the -centres of Central Asian commerce. There all traders from India, -Kashmir, and Afghanistan must halt for animals and supplies on their way -to Yarkand and Khotan, and there also merchants from the mysterious city -of Lhassa do a great business in brick tea and in Lhassa wares, chiefly -ecclesiastical. - -[Illustration: LEH] - -The situation of Leh is a grand one, the great Kailas range, with its -glaciers and snowfields, rising just behind it to the north, its passes -alone reaching an altitude of nearly 18,000 feet; while to the south, -across a gravelly descent and the Indus Valley, rise great red ranges -dominated by snow-peaks exceeding 21,000 feet in altitude. The centre of -Leh is a wide bazaar, where much polo is played in the afternoons; and -above this the irregular, flat-roofed, many-balconied houses of the town -cluster round the palace and a gigantic _chod-ten_ alongside it. The -rugged crest of the rock on a spur of which the palace stands is crowned -by the fantastic buildings of an ancient _gonpo_. Beyond the crops and -plantations which surround the town lies a flaming desert of gravel or -rock. The architectural features of Leh, except of the palace, are mean. -A new mosque glaring with vulgar colour, a treasury and court of -justice, the wazir's bungalow, a Moslem cemetery, and Buddhist cremation -grounds, in which each family has its separate burning place, are all -that is noteworthy. The narrow alleys, which would be abominably dirty -if dirt were possible in a climate of such intense dryness, house a very -mixed population, in which the Moslem element is always increasing, -partly owing to the renewal of that proselytising energy which is making -itself felt throughout Asia, and partly to the marriages of Moslem -traders with Ladaki women, who embrace the faith of their husbands and -bring up their families in the same. - -On my arrival few of the shops in the great _place_, or bazaar, were -open, and there was no business; but a few weeks later the little desert -capital nearly doubled its population, and during August the din and -stir of trade and amusements ceased not by day or night, and the -shifting scenes were as gay in colouring and as full of variety as could -be desired. - -Great caravans _en route_ for Khotan, Yarkand, and even Chinese Tibet -arrived daily from Kashmir, the Panjab, and Afghanistan, and stacked -their bales of goods in the _place_; the Lhassa traders opened shops in -which the specialties were brick tea and instruments of worship; -merchants from Amritsar, Cabul, Bokhara, and Yarkand, stately in costume -and gait, thronged the bazaar and opened bales of costly goods in -tantalising fashion; mules, asses, horses, and _yaks_ kicked, squealed, -and bellowed; the dissonance of bargaining tongues rose high; there were -mendicant monks, Indian fakirs, Moslem dervishes, Mecca pilgrims, -itinerant musicians, and Buddhist ballad howlers; bold-faced women with -creels on their backs brought in lucerne; Ladakis, Baltis, and Lahulis -tended the beasts, and the wazir's _jemadar_ and gay _spahis_ moved -about among the throngs. In the midst of this picturesque confusion, the -short, square-built, Lhassa traders, who face the blazing sun in heavy -winter clothing, exchange their expensive tea for Nubra and Baltistan -dried apricots, Kashmir saffron, and rich stuffs from India; and -merchants from Yarkand on big Turkestan horses offer hemp, which is -smoked as opium, and Russian trifles and dress goods, under cloudless -skies. With the huge Kailas range as a background, this great rendezvous -of Central Asian traffic has a great fascination, even though moral -shadows of the darkest kind abound. - -On the second morning, while I was taking the sketch of Usman Shah which -appears as the frontispiece, he was recognised both by the Joint -Commissioner and the chief of police as a mutineer and murderer, and was -marched out of Leh. I was asked to look over my baggage, but did not. I -had trusted him, he had been faithful in his way, and later I found that -nothing was missing. He was a brutal ruffian, one of a band of -irregulars sent by the Maharajah of Kashmir to garrison the fort at Leh. -From it they used to descend on the town, plunder the bazaar, insult the -women, take all they wanted without payment, and when one of their -number was being tried for some offence, they dragged the judge out of -court and beat him! After holding Leh in terror for some time the -British Commissioner obtained their removal. It was, however, at the -fort at the Indus bridge, as related before, that the crime of murder -was committed. Still there was something almost grand in the defiant -attitude of the fantastic swashbuckler, as, standing outside the -bungalow, he faced the British Commissioner, to him the embodiment of -all earthly power, and the chief of police, and defied them. Not an inch -would he stir till the wazir gave him a coolie to carry his baggage. He -had been acquitted of the murder, he said, 'and though I killed the man, -it was according to the custom of my country--he gave me an insult which -could only be wiped out in blood!' The guard dared not touch him, and he -went to the wazir, demanded a coolie, and got one! - -Our party left Leh early on a glorious morning, travelling light, Mr. -Redslob, a very learned Lhassa monk, named Gergan, Mr. R.'s servant, my -three, and four baggage horses, with two drivers engaged for the -journey. The great Kailas range was to be crossed, and the first day's -march up long, barren, stony valleys, without interest, took us to a -piece of level ground, with a small semi-subterranean refuge on which -there was barely room for two tents, at the altitude of the summit of -Mont Blanc. For two hours before we reached it the men and animals -showed great distress. Gyalpo stopped every few yards, gasping, with -blood trickling from his nostrils, and turned his head so as to look at -me, with the question in his eyes, What does this mean? Hassan Khan was -reeling from vertigo, but would not give in; the _seis_, a creature -without pluck, was carried in a blanket slung on my tent poles, and even -the Tibetans suffered. I felt no inconvenience, but as I unsaddled -Gyalpo I was glad that there was no more work to do! This -'mountain-sickness,' called by the natives _ladug_, or 'pass-poison,' is -supposed by them to be the result of the odour or pollen of certain -plants which grow on the passes. Horses and mules are unable to carry -their loads, and men suffer from vertigo, vomiting, violent headache and -bleeding from the nose, mouth, and ears, as well as prostration of -strength, sometimes complete, and occasionally ending fatally. - -After a bitterly cold night I was awakened at dawn by novel sounds, -gruntings, and low, resonant bellowing round my tent, and the grey light -revealed several _yaks_ (the _Bos grunniens_, the Tibetan ox), the pride -of the Tibetan highlands. This magnificent animal, though not exceeding -an English shorthorn cow in height, looks gigantic, with his thick -curved horns, his wild eyes glaring from under a mass of curls, his long -thick hair hanging to his fetlocks, and his huge bushy tail. He is -usually black or tawny, but the tail is often white, and is the length -of his long hair. The nose is fine and has a look of breeding as well as -power. He only flourishes at altitudes exceeding 12,000 feet. Even after -generations of semi-domestication he is very wild, and can only be -managed by being led with a rope attached to a ring in the nostrils. He -disdains the plough, but condescends to carry burdens, and numbers of -the Ladak and Nubra people get their living by carrying goods for the -traders on his broad back over the great passes. His legs are very -short, and he has a sensible way of measuring distance with his eyes and -planting his feet, which enables him to carry loads where it might be -supposed that only a goat could climb. He picks up a living anyhow, in -that respect resembling the camel. - -He has an uncertain temper, and is not favourably disposed towards his -rider. Indeed, my experience was that just as one was about to mount him -he usually made a lunge at one with his horns. Some of my _yak_ steeds -shied, plunged, kicked, executed fantastic movements on the ledges of -precipices, knocked down their leaders, bellowed defiance, and rushed -madly down mountain sides, leaping from boulder to boulder, till they -landed me among their fellows. The rush of a herd of bellowing _yaks_ at -a wild gallop, waving their huge tails, is a grand sight. - -My first _yak_ was fairly quiet, and looked a noble steed, with my -Mexican saddle and gay blanket among rather than upon his thick black -locks. His back seemed as broad as that of an elephant, and with his -slow, sure, resolute step, he was like a mountain in motion. We took -five hours for the ascent of the Digar Pass, our loads and some of us on -_yaks_, some walking, and those who suffered most from the 'pass-poison' -and could not sit on _yaks_ were carried. A number of Tibetans went up -with us. It was a new thing for a European lady to travel in Nubra, and -they took a friendly interest in my getting through all right. The -dreary stretches of the ascent, though at first white with _edelweiss_, -of which the people make their tinder, are surmounted for the most part -by steep, short zigzags of broken stone. The heavens were dark with -snow-showers, the wind was high and the cold severe, and gasping horses, -and men prostrate on their faces unable to move, suggested a -considerable amount of suffering; but all safely reached the summit, -17,930 feet, where in a snowstorm the guides huzzaed, praised their -gods, and tucked rag streamers into a cairn. The loads were replaced on -the horses, and over wastes of ice, across snowfields margined by broad -splashes of rose-red primulas, down desert valleys and along irrigated -hillsides, we descended 3,700 feet to the village of Digar in Nubra, -where under a cloudless sky the mercury stood at 90 deg.! - -[Illustration: A CHOD-TEN] - -Upper and Lower Nubra consist of the valleys of the Nubra and Shayok -rivers. These are deep, fierce, variable streams, which have buried the -lower levels under great stretches of shingle, patched with jungles of -_hippophae_ and tamarisk, affording cover for innumerable wolves. Great -lateral torrents descend to these rivers, and on alluvial ridges formed -at the junctions are the villages with their pleasant surroundings of -barley, lucerne, wheat, with poplar and fruit trees, and their -picturesque _gonpos_ crowning spurs of rock above them. The first view -of Nubra is not beautiful. Yellow, absolutely barren mountains, cleft by -yellow gorges, and apparently formed of yellow gravel, the huge rifts in -their sides alone showing their substructure of rock, look as if they -had never been finished, or had been finished so long that they had -returned to chaos. These hem in a valley of grey sand and shingle, -threaded by a greyish stream. From the second view point mountains are -seen descending on a pleasanter part of the Shayok valley in grey, -yellow, or vermilion masses of naked rock, 7,000 and 8,000 feet in -height, above which rise snow-capped peaks sending out fantastic spurs -and buttresses, while the colossal walls of rock are cleft by rifts as -colossal. The central ridge between the Nubra and Upper Shayok valleys -is 20,000 feet in altitude, and on this are superimposed five peaks of -rock, ascertained by survey to be from 24,000 to 25,000 feet in height, -while at one point the eye takes in a nearly vertical height of 14,000 -feet from the level of the Shayok River! The Shayok and Nubra valleys -are only five and four miles in width respectively at their widest -parts. The early winter traffic chiefly follows along river beds, then -nearly dry, while summer caravans have to labour along difficult tracks -at great heights, where mud and snow avalanches are common, to climb -dangerous rock ladders, and to cross glaciers and the risky fords of the -Shayok. Nubra is similar in character to Ladak, but it is hotter and -more fertile, the mountains are loftier, the _gonpos_ are more numerous, -and the people are simpler, more religious, and more purely Tibetan. Mr. -Redslob loved Nubra, and as love begets love he received a hearty -welcome at Digar and everywhere else. - -The descent to the Shayok River gave us a most severe day of twelve -hours. The river had covered the usual track, and we had to take to -torrent beds and precipice ledges, I on one _yak_, and my tent on -another. In years of travel I have never seen such difficulties. -Eventually at dusk Mr. Redslob, Gergan, the servants, and I descended -on a broad shingle bed by the rushing Shayok; but it was not till dawn -on the following day that, by means of our two _yaks_ and the muleteers, -our baggage and food arrived, the baggage horses being brought down -unloaded, with men holding the head and tail of each. Our saddle horses, -which we led with us, were much cut by falls. Gyalpo fell fully twenty -feet, and got his side laid open. The baggage horses, according to their -owners, had all gone over one precipice, which delayed them five hours. - -Below us lay two leaky scows, and eight men from Sati, on the other side -of the Shayok, are pledged to the Government to ferry travellers; but no -amount of shouting and yelling, or burning of brushwood, or even firing, -brought them to the rescue, though their pleasant lights were only a -mile off. Snow fell, the wind was strong and keen, and our tent-pegs -were only kept down by heavy stones. Blankets in abundance were laid -down, yet failed to soften the 'paving stones' on which I slept that -night! We had tea and rice, but our men, whose baggage was astray on the -mountains, were without food for twenty-two hours, positively refusing -to eat our food or cook fresh rice in our cooking pots! To such an -extent has Hindu caste-feeling infected Moslems! The disasters of that -day's march, besides various breakages, were, two servants helpless from -'pass-poison' and bruises; a Ladaki, who had rolled over a precipice, -with a broken arm, and Gergan bleeding from an ugly scalp wound, also -from a fall. - -By eight o'clock the next morning the sun was high and brilliant, the -snows of the ravines under its fierce heat were melting fast, and the -river, roaring hoarsely, was a mad rush of grey rapids and grey foam; -but three weeks later in the season, lower down, its many branches are -only two feet deep. This Shayok, which cannot in any way be -circumvented, is the great obstacle on this Yarkand trade route. -Travellers and their goods make the perilous passage in the scow, but -their animals swim, and are often paralysed by the ice-cold water and -drowned. My Moslem servants, white-lipped and trembling, committed -themselves to Allah on the river bank, and the Buddhists worshipped -their sleeve idols. The _gopa_, or headman of Sati, a splendid fellow, -who accompanied us through Nubra, and eight wild-looking, half-naked -satellites, were the Charons of that Styx. They poled and paddled with -yells of excitement; the rapids seized the scow, and carried her -broadside down into hissing and raging surges; then there was a plash, a -leap of maddened water half filling the boat, a struggle, a whirl, -violent efforts, and a united yell, and far down the torrent we were in -smooth water on the opposite shore. The ferrymen recrossed, pulled our -saddle horses by ropes into the river, the _gopa_ held them; again the -scow and her frantic crew, poling, paddling, and yelling, were hurried -broadside down, and as they swept past there were glimpses above and -among the foam-crested surges of the wild-looking heads and drifting -forelocks of two grey horses swimming desperately for their lives,--a -splendid sight. They landed safely, but of the baggage animals one was -sucked under the boat and drowned, and as the others refused to face the -rapids, we had to obtain other transport. A few days later the scow, -which was brought up in pieces from Kashmir on coolies' backs at a cost -of four hundred rupees, was dashed to pieces! - -A halt for Sunday in an apricot grove in the pleasant village of Sati -refreshed us all for the long marches which followed, by which we -crossed the Sasir Pass, full of difficulties from snow and glaciers, -which extend for many miles, to the Dipsang Plain, the bleakest and -dreariest of Central Asian wastes, from which the gentle ascent of the -Karakorum Pass rises, and returned, varying our route slightly, to the -pleasant villages of the Nubra valley. Everywhere Mr. Redslob's Tibetan -scholarship, his old-world courtesy, his kindness and adaptability, and -his medical skill, ensured us a welcome the heartiness of which I cannot -describe. The headmen and elders of the villages came to meet us when we -arrived, and escorted us when we left; the monasteries and houses with -the best they contained were thrown open to us; the men sat round our -camp-fires at night, telling stories and local gossip, and asking -questions, everything being translated to me by my kind guide, and so we -actually lived 'among the Tibetans.' - - - - -CHAPTER III - -NUBRA - - -In order to visit Lower Nubra and return to Leh we were obliged to cross -the great fords of the Shayok at the most dangerous season of the year. -This transit had been the bugbear of the journey ever since news reached -us of the destruction of the Sati scow. Mr. Redslob questioned every man -we met on the subject, solemn and noisy conclaves were held upon it -round the camp-fires, it was said that the 'European woman' and her -'spider-legged horse' could never get across, and for days before we -reached the stream, the _chupas_, or government water-guides, made -nightly reports to the village headmen of the state of the waters, which -were steadily rising, the final verdict being that they were only just -practicable for strong horses. To delay till the waters fell was -impossible. Mr. Redslob had engagements in Leh, and I was already -somewhat late for the passage of the lofty passes between Tibet and -British India before the winter, so we decided on crossing with every -precaution which experience could suggest. - -At Lagshung, the evening before, the Tibetans made prayers and offerings -for a day cloudy enough to keep the water down, but in the morning from -a cloudless sky a scintillating sun blazed down like a magnesium light, -and every glacier and snowfield sent its tribute torrent to the Shayok. -In crossing a stretch of white sand the solar heat was so fierce that -our European skins were blistered through our clothing. We halted at -Lagshung, at the house of a friendly _zemindar_, who pressed upon me the -loan of a big Yarkand horse for the ford, a kindness which nearly proved -fatal; and then by shingle paths through lacerating thickets of the -horrid _Hippophae rhamnoides_, we reached a _chod-ten_ on the shingly -bank of the river, where the Tibetans renewed their prayers and -offerings, and the final orders for the crossing were issued. We had -twelve horses, carrying only quarter loads each, all led; the servants -were mounted, 'water-guides' with ten-foot poles sounded the river -ahead, one led Mr. Redslob's horse (the rider being bare-legged) in -front of mine with a long rope, and two more led mine, while the _gopas_ -of three villages and the _zemindar_ steadied my horse against the -stream. The water-guides only wore girdles, and with elf-locks and -pigtails streaming from their heads, and their uncouth yells and wild -gesticulations, they looked true river-demons. - -[Illustration: A LAMA] - -The Shayok presented an expanse of eight branches and a main stream, -divided by shallows and shingle banks, the whole a mile and a half in -width. On the brink the _chupas_ made us all drink good draughts of the -turbid river water, 'to prevent giddiness,' they said, and they added -that I must not think them rude if they dashed water at my face -frequently with the same object. Hassan Khan, and Mando, who was livid -with fright, wore dark-green goggles, that they might not see the -rapids. In the second branch the water reached the horses' bodies, and -my animal tottered and swerved. There were bursts of wild laughter, not -merriment but excitement, accompanied by yells as the streams grew -fiercer, a loud chorus of _Kabadar! Sharbaz!_ ('Caution!' 'Well done!') -was yelled to encourage the horses, and the boom and hiss of the Shayok -made a wild accompaniment. Gyalpo, for whose legs of steel I longed, -frolicked as usual, making mirthful lunges at his leader when the pair -halted. Hassan Khan, in the deepest branch, shakily said to me, 'I not -afraid, Mem Sahib.' During the hour spent in crossing the eight -branches, I thought that the risk had been exaggerated, and that -giddiness was the chief peril. - -But when we halted, cold and dripping, on the shingle bank of the main -stream I changed my mind. A deep, fierce, swirling rapid, with a calmer -depth below its farther bank, and fully a quarter of a mile wide, was -yet to be crossed. The business was serious. All the _chupas_ went up -and down, sounding, long before they found a possible passage. All loads -were raised higher, the men roped their soaked clothing on their -shoulders, water was dashed repeatedly at our faces, girths were -tightened, and then, with shouts and yells, the whole caravan plunged -into deep water, strong, and almost ice-cold. Half an hour was spent in -that devious ford, without any apparent progress, for in the dizzy swirl -the horses simply seemed treading the water backwards. Louder grew the -yells as the torrent raged more hoarsely, the chorus of _kabadar_ grew -frantic, the water was up to the men's armpits and the seat of my -saddle, my horse tottered and swerved several times, the nearing shore -presented an abrupt bank underscooped by the stream. There was a deeper -plunge, an encouraging shout, and Mr. Redslob's strong horse leapt the -bank. The _gopas_ encouraged mine; he made a desperate effort, but fell -short and rolled over backwards into the Shayok with his rider under -him. A struggle, a moment of suffocation, and I was extricated by strong -arms, to be knocked down again by the rush of the water, to be again -dragged up and hauled and hoisted up the crumbling bank. I escaped with -a broken rib and some severe bruises, but the horse was drowned. Mr. -Redslob, who had thought that my life could not be saved, and the -Tibetans were so distressed by the accident that I made very light of -it, and only took one day of rest. The following morning some men and -animals were carried away, and afterwards the ford was impassable for a -fortnight. Such risks are among the amenities of the great trade route -from India into Central Asia! - -[Illustration: THREE GOPAS] - -The Lower Nubra valley is wilder and narrower than the Upper, its -apricot orchards more luxuriant, its wolf-haunted _hippophae_ and -tamarisk thickets more dense. Its villages are always close to ravines, -the mouths of which are filled with _chod-tens_, _manis_, prayer-wheels, -and religious buildings. Access to them is usually up the stony beds of -streams over-arched by apricots. The camping-grounds are apricot -orchards. The apricot foliage is rich, and the fruit small but -delicious. The largest fruit tree I saw measured nine feet six inches in -girth six feet from the ground. Strangers are welcome to eat as much of -the fruit as they please, provided that they return the stones to the -proprietor. It is true that Nubra exports dried apricots, and the women -were splitting and drying the fruit on every house roof, but the special -_raison d'etre_ of the tree is the clear, white, fragrant, and highly -illuminating oil made from the kernels by the simple process of crushing -them between two stones. In every _gonpo_ temple a silver bowl holding -from four to six gallons is replenished annually with this -almond-scented oil for the ever-burning light before the shrine of -Buddha. It is used for lamps, and very largely in cookery. Children, -instead of being washed, are rubbed daily with it, and on being weaned -at the age of four or five, are fed for some time, or rather crammed, -with balls of barley-meal made into a paste with it. - -At Hundar, a superbly situated village, which we visited twice, we were -received at the house of Gergan the monk, who had accompanied us -throughout. He is a _zemindar_, and the large house in which he made us -welcome stands in his own patrimony. Everything was prepared for us. The -mud floors were swept, cotton quilts were laid down on the balconies, -blue cornflowers and marigolds, cultivated for religious ornament, were -in all the rooms, and the women were in gala dress and loaded with -coarse jewellery. Right hearty was the welcome. Mr. Redslob loved, and -therefore was loved. The Tibetans to him were not 'natives,' but -brothers. He drew the best out of them. Their superstitions and beliefs -were not to him 'rubbish,' but subjects for minute investigation and -study. His courtesy to all was frank and dignified. In his dealings he -was scrupulously just. He was intensely interested in their interests. -His Tibetan scholarship and knowledge of Tibetan sacred literature gave -him almost the standing of an abbot among them, and his medical skill -and knowledge, joyfully used for their benefit on former occasions, had -won their regard. So at Hundar, as everywhere else, the elders came out -to meet us and cut the apricot branches away on our road, and the silver -horns of the _gonpo_ above brayed a dissonant welcome. Along the Indus -valley the servants of Englishmen beat the Tibetans, in the Shayok and -Nubra valleys the Yarkand traders beat and cheat them, and the women are -shy with strangers, but at Hundar they were frank and friendly with me, -saying, as many others had said, 'We will trust any one who comes with -the missionary.' - -Gergan's home was typical of the dwellings of the richer cultivators and -landholders. It was a large, rambling, three-storeyed house, the lower -part of stone, the upper of huge sun-dried bricks. It was adorned with -projecting windows and brown wooden balconies. Fuel--the dried excreta -of animals--is too scarce to be used for any but cooking purposes, and -on these balconies in the severe cold of winter the people sit to imbibe -the warm sunshine. The rooms were large, ceiled with peeled poplar rods, -and floored with split white pebbles set in clay. There was a temple on -the roof, and in it, on a platform, were life-size images of Buddha, -seated in eternal calm, with his downcast eyes and mild Hindu face, the -thousand-armed Chan-ra-zigs (the great Mercy), Jam-pal-yangs (the -Wisdom), and Chag-na-dorje (the Justice). In front on a table or altar -were seven small lamps, burning apricot oil, and twenty small brass -cups, containing minute offerings of rice and other things, changed -daily. There were prayer-wheels, cymbals, horns and drums, and a -prayer-cylinder six feet high, which it took the strength of two men to -turn. On a shelf immediately below the idols were the brazen sceptre, -bell, and thunderbolt, a brass lotus blossom, and the spouted brass -flagon decorated with peacocks' feathers, which is used at baptisms, and -for pouring holy water upon the hands at festivals. In houses in which -there is not a roof temple the best room is set apart for religious use -and for these divinities, which are always surrounded with musical -instruments and symbols of power, and receive worship and offerings -daily, Tibetan Buddhism being a religion of the family and household. In -his family temple Gergan offered gifts and thanks for the deliverances -of the journey. He had been assisting Mr. Redslob for two years in the -translation of the New Testament, and had wept over the love and -sufferings of our Lord Jesus Christ. He had even desired that his son -should receive baptism and be brought up as a Christian, but for -himself he 'could not break with custom and his ancestral creed.' - -In the usual living-room of the family a platform, raised only a few -inches, ran partly round the wall. In the middle of the floor there was -a clay fireplace, with a prayer-wheel and some clay and brass cooking -pots upon it. A few shelves, fire-bars for roasting barley, a wooden -churn, and some spinning arrangements were the furniture. A number of -small dark rooms used for sleeping and storage opened from this, and -above were the balconies and reception rooms. Wooden posts supported the -roofs, and these were wreathed with lucerne, the first fruits of the -field. Narrow, steep staircases in all Tibetan houses lead to the family -rooms. In winter the people live below, alongside of the animals and -fodder. In summer they sleep in loosely built booths of poplar branches -on the roof. Gergan's roof was covered, like others at the time, to the -depth of two feet, with hay, i.e. grass and lucerne, which are wound -into long ropes, experience having taught the Tibetans that their scarce -fodder is best preserved thus from breakage and waste. I bought hay by -the yard for Gyalpo. - -Our food in this hospitable house was simple--apricots, fresh, or dried -and stewed with honey; _zho's_ milk, curds and cheese, sour cream, peas, -beans, balls of barley dough, barley porridge, and 'broth of abominable -things.' _Chang_, a dirty-looking beer made from barley, was offered -with each meal, and tea frequently, but I took my own 'on the sly.' I -have mentioned a churn as part of the 'plenishings' of the living-room. -In Tibet the churn is used for making tea! I give the recipe. 'For six -persons. Boil a teacupful of tea in three pints of water for ten minutes -with a heaped dessert-spoonful of soda. Put the infusion into the chum -with one pound of butter and a small tablespoonful of salt. Churn until -as thick as cream.' Tea made after this fashion holds the second place -to _chang_ in Tibetan affections. The butter according to our thinking -is always rancid, the mode of making it is uncleanly, and it always has -a rank flavour from the goatskin in which it was kept. Its value is -enhanced by age. I saw skins of it forty, fifty, and even sixty years -old, which were very highly prized, and would only be opened at some -special family festival or funeral. - -During the three days of our visits to Hundar both men and women wore -their festival dresses, and apparently abandoned most of their ordinary -occupations in our honour. The men were very anxious that I should be -'amused,' and made many grotesque suggestions on the subject. 'Why is -the European woman always writing or sewing?' they asked. 'Is she very -poor, or has she made a vow?' Visits to some of the neighbouring -monasteries were eventually proposed, and turned out most interesting. - -The monastery of Deskyid, to which we made a three days' expedition, is -from its size and picturesque situation the most imposing in Nubra. -Built on a majestic spur of rock rising on one side 2,000 feet -perpendicularly from a torrent, the spur itself having an altitude of -11,000 feet, with red peaks, snow-capped, rising to a height of over -20,000 feet behind the vast irregular pile of red, white, and yellow -temples, towers, storehouses, cloisters, galleries, and balconies, -rising for 300 feet one above another, hanging over chasms, built out on -wooden buttresses, and surmounted with flags, tridents, and _yaks'_ -tails, a central tower or keep dominating the whole, it is perhaps the -most picturesque object I have ever seen, well worth the crossing of the -Shayok fords, my painful accident, and much besides. It looks -inaccessible, but in fact can be attained by rude zigzags of a thousand -steps of rock, some natural, others roughly hewn, getting worse and -worse as they rise higher, till the later zigzags suggest the -difficulties of the ascent of the Great Pyramid. The day was fearfully -hot, 99 deg. in the shade, and the naked, shining surfaces of purple rock -with a metallic lustre radiated heat. My 'gallant grey' took me up -half-way--a great feat--and the Tibetans cheered and shouted -'_Sharbaz!_' ('Well done!') as he pluckily leapt up the great slippery -rock ledges. After I dismounted, any number of willing hands hauled and -helped me up the remaining horrible ascent, the rugged rudeness of which -is quite indescribable. The inner entrance is a gateway decorated with a -_yak's_ head and many Buddhist emblems. High above, on a rude gallery, -fifty monks were gathered with their musical instruments. As soon as the -_Kan-po_ or abbot, Punt-sog-sogman (the most perfect Merit), received us -at the gate, the monkish orchestra broke forth in a tornado of sound of -a most tremendous and thrilling quality, which was all but overwhelming, -as the mountain echoes took up and prolonged the sound of fearful blasts -on six-foot silver horns, the bellowing thunder of six-foot drums, the -clash of cymbals, and the dissonance of a number of monster gongs. It -was not music, but it was sublime. The blasts on the horns are to -welcome a great personage, and such to the monks who despised his -teaching was the devout and learned German missionary. Mr. Redslob -explained that I had seen much of Buddhism in Ceylon and Japan, and -wished to see their temples. So with our train of _gopas_, _zemindar_, -peasants, and muleteers, we mounted to a corridor full of _lamas_ in -ragged red dresses, yellow girdles, and yellow caps, where we were -presented with plates of apricots, and the door of the lowest of the -seven temples heavily grated backwards. - -[Illustration: SOME INSTRUMENTS OF BUDDHIST WORSHIP] - -The first view, and indeed the whole view of this temple of _Wrath_ or -_Justice_, was suggestive of a frightful _Inferno_, with its rows of -demon gods, hideous beyond Western conception, engaged in torturing -writhing and bleeding specimens of humanity. Demon masks of ancient -lacquer hung from the pillars, naked swords gleamed in motionless hands, -and in a deep recess whose 'darkness' was rendered 'visible' by one -lamp, was that indescribable horror the executioner of the Lord of Hell, -his many brandished arms holding instruments of torture, and before him -the bell, the thunderbolt and sceptre, the holy water, and the baptismal -flagon. Our joss-sticks fumed on the still air, monks waved censers, and -blasts of dissonant music woke the semi-subterranean echoes. In this -temple of Justice the younger _lamas_ spend some hours daily in the -supposed contemplation of the torments reserved for the unholy. In the -highest temple, that of Peace, the summer sunshine fell on Shakya Thubba -and the Buddhist triad seated in endless serenity. The walls were -covered with frescoes of great _lamas_, and a series of alcoves, each -with an image representing an incarnation of Buddha, ran round the -temple. In a chapel full of monstrous images and piles of medallions -made of the ashes of 'holy' men, the sub-abbot was discoursing to the -acolytes on the religious classics. In the chapel of meditations, among -lighted incense sticks, monks seated before images were telling their -beads with the object of working themselves into a state of ecstatic -contemplation (somewhat resembling a certain hypnotic trance), for there -are undoubtedly devout _lamas_, though the majority are idle and unholy. -It must be understood that all Tibetan literature is 'sacred,' though -some of the volumes of exquisite calligraphy on parchment, which for our -benefit were divested of their silken and brocaded wrappings, contain -nothing better than fairy tales and stories of doubtful morality, which -are recited by the _lamas_ to the accompaniment of incessant cups of -_chang_, as a religious duty when they visit their 'flocks' in the -winter. - -The Deskyid _gonpo_ contains 150 _lamas_, all of whom have been educated -at Lhassa. A younger son in every household becomes a monk, and -occasionally enters upon his vocation as an acolyte pupil as soon as -weaned. At the age of thirteen these acolytes are sent to study at -Lhassa for five or seven years, their departure being made the occasion -of a great village feast, with several days of religious observances. -The close connection with Lhassa, especially in the case of the yellow -_lamas_, gives Nubra Buddhism a singular interest. All the larger -_gonpos_ have their prototype in Lhassa, all ceremonial has originated -in Lhassa, every instrument of worship has been consecrated in Lhassa, -and every _lama_ is educated in the learning only to be obtained at -Lhassa. Buddhism is indeed the most salient feature of Nubra. There are -_gonpos_ everywhere, the roads are lined by miles of _chod-tens_, -_manis_, and prayer-mills, and flags inscribed with sacred words in -Sanskrit flutter from every roof. There are processions of red and -yellow _lamas_; every act in trade, agriculture, and social life needs -the sanction of sacerdotalism; whatever exists of wealth is in the -_gonpos_, which also have a monopoly of learning, and 11,000 monks -closely linked with the laity, yet ruling all affairs of life and death -and beyond death, are all connected by education, tradition, and -authority with Lhassa. - -We remained long on the blazing roof of the highest tower of the -_gonpo_, while good Mr. Redslob disputed with the abbot 'concerning the -things pertaining to the kingdom of God.' The monks standing round -laughed sneeringly. They had shown a little interest, Mr. R. said, on -his earlier visits. The abbot accepted a copy of the Gospel of St. John. -'St. Matthew,' he observed, 'is very laughable reading.' Blasts of wild -music and the braying of colossal horns honoured our departure, and our -difficult descent to the apricot groves of Deskyid. On our return to -Hundar the grain was ripe on Gergan's fields. The first ripe ears were -cut off, offered to the family divinity, and were then bound to the -pillars of the house. In the comparatively fertile Nubra valley the -wheat and barley are cut, not rooted up. While they cut the grain the -men chant, 'May it increase, We will give to the poor, we will give to -the _lamas_,' with every stroke. They believe that it can be made to -multiply both under the sickle and in the threshing, and perform many -religious rites for its increase while it is in sheaves. After eight -days the corn is trodden out by oxen on a threshing-floor renewed every -year. After winnowing with wooden forks, they make the grain into a -pyramid, insert a sacred symbol, and pile upon it the threshing -instruments and sacks, erecting an axe on the apex with its blade turned -to the west, as that is the quarter from which demons are supposed to -come. In the afternoon they feast round it, always giving a portion to -the axe, saying, 'It is yours, it belongs not to me.' At dusk they pour -it into the sacks again, chanting, 'May it increase.' But these are not -removed to the granary until late at night, at an hour when the hands of -the demons are too much benumbed by the nightly frost to diminish the -store. At the beginning of every one of these operations the presence of -_lamas_ is essential, to announce the auspicious moment, and conduct -religious ceremonies. They receive fees, and are regaled with abundant -_chang_ and the fat of the land. - -In Hundar, as elsewhere, we were made very welcome in all the houses. I -have described the dwelling of Gergan. The poorer peasants occupy -similar houses, but roughly built, and only two-storeyed, and the floors -are merely clay. In them also the very numerous lower rooms are used for -cattle and fodder only, while the upper part consists of an inner or -winter room, an outer or supper room, a verandah room, and a family -temple. Among their rude plenishings are large stone corn chests like -sarcophagi, stone bowls from Baltistan, cauldrons, cooking pots, a -tripod, wooden bowls, spoons, and dishes, earthen pots, and _yaks_' and -sheep's packsaddles. The garments of the household are kept in long -wooden boxes. - -Family life presents some curious features. In the disposal in marriage -of a girl, her eldest brother has more 'say' than the parents. The -eldest son brings home the bride to his father's house, but at a given -age the old people are 'shelved,' i.e. they retire to a small house, -which may be termed a 'jointure house,' and the eldest son assumes the -patrimony and the rule of affairs. I have not met with a similar custom -anywhere in the East. It is difficult to speak of Tibetan life, with all -its affection and jollity, as '_family life_,' for Buddhism, which -enjoins monastic life, and usually celibacy along with it, on eleven -thousand out of a total population of a hundred and twenty thousand, -farther restrains the increase of population within the limits of -sustenance by inculcating and rigidly upholding the system of polyandry, -permitting marriage only to the eldest son, the heir of the land, while -the bride accepts all his brothers as inferior or subordinate husbands, -thus attaching the whole family to the soil and family roof-tree, the -children being regarded legally as the property of the eldest son, who -is addressed by them as 'Big Father,' his brothers receiving the title -of 'Little Father.' The resolute determination, on economic as well as -religious grounds, not to abandon this ancient custom, is the most -formidable obstacle in the way of the reception of Christianity by the -Tibetans. The women cling to it. They say, 'We have three or four men to -help us instead of one,' and sneer at the dulness and monotony of -European, monogamous life! A woman said to me, 'If I had only one -husband, and he died, I should be a widow; if I have two or three I am -never a widow!' The word 'widow' is with them a term of reproach, and is -applied abusively to animals and men. Children are brought up to be very -obedient to fathers and mother, and to take great care of little ones -and cattle. Parental affection is strong. Husbands and wives beat each -other, but separation usually follows a violent outbreak of this kind. -It is the custom for the men and women of a village to assemble when a -bride enters the house of her husbands, each of them presenting her with -three rupees. The Tibetan wife, far from spending these gifts on -personal adornment, looks ahead, contemplating possible contingencies, -and immediately hires a field, the produce of which is her own, and -which accumulates year after year in a separate granary, so that she may -not be portionless in case she leaves her husband! - -[Illustration: MONASTIC BUILDINGS AT BASGU] - -It was impossible not to become attached to the Nubra people, we lived -so completely among them, and met with such unbounded goodwill. Feasts -were given in our honour, every _gonpo_ was open to us, monkish blasts -on colossal horns brayed out welcomes, and while nothing could exceed -the helpfulness and alacrity of kindness shown by all, there was not a -thought or suggestion of _backsheesh_. The men of the villages always -sat by our camp-fires at night, friendly and jolly, but never obtrusive, -telling stories, discussing local news and the oppressions exercised by -the Kashmiri officials, the designs of Russia, the advance of the -Central Asian Railway, and what they consider as the weakness of the -Indian Government in not annexing the provinces of the northern -frontier. Many of their ideas and feelings are akin to ours, and a -mutual understanding is not only possible, but inevitable[1]. - -[1] Mr. Redslob said that when on different occasions he was smitten by -heavy sorrows, he felt no difference between the Tibetan feeling and -expression of sympathy and that of Europeans. A stronger testimony to -the effect produced by his twenty-five years of loving service could -scarcely be given than our welcome in Nubra. During the dangerous -illness which followed, anxious faces thronged his humble doorway as -early as break of day, and the stream of friendly inquiries never ceased -till sunset, and when he died the people of Ladak and Nubra wept and -'made a great mourning for him,' as for their truest friend. - -Industry in Nubra is the condition of existence, and both sexes work -hard enough to give a great zest to the holidays on religious festival -days. Whether in the house or journeying the men are never seen without -the distaff. They weave also, and make the clothes of the women and -children! The people are all cultivators, and make money also by -undertaking the transit of the goods of the Yarkand traders over the -lofty passes. The men plough with the _zho_, or hybrid _yak_, and the -women break the clods and share in all other agricultural operations. -The soil, destitute of manure, which is dried and hoarded for fuel, -rarely produces more than tenfold. The 'three acres and a cow' is with -them four acres of alluvial soil to a family on an average, with 'runs' -for _yaks_ and sheep on the mountains. The farms, planted with apricot -and other fruit trees, a prolific loose-grained barley, wheat, peas, and -lucerne, are oases in the surrounding deserts. The people export apricot -oil, dried apricots, sheep's wool, heavy undyed woollens, a coarse cloth -made from _yaks'_ hair, and _pashm_, the under fleece of the shawl goat. -They complained, and I think with good reason, of the merciless -exactions of the Kashmiri officials, but there were no evidences of -severe poverty, and not one beggar was seen. - -It was not an easy matter to get back to Leh. The rise of the Shayok -made it impossible to reach and return by the Digar Pass, and the -alternative route over the Kharzong glacier continued for some time -impracticable--that is, it was perfectly smooth ice. At length the news -came that a fall of snow had roughened its surface. A number of men -worked for two days at scaffolding a path, and with great difficulty, -and the loss of one _yak_ from a falling rock, a fruitful source of -fatalities in Tibet, we reached Khalsar, where with great regret we -parted with _Tse-ring-don-drub_ (Life's purpose fulfilled), the _gopa_ -of Sati, whose friendship had been a real pleasure, and to whose courage -and promptitude, in Mr. Redslob's opinion, I owed my rescue from -drowning. Two days of very severe marching and long and steep ascents -brought us to the wretched hamlet of Kharzong Lar-sa, in a snowstorm, at -an altitude higher than the summit of Mont Blanc. The servants were all -ill of 'pass-poison,' and crept into a cave along with a number of big -Tibetan mastiffs, where they enjoyed the comfort of semi-suffocation -till the next morning, Mr. R. and I, with some willing Tibetan helpers, -pitching our own tents. The wind was strong and keen, and with the -mercury down at 15 deg. Fahrenheit it was impossible to do anything but to -go to bed in the early afternoon, and stay there till the next day. Mr. -Redslob took a severe chill, which produced an alarming attack of -pleurisy, from the effects of which he never fully recovered. - -We started on a grim snowy morning, with six _yaks_ carrying our baggage -or ridden by ourselves, four led horses, and a number of Tibetans, -several more having been sent on in advance to cut steps in the glacier -and roughen them with gravel. Within certain limits the ground grows -greener as one ascends, and we passed upwards among primulas, asters, a -large blue myosotis, gentians, potentillas, and great sheets of -_edelweiss_. At the glacier foot we skirted a deep green lake on snow -with a glorious view of the Kharzong glacier and the pass, a nearly -perpendicular wall of rock, bearing up a steep glacier and a snowfield -of great width and depth, above which tower pinnacles of naked rock. It -presented to all appearance an impassable barrier rising 2,500 feet -above the lake, grand and awful in the dazzling whiteness of the -new-fallen snow. Thanks to the ice steps our _yaks_ took us over in four -hours without a false step, and from the summit, a sharp ridge 17,500 -feet in altitude, we looked our last on grimness, blackness, and snow, -and southward for many a weary mile to the Indus valley lying in -sunshine and summer. Fully two dozen carcases of horses newly dead lay -in cavities of the glacier. Our animals were ill of 'pass-poison,' and -nearly blind, and I was obliged to ride my _yak_ into Leh, a severe -march of thirteen hours, down miles of crumbling zigzags, and then among -villages of irrigated terraces, till the grand view of the Gyalpo's -palace, with its air-hung _gonpo_ and clustering _chod-tens_, and of the -desert city itself, burst suddenly upon us, and our benumbed and -stiffened limbs thawed in the hot sunshine. I pitched my tent in a -poplar grove for a fortnight, near the Moravian compounds and close to -the travellers' bungalow, in which is a British Postal Agency, with a -Tibetan postmaster who speaks English, a Christian, much trusted and -respected, named Joldan, in whose intelligence, kindness, and friendship -I found both interest and pleasure. - -[Illustration: THE YAK (_Bos grunniens_)] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -MANNERS AND CUSTOMS - - -Joldan, the Tibetan British postmaster in Leh, is a Christian of -spotless reputation. Every one places unlimited confidence in his -integrity and truthfulness, and his religious sincerity has been -attested by many sacrifices. He is a Ladaki, and the family property was -at Stok, a few miles from Leh. He was baptized in Lahul at twenty-three, -his father having been a Christian. He learned Urdu, and was for ten -years mission schoolmaster in Kylang, but returned to Leh a few years -ago as postmaster. His 'ancestral dwelling' at Stok was destroyed by -order of the wazir, and his property confiscated, after many -unsuccessful efforts had been made to win him back to Buddhism. -Afterwards he was detained by the wazir, and compelled to serve as a -sepoy, till Mr. Heyde went to the council and obtained his release. His -house in Leh has been more than once burned by incendiaries. But he -pursues a quiet, even course, brings up his family after the best -Christian traditions, refuses Buddhist suitors for his daughters, -unobtrusively but capably helps the Moravian missionaries, supports his -family by steady industry, although of noble birth, and asks nothing of -any one. His 'good morning' and 'good night,' as he daily passed my tent -with clockwork regularity, were full of cheery friendliness; he gave -much useful information about Tibetan customs, and his ready helpfulness -greatly facilitated the difficult arrangements for my farther journey. - -[Illustration: A CHANG-PA WOMAN] - -The Leh, which I had left so dull and quiet, was full of strangers, -traffic, and noise. The neat little Moravian church was filled by a -motley crowd each Sunday, in which the few Christians were -distinguishable by their clean faces and clothes and their devout air; -and the Medical Mission Hospital and Dispensary, which in winter have an -average attendance of only a hundred patients a month, were daily -thronged with natives of India and Kashmir, Baltis, Yarkandis, Dards, -and Tibetans. In my visits with Dr. Marx I observed, what was confirmed -by four months' experience of the Tibetan villagers, that rheumatism, -inflamed eyes and eyelids, and old age are the chief Tibetan maladies. -Some of the Dards and Baltis were lepers, and the natives of India -brought malarial fever, dysentery, and other serious diseases. The -hospital, which is supported by the Indian Government, is most -comfortable, a haven of rest for those who fall sick by the way. The -hospital assistants are intelligent, thoroughly kind-hearted young -Tibetans, who, by dint of careful drilling and an affectionate desire to -please 'the teacher with the medicine box,' have become fairly -trustworthy. They are not Christians. - -In the neat dispensary at 9 a.m. a gong summons the patients to the -operating room for a short religious service. Usually about fifty were -present, and a number more, who had some curiosity about 'the way,' but -did not care to be seen at Christian worship, hung about the doorways. -Dr. Marx read a few verses from the Gospels, explaining them in a homely -manner, and concluded with the Lord's Prayer. Then the out-patients were -carefully and gently treated, leprous limbs were bathed and anointed, -the wards were visited at noon and again at sunset, and in the -afternoons operations were performed with the most careful antiseptic -precautions, which are supposed to be used for the purpose of keeping -away evil spirits from the wounds! The Tibetans, in practice, are very -simple in their applications of medical remedies. Rubbing with butter is -their great panacea. They have a dread of small-pox, and instead of -burning its victims they throw them into their rapid torrents. If an -isolated case occur, the sufferer is carried to a mountain-top, where he -is left to recover or die. If a small-pox epidemic is in the province, -the people of the villages in which it has not yet appeared place thorns -on their bridges and boundaries, to scare away the evil spirits which -are supposed to carry the disease. In ordinary illnesses, if butter -taken internally as well as rubbed into the skin does not cure the -patient, the _lamas_ are summoned to the rescue. They make a _mitsap_, a -half life-size figure of the sick person, dress it in his or her clothes -and ornaments, and place it in the courtyard, where they sit round it, -reading passages from the sacred classics fitted for the occasion. After -a time, all rise except the superior _lama_, who continues reading, and -taking small drums in their left hands, they recite incantations, and -dance wildly round the _mitsap_, believing, or at least leading the -people to believe, that by this ceremony the malady, supposed to be the -work of a demon, will be transferred to the image. Afterwards the -clothes and ornaments are presented to them, and the figure is carried -in procession out of the yard and village and is burned. If the patient -becomes worse, the friends are apt to resort to the medical skill of the -missionaries. If he dies they are blamed, and if he recovers the _lamas_ -take the credit. - -At some little distance outside Leh are the cremation grounds--desert -places, destitute of any other vegetation than the _Caprifolia horrida_. -Each family has its furnace kept in good repair. The place is doleful, -and a funeral scene on the only sunless day I experienced in Ladak was -indescribably dismal. After death no one touches the corpse but the -_lamas_, who assemble in numbers in the case of a rich man. The senior -_lama_ offers the first prayers, and lifts the lock which all Tibetans -wear at the back of the head, in order to liberate the soul if it is -still clinging to the body. At the same time he touches the region of -the heart with a dagger. The people believe that a drop of blood on the -head marks the spot where the soul has made its exit. Any good clothing -in which the person has died is then removed. The blacksmith beats a -drum, and the corpse, covered with a white sheet next the dress and a -coloured one above, is carried out of the house to be worshipped by the -relatives, who walk seven times round it. The women then retire to the -house, and the chief _lama_ recites liturgical passages from the -formularies. Afterwards, the relatives retire, and the corpse is carried -to the burning-ground by men who have the same tutelar deity as the -deceased. The leading _lama_ walks first, then come men with flags, -followed by the blacksmith with the drum, and next the corpse, with -another man beating a drum behind it. Meanwhile, the _lamas_ are praying -for the repose and quieting of the soul, which is hovering about, -desiring to return. The attendant friends, each of whom has carried a -piece of wood to the burning-ground, arrange the fuel with butter on the -furnace, the corpse wrapped in the white sheet is put in, and fire is -applied. The process of destruction in a rich man's case takes about an -hour. During the burning the _lamas_ read in high, hoarse monotones, and -the blacksmiths beat their drums. The _lamas_ depart first, and the -blacksmiths, after worshipping the ashes, shout, 'Have nothing to do -with us now,' and run rapidly away. At dawn the following day, a man -whose business it is searches among the ashes for the footprints of -animals, and according to the footprints found, so it is believed will -be the re-birth of the soul. - -Some of the ashes are taken to the _gonpos_, where the _lamas_ mix them -with clay, put them into oval or circular moulds, and stamp them with -the image of Buddha. These are preserved in _chod-tens_, and in the -house of the nearest relative of the deceased; but in the case of 'holy' -men, they are retained in the _gonpos_, where they can be purchased by -the devout. After a cremation much _chang_ is consumed by the friends, -who make presents to the bereaved family. The value of each is carefully -entered in a book, so that a precise return may be made when a similar -occasion occurs. Until the fourth day after death it is believed to be -impossible to quiet the soul. On that day a piece of paper is inscribed -with prayers and requests to the soul to be quiet, and this is burned by -the _lamas_ with suitable ceremonies; and rites of a more or less -elaborate kind are afterwards performed for the repose of the soul, -accompanied with prayers that it may get 'a good path' for its re-birth, -and food is placed in conspicuous places about the house, that it may -understand that its relatives are willing to support it. The mourners -for some time wear wretched clothes, and neither dress their hair nor -wash their faces. Every year the _lamas_ sell by auction the clothing -and ornaments, which are their perquisites at funerals[1]. - -[1] For these and other curious details concerning Tibetan customs I am -indebted to the kindness and careful investigations of the late Rev. W. -Redslob, of Leh, and the Rev. A. Heyde, of Kylang. - -The Moravian missionaries have opened a school in Leh, and the wazir, -finding that the Leh people are the worst educated in the country, -ordered that one child at least in each family should be sent to it. -This awakened grave suspicions, and the people hunted for reasons for -it. 'The boys are to be trained as porters, and made to carry burdens -over the mountains,' said some. 'Nay,' said others, 'they are to be sent -to England and made Christians of.' [All foreigners, no matter what -their nationality is, are supposed to be English.] Others again said, -'They are to be kidnapped,' and so the decree was ignored, till Mr. -Redslob and Dr. Marx went among the parents and explained matters, and a -large attendance was the result; for the Tibetans of the trade route -have come to look upon the acquisition of 'foreign learning' as the -stepping-stone to Government appointments at ten rupees per month. -Attendance on religious instruction was left optional, but after a time -sixty pupils were regularly present at the daily reading and explanation -of the Gospels. Tibetan fathers teach their sons to write, to read the -sacred classics, and to calculate with a frame of balls on wires. If -farther instruction is thought desirable, the boys are sent to the -_lamas_, and even to the schools at Lhassa. The Tibetans willingly -receive and read translations of our Christian books, and some go so far -as to think that their teachings are 'stronger' than those of their -own, indicating their opinions by tearing pages out of the Gospels and -rolling them up into pills, which are swallowed in the belief that they -are an effective charm. Sorcery is largely used in the treatment of the -sick. The books which instruct in the black art are known as 'black -books.' Those which treat of medicine are termed 'blue books.' Medical -knowledge is handed down from father to son. The doctors know the -virtues of many of the plants of the country, quantities of which they -mix up together while reciting magical formulas. - -[Illustration: CHANG-PA CHIEF] - -I was heartily sorry to leave Leh, with its dazzling skies and abounding -colour and movement, its stirring topics of talk, and the culture and -exceeding kindness of the Moravian missionaries. Helpfulness was the -rule. Gergan came over the Kharzong glacier on purpose to bring me a -prayer-wheel; Lob-sang and Tse-ring-don-drub, the hospital assistants, -made me a tent carpet of _yak's_ hair cloth, singing as they sewed; and -Joldan helped to secure transport for the twenty-two days' journey to -Kylang. Leh has few of what Europeans regard as travelling necessaries. -The brick tea which I purchased from a Lhassa trader was disgusting. I -afterwards understood that blood is used in making up the blocks. The -flour was gritty, and a leg of mutton turned out to be a limb of a goat -of much experience. There were no straps, or leather to make them of, in -the bazaar, and no buckles; and when the latter were provided by Mr. -Redslob, the old man who came to sew them upon a warm rug which I had -made for Gyalpo out of pieces of carpet and hair-cloth put them on -wrongly three times, saying after each failure, 'I'm very foolish. -Foreign ways are so wonderful!' At times the Tibetans say, 'We're as -stupid as oxen,' and I was inclined to think so, as I stood for two -hours instructing the blacksmith about making shoes for Gyalpo, which -kept turning out either too small for a mule or too big for a -dray-horse. - -I obtained two Lahul muleteers with four horses, quiet, obliging men, -and two superb _yaks_, which were loaded with twelve days' hay and -barley for my horse. Provisions for the whole party for the same time -had to be carried, for the route is over an uninhabited and arid desert. -Not the least important part of my outfit was a letter from Mr. Redslob -to the headman or chief of the Chang-pas or Champas, the nomadic tribes -of Rupchu, to whose encampment I purposed to make a _detour_. These -nomads had on two occasions borrowed money from the Moravian -missionaries for the payment of the Kashmiri tribute, and had repaid it -before it was due, showing much gratitude for the loans. - -Dr. Marx accompanied me for the three first days. The few native -Christians in Leh assembled in the gay garden plot of the lowly -mission-house to shake hands and wish me a good journey, and not a few -who were not Christians, some of them walking for the first hour beside -our horses. The road from Leh descends to a rude wooden bridge over the -Indus, a mighty stream even there, over blazing slopes of gravel -dignified by colossal _manis_ and _chod-tens_ in long lines, built by -the former kings of Ladak. On the other side of the river gravel slopes -ascend towards red mountains 20,000 feet in height. Then comes a rocky -spur crowned by the imposing castle of the Gyalpo, the son of the -dethroned king of Ladak, surmounted by a forest of poles from which -flutter _yaks'_ tails and long streamers inscribed with prayers. Others -bear aloft the trident, the emblem of Siva. Carefully hewn zigzags, -entered through a much-decorated and colossal _chod-ten_, lead to the -castle. The village of Stok, the prettiest and most prosperous in Ladak, -fills up the mouth of a gorge with its large farm-houses among poplar, -apricot, and willow plantations, and irrigated terraces of barley; and -is imposing as well as pretty, for the two roads by which it is -approached are avenues of lofty _chod-tens_ and broad _manis_, all in -excellent repair. Knolls, and deeply coloured spurs of naked rock, most -picturesquely crowded with _chod-tens_, rise above the greenery, -breaking the purple gloom of the gorge which cuts deeply into the -mountains, and supplies from its rushing glacier torrent the living -waters which create this delightful oasis. - -The _gopa_ came forth to meet us, bearing apricots and cheeses as the -Gyalpo's greeting, and conducted us to the camping-ground, a sloping -lawn in a willow-wood, with many a natural bower of the graceful -_Clematis orientalis_. The tents were pitched, afternoon tea was on a -table outside, a clear, swift stream made fitting music, the dissonance -of the ceaseless beating of gongs and drums in the castle temple was -softened by distance, the air was cool, a lemon light bathed the -foreground, and to the north, across the Indus, the great mountains of -the Leh range, with every cleft defined in purple or blue, lifted their -vermilion peaks into a rosy sky. It was the poetry and luxury of travel. - -At Leh I was obliged to dismiss the _seis_ for prolonged misconduct and -cruelty to Gyalpo, and Mando undertook to take care of him. The animal -had always been held by two men while the _seis_ groomed him with -difficulty, but at Stok, when Mando rubbed him down, he quietly went on -feeding and laid his lovely head on the lad's shoulder with a soft -cooing sound. From that moment Mando could do anything with him, and a -singular attachment grew up between man and horse. - -Towards sunset we were received by the Gyalpo. The castle loses nothing -of its picturesqueness on a nearer view, and everything about it is trim -and in good order. It is a substantial mass of stone building on a lofty -rock, the irregularities of which have been taken most artistic -advantage of in order to give picturesque irregularity to the edifice, -which, while six storeys high in some places, is only three in others. -As in the palace of Leh, the walls slope inwards from the base, where -they are ten feet thick, and projecting balconies of brown wood and grey -stone relieve their monotony. We were received at the entrance by a -number of red _lamas_, who took us up five flights of rude stairs to the -reception room, where we were introduced to the Gyalpo, who was in the -midst of a crowd of monks, and, except that his hair was not shorn, and -that he wore a silver brocade cap and large gold earrings and bracelets, -was dressed in red like them. Throneless and childless, the Gyalpo has -given himself up to religion. He has covered the castle roof with -Buddhist emblems (not represented in the sketch). From a pole, forty -feet long, on the terrace floats a broad streamer of equal length, -completely covered with _Aum mani padne hun_, and he has surrounded -himself with _lamas_, who conduct nearly ceaseless services in the -sanctuary. The attainment of merit, as his creed leads him to -understand it, is his one aim in life. He loves the seclusion of Stok, -and rarely visits the palace in Leh, except at the time of the winter -games, when the whole population assembles in cheery, orderly crowds, to -witness races, polo and archery matches, and a species of hockey. He -interests himself in the prosperity of Stok, plants poplars, willows, -and fruit trees, and keeps the castle _manis_ and _chod-tens_ in -admirable repair. - -Stok Castle is as massive as any of our mediaeval buildings, but is far -lighter and roomier. It is most interesting to see a style of -architecture and civilisation which bears not a solitary trace of -European influence, not even in Manchester cottons or Russian gimcracks. -The Gyalpo's room was only roofed for six feet within the walls, where -it was supported by red pillars. Above, the deep blue Tibetan sky was -flushing with the red of sunset, and from a noble window with a covered -stone balcony there was an enchanting prospect of red ranges passing -into translucent amethyst. The partial ceiling is painted in arabesques, -and at one end of the room is an alcove, much enriched with bold wood -carving. - -[Illustration: THE CASTLE OF STOK] - -The Gyalpo was seated on a carpet on the floor, a smooth-faced, rather -stupid-looking man of twenty-eight. He placed us on a carpet beside -him, and coffee, honey, and apricots were brought in, but the -conversation flagged. He neither suggested anything nor took up Dr. -Marx's suggestions. Fortunately, we had brought our sketch-books, and -the views of several places were recognised, and were found interesting. -The _lamas_ and servants, who had remained respectfully standing, sat -down on the floor, and even the Gyalpo became animated. So our visit -ended successfully. - -There is a doorway from the reception room into the sanctuary, and after -a time fully thirty _lamas_ passed in and began service, but the Gyalpo -only stood on his carpet. There is only a half light in this temple, -which is further obscured by scores of smoked and dusty bannerets of -gold and silver brocade hanging from the roof. In addition to the usual -Buddhist emblems there are musical instruments, exquisitely inlaid, or -enriched with _niello_ work of gold and silver of great antiquity, and -bows of singular strength, requiring two men to bend them, which are -made of small pieces of horn cleverly joined. _Lamas_ gabbled liturgies -at railroad speed, beating drums and clashing cymbals as an -accompaniment, while others blew occasional blasts on the colossal -silver horns or trumpets, which probably resemble those with which -Jericho was encompassed. The music, the discordant and high-pitched -monotones, and the revolting odours of stale smoke of juniper chips, of -rancid butter, and of unwashed woollen clothes which drifted through the -doorway, were overpowering. Attempted fights among the horses woke me -often during the night, and the sound of worship was always borne over -the still air. - -Dr. Marx left on the third day, after we had visited the monastery of -Hemis, the richest in Ladak, holding large landed property and -possessing much metallic wealth, including a _chod-ten_ of silver and -gold, thirty feet high, in one of its many halls, approached by -gold-plated silver steps and incrusted with precious stones; there is -also much fine work in brass and bronze. Hemis abounds in decorated -buildings most picturesquely placed, it has three hundred _lamas_, and -is regarded as 'the sight' of Ladak. - -At Upschi, after a day's march over blazing gravel, I left the rushing -olive-green Indus, which I had followed from the bridge of Khalsi, where -a turbulent torrent, the Upshi water, joins it, descending through a -gorge so narrow that the track, which at all times is blasted on the -face of the precipice, is occasionally scaffolded. A very extensive -rock-slip had carried away the path and rendered several fords -necessary, and before I reached it rumour was busy with the peril. It -was true that the day before several mules had been carried away and -drowned, that many loads had been sacrificed, and that one native -traveller had lost his life. So I started my caravan at daybreak, to get -the water at its lowest, and ascended the gorge, which is an absolutely -verdureless rift in mountains of most brilliant and fantastic -stratification. At the first ford Mando was carried down the river for a -short distance. The second was deep and strong, and a caravan of -valuable goods had been there for two days, afraid to risk the crossing. -My Lahulis, who always showed a great lack of stamina, sat down, sobbing -and beating their breasts. Their sole wealth, they said, was in their -baggage animals, and the river was 'wicked,' and 'a demon' lived in it -who paralysed the horses' legs. Much experience of Orientals and of -travel has taught me to surmount difficulties in my own way, so, -beckoning to two men from the opposite side, who came over shakily with -linked arms, I took the two strong ropes which I always carry on my -saddle, and roped these men together and to Gyalpo's halter with one, -and lashed Mando and the guide together with the other, giving them the -stout thongs behind the saddle to hold on to, and in this compact mass -we stood the strong rush of the river safely, the paralysing chill of -its icy waters being a far more obvious peril. All the baggage animals -were brought over in the same way, and the Lahulis praised their gods. - -At Gya, a wild hamlet, the last in Ladak proper, I met a working -naturalist whom I had seen twice before, and 'forgathered' with him much -of the way. Eleven days of solitary desert succeeded. The reader has -probably understood that no part of the Indus, Shayok, and Nubra -valleys, which make up most of the province of Ladak, is less than 9,500 -feet in altitude, and that the remainder is composed of precipitous -mountains with glaciers and snowfields, ranging from 18,000 to 25,000 -feet, and that the villages are built mainly on alluvial soil where -possibilities of irrigation exist. But Rupchu has peculiarities of its -own. - -Between Gya and Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, are three huge -passes, the Toglang, 18,150 feet in altitude, the Lachalang, 17,500, and -the Baralacha, 16,000,--all easy, except for the difficulties arising -from the highly rarefied air. The mountains of the region, which are -from 20,000 to 23,000 feet in altitude, are seldom precipitous or -picturesque, except the huge red needles which guard the Lachalang Pass, -but are rather 'monstrous protuberances,' with arid surfaces of -disintegrated rock. Among these are remarkable plateaux, which are taken -advantage of by caravans, and which have elevations of from 14,000 to -15,000 feet. There are few permanent rivers or streams, the lakes are -salt, beside the springs, and on the plateaux there is scanty -vegetation, chiefly aromatic herbs; but on the whole Rupchu is a desert -of arid gravel. Its only inhabitants are 500 nomads, and on the ten -marches of the trade route, the bridle paths, on which in some places -labour has been spent, the tracks, not always very legible, made by the -passage of caravans, and rude dykes, behind which travellers may shelter -themselves from the wind, are the only traces of man. Herds of the -_kyang_, the wild horse of some naturalists, and the wild ass of others, -graceful and beautiful creatures, graze within gunshot of the track -without alarm. - -I had thought Ladak windy, but Rupchu is the home of the winds, and the -marches must be arranged for the quietest time of the day. Happily the -gales blow with clockwork regularity, the day wind from the south and -south-west rising punctually at 9 a.m. and attaining its maximum at -2.30, while the night wind from the north and north-east rises about 9 -p.m. and ceases about 5 a.m. Perfect silence is rare. The highly -rarefied air, rushing at great speed, when at its worst deprives the -traveller of breath, skins his face and hands, and paralyses the baggage -animals. In fact, neither man nor beast can face it. The horses 'turn -tail' and crowd together, and the men build up the baggage into a wall -and crouch in the lee of it. The heat of the solar rays is at the same -time fearful. At Lachalang, at a height of over 15,000 feet, I noted a -solar temperature of 152 deg., only 35 deg. below the boiling point of water in -the same region, which is about 187 deg.. To make up for this, the mercury -falls below the freezing point every night of the year, even in August -the difference of temperature in twelve hours often exceeding 120 deg.! The -Rupchu nomads, however, delight in this climate of extremes, and regard -Leh as a place only to be visited in winter, and Kulu and Kashmir as if -they were the malarial swamps of the Congo! - -[Illustration: FIRST VILLAGE IN KULU] - -We crossed the Toglang Pass, at a height of 18,150 feet, with less -suffering from _ladug_ than on either the Digar or Kharzong Passes. -Indeed Gyalpo carried me over it, stopping to take breath every few -yards. It was then a long dreary march to the camping-ground of Tsala, -where the Chang-pas spend the four summer months; the guides and baggage -animals lost the way and did not appear until the next day, and in -consequence the servants slept unsheltered in the snow. News travels -as if by magic in desert places. Towards evening, while riding by a -stream up a long and tedious valley, I saw a number of moving specks on -the crest of a hill, and down came a surge of horsemen riding furiously. -Just as they threatened to sweep Gyalpo away, they threw their horses on -their haunches, in one moment were on the ground, which they touched -with their foreheads, presented me with a plate of apricots, and the -next vaulted into their saddles, and dashing up the valley were soon out -of sight. In another half-hour there was a second wild rush of horsemen, -the headman dismounted, threw himself on his face, kissed my hand, -vaulted into the saddle, and then led a swirl of his tribesmen at a -gallop in ever-narrowing circles round me till they subsided into the -decorum of an escort. An elevated plateau with some vegetation on it, a -row of forty tents, 'black' but not 'comely,' a bright rapid river, wild -hills, long lines of white sheep converging towards the camp, _yaks_ -rampaging down the hillsides, men running to meet us, and women and -children in the distance were singularly idealised in the golden glow of -a cool, moist evening. - -Two men took my bridle, and two more proceeded to put their hands on my -stirrups; but Gyalpo kicked them to the right and left amidst shrieks of -laughter, after which, with frantic gesticulations and yells of -'_Kabardar!_' I was led through the river in triumph and hauled off my -horse. The tribesmen were much excited. Some dashed about, performing -feats of horsemanship; others brought apricots and dough-balls made with -apricot oil, or rushed to the tents, returning with rugs; some cleared -the camping-ground of stones and raised a stone platform, and a flock of -goats, exquisitely white from the daily swims across the river, were -brought to be milked. Gradually and shrinkingly the women and children -drew near; but Mr. ----'s Bengali servant threatened them with a whip, -when there was a general stampede, the women running like hares. I had -trained my servants to treat the natives courteously, and addressed some -rather strong language to the offender, and afterwards succeeded in -enticing all the fugitives back by showing my sketches, which gave -boundless pleasure and led to very numerous requests for portraits! The -_gopa_, though he had the oblique Mongolian eyes, was a handsome young -man, with a good nose and mouth. He was dressed like the others in a -girdled _chaga_ of coarse serge, but wore a red cap turned up over the -ears with fine fur, a silver inkhorn, and a Yarkand knife in a chased -silver sheath in his girdle, and canary-coloured leather shoes with -turned-up points. The people prepared one of their own tents for me, and -laying down a number of rugs of their own dyeing and weaving, assured me -of an unbounded welcome as a friend of their 'benefactor,' Mr. Redslob, -and then proposed that I should visit their tents accompanied by all the -elders of the tribe. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CLIMATE AND NATURAL FEATURES - - -The last chapter left me with the chief and elders of the Chang-pas -starting on 'a round of visits,' and it was not till nightfall that the -solemn ceremony was concluded. Each of the fifty tents was visited: at -every one a huge, savage Tibetan mastiff made an attempt to fly at me, -and was pounced upon and held down by a woman little bigger than -himself, and in each cheese and milk were offered and refused. In all I -received a hearty welcome for the sake of the 'great father,' Mr. -Redslob, who designated these people as 'the simplest and kindliest -people on earth.' - -This Chang-pa tribe, numbering five hundred souls, makes four moves in -the year, dividing in summer, and uniting in a valley very free from -snow in the winter. They are an exclusively pastoral people, and possess -large herds of _yaks_ and ponies and immense flocks of sheep and goats, -the latter almost entirely the beautiful 'shawl goat,' from the -undergrowth at the base of the long hair of which the fine Kashmir -shawls are made. This _pashm_ is a provision which Nature makes against -the intense cold of these altitudes, and grows on _yaks_, sheep, and -dogs, as well as on most of the wild animals. The sheep is the big, -hornless, flop-eared _huniya_. The _yaks_ and sheep are the load -carriers of Rupchu. Small or easily divided merchandise is carried by -sheep, and bulkier goods by _yaks_, and the Chang-pas make a great deal -of money by carrying for the Lahul, Central Ladak, and Rudok merchants, -their sheep travelling as far as Gar in Chinese Tibet. They are paid in -grain as well as coin, their own country producing no farinaceous food. -They have only two uses for silver money. With part of their gains they -pay the tribute to Kashmir, and they melt the rest, and work it into -rude personal ornaments. According to an old arrangement between Lhassa -and Leh, they carry brick tea free for the Lhassa merchants. They are -Buddhists, and practise polyandry, but their young men do not become -_lamas_, and owing to the scarcity of fuel, instead of burning their -dead, they expose them with religious rites face upwards in desolate -places, to be made away with by the birds of the air. All their tents -have a god-shelf, on which are placed small images and sacred emblems. -They dress as the Ladakis, except that the men wear shoes with very high -turned-up points, and that the women, in addition to the _perak_, the -usual ornament, place on the top of the head a large silver coronet with -three tassels. In physiognomy they resemble the Ladakis, but the -Mongolian type is purer, the eyes are more oblique, and the eyelids have -a greater droop, the chins project more, and the mouths are handsomer. -Many of the men, including the headman, were quite good-looking, but the -upper lips of the women were apt to be 'tucked up,' displaying very -square teeth, as we have shown in the preceding chapter. - -[Illustration: A TIBETAN FARM-HOUSE] - -The roofs of the Tsala tents are nearly flat, and the middle has an -opening six inches wide along its whole length. An excavation from -twelve to twenty-four inches deep is made in the soil, and a rude wall -of stones, about one foot high, is built round it, over which the tent -cloth, made in narrow widths of _yak's_ or goat's hair, is extended by -ropes led over forked sticks. There is no ridge pole, and the centre is -supported on short poles, to the projecting tops of which prayer flags -and _yaks'_ tails are attached. The interior, though dark, is not too -dark for weaving, and each tent has its loom, for the Chang-pas not only -weave their coarse woollen clothing and hair cloth for saddlebags and -tents, but rugs of wool dyed in rich colours made from native roots. The -largest tent was twenty feet by fifteen, but the majority measured only -fourteen feet by eight and ten feet. The height in no case exceeded six -feet. In these much ventilated and scarcely warmed shelters these hardy -nomads brave the tremendous winds and winter rigours of their climate at -altitudes varying from 13,000 to 14,500 feet. Water freezes every night -of the year, and continually there are differences in temperature of -100 deg. between noon and midnight. In addition to the fifty dwelling tents -there was one considerably larger, in which the people store their wool -and goat's hair till the time arrives for taking them to market. The -floor of several of the tents was covered with rugs, and besides looms -and confused heaps of what looked like rubbish, there were tea-churns, -goatskin churns, sheep and goat skins, children's bows and arrows, -cooking pots, and heaps of the furze root, which is used as fuel. - -They expended much of this scarce commodity upon me in their -hospitality, and kept up a bonfire all night. They mounted their wiry -ponies and performed feats of horsemanship, in one of which all the -animals threw themselves on their hind legs in a circle when a man in -the centre clapped his hands; and they crowded my tent to see my -sketches, and were not satisfied till I executed some daubs professing -to represent some of the elders. The excitement of their first visit -from a European woman lasted late into the night, and when they at last -retired they persisted in placing a guard of honour round my tent. - -In the morning there was ice on the pools, and the snow lay three inches -deep. Savage life had returned to its usual monotony, and the care of -flocks and herds. In the early afternoon the chief and many of the men -accompanied us across the ford, and we parted with mutual expressions of -good will. The march was through broad gravelly valleys, among -'monstrous protuberances' of red and yellow gravel, elevated by their -height alone to the dignity of mountains. Hail came on, and Gyalpo -showed his high breeding by facing it when the other animals 'turned -tail' and huddled together, and a storm of heavy sleet of some hours' -duration burst upon us just as we reached the dismal camping-ground of -Rukchen, guarded by mountain giants which now and then showed glimpses -of their white skirts through the dark driving mists. That was the only -'weather' in four months. - -A large caravan from the heat and sunshine of Amritsar was there. The -goods were stacked under goat's hair shelters, the mules were huddled -together without food, and their shivering Panjabi drivers, muffled in -blankets which only left one eye exposed, were grubbing up furze roots -wherewith to make smoky fires. My baggage, which had arrived previously, -was lying soaking in the sleet, while the wretched servants were trying -to pitch the tent in the high wind. They had slept out in the snow the -night before, and were mentally as well as physically benumbed. Their -misery had a comic side to it, and as the temperature made me feel -specially well, I enjoyed bestirring myself, and terrified Mando, who -was feebly 'fadding' with a rag, by giving Gyalpo a vigorous rub-down -with a bath-towel. Hassan Khan, with chattering teeth and severe -neuralgia, muffled in my 'fisherman's hood' under his turban, was trying -to do his work with his unfailing pluck. Mando was shedding futile tears -over wet furze which would not light, the small wet corrie was dotted -over with the Amritsar men sheltering under rocks and nursing hopeless -fires, and fifty mules and horses, with dejected heads and dripping -tails, and their backs to the merciless wind, were attempting to pick -some food from scanty herbage already nibbled to the root. My tent was -a picture of grotesque discomfort. The big stones had not been picked -out from the gravel, the bed stood in puddles, the thick horse blanket -was draining over the one chair, the servant's spare clothing and stores -were on the table, the _yaks'_ loads of wet hay and the soaked grain -sack filled up most of the space; a wet candle sputtered and went out, -wet clothes dripped from the tent hook, and every now and then Hassan -Khan looked in with one eye, gasping out, 'Mem Sahib, I can no light the -fire!' Perseverance succeeds eventually, and cups of a strong stimulant -made of Burroughes and Wellcome's vigorous 'valoid' tincture of ginger -and hot water, revived the men all round. Such was its good but innocent -effect, that early the next morning Hassan came into my tent with two -eyes, and convulsed with laughter. 'The pony men' and Mando, he said, -were crying, and the coolie from Leh, who before the storm had wanted to -go the whole way to Simla, after refusing his supper had sobbed all -night under the 'flys' of my tent, while I was sleeping soundly. -Afterwards I harangued them, and told them I would let them go, and help -them back; I could not take such poor-spirited miserable creatures with -me, and I would keep the Tartars who had accompanied me from Tsala. On -this they protested, and said, with a significant gesture, I might cut -their throats if they cried any more, and begged me to try them again; -and as we had no more bad weather, there was no more trouble. - -The marches which followed were along valleys, plains, and -mountain-sides of gravel, destitute of herbage, except a shrivelled -artemisia, and on one occasion the baggage animals were forty hours -without food. Fresh water was usually very scarce, and on the Lingti -plains was only obtainable by scooping it up from the holes left by the -feet of animals. Insect life was rare, and except grey doves, the 'dove -of the valleys,' which often flew before us for miles down the ravines, -no birds were to be seen. On the other hand, there were numerous herds -of _kyang_, which in the early mornings came to drink of the water by -which the camps were pitched. By looking through a crevice of my tent I -saw them distinctly, without alarming them. In one herd I counted forty. -They kept together in families, sire, dam, and foal. The animal -certainly is under fourteen hands, and resembles a mule rather than a -horse or ass. The noise, which I had several opportunities of hearing, -is more like a neigh than a bray, but lacks completeness. The creature -is light brown, almost fawn colour, fading into white under his body, -and he has a dark stripe on his back, but not a cross. His ears are -long, and his tail is like that of a mule. He trots and gallops, and -when alarmed gallops fast, but as he is not worth hunting, he has not a -great dread of humanity, and families of _kyang_ frequently grazed -within two hundred and fifty yards of us. He is about as untamable as -the zebra, and with his family affectionateness leads apparently a very -happy life. - -[Illustration: LAHUL VALLEY] - -On the Kwangchu plateau, at an elevation of 15,000 feet, I met with a -form of life which has a great interest of its own, sheep caravans, -numbering among them 7,000 sheep, each animal with its wool on, and -equipped with a neat packsaddle and two leather or hair-cloth bags, and -loaded with from twenty-five to thirty-two pounds of salt or borax. -These, and many more which we passed, were carrying their loads to -Patseo, a mountain valley in Lahul, where they are met by traders from -Northern British India. The sheep are shorn, and the wool and loads are -exchanged for wheat and a few other commodities, with which they return -to Tibet, the whole journey taking from nine months to a year. As the -sheep live by grazing the scanty herbage on the march, they never -accomplish more than ten miles a day, and as they often become footsore, -halts of several days are frequently required. Sheep, dead or dying, -with the birds of prey picking out their eyes, were often met with. -Ordinarily these caravans are led by a man, followed by a large goat -much bedecked and wearing a large bell. Each driver has charge of one -hundred sheep. These men, of small stature but very thickset, with their -wide smooth faces, loose clothing of sheepskin with the wool outside, -with their long coarse hair flying in the wind, and their uncouth shouts -in a barbarous tongue, are much like savages. They sing wild chants as -they picket their sheep in long double lines at night, and with their -savage mastiffs sleep unsheltered under the frosty skies under the lee -of their piled-up saddlebags. On three nights I camped beside their -caravans, and walked round their orderly lines of sheep and their neat -walls of saddlebags; and, far from showing any discourtesy or rude -curiosity, they held down their fierce dogs and exhibited their -ingenious mode of tethering their animals, and not one of the many -articles which my servants were in the habit of leaving outside the -tents was on any occasion abstracted. The dogs, however, were less -honest than their masters, and on one night ran away with half a sheep, -and I should have fared poorly had not Mr. ---- shot some grey doves. - -Marches across sandy and gravelly valleys, and along arid mountain-sides -spotted with a creeping furze and cushions of a yellow-green moss which -seems able to exist without moisture, fords of the Sumgyal and Tserap -rivers, and the crossing of the Lachalang Pass at an altitude of 17,500 -feet in severe frost, occupied several uneventful days. Of the three -lofty passes on this route, the Toglang, which is higher, and the -Baralacha, which is lower, are featureless billows of gravel, over which -a carriage might easily be driven. Not so is the Lachalang, though its -well-made zigzags are easy for laden animals. The approach to it is -fantastic, among precipitous mountains of red sandstone, and red rocks -weathered into pillars, men's heads, and numerous groups of gossipy old -women from thirty to fifty feet high, in flat hats and long circular -cloaks! Entering by red gates of rock into a region of gigantic -mountains, and following up a crystal torrent, the valley narrowing to a -gorge, and the gorge to a chasm guarded by nearly perpendicular needles -of rock flaming in the westering sun, we forded the river at the chasm's -throat, and camped on a velvety green lawn just large enough for a few -tents, absolutely walled in by abrupt mountains 18,000 and 19,000 feet -in height. Long after the twilight settled down on us, the pinnacles -above glowed in warm sunshine, and the following morning, when it was -only dawn below, and the still river pools were frozen and the grass -was white with hoar-frost, the morning sun reddened the snow-peaks and -kindled into vermilion the red needles of Lachalang. That camping-ground -under such conditions is the grandest and most romantic spot of the -whole journey. - -Verdureless and waterless stretches, in crossing which our poor animals -were two nights without food, brought us to the glacier-blue waters of -the Serchu, tumbling along in a deep broad gash, and farther on to a -lateral torrent which is the boundary between Rupchu, tributary to -Kashmir, and Lahul or British Tibet, under the rule of the Empress of -India. The tents were ready pitched in a grassy hollow by the river; -horses, cows, and goats were grazing near them, and a number of men were -preparing food. A Tibetan approached me, accompanied by a creature in a -nondescript dress speaking Hindustani volubly. On a band across his -breast were the British crown, and a plate with the words -'Commissioner's _chaprassie_, Kulu district.' I never felt so -extinguished. Liberty seemed lost, and the romance of the desert to have -died out in one moment! At the camping-ground I found rows of salaaming -Lahulis drawn up, and Hassan Khan in a state which was a compound of -pomposity and jubilant excitement. The _tahsildar_ (really the Tibetan -honorary magistrate), he said, had received instructions from the -Lieutenant-Governor of the Panjab that I was on the way to Kylang, and -was to 'want for nothing.' So twenty-four men, nine horses, a flock of -goats, and two cows had been waiting for me for three days in the Serchu -valley. I wrote a polite note to the magistrate, and sent all back -except the _chaprassie_, the cows, and the cowherd, my servants looking -much crestfallen. - -We crossed the Baralacha Pass in wind and snow showers into a climate in -which moisture began to be obvious. At short distances along the pass, -which extends for many miles, there are rude semicircular walls, three -feet high, all turned in one direction, in the shelter of which -travellers crouch to escape from the strong cutting wind. My men -suffered far more than on the two higher passes, and it was difficult to -dislodge them from these shelters, where they lay groaning, gasping, and -suffering from vertigo and nose-bleeding. The cold was so severe that I -walked over the loftiest part of the pass, and for the first time felt -slight effects of the _ladug_. At a height of 15,000 feet, in the midst -of general desolation, grew, in the shelter of rocks, poppies -(_Mecanopsis aculeata_), blue as the Tibetan skies, their centres filled -with a cluster of golden-yellow stamens,--a most charming sight. Ten or -twelve of these exquisite blossoms grow on one stalk, and stalk, leaf, -and seed-vessels are guarded by very stiff thorns. Lower down flowers -abounded, and at the camping-ground of Patseo (12,000 feet), where the -Tibetan sheep caravans exchange their wool, salt, and borax for grain, -the ground was covered with soft greensward, and real rain fell. Seen -from the Baralacha Pass are vast snowfields, glaciers, and avalanche -slopes. This barrier, and the Rotang, farther south, close this trade -route practically for seven months of the year, for they catch the -monsoon rains, which at that altitude are snows from fifteen to thirty -feet deep; while on the other side of the Baralacha and throughout -Rupchu and Ladak the snowfall is insignificant. So late as August, when -I crossed, there were four perfect snow bridges over the Bhaga, and -snowfields thirty-six feet deep along its margin. At Patseo the -_tahsildar_, with a retinue and animals laden with fodder, came to pay -his respects to me, and invited me to his house, three days' journey. -These were the first human beings we had seen for three days. - -A few miles south of the Baralacha Pass some birch trees appeared on a -slope, the first natural growth of timber that I had seen since crossing -the Zoji La. Lower down there were a few more, then stunted specimens -of the pencil cedar, and the mountains began to show a shade of green on -their lower slopes. Butterflies appeared also, and a vulture, a grand -bird on the wing, hovered ominously over us for some miles, and was -succeeded by an equally ominous raven. On the excellent bridle-track cut -on the face of the precipices which overhang the Bhaga, there is in nine -miles only one spot in which it is possible to pitch a five-foot tent, -and at Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, the only camping-ground is on -the house roofs. There the Chang-pas and their _yaks_ and horses who had -served me pleasantly and faithfully from Tsala left me, and returned to -the freedom of their desert life. At Kolang, the next hamlet, where the -thunder of the Bhaga was almost intolerable, Hara Chang, the magistrate, -one of the _thakurs_ or feudal proprietors of Lahul, with his son and -nephew and a large retinue, called on me; and the next morning Mr. ---- -and I went by invitation to visit him in his castle, a magnificently -situated building on a rocky spur 1,000 feet above the camping-ground, -attained by a difficult climb, and nearly on a level with the glittering -glaciers and ice-falls on the other side of the Bhaga. It only differs -from Leh and Stok castles in having blue glass in some of the smaller -windows. In the family temple, in addition to the usual life-size -images of Buddha and the Triad, there was a female divinity, carved at -Jallandhur in India, copied from a statue representing Queen Victoria in -her younger days--a very fitting possession for the highest government -official in Lahul. The _thakur_, Hara Chang, is wealthy and a rigid -Buddhist, and uses his very considerable influence against the work of -the Moravian missionaries in the valley. The rude path down to the -bridle-road, through fields of barley and buckwheat, is bordered by -roses, gooseberries, and masses of wild flowers. - -[Illustration: GONPO AT KYLANG] - -The later marches after reaching Darcha are grand beyond all -description. The track, scaffolded or blasted out of the rock at a -height of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the thundering Bhaga, is -scarcely a rifle-shot from the mountain mass dividing it from the -Chandra, a mass covered with nearly unbroken ice and snowfields, out of -which rise pinnacles of naked rock 21,000 and 22,000 feet in altitude. -The region is the 'abode of snow,' and glaciers of great size fill up -every depression. Humidity, vegetation, and beauty reappear together, -wild flowers and ferns abound, and pencil cedars in clumps rise above -the artificial plantations of the valley. Wheat ripens at an altitude of -12,000 feet. Picturesque villages, surrounded by orchards, adorn the -mountain spurs; _chod-tens_ and _gonpos_, with white walls and -fluttering flags, brighten the scene; feudal castles crown the heights, -and where the mountains are loftiest, the snowfields and glaciers most -imposing, and the greenery densest, the village of Kylang, the most -important in Lahul as the centre of trade, government, and Christian -missions, hangs on ledges of the mountain-side 1,000 feet above Bhaga, -whose furious course can be traced far down the valley by flashes of -sunlit foam. - -The Lahul valley, which is a part of British Tibet, has an altitude of -10,000 feet. It prospers under British rule, its population has -increased, Hindu merchants have settled in Kylang, the route through -Lahul to Central Asia is finding increasing favour with the Panjabi -traders, and the Moravian missionaries, by a bolder system of irrigation -and the provision of storage for water, have largely increased the -quantity of arable land. The Lahulis are chiefly Tibetans, but Hinduism -is largely mixed up with Buddhism in the lower villages. All the -_gonpos_, however, have been restored and enlarged during the last -twenty years. In winter the snow lies fifteen feet deep, and for four or -five months, owing to the perils of the Rotang Pass, the valley rarely -has any communication with the outer world. - -At the foot of the village of Kylang, which is built in tier above tier -of houses up the steep side of a mountain with a height of 21,000 feet, -are the Moravian mission buildings, long, low, whitewashed erections, of -the simplest possible construction, the design and much of the actual -erection being the work of these capable Germans. The large building, -which has a deep verandah, the only place in which exercise can be taken -in the winter, contains the native church, three rooms for each -missionary, and two guest-rooms. Round the garden are the printing -rooms, the medicine and store room (stores arriving once in two years), -and another guest-room. Round an adjacent enclosure are the houses -occupied in winter by the Christians when they come down with their -sheep and cattle from the hill farms. All is absolutely plain, and as -absolutely clean and trim. The guest-rooms and one or two of the Tibetan -rooms are papered with engravings from the _Illustrated London News_, -but the rooms of the missionaries are only whitewashed, and by their -extreme bareness reminded me of those of very poor pastors in the -Fatherland. A garden, brilliant with zinnias, dianthus, and petunias, -all of immense size, and planted with European trees, is an oasis, and -in it I camped for some weeks under a willow tree, covered, as many are, -with a sweet secretion so abundant as to drop on the roof of the tent, -and which the people collect and use as honey. - -The mission party consisted of Mr. and Mrs. Shreve, lately arrived, and -now in a distant exile at Poo, and Mr. and Mrs. Heyde, who had been in -Tibet for nearly forty years, chiefly spent at Kylang, without going -home. 'Plain living and high thinking' were the rule. Books and -periodicals were numerous, and were read and assimilated. The culture -was simply wonderful, and the acquaintance with the latest ideas in -theology and natural science, the latest political and social -developments, and the latest conceptions in European art, would have led -me to suppose that these admirable people had only just left Europe. -Mrs. Heyde had no servant, and in the long winters, when household and -mission work are over for the day, and there are no mails to write for, -she pursues her tailoring and other needlework, while her husband reads -aloud till midnight. At the time of my visit (September) busy -preparations for the winter were being made. Every day the wood piles -grew. Hay, cut with sickles on the steep hillsides, was carried on human -backs into the farmyard, apples were cored and dried in the sun, -cucumbers were pickled, vinegar was made, potatoes were stored, and meat -was killed and salted. - -It is in winter, when the Christians have come down from the mountain, -that most of the mission work is done. Mrs. Heyde has a school of forty -girls, mostly Buddhists. The teaching is simple and practical, and -includes the knitting of socks, of which from four to five hundred pairs -are turned out each winter, and find a ready sale. The converts meet for -instruction and discussion twice daily, and there is daily worship. The -mission press is kept actively employed in printing the parts of the -Bible which have been translated during the summer, as well as simple -tracts written or translated by Mr. Heyde. No converts are better -instructed, and like those of Leh they seem of good quality, and are -industrious and self-supporting. Winter work is severe, as ponies, -cattle, and sheep must always be hand-fed, and often hand-watered. Mr. -Heyde has great repute as a doctor, and in summer people travel long -distances for his advice and medicine. He is universally respected, and -his judgment in worldly affairs is highly thought of; but if one were to -judge merely by apparent results, the devoted labour of nearly forty -years and complete self-sacrifice for the good of Kylang must be -pronounced unsuccessful. Christianity has been most strongly opposed by -men of influence, and converts have been exposed to persecution and -loss. The abbot of the Kylang monastery lately said to Mr. Heyde, 'Your -Christian teaching has given Buddhism a resurrection.' The actual words -used were, 'When you came here people were quite indifferent about their -religion, but since it has been attacked they have become zealous, and -now they _know_.' It is only by sharing their circumstances of -isolation, and by getting glimpses of their everyday life and work, that -one can realise at all what the heroic perseverance and self-sacrificing -toil of these forty years have been, and what is the weighty influence -on the people and on the standard of morals, even though the number of -converts is so small. All honour to these noble German missionaries, -learned, genial, cultured, radiant, who, whether teaching, preaching, -farming, gardening, printing, or doctoring, are always and everywhere -'living epistles of Christ, known and read of all men!' Close by the -mission house, in a green spot under shady trees, is God's Acre, where -many children of the mission families sleep, and a few adults. - -As the winter is the busiest season in mission work, so it is the great -time in which the _lamas_ make house-to-house peregrinations and attend -at festivals. Then also there is much spinning and weaving by both -sexes, and tobogganing and other games, and much drinking of _chang_ by -priests and people. The cattle remain out till nearly Christmas, and are -then taken into the houses. At the time of the variable new year, the -_lamas_ and nuns retire to the monasteries, and dulness reigns in the -valleys. At the end of a month they emerge, life and noise begin, and -all men to whom sons have been born during the previous year give -_chang_ freely. During the festival which follows, all these jubilant -fathers go out of the village as a gaudily dressed procession, and form -a circle round a picture of a _yak_, painted by the _lamas_, which is -used as a target to be shot at with bows and arrows, and it is believed -that the man who hits it in the centre will be blessed with a son in the -coming year. After this, all the Kylang men and women collect in one -house by annual rotation, and sing and drink immense quantities of -_chang_ till 10 p.m. - -The religious festivals begin soon after. One, the worshipping of the -_lamas_ by the laity, occurs in every village, and lasts from two to -three days. It consists chiefly of music and dancing, while the _lamas_ -sit in rows, swilling _chang_ and arrack. At another, which is -celebrated annually in every house, the _lamas_ assemble, and in front -of certain gods prepare a number of mystical figures made of dough, -which are hung up and are worshipped by the family. Afterwards the -_lamas_ make little balls which are worshipped, and one of the family -mounts the roof and invites the neighbours, who receive the balls from -the _lamas'_ hands and drink moderately of _chang_. Next, the figures -are thrown to the demons as a propitiatory offering, amidst 'hellish -whistlings' and the firing of guns. These ceremonies are called _ise -drup_ (a full life), and it is believed that if they were neglected life -would be cut short. - -One of the most important of the winter religious duties of the _lamas_ -is the reading of the sacred classics under the roof of each -householder. By this means the family accumulate merit, and the longer -the reading is protracted the greater is the accumulation. A -twelve-volume book is taken in the houses of the richer householders, -each one of the twelve or fifteen _lamas_ taking a page, all reading at -an immense pace in a loud chant at the same time. The reading of these -volumes, which consist of Buddhist metaphysics and philosophy, takes -five days, and while reading each _lama_ has his _chang_ cup constantly -replenished. In the poorer households a classic of but one volume is -taken, to lessen the expense of feeding the _lamas_. Festivals and -ceremonies follow each other closely until March, when archery practice -begins, and in April and May the people prepare for the operations of -husbandry. - -The weather in Kylang breaks in the middle of September, but so -fascinating were the beauties and sublimity of Nature, and the virtues -and culture of my Moravian friends, that, shutting my eyes to the -possible perils of the Rotang, I remained until the harvest was brought -home with joy and revelry, and the flush of autumn faded, and the first -snows of winter gave an added majesty to the glorious valley. Then, -reluctantly folding my tent, and taking the same faithful fellows who -brought my baggage from Leh, I spent five weeks on the descent to the -Panjab, journeying through the paradise of Upper Kulu and the -interesting native states of Mandi, Sukket, Bilaspur, and Bhaghat; and -early in November reached the amenities and restraints of the -civilisation of Simla. - -THE END. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Among the Tibetans, by Isabella L. 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Bird—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> - -body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } -h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { text-align: center; clear: both;} -h1 span, h2 span { display: block; margin-bottom: .5em; } -h1 br, h2 br -p { margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent:1em; } -hr { width: 34%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; clear: both;} -table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} - -#author { font-size: 80%; } -div.chapter { page-break-before: always; padding-top: 2em; } -div.chapter h2 { page-break-before: avoid; } -span.chapsub1 { font-size: 80%; } - -td.chap { text-align: center; font-weight: bold; padding-top: 1em; } -td.desc { text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; - padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; } -td.pgno { text-align: right; padding-left: 1em; vertical-align: bottom; } - -a img { border: solid white 2px; } -a img:hover { border: solid blue 2px; } -a:visited img:hover { border: solid purple 2px; } - -.center {text-align: center;} -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.u {text-decoration: underline;} -.caption {font-size: 90%;} -.figcenter { margin: auto; text-align: center;} -.footnote {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em; - padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; } -.fnanchor { vertical-align: top; font-size: .7em; text-decoration: none; } -.label { text-decoration: none; } - - </style> - </head> - <body> -<pre xml:space="preserve"> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Among the Tibetans, by Isabella L. Bird - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Among the Tibetans - -Author: Isabella L. Bird - -Illustrator: Edward Whymper - -Release Date: December 16, 2012 [EBook #41635] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMONG THE TIBETANS *** - - - - -Produced by Suzanne Shell, Asad Razzaki and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_01"></a> <a href="images/gs01.png"><img src="images/gs01s.png" - alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />USMAN SHAH</span> - </div> - <hr /> - <h1> - <span id="title">AMONG THE TIBETANS</span><br /><br /> <span id="author">Isabella - L. Bird</span><br /><br /> <span><small><small>Illustrated by</small></small></span><br /> - <span><small>Edward Whymper</small></span> - </h1> - <p class="center"> - <br /><br /><br />DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.<br /> Mineola, New York - </p> - <hr /> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CONTENTS"></a><span>CONTENTS</span> - </h2> - <div class="center"> - <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - <small>PAGE</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">The Start</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 7 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Shergol and Leh</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 40 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Nubra</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 72 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Manners and Customs</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 101 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="chap" colspan="2"> - <a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <span class="smcap">Climate and Natural Features</span> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 130 - </td> - </tr> - </table> - </div> - <h2> - <a id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a><span>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</span> - </h2> - <div class="center"> - <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - <small>PAGE</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_01">Usman Shah</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - <i>Frontispiece</i> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_02">The Start from Srinagar</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 13 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_03">Camp at Gagangair</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 18 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_04">Sonamarg</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 21 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_05">A hand Prayer-Cylinder</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 42 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_06">Tibetan Girl</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 45 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_07">Gonpo of Spitak</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 51 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_08">Leh</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 57 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_09">A Chod-Ten</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 66 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_10">A Lama</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 74 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_11">Three Gopas</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 77 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_12">Some Instruments of Buddhist Worship</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 86 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_13">Monastic Buildings at Basgu</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 93 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_14">The Yak (<i>Bos grunniens</i>)</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 100 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_15">A Chang-pa Woman</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 102 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_16">Chang-pa Chief</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 110 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_17">The Castle of Stok</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 117 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_18">First Village in Kulu</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 125 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_19">A Tibetan Farm-house</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 133 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_20">Lahul Valley</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 141 - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="desc"> - <a href="#image_21">Gonpo at Kylang</a> - </td> - <td class="pgno"> - 149 - </td> - </tr> - </table> - </div> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_I"></a><span>CHAPTER I</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">THE START</span> - </h2> - <p> - The Vale of Kashmir is too well known to require description. It is the - 'happy hunting-ground' of the Anglo-Indian sportsman and tourist, the - resort of artists and invalids, the home of <i>pashm</i> shawls and - exquisitely embroidered fabrics, and the land of Lalla Rookh. Its - inhabitants, chiefly Moslems, infamously governed by Hindus, are a - feeble race, attracting little interest, valuable to travellers as - 'coolies' or porters, and repulsive to them from the mingled cunning and - obsequiousness which have been fostered by ages of oppression. But even - for them there is the dawn of hope, for the Church Missionary Society - has a strong medical and educational mission at the capital, a hospital - and dispensary under the charge of a lady M.D. have been opened for - women, and a capable and upright 'settlement officer,' lent by the - Indian Government, is investigating the iniquitous land arrangements - with a view to a just settlement. - </p> - <p> - I left the Panjāb railroad system at Rawul Pindi, bought my camp - equipage, and travelled through the grand ravines which lead to Kashmir - or the Jhelum Valley by hill-cart, on horseback, and by house-boat, - reaching Srinagar at the end of April, when the velvet lawns were at - their greenest, and the foliage was at its freshest, and the - deodar-skirted mountains which enclose this fairest gem of the Himalayas - still wore their winter mantle of unsullied snow. Making Srinagar my - headquarters, I spent two months in travelling in Kashmir, half the time - in a native house-boat on the Jhelum and Pohru rivers, and the other - half on horseback, camping wherever the scenery was most attractive. - </p> - <p> - By the middle of June mosquitos were rampant, the grass was tawny, a - brown dust haze hung over the valley, the camp-fires of a multitude - glared through the hot nights and misty moonlight of the Munshibagh, - English tents dotted the landscape, there was no mountain, valley, or - plateau, however remote, free from the clatter of English voices and the - trained servility of Hindu servants, and even Sonamarg, at an altitude - of 8,000 feet and rough of access, had capitulated to lawn-tennis. To a - traveller this Anglo-Indian hubbub was intolerable, and I left Srinagar - and many kind friends on June 20 for the uplifted plateaux of Lesser - Tibet. My party consisted of myself, a thoroughly competent servant and - passable interpreter, Hassan Khan, a Panjābi; a <i>seis</i>, of whom the - less that is said the better; and Mando, a Kashmiri lad, a common - coolie, who, under Hassan Khan's training, developed into an efficient - travelling servant, and later into a smart <i>khītmatgar</i>. - </p> - <p> - Gyalpo, my horse, must not be forgotten—indeed, he cannot be, for - he left the marks of his heels or teeth on every one. He was a beautiful - creature, Badakshani bred, of Arab blood, a silver-grey, as light as a - greyhound and as strong as a cart-horse. He was higher in the scale of - intellect than any horse of my acquaintance. His cleverness at times - suggested reasoning power, and his mischievousness a sense of humour. He - walked five miles an hour, jumped like a deer, climbed like a <i>yak</i>, - was strong and steady in perilous fords, tireless, hardy, hungry, - frolicked along ledges of precipices and over crevassed glaciers, was - absolutely fearless, and his slender legs and the use he made of them - were the marvel of all. He was an enigma to the end. He was quite - untamable, rejected all dainties with indignation, swung his heels into - people's faces when they went near him, ran at them with his teeth, - seized unwary passers-by by their <i>kamar bands</i>, and shook them as - a dog shakes a rat, would let no one go near him but Mando, for whom he - formed at first sight a most singular attachment, but kicked and struck - with his forefeet, his eyes all the time dancing with fun, so that one - could never decide whether his ceaseless pranks were play or vice. He - was always tethered in front of my tent with a rope twenty feet long, - which left him practically free; he was as good as a watchdog, and his - antics and enigmatical savagery were the life and terror of the camp. I - was never weary of watching him, the curves of his form were so - exquisite, his movements so lithe and rapid, his small head and restless - little ears so full of life and expression, the variations in his manner - so frequent, one moment savagely attacking some unwary stranger with a - scream of rage, the next laying his lovely head against Mando's cheek - with a soft cooing sound and a childlike gentleness. When he was - attacking anybody or frolicking, his movements and beauty can only be - described by a phrase of the Apostle James, 'the grace of the fashion of - it.' Colonel Durand, of Gilgit celebrity, to whom I am indebted for many - other kindnesses, gave him to me in exchange for a cowardly, heavy - Yarkand horse, and had previously vainly tried to tame him. His wild - eyes were like those of a seagull. He had no kinship with humanity. - </p> - <p> - In addition, I had as escort an Afghan or Pathan, a soldier of the - Maharajah's irregular force of foreign mercenaries, who had been sent to - meet me when I entered Kashmir. This man, Usman Shah, was a stage - ruffian in appearance. He wore a turban of prodigious height ornamented - with poppies or birds' feathers, loved fantastic colours and ceaseless - change of raiment, walked in front of me carrying a big sword over his - shoulder, plundered and beat the people, terrified the women, and was - eventually recognised at Leh as a murderer, and as great a ruffian in - reality as he was in appearance. An attendant of this kind is a mistake. - The brutality and rapacity he exercises naturally make the people - cowardly or surly, and disinclined to trust a traveller so accompanied. - </p> - <p> - Finally, I had a Cabul tent, 7 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 6 in., weighing, with - poles and iron pins, 75 lbs., a trestle bed and cork mattress, a folding - table and chair, and an Indian <i>dhurrie</i> as a carpet. - </p> - <p> - My servants had a tent 5 ft. 6 in. square, weighing only 10 lbs., which - served as a shelter tent for me during the noonday halt. A kettle, - copper pot, and frying pan, a few enamelled iron table equipments, - bedding, clothing, working and sketching materials, completed my outfit. - The servants carried wadded quilts for beds and bedding, and their own - cooking utensils, unwillingness to use those belonging to a Christian - being nearly the last rag of religion which they retained. The only - stores I carried were tea, a quantity of Edwards' desiccated soup, and a - little saccharin. The 'house,' furniture, clothing, &c., were a - light load for three mules, engaged at a shilling a day each, including - the muleteer. Sheep, coarse flour, milk, and barley were procurable at - very moderate prices on the road. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_02"></a> <a href="images/gs02.png"><img - src="images/gs02s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THE - START FROM SRINAGAR</span> - </div> - <p> - Leh, the capital of Ladakh or Lesser Tibet, is nineteen marches from - Srinagar, but I occupied twenty-six days on the journey, and made the - first 'march' by water, taking my house-boat to Ganderbal, a few hours - from Srinagar, <i>viâ</i> the Mar Nullah and Anchar Lake. Never had this - Venice of the Himalayas, with a broad rushing river for its high street - and winding canals for its back streets, looked so entrancingly - beautiful as in the slant sunshine of the late June afternoon. The light - fell brightly on the river at the Residency stairs where I embarked, on - <i>perindas</i> and state barges, with their painted arabesques, gay - canopies, and 'banks' of thirty and forty crimson-clad, blue-turbaned, - paddling men; on the gay façade and gold-domed temple of the Maharajah's - Palace, on the massive deodar bridges which for centuries have defied - decay and the fierce flood of the Jhelum, and on the quaintly - picturesque wooden architecture and carved brown lattice fronts of the - houses along the swirling waterway, and glanced mirthfully through the - dense leafage of the superb planes which overhang the dark-green water. - But the mercury was 92° in the shade and the sun-blaze terrific, and it - was a relief when the boat swung round a corner, and left the stir of - the broad, rapid Jhelum for a still, narrow, and sharply winding canal, - which intersects a part of Srinagar lying between the Jhelum and the - hill-crowning fort of Hari Parbat. There the shadows were deep, and - chance lights alone fell on the red dresses of the women at the ghats, - and on the shaven, shiny heads of hundreds of amphibious boys who were - swimming and aquatically romping in the canal, which is at once the - sewer and the water supply of the district. - </p> - <p> - Several hours were spent in a slow and tortuous progress through scenes - of indescribable picturesqueness—a narrow waterway spanned by - sharp-angled stone bridges, some of them with houses on the top, or by - old brown wooden bridges festooned with vines, hemmed in by lofty stone - embankments into which sculptured stones from ancient temples are - wrought, on the top of which are houses of rich men, fancifully built, - with windows of fretwork of wood, or gardens with kiosks, and lower - embankments sustaining many-balconied dwellings, rich in colour and - fantastic in design, their upper fronts projecting over the water and - supported on piles. There were gigantic poplars wreathed with vines, - great mulberry trees hanging their tempting fruit just out of reach, - huge planes overarching the water, their dense leafage scraping the mat - roof of the boat; filthy ghats thronged with white-robed Moslems - performing their scanty religious ablutions; great grain boats heavily - thatched, containing not only families, but their sheep and poultry; and - all the other sights of a crowded Srinagar waterway, the houses being - characteristically distorted and out of repair. This canal gradually - widens into the Anchar Lake, a reedy mere of indefinite boundaries, the - breeding-ground of legions of mosquitos; and after the tawny twilight - darkened into a stifling night we made fast to a reed bed, not reaching - Ganderbal till late the next morning, where my horse and caravan awaited - me under a splendid plane-tree. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_03"></a> <a href="images/gs03.png"><img - src="images/gs03s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />CAMP - AT GAGANGAIR</span> - </div> - <p> - For the next five days we marched up the Sind Valley, one of the most - beautiful in Kashmir from its grandeur and variety. Beginning among - quiet rice-fields and brown agricultural villages at an altitude of - 5,000 feet, the track, usually bad and sometimes steep and perilous, - passes through flower-gemmed alpine meadows, along dark gorges above the - booming and rushing Sind, through woods matted with the sweet white - jasmine, the lower hem of the pine and deodar forests which ascend the - mountains to a considerable altitude, past rifts giving glimpses of - dazzling snow-peaks, over grassy slopes dotted with villages, houses, - and shrines embosomed in walnut groves, in sight of the frowning crags - of Haramuk, through wooded lanes and park-like country over which farms - are thinly scattered, over unrailed and shaky bridges, and across - avalanche slopes, till it reaches Gagangair, a dream of lonely beauty, - with a camping-ground of velvety sward under noble plane-trees. Above - this place the valley closes in between walls of precipices and crags, - which rise almost abruptly from the Sind to heights of 8,000 and 10,000 - feet. The road in many places is only a series of steep and shelving - ledges above the raging river, natural rock smoothed and polished into - riskiness by the passage for centuries of the trade into Central Asia - from Western India, Kashmir, and Afghanistan. Its precariousness for - animals was emphasised to me by five serious accidents which occurred in - the week of my journey, one of them involving the loss of the money, - clothing, and sporting kit of an English officer bound for Ladakh for - three months. Above this tremendous gorge the mountains open out, and - after crossing to the left bank of the Sind a sharp ascent brought me to - the beautiful alpine meadow of Sonamarg, bright with spring flowers, - gleaming with crystal streams, and fringed on all sides by deciduous and - coniferous trees, above and among which are great glaciers and the snowy - peaks of Tilail. Fashion has deserted Sonamarg, rough of access, for - Gulmarg, a caprice indicated by the ruins of several huts and of a - church. The pure bracing air, magnificent views, the proximity and - accessibility of glaciers, and the presence of a kind friend who was - 'hutted' there for the summer, made Sonamarg a very pleasant halt before - entering upon the supposed severities of the journey to Lesser Tibet. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_04"></a> <a href="images/gs04.png"><img - src="images/gs04s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />SONAMARG</span> - </div> - <p> - The five days' march, though propitious and full of the charm of - magnificent scenery, had opened my eyes to certain unpleasantnesses. I - found that Usman Shah maltreated the villagers, and not only robbed them - of their best fowls, but requisitioned all manner of things in my name, - though I scrupulously and personally paid for everything, beating the - people with his scabbarded sword if they showed any intention of - standing upon their rights. Then I found that my clever factotum, not - content with the legitimate 'squeeze' of ten per cent., was charging me - double price for everything and paying the sellers only half the actual - price, this legerdemain being perpetrated in my presence. He also by - threats got back from the coolies half their day's wages after I had - paid them, received money for barley for Gyalpo, and never bought it, a - fact brought to light by the growing feebleness of the horse, and - cheated in all sorts of mean and plausible ways, though I paid him - exceptionally high wages, and was prepared to 'wink' at a moderate - amount of dishonesty, so long as it affected only myself. It has a - lowering influence upon one to live in a fog of lies and fraud, and the - attempt to checkmate a fraudulent Asiatic ends in extreme discomfiture. - </p> - <p> - I left Sonamarg late on a lovely afternoon for a short march through - forest-skirted alpine meadows to Baltal, the last camping-ground in - Kashmir, a grassy valley at the foot of the Zoji La, the first of three - gigantic steps by which the lofty plateaux of Central Asia are attained. - On the road a large affluent of the Sind, which tumbles down a pine-hung - gorge in broad sheets of foam, has to be crossed. My <i>seis</i>, a - rogue, was either half-witted or pretended to be so, and, in spite of - orders to the contrary, led Gyalpo upon a bridge at a considerable - height, formed of two poles with flat pieces of stone laid loosely over - them not more than a foot broad. As the horse reached the middle, the - structure gave a sort of turn, there was a vision of hoofs in air and a - gleam of scarlet, and Gyalpo, the hope of the next four months, after - rolling over more than once, vanished among rocks and surges of the - wildest description. He kept his presence of mind, however, recovered - himself, and by a desperate effort got ashore lower down, with legs - scratched and bleeding and one horn of the saddle incurably bent. - </p> - <p> - Mr. Maconochie of the Panjāb Civil Service, and Dr. E. Neve of the C. M. - S. Medical Mission in Kashmir, accompanied me from Sonamarg over the - pass, and that night Mr. M. talked seriously to Usman Shah on the - subject of his misconduct, and with such singular results that - thereafter I had little cause for complaint. He came to me and said, - 'The Commissioner Sahib thinks I give Mem Sahib a great deal of - trouble;' to which I replied in a cold tone, 'Take care you don't give - me any more.' The gist of the Sahib's words was the very pertinent - suggestion that it would eventually be more to his interest to serve me - honestly and faithfully than to cheat me. - </p> - <p> - Baltal lies at the feet of a precipitous range, the peaks of which - exceed Mont Blanc in height. Two gorges unite there. There is not a hut - within ten miles. Big camp-fires blazed. A few shepherds lay under the - shelter of a mat screen. The silence and solitude were most impressive - under the frosty stars and the great Central Asian barrier. Sunrise the - following morning saw us on the way up a huge gorge with nearly - perpendicular sides, and filled to a great depth with snow. Then came - the Zoji La, which, with the Namika La and the Fotu La, respectively - 11,300, 13,000, and 13,500 feet, are the three great steps from Kashmir - to the Tibetan heights. The two latter passes present no difficulties. - The Zoji La is a thoroughly severe pass, the worst, with the exception - perhaps of the Sasir, on the Yarkand caravan route. The track, cut, - broken, and worn on the side of a wall of rock nearly 2,000 feet in - abrupt elevation, is a series of rough narrow zigzags, rarely, if ever, - wide enough for laden animals to pass each other, composed of broken - ledges often nearly breast high, and shelving surfaces of abraded rock, - up which animals have to leap and scramble as best they may. - </p> - <p> - Trees and trailers drooped over the path, ferns and lilies bloomed in - moist recesses, and among myriads of flowers a large blue and cream - columbine was conspicuous by its beauty and exquisite odour. The charm - of the detail tempted one to linger at every turn, and all the more so - because I knew that I should see nothing more of the grace and - bounteousness of Nature till my projected descent into Kulu in the late - autumn. The snow-filled gorge on whose abrupt side the path hangs, the - Zoji La (Pass), is geographically remarkable as being the lowest - depression in the great Himalayan range for 300 miles; and by it, in - spite of infamous bits of road on the Sind and Suru rivers, and - consequent losses of goods and animals, all the traffic of Kashmir, - Afghanistan, and the Western Panjāb finds its way into Central Asia. It - was too early in the season, however, for more than a few enterprising - caravans to be on the road. - </p> - <p> - The last look upon Kashmir was a lingering one. Below, in shadow, lay - the Baltal camping-ground, a lonely deodar-belted flowery meadow, noisy - with the dash of icy torrents tumbling down from the snowfields and - glaciers upborne by the gigantic mountain range into which we had - penetrated by the Zoji Pass. The valley, lying in shadow at their base, - was a dream of beauty, green as an English lawn, starred with white - lilies, and dotted with clumps of trees which were festooned with red - and white roses, clematis, and white jasmine. Above the hardier - deciduous trees appeared the <i>Pinus excelsa</i>, the silver fir, and - the spruce; higher yet the stately grace of the deodar clothed the - hillsides; and above the forests rose the snow mountains of Tilail, pink - in the sunrise. High above the Zoji, itself 11,500 feet in altitude, a - mass of grey and red mountains, snow-slashed and snow-capped, rose in - the dewy rose-flushed atmosphere in peaks, walls, pinnacles, and jagged - ridges, above which towered yet loftier summits, bearing into the - heavenly blue sky fields of unsullied snow alone. The descent on the - Tibetan side is slight and gradual. The character of the scenery - undergoes an abrupt change. There are no more trees, and the large - shrubs which for a time take their place degenerate into thorny bushes, - and then disappear. There were mountains thinly clothed with grass here - and there, mountains of bare gravel and red rock, grey crags, stretches - of green turf, sunlit peaks with their snows, a deep, snow-filled - ravine, eastwards and beyond a long valley filled with a snowfield - fringed with pink primulas; and that was <span class="smcap">Central - Asia</span>. - </p> - <p> - We halted for breakfast, iced our cold tea in the snow, Mr. M. gave a - final charge to the Afghan, who swore by his Prophet to be faithful, and - I parted from my kind escorts with much reluctance, and started on my - Tibetan journey, with but a slender stock of Hindustani, and two men who - spoke not a word of English. On that day's march of fourteen miles there - is not a single hut. The snowfield extended for five miles, from ten to - seventy feet deep, much crevassed, and encumbered with avalanches. In it - the Dras, truly 'snow-born,' appeared, issuing from a chasm under a blue - arch of ice and snow, afterwards to rage down the valley, to be forded - many times or crossed on snow bridges. After walking for some time, and - getting a bad fall down an avalanche slope, I mounted Gyalpo, and the - clever, plucky fellow frolicked over the snow, smelt and leapt crevasses - which were too wide to be stepped over, put his forelegs together and - slid down slopes like a Swiss mule, and, though carried off his feet in - a ford by the fierce surges of the Dras, struggled gamely to shore. - Steep grassy hills, and peaks with gorges cleft by the thundering Dras, - and stretches of rolling grass succeeded each other. Then came a wide - valley mostly covered with stones brought down by torrents, a few plots - of miserable barley grown by irrigation, and among them two buildings of - round stones and mud, about six feet high, with flat mud roofs, one of - which might be called the village, and the other the caravanserai. On - the village roof were stacks of twigs and of the dried dung of animals, - which is used for fuel, and the whole female population, adult and - juvenile, engaged in picking wool. The people of this village of Matayan - are Kashmiris. As I had an hour to wait for my tent, the women descended - and sat in a circle round me with a concentrated stare. They asked if I - were dumb, and why I wore no earrings or necklace, their own persons - being loaded with heavy ornaments. They brought children afflicted with - skin-diseases, and asked for ointment, and on hearing that I was hurt by - a fall, seized on my limbs and shampooed them energetically but not - undexterously. I prefer their sociability to the usual chilling - aloofness of the people of Kashmir. - </p> - <p> - The Serai consisted of several dark and dirty cells, built round a - blazing piece of sloping dust, the only camping-ground, and under the - entrance two platforms of animated earth, on which my servants cooked - and slept. The next day was Sunday, sacred to a halt; but there was no - fodder for the animals, and we were obliged to march to Dras, following, - where possible, the course of the river of that name, which passes among - highly-coloured and snow-slashed mountains, except in places where it - suddenly finds itself pent between walls of flame-coloured or black - rock, not ten feet apart, through which it boils and rages, forming - gigantic pot-holes. With every mile the surroundings became more - markedly of the Central Asian type. All day long a white, scintillating - sun blazes out of a deep blue, rainless, cloudless sky. The air is - exhilarating. The traveller is conscious of daily-increasing energy and - vitality. There are no trees, and deep crimson roses along torrent beds - are the only shrubs. But for a brief fortnight in June, which chanced to - occur during my journey, the valleys and lower slope present a wonderful - aspect of beauty and joyousness. Rose and pale pink primulas fringe the - margin of the snow, the dainty <i>Pedicularis tubiflora</i> covers moist - spots with its mantle of gold; great yellow and white, and small purple - and white anemones, pink and white dianthus, a very large myosotis, - bringing the intense blue of heaven down to earth, purple orchids by the - water, borage staining whole tracts deep blue, martagon lilies, pale - green lilies veined and spotted with brown, yellow, orange, and purple - vetches, painter's brush, dwarf dandelions, white clover, filling the - air with fragrance, pink and cream asters, chrysanthemums, lychnis, - irises, gentian, artemisia, and a hundred others, form the undergrowth - of millions of tall Umbelliferae and Compositae, many of them - peach-scented and mostly yellow. The wind is always strong, and the - millions of bright corollas, drinking in the sun-blaze which perfects - all too soon their brief but passionate existence, rippled in broad - waves of colour with an almost kaleidoscopic effect. About the eleventh - march from Srinagar, at Kargil, a change for the worse occurs, and the - remaining marches to the capital of Ladakh are over blazing gravel or - surfaces of denuded rock, the singular <i>Caprifolia horrida</i>, with - its dark-green mass of wavy ovate leaves on trailing stems, and its - fair, white, anemone-like blossom, and the graceful <i>Clematis - orientalis</i>, the only vegetation. - </p> - <p> - Crossing a raging affluent of the Dras by a bridge which swayed and - shivered, the top of a steep hill offered a view of a great valley with - branches sloping up into the ravines of a complexity of mountain ranges, - from 18,000 to 21,000 feet in altitude, with glaciers at times - descending as low as 11,000 feet in their hollows. In consequence of - such possibilities of irrigation, the valley is green with irrigated - grass and barley, and villages with flat roofs scattered among the - crops, or perched on the spurs of flame-coloured mountains, give it a - wild cheerfulness. These Dras villages are inhabited by hardy Dards and - Baltis, short, jolly-looking, darker, and far less handsome than the - Kashmiris; but, unlike them, they showed so much friendliness, as well - as interest and curiosity, that I remained with them for two days, - visiting their villages and seeing the 'sights' they had to show me, - chiefly a great Sikh fort, a <i>yak</i> bull, the <i>zho</i>, a hybrid, - the interiors of their houses, a magnificent view from a hilltop, and a - Dard dance to the music of Dard reed pipes. In return I sketched them - individually and collectively as far as time allowed, presenting them - with the results, truthful and ugly. I bought a sheep for 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i>, - and regaled the camp upon it, the three which were brought for my - inspection being ridden by boys astride. - </p> - <p> - The evenings in the Dras valley were exquisite. As soon as the sun went - behind the higher mountains, peak above peak, red and snow-slashed, - flamed against a lemon sky, the strong wind moderated into a pure stiff - breeze, bringing up to camp the thunder of the Dras, and the musical - tinkle of streams sparkling in absolute purity. There was no more need - for boiling and filtering. Icy water could be drunk in safety from every - crystal torrent. - </p> - <p> - Leaving behind the Dras villages and their fertility, the narrow road - passes through a flaming valley above the Dras, walled in by bare, - riven, snow-patched peaks, with steep declivities of stones, huge - boulders, decaying avalanches, walls and spires of rock, some vermilion, - others pink, a few intense orange, some black, and many plum-coloured, - with a vitrified look, only to be represented by purple madder. Huge red - chasms with glacier-fed torrents, occasional snowfields, intense solar - heat radiating from dry and verdureless rock, a ravine so steep and - narrow that for miles together there is not space to pitch a five-foot - tent, the deafening roar of a river gathering volume and fury as it - goes, rare openings, where willows are planted with lucerne in their - irrigated shade, among which the traveller camps at night, and over all - a sky of pure, intense blue purpling into starry night, were the - features of the next three marches, noteworthy chiefly for the exchange - of the thundering Dras for the thundering Suru, and for some bad bridges - and infamous bits of road before reaching Kargil, where the mountains - swing apart, giving space to several villages. Miles of alluvium are - under irrigation there, poplars, willows, and apricots abound, and on - some damp sward under their shade at a great height I halted for two - days to enjoy the magnificence of the scenery and the refreshment of the - greenery. These Kargil villages are the capital of the small State of - Purik, under the Governorship of Baltistan or Little Tibet, and are - chiefly inhabited by Ladakhis who have become converts to Islam. Racial - characteristics, dress, and manners are everywhere effaced or toned down - by Mohammedanism, and the chilling aloofness and haughty bearing of - Islam were very pronounced among these converts. - </p> - <p> - The daily routine of the journey was as follows: By six a.m. I sent on a - coolie carrying the small tent and lunch basket to await me half-way. - Before seven I started myself, with Usman Shah in front of me, leaving - the servants to follow with the caravan. On reaching the shelter tent I - halted for two hours, or till the caravan had got a good start after - passing me. At the end of the march I usually found the tent pitched on - irrigated ground, near a hamlet, the headman of which provided milk, - fuel, fodder, and other necessaries at fixed prices. 'Afternoon tea' was - speedily prepared, and dinner, consisting of roast meat and boiled rice, - was ready two hours later. After dinner I usually conversed with the - headman on local interests, and was in bed soon after eight. The - servants and muleteers fed and talked till nine, when the sound of their - 'hubble-bubbles' indicated that they were going to sleep, like most - Orientals, with their heads closely covered with their wadded quilts. - Before starting each morning the account was made out, and I paid the - headman personally. - </p> - <p> - The vagaries of the Afghan soldier, when they were not a cause of - annoyance, were a constant amusement, though his ceaseless changes of - finery and the daily growth of his baggage awakened grave suspicions. - The swashbuckler marched four miles an hour in front of me with a - swinging military stride, a large scimitar in a heavily ornamented - scabbard over his shoulder. Tanned socks and sandals, black or white - leggings wound round from ankle to knee with broad bands of orange or - scarlet serge, white cambric knickerbockers, a white cambric shirt, with - a short white muslin frock with hanging sleeves and a leather girdle - over it, a red-peaked cap with a dark-blue <i>pagri</i> wound round it, - with one end hanging over his back, earrings, a necklace, bracelets, and - a profusion of rings, were his ordinary costume; and in his girdle he - wore a dirk and a revolver, and suspended from it a long tobacco pouch - made of the furry skin of some animal, a large leather purse, and - etceteras. As the days went on he blossomed into blue and white muslin - with a scarlet sash, wore a gold embroidered peak and a huge white - muslin turban, with much change of ornaments, and appeared frequently - with a great bunch of poppies or a cluster of crimson roses surmounting - all. His headgear was colossal. It and the head together must have been - fully a third of his total height. He was a most fantastic object, and - very observant and skilful in his attentions to me; but if I had known - what I afterwards knew, I should have hesitated about taking these long - lonely marches with him for my sole attendant. Between Hassan Khan and - this Afghan violent hatred and jealousy existed. - </p> - <p> - I have mentioned roads, and my road as the great caravan route from - Western India into Central Asia. This is a fitting time for an - explanation. The traveller who aspires to reach the highlands of Tibet - from Kashmir cannot be borne along in a carriage or hill-cart. For much - of the way he is limited to a foot pace, and if he has regard to his - horse he walks down all rugged and steep descents, which are many, and - dismounts at most bridges. By 'roads' must be understood bridle-paths, - worn by traffic alone across the gravelly valleys, but elsewhere - constructed with great toil and expense, as Nature compels the - road-maker to follow her lead, and carry his track along the narrow - valleys, ravines, gorges, and chasms which she has marked out for him. - For miles at a time this road has been blasted out of precipices from - 1,000 feet to 3,000 feet in depth, and is merely a ledge above a raging - torrent, the worst parts, chiefly those round rocky projections, being - 'scaffolded,' i. e. poles are lodged horizontally among the crevices of - the cliff, and the roadway of slabs, planks, and brushwood, or branches - and sods, is laid loosely upon them. This track is always amply wide - enough for a loaded beast, but in many places, when two caravans meet, - the animals of one must give way and scramble up the mountain-side, - where foothold is often perilous, and always difficult. In passing a - caravan near Kargil my servant's horse was pushed over the precipice by - a loaded mule and drowned in the Suru, and at another time my Afghan - caused the loss of a baggage mule of a Leh caravan by driving it off the - track. To scatter a caravan so as to allow me to pass in solitary - dignity he regarded as one of his functions, and on one occasion, on a - very dangerous part of the road, as he was driving heavily laden mules - up the steep rocks above, to their imminent peril and the distraction of - their drivers, I was obliged to strike up his sword with my alpenstock - to emphasise my abhorrence of his violence. The bridges are unrailed, - and many of them are made by placing two or more logs across the stream, - laying twigs across, and covering these with sods, but often so scantily - that the wild rush of the water is seen below. Primitive as these - bridges are, they involve great expense and difficulty in the bringing - of long poplar logs for great distances along narrow mountain tracks by - coolie labour, fifty men being required for the average log. The Ladakhi - roads are admirable as compared with those of Kashmir, and are being - constantly improved under the supervision of H. B. M.'s Joint - Commissioner in Leh. - </p> - <p> - Up to Kargil the scenery, though growing more Tibetan with every march, - had exhibited at intervals some traces of natural verdure; but beyond, - after leaving the Suru, there is not a green thing, and on the next - march the road crosses a lofty, sandy plateau, on which the heat was - terrible—blazing gravel and a blazing heaven, then fiery cliffs - and scorched hillsides, then a deep ravine and the large village of - Paskim (dominated by a fort-crowned rock), and some planted and - irrigated acres; then a narrow ravine and magnificent scenery flaming - with colour, which opens out after some miles on a burning chaos of - rocks and sand, mountain-girdled, and on some remarkable dwellings on a - steep slope, with religious buildings singularly painted. This is - Shergol, the first village of Buddhists, and there I was 'among the - Tibetans.' - </p> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_II"></a><span>CHAPTER II</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">SHERGOL AND LEH</span> - </h2> - <p> - The chaos of rocks and sand, walled in by vermilion and orange - mountains, on which the village of Shergol stands, offered no facilities - for camping; but somehow the men managed to pitch my tent on a steep - slope, where I had to place my trestle bed astride an irrigation - channel, down which the water bubbled noisily, on its way to keep alive - some miserable patches of barley. At Shergol and elsewhere fodder is so - scarce that the grain is not cut, but pulled up by the roots. - </p> - <p> - The intensely human interest of the journey began at that point. Not - greater is the contrast between the grassy slopes and deodar-clothed - mountains of Kashmir and the flaming aridity of Lesser Tibet, than - between the tall, dark, handsome natives of the one, with their - statuesque and shrinking women, and the ugly, short, squat, - yellow-skinned, flat-nosed, oblique-eyed, uncouth-looking people of the - other. The Kashmiris are false, cringing, and suspicious; the Tibetans - truthful, independent, and friendly, one of the pleasantest of peoples. - I 'took' to them at once at Shergol, and terribly faulty though their - morals are in some respects, I found no reason to change my good opinion - of them in the succeeding four months. - </p> - <p> - The headman or <i>go-pa</i> came to see me, introduced me to the objects - of interest, which are a <i>gonpo</i>, or monastery, built into the - rock, with a brightly coloured front, and three <i>chod-tens</i>, or - relic-holders, painted blue, red, and yellow, and daubed with coarse - arabesques and representations of deities, one having a striking - resemblance to Mr. Gladstone. The houses are of mud, with flat roofs; - but, being summer, many of them were roofless, the poplar rods which - support the mud having been used for fuel. Conical stacks of the dried - excreta of animals, the chief fuel of the country, adorned the roofs, - but the general aspect was ruinous and poor. The people all invited me - into their dark and dirty rooms, inhabited also by goats, offered tea - and cheese, and felt my clothes. They looked the wildest of savages, but - they are not. No house was so poor as not to have its 'family altar,' - its shelf of wooden gods, and table of offerings. A religious atmosphere - pervades Tibet, and gives it a singular sense of novelty. Not only were - there <i>chod-tens</i> and a <i>gonpo</i> in this poor place, and family - altars, but prayer-wheels, i.e. wooden cylinders filled with rolls of - paper inscribed with prayers, revolving on sticks, to be turned by - passers-by, inscribed cotton bannerets on poles planted in cairns, and - on the roofs long sticks, to which strips of cotton bearing the - universal prayer, <i>Aum mani padne hun</i> (O jewel of the - lotus-flower), are attached. As these wave in the wind the occupants of - the house gain the merit of repeating this sentence. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_05"></a> <a href="images/gs05.png"><img - src="images/gs05s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - HAND PRAYER-CYLINDER</span> - </div> - <p> - The remaining marches to Leh, the capital of Lesser Tibet, were full of - fascination and novelty. Everywhere the Tibetans were friendly and - cordial. In each village I was invited to the headman's house, and taken - by him to visit the chief inhabitants; every traveller, lay and - clerical, passed by with the cheerful salutation <i>Tzu</i>, asked me - where I came from and whither I was going, wished me a good journey, - admired Gyalpo, and when he scaled rock ladders and scrambled gamely - through difficult torrents, cheered him like Englishmen, the general - jollity and cordiality of manners contrasting cheerily with the chilling - aloofness of Moslems. - </p> - <p> - The irredeemable ugliness of the Tibetans produced a deeper impression - daily. It is grotesque, and is heightened, not modified, by their - costume and ornament. They have high cheekbones, broad flat noses - without visible bridges, small, dark, oblique eyes, with heavy lids and - imperceptible eyebrows, wide mouths, full lips, thick, big, projecting - ears, deformed by great hoops, straight black hair nearly as coarse as - horsehair, and short, square, ungainly figures. The faces of the men are - smooth. The women seldom exceed five feet in height, and a man is tall - at five feet four. - </p> - <p> - The male costume is a long, loose, woollen coat with a girdle, trousers, - under-garments, woollen leggings, and a cap with a turned-up point over - each ear. The girdle is the depository of many things dear to a Tibetan—his - purse, rude knife, heavy tinder-box, tobacco pouch, pipe, distaff, and - sundry charms and amulets. In the capacious breast of his coat he - carries wool for spinning—for he spins as he walks—balls of - cold barley dough, and much besides. He wears his hair in a pigtail. The - women wear short, big-sleeved jackets, shortish, full-plaited skirts, - tight trousers a yard too long, the superfluous length forming folds - above the ankle, a sheepskin with the fur outside hangs over the back, - and on gala occasions a sort of drapery is worn over the usual dress. - Felt or straw shoes and many heavy ornaments are worn by both sexes. - Great <i>ears</i> of brocade, lined and edged with fur and attached to - the hair, are worn by the women. Their hair is dressed once a month in - many much-greased plaits, fastened together at the back by a long - tassel. The head-dress is a strip of cloth or leather, sewn over with - large turquoises, carbuncles, and silver ornaments. This hangs in a - point over the brow, broadens over the top of the head, and tapers as it - reaches the waist behind. The ambition of every Tibetan girl is centred - in this singular headgear. Hoops in the ears, necklaces, amulets, - clasps, bangles of brass or silver, and various implements stuck in the - girdle and depending from it, complete a costume pre-eminent in - ugliness. The Tibetans are dirty. They wash once a year, and, except for - festivals, seldom change their clothes till they begin to drop off. They - are healthy and hardy, even the women can carry weights of sixty pounds - over the passes; they attain extreme old age; their voices are harsh and - loud, and their laughter is noisy and hearty. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_06"></a> <a href="images/gs06.png"><img - src="images/gs06s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />TIBETAN - GIRL</span> - </div> - <p> - After leaving Shergol the signs of Buddhism were universal and imposing, - and the same may be said of the whole of the inhabited part of Lesser - Tibet. Colossal figures of Shakya Thubba (Buddha) are carved on faces of - rock, or in wood, stone, or gilded copper sit on lotus thrones in - endless calm near villages of votaries. <i>Chod-tens</i> from twenty to - a hundred feet in height, dedicated to 'holy' men, are scattered over - elevated ground, or in imposing avenues line the approaches to hamlets - and <i>gonpos</i>. There are also countless <i>manis</i>, dykes of stone - from six to sixteen feet in width and from twenty feet to a fourth of a - mile in length, roofed with flattish stones, inscribed by the <i>lamas</i> - (monks) with the phrase <i>Aum</i>, &c., and purchased and deposited - by those who wish to obtain any special benefit from the gods, such as a - safe journey. Then there are prayer-mills, sometimes 150 in a row, which - revolve easily by being brushed by the hand of the passer-by, larger - prayer-cylinders which are turned by pulling ropes, and others larger - still by water-power. The finest of the latter was in a temple - overarching a perennial torrent, and was said to contain 20,000 - repetitions of the mystic phrase, the fee to the worshipper for each - revolution of the cylinder being from 1<i>d.</i> to 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, - according to his means or urgency. - </p> - <p> - The glory and pride of Ladak and Nubra are the <i>gonpos</i>, of which - the illustrations give a slight idea. Their picturesqueness is - absolutely enchanting. They are vast irregular piles of fantastic - buildings, almost invariably crowning lofty isolated rocks or mountain - spurs, reached by steep, rude rock staircases, <i>chod-tens</i> below - and battlemented towers above, with temples, domes, bridges over chasms, - spires, and scaffolded projections gleaming with gold, looking, as at - Lamayuru, the outgrowth of the rock itself. The outer walls are usually - whitewashed, and red, yellow, and brown wooden buildings, broad bands of - red and blue on the whitewash, tridents, prayer-mills, <i>yaks</i>' - tails, and flags on poles give colour and movement, while the jangle of - cymbals, the ringing of bells, the incessant beating of big drums and - gongs, and the braying at intervals of six-foot silver horns, attest the - ritualistic activities of the communities within. The <i>gonpos</i> - contain from two up to three hundred <i>lamas</i>. These are not - cloistered, and their duties take them freely among the people, with - whom they are closely linked, a younger son in every family being a - monk. Every act in trade, agriculture, and social life needs the - sanction of sacerdotalism, whatever exists of wealth is in the <i>gonpos</i>, - which also have a monopoly of learning, and 11,000 monks, linked with - the people, yet ruling all affairs of life and death and beyond death, - are connected closely by education, tradition, and authority with - Lhassa. - </p> - <p> - Passing along faces of precipices and over waterless plateaux of blazing - red gravel—'waste places,' truly—the journey was cheered by - the meeting of red and yellow <i>lamas</i> in companies, each <i>lama</i> - twirling his prayer-cylinder, abbots, and <i>skushoks</i> (the latter - believed to be incarnations of Buddha) with many retainers, or gay - groups of priestly students, intoning in harsh and high-pitched - monotones, <i>Aum mani padne hun</i>. And so past fascinating monastic - buildings, through crystal torrents rushing over red rock, through - flaming ravines, on rock ledges by scaffolded paths, camping in the - afternoons near friendly villages on oases of irrigated alluvium, and - down the Wanla water by the steepest and narrowest cleft ever used for - traffic, I reached the Indus, crossed it by a wooden bridge where its - broad, fierce current is narrowed by rocks to a width of sixty-five - feet, and entered Ladak proper. A picturesque fort guards the bridge, - and there travellers inscribe their names and are reported to Leh. I - camped at Khalsi, a mile higher, but returned to the bridge in the - evening to sketch, if I could, the grim nudity and repulsive horror of - the surrounding mountains, attended only by Usman Shah. A few months - earlier, this ruffian was sent down from Leh with six other soldiers and - an officer to guard the fort, where they became the terror of all who - crossed the bridge by their outrageous levies of blackmail. My - swashbuckler quarrelled with the officer over a disreputable affair, and - one night stabbed him mortally, induced his six comrades to plunge their - knives into the body, sewed it up in a blanket, and threw it into the - Indus, which disgorged it a little lower down. The men were all arrested - and marched to Srinagar, where Usman turned 'king's evidence.' - </p> - <p> - The remaining marches were alongside of the tremendous granite ranges - which divide the Indus from its great tributary, the Shayok. Colossal - scenery, desperate aridity, tremendous solar heat, and an atmosphere - highly rarefied and of nearly intolerable dryness, were the chief - characteristics. At these Tibetan altitudes, where the valleys exceed - 11,000 feet, the sun's rays are even more powerful than on the 'burning - plains of India.' The day wind, rising at 9 a.m., and only falling near - sunset, blows with great heat and force. The solar heat at noon was from - 120° to 130°, and at night the mercury frequently fell below the - freezing point. I did not suffer from the climate, but in the case of - most Europeans the air passages become irritated, the skin cracks, and - after a time the action of the heart is affected. The hair when released - stands out from the head, leather shrivels and splits, horn combs break - to pieces, food dries up, rapid evaporation renders water-colour - sketching nearly impossible, and tea made with water from fifteen to - twenty below the boiling-point of 212 degrees, is flavourless and flat. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_07"></a> <a href="images/gs07.png"><img - src="images/gs07s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />GONPO - OF SPITAK</span> - </div> - <p> - After a delightful journey of twenty-five days I camped at Spitak, among - the <i>chod-tens</i> and <i>manis</i> which cluster round the base of a - lofty and isolated rock, crowned with one of the most striking - monasteries in Ladak, and very early the next morning, under a sun of - terrific fierceness, rode up a five-mile slope of blazing gravel to the - goal of my long march. Even at a short distance off, the Tibetan capital - can scarcely be distinguished from the bare, ribbed, scored, jagged, - vermilion and rose-red mountains which nearly surround it, were it not - for the palace of the former kings or Gyalpos of Ladak, a huge building - attaining ten storeys in height, with massive walls sloping inwards, - while long balconies and galleries, carved projections of brown wood, - and prominent windows, give it a singular picturesqueness. It can be - seen for many miles, and dwarfs the little Central Asian town which - clusters round its base. - </p> - <p> - Long lines of <i>chod-tens</i> and <i>manis</i> mark the approach to - Leh. Then come barley fields and poplar and willow plantations, bright - streams are crossed, and a small gateway, within which is a colony of - very poor Baltis, gives access to the city. In consequence of 'the - vigilance of the guard at the bridge of Khalsi,' I was expected, and was - met at the gate by the wazir's <i>jemadar</i>, or head of police, in - artistic attire, with <i>spahis</i> in apricot turbans, violet <i>chogas</i>, - and green leggings, who cleared the way with spears, Gyalpo frolicking - as merrily and as ready to bite, and the Afghan striding in front as - firmly, as though they had not marched for twenty-five days through the - rugged passes of the Himalayas. In such wise I was escorted to a shady - bungalow of three rooms, in the grounds of H. B. M.'s Joint - Commissioner, who lives at Leh during the four months of the 'caravan - season,' to assist in regulating the traffic and to guard the interests - of the numerous British subjects who pass through Leh with merchandise. - For their benefit also, the Indian Government aids in the support of a - small hospital, open, however, to all, which, with a largely attended - dispensary, is under the charge of a Moravian medical missionary. - </p> - <p> - Just outside the Commissioner's grounds are two very humble whitewashed - dwellings, with small gardens brilliant with European flowers; and in - these the two Moravian missionaries, the only permanent European - residents in Leh, were living, Mr. Redslob and Dr. Karl Marx, with their - wives. Dr. Marx was at his gate to welcome me. - </p> - <p> - To these two men, especially the former, I owe a debt of gratitude which - in no shape, not even by the hearty acknowledgment of it, can ever be - repaid, for they died within a few days of each other, of an epidemic, - last year, Dr. Marx and a new-born son being buried in one grave. For - twenty-five years Mr. Redslob, a man of noble physique and intellect, a - scholar and linguist, an expert botanist and an admirable artist, - devoted himself to the welfare of the Tibetans, and though his great aim - was to Christianize them, he gained their confidence so thoroughly by - his virtues, kindness, profound Tibetan scholarship, and manliness, that - he was loved and welcomed everywhere, and is now mourned for as the best - and truest friend the people ever had. - </p> - <p> - I had scarcely finished breakfast when he called; a man of great height - and strong voice, with a cheery manner, a face beaming with kindness, - and speaking excellent English. Leh was the goal of my journey, but Mr. - Redslob came with a proposal to escort me over the great passes to the - northward for a three weeks' journey to Nubra, a district formed of the - combined valleys of the Shayok and Nubra rivers, tributaries of the - Indus, and abounding in interest. Of course I at once accepted an offer - so full of advantages, and the performance was better even than the - promise. - </p> - <p> - Two days were occupied in making preparations, but afterwards I spent a - fortnight in my tent at Leh, a city by no means to be passed over - without remark, for, though it and the region of which it is the capital - are very remote from the thoughts of most readers, it is one of the - centres of Central Asian commerce. There all traders from India, - Kashmir, and Afghanistan must halt for animals and supplies on their way - to Yarkand and Khotan, and there also merchants from the mysterious city - of Lhassa do a great business in brick tea and in Lhassa wares, chiefly - ecclesiastical. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_08"></a> <a href="images/gs08.png"><img - src="images/gs08s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />LEH</span> - </div> - <p> - The situation of Leh is a grand one, the great Kailas range, with its - glaciers and snowfields, rising just behind it to the north, its passes - alone reaching an altitude of nearly 18,000 feet; while to the south, - across a gravelly descent and the Indus Valley, rise great red ranges - dominated by snow-peaks exceeding 21,000 feet in altitude. The centre of - Leh is a wide bazaar, where much polo is played in the afternoons; and - above this the irregular, flat-roofed, many-balconied houses of the town - cluster round the palace and a gigantic <i>chod-ten</i> alongside it. - The rugged crest of the rock on a spur of which the palace stands is - crowned by the fantastic buildings of an ancient <i>gonpo</i>. Beyond - the crops and plantations which surround the town lies a flaming desert - of gravel or rock. The architectural features of Leh, except of the - palace, are mean. A new mosque glaring with vulgar colour, a treasury - and court of justice, the wazir's bungalow, a Moslem cemetery, and - Buddhist cremation grounds, in which each family has its separate - burning place, are all that is noteworthy. The narrow alleys, which - would be abominably dirty if dirt were possible in a climate of such - intense dryness, house a very mixed population, in which the Moslem - element is always increasing, partly owing to the renewal of that - proselytising energy which is making itself felt throughout Asia, and - partly to the marriages of Moslem traders with Ladaki women, who embrace - the faith of their husbands and bring up their families in the same. - </p> - <p> - On my arrival few of the shops in the great <i>place</i>, or bazaar, - were open, and there was no business; but a few weeks later the little - desert capital nearly doubled its population, and during August the din - and stir of trade and amusements ceased not by day or night, and the - shifting scenes were as gay in colouring and as full of variety as could - be desired. - </p> - <p> - Great caravans <i>en route</i> for Khotan, Yarkand, and even Chinese - Tibet arrived daily from Kashmir, the Panjāb, and Afghanistan, and - stacked their bales of goods in the <i>place</i>; the Lhassa traders - opened shops in which the specialties were brick tea and instruments of - worship; merchants from Amritsar, Cabul, Bokhara, and Yarkand, stately - in costume and gait, thronged the bazaar and opened bales of costly - goods in tantalising fashion; mules, asses, horses, and <i>yaks</i> - kicked, squealed, and bellowed; the dissonance of bargaining tongues - rose high; there were mendicant monks, Indian fakirs, Moslem dervishes, - Mecca pilgrims, itinerant musicians, and Buddhist ballad howlers; - bold-faced women with creels on their backs brought in lucerne; Ladakis, - Baltis, and Lahulis tended the beasts, and the wazir's <i>jemadar</i> - and gay <i>spahis</i> moved about among the throngs. In the midst of - this picturesque confusion, the short, square-built, Lhassa traders, who - face the blazing sun in heavy winter clothing, exchange their expensive - tea for Nubra and Baltistan dried apricots, Kashmir saffron, and rich - stuffs from India; and merchants from Yarkand on big Turkestan horses - offer hemp, which is smoked as opium, and Russian trifles and dress - goods, under cloudless skies. With the huge Kailas range as a - background, this great rendezvous of Central Asian traffic has a great - fascination, even though moral shadows of the darkest kind abound. - </p> - <p> - On the second morning, while I was taking the sketch of Usman Shah which - appears as the frontispiece, he was recognised both by the Joint - Commissioner and the chief of police as a mutineer and murderer, and was - marched out of Leh. I was asked to look over my baggage, but did not. I - had trusted him, he had been faithful in his way, and later I found that - nothing was missing. He was a brutal ruffian, one of a band of - irregulars sent by the Maharajah of Kashmir to garrison the fort at Leh. - From it they used to descend on the town, plunder the bazaar, insult the - women, take all they wanted without payment, and when one of their - number was being tried for some offence, they dragged the judge out of - court and beat him! After holding Leh in terror for some time the - British Commissioner obtained their removal. It was, however, at the - fort at the Indus bridge, as related before, that the crime of murder - was committed. Still there was something almost grand in the defiant - attitude of the fantastic swashbuckler, as, standing outside the - bungalow, he faced the British Commissioner, to him the embodiment of - all earthly power, and the chief of police, and defied them. Not an inch - would he stir till the wazir gave him a coolie to carry his baggage. He - had been acquitted of the murder, he said, 'and though I killed the man, - it was according to the custom of my country—he gave me an insult - which could only be wiped out in blood!' The guard dared not touch him, - and he went to the wazir, demanded a coolie, and got one! - </p> - <p> - Our party left Leh early on a glorious morning, travelling light, Mr. - Redslob, a very learned Lhassa monk, named Gergan, Mr. R.'s servant, my - three, and four baggage horses, with two drivers engaged for the - journey. The great Kailas range was to be crossed, and the first day's - march up long, barren, stony valleys, without interest, took us to a - piece of level ground, with a small semi-subterranean refuge on which - there was barely room for two tents, at the altitude of the summit of - Mont Blanc. For two hours before we reached it the men and animals - showed great distress. Gyalpo stopped every few yards, gasping, with - blood trickling from his nostrils, and turned his head so as to look at - me, with the question in his eyes, What does this mean? Hassan Khan was - reeling from vertigo, but would not give in; the <i>seis</i>, a creature - without pluck, was carried in a blanket slung on my tent poles, and even - the Tibetans suffered. I felt no inconvenience, but as I unsaddled - Gyalpo I was glad that there was no more work to do! This - 'mountain-sickness,' called by the natives <i>ladug</i>, or - 'pass-poison,' is supposed by them to be the result of the odour or - pollen of certain plants which grow on the passes. Horses and mules are - unable to carry their loads, and men suffer from vertigo, vomiting, - violent headache and bleeding from the nose, mouth, and ears, as well as - prostration of strength, sometimes complete, and occasionally ending - fatally. - </p> - <p> - After a bitterly cold night I was awakened at dawn by novel sounds, - gruntings, and low, resonant bellowing round my tent, and the grey light - revealed several <i>yaks</i> (the <i>Bos grunniens</i>, the Tibetan ox), - the pride of the Tibetan highlands. This magnificent animal, though not - exceeding an English shorthorn cow in height, looks gigantic, with his - thick curved horns, his wild eyes glaring from under a mass of curls, - his long thick hair hanging to his fetlocks, and his huge bushy tail. He - is usually black or tawny, but the tail is often white, and is the - length of his long hair. The nose is fine and has a look of breeding as - well as power. He only flourishes at altitudes exceeding 12,000 feet. - Even after generations of semi-domestication he is very wild, and can - only be managed by being led with a rope attached to a ring in the - nostrils. He disdains the plough, but condescends to carry burdens, and - numbers of the Ladak and Nubra people get their living by carrying goods - for the traders on his broad back over the great passes. His legs are - very short, and he has a sensible way of measuring distance with his - eyes and planting his feet, which enables him to carry loads where it - might be supposed that only a goat could climb. He picks up a living - anyhow, in that respect resembling the camel. - </p> - <p> - He has an uncertain temper, and is not favourably disposed towards his - rider. Indeed, my experience was that just as one was about to mount him - he usually made a lunge at one with his horns. Some of my <i>yak</i> - steeds shied, plunged, kicked, executed fantastic movements on the - ledges of precipices, knocked down their leaders, bellowed defiance, and - rushed madly down mountain sides, leaping from boulder to boulder, till - they landed me among their fellows. The rush of a herd of bellowing <i>yaks</i> - at a wild gallop, waving their huge tails, is a grand sight. - </p> - <p> - My first <i>yak</i> was fairly quiet, and looked a noble steed, with my - Mexican saddle and gay blanket among rather than upon his thick black - locks. His back seemed as broad as that of an elephant, and with his - slow, sure, resolute step, he was like a mountain in motion. We took - five hours for the ascent of the Digar Pass, our loads and some of us on - <i>yaks</i>, some walking, and those who suffered most from the - 'pass-poison' and could not sit on <i>yaks</i> were carried. A number of - Tibetans went up with us. It was a new thing for a European lady to - travel in Nubra, and they took a friendly interest in my getting through - all right. The dreary stretches of the ascent, though at first white - with <i>edelweiss</i>, of which the people make their tinder, are - surmounted for the most part by steep, short zigzags of broken stone. - The heavens were dark with snow-showers, the wind was high and the cold - severe, and gasping horses, and men prostrate on their faces unable to - move, suggested a considerable amount of suffering; but all safely - reached the summit, 17,930 feet, where in a snowstorm the guides - huzzaed, praised their gods, and tucked rag streamers into a cairn. The - loads were replaced on the horses, and over wastes of ice, across - snowfields margined by broad splashes of rose-red primulas, down desert - valleys and along irrigated hillsides, we descended 3,700 feet to the - village of Digar in Nubra, where under a cloudless sky the mercury stood - at 90°! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_09"></a> <a href="images/gs09.png"><img - src="images/gs09s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - CHOD-TEN</span> - </div> - <p> - Upper and Lower Nubra consist of the valleys of the Nubra and Shayok - rivers. These are deep, fierce, variable streams, which have buried the - lower levels under great stretches of shingle, patched with jungles of - <i>hippophaë</i> and tamarisk, affording cover for innumerable wolves. - Great lateral torrents descend to these rivers, and on alluvial ridges - formed at the junctions are the villages with their pleasant - surroundings of barley, lucerne, wheat, with poplar and fruit trees, and - their picturesque <i>gonpos</i> crowning spurs of rock above them. The - first view of Nubra is not beautiful. Yellow, absolutely barren - mountains, cleft by yellow gorges, and apparently formed of yellow - gravel, the huge rifts in their sides alone showing their substructure - of rock, look as if they had never been finished, or had been finished - so long that they had returned to chaos. These hem in a valley of grey - sand and shingle, threaded by a greyish stream. From the second view - point mountains are seen descending on a pleasanter part of the Shayok - valley in grey, yellow, or vermilion masses of naked rock, 7,000 and - 8,000 feet in height, above which rise snow-capped peaks sending out - fantastic spurs and buttresses, while the colossal walls of rock are - cleft by rifts as colossal. The central ridge between the Nubra and - Upper Shayok valleys is 20,000 feet in altitude, and on this are - superimposed five peaks of rock, ascertained by survey to be from 24,000 - to 25,000 feet in height, while at one point the eye takes in a nearly - vertical height of 14,000 feet from the level of the Shayok River! The - Shayok and Nubra valleys are only five and four miles in width - respectively at their widest parts. The early winter traffic chiefly - follows along river beds, then nearly dry, while summer caravans have to - labour along difficult tracks at great heights, where mud and snow - avalanches are common, to climb dangerous rock ladders, and to cross - glaciers and the risky fords of the Shayok. Nubra is similar in - character to Ladak, but it is hotter and more fertile, the mountains are - loftier, the <i>gonpos</i> are more numerous, and the people are - simpler, more religious, and more purely Tibetan. Mr. Redslob loved - Nubra, and as love begets love he received a hearty welcome at Digar and - everywhere else. - </p> - <p> - The descent to the Shayok River gave us a most severe day of twelve - hours. The river had covered the usual track, and we had to take to - torrent beds and precipice ledges, I on one <i>yak</i>, and my tent on - another. In years of travel I have never seen such difficulties. - Eventually at dusk Mr. Redslob, Gergan, the servants, and I descended on - a broad shingle bed by the rushing Shayok; but it was not till dawn on - the following day that, by means of our two <i>yaks</i> and the - muleteers, our baggage and food arrived, the baggage horses being - brought down unloaded, with men holding the head and tail of each. Our - saddle horses, which we led with us, were much cut by falls. Gyalpo fell - fully twenty feet, and got his side laid open. The baggage horses, - according to their owners, had all gone over one precipice, which - delayed them five hours. - </p> - <p> - Below us lay two leaky scows, and eight men from Sati, on the other side - of the Shayok, are pledged to the Government to ferry travellers; but no - amount of shouting and yelling, or burning of brushwood, or even firing, - brought them to the rescue, though their pleasant lights were only a - mile off. Snow fell, the wind was strong and keen, and our tent-pegs - were only kept down by heavy stones. Blankets in abundance were laid - down, yet failed to soften the 'paving stones' on which I slept that - night! We had tea and rice, but our men, whose baggage was astray on the - mountains, were without food for twenty-two hours, positively refusing - to eat our food or cook fresh rice in our cooking pots! To such an - extent has Hindu caste-feeling infected Moslems! The disasters of that - day's march, besides various breakages, were, two servants helpless from - 'pass-poison' and bruises; a Ladaki, who had rolled over a precipice, - with a broken arm, and Gergan bleeding from an ugly scalp wound, also - from a fall. - </p> - <p> - By eight o'clock the next morning the sun was high and brilliant, the - snows of the ravines under its fierce heat were melting fast, and the - river, roaring hoarsely, was a mad rush of grey rapids and grey foam; - but three weeks later in the season, lower down, its many branches are - only two feet deep. This Shayok, which cannot in any way be - circumvented, is the great obstacle on this Yarkand trade route. - Travellers and their goods make the perilous passage in the scow, but - their animals swim, and are often paralysed by the ice-cold water and - drowned. My Moslem servants, white-lipped and trembling, committed - themselves to Allah on the river bank, and the Buddhists worshipped - their sleeve idols. The <i>gopa</i>, or headman of Sati, a splendid - fellow, who accompanied us through Nubra, and eight wild-looking, - half-naked satellites, were the Charons of that Styx. They poled and - paddled with yells of excitement; the rapids seized the scow, and - carried her broadside down into hissing and raging surges; then there - was a plash, a leap of maddened water half filling the boat, a struggle, - a whirl, violent efforts, and a united yell, and far down the torrent we - were in smooth water on the opposite shore. The ferrymen recrossed, - pulled our saddle horses by ropes into the river, the <i>gopa</i> held - them; again the scow and her frantic crew, poling, paddling, and - yelling, were hurried broadside down, and as they swept past there were - glimpses above and among the foam-crested surges of the wild-looking - heads and drifting forelocks of two grey horses swimming desperately for - their lives,—a splendid sight. They landed safely, but of the - baggage animals one was sucked under the boat and drowned, and as the - others refused to face the rapids, we had to obtain other transport. A - few days later the scow, which was brought up in pieces from Kashmir on - coolies' backs at a cost of four hundred rupees, was dashed to pieces! - </p> - <p> - A halt for Sunday in an apricot grove in the pleasant village of Sati - refreshed us all for the long marches which followed, by which we - crossed the Sasir Pass, full of difficulties from snow and glaciers, - which extend for many miles, to the Dipsang Plain, the bleakest and - dreariest of Central Asian wastes, from which the gentle ascent of the - Karakorum Pass rises, and returned, varying our route slightly, to the - pleasant villages of the Nubra valley. Everywhere Mr. Redslob's Tibetan - scholarship, his old-world courtesy, his kindness and adaptability, and - his medical skill, ensured us a welcome the heartiness of which I cannot - describe. The headmen and elders of the villages came to meet us when we - arrived, and escorted us when we left; the monasteries and houses with - the best they contained were thrown open to us; the men sat round our - camp-fires at night, telling stories and local gossip, and asking - questions, everything being translated to me by my kind guide, and so we - actually lived 'among the Tibetans.' - </p> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_III"></a><span>CHAPTER III</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">NUBRA</span> - </h2> - <p> - In order to visit Lower Nubra and return to Leh we were obliged to cross - the great fords of the Shayok at the most dangerous season of the year. - This transit had been the bugbear of the journey ever since news reached - us of the destruction of the Sati scow. Mr. Redslob questioned every man - we met on the subject, solemn and noisy conclaves were held upon it - round the camp-fires, it was said that the 'European woman' and her - 'spider-legged horse' could never get across, and for days before we - reached the stream, the <i>chupas</i>, or government water-guides, made - nightly reports to the village headmen of the state of the waters, which - were steadily rising, the final verdict being that they were only just - practicable for strong horses. To delay till the waters fell was - impossible. Mr. Redslob had engagements in Leh, and I was already - somewhat late for the passage of the lofty passes between Tibet and - British India before the winter, so we decided on crossing with every - precaution which experience could suggest. - </p> - <p> - At Lagshung, the evening before, the Tibetans made prayers and offerings - for a day cloudy enough to keep the water down, but in the morning from - a cloudless sky a scintillating sun blazed down like a magnesium light, - and every glacier and snowfield sent its tribute torrent to the Shayok. - In crossing a stretch of white sand the solar heat was so fierce that - our European skins were blistered through our clothing. We halted at - Lagshung, at the house of a friendly <i>zemindar</i>, who pressed upon - me the loan of a big Yarkand horse for the ford, a kindness which nearly - proved fatal; and then by shingle paths through lacerating thickets of - the horrid <i>Hippophaë rhamnoides</i>, we reached a <i>chod-ten</i> on - the shingly bank of the river, where the Tibetans renewed their prayers - and offerings, and the final orders for the crossing were issued. We had - twelve horses, carrying only quarter loads each, all led; the servants - were mounted, 'water-guides' with ten-foot poles sounded the river - ahead, one led Mr. Redslob's horse (the rider being bare-legged) in - front of mine with a long rope, and two more led mine, while the <i>gopas</i> - of three villages and the <i>zemindar</i> steadied my horse against the - stream. The water-guides only wore girdles, and with elf-locks and - pigtails streaming from their heads, and their uncouth yells and wild - gesticulations, they looked true river-demons. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_10"></a> <a href="images/gs10.png"><img - src="images/gs10s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - LAMA</span> - </div> - <p> - The Shayok presented an expanse of eight branches and a main stream, - divided by shallows and shingle banks, the whole a mile and a half in - width. On the brink the <i>chupas</i> made us all drink good draughts of - the turbid river water, 'to prevent giddiness,' they said, and they - added that I must not think them rude if they dashed water at my face - frequently with the same object. Hassan Khan, and Mando, who was livid - with fright, wore dark-green goggles, that they might not see the - rapids. In the second branch the water reached the horses' bodies, and - my animal tottered and swerved. There were bursts of wild laughter, not - merriment but excitement, accompanied by yells as the streams grew - fiercer, a loud chorus of <i>Kabadar! Sharbaz!</i> ('Caution!' 'Well - done!') was yelled to encourage the horses, and the boom and hiss of the - Shayok made a wild accompaniment. Gyalpo, for whose legs of steel I - longed, frolicked as usual, making mirthful lunges at his leader when - the pair halted. Hassan Khan, in the deepest branch, shakily said to me, - 'I not afraid, Mem Sahib.' During the hour spent in crossing the eight - branches, I thought that the risk had been exaggerated, and that - giddiness was the chief peril. - </p> - <p> - But when we halted, cold and dripping, on the shingle bank of the main - stream I changed my mind. A deep, fierce, swirling rapid, with a calmer - depth below its farther bank, and fully a quarter of a mile wide, was - yet to be crossed. The business was serious. All the <i>chupas</i> went - up and down, sounding, long before they found a possible passage. All - loads were raised higher, the men roped their soaked clothing on their - shoulders, water was dashed repeatedly at our faces, girths were - tightened, and then, with shouts and yells, the whole caravan plunged - into deep water, strong, and almost ice-cold. Half an hour was spent in - that devious ford, without any apparent progress, for in the dizzy swirl - the horses simply seemed treading the water backwards. Louder grew the - yells as the torrent raged more hoarsely, the chorus of <i>kabadar</i> - grew frantic, the water was up to the men's armpits and the seat of my - saddle, my horse tottered and swerved several times, the nearing shore - presented an abrupt bank underscooped by the stream. There was a deeper - plunge, an encouraging shout, and Mr. Redslob's strong horse leapt the - bank. The <i>gopas</i> encouraged mine; he made a desperate effort, but - fell short and rolled over backwards into the Shayok with his rider - under him. A struggle, a moment of suffocation, and I was extricated by - strong arms, to be knocked down again by the rush of the water, to be - again dragged up and hauled and hoisted up the crumbling bank. I escaped - with a broken rib and some severe bruises, but the horse was drowned. - Mr. Redslob, who had thought that my life could not be saved, and the - Tibetans were so distressed by the accident that I made very light of - it, and only took one day of rest. The following morning some men and - animals were carried away, and afterwards the ford was impassable for a - fortnight. Such risks are among the amenities of the great trade route - from India into Central Asia! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_11"></a> <a href="images/gs11.png"><img - src="images/gs11s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THREE - GOPAS</span> - </div> - <p> - The Lower Nubra valley is wilder and narrower than the Upper, its - apricot orchards more luxuriant, its wolf-haunted <i>hippophaë</i> and - tamarisk thickets more dense. Its villages are always close to ravines, - the mouths of which are filled with <i>chod-tens</i>, <i>manis</i>, - prayer-wheels, and religious buildings. Access to them is usually up the - stony beds of streams over-arched by apricots. The camping-grounds are - apricot orchards. The apricot foliage is rich, and the fruit small but - delicious. The largest fruit tree I saw measured nine feet six inches in - girth six feet from the ground. Strangers are welcome to eat as much of - the fruit as they please, provided that they return the stones to the - proprietor. It is true that Nubra exports dried apricots, and the women - were splitting and drying the fruit on every house roof, but the special - <i>raison d'être</i> of the tree is the clear, white, fragrant, and - highly illuminating oil made from the kernels by the simple process of - crushing them between two stones. In every <i>gonpo</i> temple a silver - bowl holding from four to six gallons is replenished annually with this - almond-scented oil for the ever-burning light before the shrine of - Buddha. It is used for lamps, and very largely in cookery. Children, - instead of being washed, are rubbed daily with it, and on being weaned - at the age of four or five, are fed for some time, or rather crammed, - with balls of barley-meal made into a paste with it. - </p> - <p> - At Hundar, a superbly situated village, which we visited twice, we were - received at the house of Gergan the monk, who had accompanied us - throughout. He is a <i>zemindar</i>, and the large house in which he - made us welcome stands in his own patrimony. Everything was prepared for - us. The mud floors were swept, cotton quilts were laid down on the - balconies, blue cornflowers and marigolds, cultivated for religious - ornament, were in all the rooms, and the women were in gala dress and - loaded with coarse jewellery. Right hearty was the welcome. Mr. Redslob - loved, and therefore was loved. The Tibetans to him were not 'natives,' - but brothers. He drew the best out of them. Their superstitions and - beliefs were not to him 'rubbish,' but subjects for minute investigation - and study. His courtesy to all was frank and dignified. In his dealings - he was scrupulously just. He was intensely interested in their - interests. His Tibetan scholarship and knowledge of Tibetan sacred - literature gave him almost the standing of an abbot among them, and his - medical skill and knowledge, joyfully used for their benefit on former - occasions, had won their regard. So at Hundar, as everywhere else, the - elders came out to meet us and cut the apricot branches away on our - road, and the silver horns of the <i>gonpo</i> above brayed a dissonant - welcome. Along the Indus valley the servants of Englishmen beat the - Tibetans, in the Shayok and Nubra valleys the Yarkand traders beat and - cheat them, and the women are shy with strangers, but at Hundar they - were frank and friendly with me, saying, as many others had said, 'We - will trust any one who comes with the missionary.' - </p> - <p> - Gergan's home was typical of the dwellings of the richer cultivators and - landholders. It was a large, rambling, three-storeyed house, the lower - part of stone, the upper of huge sun-dried bricks. It was adorned with - projecting windows and brown wooden balconies. Fuel—the dried - excreta of animals—is too scarce to be used for any but cooking - purposes, and on these balconies in the severe cold of winter the people - sit to imbibe the warm sunshine. The rooms were large, ceiled with - peeled poplar rods, and floored with split white pebbles set in clay. - There was a temple on the roof, and in it, on a platform, were life-size - images of Buddha, seated in eternal calm, with his downcast eyes and - mild Hindu face, the thousand-armed Chan-ra-zigs (the great Mercy), - Jam-pal-yangs (the Wisdom), and Chag-na-dorje (the Justice). In front on - a table or altar were seven small lamps, burning apricot oil, and twenty - small brass cups, containing minute offerings of rice and other things, - changed daily. There were prayer-wheels, cymbals, horns and drums, and a - prayer-cylinder six feet high, which it took the strength of two men to - turn. On a shelf immediately below the idols were the brazen sceptre, - bell, and thunderbolt, a brass lotus blossom, and the spouted brass - flagon decorated with peacocks' feathers, which is used at baptisms, and - for pouring holy water upon the hands at festivals. In houses in which - there is not a roof temple the best room is set apart for religious use - and for these divinities, which are always surrounded with musical - instruments and symbols of power, and receive worship and offerings - daily, Tibetan Buddhism being a religion of the family and household. In - his family temple Gergan offered gifts and thanks for the deliverances - of the journey. He had been assisting Mr. Redslob for two years in the - translation of the New Testament, and had wept over the love and - sufferings of our Lord Jesus Christ. He had even desired that his son - should receive baptism and be brought up as a Christian, but for himself - he 'could not break with custom and his ancestral creed.' - </p> - <p> - In the usual living-room of the family a platform, raised only a few - inches, ran partly round the wall. In the middle of the floor there was - a clay fireplace, with a prayer-wheel and some clay and brass cooking - pots upon it. A few shelves, fire-bars for roasting barley, a wooden - churn, and some spinning arrangements were the furniture. A number of - small dark rooms used for sleeping and storage opened from this, and - above were the balconies and reception rooms. Wooden posts supported the - roofs, and these were wreathed with lucerne, the first fruits of the - field. Narrow, steep staircases in all Tibetan houses lead to the family - rooms. In winter the people live below, alongside of the animals and - fodder. In summer they sleep in loosely built booths of poplar branches - on the roof. Gergan's roof was covered, like others at the time, to the - depth of two feet, with hay, i. e. grass and lucerne, which are wound - into long ropes, experience having taught the Tibetans that their scarce - fodder is best preserved thus from breakage and waste. I bought hay by - the yard for Gyalpo. - </p> - <p> - Our food in this hospitable house was simple—apricots, fresh, or - dried and stewed with honey; <i>zho's</i> milk, curds and cheese, sour - cream, peas, beans, balls of barley dough, barley porridge, and 'broth - of abominable things.' <i>Chang</i>, a dirty-looking beer made from - barley, was offered with each meal, and tea frequently, but I took my - own 'on the sly.' I have mentioned a churn as part of the 'plenishings' - of the living-room. In Tibet the churn is used for making tea! I give - the recipe. 'For six persons. Boil a teacupful of tea in three pints of - water for ten minutes with a heaped dessert-spoonful of soda. Put the - infusion into the chum with one pound of butter and a small - tablespoonful of salt. Churn until as thick as cream.' Tea made after - this fashion holds the second place to <i>chang</i> in Tibetan - affections. The butter according to our thinking is always rancid, the - mode of making it is uncleanly, and it always has a rank flavour from - the goatskin in which it was kept. Its value is enhanced by age. I saw - skins of it forty, fifty, and even sixty years old, which were very - highly prized, and would only be opened at some special family festival - or funeral. - </p> - <p> - During the three days of our visits to Hundar both men and women wore - their festival dresses, and apparently abandoned most of their ordinary - occupations in our honour. The men were very anxious that I should be - 'amused,' and made many grotesque suggestions on the subject. 'Why is - the European woman always writing or sewing?' they asked. 'Is she very - poor, or has she made a vow?' Visits to some of the neighbouring - monasteries were eventually proposed, and turned out most interesting. - </p> - <p> - The monastery of Deskyid, to which we made a three days' expedition, is - from its size and picturesque situation the most imposing in Nubra. - Built on a majestic spur of rock rising on one side 2,000 feet - perpendicularly from a torrent, the spur itself having an altitude of - 11,000 feet, with red peaks, snow-capped, rising to a height of over - 20,000 feet behind the vast irregular pile of red, white, and yellow - temples, towers, storehouses, cloisters, galleries, and balconies, - rising for 300 feet one above another, hanging over chasms, built out on - wooden buttresses, and surmounted with flags, tridents, and <i>yaks'</i> - tails, a central tower or keep dominating the whole, it is perhaps the - most picturesque object I have ever seen, well worth the crossing of the - Shayok fords, my painful accident, and much besides. It looks - inaccessible, but in fact can be attained by rude zigzags of a thousand - steps of rock, some natural, others roughly hewn, getting worse and - worse as they rise higher, till the later zigzags suggest the - difficulties of the ascent of the Great Pyramid. The day was fearfully - hot, 99° in the shade, and the naked, shining surfaces of purple rock - with a metallic lustre radiated heat. My 'gallant grey' took me up - half-way—a great feat—and the Tibetans cheered and shouted '<i>Sharbaz!</i>' - ('Well done!') as he pluckily leapt up the great slippery rock ledges. - After I dismounted, any number of willing hands hauled and helped me up - the remaining horrible ascent, the rugged rudeness of which is quite - indescribable. The inner entrance is a gateway decorated with a <i>yak's</i> - head and many Buddhist emblems. High above, on a rude gallery, fifty - monks were gathered with their musical instruments. As soon as the <i>Kan-po</i> - or abbot, Punt-sog-sogman (the most perfect Merit), received us at the - gate, the monkish orchestra broke forth in a tornado of sound of a most - tremendous and thrilling quality, which was all but overwhelming, as the - mountain echoes took up and prolonged the sound of fearful blasts on - six-foot silver horns, the bellowing thunder of six-foot drums, the - clash of cymbals, and the dissonance of a number of monster gongs. It - was not music, but it was sublime. The blasts on the horns are to - welcome a great personage, and such to the monks who despised his - teaching was the devout and learned German missionary. Mr. Redslob - explained that I had seen much of Buddhism in Ceylon and Japan, and - wished to see their temples. So with our train of <i>gopas</i>, <i>zemindar</i>, - peasants, and muleteers, we mounted to a corridor full of <i>lamas</i> - in ragged red dresses, yellow girdles, and yellow caps, where we were - presented with plates of apricots, and the door of the lowest of the - seven temples heavily grated backwards. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_12"></a> <a href="images/gs12.png"><img - src="images/gs12s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />SOME - INSTRUMENTS OF BUDDHIST WORSHIP</span> - </div> - <p> - The first view, and indeed the whole view of this temple of <i>Wrath</i> - or <i>Justice</i>, was suggestive of a frightful <i>Inferno</i>, with - its rows of demon gods, hideous beyond Western conception, engaged in - torturing writhing and bleeding specimens of humanity. Demon masks of - ancient lacquer hung from the pillars, naked swords gleamed in - motionless hands, and in a deep recess whose 'darkness' was rendered - 'visible' by one lamp, was that indescribable horror the executioner of - the Lord of Hell, his many brandished arms holding instruments of - torture, and before him the bell, the thunderbolt and sceptre, the holy - water, and the baptismal flagon. Our joss-sticks fumed on the still air, - monks waved censers, and blasts of dissonant music woke the - semi-subterranean echoes. In this temple of Justice the younger <i>lamas</i> - spend some hours daily in the supposed contemplation of the torments - reserved for the unholy. In the highest temple, that of Peace, the - summer sunshine fell on Shakya Thubba and the Buddhist triad seated in - endless serenity. The walls were covered with frescoes of great <i>lamas</i>, - and a series of alcoves, each with an image representing an incarnation - of Buddha, ran round the temple. In a chapel full of monstrous images - and piles of medallions made of the ashes of 'holy' men, the sub-abbot - was discoursing to the acolytes on the religious classics. In the chapel - of meditations, among lighted incense sticks, monks seated before images - were telling their beads with the object of working themselves into a - state of ecstatic contemplation (somewhat resembling a certain hypnotic - trance), for there are undoubtedly devout <i>lamas</i>, though the - majority are idle and unholy. It must be understood that all Tibetan - literature is 'sacred,' though some of the volumes of exquisite - calligraphy on parchment, which for our benefit were divested of their - silken and brocaded wrappings, contain nothing better than fairy tales - and stories of doubtful morality, which are recited by the <i>lamas</i> - to the accompaniment of incessant cups of <i>chang</i>, as a religious - duty when they visit their 'flocks' in the winter. - </p> - <p> - The Deskyid <i>gonpo</i> contains 150 <i>lamas</i>, all of whom have - been educated at Lhassa. A younger son in every household becomes a - monk, and occasionally enters upon his vocation as an acolyte pupil as - soon as weaned. At the age of thirteen these acolytes are sent to study - at Lhassa for five or seven years, their departure being made the - occasion of a great village feast, with several days of religious - observances. The close connection with Lhassa, especially in the case of - the yellow <i>lamas</i>, gives Nubra Buddhism a singular interest. All - the larger <i>gonpos</i> have their prototype in Lhassa, all ceremonial - has originated in Lhassa, every instrument of worship has been - consecrated in Lhassa, and every <i>lama</i> is educated in the learning - only to be obtained at Lhassa. Buddhism is indeed the most salient - feature of Nubra. There are <i>gonpos</i> everywhere, the roads are - lined by miles of <i>chod-tens</i>, <i>manis</i>, and prayer-mills, and - flags inscribed with sacred words in Sanskrit flutter from every roof. - There are processions of red and yellow <i>lamas</i>; every act in - trade, agriculture, and social life needs the sanction of sacerdotalism; - whatever exists of wealth is in the <i>gonpos</i>, which also have a - monopoly of learning, and 11,000 monks closely linked with the laity, - yet ruling all affairs of life and death and beyond death, are all - connected by education, tradition, and authority with Lhassa. - </p> - <p> - We remained long on the blazing roof of the highest tower of the <i>gonpo</i>, - while good Mr. Redslob disputed with the abbot 'concerning the things - pertaining to the kingdom of God.' The monks standing round laughed - sneeringly. They had shown a little interest, Mr. R. said, on his - earlier visits. The abbot accepted a copy of the Gospel of St. John. - 'St. Matthew,' he observed, 'is very laughable reading.' Blasts of wild - music and the braying of colossal horns honoured our departure, and our - difficult descent to the apricot groves of Deskyid. On our return to - Hundar the grain was ripe on Gergan's fields. The first ripe ears were - cut off, offered to the family divinity, and were then bound to the - pillars of the house. In the comparatively fertile Nubra valley the - wheat and barley are cut, not rooted up. While they cut the grain the - men chant, 'May it increase, We will give to the poor, we will give to - the <i>lamas</i>,' with every stroke. They believe that it can be made - to multiply both under the sickle and in the threshing, and perform many - religious rites for its increase while it is in sheaves. After eight - days the corn is trodden out by oxen on a threshing-floor renewed every - year. After winnowing with wooden forks, they make the grain into a - pyramid, insert a sacred symbol, and pile upon it the threshing - instruments and sacks, erecting an axe on the apex with its blade turned - to the west, as that is the quarter from which demons are supposed to - come. In the afternoon they feast round it, always giving a portion to - the axe, saying, 'It is yours, it belongs not to me.' At dusk they pour - it into the sacks again, chanting, 'May it increase.' But these are not - removed to the granary until late at night, at an hour when the hands of - the demons are too much benumbed by the nightly frost to diminish the - store. At the beginning of every one of these operations the presence of - <i>lamas</i> is essential, to announce the auspicious moment, and - conduct religious ceremonies. They receive fees, and are regaled with - abundant <i>chang</i> and the fat of the land. - </p> - <p> - In Hundar, as elsewhere, we were made very welcome in all the houses. I - have described the dwelling of Gergan. The poorer peasants occupy - similar houses, but roughly built, and only two-storeyed, and the floors - are merely clay. In them also the very numerous lower rooms are used for - cattle and fodder only, while the upper part consists of an inner or - winter room, an outer or supper room, a verandah room, and a family - temple. Among their rude plenishings are large stone corn chests like - sarcophagi, stone bowls from Baltistan, cauldrons, cooking pots, a - tripod, wooden bowls, spoons, and dishes, earthen pots, and <i>yaks</i>' - and sheep's packsaddles. The garments of the household are kept in long - wooden boxes. - </p> - <p> - Family life presents some curious features. In the disposal in marriage - of a girl, her eldest brother has more 'say' than the parents. The - eldest son brings home the bride to his father's house, but at a given - age the old people are 'shelved,' i.e. they retire to a small house, - which may be termed a 'jointure house,' and the eldest son assumes the - patrimony and the rule of affairs. I have not met with a similar custom - anywhere in the East. It is difficult to speak of Tibetan life, with all - its affection and jollity, as '<i>family life</i>,' for Buddhism, which - enjoins monastic life, and usually celibacy along with it, on eleven - thousand out of a total population of a hundred and twenty thousand, - farther restrains the increase of population within the limits of - sustenance by inculcating and rigidly upholding the system of polyandry, - permitting marriage only to the eldest son, the heir of the land, while - the bride accepts all his brothers as inferior or subordinate husbands, - thus attaching the whole family to the soil and family roof-tree, the - children being regarded legally as the property of the eldest son, who - is addressed by them as 'Big Father,' his brothers receiving the title - of 'Little Father.' The resolute determination, on economic as well as - religious grounds, not to abandon this ancient custom, is the most - formidable obstacle in the way of the reception of Christianity by the - Tibetans. The women cling to it. They say, 'We have three or four men to - help us instead of one,' and sneer at the dulness and monotony of - European, monogamous life! A woman said to me, 'If I had only one - husband, and he died, I should be a widow; if I have two or three I am - never a widow!' The word 'widow' is with them a term of reproach, and is - applied abusively to animals and men. Children are brought up to be very - obedient to fathers and mother, and to take great care of little ones - and cattle. Parental affection is strong. Husbands and wives beat each - other, but separation usually follows a violent outbreak of this kind. - It is the custom for the men and women of a village to assemble when a - bride enters the house of her husbands, each of them presenting her with - three rupees. The Tibetan wife, far from spending these gifts on - personal adornment, looks ahead, contemplating possible contingencies, - and immediately hires a field, the produce of which is her own, and - which accumulates year after year in a separate granary, so that she may - not be portionless in case she leaves her husband! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_13"></a> <a href="images/gs13.png"><img - src="images/gs13s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />MONASTIC - BUILDINGS AT BASGU</span> - </div> - <p> - It was impossible not to become attached to the Nubra people, we lived - so completely among them, and met with such unbounded goodwill. Feasts - were given in our honour, every <i>gonpo</i> was open to us, monkish - blasts on colossal horns brayed out welcomes, and while nothing could - exceed the helpfulness and alacrity of kindness shown by all, there was - not a thought or suggestion of <i>backsheesh</i>. The men of the - villages always sat by our camp-fires at night, friendly and jolly, but - never obtrusive, telling stories, discussing local news and the - oppressions exercised by the Kashmiri officials, the designs of Russia, - the advance of the Central Asian Railway, and what they consider as the - weakness of the Indian Government in not annexing the provinces of the - northern frontier. Many of their ideas and feelings are akin to ours, - and a mutual understanding is not only possible, but inevitable<a - id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>. - </p> - <p class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1" class="label"> [1]</a> Mr. - Redslob said that when on different occasions he was smitten by heavy - sorrows, he felt no difference between the Tibetan feeling and - expression of sympathy and that of Europeans. A stronger testimony to - the effect produced by his twenty-five years of loving service could - scarcely be given than our welcome in Nubra. During the dangerous - illness which followed, anxious faces thronged his humble doorway as - early as break of day, and the stream of friendly inquiries never ceased - till sunset, and when he died the people of Ladak and Nubra wept and - 'made a great mourning for him,' as for their truest friend. - </p> - <p> - Industry in Nubra is the condition of existence, and both sexes work - hard enough to give a great zest to the holidays on religious festival - days. Whether in the house or journeying the men are never seen without - the distaff. They weave also, and make the clothes of the women and - children! The people are all cultivators, and make money also by - undertaking the transit of the goods of the Yarkand traders over the - lofty passes. The men plough with the <i>zho</i>, or hybrid <i>yak</i>, - and the women break the clods and share in all other agricultural - operations. The soil, destitute of manure, which is dried and hoarded - for fuel, rarely produces more than tenfold. The 'three acres and a cow' - is with them four acres of alluvial soil to a family on an average, with - 'runs' for <i>yaks</i> and sheep on the mountains. The farms, planted - with apricot and other fruit trees, a prolific loose-grained barley, - wheat, peas, and lucerne, are oases in the surrounding deserts. The - people export apricot oil, dried apricots, sheep's wool, heavy undyed - woollens, a coarse cloth made from <i>yaks'</i> hair, and <i>pashm</i>, - the under fleece of the shawl goat. They complained, and I think with - good reason, of the merciless exactions of the Kashmiri officials, but - there were no evidences of severe poverty, and not one beggar was seen. - </p> - <p> - It was not an easy matter to get back to Leh. The rise of the Shayok - made it impossible to reach and return by the Digar Pass, and the - alternative route over the Kharzong glacier continued for some time - impracticable—that is, it was perfectly smooth ice. At length the - news came that a fall of snow had roughened its surface. A number of men - worked for two days at scaffolding a path, and with great difficulty, - and the loss of one <i>yak</i> from a falling rock, a fruitful source of - fatalities in Tibet, we reached Khalsar, where with great regret we - parted with <i>Tse-ring-don-drub</i> (Life's purpose fulfilled), the <i>gopa</i> - of Sati, whose friendship had been a real pleasure, and to whose courage - and promptitude, in Mr. Redslob's opinion, I owed my rescue from - drowning. Two days of very severe marching and long and steep ascents - brought us to the wretched hamlet of Kharzong Lar-sa, in a snowstorm, at - an altitude higher than the summit of Mont Blanc. The servants were all - ill of 'pass-poison,' and crept into a cave along with a number of big - Tibetan mastiffs, where they enjoyed the comfort of semi-suffocation - till the next morning, Mr. R. and I, with some willing Tibetan helpers, - pitching our own tents. The wind was strong and keen, and with the - mercury down at 15° Fahrenheit it was impossible to do anything but to - go to bed in the early afternoon, and stay there till the next day. Mr. - Redslob took a severe chill, which produced an alarming attack of - pleurisy, from the effects of which he never fully recovered. - </p> - <p> - We started on a grim snowy morning, with six <i>yaks</i> carrying our - baggage or ridden by ourselves, four led horses, and a number of - Tibetans, several more having been sent on in advance to cut steps in - the glacier and roughen them with gravel. Within certain limits the - ground grows greener as one ascends, and we passed upwards among - primulas, asters, a large blue myosotis, gentians, potentillas, and - great sheets of <i>edelweiss</i>. At the glacier foot we skirted a deep - green lake on snow with a glorious view of the Kharzong glacier and the - pass, a nearly perpendicular wall of rock, bearing up a steep glacier - and a snowfield of great width and depth, above which tower pinnacles of - naked rock. It presented to all appearance an impassable barrier rising - 2,500 feet above the lake, grand and awful in the dazzling whiteness of - the new-fallen snow. Thanks to the ice steps our <i>yaks</i> took us - over in four hours without a false step, and from the summit, a sharp - ridge 17,500 feet in altitude, we looked our last on grimness, - blackness, and snow, and southward for many a weary mile to the Indus - valley lying in sunshine and summer. Fully two dozen carcases of horses - newly dead lay in cavities of the glacier. Our animals were ill of - 'pass-poison,' and nearly blind, and I was obliged to ride my <i>yak</i> - into Leh, a severe march of thirteen hours, down miles of crumbling - zigzags, and then among villages of irrigated terraces, till the grand - view of the Gyalpo's palace, with its air-hung <i>gonpo</i> and - clustering <i>chod-tens</i>, and of the desert city itself, burst - suddenly upon us, and our benumbed and stiffened limbs thawed in the hot - sunshine. I pitched my tent in a poplar grove for a fortnight, near the - Moravian compounds and close to the travellers' bungalow, in which is a - British Postal Agency, with a Tibetan postmaster who speaks English, a - Christian, much trusted and respected, named Joldan, in whose - intelligence, kindness, and friendship I found both interest and - pleasure. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_14"></a> <a href="images/gs14.png"><img - src="images/gs14s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THE - YAK (<i>Bos grunniens</i>)</span> - </div> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><span>CHAPTER IV</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">MANNERS AND CUSTOMS</span> - </h2> - <p> - Joldan, the Tibetan British postmaster in Leh, is a Christian of - spotless reputation. Every one places unlimited confidence in his - integrity and truthfulness, and his religious sincerity has been - attested by many sacrifices. He is a Ladaki, and the family property was - at Stok, a few miles from Leh. He was baptized in Lahul at twenty-three, - his father having been a Christian. He learned Urdu, and was for ten - years mission schoolmaster in Kylang, but returned to Leh a few years - ago as postmaster. His 'ancestral dwelling' at Stok was destroyed by - order of the wazir, and his property confiscated, after many - unsuccessful efforts had been made to win him back to Buddhism. - Afterwards he was detained by the wazir, and compelled to serve as a - sepoy, till Mr. Heyde went to the council and obtained his release. His - house in Leh has been more than once burned by incendiaries. But he - pursues a quiet, even course, brings up his family after the best - Christian traditions, refuses Buddhist suitors for his daughters, - unobtrusively but capably helps the Moravian missionaries, supports his - family by steady industry, although of noble birth, and asks nothing of - any one. His 'good morning' and 'good night,' as he daily passed my tent - with clockwork regularity, were full of cheery friendliness; he gave - much useful information about Tibetan customs, and his ready helpfulness - greatly facilitated the difficult arrangements for my farther journey. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_15"></a> <a href="images/gs15.png"><img - src="images/gs15s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - CHANG-PA WOMAN</span> - </div> - <p> - The Leh, which I had left so dull and quiet, was full of strangers, - traffic, and noise. The neat little Moravian church was filled by a - motley crowd each Sunday, in which the few Christians were - distinguishable by their clean faces and clothes and their devout air; - and the Medical Mission Hospital and Dispensary, which in winter have an - average attendance of only a hundred patients a month, were daily - thronged with natives of India and Kashmir, Baltis, Yarkandis, Dards, - and Tibetans. In my visits with Dr. Marx I observed, what was confirmed - by four months' experience of the Tibetan villagers, that rheumatism, - inflamed eyes and eyelids, and old age are the chief Tibetan maladies. - Some of the Dards and Baltis were lepers, and the natives of India - brought malarial fever, dysentery, and other serious diseases. The - hospital, which is supported by the Indian Government, is most - comfortable, a haven of rest for those who fall sick by the way. The - hospital assistants are intelligent, thoroughly kind-hearted young - Tibetans, who, by dint of careful drilling and an affectionate desire to - please 'the teacher with the medicine box,' have become fairly - trustworthy. They are not Christians. - </p> - <p> - In the neat dispensary at 9 a.m. a gong summons the patients to the - operating room for a short religious service. Usually about fifty were - present, and a number more, who had some curiosity about 'the way,' but - did not care to be seen at Christian worship, hung about the doorways. - Dr. Marx read a few verses from the Gospels, explaining them in a homely - manner, and concluded with the Lord's Prayer. Then the out-patients were - carefully and gently treated, leprous limbs were bathed and anointed, - the wards were visited at noon and again at sunset, and in the - afternoons operations were performed with the most careful antiseptic - precautions, which are supposed to be used for the purpose of keeping - away evil spirits from the wounds! The Tibetans, in practice, are very - simple in their applications of medical remedies. Rubbing with butter is - their great panacea. They have a dread of small-pox, and instead of - burning its victims they throw them into their rapid torrents. If an - isolated case occur, the sufferer is carried to a mountain-top, where he - is left to recover or die. If a small-pox epidemic is in the province, - the people of the villages in which it has not yet appeared place thorns - on their bridges and boundaries, to scare away the evil spirits which - are supposed to carry the disease. In ordinary illnesses, if butter - taken internally as well as rubbed into the skin does not cure the - patient, the <i>lamas</i> are summoned to the rescue. They make a <i>mitsap</i>, - a half life-size figure of the sick person, dress it in his or her - clothes and ornaments, and place it in the courtyard, where they sit - round it, reading passages from the sacred classics fitted for the - occasion. After a time, all rise except the superior <i>lama</i>, who - continues reading, and taking small drums in their left hands, they - recite incantations, and dance wildly round the <i>mitsap</i>, - believing, or at least leading the people to believe, that by this - ceremony the malady, supposed to be the work of a demon, will be - transferred to the image. Afterwards the clothes and ornaments are - presented to them, and the figure is carried in procession out of the - yard and village and is burned. If the patient becomes worse, the - friends are apt to resort to the medical skill of the missionaries. If - he dies they are blamed, and if he recovers the <i>lamas</i> take the - credit. - </p> - <p> - At some little distance outside Leh are the cremation grounds—desert - places, destitute of any other vegetation than the <i>Caprifolia horrida</i>. - Each family has its furnace kept in good repair. The place is doleful, - and a funeral scene on the only sunless day I experienced in Ladak was - indescribably dismal. After death no one touches the corpse but the <i>lamas</i>, - who assemble in numbers in the case of a rich man. The senior <i>lama</i> - offers the first prayers, and lifts the lock which all Tibetans wear at - the back of the head, in order to liberate the soul if it is still - clinging to the body. At the same time he touches the region of the - heart with a dagger. The people believe that a drop of blood on the head - marks the spot where the soul has made its exit. Any good clothing in - which the person has died is then removed. The blacksmith beats a drum, - and the corpse, covered with a white sheet next the dress and a coloured - one above, is carried out of the house to be worshipped by the - relatives, who walk seven times round it. The women then retire to the - house, and the chief <i>lama</i> recites liturgical passages from the - formularies. Afterwards, the relatives retire, and the corpse is carried - to the burning-ground by men who have the same tutelar deity as the - deceased. The leading <i>lama</i> walks first, then come men with flags, - followed by the blacksmith with the drum, and next the corpse, with - another man beating a drum behind it. Meanwhile, the <i>lamas</i> are - praying for the repose and quieting of the soul, which is hovering - about, desiring to return. The attendant friends, each of whom has - carried a piece of wood to the burning-ground, arrange the fuel with - butter on the furnace, the corpse wrapped in the white sheet is put in, - and fire is applied. The process of destruction in a rich man's case - takes about an hour. During the burning the <i>lamas</i> read in high, - hoarse monotones, and the blacksmiths beat their drums. The <i>lamas</i> - depart first, and the blacksmiths, after worshipping the ashes, shout, - 'Have nothing to do with us now,' and run rapidly away. At dawn the - following day, a man whose business it is searches among the ashes for - the footprints of animals, and according to the footprints found, so it - is believed will be the re-birth of the soul. - </p> - <p> - Some of the ashes are taken to the <i>gonpos</i>, where the <i>lamas</i> - mix them with clay, put them into oval or circular moulds, and stamp - them with the image of Buddha. These are preserved in <i>chod-tens</i>, - and in the house of the nearest relative of the deceased; but in the - case of 'holy' men, they are retained in the <i>gonpos</i>, where they - can be purchased by the devout. After a cremation much <i>chang</i> is - consumed by the friends, who make presents to the bereaved family. The - value of each is carefully entered in a book, so that a precise return - may be made when a similar occasion occurs. Until the fourth day after - death it is believed to be impossible to quiet the soul. On that day a - piece of paper is inscribed with prayers and requests to the soul to be - quiet, and this is burned by the <i>lamas</i> with suitable ceremonies; - and rites of a more or less elaborate kind are afterwards performed for - the repose of the soul, accompanied with prayers that it may get 'a good - path' for its re-birth, and food is placed in conspicuous places about - the house, that it may understand that its relatives are willing to - support it. The mourners for some time wear wretched clothes, and - neither dress their hair nor wash their faces. Every year the <i>lamas</i> - sell by auction the clothing and ornaments, which are their perquisites - at funerals<a id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>. - </p> - <p class="footnote"> - <a id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2" class="label"> [2]</a> For - these and other curious details concerning Tibetan customs I am indebted - to the kindness and careful investigations of the late Rev. W. Redslob, - of Leh, and the Rev. A. Heyde, of Kylang. - </p> - <p> - The Moravian missionaries have opened a school in Leh, and the wazir, - finding that the Leh people are the worst educated in the country, - ordered that one child at least in each family should be sent to it. - This awakened grave suspicions, and the people hunted for reasons for - it. 'The boys are to be trained as porters, and made to carry burdens - over the mountains,' said some. 'Nay,' said others, 'they are to be sent - to England and made Christians of.' [All foreigners, no matter what - their nationality is, are supposed to be English.] Others again said, - 'They are to be kidnapped,' and so the decree was ignored, till Mr. - Redslob and Dr. Marx went among the parents and explained matters, and a - large attendance was the result; for the Tibetans of the trade route - have come to look upon the acquisition of 'foreign learning' as the - stepping-stone to Government appointments at ten rupees per month. - Attendance on religious instruction was left optional, but after a time - sixty pupils were regularly present at the daily reading and explanation - of the Gospels. Tibetan fathers teach their sons to write, to read the - sacred classics, and to calculate with a frame of balls on wires. If - farther instruction is thought desirable, the boys are sent to the <i>lamas</i>, - and even to the schools at Lhassa. The Tibetans willingly receive and - read translations of our Christian books, and some go so far as to think - that their teachings are 'stronger' than those of their own, indicating - their opinions by tearing pages out of the Gospels and rolling them up - into pills, which are swallowed in the belief that they are an effective - charm. Sorcery is largely used in the treatment of the sick. The books - which instruct in the black art are known as 'black books.' Those which - treat of medicine are termed 'blue books.' Medical knowledge is handed - down from father to son. The doctors know the virtues of many of the - plants of the country, quantities of which they mix up together while - reciting magical formulas. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_16"></a> <a href="images/gs16.png"><img - src="images/gs16s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />CHANG-PA - CHIEF</span> - </div> - <p> - I was heartily sorry to leave Leh, with its dazzling skies and abounding - colour and movement, its stirring topics of talk, and the culture and - exceeding kindness of the Moravian missionaries. Helpfulness was the - rule. Gergan came over the Kharzong glacier on purpose to bring me a - prayer-wheel; Lob-sang and Tse-ring-don-drub, the hospital assistants, - made me a tent carpet of <i>yak's</i> hair cloth, singing as they sewed; - and Joldan helped to secure transport for the twenty-two days' journey - to Kylang. Leh has few of what Europeans regard as travelling - necessaries. The brick tea which I purchased from a Lhassa trader was - disgusting. I afterwards understood that blood is used in making up the - blocks. The flour was gritty, and a leg of mutton turned out to be a - limb of a goat of much experience. There were no straps, or leather to - make them of, in the bazaar, and no buckles; and when the latter were - provided by Mr. Redslob, the old man who came to sew them upon a warm - rug which I had made for Gyalpo out of pieces of carpet and hair-cloth - put them on wrongly three times, saying after each failure, 'I'm very - foolish. Foreign ways are so wonderful!' At times the Tibetans say, - 'We're as stupid as oxen,' and I was inclined to think so, as I stood - for two hours instructing the blacksmith about making shoes for Gyalpo, - which kept turning out either too small for a mule or too big for a - dray-horse. - </p> - <p> - I obtained two Lahul muleteers with four horses, quiet, obliging men, - and two superb <i>yaks</i>, which were loaded with twelve days' hay and - barley for my horse. Provisions for the whole party for the same time - had to be carried, for the route is over an uninhabited and arid desert. - Not the least important part of my outfit was a letter from Mr. Redslob - to the headman or chief of the Chang-pas or Champas, the nomadic tribes - of Rupchu, to whose encampment I purposed to make a <i>détour</i>. These - nomads had on two occasions borrowed money from the Moravian - missionaries for the payment of the Kashmiri tribute, and had repaid it - before it was due, showing much gratitude for the loans. - </p> - <p> - Dr. Marx accompanied me for the three first days. The few native - Christians in Leh assembled in the gay garden plot of the lowly - mission-house to shake hands and wish me a good journey, and not a few - who were not Christians, some of them walking for the first hour beside - our horses. The road from Leh descends to a rude wooden bridge over the - Indus, a mighty stream even there, over blazing slopes of gravel - dignified by colossal <i>manis</i> and <i>chod-tens</i> in long lines, - built by the former kings of Ladak. On the other side of the river - gravel slopes ascend towards red mountains 20,000 feet in height. Then - comes a rocky spur crowned by the imposing castle of the Gyalpo, the son - of the dethroned king of Ladak, surmounted by a forest of poles from - which flutter <i>yaks'</i> tails and long streamers inscribed with - prayers. Others bear aloft the trident, the emblem of Siva. Carefully - hewn zigzags, entered through a much-decorated and colossal <i>chod-ten</i>, - lead to the castle. The village of Stok, the prettiest and most - prosperous in Ladak, fills up the mouth of a gorge with its large - farm-houses among poplar, apricot, and willow plantations, and irrigated - terraces of barley; and is imposing as well as pretty, for the two roads - by which it is approached are avenues of lofty <i>chod-tens</i> and - broad <i>manis</i>, all in excellent repair. Knolls, and deeply coloured - spurs of naked rock, most picturesquely crowded with <i>chod-tens</i>, - rise above the greenery, breaking the purple gloom of the gorge which - cuts deeply into the mountains, and supplies from its rushing glacier - torrent the living waters which create this delightful oasis. - </p> - <p> - The <i>gopa</i> came forth to meet us, bearing apricots and cheeses as - the Gyalpo's greeting, and conducted us to the camping-ground, a sloping - lawn in a willow-wood, with many a natural bower of the graceful <i>Clematis - orientalis</i>. The tents were pitched, afternoon tea was on a table - outside, a clear, swift stream made fitting music, the dissonance of the - ceaseless beating of gongs and drums in the castle temple was softened - by distance, the air was cool, a lemon light bathed the foreground, and - to the north, across the Indus, the great mountains of the Leh range, - with every cleft defined in purple or blue, lifted their vermilion peaks - into a rosy sky. It was the poetry and luxury of travel. - </p> - <p> - At Leh I was obliged to dismiss the <i>seis</i> for prolonged misconduct - and cruelty to Gyalpo, and Mando undertook to take care of him. The - animal had always been held by two men while the <i>seis</i> groomed him - with difficulty, but at Stok, when Mando rubbed him down, he quietly - went on feeding and laid his lovely head on the lad's shoulder with a - soft cooing sound. From that moment Mando could do anything with him, - and a singular attachment grew up between man and horse. - </p> - <p> - Towards sunset we were received by the Gyalpo. The castle loses nothing - of its picturesqueness on a nearer view, and everything about it is trim - and in good order. It is a substantial mass of stone building on a lofty - rock, the irregularities of which have been taken most artistic - advantage of in order to give picturesque irregularity to the edifice, - which, while six storeys high in some places, is only three in others. - As in the palace of Leh, the walls slope inwards from the base, where - they are ten feet thick, and projecting balconies of brown wood and grey - stone relieve their monotony. We were received at the entrance by a - number of red <i>lamas</i>, who took us up five flights of rude stairs - to the reception room, where we were introduced to the Gyalpo, who was - in the midst of a crowd of monks, and, except that his hair was not - shorn, and that he wore a silver brocade cap and large gold earrings and - bracelets, was dressed in red like them. Throneless and childless, the - Gyalpo has given himself up to religion. He has covered the castle roof - with Buddhist emblems (not represented in the sketch). From a pole, - forty feet long, on the terrace floats a broad streamer of equal length, - completely covered with <i>Aum mani padne hun</i>, and he has surrounded - himself with <i>lamas</i>, who conduct nearly ceaseless services in the - sanctuary. The attainment of merit, as his creed leads him to understand - it, is his one aim in life. He loves the seclusion of Stok, and rarely - visits the palace in Leh, except at the time of the winter games, when - the whole population assembles in cheery, orderly crowds, to witness - races, polo and archery matches, and a species of hockey. He interests - himself in the prosperity of Stok, plants poplars, willows, and fruit - trees, and keeps the castle <i>manis</i> and <i>chod-tens</i> in - admirable repair. - </p> - <p> - Stok Castle is as massive as any of our mediaeval buildings, but is far - lighter and roomier. It is most interesting to see a style of - architecture and civilisation which bears not a solitary trace of - European influence, not even in Manchester cottons or Russian gimcracks. - The Gyalpo's room was only roofed for six feet within the walls, where - it was supported by red pillars. Above, the deep blue Tibetan sky was - flushing with the red of sunset, and from a noble window with a covered - stone balcony there was an enchanting prospect of red ranges passing - into translucent amethyst. The partial ceiling is painted in arabesques, - and at one end of the room is an alcove, much enriched with bold wood - carving. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_17"></a> <a href="images/gs17.png"><img - src="images/gs17s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />THE - CASTLE OF STOK</span> - </div> - <p> - The Gyalpo was seated on a carpet on the floor, a smooth-faced, rather - stupid-looking man of twenty-eight. He placed us on a carpet beside him, - and coffee, honey, and apricots were brought in, but the conversation - flagged. He neither suggested anything nor took up Dr. Marx's - suggestions. Fortunately, we had brought our sketch-books, and the views - of several places were recognised, and were found interesting. The <i>lamas</i> - and servants, who had remained respectfully standing, sat down on the - floor, and even the Gyalpo became animated. So our visit ended - successfully. - </p> - <p> - There is a doorway from the reception room into the sanctuary, and after - a time fully thirty <i>lamas</i> passed in and began service, but the - Gyalpo only stood on his carpet. There is only a half light in this - temple, which is further obscured by scores of smoked and dusty - bannerets of gold and silver brocade hanging from the roof. In addition - to the usual Buddhist emblems there are musical instruments, exquisitely - inlaid, or enriched with <i>niello</i> work of gold and silver of great - antiquity, and bows of singular strength, requiring two men to bend - them, which are made of small pieces of horn cleverly joined. <i>Lamas</i> - gabbled liturgies at railroad speed, beating drums and clashing cymbals - as an accompaniment, while others blew occasional blasts on the colossal - silver horns or trumpets, which probably resemble those with which - Jericho was encompassed. The music, the discordant and high-pitched - monotones, and the revolting odours of stale smoke of juniper chips, of - rancid butter, and of unwashed woollen clothes which drifted through the - doorway, were overpowering. Attempted fights among the horses woke me - often during the night, and the sound of worship was always borne over - the still air. - </p> - <p> - Dr. Marx left on the third day, after we had visited the monastery of - Hemis, the richest in Ladak, holding large landed property and - possessing much metallic wealth, including a <i>chod-ten</i> of silver - and gold, thirty feet high, in one of its many halls, approached by - gold-plated silver steps and incrusted with precious stones; there is - also much fine work in brass and bronze. Hemis abounds in decorated - buildings most picturesquely placed, it has three hundred <i>lamas</i>, - and is regarded as 'the sight' of Ladak. - </p> - <p> - At Upschi, after a day's march over blazing gravel, I left the rushing - olive-green Indus, which I had followed from the bridge of Khalsi, where - a turbulent torrent, the Upshi water, joins it, descending through a - gorge so narrow that the track, which at all times is blasted on the - face of the precipice, is occasionally scaffolded. A very extensive - rock-slip had carried away the path and rendered several fords - necessary, and before I reached it rumour was busy with the peril. It - was true that the day before several mules had been carried away and - drowned, that many loads had been sacrificed, and that one native - traveller had lost his life. So I started my caravan at daybreak, to get - the water at its lowest, and ascended the gorge, which is an absolutely - verdureless rift in mountains of most brilliant and fantastic - stratification. At the first ford Mando was carried down the river for a - short distance. The second was deep and strong, and a caravan of - valuable goods had been there for two days, afraid to risk the crossing. - My Lahulis, who always showed a great lack of stamina, sat down, sobbing - and beating their breasts. Their sole wealth, they said, was in their - baggage animals, and the river was 'wicked,' and 'a demon' lived in it - who paralysed the horses' legs. Much experience of Orientals and of - travel has taught me to surmount difficulties in my own way, so, - beckoning to two men from the opposite side, who came over shakily with - linked arms, I took the two strong ropes which I always carry on my - saddle, and roped these men together and to Gyalpo's halter with one, - and lashed Mando and the guide together with the other, giving them the - stout thongs behind the saddle to hold on to, and in this compact mass - we stood the strong rush of the river safely, the paralysing chill of - its icy waters being a far more obvious peril. All the baggage animals - were brought over in the same way, and the Lahulis praised their gods. - </p> - <p> - At Gya, a wild hamlet, the last in Ladak proper, I met a working - naturalist whom I had seen twice before, and 'forgathered' with him much - of the way. Eleven days of solitary desert succeeded. The reader has - probably understood that no part of the Indus, Shayok, and Nubra - valleys, which make up most of the province of Ladak, is less than 9,500 - feet in altitude, and that the remainder is composed of precipitous - mountains with glaciers and snowfields, ranging from 18,000 to 25,000 - feet, and that the villages are built mainly on alluvial soil where - possibilities of irrigation exist. But Rupchu has peculiarities of its - own. - </p> - <p> - Between Gya and Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, are three huge - passes, the Toglang, 18,150 feet in altitude, the Lachalang, 17,500, and - the Baralacha, 16,000,—all easy, except for the difficulties - arising from the highly rarefied air. The mountains of the region, which - are from 20,000 to 23,000 feet in altitude, are seldom precipitous or - picturesque, except the huge red needles which guard the Lachalang Pass, - but are rather 'monstrous protuberances,' with arid surfaces of - disintegrated rock. Among these are remarkable plateaux, which are taken - advantage of by caravans, and which have elevations of from 14,000 to - 15,000 feet. There are few permanent rivers or streams, the lakes are - salt, beside the springs, and on the plateaux there is scanty - vegetation, chiefly aromatic herbs; but on the whole Rupchu is a desert - of arid gravel. Its only inhabitants are 500 nomads, and on the ten - marches of the trade route, the bridle paths, on which in some places - labour has been spent, the tracks, not always very legible, made by the - passage of caravans, and rude dykes, behind which travellers may shelter - themselves from the wind, are the only traces of man. Herds of the <i>kyang</i>, - the wild horse of some naturalists, and the wild ass of others, graceful - and beautiful creatures, graze within gunshot of the track without - alarm. - </p> - <p> - I had thought Ladak windy, but Rupchu is the home of the winds, and the - marches must be arranged for the quietest time of the day. Happily the - gales blow with clockwork regularity, the day wind from the south and - south-west rising punctually at 9 a.m. and attaining its maximum at - 2.30, while the night wind from the north and north-east rises about 9 - p.m. and ceases about 5 a.m. Perfect silence is rare. The highly - rarefied air, rushing at great speed, when at its worst deprives the - traveller of breath, skins his face and hands, and paralyses the baggage - animals. In fact, neither man nor beast can face it. The horses 'turn - tail' and crowd together, and the men build up the baggage into a wall - and crouch in the lee of it. The heat of the solar rays is at the same - time fearful. At Lachalang, at a height of over 15,000 feet, I noted a - solar temperature of 152°, only 35° below the boiling point of water in - the same region, which is about 187°. To make up for this, the mercury - falls below the freezing point every night of the year, even in August - the difference of temperature in twelve hours often exceeding 120°! The - Rupchu nomads, however, delight in this climate of extremes, and regard - Leh as a place only to be visited in winter, and Kulu and Kashmir as if - they were the malarial swamps of the Congo! - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_18"></a> <a href="images/gs18.png"><img - src="images/gs18s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />FIRST - VILLAGE IN KULU</span> - </div> - <p> - We crossed the Toglang Pass, at a height of 18,150 feet, with less - suffering from <i>ladug</i> than on either the Digar or Kharzong Passes. - Indeed Gyalpo carried me over it, stopping to take breath every few - yards. It was then a long dreary march to the camping-ground of Tsala, - where the Chang-pas spend the four summer months; the guides and baggage - animals lost the way and did not appear until the next day, and in - consequence the servants slept unsheltered in the snow. News travels as - if by magic in desert places. Towards evening, while riding by a stream - up a long and tedious valley, I saw a number of moving specks on the - crest of a hill, and down came a surge of horsemen riding furiously. - Just as they threatened to sweep Gyalpo away, they threw their horses on - their haunches, in one moment were on the ground, which they touched - with their foreheads, presented me with a plate of apricots, and the - next vaulted into their saddles, and dashing up the valley were soon out - of sight. In another half-hour there was a second wild rush of horsemen, - the headman dismounted, threw himself on his face, kissed my hand, - vaulted into the saddle, and then led a swirl of his tribesmen at a - gallop in ever-narrowing circles round me till they subsided into the - decorum of an escort. An elevated plateau with some vegetation on it, a - row of forty tents, 'black' but not 'comely,' a bright rapid river, wild - hills, long lines of white sheep converging towards the camp, <i>yaks</i> - rampaging down the hillsides, men running to meet us, and women and - children in the distance were singularly idealised in the golden glow of - a cool, moist evening. - </p> - <p> - Two men took my bridle, and two more proceeded to put their hands on my - stirrups; but Gyalpo kicked them to the right and left amidst shrieks of - laughter, after which, with frantic gesticulations and yells of '<i>Kabardar!</i>' - I was led through the river in triumph and hauled off my horse. The - tribesmen were much excited. Some dashed about, performing feats of - horsemanship; others brought apricots and dough-balls made with apricot - oil, or rushed to the tents, returning with rugs; some cleared the - camping-ground of stones and raised a stone platform, and a flock of - goats, exquisitely white from the daily swims across the river, were - brought to be milked. Gradually and shrinkingly the women and children - drew near; but Mr. ——'s Bengali servant threatened them with - a whip, when there was a general stampede, the women running like hares. - I had trained my servants to treat the natives courteously, and - addressed some rather strong language to the offender, and afterwards - succeeded in enticing all the fugitives back by showing my sketches, - which gave boundless pleasure and led to very numerous requests for - portraits! The <i>gopa</i>, though he had the oblique Mongolian eyes, - was a handsome young man, with a good nose and mouth. He was dressed - like the others in a girdled <i>chaga</i> of coarse serge, but wore a - red cap turned up over the ears with fine fur, a silver inkhorn, and a - Yarkand knife in a chased silver sheath in his girdle, and - canary-coloured leather shoes with turned-up points. The people prepared - one of their own tents for me, and laying down a number of rugs of their - own dyeing and weaving, assured me of an unbounded welcome as a friend - of their 'benefactor,' Mr. Redslob, and then proposed that I should - visit their tents accompanied by all the elders of the tribe. - </p> - </div> - <div class="chapter"> - <h2> - <a id="CHAPTER_V"></a><span>CHAPTER V</span><br /><br /> <span - class="chapsub1">CLIMATE AND NATURAL FEATURES</span> - </h2> - <p> - The last chapter left me with the chief and elders of the Chang-pas - starting on 'a round of visits,' and it was not till nightfall that the - solemn ceremony was concluded. Each of the fifty tents was visited: at - every one a huge, savage Tibetan mastiff made an attempt to fly at me, - and was pounced upon and held down by a woman little bigger than - himself, and in each cheese and milk were offered and refused. In all I - received a hearty welcome for the sake of the 'great father,' Mr. - Redslob, who designated these people as 'the simplest and kindliest - people on earth.' - </p> - <p> - This Chang-pa tribe, numbering five hundred souls, makes four moves in - the year, dividing in summer, and uniting in a valley very free from - snow in the winter. They are an exclusively pastoral people, and possess - large herds of <i>yaks</i> and ponies and immense flocks of sheep and - goats, the latter almost entirely the beautiful 'shawl goat,' from the - undergrowth at the base of the long hair of which the fine Kashmir - shawls are made. This <i>pashm</i> is a provision which Nature makes - against the intense cold of these altitudes, and grows on <i>yaks</i>, - sheep, and dogs, as well as on most of the wild animals. The sheep is - the big, hornless, flop-eared <i>huniya</i>. The <i>yaks</i> and sheep - are the load carriers of Rupchu. Small or easily divided merchandise is - carried by sheep, and bulkier goods by <i>yaks</i>, and the Chang-pas - make a great deal of money by carrying for the Lahul, Central Ladak, and - Rudok merchants, their sheep travelling as far as Gar in Chinese Tibet. - They are paid in grain as well as coin, their own country producing no - farinaceous food. They have only two uses for silver money. With part of - their gains they pay the tribute to Kashmir, and they melt the rest, and - work it into rude personal ornaments. According to an old arrangement - between Lhassa and Leh, they carry brick tea free for the Lhassa - merchants. They are Buddhists, and practise polyandry, but their young - men do not become <i>lamas</i>, and owing to the scarcity of fuel, - instead of burning their dead, they expose them with religious rites - face upwards in desolate places, to be made away with by the birds of - the air. All their tents have a god-shelf, on which are placed small - images and sacred emblems. They dress as the Ladakis, except that the - men wear shoes with very high turned-up points, and that the women, in - addition to the <i>perak</i>, the usual ornament, place on the top of - the head a large silver coronet with three tassels. In physiognomy they - resemble the Ladakis, but the Mongolian type is purer, the eyes are more - oblique, and the eyelids have a greater droop, the chins project more, - and the mouths are handsomer. Many of the men, including the headman, - were quite good-looking, but the upper lips of the women were apt to be - 'tucked up,' displaying very square teeth, as we have shown in the - preceding chapter. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_19"></a> <a href="images/gs19.png"><img - src="images/gs19s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />A - TIBETAN FARM-HOUSE</span> - </div> - <p> - The roofs of the Tsala tents are nearly flat, and the middle has an - opening six inches wide along its whole length. An excavation from - twelve to twenty-four inches deep is made in the soil, and a rude wall - of stones, about one foot high, is built round it, over which the tent - cloth, made in narrow widths of <i>yak's</i> or goat's hair, is extended - by ropes led over forked sticks. There is no ridge pole, and the centre - is supported on short poles, to the projecting tops of which prayer - flags and <i>yaks'</i> tails are attached. The interior, though dark, is - not too dark for weaving, and each tent has its loom, for the Chang-pas - not only weave their coarse woollen clothing and hair cloth for - saddlebags and tents, but rugs of wool dyed in rich colours made from - native roots. The largest tent was twenty feet by fifteen, but the - majority measured only fourteen feet by eight and ten feet. The height - in no case exceeded six feet. In these much ventilated and scarcely - warmed shelters these hardy nomads brave the tremendous winds and winter - rigours of their climate at altitudes varying from 13,000 to 14,500 - feet. Water freezes every night of the year, and continually there are - differences in temperature of 100° between noon and midnight. In - addition to the fifty dwelling tents there was one considerably larger, - in which the people store their wool and goat's hair till the time - arrives for taking them to market. The floor of several of the tents was - covered with rugs, and besides looms and confused heaps of what looked - like rubbish, there were tea-churns, goatskin churns, sheep and goat - skins, children's bows and arrows, cooking pots, and heaps of the furze - root, which is used as fuel. - </p> - <p> - They expended much of this scarce commodity upon me in their - hospitality, and kept up a bonfire all night. They mounted their wiry - ponies and performed feats of horsemanship, in one of which all the - animals threw themselves on their hind legs in a circle when a man in - the centre clapped his hands; and they crowded my tent to see my - sketches, and were not satisfied till I executed some daubs professing - to represent some of the elders. The excitement of their first visit - from a European woman lasted late into the night, and when they at last - retired they persisted in placing a guard of honour round my tent. - </p> - <p> - In the morning there was ice on the pools, and the snow lay three inches - deep. Savage life had returned to its usual monotony, and the care of - flocks and herds. In the early afternoon the chief and many of the men - accompanied us across the ford, and we parted with mutual expressions of - good will. The march was through broad gravelly valleys, among - 'monstrous protuberances' of red and yellow gravel, elevated by their - height alone to the dignity of mountains. Hail came on, and Gyalpo - showed his high breeding by facing it when the other animals 'turned - tail' and huddled together, and a storm of heavy sleet of some hours' - duration burst upon us just as we reached the dismal camping-ground of - Rukchen, guarded by mountain giants which now and then showed glimpses - of their white skirts through the dark driving mists. That was the only - 'weather' in four months. - </p> - <p> - A large caravan from the heat and sunshine of Amritsar was there. The - goods were stacked under goat's hair shelters, the mules were huddled - together without food, and their shivering Panjābi drivers, muffled in - blankets which only left one eye exposed, were grubbing up furze roots - wherewith to make smoky fires. My baggage, which had arrived previously, - was lying soaking in the sleet, while the wretched servants were trying - to pitch the tent in the high wind. They had slept out in the snow the - night before, and were mentally as well as physically benumbed. Their - misery had a comic side to it, and as the temperature made me feel - specially well, I enjoyed bestirring myself, and terrified Mando, who - was feebly 'fadding' with a rag, by giving Gyalpo a vigorous rub-down - with a bath-towel. Hassan Khan, with chattering teeth and severe - neuralgia, muffled in my 'fisherman's hood' under his turban, was trying - to do his work with his unfailing pluck. Mando was shedding futile tears - over wet furze which would not light, the small wet corrie was dotted - over with the Amritsar men sheltering under rocks and nursing hopeless - fires, and fifty mules and horses, with dejected heads and dripping - tails, and their backs to the merciless wind, were attempting to pick - some food from scanty herbage already nibbled to the root. My tent was a - picture of grotesque discomfort. The big stones had not been picked out - from the gravel, the bed stood in puddles, the thick horse blanket was - draining over the one chair, the servant's spare clothing and stores - were on the table, the <i>yaks'</i> loads of wet hay and the soaked - grain sack filled up most of the space; a wet candle sputtered and went - out, wet clothes dripped from the tent hook, and every now and then - Hassan Khan looked in with one eye, gasping out, 'Mem Sahib, I can no - light the fire!' Perseverance succeeds eventually, and cups of a strong - stimulant made of Burroughes and Wellcome's vigorous 'valoid' tincture - of ginger and hot water, revived the men all round. Such was its good - but innocent effect, that early the next morning Hassan came into my - tent with two eyes, and convulsed with laughter. 'The pony men' and - Mando, he said, were crying, and the coolie from Leh, who before the - storm had wanted to go the whole way to Simla, after refusing his supper - had sobbed all night under the 'flys' of my tent, while I was sleeping - soundly. Afterwards I harangued them, and told them I would let them go, - and help them back; I could not take such poor-spirited miserable - creatures with me, and I would keep the Tartars who had accompanied me - from Tsala. On this they protested, and said, with a significant - gesture, I might cut their throats if they cried any more, and begged me - to try them again; and as we had no more bad weather, there was no more - trouble. - </p> - <p> - The marches which followed were along valleys, plains, and - mountain-sides of gravel, destitute of herbage, except a shrivelled - artemisia, and on one occasion the baggage animals were forty hours - without food. Fresh water was usually very scarce, and on the Lingti - plains was only obtainable by scooping it up from the holes left by the - feet of animals. Insect life was rare, and except grey doves, the 'dove - of the valleys,' which often flew before us for miles down the ravines, - no birds were to be seen. On the other hand, there were numerous herds - of <i>kyang</i>, which in the early mornings came to drink of the water - by which the camps were pitched. By looking through a crevice of my tent - I saw them distinctly, without alarming them. In one herd I counted - forty. They kept together in families, sire, dam, and foal. The animal - certainly is under fourteen hands, and resembles a mule rather than a - horse or ass. The noise, which I had several opportunities of hearing, - is more like a neigh than a bray, but lacks completeness. The creature - is light brown, almost fawn colour, fading into white under his body, - and he has a dark stripe on his back, but not a cross. His ears are - long, and his tail is like that of a mule. He trots and gallops, and - when alarmed gallops fast, but as he is not worth hunting, he has not a - great dread of humanity, and families of <i>kyang</i> frequently grazed - within two hundred and fifty yards of us. He is about as untamable as - the zebra, and with his family affectionateness leads apparently a very - happy life. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_20"></a> <a href="images/gs20.png"><img - src="images/gs20s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />LAHUL - VALLEY</span> - </div> - <p> - On the Kwangchu plateau, at an elevation of 15,000 feet, I met with a - form of life which has a great interest of its own, sheep caravans, - numbering among them 7,000 sheep, each animal with its wool on, and - equipped with a neat packsaddle and two leather or hair-cloth bags, and - loaded with from twenty-five to thirty-two pounds of salt or borax. - These, and many more which we passed, were carrying their loads to - Patseo, a mountain valley in Lahul, where they are met by traders from - Northern British India. The sheep are shorn, and the wool and loads are - exchanged for wheat and a few other commodities, with which they return - to Tibet, the whole journey taking from nine months to a year. As the - sheep live by grazing the scanty herbage on the march, they never - accomplish more than ten miles a day, and as they often become footsore, - halts of several days are frequently required. Sheep, dead or dying, - with the birds of prey picking out their eyes, were often met with. - Ordinarily these caravans are led by a man, followed by a large goat - much bedecked and wearing a large bell. Each driver has charge of one - hundred sheep. These men, of small stature but very thickset, with their - wide smooth faces, loose clothing of sheepskin with the wool outside, - with their long coarse hair flying in the wind, and their uncouth shouts - in a barbarous tongue, are much like savages. They sing wild chants as - they picket their sheep in long double lines at night, and with their - savage mastiffs sleep unsheltered under the frosty skies under the lee - of their piled-up saddlebags. On three nights I camped beside their - caravans, and walked round their orderly lines of sheep and their neat - walls of saddlebags; and, far from showing any discourtesy or rude - curiosity, they held down their fierce dogs and exhibited their - ingenious mode of tethering their animals, and not one of the many - articles which my servants were in the habit of leaving outside the - tents was on any occasion abstracted. The dogs, however, were less - honest than their masters, and on one night ran away with half a sheep, - and I should have fared poorly had not Mr. —— shot some grey - doves. - </p> - <p> - Marches across sandy and gravelly valleys, and along arid mountain-sides - spotted with a creeping furze and cushions of a yellow-green moss which - seems able to exist without moisture, fords of the Sumgyal and Tserap - rivers, and the crossing of the Lachalang Pass at an altitude of 17,500 - feet in severe frost, occupied several uneventful days. Of the three - lofty passes on this route, the Toglang, which is higher, and the - Baralacha, which is lower, are featureless billows of gravel, over which - a carriage might easily be driven. Not so is the Lachalang, though its - well-made zigzags are easy for laden animals. The approach to it is - fantastic, among precipitous mountains of red sandstone, and red rocks - weathered into pillars, men's heads, and numerous groups of gossipy old - women from thirty to fifty feet high, in flat hats and long circular - cloaks! Entering by red gates of rock into a region of gigantic - mountains, and following up a crystal torrent, the valley narrowing to a - gorge, and the gorge to a chasm guarded by nearly perpendicular needles - of rock flaming in the westering sun, we forded the river at the chasm's - throat, and camped on a velvety green lawn just large enough for a few - tents, absolutely walled in by abrupt mountains 18,000 and 19,000 feet - in height. Long after the twilight settled down on us, the pinnacles - above glowed in warm sunshine, and the following morning, when it was - only dawn below, and the still river pools were frozen and the grass was - white with hoar-frost, the morning sun reddened the snow-peaks and - kindled into vermilion the red needles of Lachalang. That camping-ground - under such conditions is the grandest and most romantic spot of the - whole journey. - </p> - <p> - Verdureless and waterless stretches, in crossing which our poor animals - were two nights without food, brought us to the glacier-blue waters of - the Serchu, tumbling along in a deep broad gash, and farther on to a - lateral torrent which is the boundary between Rupchu, tributary to - Kashmir, and Lahul or British Tibet, under the rule of the Empress of - India. The tents were ready pitched in a grassy hollow by the river; - horses, cows, and goats were grazing near them, and a number of men were - preparing food. A Tibetan approached me, accompanied by a creature in a - nondescript dress speaking Hindustani volubly. On a band across his - breast were the British crown, and a plate with the words - 'Commissioner's <i>chaprassie</i>, Kulu district.' I never felt so - extinguished. Liberty seemed lost, and the romance of the desert to have - died out in one moment! At the camping-ground I found rows of salaaming - Lahulis drawn up, and Hassan Khan in a state which was a compound of - pomposity and jubilant excitement. The <i>tahsildar</i> (really the - Tibetan honorary magistrate), he said, had received instructions from - the Lieutenant-Governor of the Panjāb that I was on the way to Kylang, - and was to 'want for nothing.' So twenty-four men, nine horses, a flock - of goats, and two cows had been waiting for me for three days in the - Serchu valley. I wrote a polite note to the magistrate, and sent all - back except the <i>chaprassie</i>, the cows, and the cowherd, my - servants looking much crestfallen. - </p> - <p> - We crossed the Baralacha Pass in wind and snow showers into a climate in - which moisture began to be obvious. At short distances along the pass, - which extends for many miles, there are rude semicircular walls, three - feet high, all turned in one direction, in the shelter of which - travellers crouch to escape from the strong cutting wind. My men - suffered far more than on the two higher passes, and it was difficult to - dislodge them from these shelters, where they lay groaning, gasping, and - suffering from vertigo and nose-bleeding. The cold was so severe that I - walked over the loftiest part of the pass, and for the first time felt - slight effects of the <i>ladug</i>. At a height of 15,000 feet, in the - midst of general desolation, grew, in the shelter of rocks, poppies (<i>Mecanopsis - aculeata</i>), blue as the Tibetan skies, their centres filled with a - cluster of golden-yellow stamens,—a most charming sight. Ten or - twelve of these exquisite blossoms grow on one stalk, and stalk, leaf, - and seed-vessels are guarded by very stiff thorns. Lower down flowers - abounded, and at the camping-ground of Patseo (12,000 feet), where the - Tibetan sheep caravans exchange their wool, salt, and borax for grain, - the ground was covered with soft greensward, and real rain fell. Seen - from the Baralacha Pass are vast snowfields, glaciers, and avalanche - slopes. This barrier, and the Rotang, farther south, close this trade - route practically for seven months of the year, for they catch the - monsoon rains, which at that altitude are snows from fifteen to thirty - feet deep; while on the other side of the Baralacha and throughout - Rupchu and Ladak the snowfall is insignificant. So late as August, when - I crossed, there were four perfect snow bridges over the Bhaga, and - snowfields thirty-six feet deep along its margin. At Patseo the <i>tahsildar</i>, - with a retinue and animals laden with fodder, came to pay his respects - to me, and invited me to his house, three days' journey. These were the - first human beings we had seen for three days. - </p> - <p> - A few miles south of the Baralacha Pass some birch trees appeared on a - slope, the first natural growth of timber that I had seen since crossing - the Zoji La. Lower down there were a few more, then stunted specimens of - the pencil cedar, and the mountains began to show a shade of green on - their lower slopes. Butterflies appeared also, and a vulture, a grand - bird on the wing, hovered ominously over us for some miles, and was - succeeded by an equally ominous raven. On the excellent bridle-track cut - on the face of the precipices which overhang the Bhaga, there is in nine - miles only one spot in which it is possible to pitch a five-foot tent, - and at Darcha, the first hamlet in Lahul, the only camping-ground is on - the house roofs. There the Chang-pas and their <i>yaks</i> and horses - who had served me pleasantly and faithfully from Tsala left me, and - returned to the freedom of their desert life. At Kolang, the next - hamlet, where the thunder of the Bhaga was almost intolerable, Hara - Chang, the magistrate, one of the <i>thakurs</i> or feudal proprietors - of Lahul, with his son and nephew and a large retinue, called on me; and - the next morning Mr. —— and I went by invitation to visit - him in his castle, a magnificently situated building on a rocky spur - 1,000 feet above the camping-ground, attained by a difficult climb, and - nearly on a level with the glittering glaciers and ice-falls on the - other side of the Bhaga. It only differs from Leh and Stok castles in - having blue glass in some of the smaller windows. In the family temple, - in addition to the usual life-size images of Buddha and the Triad, there - was a female divinity, carved at Jallandhur in India, copied from a - statue representing Queen Victoria in her younger days—a very - fitting possession for the highest government official in Lahul. The <i>thakur</i>, - Hara Chang, is wealthy and a rigid Buddhist, and uses his very - considerable influence against the work of the Moravian missionaries in - the valley. The rude path down to the bridle-road, through fields of - barley and buckwheat, is bordered by roses, gooseberries, and masses of - wild flowers. - </p> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a id="image_21"></a> <a href="images/gs21.png"><img - src="images/gs21s.png" alt="Image" title="" /></a> <span class="caption"><br />GONPO - AT KYLANG</span> - </div> - <p> - The later marches after reaching Darcha are grand beyond all - description. The track, scaffolded or blasted out of the rock at a - height of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the thundering Bhaga, is - scarcely a rifle-shot from the mountain mass dividing it from the - Chandra, a mass covered with nearly unbroken ice and snowfields, out of - which rise pinnacles of naked rock 21,000 and 22,000 feet in altitude. - The region is the 'abode of snow,' and glaciers of great size fill up - every depression. Humidity, vegetation, and beauty reappear together, - wild flowers and ferns abound, and pencil cedars in clumps rise above - the artificial plantations of the valley. Wheat ripens at an altitude of - 12,000 feet. Picturesque villages, surrounded by orchards, adorn the - mountain spurs; <i>chod-tens</i> and <i>gonpos</i>, with white walls and - fluttering flags, brighten the scene; feudal castles crown the heights, - and where the mountains are loftiest, the snowfields and glaciers most - imposing, and the greenery densest, the village of Kylang, the most - important in Lahul as the centre of trade, government, and Christian - missions, hangs on ledges of the mountain-side 1,000 feet above Bhaga, - whose furious course can be traced far down the valley by flashes of - sunlit foam. - </p> - <p> - The Lahul valley, which is a part of British Tibet, has an altitude of - 10,000 feet. It prospers under British rule, its population has - increased, Hindu merchants have settled in Kylang, the route through - Lahul to Central Asia is finding increasing favour with the Panjābi - traders, and the Moravian missionaries, by a bolder system of irrigation - and the provision of storage for water, have largely increased the - quantity of arable land. The Lahulis are chiefly Tibetans, but Hinduism - is largely mixed up with Buddhism in the lower villages. All the <i>gonpos</i>, - however, have been restored and enlarged during the last twenty years. - In winter the snow lies fifteen feet deep, and for four or five months, - owing to the perils of the Rotang Pass, the valley rarely has any - communication with the outer world. - </p> - <p> - At the foot of the village of Kylang, which is built in tier above tier - of houses up the steep side of a mountain with a height of 21,000 feet, - are the Moravian mission buildings, long, low, whitewashed erections, of - the simplest possible construction, the design and much of the actual - erection being the work of these capable Germans. The large building, - which has a deep verandah, the only place in which exercise can be taken - in the winter, contains the native church, three rooms for each - missionary, and two guest-rooms. Round the garden are the printing - rooms, the medicine and store room (stores arriving once in two years), - and another guest-room. Round an adjacent enclosure are the houses - occupied in winter by the Christians when they come down with their - sheep and cattle from the hill farms. All is absolutely plain, and as - absolutely clean and trim. The guest-rooms and one or two of the Tibetan - rooms are papered with engravings from the <i>Illustrated London News</i>, - but the rooms of the missionaries are only whitewashed, and by their - extreme bareness reminded me of those of very poor pastors in the - Fatherland. A garden, brilliant with zinnias, dianthus, and petunias, - all of immense size, and planted with European trees, is an oasis, and - in it I camped for some weeks under a willow tree, covered, as many are, - with a sweet secretion so abundant as to drop on the roof of the tent, - and which the people collect and use as honey. - </p> - <p> - The mission party consisted of Mr. and Mrs. Shreve, lately arrived, and - now in a distant exile at Poo, and Mr. and Mrs. Heyde, who had been in - Tibet for nearly forty years, chiefly spent at Kylang, without going - home. 'Plain living and high thinking' were the rule. Books and - periodicals were numerous, and were read and assimilated. The culture - was simply wonderful, and the acquaintance with the latest ideas in - theology and natural science, the latest political and social - developments, and the latest conceptions in European art, would have led - me to suppose that these admirable people had only just left Europe. - Mrs. Heyde had no servant, and in the long winters, when household and - mission work are over for the day, and there are no mails to write for, - she pursues her tailoring and other needlework, while her husband reads - aloud till midnight. At the time of my visit (September) busy - preparations for the winter were being made. Every day the wood piles - grew. Hay, cut with sickles on the steep hillsides, was carried on human - backs into the farmyard, apples were cored and dried in the sun, - cucumbers were pickled, vinegar was made, potatoes were stored, and meat - was killed and salted. - </p> - <p> - It is in winter, when the Christians have come down from the mountain, - that most of the mission work is done. Mrs. Heyde has a school of forty - girls, mostly Buddhists. The teaching is simple and practical, and - includes the knitting of socks, of which from four to five hundred pairs - are turned out each winter, and find a ready sale. The converts meet for - instruction and discussion twice daily, and there is daily worship. The - mission press is kept actively employed in printing the parts of the - Bible which have been translated during the summer, as well as simple - tracts written or translated by Mr. Heyde. No converts are better - instructed, and like those of Leh they seem of good quality, and are - industrious and self-supporting. Winter work is severe, as ponies, - cattle, and sheep must always be hand-fed, and often hand-watered. Mr. - Heyde has great repute as a doctor, and in summer people travel long - distances for his advice and medicine. He is universally respected, and - his judgment in worldly affairs is highly thought of; but if one were to - judge merely by apparent results, the devoted labour of nearly forty - years and complete self-sacrifice for the good of Kylang must be - pronounced unsuccessful. Christianity has been most strongly opposed by - men of influence, and converts have been exposed to persecution and - loss. The abbot of the Kylang monastery lately said to Mr. Heyde, 'Your - Christian teaching has given Buddhism a resurrection.' The actual words - used were, 'When you came here people were quite indifferent about their - religion, but since it has been attacked they have become zealous, and - now they <i>know</i>.' It is only by sharing their circumstances of - isolation, and by getting glimpses of their everyday life and work, that - one can realise at all what the heroic perseverance and self-sacrificing - toil of these forty years have been, and what is the weighty influence - on the people and on the standard of morals, even though the number of - converts is so small. All honour to these noble German missionaries, - learned, genial, cultured, radiant, who, whether teaching, preaching, - farming, gardening, printing, or doctoring, are always and everywhere - 'living epistles of Christ, known and read of all men!' Close by the - mission house, in a green spot under shady trees, is God's Acre, where - many children of the mission families sleep, and a few adults. - </p> - <p> - As the winter is the busiest season in mission work, so it is the great - time in which the <i>lamas</i> make house-to-house peregrinations and - attend at festivals. Then also there is much spinning and weaving by - both sexes, and tobogganing and other games, and much drinking of <i>chang</i> - by priests and people. The cattle remain out till nearly Christmas, and - are then taken into the houses. At the time of the variable new year, - the <i>lamas</i> and nuns retire to the monasteries, and dulness reigns - in the valleys. At the end of a month they emerge, life and noise begin, - and all men to whom sons have been born during the previous year give <i>chang</i> - freely. During the festival which follows, all these jubilant fathers go - out of the village as a gaudily dressed procession, and form a circle - round a picture of a <i>yak</i>, painted by the <i>lamas</i>, which is - used as a target to be shot at with bows and arrows, and it is believed - that the man who hits it in the centre will be blessed with a son in the - coming year. After this, all the Kylang men and women collect in one - house by annual rotation, and sing and drink immense quantities of <i>chang</i> - till 10 p.m. - </p> - <p> - The religious festivals begin soon after. One, the worshipping of the <i>lamas</i> - by the laity, occurs in every village, and lasts from two to three days. - It consists chiefly of music and dancing, while the <i>lamas</i> sit in - rows, swilling <i>chang</i> and arrack. At another, which is celebrated - annually in every house, the <i>lamas</i> assemble, and in front of - certain gods prepare a number of mystical figures made of dough, which - are hung up and are worshipped by the family. Afterwards the <i>lamas</i> - make little balls which are worshipped, and one of the family mounts the - roof and invites the neighbours, who receive the balls from the <i>lamas'</i> - hands and drink moderately of <i>chang</i>. Next, the figures are thrown - to the demons as a propitiatory offering, amidst 'hellish whistlings' - and the firing of guns. These ceremonies are called <i>ise drup</i> (a - full life), and it is believed that if they were neglected life would be - cut short. - </p> - <p> - One of the most important of the winter religious duties of the <i>lamas</i> - is the reading of the sacred classics under the roof of each - householder. By this means the family accumulate merit, and the longer - the reading is protracted the greater is the accumulation. A - twelve-volume book is taken in the houses of the richer householders, - each one of the twelve or fifteen <i>lamas</i> taking a page, all - reading at an immense pace in a loud chant at the same time. The reading - of these volumes, which consist of Buddhist metaphysics and philosophy, - takes five days, and while reading each <i>lama</i> has his <i>chang</i> - cup constantly replenished. In the poorer households a classic of but - one volume is taken, to lessen the expense of feeding the <i>lamas</i>. - Festivals and ceremonies follow each other closely until March, when - archery practice begins, and in April and May the people prepare for the - operations of husbandry. - </p> - <p> - The weather in Kylang breaks in the middle of September, but so - fascinating were the beauties and sublimity of Nature, and the virtues - and culture of my Moravian friends, that, shutting my eyes to the - possible perils of the Rotang, I remained until the harvest was brought - home with joy and revelry, and the flush of autumn faded, and the first - snows of winter gave an added majesty to the glorious valley. Then, - reluctantly folding my tent, and taking the same faithful fellows who - brought my baggage from Leh, I spent five weeks on the descent to the - Panjāb, journeying through the paradise of Upper Kulu and the - interesting native states of Mandi, Sukket, Bilaspur, and Bhaghat; and - early in November reached the amenities and restraints of the - civilisation of Simla. - </p> - <p class="center"> - <b>THE END.</b> - </p> - </div> -<pre xml:space="preserve"> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Among the Tibetans, by Isabella L. 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