diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 13:04:02 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 13:04:02 -0800 |
| commit | 5ddd3971136c640ae20ede8a5e30907d06ac59a4 (patch) | |
| tree | 14fd9aca51708675d5edfcece5b1c11e0bd0a3a5 /41472-h | |
| parent | 51770c60480f0044ef1fe607cf0fc11d8f81eee4 (diff) | |
Diffstat (limited to '41472-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 41472-h/41472-h.htm | 1568 |
1 files changed, 576 insertions, 992 deletions
diff --git a/41472-h/41472-h.htm b/41472-h/41472-h.htm index 5540331..c94098f 100644 --- a/41472-h/41472-h.htm +++ b/41472-h/41472-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVI Slice VI - Lightfoot, Joseph to Liquidation. @@ -146,46 +146,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 6, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 6 - "Lightfoot, Joseph" to "Liquidation" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: November 24, 2012 [EBook #41472] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41472 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -235,7 +196,7 @@ Lightfoot, Joseph to Liquidation</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">LINDSAY</a> (family)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">LIGURES BAEBIANI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">LINDSAY</a> (town of Canada)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">LIGURIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">LI HUNG CHANG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">LINDSTRÖM, GUSTAF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">LI HUNG CHANG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">LINDSTRÖM, GUSTAF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">LILAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">LINDUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">LILBURNE, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">LINE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">LILIACEAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">LINE ENGRAVING</a></td></tr> @@ -251,8 +212,8 @@ Lightfoot, Joseph to Liquidation</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">LILYE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">LINGEN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">LIMA</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">LIMA</a> (department of Peru)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">LINK</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">LIMA</a> (capital of Peru)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">LINKÖPING</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">LIMAÇON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">LINLEY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">LIMA</a> (capital of Peru)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">LINKÖPING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">LIMAÇON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">LINLEY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">LIMASOL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">LIMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">LINLITHGOW</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">LIMBACH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">LINLITHGOWSHIRE</a></td></tr> @@ -277,7 +238,7 @@ Lightfoot, Joseph to Liquidation</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">LIMOGES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">LIP</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">LIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">LIPA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">LIMONITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">LIPAN</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">LIMOUSIN, LÉONARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">LIPARI ISLANDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">LIMOUSIN, LÉONARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">LIPARI ISLANDS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">LIMOUSIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">LIPETSK</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">LIMPOPO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">LIPPE</a> (river of Germany)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">LINACRE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">LIPPE</a> (principality of Germany)</td></tr> @@ -329,7 +290,7 @@ men of culture just about the time, as is usually the case, when the tide was turning against them in their own country. The peculiar service which was rendered at this juncture by the ‘Cambridge School’ was that, instead of opposing a mere -dogmatic opposition to the Tübingen critics, they met them +dogmatic opposition to the Tübingen critics, they met them frankly on their own ground; and instead of arguing that their conclusions ought not to be and could not be true, they simply proved that their facts and their premisses were wrong. It @@ -631,9 +592,9 @@ above high water. The lantern is a cylindrical helically framed structure with domed roof. The astragals are of gun-metal and the pedestal of cast iron. The optical apparatus consists of two superposed tiers of refracting lens panels, 12 in each tier of 920 mm. focal -distance. The lenses subtend an angle of 92° vertically. The 12 +distance. The lenses subtend an angle of 92° vertically. The 12 lens panels are arranged in groups of two, thus producing a group -flashing light showing 2 flashes of 1½ seconds’ duration every half +flashing light showing 2 flashes of 1½ seconds’ duration every half minute, the apparatus revolving once in 3 minutes. The burners originally fitted in the apparatus were of 6-wick pattern, but these were replaced in 1904 by incandescent oil vapour burners. The @@ -731,7 +692,7 @@ in plan with a gallery at a height of about 70 ft. above the base. The tower is 156 ft. in height from base to lantern floor.</p> <p><i>Haut Banc du Nord Lighthouse.</i>—This tower is placed on a reef -at the north-west extremity of the Île de Ré, and was constructed +at the north-west extremity of the ÃŽle de Ré, and was constructed in 1849-1853. It is 86 ft. in height to the lantern floor.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -786,7 +747,7 @@ and rises to 25 ft. above high-water mark. The lantern is cylindrical and helically framed, 14 ft. in diameter, the glazing being 15 ft. in height. The optical apparatus consists of two superposed tiers of lenses of 1330 mm. focal distance, the lenses subtending a horizontal -angle of 36° and a vertical angle of 80°. The apparatus consists of +angle of 36° and a vertical angle of 80°. The apparatus consists of 5 groups of lenses each group producing a double flashing light of one minute period, the whole apparatus revolving once in five minutes. The maximum aggregate candle-power of the flash is 622,000 candles. @@ -794,13 +755,13 @@ A gun-cotton explosive fog signal is attached to the lantern. The cost of the various lighthouses on the Bishop Rock has been as follows:</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcl">1. Cast iron lighthouse</td> <td class="tcr">£12,500</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1. Cast iron lighthouse</td> <td class="tcr">£12,500</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">2. Granite lighthouse</td> <td class="tcr">34,559</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">9</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">3. Improved granite lighthouse</td> <td class="tcr">64,889</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> </table> <p><i>The Smalls Lighthouse.</i>—A lighthouse has existed on the Smalls -rock, 18½ m. off Milford Haven, since 1776, when an oak pile structure +rock, 18½ m. off Milford Haven, since 1776, when an oak pile structure was erected by Henry Whiteside. The existing structure, after the model of the second lighthouse on the Bishop Rock, was erected in 1856-1861 by the Trinity House and is 114 ft. in height from the @@ -809,7 +770,7 @@ in 1907.</p> <p><i>Minot’s Ledge Lighthouse.</i>—The tower, which is 89 ft. in height, is built of granite upon a reef off Boston Harbor, Mass., and occupied -five years in construction, being completed in 1860 at a cost of £62,500. +five years in construction, being completed in 1860 at a cost of £62,500. The rock just bares at low water. The stones are dovetailed vertically but not on their horizontal beds in the case of the lower 40 ft. or solid @@ -827,7 +788,7 @@ high water. The tower was erected in 1862-1869 (fig. 14). It is 116 ft. 6 in. high, 41 ft. 8 in. diameter at the base, decreasing to 17 ft. at the top. The walls are -7 ft. 9½ in. thick, decreasing to 2 ft. 3 in. +7 ft. 9½ in. thick, decreasing to 2 ft. 3 in. The shaft is a concave elliptic frustum, and contains 3296 tons. The lower part of the tower has projecting scarcements @@ -863,7 +824,7 @@ in shape the frustum of a cone, 32 ft. in diameter at the base and 93 ft. in height to the coping of the gallery. The focal plane is at a level of 97 ft. above the base. The lower 34 ft. of the tower is solid. The work was completed in 1874, having occupied four years. The -cost amounted to approximately £78,000.</p> +cost amounted to approximately £78,000.</p> <p><i>Chicken Rock Lighthouse.</i>—The Chicken Rock lies 1 m. off the Calf of Man. The curve of the tower, which is 123 ft. 4 in. high, is hyperbolic, @@ -875,7 +836,7 @@ The work was begun in 1869 and completed in 1874.</p> <p><i>Ar’men Lighthouse.</i>—The masonry tower, erected by the French Lighthouse Service, on the Ar’men Rock off the western extremity -of the Île de Sein, Finistère, occupied fifteen years in construction +of the ÃŽle de Sein, Finistère, occupied fifteen years in construction (1867-1881). The rock is of small area, barely uncovered at low water, and it was therefore found impossible to construct a tower having a base diameter greater than 24 ft. The focal plane of the @@ -886,7 +847,7 @@ a square pyramidal stone tower rising from the easterly end of an oval masonry pier, built on a rock to a height of 60 ft. above the water. The focal plane is at an elevation of 146 ft. above high water. The site is an exceedingly dangerous one, and the work, which was -completed in 1891, cost approximately £144,000.</p> +completed in 1891, cost approximately £144,000.</p> <p><i>Rattray Head Lighthouse.</i>—This lighthouse was constructed between the years 1892 and 1895 by the Northern Lighthouse Commissioners @@ -907,7 +868,7 @@ rock on one side of the higher, but now considerably undermined. portion of the reef. This lighthouse tower has its foundation laid near high-water level. The focal plane is at a level of 158 ft. above high-water mark. The cost of the structure, which was commenced -in 1899 and completed in 1904, was £79,000.</p> +in 1899 and completed in 1904, was £79,000.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:491px; height:1433px" src="images/img631.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -933,7 +894,7 @@ constructed in vertical offsets or steps in a similar manner to that adopted at the Wolf Rock and elsewhere. The tower is constructed with a facing of granite, all the stones being dovetailed in the usual manner. The hearting of the base is largely composed of concrete. -The work was completed in 1902 and cost £56,000.</p> +The work was completed in 1902 and cost £56,000.</p> <p><i>Maplin Lighthouse.</i>—The screw pile lighthouse erected on the Maplin Sand in the estuary of the river Thames in 1838 is the earliest @@ -947,13 +908,13 @@ point of the Florida reefs. The height of the tower, which is founded on wrought iron piles driven 10 ft. into the coral rock, is 110 ft. from high water to focal plane. The iron openwork pyramidal structure encloses a plated iron dwelling for the accommodation of the keepers. -The cost of construction amounted to £32,600.</p> +The cost of construction amounted to £32,600.</p> <p><i>Alligator Reef Lighthouse, Florida.</i>—This tower is one of the finest iron sea-swept lighthouse structures in the world. It consists of a pyramidal iron framework 135 ft. 6 in. in height, standing on the Florida Reef in 5 ft. of water. The cost of the structure, which is -similar to the Fowey Rocks tower, was £37,000.</p> +similar to the Fowey Rocks tower, was £37,000.</p> <p><i>American Shoal Lighthouse, Florida.</i>—This tower (fig. 20) is typical of the openwork pile structures on the Florida reefs, and was completed @@ -969,7 +930,7 @@ the shoal is 16 ft. at low water. The caisson was filled with concrete, and is surmounted by a brick superstructure 52 ft. in height from low water to the focal plane of the light. A somewhat similar structure was erected in 1885-1887 on the Fourteen Foot Bank in -Delaware Bay, at a cost of £24,700. The foundation in this case +Delaware Bay, at a cost of £24,700. The foundation in this case was, however, shifting sand, and the caisson was carried to a greater depth.</p> @@ -991,7 +952,7 @@ The sand was removed from the interior by suction. Around the caisson foundation were placed 74,000 cub. yds. of mattress work and stones, the interior being filled with concrete. Towards the end of 1885 the lighthouse was completed, at a total cost, including the -first attempt, of over £65,000. The tower is an iron structure in the +first attempt, of over £65,000. The tower is an iron structure in the shape of a concave elliptic frustum, its base being founded upon the caisson foundation at about half-tide level (fig. 21). The light is electric, the current being supplied by cable from the shore. The @@ -1034,12 +995,12 @@ stones cannot be separated without breaking (fig. 24).</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Name of Structure.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Total Cost.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cub. ft.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Cost per<br />cub. ft. of<br />Masonry.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eddystone, Smeaton (1759)</td> <td class="tcr">£40,000</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">13,343</td> <td class="tcr">£2</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eddystone, Smeaton (1759)</td> <td class="tcr">£40,000</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">13,343</td> <td class="tcr">£2</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11½</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bell Rock, Firth of Forth (1811)</td> <td class="tcr">55,619</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,530</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Skerryvore, west coast of Scotland (1844)</td> <td class="tcr">72,200</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">58,580</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7¾</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bishop Rock, first granite tower (1858)</td> <td class="tcr">34,559</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">35,209</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">7½</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Smalls, Bristol Channel (1861)</td> <td class="tcr">50,124</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">46,386</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7¼</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hanois, Alderney (1862)</td> <td class="tcr">25,296</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">24,542</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Skerryvore, west coast of Scotland (1844)</td> <td class="tcr">72,200</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">58,580</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7¾</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bishop Rock, first granite tower (1858)</td> <td class="tcr">34,559</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">35,209</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">7½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Smalls, Bristol Channel (1861)</td> <td class="tcr">50,124</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">46,386</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7¼</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hanois, Alderney (1862)</td> <td class="tcr">25,296</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">24,542</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7¼</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wolf Rock, Land’s End (1869)</td> <td class="tcr">62,726</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">59,070</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3 </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dhu Heartach, west coast of Scotland (1872)</td> <td class="tcr">72,584</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb">42,050</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Longships, Land’s End (1872)</td> <td class="tcr">43,869</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">47,610</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">5 </td></tr> @@ -1049,7 +1010,7 @@ stones cannot be separated without breaking (fig. 24).</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minot’s Ledge, Boston, Mass. (1860)</td> <td class="tcr">62,500</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">36,322</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spectacle Reef, Lake Huron (1874)</td> <td class="tcr">78,125</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">42,742</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ar’men, France (1881)</td> <td class="tcr">37,692</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">32,400</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3 </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Fastnet, Ireland (1904)</td> <td class="tcr bb">79,000</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">62,600</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Fastnet, Ireland (1904)</td> <td class="tcr bb">79,000</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">62,600</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5½</td></tr> </table> <p><i>Effect of Waves</i>.—The wave stroke to which rock lighthouse @@ -1065,19 +1026,19 @@ been noted above.</p> towers and other buildings on land presents no difficulties of construction, and such buildings are of ordinary architectural character. It will therefore be unnecessary to refer to them -in detail. Attention is directed to the Phare d’Eckmühl at -Penmarc’h (Finistère), completed in 1897. The cost of this +in detail. Attention is directed to the Phare d’Eckmühl at +Penmarc’h (Finistère), completed in 1897. The cost of this magnificent structure, 207 ft. in height from the ground, was -largely defrayed by a bequest of £12,000 left by the marquis +largely defrayed by a bequest of £12,000 left by the marquis de Blocqueville. It is constructed entirely of granite, and is octagonal in plan. The total cost of the tower and other lighthouse -buildings amounted to £16,000.</p> +buildings amounted to £16,000.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:222px; height:341px" src="images/img632b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—Maplin Pile Lighthouse.</td></tr></table> -<p>The tower at Île Vierge (Finistère), completed in 1902, has +<p>The tower at ÃŽle Vierge (Finistère), completed in 1902, has an elevation of 247 ft. from the ground level to the focal plane, and is probably the highest structure of its kind in the world.</p> @@ -1096,7 +1057,7 @@ many British colonies and elsewhere, that on Dassen Island (Cape of Good Hope), 105 ft. in height to the focal plane, being typical (fig. 25). Many openwork structures up to 200 ft. in height have been built. Recent examples are the towers erected -at Cape San Thomé (Brazil) in 1882, 148 ft. in height (fig. 26), +at Cape San Thomé (Brazil) in 1882, 148 ft. in height (fig. 26), Mocha (Red Sea) in 1903, 180 ft. and Sanganeb Reef (Red Sea) 1906, 165 ft. in height to the focal plane.</p> @@ -1320,7 +1281,7 @@ upon which lighthouse opticians work.</p> <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:218px; height:510px" src="images/img634e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>—Dassen Island<br /> Lighthouse (cast iron).</td> -<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>—Cape San Thomé<br /> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>—Cape San Thomé<br /> Lighthouse.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -1419,13 +1380,13 @@ to subsequently.</p> <p><i>Optical Glass for Lighthouses.</i>—In the early days of lens lights the only glass used for the prisms was made in France at the St -Gobain and Premontré works, which have +Gobain and Premontré works, which have long been celebrated for the high quality of optical glass produced. The early dioptric lights erected in the United Kingdom, some 13 in all, were made by Messrs Cookson of South Shields, who were instructed -by Léonor Fresnel, the brother of Augustin. +by Léonor Fresnel, the brother of Augustin. At first they tried to mould the lens and then to grind it out of one thick sheet of glass. The successors of the Cookson firm @@ -1450,11 +1411,11 @@ made at Rathenow in Prussia and Goslar in the Harz.</p> <p>The glass generally employed for lighthouse optics has for its -refractive index a mean value of µ = 1.51, the corresponding critical -angle being 41° 30′. Messrs Chance have used dense flint glass for +refractive index a mean value of µ = 1.51, the corresponding critical +angle being 41° 30′. Messrs Chance have used dense flint glass for the upper and lower refracting rings of high angle lenses and for -dioptric mirrors in certain cases. This glass has a value of µ = l.62 -with critical angle 38° 5′.</p> +dioptric mirrors in certain cases. This glass has a value of µ = l.62 +with critical angle 38° 5′.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:59px; height:178px" src="images/img635c.jpg" alt="" /></td> @@ -1496,7 +1457,7 @@ light. In the case of a first-order fixed light the cost of conversion to an occulting characteristic does not exceed -£250 to £300. With apparatus +£250 to £300. With apparatus illuminated by gas the occultations may be produced by successively raising @@ -1549,9 +1510,9 @@ prisms. A good example of a holophotal direction light was exhibited at the 1900 Paris Exhibition, and afterwards erected at Suzac lighthouse (France). The light consists -of an annular lens 500 mm. focal distance, of 180° horizontal -angle and 157° vertical, with a mirror of 180° at the back. The -lens throws a red beam of about 4½° amplitude in azimuth, and +of an annular lens 500 mm. focal distance, of 180° horizontal +angle and 157° vertical, with a mirror of 180° at the back. The +lens throws a red beam of about 4½° amplitude in azimuth, and 50,000 candle-power over a narrow channel. The illuminant is an incandescent petroleum vapour burner. Holophotal direction lenses of this type can only be applied where the @@ -1601,7 +1562,7 @@ colour as a means of distinction disappeared.</p> Spherical Mirror.</td></tr></table> <p><i>High-Angle Vertical Lenses.</i>—Messrs Chance of Birmingham have -manufactured lenses having 97° of vertical amplitude, but this +manufactured lenses having 97° of vertical amplitude, but this result was only attained by using dense flint glass of @@ -1613,7 +1574,7 @@ doubtful, however, whether the use of refracting elements for a -greater angle than 80° vertically is attended by any material +greater angle than 80° vertically is attended by any material corresponding advantage.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -1697,7 +1658,7 @@ than that between successive members of a group. The -flashes in a group indicating a figure are about 1½ seconds apart, +flashes in a group indicating a figure are about 1½ seconds apart, the groups being 3 seconds apart, an interval of 16 seconds’ darkness occurring between each repetition. Thus the number is repeated every half minute. Two examples of this system were @@ -1801,7 +1762,7 @@ of long focal distance without the otherwise corresponding necessity of increased diameter of lantern. A lens of this type and of 1330 mm. focal distance was constructed in 1890 for Fair Isle lighthouse. The spherical form loses in efficiency if carried beyond an angle -subtending 20° at the focus, and to obviate this loss Mr Stephenson +subtending 20° at the focus, and to obviate this loss Mr Stephenson designed his equiangular prisms, which have an inclination outwards. It is claimed by the designer that the use of equiangular prisms results in less loss of light and less divergence than is the @@ -1858,7 +1819,7 @@ plane. In flashing lights the horizontal divergence is a matter of considerable importance, determining as it does the duration or length of time the flash is visible to the mariner.</p> -<p><i>Feux-Éclairs or Quick Flashing Lights.</i>—One of the most important +<p><i>Feux-Éclairs or Quick Flashing Lights.</i>—One of the most important developments in the character of lighthouse illuminating apparatus that has occurred in recent years has been in the direction of reducing the length of flash. The initiative in this matter was @@ -1866,12 +1827,12 @@ taken by the French lighthouse authorities, and in France alone forty lights of this type were established between 1892 and 1901. The use of short flash lights rapidly spread to other parts of the world. In England the lighthouse at Pendeen (1900) exhibits a quadruple -flash every 15 seconds, the flashes being about ¼ second duration +flash every 15 seconds, the flashes being about ¼ second duration (fig. 39), while the bivalve apparatus erected on Lundy Island (1897) shows 2 flashes of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> second duration in quick succession every 20 seconds. Since 1900 many quick flashing lights have been erected on the coasts of the United Kingdom and in other countries. -The early <i>feux-éclairs</i>, designed by the French engineers and others, +The early <i>feux-éclairs</i>, designed by the French engineers and others, had usually a flash of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span>th to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>rd of a second duration. As a result of experiments carried out in France in 1903-1904, <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> second has been adopted by the French authorities as the minimum duration for @@ -1882,12 +1843,12 @@ electric flashing lights the duration is of necessity reduced, but the greater initial intensity of the flash permits this loss without serious detriment to efficiency. Red or green requires a considerably greater duration than do white flashes. The intervals between the -flashes in lights of this character are also small, 2½ seconds to 7 +flashes in lights of this character are also small, 2½ seconds to 7 seconds. In group-flashing lights the intervals between the flashes are about 2 seconds or even less, with periods of 7 to 10 or 15 seconds between the groups. The flashes are arranged in single, double, triple or even quadruple groups, as in the older forms of apparatus. -The <i>feu-éclair</i> type of apparatus enables a far higher intensity +The <i>feu-éclair</i> type of apparatus enables a far higher intensity of flash to be obtained than was previously possible without any corresponding increase in the luminous power of the burner or other source of light. This result depends entirely upon the greater @@ -1905,7 +1866,7 @@ period of flashing lights has yet been carried.</p> <p><i>Mercury Floats.</i>—It has naturally been found impracticable to revolve the optical apparatus of a light with its mountings, sometimes weighing over 7 tons, at the high rate of speed required for -<i>feux-éclairs</i> by means of the old system of roller carriages, though +<i>feux-éclairs</i> by means of the old system of roller carriages, though for some small quick-revolving lights ball bearings have been successfully adopted. It has therefore become almost the universal practice to carry the rotating portions of the apparatus upon a @@ -1963,7 +1924,7 @@ by mounting two complete and distinct optics side by side on the same revolving table, as I shown in fig. 43 -of the Île Vierge apparatus. +of the ÃŽle Vierge apparatus. Several such lights have been installed by the French Lighthouse @@ -2035,14 +1996,14 @@ table gives the principal dimensions of the several sizes in use:—</p> <tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Dioptric<br />Belt only.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Holophotal Optics.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Lower<br />Prisms.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lens.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Upper<br />Prisms.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hyper-Radial</td> <td class="tcc rb">1330 </td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1st order</td> <td class="tcc rb">920</td> <td class="tcc rb">92°, 80°, 58°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2nd order</td> <td class="tcc rb">700</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3rd order</td> <td class="tcc rb">500</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Small 3rd order</td> <td class="tcc rb">375</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">4th order</td> <td class="tcc rb">250</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">5th order</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 187.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">6th order</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">150</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hyper-Radial</td> <td class="tcc rb">1330 </td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1st order</td> <td class="tcc rb">920</td> <td class="tcc rb">92°, 80°, 58°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2nd order</td> <td class="tcc rb">700</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3rd order</td> <td class="tcc rb">500</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Small 3rd order</td> <td class="tcc rb">375</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">4th order</td> <td class="tcc rb">250</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">5th order</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 187.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb">48°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">6th order</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">150</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">57°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48°</td></tr> </table> <p>Lenses of small focal distance are also made for buoy and beacon @@ -2054,7 +2015,7 @@ lights.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:901px" src="images/img639b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>—Île Vierge Apparatus.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>—ÃŽle Vierge Apparatus.</td></tr></table> <p><i>Light Intensities.</i>—The powers of lighthouse lights in the British Empire are expressed in terms of standard candles or in “lighthouse @@ -2102,12 +2063,12 @@ be appreciated, are considerably in excess of the true intensities.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:603px" src="images/img640a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43a.</span>—Île Vierge Apparatus and Lantern. Plan at focal plane.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43a.</span>—ÃŽle Vierge Apparatus and Lantern. Plan at focal plane.</td></tr></table> <p><i>Optical Calculations.</i>—The mathematical theory of optical apparatus for lighthouses and formulae for the calculations of profiles will be found in the works of the Stevensons, Chance, Allard, Reynaud, -Ribière and others. Particulars of typical lighthouse apparatus +Ribière and others. Particulars of typical lighthouse apparatus will be found in tables VI. and VII.</p> </div> @@ -2159,10 +2120,10 @@ capillary action of the wick alone.</p> <p>The mineral oils ordinarily in use are petroleum, which for lighthouse purposes should have a specific gravity of from .820 to -.830 at 60° F. and flashing point of not less than 230° F. (Abel close +.830 at 60° F. and flashing point of not less than 230° F. (Abel close test), and Scottish shale oil or paraffin with a specific gravity of -about .810 at 60° F. and flash point of 140° to 165° F. Both these -varieties may be obtained in England at a cost of about 6½d. per +about .810 at 60° F. and flash point of 140° to 165° F. Both these +varieties may be obtained in England at a cost of about 6½d. per gallon in bulk.</p> <p><i>Coal Gas</i> had been introduced in 1837 at the inner pier light of @@ -2196,7 +2157,7 @@ a local supply is available.</p> <p><i>Incandescent Mineral Oil Burners.</i>—Incandescent lighting with high-flash mineral oil was first introduced by the French Lighthouse -Service in 1898 at L’Île Penfret lighthouse. The burners employed +Service in 1898 at L’ÃŽle Penfret lighthouse. The burners employed are all made on the same principle, but differ slightly in details according to the type of lighting apparatus for which they are intended. The principle consists in injecting the liquid petroleum @@ -2274,7 +2235,7 @@ their large total intensity, have comparatively small intrinsic brightness. The economy of the new system is instanced by the case of the Eddystone bi-form apparatus, which with the concentric 6-wick burner consuming 2500 gals. of oil per annum, -gave a total intensity of 79,250 candles. Under the new régime the +gave a total intensity of 79,250 candles. Under the new régime the intensity is 292,000 candles, the oil consumption being practically halved.</p> @@ -2300,11 +2261,11 @@ per sq. cm.</p> <p>The use of oil gas necessitates the erection of gas works at the lighthouse or its periodical supply in portable reservoirs from a -neighbouring station. A complete gas works plant costs about £800. +neighbouring station. A complete gas works plant costs about £800. The annual expenditure for gas lighting in France does not exceed -£72 per light where works are installed, or £32 where gas is supplied +£72 per light where works are installed, or £32 where gas is supplied from elsewhere. In the case of petroleum vapour lighting the annual -cost of oil amounts to about £26 per station.</p> +cost of oil amounts to about £26 per station.</p> <p><i>Acetylene.</i>—The high illuminating power and intrinsic brightness of the flame of acetylene makes it a very suitable illuminant for @@ -2340,7 +2301,7 @@ powerful. <span class="correction" title="amended from Elctricity">Electricity</ existing oil light at St Catherine’s in 1888. The optical apparatus consisted of a second-order 16-sided revolving lens, which was transferred to the South Foreland station in 1904, and a new second -order (700 mm.) four-sided optic with a vertical angle of 139°, +order (700 mm.) four-sided optic with a vertical angle of 139°, exhibiting a flash of .21 second duration every 5 seconds substituted for it. A fixed holophote is placed inside the optic in the dark or landward arc, and at the focal plane of the lamp. This holophote @@ -2366,15 +2327,15 @@ was first illuminated by electricity in 1886. The optical apparatus consists of a second-order fixed-light lens with reflecting prisms, and is surrounded by a revolving system of vertical condensing prisms which split up the vertically condensed beam of light into 8 separate -beams of 3° in azimuth. The prisms are so arranged that the +beams of 3° in azimuth. The prisms are so arranged that the apparatus, making one complete revolution in the minute, produces a group characteristic of 4 flashes in quick succession every 30 seconds (fig. 45). The fixed light is not of the ordinary Fresnel -section, the refracting portion being confined to an angle of 10°, +section, the refracting portion being confined to an angle of 10°, and the remainder of the vertical section consisting of reflecting prisms.</p> -<p>In France the old south lighthouse at La Hève was lit by electricity +<p>In France the old south lighthouse at La Hève was lit by electricity in 1863. This installation was followed in 1865 by a similar one at the north lighthouse. In 1910 there were thirteen important coast lights in France illuminated by electricity. In other parts of the @@ -2396,7 +2357,7 @@ lighthouses of the world.</p> <p><i>Electric Lighthouse Installations in France.</i>—A list of the thirteen lighthouses on the French coast equipped with electric light installations will be found in table VI. It has been already mentioned that -the two lighthouses at La Hève were lit by electric light in 1863 and +the two lighthouses at La Hève were lit by electric light in 1863 and 1865. These installations were followed within a few years by the establishment of electricity as illuminant at Gris-Nez. In 1882 M. Allard, the then director-general of the French Lighthouse @@ -2406,8 +2367,8 @@ along the coast-line. All the apparatus were to be of the same general type, the optics consisting of a fixed belt of 300 mm. focal distance, around the outside of which revolved a system of 24 faces of vertical lenses. These vertical panels condensed the belt of fixed -light into beams of 3° amplitude in azimuth, producing flashes of -about ¾ sec. duration. To illuminate the near sea the vertical +light into beams of 3° amplitude in azimuth, producing flashes of +about ¾ sec. duration. To illuminate the near sea the vertical divergence of the lower prisms of the fixed belt was artificially increased. These optics are very similar to that in use at the Souter Point lighthouse, Sunderland. The intensities obtained were 120,000 @@ -2415,13 +2376,13 @@ candles in the case of fixed lights and 900,000 candles with flashing lights. As a result of a nautical inquiry held in 1886, at which date the lights of Dunkerque, Calais, Gris-Nez, La Canche, Baleines and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span> -Planier had been lighted, in addition to the old apparatus at La Hève, +Planier had been lighted, in addition to the old apparatus at La Hève, it was decided to limit the installation of electrical apparatus to important landfall lights—a decision which the Trinity House had already arrived at in the case of the English coast—and to establish -new apparatus at six stations only. These were Créac’h d’Ouessant -(Ushant), Belle-Île, La Coubre at the mouth of the river Gironde, -Barfleur, Île d’Yeu and Penmarc’h. At the same time it was determined +new apparatus at six stations only. These were Créac’h d’Ouessant +(Ushant), Belle-ÃŽle, La Coubre at the mouth of the river Gironde, +Barfleur, ÃŽle d’Yeu and Penmarc’h. At the same time it was determined to increase the powers of the existing electric lights. The scheme as amended in 1886 was completed in 1902.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> @@ -2436,19 +2397,19 @@ diameter carbons and currents of 60 to 120 amperes than with carbons and currents of larger dimensions in conjunction with single optics of greater focal distance. A somewhat similar circumstance led to the choice of the twin form for the two very powerful non-electric -apparatus at Île Vierge (figs. 43 and 43A) and Ailly, particulars of +apparatus at ÃŽle Vierge (figs. 43 and 43A) and Ailly, particulars of which will be seen in table VII.</p> <p>Several of the de Meritens magneto-electric machines of 5.5 K.W., laid down many years ago at French electric lighthouse stations, are still in use. All these machines have five induction coils, which, upon the installation of the twin optics, were separated into two -distinct circuits, each consisting of 2½ coils. This modification has +distinct circuits, each consisting of 2½ coils. This modification has enabled the old plants to be used with success under the altered conditions of lighting entailed by the use of two lamps. The generators adopted in the French service for use at the later stations differ materially from the old type of de Meritens machine. The Phare -d’Eckmühl (Penmarc’h) installation serves as a type of the more +d’Eckmühl (Penmarc’h) installation serves as a type of the more modern machinery. The dynamos are alternating current two-phase machines, and are installed in duplicate. The two lamps are supplied with current from the same machine, the second @@ -2475,7 +2436,7 @@ arc lights have, up to the present, met with little success.</p> <p>The cost of a first-class electric lighthouse installation of the most recent type in France, including optical apparatus, lantern, dynamos, engines, air compressor, siren, &c., but not buildings, amounts -approximately to £5900.</p> +approximately to £5900.</p> <p><i>Efficiency of the Electric Light.</i>—In 1883 the lighthouse authorities of Great Britain determined that an exhaustive series of experiments @@ -2510,7 +2471,7 @@ the roof. The astragals carrying the glazing are of wrought steel or gun-metal. The astragals are frequently arranged helically or diagonally, thus causing a minimum of obstruction to the light rays in any vertical section and affording greater rigidity to the structure. -The glazing is usually ¼-in. thick plate-glass curved to the radius +The glazing is usually ¼-in. thick plate-glass curved to the radius of the lantern. In situations of great exposure the thickness is increased. Lantern roofs are of sheet steel or copper secured to steel or cast-iron rafter frames. In certain instances it is found necessary @@ -2553,7 +2514,7 @@ was erected on a tidal rock near Cadiz. A 28-day clock was arranged for eclipsing the light between sunrise and sunset and automatically cutting off the current at intervals to produce an occulting characteristic. Several small dioptric apparatus illuminated with incandescent -electric lamps have been made by the firm of Barbier Bénard et +electric lamps have been made by the firm of Barbier Bénard et Turenne of Paris, and supplied with current from batteries of Daniell cells, with electric clockwork mechanism for occulting the light. These apparatus have been fitted to beacons and buoys, and @@ -2735,10 +2696,10 @@ be so fitted in England being that stationed at the Swin Middle in in the form of reed-horns or sirens, worked by compressed air. The compressors are driven from steam or oil engines. The cost of a modern type of English light-vessel, with power-driven compressed -air siren, is approximately £16,000.</p> +air siren, is approximately £16,000.</p> <p>In the United States service, the more recently constructed vessels -have a displacement of 600 tons, each costing £18,000. They are +have a displacement of 600 tons, each costing £18,000. They are provided with self-propelling power and steam whistle fog signals. The illuminating apparatus is usually in the form of small dioptric lens lanterns suspended at the mast-head—3 or more to each mast, @@ -2771,8 +2732,8 @@ vessel, the Snouw, on similar lines, having a length of 65 ft. 6 in., beam 20 ft. and a draught of 12 ft., with a displacement of 130 tons. The cost of this vessel complete with optical apparatus and gasholders, with accommodation for three men, was approximately -£5000. The vessel was built in 1898-1899.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> A third vessel was -constructed in 1901-1902 for the Sandettié Bank on the general lines +£5000. The vessel was built in 1898-1899.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> A third vessel was +constructed in 1901-1902 for the Sandettié Bank on the general lines adopted for the preceding examples of her class, but of the following increased dimensions: length 115 ft.; width at water-line 20 ft. 6 in.; and draught 15 ft., with a displacement of 342 tons (fig. 47). Accommodation @@ -2787,7 +2748,7 @@ apparatus is contained in a 6-ft. lantern constructed at the head of a tubular mast 2 ft. 6 in. diameter. A powerful siren is provided with steam engine and boiler for working the air compressors. The total cost of the vessel, including fog signal and optical apparatus, -was £13,600. A vessel of similar construction to the Talais was +was £13,600. A vessel of similar construction to the Talais was placed by the Trinity House in 1905 on the Swin Middle station. The illuminant is oil gas. Gas illuminated light-vessels have also been constructed for the German and Chinese Lighthouse Service.</p> @@ -2810,14 +2771,14 @@ it is constructed of steel, 24 ft. beam, 12 ft. deep and draws 9 ft. of water (fig. 49). The focal plane is elevated 25 ft. above the water-line, and the lantern is 6 ft. in diameter. The optical apparatus is of 500 mm. focal distance and hung in gimbals with a pendulum -balance and “Cardan” joint as in the Sandettié light-vessel. The +balance and “Cardan” joint as in the Sandettié light-vessel. The illuminant is oil gas, with an occulting characteristic. The storeholder contains 10,500 cub. ft. of gas at eight atmospheres, sufficient to supply the light for ninety days and nights. A bell is provided, struck by clappers moved by the roll of the vessel. The cost of the vessel complete was -£2979. The Northern Lighthouse Commissioners +£2979. The Northern Lighthouse Commissioners have four similar vessels in service, and others have been stationed in the Hugli estuary, at Bombay, off the @@ -2831,12 +2792,12 @@ operated mechanism.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:950px; height:450px" src="images/img644a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span>—Sandettié Lightship.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span>—Sandettié Lightship.</td></tr></table> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:186px; height:607px" src="images/img644b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span>—Lantern of -Sandettié Lightship.</td></tr></table> +Sandettié Lightship.</td></tr></table> <p><i>Electrical Communication of Light-vessels with the Shore.</i>—Experiments were instituted @@ -3193,7 +3154,7 @@ entirely dispersed and absorbed by the particles of moisture, forming a sea fog of even moderate density, at a distance of less -than a ¼ m. from the +than a ¼ m. from the shore. The careful experiments and scientific research @@ -3360,7 +3321,7 @@ producing a high note as well as a low note, the two notes being sounded in quick succession once every minute. The trumpet mouths are separated by -an angle of 120° between their axes. +an angle of 120° between their axes. This double form has been adopted in certain instances where the angle desired to be covered by the sound is comparatively @@ -3629,8 +3590,8 @@ des Phares, dating from 1792 and remodelled in 1811, and is under the direction of the minister of public works. It consists of four engineers, two naval officers and one member of the Institute, one inspector-general of marine engineers, and one hydrographic -engineer. The chief executive officers are an Inspecteur Général -des Ponts et Chaussées, who is director of the board, and another +engineer. The chief executive officers are an Inspecteur Général +des Ponts et Chaussées, who is director of the board, and another engineer of the same corps, who is engineer-in-chief and secretary. The board has control of about 750 lights, including those of Corsica, Algeria, &c. A similar system has been established in @@ -3723,7 +3684,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">Steam</td> <td class="tcc rb">374</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Lens elements only; 97° vertical angle. (This apparatus was in use at St +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Lens elements only; 97° vertical angle. (This apparatus was in use at St Catherine’s, 1888 to 1904, and replaced the two fixed electric lights established in 1872.)</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Lizard<br />(Cornwall)</p></td> @@ -3740,7 +3701,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">Oil engines</td> <td class="tcc rb">230</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; vertical angle, 139°. Replaced the two fixed electric lights erected in 1878.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; vertical angle, 139°. Replaced the two fixed electric lights erected in 1878.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>St Catherine’s<br />(Isle of Wight)</p></td> <td class="tcc rb">Single flash</td> @@ -3756,7 +3717,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">2 Steam, each 50 h.p.</td> <td class="tcc rb">136</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; vertical angle, 139°.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; vertical angle, 139°.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Isle of May<br />(Firth of Forth)</p></td> <td class="tcc rb">4 flash</td> @@ -3861,7 +3822,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>Twin optic, mercury rotation. (This light superseded a fixed electric light established in 1884.)</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Cap de la Hève<br />(Havre, English Channel)<br />[Île d’Yeu in the Bay of Biscay (1895) similar]</p></td> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Cap de la Hève<br />(Havre, English Channel)<br />[ÃŽle d’Yeu in the Bay of Biscay (1895) similar]</p></td> <td class="tcc rb">Single flash</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">.10 to .14</td> @@ -3878,8 +3839,8 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation. (The first installation of electric light at this lighthouse was in 1863.)</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Créac’h d’Ouessant<br />(Ushant)<br />[Barfleur (English Channel) 1903, La - Coubre (Bay of Biscay) 1905, and Belle Île (Bay of Biscay) 1903, similar]</p></td> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Créac’h d’Ouessant<br />(Ushant)<br />[Barfleur (English Channel) 1903, La + Coubre (Bay of Biscay) 1905, and Belle ÃŽle (Bay of Biscay) 1903, similar]</p></td> <td class="tcc rb">2 flash</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">.10 to .14</td> @@ -3897,7 +3858,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcl rb"><p>Twin optic, mercury rotation. (This light superseded a double-flashing electric light, similar to that now at Dunkerque, established in 1888.)</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Penmarc’h<br />(Phare d’Eckmühl)<br />(Finistère)</p></td> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Penmarc’h<br />(Phare d’Eckmühl)<br />(Finistère)</p></td> <td class="tcc rb">Single flash</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">.10 to .14</td> @@ -3998,7 +3959,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">Oil, each 25 h.p.</td> <td class="tcc rb">246</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation. Bivalve of 165°.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation. Bivalve of 165°.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p><span class="sc">Australia</span>—</p></td> <td class="rb"> </td> @@ -4032,7 +3993,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb bb">Gas</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">345</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1883</td> -<td class="tcl rb bb"><p>16-panel revolving apparatus, with 180° fixed mirror.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb bb"><p>16-panel revolving apparatus, with 180° fixed mirror.</p></td></tr> </table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span></p> @@ -4083,7 +4044,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">3300</td> <td class="tcc rb">120</td> <td class="tcc rb">1877</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Dioptric holophote, 126½° vertical angle; 3 sides of 3 panels in each.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Dioptric holophote, 126½° vertical angle; 3 sides of 3 panels in each.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eddystone</td> <td class="tcc rb">South Devon</td> @@ -4098,7 +4059,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">3300</td> <td class="tcc rb">133</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 92° vertical angle; 6 sides of 2 panels each.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 92° vertical angle; 6 sides of 2 panels each.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bishop Rock</td> <td class="tcc rb">Scilly Isles</td> @@ -4113,7 +4074,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">3300</td> <td class="tcc rb">134</td> <td class="tcc rb">1886</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 80° vertical angle; 5 sides of 2 panels each.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 80° vertical angle; 5 sides of 2 panels each.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spurn Point</td> <td class="tcc rb">Yorkshire</td> @@ -4128,7 +4089,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">3300</td> <td class="tcc rb">120</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Lens elements only, 80° vertical angle.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Lens elements only, 80° vertical angle.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lundy Island</td> <td class="tcc rb">Bristol Channel</td> @@ -4159,7 +4120,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">3300</td> <td class="tcc rb">195</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>80° vertical angle lens, 2 sides of 4 panels each, mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>80° vertical angle lens, 2 sides of 4 panels each, mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Roker Pier</td> <td class="tcc rb">Sunderland</td> @@ -4174,7 +4135,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1200</td> <td class="tcc rb">83</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; univalve 164° in azimuth, with 164° dioptric mirror in rear.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; univalve 164° in azimuth, with 164° dioptric mirror in rear.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bell Rock</td> <td class="tcc rb">Near Firth of Tay</td> @@ -4220,7 +4181,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1200</td> <td class="tcc rb">175</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>6 panels (lens) of 30° with 180° mirror.<br /> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>6 panels (lens) of 30° with 180° mirror.<br /> [Douglas Head (Isle of Man) similar.]</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sule Skerry</td> @@ -4267,7 +4228,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">2300 (max.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">130</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Triform apparatus, vertical angle of lenses 65°; 6 sides, one revolution in 6 minutes. The single flash from +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Triform apparatus, vertical angle of lenses 65°; 6 sides, one revolution in 6 minutes. The single flash from lens is divided by eclipsing burner into 3 flashes.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fastnet</td> @@ -4283,7 +4244,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1200</td> <td class="tcc rb">160</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Biform apparatus; 4 panels of 90° vertical angle and 90° in azimuth; mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Biform apparatus; 4 panels of 90° vertical angle and 90° in azimuth; mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kinsale</td> <td class="tcc rb">do.</td> @@ -4298,7 +4259,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1200</td> <td class="tcc rb">236</td> <td class="tcc rb">1907</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Biform apparatus, 3 sides each of 2 panels; vertical angle 96°; mercury rotation.<br /> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Biform apparatus, 3 sides each of 2 panels; vertical angle 96°; mercury rotation.<br /> [St. John’s Point, Co. Down (1908) similar, period 7.5 secs.]</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Howth Bailey</td> @@ -4314,7 +4275,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">3300</td> <td class="tcc rb">134</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Bivalve apparatus; panels of 147° in azimuth and 122° vertical angle; mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Bivalve apparatus; panels of 147° in azimuth and 122° vertical angle; mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tclm lb rb cl" rowspan="3">Chassiron</td> <td class="tccm rb cl" rowspan="3">Bay of Biscay</td> @@ -4366,8 +4327,8 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation, hyper-radial apparatus with reflecting prisms. This is the only apparatus of this focal distance on the French coast.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Île de Batz</td> -<td class="tcc rb">Finistère</td> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">ÃŽle de Batz</td> +<td class="tcc rb">Finistère</td> <td class="tcc rb">4 flash</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb">.37</td> @@ -4379,7 +4340,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">2150</td> <td class="tcc rb">223</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Group-flashing apparatus; 4 panels of 45°, with 180° mirror in rear; mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Group-flashing apparatus; 4 panels of 45°, with 180° mirror in rear; mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ar’men</td> <td class="tcc rb">do.</td> @@ -4411,8 +4372,8 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Île Vierge</td> -<td class="tcc rb">Finistère</td> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">ÃŽle Vierge</td> +<td class="tcc rb">Finistère</td> <td class="tcc rb">Single flash</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">.38</td> @@ -4439,7 +4400,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1400</td> <td class="tcc rb">153</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; bivalve apparatus; 2 double-flashing 170° panels.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; bivalve apparatus; 2 double-flashing 170° panels.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cape Race</td> <td class="tcc rb">Newfoundland</td> @@ -4454,7 +4415,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">2150</td> <td class="tcc rb">165</td> <td class="tcc rb">1907</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>4 panels, vertical angle 121½°; mercury rotation.<br /> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>4 panels, vertical angle 121½°; mercury rotation.<br /> [Manora Point, Karachi, 1909, similar.]</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pachena Point</td> @@ -4485,7 +4446,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">1200</td> <td class="tcc rb">175</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>3 panels, vertical angle 150°; mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>3 panels, vertical angle 150°; mercury rotation.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hood Point</td> <td class="tcc rb">do.</td> @@ -4500,7 +4461,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">2150</td> <td class="tcc rb">180</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; 4 panels of 45° in azimuth and 80° vertical angle, with catadioptric mirror in rear.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; 4 panels of 45° in azimuth and 80° vertical angle, with catadioptric mirror in rear.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cape Naturaliste</td> <td class="tcc rb">West Australia</td> @@ -4515,7 +4476,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">2150</td> <td class="tcc rb">404</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; 2 lenses of 126½° in azimuth, with mirror of 107°.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; 2 lenses of 126½° in azimuth, with mirror of 107°.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Point Cloates</td> <td class="tcc rb">do.</td> @@ -4530,7 +4491,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">2150</td> <td class="tcc rb">190</td> <td class="tcc rb">1909</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; 3 panels, each 120° in azimuth and 133½° vertical angle.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Mercury rotation; 3 panels, each 120° in azimuth and 133½° vertical angle.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pecks Ledge</td> <td class="tcc rb">Connecticut, U.S.A.</td> @@ -4545,7 +4506,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb">300</td> <td class="tcc rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">1906</td> -<td class="tcl rb"><p>Rotated on ball bearings. 2 lenses of 90° each and mirror.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb"><p>Rotated on ball bearings. 2 lenses of 90° each and mirror.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fire Island</td> <td class="tcc rb">New York, U.S.A.</td> @@ -4575,7 +4536,7 @@ Spain.</p> <td class="tcc rb bb">160</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">122</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1898</td> -<td class="tcl rb bb"><p>Mercury rotation; one (red) lens of 170° in azimuth, reinforced by two 60° mirrors; one (white) lens of 60° in azimuth.</p></td></tr> +<td class="tcl rb bb"><p>Mercury rotation; one (red) lens of 170° in azimuth, reinforced by two 60° mirrors; one (white) lens of 60° in azimuth.</p></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="14">* The dates given are of the establishment of the optical apparatus. In many cases incandescent burners have been installed at later dates.</td></tr> @@ -4600,36 +4561,36 @@ a rule consist of 11 men, three of them and the master or mate going on shore in rotation.</p> <p>The average annual cost of maintenance of an English shore -lighthouse, with two keepers, is £275. For shore lighthouses with -three keepers and a siren fog signal the average cost is £444. The +lighthouse, with two keepers, is £275. For shore lighthouses with +three keepers and a siren fog signal the average cost is £444. The maintenance of a rock lighthouse with four keepers and an explosive -fog signal is about £760, and an electric light station costs about -£1100 annually to maintain.</p> +fog signal is about £760, and an electric light station costs about +£1100 annually to maintain.</p> <p>A light-vessel of the ordinary type in use in the United Kingdom entails an annual expenditure on maintenance of approximately -£1320, excluding the cost of periodical overhaul.</p> +£1320, excluding the cost of periodical overhaul.</p> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Smeaton, <i>Eddystone Lighthouse</i> (London, 1793); -A. Fresnel, <i>Mémoire sur un nouveau system d’éclairage des phares</i> +A. Fresnel, <i>Mémoire sur un nouveau system d’éclairage des phares</i> (Paris, 1822); R. Stevenson, <i>Bell Rock Lighthouse</i> (Edinburgh, 1824); Alan Stevenson, <i>Skerryvore Lighthouse</i> (1847); Renaud, -<i>Mémoire sur l’éclairage et le balisage des côtes de France</i> (Paris, 1864); -Allard, <i>Mémoire sur l’intensité et la portée des phares</i> (Paris, 1876); +<i>Mémoire sur l’éclairage et le balisage des côtes de France</i> (Paris, 1864); +Allard, <i>Mémoire sur l’intensité et la portée des phares</i> (Paris, 1876); T. Stevenson, <i>Lighthouse Construction and Illumination</i> (London, -1881); Allard, <i>Mémoire sur les phares électriques</i> (Paris, 1881); +1881); Allard, <i>Mémoire sur les phares électriques</i> (Paris, 1881); Renaud, <i>Les Phares</i> (Paris, 1881); Edwards, <i>Our Sea Marks</i> (London, 1884); D. P. Heap, <i>Ancient and Modern Lighthouses</i> (Boston, -1889); Allard, <i>Les Phares</i> (Paris, 1889); Rey, <i>Les Progrès -d’éclairage des côtes</i> (Paris, 1898); Williams, <i>Life of Sir J. N. +1889); Allard, <i>Les Phares</i> (Paris, 1889); Rey, <i>Les Progrès +d’éclairage des côtes</i> (Paris, 1898); Williams, <i>Life of Sir J. N. Douglass</i> (London, 1900); J. F. Chance, <i>The Lighthouse Work of Sir Jas. Chance</i> (London, 1902); de Rochemont and Deprez, <i>Cours des -travaux maritimes</i>, vol. ii. (Paris, 1902); Ribière, <i>Phares et Signaux +travaux maritimes</i>, vol. ii. (Paris, 1902); Ribière, <i>Phares et Signaux maritimes</i> (Paris, 1908); Stevenson, “Isle of May Lighthouse,” <i>Proc. Inst. Mech. Engineers</i> (1887); J. N. Douglass, “Beacon -Lights and Fog Signals,” <i>Proc. Roy. Inst.</i> (1889); Ribière, “Propriétés +Lights and Fog Signals,” <i>Proc. Roy. Inst.</i> (1889); Ribière, “Propriétés optiques des appareils des phares,” <i>Annales des ponts et -chaussées</i> (1894); Preller, “Coast Lighthouse Illumination in +chaussées</i> (1894); Preller, “Coast Lighthouse Illumination in France,” <i>Engineering</i> (1896); “Lighthouse Engineering at the Paris Exhibition,” Engineer (1901-1902); N. G. Gedye, “Coast Fog Signals,” <i>Engineer</i> (1902); <i>Trans. Int. Nav. Congress</i> (Paris, 1900, @@ -4647,15 +4608,15 @@ Lighthouse and Fog Signals,” <i>ibid.</i> vol. lxxxix.; W. T. Douglass, “The Bishop Rock Lighthouses,” <i>ibid.</i> vol. cviii.; Brebner, “Lighthouse Lenses,” <i>ibid.</i> vol. cxi.; Stevenson, “Lighthouse Refractors,” <i>ibid.</i> vol. cxvii.; Case, “Beachy Head Lighthouse,” <i>ibid.</i> vol. clix.; -<i>Notice sur les appareils d’éclairage</i> (French Lighthouse Service +<i>Notice sur les appareils d’éclairage</i> (French Lighthouse Service exhibits at Chicago and Paris) (Paris, 1893 and 1900); <i>Report on U.S. Lighthouse Board Exhibit at Chicago</i> (Washington, 1894); <i>Reports of the Lighthouse Board of the United States</i> (Washington, 1852, et seq.); British parliamentary reports, <i>Lighthouse Illuminants</i> (1883, et seq.), <i>Light Dues</i> (1896), <i>Trinity House Fog Signal Committee</i> (1901), <i>Royal Commission on Lighthouse Administration</i> (1908); -<i>Mémoires de la Société des Ingénieurs Civils de France</i>, <i>Annales des -ponts et chaussées</i> (Paris); <i>Proc. Inst. C. E.</i>; <i>The Engineer</i>; <i>Engineering</i> +<i>Mémoires de la Société des Ingénieurs Civils de France</i>, <i>Annales des +ponts et chaussées</i> (Paris); <i>Proc. Inst. C. E.</i>; <i>The Engineer</i>; <i>Engineering</i> (<i>passim</i>).</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. T. D.; N. G. G.)</div> @@ -4666,12 +4627,12 @@ ponts et chaussées</i> (Paris); <i>Proc. Inst. C. E.</i>; <i>The Engineer</i>; < Islam und Occident</i> (1909). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Minaret</a></span>.</p> <p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In 1901 one of the lights decided upon in 1886 and installed in -1888—Créac’h d’Ouessant—was replaced by a still more powerful +1888—Créac’h d’Ouessant—was replaced by a still more powerful twin apparatus exhibited at the 1900 Paris Exhibition. Subsequently -similar apparatus to that at Créac’h were installed at Gris-Nez, -La Canche, Planier, Barfleur, Belle-Île and La Coubre, and +similar apparatus to that at Créac’h were installed at Gris-Nez, +La Canche, Planier, Barfleur, Belle-ÃŽle and La Coubre, and the old Dunkerque optic has been replaced by that removed from -Belle-Île.</p> +Belle-ÃŽle.</p> <p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Both the Talais and Snouw light-vessels have since been converted into unattended light-vessels.</p> @@ -5000,7 +4961,7 @@ for lamps as used in England at the present time may be defined as consisting of those portions of the distillate from shale oil or crude petroleum which have their flash-point -above 73° F., and +above 73° F., and which are mobile enough to be fed by capillarity in sufficient @@ -5095,7 +5056,7 @@ the combustion.</p> <tr><td class="tclm lb rb bb" rowspan="2">Flat wick, duplex</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feeder wick</td> <td class="tcc rb">56.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">55.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">22</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl rb bb">Ordinary</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">51.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">46.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">22</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="6">American oil—Sp. gr. 0.7904; flash-point, 110°F.   Russian oil—Sp. gr. 0.823; flash-point, 83° F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="6">American oil—Sp. gr. 0.7904; flash-point, 110°F.   Russian oil—Sp. gr. 0.823; flash-point, 83° F.</td></tr> </table> <p>According to Sir Boverton Redwood, duplex burners which give @@ -5406,7 +5367,7 @@ air needed for the combustion of the gas had to pass down the space between the two chimneys, and in so doing became highly heated, partly by contact with the hot glass, and partly by radiation. Sir Edward Frankland estimated that the temperature -of the air reaching the flame was about 500°F. In 1854 +of the air reaching the flame was about 500°F. In 1854 a very similar arrangement was brought forward by the Rev. W. R. Bowditch, and, as a large amount of publicity was given to it, the inception of the regenerative burner was @@ -5759,10 +5720,10 @@ solution of (for instance) ammonium sulphide, which converted them into ordinary cellulose. After washing and drying the skeins were ready for the weaving machines. In 1894 F. de Mare utilized collodion for the manufacture of a mantle, adding the necessary -salts to the collodion before squeezing it into threads. O. Knöfler +salts to the collodion before squeezing it into threads. O. Knöfler in 1895, and later on A. Plaissetty, took out patents for the manufacture of mantles by a similar process to De Mare’s, the difference -between the two being that Knöfler used ammonium sulphide for +between the two being that Knöfler used ammonium sulphide for the denitration of his fabric, whilst Plaissetty employed calcium sulphide, the objection to which is the trace of lime left in the material. Another method for making artificial silk which has a @@ -5803,7 +5764,7 @@ collodion mantle is a bundle of separate filaments without plait or heavy twisting, the number of such filaments varying with the process by which it was made. This latter factor experiment showed to have a certain influence on the useful light-giving life of the -mantle, as whereas the Knöfler and Plaissetty mantles had an +mantle, as whereas the Knöfler and Plaissetty mantles had an average life of about 1500 hours, the Lehner fabric, which contained a larger number of finer threads, could often be burnt continuously for over 3000 hours, and at the end of that period gave a better light @@ -5887,12 +5848,12 @@ principle is placed after the compressor; the pressure of gas in the apparatus governs automatically the flow of gas to the engine. With the Sugg apparatus for high power lighting the gas is brought from the district pressure, which is equal to about -2½ in. of water, to an average of 12 in. water pressure. The -light obtained by this system when the gas pressure is 9½ in. +2½ in. of water, to an average of 12 in. water pressure. The +light obtained by this system when the gas pressure is 9½ in. is 300 candle power with an hourly consumption of 10 cub. ft. of gas, equivalent to 30 candles per cubic foot, and with a gas pressure equal to 14 in. of water 400 candles are obtained with -an hourly consumption of 12½ cub. ft., which represents a duty +an hourly consumption of 12½ cub. ft., which represents a duty of 32 candles per cubic foot of gas consumed. High pressure incandescent lighting makes it possible to burn a far larger volume of gas in a given time under a mantle than is the case @@ -5909,7 +5870,7 @@ mantle the maximum light is emitted at an angle a <span class="sidenote">Inverted burners.</span> little above the horizontal. Inasmuch as for working purposes the surface that a mantle illuminates is at angles -below 45° from the horizontal, it is evident that a considerable +below 45° from the horizontal, it is evident that a considerable loss of efficient lighting is brought about, whilst directly under the light the burner and fittings throw a strong shadow. To avoid this trouble attempts have from time to time been made @@ -5990,7 +5951,7 @@ burner head, and was therefore kept cool and away from the products of combustion.</p> </div> -<p>In 1900 J. Bernt and E. Cérvenka set themselves to solve +<p>In 1900 J. Bernt and E. Cérvenka set themselves to solve the problem of making a Bunsen burner which should consume gas under ordinary gas pressure in an inverted mantle. They took the short Bunsen burner, as found in the most commonly @@ -6018,7 +5979,7 @@ is equivalent to the same amount of extra water pressure on the gas, and with a long mantle it was found useful under certain conditions to add a cylinder or sleeve with perforated sides to carry the gas still lower into the mantle. The principles -thus set forth by Kent, Bernt and Cérvenka form the basis of +thus set forth by Kent, Bernt and Cérvenka form the basis of construction of all the types of inverted mantle burners which so greatly increased the popularity of incandescent gas lighting at the beginning of the 20th century, whilst improvements @@ -6136,7 +6097,7 @@ cut from the hard graphitic carbon deposited in the interior of gas retorts. In 1846 W. Greener and W. E. Staite patented a process for manufacturing carbons for this purpose, but only after the invention of the Gramme dynamo in 1870 any -great demand arose for them. F. P. É. Carré in France in +great demand arose for them. F. P. É. Carré in France in 1876 began to manufacture arc lamp carbons of high quality from coke, lampblack and syrup. Now they are made by taking some specially refined form of finely divided carbon, such as the @@ -6238,7 +6199,7 @@ at the same time rising 2 or 3 amperes. At that moment the arc begins to <i>hiss</i>, and in this hissing condition, if the current is still further increased, P.D. remains constant over wide limits. This drop in voltage on hissing was first noticed by A. Niaudet -(<i>La Lumière électrique</i>, 1881, 3, p. 287). It has been shown +(<i>La Lumière électrique</i>, 1881, 3, p. 287). It has been shown by Mrs Ayrton (<i>Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng.</i> 28, 1899, p. 400) that the hissing is mainly due to the oxygen which gains access from the air to the crater, when the latter becomes so large by reason @@ -6304,7 +6265,7 @@ indicated the presence of a counter-electromotive force of 20 volts. A. E. Blondel concludes, from experiments made by him in 1897 (<i>The Electrician</i>, 1897, 39, p. 615), that there is no counter-electromotive force in the arc greater than a fraction of a volt. Subsequently -W. Duddëll (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1901, 68, p. 512) described +W. Duddëll (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1901, 68, p. 512) described experiments tending to prove the real existence of a counter-electromotive force in the arc, probably having a thermo-electric origin, residing near the positive electrode, and of an associated lesser @@ -6407,7 +6368,7 @@ supported the opinion that the brightness of the crater per square millimetre was independent of the current density, and from certain experiments and assumptions as to the specific heat of carbon, he asserted the temperature of the crater was -about 3500° C. It has been concluded that this constancy of +about 3500° C. It has been concluded that this constancy of temperature, and therefore of brightness, is due to the fact that the crater is at the temperature of the boiling-point of carbon, and in that case its temperature should be raised by increasing @@ -6464,7 +6425,7 @@ of the phase-instant at which the contact is made, the successive instantaneous values of the electric quantities can be measured and plotted out in the form of curves. This method has been much employed by Blondel, Fleming, C. P. Steinmetz, Tobey -and Walbridge, Frith, H. Görges and many others. The +and Walbridge, Frith, H. Görges and many others. The second method, due to Blondel, depends on the use of the <i>Oscillograph</i>, which is a galvanometer having a needle or coil of very small periodic time of vibration, say <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2000</span>th part of a @@ -6532,7 +6493,7 @@ circuit. Hard carbons gave a P.D. curve with a flat top even when worked on a low inductance alternator.</p> <p>The periodic variation of light in the alternating-current arc -has also been the subject of inquiry. H. Görges in 1895 at Berlin +has also been the subject of inquiry. H. Görges in 1895 at Berlin applied a stroboscopic method to steady the variations of illuminating power. Fleming and Petavel employed a similar arrangement, driving the stroboscopic disk by a synchronous motor (<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, @@ -6557,7 +6518,7 @@ current one.</p> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.</td></tr></table> <p>The effect of the wave form on the efficiency of the alternating-current -arc has engaged the attention of many workers. Rössler and +arc has engaged the attention of many workers. Rössler and Wedding in 1894 gave an account of experiments with alternating-current arcs produced by alternators having electromotive force curves of very different wave forms, and they stated that the efficiency @@ -6703,7 +6664,7 @@ light falling on each. This mean intensity is called the <i>mean spherical candle-power</i> of the arc. If the distribution of the illuminating power is known and given by an illumination curve, the mean spherical candle-power can be at once deduced -(<i>La Lumière électrique</i>, 1890, 37, p. 415).</p> +(<i>La Lumière électrique</i>, 1890, 37, p. 415).</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:207px" src="images/img663a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -6805,7 +6766,7 @@ arc directly with that of a candle or other similar flame standard is exceedingly difficult, owing to the much greater proportion and intensity of the violet rays in the arc. The most convenient practical working standard is an incandescent lamp run at a -high temperature, that is, at an efficiency of about 2½ watts per +high temperature, that is, at an efficiency of about 2½ watts per candle. If it has a sufficiently large bulb, and has been <i>aged</i> by being worked for some time previously, it will at a constant voltage preserve a constancy in illuminating power sufficiently @@ -6829,7 +6790,7 @@ particular angle above or below the horizon from the arc, and this light is reflected out finally in a constant horizontal direction. An easily-arranged experiment enables us to determine the constant loss of light by reflection at all the mirrors, since that reflection -always takes place at 45°. The ray thrown out horizontally can +always takes place at 45°. The ray thrown out horizontally can then be compared with that from any standard source of light by means of a fixed photometer, and by sweeping round the radial arm the photometric or illuminating curve of the arc lamp can be obtained. @@ -7225,7 +7186,7 @@ The self-regulating lamps may be classified into groups depending upon the nature of the regulating appliances. In some cases the regulation is controlled only by a <i>series coil</i>, and in others only by a <i>shunt coil</i>. Examples of the former are the original -Gülcher and Brush clutch lamp, and some modern enclosed arc +Gülcher and Brush clutch lamp, and some modern enclosed arc lamps; and of the latter, the Siemens “band” lamp, and the Jackson-Mensing lamp. In series coil lamps the variation of the current in the coil throws into or out of action the carbon-moving @@ -7334,17 +7295,17 @@ of burning. It may be roughly stated that at the present prices of plain open arc-lamp carbons the cost is about 15s. per 1000 hours of burning; hence if such a lamp is burnt every night from dusk to midnight the annual cost in that respect is -about £1, 10s. The annual cost of labour per lamp for trimming -is in Great Britain from £2 to £3; hence, approximately speaking, +about £1, 10s. The annual cost of labour per lamp for trimming +is in Great Britain from £2 to £3; hence, approximately speaking, the cost per annum of maintenance of a public arc lamp burning -every night from dusk to midnight is about £4 to £5, or perhaps -£6, per annum, depreciation and repairs included. Since such +every night from dusk to midnight is about £4 to £5, or perhaps +£6, per annum, depreciation and repairs included. Since such a 10 ampere lamp uses half a Board of Trade unit of electric energy every hour, it will take 1000 Board of Trade units per annum, burning every night from dusk to midnight; and if this -energy is supplied, say at 1½d. per unit, the annual cost of energy -will be about £6, and the upkeep of the lamp, including carbons, -labour for trimming and repairs, will be about £10 to £11 per +energy is supplied, say at 1½d. per unit, the annual cost of energy +will be about £6, and the upkeep of the lamp, including carbons, +labour for trimming and repairs, will be about £10 to £11 per annum. The cost for labour and carbons is considerably reduced by the employment of the enclosed arc lamp, but owing to the absorption of light produced by the inner enclosing globe, and @@ -7369,10 +7330,10 @@ chemically treated carbons has, however, put a different complexion on matters. Although the treated carbons cost more than the plain carbons, yet there is a great increase of emitted light, and a 9-ampere flame arc lamp supplied with electric energy -at 1½d. per unit can be used for 1000 hours at an inclusive -cost of about £s to £6, the mean emitted illumination being at +at 1½d. per unit can be used for 1000 hours at an inclusive +cost of about £s to £6, the mean emitted illumination being at the rate of 4 c.p. per watt absorbed. In the Carbone arc lamp, -the carbons are worked at an angle of 15° or 20° to each other +the carbons are worked at an angle of 15° or 20° to each other and the arc is formed at the lower ends. If the potential difference of the carbons is low, say only 50-60 volts, the crater forms between the tips of the carbons and is therefore more or less @@ -7640,10 +7601,10 @@ and the useful life of the lamp may be said to be that period of its existence before it has deteriorated to a point when it gives only 75% of its original candle-power. It is found that in practice carbon filament lamps, as at present made, if worked -at a higher efficiency than 2½ watts per candle-power, exhibit +at a higher efficiency than 2½ watts per candle-power, exhibit a rapid deterioration in candle-power and an abbreviated life. Hence lamp manufacturers classify lamps into various classes, -marked for use say at 2½, 3, 3½ and 4 watts per candle. A 2½ +marked for use say at 2½, 3, 3½ and 4 watts per candle. A 2½ watt per candle lamp would be called a <i>high-efficiency lamp</i>, and a 4 watt per candle lamp would be called a <i>low-efficiency</i> lamp. In ordinary circumstances the low-efficiency lamp @@ -7679,9 +7640,9 @@ of supply-stations, are undoubted. At the same time the consumer desired a lamp of a higher efficiency than the ordinary carbon filament lamp. The demand for this stimulated efforts to produce improved carbon lamps, and it was found that if -the filament were exposed to a very high temperature, 3000° C. +the filament were exposed to a very high temperature, 3000° C. in an electric furnace, it became more refractory and was capable -of burning in a lamp at an efficiency of 2½ watts per c.p. Inventors +of burning in a lamp at an efficiency of 2½ watts per c.p. Inventors also turned their attention to substances other than carbon which can be rendered incandescent by the electric current.</p> @@ -7698,7 +7659,7 @@ about 5%; and in the arc lamp the radiation from the crater contains about 10 to 15% of eye-affecting radiation. The temperature of a carbon filament working at about 3 watts per candle is not far from the melting-point of platinum, that is to -say, is nearly 1775° C. If it is worked at a higher efficiency, +say, is nearly 1775° C. If it is worked at a higher efficiency, say 2.5 watts per candle-power, the temperature rises rapidly, and at the same time the volatilization and molecular scattering of the carbon is rapidly increased, so that the average duration @@ -7842,7 +7803,7 @@ Lamp.</td></tr></table> <p>The next great improvement came when W. von Bolton produced the tantalum lamp in 1904. There are certain metals -known to have a melting point about 2000° C. or upwards, and +known to have a melting point about 2000° C. or upwards, and of these tantalum is one. It can be produced from the potassium tantalo-fluoride in a pulverulent form. By carefully melting it <i>in vacuo</i> it can then be converted into the reguline form and @@ -7850,8 +7811,8 @@ drawn into wire. In this condition it has a density of 16.6 (water = 1), is harder than platinum and has greater tensile strength than steel, viz. 95 kilograms per sq. mm., the value for good steel being 70 to 80 kilograms per sq. mm. The -electrical resistance at 15° C. is 0.146 ohms per metre with section -of 1 sq. mm. after annealing at 1900° C. <i>in vacuo</i> and +electrical resistance at 15° C. is 0.146 ohms per metre with section +of 1 sq. mm. after annealing at 1900° C. <i>in vacuo</i> and therefore about 6 times that of mercury; the temperature coefficient is 0.3 per degree C. At the temperature assumed in an incandescent lamp when working at 1.5 watts per c.p. @@ -7991,7 +7952,7 @@ found that A and <i>c.p.</i> are connected by an exponential law such that</p> <p class="center"><i>c.p.</i> = <i>a</i>A<span class="sp">x</span></p> <p class="noind">For carbon filament lamps <i>x</i> is a number lying between 5 and 6, -generally equal to 5.5 or 5.6. Also it has been found that <i>c.p.</i> = <i>b</i>W³ +generally equal to 5.5 or 5.6. Also it has been found that <i>c.p.</i> = <i>b</i>W³ very nearly, and that</p> <p class="center"><i>c.p.</i> = <i>c</i>V<span class="sp">y</span> nearly</p> @@ -8003,7 +7964,7 @@ of the voltage, the candle-power must vary as the cube of the wattage.</p> <p>Sir W. de W. Abney and E. R. Festing have also given a formula -connecting candle-power and watts equivalent to <i>c.p.</i> = (W − <i>d</i>)² +connecting candle-power and watts equivalent to <i>c.p.</i> = (W − <i>d</i>)² where <i>d</i> is a constant.</p> <p>In the case of the tantalum lamp the exponent <i>x</i> has a value near @@ -8031,7 +7992,7 @@ power of the reciprocal of the voltage, or</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">log<span class="su">10</span>L = 13.5 −</td> <td>V</td> -<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>V²</td> +<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>V²</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">10</td> <td class="denom">20,000</td></tr></table> @@ -8315,7 +8276,7 @@ twenty lamps. Generally the rate charged under this system is 7d. per unit for the equivalent of one hour’s daily use of the maximum demand and 1d. per unit for all surplus. It is on this principle that it pays to supply current for tramway and other -purposes at a price which primâ facie is below the cost of production; +purposes at a price which primâ facie is below the cost of production; it is only apparently so in comparison with the cost of producing electricity for lighting purposes. In the case of tramways the electricity is required for 15 or 16 hours per day. @@ -8354,14 +8315,14 @@ have to be taken to encourage small shopkeepers and tenants of small houses to use electricity by removing <span class="sidenote">Wiring of houses.</span> the obstacle of the first outlay on wiring. The cost -of wiring may be taken at 15s. to £2 per lamp installed including +of wiring may be taken at 15s. to £2 per lamp installed including all necessary wire, switches, fuses, lamps, holders, casing, but not electroliers or shades. Many undertakers carry out wiring on the easy payment or hire-purchase system. Parliament has sanctioned the adoption of these systems by some local authorities and even authorized them to do the work by direct employment of labour. The usual arrangement is to make an -additional charge of ½d. per unit on all current used, with a +additional charge of ½d. per unit on all current used, with a minimum payment of 1s. per 8 c.p. lamp, consumers having the option of purchasing the installation at any time on specified conditions. The consumer has to enter into an agreement, @@ -8446,7 +8407,7 @@ of that corporation:—</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Type of Lamp.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number<br />of Lamps.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Distance<br />apart (yds.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Cost.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average c.p.<br />per Mile.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cost per c.p.<br />per annum.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Incandescent gas</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,137</td> <td class="tcc rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">£7,062</td> <td class="tcr rb">839</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 15.86d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Incandescent gas</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,137</td> <td class="tcc rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">£7,062</td> <td class="tcr rb">839</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 15.86d.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Incandescent electric</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcc rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">288</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,373</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 13.71</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Electric arcs</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">428</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">65</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,212</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10,537</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 11.32</td></tr> </table> @@ -8536,9 +8497,9 @@ by the Calcutta fire insurance agents association and under the Canadian Electric Light Inspection Act. In Germany rules have been issued by the Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker and by the union of private fire insurance companies of Germany, in Switzerland -by the Association Suisse des électriciens, in Austria by the Elektrotechnischer +by the Association Suisse des électriciens, in Austria by the Elektrotechnischer Verein of Vienna, in France by ministerial decree and -by the syndicat professionel des industries électriques. (For reprints +by the syndicat professionel des industries électriques. (For reprints of these regulations see <i>Electrical Trades Directory</i>.)</p> </div> <div class="author">(E. Ga.)</div> @@ -8592,7 +8553,7 @@ from the latter to earth takes such an erratic course that according to the Lightning Research Committee “no series of lightning conductors of the hitherto recognized type suffice to protect the building.” In Germany two kinds of lightning stroke -have been recognized, one as “zündenden” (causing fire), +have been recognized, one as “zündenden” (causing fire), analogous to the <i>B</i> flash, the other as “kalten” (not causing fire), the ordinary <i>A</i> discharge. The destructive effect of the former was noticed in 1884 by A. Parnell, who quoted instances @@ -8819,9 +8780,9 @@ ceremonial lights. In Greece the <i>Lampadedromia</i> or <i>Lampadephoria</i> (torch-race) had its origin in ceremonies connected with the relighting of the sacred fire. Pausanias <span class="sidenote">Greece and Rome.</span> -(i. 26, § 6) mentions the golden lamp made by Callimachus +(i. 26, § 6) mentions the golden lamp made by Callimachus which burned night and day in the sanctuary of Athena -Polias on the Acropolis, and (vii. 22, §§ 2 and 3) tells of a statue +Polias on the Acropolis, and (vii. 22, §§ 2 and 3) tells of a statue of Hermes Agoraios, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, before which lamps were lighted. Among the Romans lighted candles and lamps formed part of the cult of the domestic @@ -8876,7 +8837,7 @@ in Troas “there were many lights in the upper chamber”; but this was at night, and the most that can be hazarded is that a specially large number were lighted as a festive illumination, as in modern Church festivals (Martigny, <i>Dict. des antiqu. -Chrét.</i>). As to a purely ceremonial use, such early evidence as +Chrét.</i>). As to a purely ceremonial use, such early evidence as exists is all the other way. A single sentence of Tertullian (<i>Apol.</i> xxxv.) sufficiently illuminates Christian practice during the 2nd century. “On days of rejoicing,” he says, @@ -8951,7 +8912,7 @@ disperse the darkness, but as a visible sign of gladness (<i>ad signum laetitiae demonstrandum</i>).” Taken in connexion with a statement which almost immediately precedes this—“Cereos autem non clara luce accendimus, sicut frustra calumniaris: sed ut noctis tenebras -hoc solatio temperemus” (§ 7)—this seems to point to the fact that the +hoc solatio temperemus” (§ 7)—this seems to point to the fact that the ritual use of lights in the church services, so far as already established, arose from the same conservative habit as determined the development of liturgical vestments, <i>i.e.</i> the lights which had been @@ -9241,7 +9202,7 @@ died out in Protestant countries, though their significance has long been lost sight of.<a name="fa22c" id="fa22c" href="#ft22c"><span class="sp">22</span></a> In the 18th century, moreover, it was still customary in England to accompany a funeral with lighted tapers. Picart (<i>op. cit.</i> 1737) gives a plate representing -a funeral cortège preceded and accompanied by boys, each carrying +a funeral cortège preceded and accompanied by boys, each carrying four lighted candles in a branched candlestick. There seems to be no record of candles having been carried in other processions in England since the Reformation. The usage @@ -9250,18 +9211,18 @@ pre-Reformation ceremonial.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See the article “Lucerna,” by J. Toutain in Daremberg and -Saglio’s <i>Dict. des antiquités grecques et romaines</i> (Paris, 1904); -J. Marquardt, “Römische Privatalterthümer” (vol. v. of Becker’s -<i>Röm. Alterthümer</i>), ii. 238-301; article “Cièrges et lampes,” in the -Abbé J. A. Martigny’s <i>Dict. des Antiquités Chrétiennes</i> (Paris, 1865); +Saglio’s <i>Dict. des antiquités grecques et romaines</i> (Paris, 1904); +J. Marquardt, “Römische Privatalterthümer” (vol. v. of Becker’s +<i>Röm. Alterthümer</i>), ii. 238-301; article “Cièrges et lampes,” in the +Abbé J. A. Martigny’s <i>Dict. des Antiquités Chrétiennes</i> (Paris, 1865); the articles “Lichter” and “Koimetarien” (pp. 834 seq.) in Herzog-Hauck’s -<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed., Leipzig. 1901); the article +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed., Leipzig. 1901); the article “Licht” in Wetzer and Welte’s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (Freiburg-i.-B., 1882-1901), an excellent exposition of the symbolism from the Catholic point of view, also “Kerze” and “Lichter”; W. Smith and S. Cheetham, <i>Dict. of Chr. Antiquities</i> (London, 1875-1880), i. 939 seq.; in all these numerous further references will be found. -See also Mühlbauer, <i>Gesch. u. Bedeutung der Wachslichter bei den +See also Mühlbauer, <i>Gesch. u. Bedeutung der Wachslichter bei den kirchlichen Funktionen</i> (Augsburg, 1874); V. Thalhofer, <i>Handbuch der Katholischen Liturgik</i> (Freiburg-i.-B., 1887), i. 666 seq.; and, for the post-Reformation use in the Church of England, <i>Hierurgia @@ -9272,7 +9233,7 @@ Anglicana</i>, new ed. by Vernon Staley (London, 1903).</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “O Fire, thou knowest all things!” See A. Bourquin, “Brahma-karma, -ou rites sacrés des Brahmans,” in the <i>Annales du Musée +ou rites sacrés des Brahmans,” in the <i>Annales du Musée Guimet</i> (Paris, 1884, t. vii.).</p> <p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire, s.v.</i> @@ -9296,11 +9257,11 @@ natalitium</i>, xiv. 99, in Migne, <i>Patr. lat.</i> lxi. 467).</p> <p><a name="ft8c" id="ft8c" href="#fa8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>In sanct. Pasch.</i> c. 2; Migne, <i>Patr. graeca</i>, xxxvi. 624.</p> -<p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <span class="grk" title="phôta t' ephapsantes kyklô epi skeuôn chrysôn, thaumaston theama tois horôsi +<p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <span class="grk" title="phôta t' ephapsantes kyklô epi skeuôn chrysôn, thaumaston theama tois horôsi pareichon">ϕῶτα τ᾽ ἐφάψαντες κύκλῳ ἐπὶ σκευῶν χρυσῶν, θαυμαστὸν θέαα τοῖς ὁρῶσι παρεῖχον</span> (<i>Vita Constantini</i>, iv. 66).</p> -<p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> “Cum alii Pontifices lampadàs cereosque proferrent, alii choras +<p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> “Cum alii Pontifices lampadà s cereosque proferrent, alii choras psallentium ducerent” (Ep. cviii. <i>ad Eustochium virginem</i>, in Migne).</p> <p><a name="ft11c" id="ft11c" href="#fa11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> This may be the paschal candle only. In some codices the text @@ -9373,8 +9334,8 @@ pilgrims to kindle their lights at it is so great, that order is maintained with difficulty by Mahommedan soldiers.</p> <p><a name="ft19c" id="ft19c" href="#fa19c"><span class="fn">19</span></a> The origin of the Paschal Candle is lost in the mists of antiquity. -According to the abbé Châtelain (quoted in Diderot’s <i>Encyclopédie, -s.v.</i> “Cièrge”) the Paschal Candle was not originally a candle at +According to the abbé Châtelain (quoted in Diderot’s <i>Encyclopédie, +s.v.</i> “Cièrge”) the Paschal Candle was not originally a candle at all, but a wax column on which the dates of the movable feasts were inscribed. These were later written on paper and fixed to the Paschal Candle, a custom which in his day survived in the Cluniac @@ -9428,26 +9389,26 @@ rank of field marshal (1809) and an honorary command at court, living in spite of the loss of his estates in comparative luxury and devoting himself to literary work. He lived long enough to characterize the proceedings of the congress of Vienna with -the famous <i>mot</i>: “Le Congrès danse mais ne marche pas.” +the famous <i>mot</i>: “Le Congrès danse mais ne marche pas.” He died at Vienna on the 13th of December 1814. His grandson, Eugene Lamoral de Ligne (1804-1880), was a distinguished Belgian statesman.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>His collected works appeared in thirty-four volumes at Vienna -during the last years of his life (<i>Mélanges militaires</i>, <i>littéraires</i>, +during the last years of his life (<i>Mélanges militaires</i>, <i>littéraires</i>, <i>sentimentaires</i>), and he bequeathed his manuscripts to the emperor’s Trabant Guard, of which he was captain (<i>Œuvres posthumes</i>, Dresden and Vienna, 1817). Selections were published in French and German (<i>Œuvres choisies de M. le prince de Ligne</i> (Paris, 1809); -<i>Lettres et pensées du Maréchal Prince de Ligne</i>, ed. by Madame de -Staël (1809); <i>Œuvres historiques, littéraires ... correspondance et -poésies diverses</i> (Brussels, 1859); <i>Des Prinzen Karl von Ligne -militärische Werke</i>, ed. Count Pappenheim (Sulzbach, 1814). The +<i>Lettres et pensées du Maréchal Prince de Ligne</i>, ed. by Madame de +Staël (1809); <i>Œuvres historiques, littéraires ... correspondance et +poésies diverses</i> (Brussels, 1859); <i>Des Prinzen Karl von Ligne +militärische Werke</i>, ed. Count Pappenheim (Sulzbach, 1814). The most important of his numerous works on all military subjects is -the <i>Fantaisies et préjugés militaires</i>, which originally appeared in +the <i>Fantaisies et préjugés militaires</i>, which originally appeared in 1780. A modern edition is that published by J. Dumaine (Paris, -1879). A German version (<i>Militärische Vorurtheile und Phantasien</i>, +1879). A German version (<i>Militärische Vorurtheile und Phantasien</i>, &c.) appeared as early as 1783. This work, though it deals lightly and cavalierly with the most important subjects (the prince even proposes to found an international academy of the art of war, @@ -9455,23 +9416,23 @@ wherein the reputation of generals could be impartially weighed), is a military classic, and indispensable to the students of the post-Frederician period. On the whole, it may be said that the prince adhered to the school of Guibert (<i>q.v.</i>), and a full discussion will be -found in Max Jähns’ <i>Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften</i>, iii. 2091 et seq. +found in Max Jähns’ <i>Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften</i>, iii. 2091 et seq. Another very celebrated work by the prince is the mock autobiography of Prince Eugene (1809).</p> -<p>See <i>Revue de Bruxelles</i> (October 1839); Reiffenberg, “Le Feldmaréchal -Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne,” <i>Mémoires de l’académie +<p>See <i>Revue de Bruxelles</i> (October 1839); Reiffenberg, “Le Feldmaréchal +Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne,” <i>Mémoires de l’académie de Bruxelles</i>, vol. xix.; Peetermans, <i>Le Prince de Ligne, ou un -écrivain grand seigneur</i> (Liége, 1857), <i>Études et notices historiques -concernant l’histoire des Pays Bas</i>, vol. iii. (Brussels, 1890); <i>Mémoires</i> +écrivain grand seigneur</i> (Liége, 1857), <i>Études et notices historiques +concernant l’histoire des Pays Bas</i>, vol. iii. (Brussels, 1890); <i>Mémoires</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span> -<i>et publications de la Société des Sciences, &c. du Hainault</i>, vol. iii., +<i>et publications de la Société des Sciences, &c. du Hainault</i>, vol. iii., 5th series; Dublet <i>Le Prince de Ligne et ses contemporains</i> (Paris, -1889), Wurzbach, <i>Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserth. Österr</i>. (Vienna, -1858); Hirtenfeld, <i>Der Militär-Maria-Theresien-Orden</i>, vol. i. +1889), Wurzbach, <i>Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserth. Österr</i>. (Vienna, +1858); Hirtenfeld, <i>Der Militär-Maria-Theresien-Orden</i>, vol. i. (Vienna, 1857), Ritter von Rettersberg, <i>Biogr. d. ausgezeichnetsten -Feldherren</i> (Prague, 1829); Schweigerd, <i>Österr. Helden</i>, vol. iii. -(Vienna, 1854); Thürheim, <i>F. M. Karl Joseph Fürst de Ligne</i> +Feldherren</i> (Prague, 1829); Schweigerd, <i>Österr. Helden</i>, vol. iii. +(Vienna, 1854); Thürheim, <i>F. M. Karl Joseph Fürst de Ligne</i> (Vienna, 1877).</p> </div> @@ -9490,7 +9451,7 @@ to England at the close of the 17th century. He entered the army as a volunteer under Marlborough. From 1702 to 1710 he was engaged, with distinction, in nearly every important battle and siege of the war. He was one of the first to mount the -breach at the siege of Liége, commanded a company at the +breach at the siege of Liége, commanded a company at the Schellenberg and at Blenheim, and was present at Menin (where he led the storming of the covered way), Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet (where he received twenty-three bullets through @@ -9528,7 +9489,7 @@ soldier; and his son succeeded to the Irish peerage of Lord Ligonier.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Combes, <i>J. L. Ligonier, une étude</i> (Castres, 1866), and the +<p>See Combes, <i>J. L. Ligonier, une étude</i> (Castres, 1866), and the histories of the 7th Dragoon Guards and Grenadier Guards.</p> </div> @@ -9638,7 +9599,7 @@ the Church of Rome.</p> <p><i>Lives</i> by A. M. Tannoja, a pupil of Liguori’s (3 vols., Naples, 1798-1802); new ed., Turin, 1857; French trans., Paris, 1842; P. v. A. Giattini (Rome, 1815: Ger. trans., Vienna, 1835); F. W. Faber -(4 vols., London, 1848-1849); M. A. Hugues (Münster, 1857); +(4 vols., London, 1848-1849); M. A. Hugues (Münster, 1857); O. Gisler (Einsiedeln, 1887); K. Dilgskron (2 vols., Regensburg, 1887), perhaps the best; A. Capecelatro (2 vols., Rome, 1893); A. des Retours (Paris, 1903); A. C. Berthe (St Louis, 1906).</p> @@ -9677,7 +9638,7 @@ the interest which it produced formed the income of the institution, which, on the model of that of Veleia, would have served to support a little over one hundred children. The capital was 401,800 sesterces, and the annual interest probably at 5%, -<i>i.e.</i> 20,090 sesterces (£4018 and £201 respectively). The site +<i>i.e.</i> 20,090 sesterces (£4018 and £201 respectively). The site of the other settlement—that of the Ligures Corneliani—is unknown.</p> @@ -9810,7 +9771,7 @@ init.</i>). The archaeological side of this important question is difficult. Although great progress has been made with the study of the different strata of remains in prehistoric Italy and of those of Liguria itself (see for instance the excellent <i>Introduction -à l’histoire romaine</i> by Basile Modestov (Paris, 1907, p. 122 ff.) +à l’histoire romaine</i> by Basile Modestov (Paris, 1907, p. 122 ff.) and W. Ridgeway’s <i>Early Age of Greece</i>, p. 240 ff.) no general agreement has been reached among archaeologists as to the particular races who are to be identified as the authors of the @@ -9826,7 +9787,7 @@ Metz, and also in the eastern Alps and in Spain. He pointed out also, what can scarcely be doubted, that the great mass of the Ligurian proper names (<i>e.g.</i> the streams <i>Vinelasca</i>, <i>Porcobera</i>, <i>Comberanea</i>; <i>mons Tuledo</i>; <i>Venascum</i>), have a definite Indo-European -character. Farther Karl Müllenhof in vol. iii. of his +character. Farther Karl Müllenhof in vol. iii. of his <i>Deutsche Alterthumskunde</i> (Berlin, 1898) made a careful collection of the proper names reserved in Latin inscriptions of the Ligurian districts, such as the <i>Tabula Genuatium</i> (<i>C.I.L.</i> i. 99) of 117 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> @@ -9867,7 +9828,7 @@ to C. Pauli, <i>Altitalische Studien</i>, vol. i., especially for the alphabet of the insc.; W. Ridgeway, <i>Who were the Romans?</i> (followed by the abstract of a paper by the present writer) in <i>The Proceedings of the British Academy</i>, vol. iii. p. 42; and to W. H. Hall’s, <i>The Romans -on the Riviera and the Rhône</i> (London, 1898); Issel’s <i>La Liguria +on the Riviera and the Rhône</i> (London, 1898); Issel’s <i>La Liguria geologica e preistorica</i> (Genoa, 1892). A further batch of Celto-Ligurian inscriptions from Giubiasco near Bellinzona (Canton Ticino) is published by G. Herbig, in the <i>Anzeiger f. Schweizer. @@ -9896,10 +9857,10 @@ into the imperial Hanlin college. Shortly after this the central provinces of the empire were invaded by the Taiping rebels, and in defence of his native district he raised a regiment of militia, with which he did such good service to the imperial cause that he -attracted the attention of Tsêng Kuo-fan, the generalissimo in +attracted the attention of Tsêng Kuo-fan, the generalissimo in command. In 1859 he was transferred to the province of Fu-kien, where he was given the rank of taotai, or intendant of circuit. -But Tsêng had not forgotten him, and at his request Li was +But Tsêng had not forgotten him, and at his request Li was recalled to take part against the rebels. He found his cause supported by the “Ever Victorious Army,” which, after having been raised by an American named Ward, was finally placed @@ -9939,8 +9900,8 @@ and thus ended the difficulty caused by the murder of Mr Margary in Yunnan; he arranged treaties with Peru and Japan, and he actively directed the Chinese policy in Korea. On the death of the emperor T’ungchi in 1875 he, by suddenly introducing a large -armed force into the capital, effected a <i>coup d’état</i> by which the -emperor Kwang Sü was put on the throne under the tutelage of +armed force into the capital, effected a <i>coup d’état</i> by which the +emperor Kwang Sü was put on the throne under the tutelage of the two dowager empresses; and in 1886, on the conclusion of the Franco-Chinese war, he arranged a treaty with France. Li was always strongly impressed with the necessity of strengthening @@ -10051,12 +10012,12 @@ circulating <i>The Litany</i> and other publications of John Bastwick and Prynne, offensive to the bishops, he was sentenced by the Star Chamber to be publicly whipped from the Fleet prison to Palace Yard, Westminster, there to stand for two hours in the -pillory, and afterwards to be kept in gaol until a fine of £500 had +pillory, and afterwards to be kept in gaol until a fine of £500 had been paid. He devoted his enforced leisure to his favourite form of literary activity, and did not regain his liberty until November 1640, one of the earliest recorded speeches of Oliver Cromwell being made in support of his petition to the House of Commons -(Nov. 9, 1640). In 1641 he received an indemnity of £3000. +(Nov. 9, 1640). In 1641 he received an indemnity of £3000. He now entered the army, and in 1642 was taken prisoner at Brentford and tried for his life; sentence would no doubt have been executed had not the parliament by threatening reprisals @@ -10098,7 +10059,7 @@ chartered companies and monopolists.</p> Sir Arthur Hesilrige and the Haberdashers’ Hall for what he conceived to have been an injury done to his uncle George Lilburne in 1649, he was sentenced to pay fines amounting to -£7000, and to be banished the Commonwealth, with prohibition +£7000, and to be banished the Commonwealth, with prohibition of return under the pain of death. In June 1653 he nevertheless came back from the Low Countries, where he had busied himself in pamphleteering and such other agitation as was possible, and @@ -10471,11 +10432,11 @@ near Hamburg. He died in July 1909. He first attracted attention by the volume of poems, <i>Adjutantenritte und andere Gedichte</i> (1883), which was followed by several unsuccessful dramas, a volume of short stories, <i>Eine Sommerschlacht</i> (1886), -and a novel <i>Breide Hummelsbüttel</i> (1887). Other collections of +and a novel <i>Breide Hummelsbüttel</i> (1887). Other collections of short stories appeared under the titles <i>Unter flatternden Fahnen</i> -(1888). <i>Der Mäcen</i> (1889), <i>Krieg und Frieden</i> (1891); of lyric +(1888). <i>Der Mäcen</i> (1889), <i>Krieg und Frieden</i> (1891); of lyric <span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span> -poetry in 1889, 1890 (<i>Der Heidegänger und andere Gedichte</i>), 1893, +poetry in 1889, 1890 (<i>Der Heidegänger und andere Gedichte</i>), 1893, and 1903 (<i>Bunte Beute</i>). Interesting, too, is the humorous epic <i>Poggfred</i> (1896; 2nd ed. 1904). Liliencron is one of the most eminent of recent German lyric poets; his <i>Adjutantenritte</i>, @@ -10486,17 +10447,17 @@ and he lacks the sustained power which makes the successful prose writer.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Liliencron’s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> have been published in 14 vols. +<p>Liliencron’s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> have been published in 14 vols. (1904-1905); his <i>Gedichte</i> having been previously collected in four -volumes under the titles <i>Kampf und Spiele, Kämpfe und Ziele, +volumes under the titles <i>Kampf und Spiele, Kämpfe und Ziele, Nebel und Sonne</i> and <i>Bunte Beute</i> (1897-1903). See O. J. Bierbaum, <i>D. von Liliencron</i> (1892); H. Greinz, <i>Liliencron, eine literarhistorische -Würdigung</i> (1896); F. Oppenheimer, <i>D. von Liliencron</i> (1898).</p> +Würdigung</i> (1896); F. Oppenheimer, <i>D. von Liliencron</i> (1898).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LILITH<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (Heb. <i>lilâtu</i>, “night”; hence “night-monster”), +<p><span class="bold">LILITH<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (Heb. <i>lilâtu</i>, “night”; hence “night-monster”), a female demon of Jewish folk-lore, equivalent to the English vampire. The personality and name are derived from a Babylonian-Assyrian demon Lilit or Lilu. Lilith was believed to @@ -10511,11 +10472,11 @@ becomes a demon.</p> <p><span class="bold">LILLE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span>, a city of northern France, capital of the department of Nord, 154 m. N. by E. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 196,624. Lille is situated in a low fertile plain on -the right bank of the Deûle in a rich agricultural and industrial +the right bank of the Deûle in a rich agricultural and industrial region of which it is the centre. It is a first-class fortress and headquarters of the I. army corps, and has an enceinte and a pentagonal citadel, one of Vauban’s finest works, situated to -the west of the town, from which it is divided by the Deûle. +the west of the town, from which it is divided by the Deûle. The modern fortifications comprise over twenty detached forts and batteries, the perimeter of the defences being about 20 m. Before 1858 the town, fortified by Vauban about 1668, occupied @@ -10523,15 +10484,15 @@ an elliptical area of about 2500 yds. by 1300, with the church of Notre-Dame de la Treille in the centre, but the ramparts on the south side have been demolished and the ditches filled up, their place being now occupied by the great Boulevard de la -Liberté, which extends in a straight line from the goods station +Liberté, which extends in a straight line from the goods station of the railway to the citadel. At the S.E. end of this boulevard are grouped the majority of the numerous educational establishments of the city. The new enceinte encloses the old communes of Esquermes, Wazemmes and Moulins-Lille, the area of the town being thus more than doubled. In the new quarters fine boulevards -and handsome squares, such as the Place de la République, +and handsome squares, such as the Place de la République, have been laid out in pleasant contrast with the sombre aspect -of the old town. The district of St André to the north, the only +of the old town. The district of St André to the north, the only elegant part of the old town, is the residence of the aristocracy. Outside the enceinte populous suburbs surround the city on every side. The demolition of the fortifications on the north and @@ -10546,15 +10507,15 @@ bricks of different colours, date from 1617 and 1622, the time of the Spanish domination. On the same side the Noble-Tour is a relic of the medieval ramparts. The present enceinte is pierced by numerous gates, including water gates for the canal -of the Deûle and for the Arbonnoise, which extends into a marsh +of the Deûle and for the Arbonnoise, which extends into a marsh in the south-west corner of the town. The citadel, which contains the barracks and arsenal, is surrounded by public gardens. The more interesting buildings are in the old town, where, in the Grande Place and Rue Faidherbe, its animation is concentrated. St Maurice, a church in the late Gothic style, dates in its oldest portions from the 15th century, and was restored -in 1872; Ste Cathérine belongs to the 15th, 16th and 18th -centuries, St André to the first years of the 18th century, and +in 1872; Ste Cathérine belongs to the 15th, 16th and 18th +centuries, St André to the first years of the 18th century, and Ste Madeleine to the last half of the 17th century; all possess valuable pictures, but St Maurice alone, with nave and double aisles, and elegant modern spire, is architecturally notable. @@ -10562,17 +10523,17 @@ Notre-Dame de la Treille, begun in 1855, in the style of the 15th century, possesses an ancient statue of the Virgin which is the object of a well-known pilgrimage. Of the civil buildings the Bourse (17th century) built round a courtyard in which stands -a bronze statue of Napoleon I., the Hôtel d’Aigremont, the -Hôtel Gentil and other houses are in the Flemish style; the -Hôtel de Ville, dating in the main from the middle of the 19th +a bronze statue of Napoleon I., the Hôtel d’Aigremont, the +Hôtel Gentil and other houses are in the Flemish style; the +Hôtel de Ville, dating in the main from the middle of the 19th century, preserves a portion of a palace built by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in the 15th century. The prefecture, the Palais des Beaux-Arts, the law-courts, the school of arts and -crafts, and the Lycée Faidherbe are imposing modern buildings. +crafts, and the Lycée Faidherbe are imposing modern buildings. In the middle of the Grande Place stands a column, erected in 1848, commemorating the defence of the town in 1792 (see below), and there are also statues to Generals L. L. C. Faidherbe and -F. O. de Négrier, and busts of Louis Pasteur and the popular +F. O. de Négrier, and busts of Louis Pasteur and the popular poet and singer A. Desrousseaux. The Palais des Beaux-Arts contains a museum and picture galleries, among the richest in France, as well as a unique collection of original designs of the @@ -10582,20 +10543,20 @@ Italian artist of the 16th century. The city also possesses a commercial and colonial museum, an industrial museum, a fine collection of departmental and municipal archives, the museum of the Institute of Natural Sciences and a library containing -many valuable manuscripts, housed at the Hôtel de Ville. The +many valuable manuscripts, housed at the Hôtel de Ville. The large military hospital, once a Jesuit college, is one of several similar institutions.</p> <p>Lille is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. It is the centre -of an académie (educational division) and has a university with +of an académie (educational division) and has a university with faculties of laws, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy, together with a Catholic institute comprising faculties of theology, law, medicine and pharmacy, letters, science, a technical school, and a department of social and political science. Secondary -education is given at the Lycée Faidherbe, and the Lycée -Fénelon (for girls), a higher school of commerce, a national +education is given at the Lycée Faidherbe, and the Lycée +Fénelon (for girls), a higher school of commerce, a national technical school and other establishments; to these must be added schools of music and fine arts, and the Industrial and Pasteur Institutes.</p> @@ -10616,13 +10577,13 @@ occupy many thousands of workmen. Plant for sugar-works and distilleries, military stores, steam-engines, locomotives, and bridges of all kinds are produced by the company of Fives-Lille. Lille is one of the most important junctions of the Northern -railway, and the Deûle canal affords communication with neighbouring +railway, and the Deûle canal affords communication with neighbouring ports and with Belgium. Trade is chiefly in the raw material and machinery for its industries, in the products thereof, and in the wheat and other agricultural products of the surrounding district.</p> -<p>Lille (l’Île) is said to date its origin from the time of Count +<p>Lille (l’ÃŽle) is said to date its origin from the time of Count Baldwin IV. of Flanders, who in 1030 surrounded with walls a little town which had arisen around the castle of Buc. In the first half of the 13th century, the town, which had developed @@ -10643,21 +10604,21 @@ Burgundy to Austria and then to Spain. After the death of Philip IV. of Spain, Louis XIV. reclaimed the territory and besieged Lille in 1667. He forced it to capitulate, but preserved all its laws, customs, privileges and liberties. In 1708, -after an heroic resistance, it surrendered to Prince Eugène and +after an heroic resistance, it surrendered to Prince Eugène and the duke of Marlborough. The treaty of Utrecht restored it to France. In 1792 the Austrians bombarded it for nine days and nights without intermission, but had ultimately to raise the siege.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See É. Vanhende, <i>Lille et ses institutions communales de 620 à 1804</i> +<p>See É. Vanhende, <i>Lille et ses institutions communales de 620 à 1804</i> (Lille, 1888).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LILLEBONNE,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of France in the department of Seine-Inférieure, -3½ m. N. of the Seine and 24 m. E. of Havre by the +<p><span class="bold">LILLEBONNE,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of France in the department of Seine-Inférieure, +3½ m. N. of the Seine and 24 m. E. of Havre by the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 5370. It lies in the valley of the Bolbec at the foot of wooded hills. The church of Notre-Dame, partly modern, preserves a Gothic portal of the 16th @@ -10765,7 +10726,7 @@ Germany.</p> <p>See <i>Lillo’s Dramatic Works with Memoirs of the Author by Thomas Davies</i> (reprint by Lowndes, 1810); Cibber’s <i>Lives of the Poets</i>, v.; Genest, <i>Some Account of the English Stage</i>; Alois Brandl, -“Zu Lillo’s Kaufmann in London,” in <i>Vierteljahrschrift für Literaturgeschichte</i> +“Zu Lillo’s Kaufmann in London,” in <i>Vierteljahrschrift für Literaturgeschichte</i> (Weimar, 1890, vol. iii.); Leopold Hoffmann, <i>George Lillo</i> (Marburg, 1888); Paul von Hofmann-Wellenhof, <i>Shakspere’s Pericles und George Lillo’s Marina</i> (Vienna, 1885). There is a novel founded @@ -10780,14 +10741,14 @@ Bulwer-Lytton’s <i>Eugene Aram</i>.</p> in 1602 at Diseworth in Leicestershire, his family having been settled as yeomen in the place for “many ages.” He received a tolerably good classical education at the school of Ashby-de-la-Zouche, -but he naïvely tells us what may perhaps have some +but he naïvely tells us what may perhaps have some significance in reference to his after career, that his master “never taught logic.” In his eighteenth year, his father having fallen into great poverty, he went to London and was employed in attendance on an old citizen and his wife. His master, at his -death in 1627, left him an annuity of £20; and, Lilly having soon +death in 1627, left him an annuity of £20; and, Lilly having soon afterwards married the widow, she, dying in 1633, left him property -to the value of about £1000. He now began to dabble in astrology, +to the value of about £1000. He now began to dabble in astrology, reading all the books on the subject he could fall in with, and occasionally trying his hand at unravelling mysteries by means of his art. The years 1642 and 1643 were devoted to a careful @@ -10842,8 +10803,8 @@ the improved state of the science.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LILOAN,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a town of the province of Cebú, Philippine Islands, -on the E. coast, 10 m. N.E. of Cebú, the capital of the province. +<p><span class="bold">LILOAN,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a town of the province of Cebú, Philippine Islands, +on the E. coast, 10 m. N.E. of Cebú, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Compostela, 15,626. There are seventeen villages or <i>barrios</i> in the town, and eight of them had in 1903 a population exceeding 1000. The language is @@ -10869,7 +10830,7 @@ pomponium</i>, <i>L. chalcedonicum</i>, <i>L. carniolicum</i> and <i>L. pyrenaic with one American, <i>L. canadense</i>, which had been introduced in 1629. For the ancient and medieval history of the lily, see M. de Cannart d’Hamale’s <i>Monographie historique -et littéraire des lis</i> (Malines, 1870). Since that period many new +et littéraire des lis</i> (Malines, 1870). Since that period many new species have been added. The latest authorities for description and classification of the genus are J. G. Baker (“Revision of the Genera and Species of Tulipeae,” <i>Journ. of Linn. Soc.</i> xiv. p. @@ -10910,7 +10871,7 @@ properties in this respect.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:292px; height:451px" src="images/img687.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption1"> Madonna or White Lily (<i>Lilium -candidum</i>). About ¼ nat. size.</td></tr></table> +candidum</i>). About ¼ nat. size.</td></tr></table> <div class="condensed"> <p>The white lily, <i>L. candidum</i>, the <span class="grk" title="leirion">λείριον</span> of the Greeks, was one @@ -10930,8 +10891,8 @@ according to ancient etymologists Abh.</i> p. 227) the town of Susa was connected with the Persian name of the lily -<i>sûsan</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="souson">σοῦσον</span>, Heb. -<i>shôshan</i>). Mythologically the +<i>sûsan</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="souson">σοῦσον</span>, Heb. +<i>shôshan</i>). Mythologically the white lily, <i>Rosa Junonis</i>, was fabled to have sprung from the milk of Hera. As the @@ -10947,7 +10908,7 @@ This perhaps is the “red lily of Constantinople” of Gerard, <i>L. chalcedonicum</i>. The lily of the Old Testament -(shôshan) may be conjectured +(shôshan) may be conjectured to be a red lily from the simile in Cant. v. 13, unless the allusion is to the fragrance rather than the colour of the lips, in which case the white lily must be @@ -10986,7 +10947,7 @@ there are many others.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:493px; height:556px" src="images/img688.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption">Lily of the Valley (<i>Convallaria majalis</i>). About ¼ nat. size.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption">Lily of the Valley (<i>Convallaria majalis</i>). About ¼ nat. size.</td></tr></table> <p>The true lilies are so numerous and varied that no general cultural instructions will be alike suitable to all. Some species, as <i>L. @@ -11164,17 +11125,17 @@ by the Pacific Ocean. Pop. (1906 estimate) 250,000; area 13,314 sq. m. The eastern boundary follows the crests of the Western Cordillera, which gives to the department the western slopes of this chain with the drainage basins of the rivers Huaura, -Chancay, Chillon, Rimac, Lurin, Mala and Cañete. Although +Chancay, Chillon, Rimac, Lurin, Mala and Cañete. Although the department forms part of the rainless region, these rivers, fed from the snows of the high Andes, provide water for the irrigation of large areas devoted to the raising of cotton, sugar, sorghum, Indian corn, alfalfa, potatoes, grapes and olives. The -sugar estates of the Cañete are among the best in Peru and are +sugar estates of the Cañete are among the best in Peru and are served by a narrow gauge railway terminating at the small port of Cerro Azul. Indian corn is grown in Chancay and other northern valleys, and is chiefly used, together with alfalfa and barley, in fattening swine for lard. The mineral resources are -not important, though gold washings in the Cañete valley have +not important, though gold washings in the Cañete valley have been worked since early colonial times. One of the most important industrial establishments in the republic is the smelting works at Casapalca, on the Oroya railway, in the Rimac valley, @@ -11182,7 +11143,7 @@ which receives ores from neighbouring mines of the district of Huarochiri. The department is crossed from S.W. to N.E. by the Oroya railway, and several short lines run from the city of Lima to neighbouring towns. Besides Lima (<i>q.v.</i>) the principal -towns are Huacho, Cañete (port), Canta, Yauyos, Chorrillos, +towns are Huacho, Cañete (port), Canta, Yauyos, Chorrillos, Miraflores and Barranco—the last three being summer resorts for the people of the capital, with variable populations of 15,000, 6000 and 5000 respectively. About 15 m. S. of Lima, near the @@ -11194,15 +11155,15 @@ by the Incas.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIMA,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> the principal city and the capital of Peru and of the department and province of Lima, on the left bank of the river -Rimac, 7½ m. above its mouth and the same distance E. by N. -of its seaport Callao, in 12° 2′ 34″ S., 77° 7′ 36″ W. Pop. (1906 +Rimac, 7½ m. above its mouth and the same distance E. by N. +of its seaport Callao, in 12° 2′ 34″ S., 77° 7′ 36″ W. Pop. (1906 estimate) 140,000, of whom a large proportion is of negro descent, and a considerable number of foreign birth. The city is about 480 ft. above sea-level, and stands on an arid plain, which rises gently toward the S., and occupies an angle between the Cerros de San Jeronimo (2493 ft.) and San Cristobal (1411 ft.) on the N. and a short range of low hills, called the Cerros de San -Bartolomé, on the E. The surrounding region is arid, like all +Bartolomé, on the E. The surrounding region is arid, like all this part of the Pacific coast, but through irrigation large areas have been brought under cultivation, especially along the watercourses. The Rimac has its source about 105 m. N.E. of Lima @@ -11217,8 +11178,8 @@ somewhat from that of the arid coast in general, in having a winter of four months characterized by cloudy skies, dense fogs and sometimes a drizzling rain. The air in this season is raw and chilly. For the rest of the year the sky is clear and the air -dry. The mean temperature for the year is 66° F., the winter -minimum being 59° and the summer maximum 78°.</p> +dry. The mean temperature for the year is 66° F., the winter +minimum being 59° and the summer maximum 78°.</p> <p>The older part of Lima was laid out and built with mathematical regularity, the streets crossing each other at right @@ -11241,12 +11202,12 @@ two to Callao, one to Magdalena, and one to Miraflores and Chorrillos. On the north side of the river is the suburb or district of San Lazaro, shut in by the encircling hills and occupied in great part by the poorer classes. The principal squares are -the Plaza Mayor, Plaza Bolívar (formerly P. de la Inquisicion +the Plaza Mayor, Plaza BolÃvar (formerly P. de la Inquisicion and P. de la Independencia), Plaza de la Exposicion, and Plaza del Acho, on the north side of the river, the site of the bull-ring. The public gardens, connected with the Exposition palace on the S. side of the city, and the Paseo Colon are popular among -the Limeños as pleasure resorts. The long Paseo Colon, with +the Limeños as pleasure resorts. The long Paseo Colon, with its parallel drives and paths, is ornamented with trees, shrubbery and statues, notably the Columbus statue, a group in marble designed by the sculptor Salvatore Revelli. It is the favourite @@ -11260,14 +11221,14 @@ the Grau and Bolognesi avenues (parts of the Boulevard), the Acho avenue on the right bank of the Rimac, and the celebrated avenue of the Descalzos, on the N. side of the river, bordered with statuary. The noteworthy monuments of the city are -the bronze equestrian statue of Bolívar in the plaza of that name, +the bronze equestrian statue of BolÃvar in the plaza of that name, the Columbus statue already mentioned, the Bolognesi statue in the small square of that name, and the San Martin statue in the Plaza de la Exposicion. The 22nd of May monument, a marble shaft crowned by a golden bronze figure of Victory, stands where the Callao road crosses the Boulevard. Most conspicuous among the public buildings of Lima is the cathedral, -whose twin towers and broad façade look down upon the Plaza +whose twin towers and broad façade look down upon the Plaza Mayor. Its foundation stone was laid in 1535 but the cathedral was not consecrated until 1625. The great earthquake of 1746 reduced it to a mass of ruins, but it was reconstructed by 1758, @@ -11277,7 +11238,7 @@ Francisco Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru. Also facing the same square are the archiepiscopal and government palaces; the latter formerly the palace of the viceroys. The interesting <i>casa</i> of the Inquisition, whose tribunals rivalled those of Madrid in -cruelty, faces upon Plaza Bolívar, as also the old University of +cruelty, faces upon Plaza BolÃvar, as also the old University of San Marcos, which dates from 1551 and has faculties of theology, law, medicine, philosophy and literature, mathematics, and administrative and political economy. The churches and @@ -11305,14 +11266,14 @@ one of the best in South America; the great bull-ring of the Plaza del Acho, which dates from 1768 and can seat 8000 spectators; the Concepcion market; a modern penitentiary; and various charitable institutions. In addition to the old university on the -Plaza Bolívar, which has been modernized and greatly improved, +Plaza BolÃvar, which has been modernized and greatly improved, Lima has a school of engineers and mines (founded 1876), the old college of San Carlos, a normal school (founded 1905), a school of agriculture (situated outside the city limits and founded in 1902), two schools for girls under the direction of religious sisters, an episcopal seminary called the Seminario Conciliar de Santo Toribio, and a school of arts and trades in which -elementary technical instruction is given. Under the old régime, +elementary technical instruction is given. Under the old régime, primary instruction was almost wholly neglected, but the 20th century brought about important changes in this respect. In addition to the primary schools, the government maintains @@ -11340,20 +11301,20 @@ and another, the famous Oroya line, runs inland 130 m., crossing the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft. above sea-level, with branches to Cerro de Pasco and Huari. The export trade properly belongs to Callao, though often credited to Lima. -The Limeños are an intelligent, hospitable, pleasure-loving +The Limeños are an intelligent, hospitable, pleasure-loving people, and the many attractive features of their city make it a favourite place of residence for foreigners.</p> <p>Lima was founded on the 18th of January 1535 by Francisco Pizarro, who named it Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) in -honour of the emperor Charles V. and Doña Juana his mother, +honour of the emperor Charles V. and Doña Juana his mother, or, according to some authorities, in commemoration of the Feast of the Epiphany (6th January) when its site is said to have been selected. The name soon after gave place to that of Lima, a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word Rimac. In 1541 Lima was made an episcopal see, which in 1545 was raised to a metropolitan see. Under Spanish rule, Lima was the principal -city of South America, and for a time was the entrepôt for all the +city of South America, and for a time was the entrepôt for all the Pacific coast colonies south of Panama. It became very prosperous during this period, though often visited by destructive earthquakes, the most disastrous of which was that of the 28th of @@ -11366,7 +11327,7 @@ Martin invested the city, and took possession of it on the 12th of July upon the withdrawal of the Spanish forces. San Martin was proclaimed the protector of Peru as a free state on the 28th of July, but resigned that office on the 20th of September -1822 to avoid a fratricidal struggle with Bolívar. In March +1822 to avoid a fratricidal struggle with BolÃvar. In March 1828 Lima was again visited by a destructive earthquake, and in 1854-1855 an epidemic of yellow fever carried off a great number of its inhabitants. In November 1864, when a hostile @@ -11417,9 +11378,9 @@ The poverty of the country after the war made recovery difficult, but years of peace have assisted it.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Mariano F. Paz Soldan, <i>Diccionario geográfico-estadistico del -Perú</i> (Lima, 1877); Mateo Paz Soldan and M. F. Paz Soldan, -<i>Geografia del Perú</i> (Paris, 1862); Manuel A. Fuentes, <i>Lima, or +<p>See Mariano F. Paz Soldan, <i>Diccionario geográfico-estadistico del +Perú</i> (Lima, 1877); Mateo Paz Soldan and M. F. Paz Soldan, +<i>Geografia del Perú</i> (Paris, 1862); Manuel A. Fuentes, <i>Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Peru</i> (London, 1866); C. R. Markham, <i>Cuzo and Lima</i> (London, 1856), and <i>History of Peru</i> (Chicago, 1892); Alexandre Garland, <i>Peru in 1906</i> (Lima, 1907); and C. R. Enock, @@ -11435,7 +11396,7 @@ under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peru</a></span>.</p> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:212px; height:234px" src="images/img691.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> </table> -<p><span class="bold">LIMAÇON<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>limax</i>, a slug), a curve invented by +<p><span class="bold">LIMAÇON<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>limax</i>, a slug), a curve invented by Blaise Pascal and further investigated and named by Gilles Personne de Roberval. It is generated by the extremities of a rod which is constrained to move so that its middle point traces @@ -11446,7 +11407,7 @@ may be regarded as an epitrochoid (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Epic rolling and fixed circles have equal radii. It is the inverse of a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span> central conic for the focus, and the first positive pedal of a circle -for any point. The form of the limaçon depends on the ratio of +for any point. The form of the limaçon depends on the ratio of the two constants; if <i>a</i> be greater than <i>b</i>, the curve lies entirely outside the circle; if <i>a</i> equals <i>b</i>, it is known @@ -11454,15 +11415,15 @@ as a cardioid (<i>q.v.</i>); if <i>a</i> is less than <i>b</i>, the curve has a node within the circle; the particular case when <i>b</i> = 2<i>a</i> is known as the trisectrix -(<i>q.v.</i>). In the figure (1) is a limaçon, +(<i>q.v.</i>). In the figure (1) is a limaçon, (2) the cardioid, (3) the trisectrix.</p> -<p>Properties of the limaçon may be +<p>Properties of the limaçon may be deduced from its mechanical construction; thus the length of a focal chord is constant and the normals at the extremities of a focal chord intersect on a fixed circle. -The area is (<i>b</i>² + <i>a</i>²/2)π, and the length is expressible as an +The area is (<i>b</i>² + <i>a</i>²/2)π, and the length is expressible as an elliptic integral.</p> @@ -11527,7 +11488,7 @@ above the keelson, to allow water to drain to the pumps.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The etymology of these words is obscure. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the origin of (1) is to be found in the Fr. -<i>limonière</i>, a derivative of <i>limon</i>, the shaft of a vehicle, a meaning +<i>limonière</i>, a derivative of <i>limon</i>, the shaft of a vehicle, a meaning which appears in English from the 15th century but is now obsolete, except apparently among the miners of the north of England. The earlier English forms of the word are <i>lymor</i> or <i>limmer</i>. Skeat suggests @@ -11578,7 +11539,7 @@ on Scripture and Reason</i>, London, 1702); and a translation of the <i>Historia Inquisitionis</i>, by Samuel Chandler, with “a large introduction concerning the rise and progress of persecution and the real and pretended causes of it” prefixed, appeared in 1731. See -Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p> +Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p> </div> @@ -11617,12 +11578,12 @@ raised a great army. The rival forces met at Woeringen (5th of June 1288) and John of Brabant (<i>q.v.</i>) gained a complete victory. It proved decisive, the duchies of Limburg and Brabant passing under the rule of a common sovereign. The duchy comprised -during this period the bailiwicks of Hervé, Montzen, Baelen, +during this period the bailiwicks of Hervé, Montzen, Baelen, Sprimont and Wallhorn, and the counties of Rolduc, Daelhem and Falkenberg, to which was added in 1530 the town of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span> Maastricht. The provisions and privileges of the famous Charter -of Brabant, the <i>Joyeuse Entrée</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), were from the 15th century +of Brabant, the <i>Joyeuse Entrée</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), were from the 15th century extended to Limburg and remained in force until the French Revolution. By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the duchy was divided into two portions, the counties of Daelhem and Falkenberg @@ -11633,7 +11594,7 @@ portion passed under the dominion of the Austrian Habsburgs and formed part of the Austrian Netherlands until the French conquest in 1794. During the period of French rule (1794-1814) Limburg was included in the two French departments of -Ourthe and Meuse Inférieure. In 1814 the old name of Limburg +Ourthe and Meuse Inférieure. In 1814 the old name of Limburg was restored to one of the provinces of the newly created kingdom of the Netherlands, but the new Limburg comprised besides the ancient duchy, a piece of Gelderland and the county of Looz. @@ -11663,7 +11624,7 @@ tie with Germany. Limburg became henceforth an integral part of Dutch territory.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See P. S. Ernst, <i>Histoire du Limbourg</i> (7 vols., Liége, 1837-1852); +<p>See P. S. Ernst, <i>Histoire du Limbourg</i> (7 vols., Liége, 1837-1852); C. J. Luzac, <i>De Landen van Overmuze in Zonderheid 1662</i> (Leiden, 1888); M. J. de Poully, <i>Histoire de Maastricht et de ses environs</i> (1850); <i>Diplomaticke bescheiden betreffends de Limburg-Luxemburgsche @@ -11680,7 +11641,7 @@ of Belgium, occupying the north-east corner of the kingdom. It represents only a portion of the ancient duchy of Limburg (see above). The part east of the Meuse was transferred to Holland by the London conference, and a further portion was -attached to the province of Liége including the old capital now +attached to the province of Liége including the old capital now called Dolhain. Much of the province is represented by the wild heath district called the Campine, recently discovered to form an extensive coal-field. The operations for working it were only @@ -11726,7 +11687,7 @@ over the French.</p> <p><span class="bold">LIMBURG,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the south-easternmost and smallest province of Holland, bounded N. by Gelderland, N.W. by North Brabant, S.W. by the Belgian province of Limburg, and S. by that of -Liége, and E. by Germany. Its area is 850 sq. m., and its population +Liége, and E. by Germany. Its area is 850 sq. m., and its population in 1900 was 281,934. It is watered by the Meuse (Maas) which forms part of its south-western boundary (with Belgium) and then flows through its northern portion, and by such tributaries @@ -11943,7 +11904,7 @@ which are downy beneath, its downy twigs and its prominently ribbed fruit. The lime sometimes acquires a great size; one is recorded in Norfolk as being 16 yds. in circumference, and Ray mentions one of the same girth. The famous linden tree which -gave the town of Neuenstadt in Württemberg the name of +gave the town of Neuenstadt in Württemberg the name of “<i>Neuenstadt an der grossen Linden</i>” was 9 ft. in diameter.</p> <p>The lime is a very favourite tree. It is an object of beauty in @@ -11990,7 +11951,7 @@ see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lemon</a></span>.</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This is an altered form of O. Eng. and M. Eng. <i>lind</i>; cf. Ger. <i>Linde</i>, -cognate with Gr. <span class="grk" title="elatê">ἐλάτη</span>, the silver fir. “Linden” in English means +cognate with Gr. <span class="grk" title="elatê">ἐλάτη</span>, the silver fir. “Linden” in English means properly “made of lime—or lind—wood,” and the transference to the tree is due to the Ger. <i>Lindenbaum</i>.</p> </div> @@ -12269,13 +12230,13 @@ accepted as her German frontier the water-boundary of the Rhine and upper Danube. Beyond these rivers she held only the fertile plain of Frankfort, opposite the Roman border fortress of Moguntiacum (Mainz), the southernmost slopes of the Black -Forest and a few scattered têtes-du-pont. The northern section +Forest and a few scattered têtes-du-pont. The northern section of this frontier, where the Rhine is deep and broad, remained the Roman boundary till the empire fell. The southern part was different. The upper Rhine and upper Danube are easily crossed. The frontier which they form is inconveniently long, enclosing an acute-angled wedge of foreign territory—the modern -Baden and Württemberg. The German populations of these +Baden and Württemberg. The German populations of these lands seem in Roman times to have been scanty, and Roman subjects from the modern Alsace and Lorraine had drifted across the river eastwards. The motives alike of geographical convenience @@ -12564,7 +12525,7 @@ submarine eruptions or from floating pieces of pumice. Other limestones contain organic matter in the shape of asphalt, bitumen or petroleum, presumably derived from plant remains. The well-known <i>Val de Travers</i> is a bituminous limestone of lower Neocomian -age found in the valley of that name near Neuchâtel. Some of the +age found in the valley of that name near Neuchâtel. Some of the oil beds of North America are porous limestones, in the cavities of which the oil is stored up. Siliceous limestones, where their silica is original and of organic origin, have contained skeletons of sponges @@ -12888,10 +12849,10 @@ without giving a reasonable term within which to bring the action.</p> department of Haute-Vienne, formerly capital of the old province of Limousin, 176 m. S. by W. of Orleans on the railway to Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 75,906; commune, 88,597. -The station is a junction for Poitiers, Angoulême, Périgueux +The station is a junction for Poitiers, Angoulême, Périgueux and Clermont-Ferrand. The town occupies a hill on the right bank of the Vienne, and comprises two parts originally distinct, -the <i>Cité</i> with narrow streets and old houses occupying the lower +the <i>Cité</i> with narrow streets and old houses occupying the lower slope, and the town proper the summit. In the latter a street known as the Rue de la Boucherie is occupied by a powerful and ancient corporation of butchers. The site of the fortifications @@ -12911,7 +12872,7 @@ centuries) and St Pierre du Queyroix (12th and 13th centuries) both contain interesting stained glass. The principal modern buildings are the town hall and the law-courts. The Vienne is crossed by a railway viaduct and four bridges, two of which, -the Pont St Étienne and the Pont St Martial, date from the +the Pont St Étienne and the Pont St Martial, date from the 13th century. Among the chief squares are the Place d’Orsay on the site of a Roman amphitheatre, the Place Jourdan with the statue of Marshal J. B. Jourdan, born at Limoges, and the @@ -12925,7 +12886,7 @@ seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include -a <i>lycée</i> for boys, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, +a <i>lycée</i> for boys, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a higher theological seminary, a training college, a national school of decorative art and a commercial and industrial school. The manufacture and decoration of porcelain give employment @@ -12956,17 +12917,17 @@ celebrated for its mints and its goldsmiths’ work. In the middle ages the town was divided into two distinct parts, each surrounded by walls, forming separate fiefs with a separate system of administration, an arrangement which survived till 1792. Of -these the more important, known as the <i>Château</i>, which grew up +these the more important, known as the <i>Château</i>, which grew up round the tomb of St Martial in the 9th century, and was surrounded with walls in the 10th and again in the 12th, was under the jurisdiction of the viscounts of Limoges, and contained their -castle and the monastery of St Martial; the other, the <i>Cité</i>, +castle and the monastery of St Martial; the other, the <i>Cité</i>, which was under the jurisdiction of the bishop, had but a sparse population, the habitable ground being practically covered by the cathedral, the episcopal palace and other churches and religious buildings. In the Hundred Years’ War the bishops sided with the French, while the viscounts were unwilling vassals of -the English. In 1370 the <i>Cité</i>, which had opened its gates to the +the English. In 1370 the <i>Cité</i>, which had opened its gates to the French, was taken by the Black Prince and given over to fire and sword.</p> @@ -12981,7 +12942,7 @@ fires, destroying whole quarters of the city, built, as it then was, of wood. That of 1790 lasted for two months, and destroyed 192 houses; and that of 1864 laid under ashes a large area. Limoges celebrates every seven years a curious religious festival -(Fête d’Ostension), during which the relics of St Martial are +(Fête d’Ostension), during which the relics of St Martial are exposed for seven weeks, attracting large numbers of visitors. It dates from the 10th century, and commemorates a pestilence (mal des ardents) which, after destroying 40,000 persons, is @@ -12996,19 +12957,19 @@ and on this occasion consecrated the basilica of St Martial (pulled down after 1794).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Célestin Poré, <i>Limoges</i>, in Joanne’s guides, <i>De Paris à Ager</i> -(1867); Ducourtieux, <i>Limoges d’après ses anciens plans</i> (1884) +<p>See Célestin Poré, <i>Limoges</i>, in Joanne’s guides, <i>De Paris à Ager</i> +(1867); Ducourtieux, <i>Limoges d’après ses anciens plans</i> (1884) and <i>Limoges et ses environs</i> (3rd ed., 1894). A very full list of works on Limoges, the town, viscounty, bishopric, &c., is given by U. -Chevalier in <i>Répertoire des sources hist. du moyen âge. Topo-bibliogr.</i> -(Mont Céliard, 1903), t. ii. <i>s.v.</i></p> +Chevalier in <i>Répertoire des sources hist. du moyen âge. Topo-bibliogr.</i> +(Mont Céliard, 1903), t. ii. <i>s.v.</i></p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIMON,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Port Limon</span>, the chief Atlantic port of Costa Rica, Central America, and the capital of a district also named Limon, -on a bay of the Caribbean Sea, 103 m. E. by N. of San José. +on a bay of the Caribbean Sea, 103 m. E. by N. of San José. Pop. (1904) 3171. Limon was founded in 1871, and is the terminus of the transcontinental railway to Puntarenas which was begun in the same year. The swamps behind the town, @@ -13032,7 +12993,7 @@ after Limon, are Reventazon and Matina, both with <span class="correction" title <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIMONITE,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brown Iron Ore</span>, a natural ferric hydrate -named from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="leimôn">λειμών</span> (meadow), in allusion to its occurrence +named from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="leimôn">λειμών</span> (meadow), in allusion to its occurrence as “bog-ore” in meadows and marshes. It is never crystallized, but may have a fibrous or microcrystalline structure, and commonly occurs in concretionary forms or in compact and @@ -13043,7 +13004,7 @@ distinguishes it from haematite with a red, or from magnetite with a black streak. It is sometimes called brown haematite.</p> <p>Limonite is a ferric hydrate, conforming typically with the -formula Fe<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">3</span>(OH)<span class="su">6</span>, or 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O. Its hardness is rather +formula Fe<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">3</span>(OH)<span class="su">6</span>, or 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O. Its hardness is rather above 5, and its specific gravity varies from 3.5 to 4. In many cases it has been formed from other iron oxides, like haematite and magnetite, or by the alteration of pyrites or chalybite.</p> @@ -13095,15 +13056,15 @@ lustre, of blackish colour, forming what is called in Germany <i>Glaskopf</i> reveal a larger proportion of water than required by the typical formula of limonite, and hence new species have been recognized. Thus the yellowish brown ore called by E. Schmidt xanthosiderite, -from <span class="grk" title="zanthos">ζανθός</span> (yellow) and <span class="grk" title="sidêros">σίδηρος</span> (iron), contains Fe<span class="su">2</span>O(OH)<span class="su">4</span>, or -Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O; whilst the bog ore known as limnite, from <span class="grk" title="limnê">λίμνη</span> (marsh) -has the formula Fe(OH)<span class="su">3</span>, or Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O. On the other hand there +from <span class="grk" title="zanthos">ζανθός</span> (yellow) and <span class="grk" title="sidêros">σίδηρος</span> (iron), contains Fe<span class="su">2</span>O(OH)<span class="su">4</span>, or +Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O; whilst the bog ore known as limnite, from <span class="grk" title="limnê">λίμνη</span> (marsh) +has the formula Fe(OH)<span class="su">3</span>, or Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O. On the other hand there are certain forms of ferric hydrate containing less water than limonite and approaching to haematite in their red colour and streak: such is the mineral which was called hydrohaematite by A. Breithaupt, and is now generally known under R. Hermann’s name of turgite, from the mines of Turginsk, near Bogoslovsk in the Ural Mountains. -This has the formula Fe<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, or 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O. It probably +This has the formula Fe<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, or 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O. It probably represents the partial dehydration of limonite, and by further loss of water may pass into haematite or red iron ore. When limonite is dehydrated and deoxidized in the presence of carbonic acid, it @@ -13112,14 +13073,14 @@ may give rise to chalybite.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LIMOUSIN<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Limosin</span>), <span class="bold">LÉONARD</span> (<i>c.</i> 1505-<i>c.</i> 1577), French +<p><span class="bold">LIMOUSIN<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Limosin</span>), <span class="bold">LÉONARD</span> (<i>c.</i> 1505-<i>c.</i> 1577), French painter, the most famous of a family of seven Limoges enamel painters, was the son of a Limoges innkeeper. He is supposed -to have studied under Nardon Pénicaud. He was certainly +to have studied under Nardon Pénicaud. He was certainly at the beginning of his career influenced by the German school—indeed, his earliest authenticated work, signed L. L. and dated 1532, is a series of eighteen plaques of the “Passion of the Lord,” -after Albrecht Dürer, but this influence was counter-balanced +after Albrecht Dürer, but this influence was counter-balanced by that of the Italian masters of the school of Fontainebleau, Primaticcio, Rosso, Giulio Romano and Solario, from whom he acquired his taste for arabesque ornament and for mythological @@ -13153,17 +13114,17 @@ In the collection of Signor Rocchi, in Rome, is an exceptionally interesting plaque representing Frances I. consulting a fortune-teller.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Léonard Limousin: peintre de portraits</i> (<i>L’Œuvre des peintres -émailleurs</i>), by L. Boudery and E. Lachenaud (Paris, 1897)—a +<p>See <i>Léonard Limousin: peintre de portraits</i> (<i>L’Œuvre des peintres +émailleurs</i>), by L. Boudery and E. Lachenaud (Paris, 1897)—a careful study, with an elaborate catalogue of the known existing examples of the artist’s work. The book deals almost exclusively with the portraits illustrated. See also Alleaume and Duplessis, <i>Les -Douze Apôtres—émaux de Léonard Limousin</i>, &c. (Paris, 1865); +Douze Apôtres—émaux de Léonard Limousin</i>, &c. (Paris, 1865); L. Boudery, <i>Exposition retrospective de Limoges en 1886</i> (Limoges, -1886); L. Boudery, <i>Léonard Limousin et son œuvre</i> (Limoges, +1886); L. Boudery, <i>Léonard Limousin et son œuvre</i> (Limoges, 1895); <i>Limoges et le Limousin</i> (Limoges, 1865); A. Meyer, <i>L’Art -de l’émail de Limoges, ancien et moderne</i> (Paris, 1896); Émile -Molinier, <i>L’Émaillerie</i> (Paris, 1891).</p> +de l’émail de Limoges, ancien et moderne</i> (Paris, 1896); Émile +Molinier, <i>L’Émaillerie</i> (Paris, 1891).</p> </div> @@ -13172,7 +13133,7 @@ Molinier, <i>L’Émaillerie</i> (Paris, 1891).</p> Lemovicum, Lemozinum, Limosinium</i>, &c.), a former province of France. In the time of Julius Caesar the <i>pagus Lemovicinus</i> covered the county now comprised in the departments of Haute-Vienne, -Corrèze and Creuse, with the <i>arrondissements</i> of Confolens +Corrèze and Creuse, with the <i>arrondissements</i> of Confolens in Charente and Nontron in Dordogne. These limits it retained until the 10th century, and they survived in those of the diocese of Limoges (except a small part cut off in 1317 to form that of @@ -13182,7 +13143,7 @@ until at the close of the 12th century Limousin embraced only the viscounties of Limoges, Turenne and Comborn, with a few ecclesiastical lordships, corresponding roughly to the present <i>arrondissements</i> of Limoges and Saint Yrien in Haute-Vienne and -part of the <i>arrondissements</i> of Brive, Tulle and Ussel in Corrèze. +part of the <i>arrondissements</i> of Brive, Tulle and Ussel in Corrèze. In the 17th century Limousin, thus constituted, had become no more than a small <i>gouvernement</i>.</p> @@ -13197,12 +13158,12 @@ asserting their direct over-lordship. It was, however, until the 14th century, the centre of a civilization of which the enamelling industry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Enamel</a></span>) was only one expression. The Limousin dialect, now a mere <i>patois</i>, was regarded by the troubadours as -the purest form of Provençal.</p> +the purest form of Provençal.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See A. Lerœux, <i>Géographie et histoire du Limousin</i> (Limoges, -1892). Detailed bibliography in Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources. -Topo-bibliogr.</i> (Montbéliard, 1902), t. ii. <i>s.v.</i></p> +<p>See A. Lerœux, <i>Géographie et histoire du Limousin</i> (Limoges, +1892). Detailed bibliography in Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources. +Topo-bibliogr.</i> (Montbéliard, 1902), t. ii. <i>s.v.</i></p> </div> @@ -13221,12 +13182,12 @@ forms the north-west and north frontiers of the Transvaal. Its banks are well wooded and present many picturesque views. In descending the escarpment of the plateau the river passes through rocky ravines, piercing the Zoutpansberg near the north-east -corner of the Transvaal at the Toli Azimé Falls. In the +corner of the Transvaal at the Toli Azimé Falls. In the low country it receives its chief affluent, the Olifants river (450 m. long), which, rising in the high veld of the Transvaal east of the sources of the Limpopo, takes a more direct N.E. course than the main stream. The Limpopo enters the ocean -in 25° 15′ S. The mouth, about 1000 ft. wide, is obstructed by +in 25° 15′ S. The mouth, about 1000 ft. wide, is obstructed by sandbanks. In the rainy season the Limpopo loses a good deal of its water in the swampy region along its lower course. High-water level is 24 ft. above low-water level, when the depth in @@ -13262,7 +13223,7 @@ Though claiming the territory through which it ran the Portuguese made no attempt to trace the river. This was first done by Captain J. F. Elton, who in 1870 travelling from the Tati goldfields sought to open a road to the sea via the Limpopo. He voyaged down the -river from the Shashi confluence to the Toli Azimé Falls, which he +river from the Shashi confluence to the Toli Azimé Falls, which he discovered, following the stream thence on foot to the low country. The lower course of the river had been explored 1868-1869 by another British traveller—St Vincent Whitshed Erskine. It was first @@ -13572,7 +13533,7 @@ Hardin county, their first home, to the Rock Spring farm, only a short time before Abraham’s birth; about 1813 they removed to a farm of 238 acres on Knob Creek, about 6 m. from Hodgenville; and in 1816 they crossed the Ohio river and settled on a -quarter-section, 1½ m. E. of the present village of Gentryville, in +quarter-section, 1½ m. E. of the present village of Gentryville, in Spencer county, Indiana. There Abraham’s mother died on the 5th of October 1818. In December 1819 his father married, at his old home, Elizabethtown, Mrs Sarah (Bush) Johnston (d. @@ -13949,10 +13910,10 @@ because it was thought that he could (and Seward could not) secure the vote of certain doubtful states. Lincoln’s name was presented by Illinois and seconded by Indiana. At first Seward had the strongest support. On the first ballot Lincoln received -only 102 votes to 173½ for Seward. On the second ballot Lincoln -received 181 votes to Seward’s 184½. On the third ballot the -50½ votes formerly given to Simon Cameron<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> were given to -Lincoln, who received 231½ votes to 180 for Seward, and without +only 102 votes to 173½ for Seward. On the second ballot Lincoln +received 181 votes to Seward’s 184½. On the third ballot the +50½ votes formerly given to Simon Cameron<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> were given to +Lincoln, who received 231½ votes to 180 for Seward, and without taking another ballot enough votes were changed to make Lincoln’s total 354 (233 being necessary for a choice) and the nomination was then made unanimous. Hannibal Hamlin, @@ -14096,7 +14057,7 @@ decision—the representatives of these states almost without exception opposed the plan—it served to prepare public opinion for his final act. During the month of July his own mind reached the virtual determination to give slavery its <i>coup de -grâce</i>; on the 17th he approved a new Confiscation Act, much +grâce</i>; on the 17th he approved a new Confiscation Act, much broader than that of the 6th of August 1861 (which freed only those slaves in military service against the Union) and giving to the president power to employ persons of African descent for @@ -14736,9 +14697,9 @@ earlier date. The great central tower is Early English as far as the first storey, the continuation dates from 1307. The total height is 271 ft.; and the tower contains the bell, Great Tom of Lincoln, weighing over 5 tons. The dimensions of the cathedral internally -are—nave, 252 × 79.6 × 80 ft.; choir, 158 × 82 × 72 ft.; angel -choir, which includes presbytery and lady chapel, 166 × 44 × 72 ft.; -main transept, 220 × 63 × 74 ft.; choir transept, 166 × 44 × 72 ft. +are—nave, 252 × 79.6 × 80 ft.; choir, 158 × 82 × 72 ft.; angel +choir, which includes presbytery and lady chapel, 166 × 44 × 72 ft.; +main transept, 220 × 63 × 74 ft.; choir transept, 166 × 44 × 72 ft. The west towers are 206 ft. high.</p> <p>The buildings of the close that call for notice are the chapter-house @@ -14759,7 +14720,7 @@ Every stall has produced a prelate or cardinal. The see covers almost the whole of the county, with very small portions of Norfolk and Yorkshire, and it included Nottinghamshire until the formation of the bishopric of Southwell in 1884. At its earliest -formation, when Remigius, almoner of the abbey of Fécamp, removed +formation, when Remigius, almoner of the abbey of Fécamp, removed the seat of the bishopric here from Dorchester in Oxfordshire shortly after the Conquest, it extended from the Humber to the Thames, eastward beyond Cambridge, and westward beyond @@ -14862,8 +14823,8 @@ reign of Edward I. (Mint Street turning from High Street near the Stonebow recalls its existence.) At the time of the Domesday Survey Lincoln was governed by twelve Lawmen, relics of Danish rule, each with hereditable franchises of sac and soc. Whereas -it had rendered £20 annually to King Edward, and £10 to the -earl, it then rendered £100. There had been 1150 houses, but +it had rendered £20 annually to King Edward, and £10 to the +earl, it then rendered £100. There had been 1150 houses, but 240 had been destroyed since the time of King Edward. Of these 166 had suffered by the raising of the castle by William I. in 1068 partly on the site of the Roman camp. The strength @@ -14877,7 +14838,7 @@ was besieged by William Longchamp, Richard’s chancellor, in vain; in 1210 it stood a siege by the partisans of the French prince Louis, who were defeated at the battle called Lincoln Fair on the 19th of May 1217. Granted by Henry III. to William -Longepée, earl of Salisbury, in 1224, the castle descended by +Longepée, earl of Salisbury, in 1224, the castle descended by the marriage of his descendant Alice to Thomas Plantagenet, and became part of the duchy of Lancaster.</p> @@ -14891,7 +14852,7 @@ given the pleas of the Crown within the city according to the customs of the city of London, on which those of Lincoln were modelled. The charter also gave them quittance of toll and lastage throughout the kingdom, and of certain other dues. -In 1210 the citizens owed the exchequer £100 for the privilege +In 1210 the citizens owed the exchequer £100 for the privilege of having a mayor, but the office was abolished by Henry III. and by Edward I. in 1290, though restored by the charter of 1300. In 1275 the citizens claimed the return of writs, assize @@ -14906,7 +14867,7 @@ county by charter of 1409, when it was decreed that the bailiffs should henceforth be sheriffs and the mayor the king’s escheator, and the mayor and sheriffs with four others justices of the peace with defined jurisdiction. As the result of numerous complaints -of inability to pay the fee-farm rent of £180 Edward IV. enlarged +of inability to pay the fee-farm rent of £180 Edward IV. enlarged the bounds of the city in 1466, while Henry VIII. in 1546 gave the citizens four advowsons, and possibly also in consequence of declining trade the city markets were made free of tolls in @@ -15766,7 +15727,7 @@ she occasionally appeared on the stage, but in plays, not operas, until 1836, when she made a first attempt in an opera by A. F. Lindblad. She was regularly engaged at the opera-house In 1837. Her first great success was as Agathe, in Weber’s <i>Der -Freischütz</i>, in 1838, and by 1841, when she started for Paris, +Freischütz</i>, in 1838, and by 1841, when she started for Paris, she had already become identified with nearly all the parts in which she afterwards became famous. But her celebrity in Sweden was due in great part to her histrionic ability, and there @@ -15777,7 +15738,7 @@ in the vocal organs. On the completion of her studies she sang before G. Meyerbeer, in private, in the Paris Opera-house, and two years afterwards was engaged by him for Berlin, to sing in his <i>Feldlager in Schlesien</i> (afterwards remodelled as -<i>L’ Étoile du nord</i>); but the part intended for her was taken +<i>L’ Étoile du nord</i>); but the part intended for her was taken by another singer, and her first appearance took place in <i>Norma</i> on the 15th of December 1844. She appeared also in Weber’s <i>Euryanthe</i> and Bellini’s <i>La Sonnambula</i>, and while she was @@ -15792,13 +15753,13 @@ Julia (Spontini’s <i>Vestalin</i>) and Valentine (Meyerbeer’s <i>Les Huguenots</i>) to her repertory. She sang in operas or concerts at Aix-la-Chapelle, Hanover, Hamburg, Vienna, Darmstadt and Munich during the next year, and took up two Donizetti -rôles, those of Lucia and “la Figlia del Reggimento,” in which +rôles, those of Lucia and “la Figlia del Reggimento,” in which she was afterwards famous. At last Lumley, the manager of Her Majesty’s Theatre, succeeded in inducing Mlle Lind to visit England, in spite of her dread of the penalties threatened by Bunn on her breach of the contract with him, and she appeared on the 4th of May 1847 as Alice in Meyerbeer’s <i>Robert le Diable</i>. -Her début had been so much discussed that the <i>furore</i> she created +Her début had been so much discussed that the <i>furore</i> she created was a foregone conclusion. Nevertheless it exceeded everything of the kind that had taken place in London or anywhere else; the sufferings and struggles of her well-dressed admirers, who @@ -15836,7 +15797,7 @@ singing the soprano music in <i>The Messiah</i> with superb art. She remained in America for nearly two years, being for a great part of the time engaged by P. T. Barnum. In Boston, on the 5th of February 1852, she married Otto Goldschmidt -(1829-1907), whom she had met at Lübeck in 1850. For some +(1829-1907), whom she had met at Lübeck in 1850. For some years after her return to England, her home for the rest of her life, she appeared in oratorios and concerts, and her dramatic instincts were as strongly and perhaps as advantageously displayed @@ -15850,13 +15811,13 @@ an active interest in the Bach Choir, conducted by her husband, and not only sang herself in the chorus, but gave the benefit of her training to the ladies of the society. For some years she was professor of singing at the Royal College of Music. -Her last public appearance was at Düsseldorf on the 20th of +Her last public appearance was at Düsseldorf on the 20th of January 1870 when she sang in <i>Ruth</i>, an oratorio composed by her husband. She died at Malvern on the 2nd of November 1887. The supreme position she held so long in the operatic world was due not only to the glory of her voice, and the complete musicianship which distinguished her above all her contemporaries, but -also to the naïve simplicity of her acting in her favourite parts, +also to the naïve simplicity of her acting in her favourite parts, such as Amina, Alice or Agathe. In these and others she had the precious quality of conviction, and identified herself with the characters she represented with a thoroughness rare in @@ -15874,17 +15835,17 @@ the son of a Protestant pastor, was born at Magdeburg on the Halle and subsequently in Leipzig and Berlin. He spent five years in Paris to further his studies, acting meanwhile as foreign correspondent to German papers. After his return to Germany in -1863 he was engaged in journalism in Düsseldorf and Elberfeld. +1863 he was engaged in journalism in Düsseldorf and Elberfeld. In 1870 he founded <i>Das neue Blatt</i> at Leipzig; from 1872 to 1881 he edited the Berlin weekly, <i>Die Gegenwart</i>; and in 1878 -he founded the well-known monthly, <i>Nord und Süd</i>, which +he founded the well-known monthly, <i>Nord und Süd</i>, which he continued to edit until 1904. Two books of travel, <i>Aus -Venetien</i> (Düsseldorf, 1864) and <i>Aus Paris</i> (Stuttgart, 1865). +Venetien</i> (Düsseldorf, 1864) and <i>Aus Paris</i> (Stuttgart, 1865). were followed by some volumes of critical studies, written in a light, satirical vein, which at once made him famous. These -were <i>Harmlose Briefe eines deutschen Kleinstädters</i> (Leipzig, -2 vols., 1870), <i>Moderne Märchen für grosse Kinder</i> (Leipzig, -1870) and <i>Literarische Rücksichtslosigkeiten</i> (Leipzig, 1871). +were <i>Harmlose Briefe eines deutschen Kleinstädters</i> (Leipzig, +2 vols., 1870), <i>Moderne Märchen für grosse Kinder</i> (Leipzig, +1870) and <i>Literarische Rücksichtslosigkeiten</i> (Leipzig, 1871). He was appointed intendant of the court theatre at Meiningen in 1895, but removed to Berlin in 1899, where he became manager of the Berliner Theater, and subsequently, until 1905, @@ -15893,7 +15854,7 @@ in 1868 with <i>Marion</i>, the first of a long series of plays in which he displayed a remarkable talent for stage effect and a command of witty and lively dialogue. Among the more famous were <i>Maria und Magdalena</i> (1872), <i>Tante Therese</i> -(1876), <i>Gräfin Lea</i> (1879), <i>Die Erste</i> (1895), <i>Der Abend</i> (1896), +(1876), <i>Gräfin Lea</i> (1879), <i>Die Erste</i> (1895), <i>Der Abend</i> (1896), <i>Der Herr im Hause</i> (1899), <i>So ich dir</i> (1903), and he adapted many plays by Dumas, Augier and Sardou for the German stage. Five volumes of his plays have been published (Berlin, @@ -15901,21 +15862,21 @@ stage. Five volumes of his plays have been published (Berlin, great popularity, notably <i>Herr und Frau Bewer</i> (Breslau, 1882) and T<i>oggenburg und andere Geschichten</i> (Breslau, 1883). A novel-sequence entitled <i>Berlin</i> included <i>Der Zug nach dem -Westen</i> (Stuttgart, 1886, 10th ed. 1903), <i>Arme Mädchen</i> (1887, +Westen</i> (Stuttgart, 1886, 10th ed. 1903), <i>Arme Mädchen</i> (1887, 9th ed. 1905) and <i>Spitzen</i> (1888, 8th ed. 1904). Later novels -were <i>Die Gehilfin</i> (Breslau, 1894), <i>Die Brüder</i>, (Dresden, 1895), +were <i>Die Gehilfin</i> (Breslau, 1894), <i>Die Brüder</i>, (Dresden, 1895), <span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span> -<i>Der König von Sidon</i> (Breslau, 1898). His earlier books on -<i>Molière</i> (Leipzig, 1871) and <i>Alfred de Musset</i> (Berlin, 1877) +<i>Der König von Sidon</i> (Breslau, 1898). His earlier books on +<i>Molière</i> (Leipzig, 1871) and <i>Alfred de Musset</i> (Berlin, 1877) were followed by some volumes of dramatic and literary criticism, -<i>Gesammelte Aufsätze</i> (Berlin, 1875), <i>Dramaturgische Blätter</i> +<i>Gesammelte Aufsätze</i> (Berlin, 1875), <i>Dramaturgische Blätter</i> (Stuttgart, 2 vols., 1875; new series, Breslau, 1878, 2 vols.), <i>Vorspiele auf dem Theater</i> (Breslau, 1895).</p> <p>His brother, <span class="sc">Rudolf Lindau</span> (b. 1829), was a well-known diplomatist and author. His novels and tales were collected -in 1893 (Berlin, 6 vols.). The most attractive, such as <i>Reisegefährten</i> -and <i>Der lange Holländer</i>, deal with the life of European +in 1893 (Berlin, 6 vols.). The most attractive, such as <i>Reisegefährten</i> +and <i>Der lange Holländer</i>, deal with the life of European residents in the Far East.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -15955,7 +15916,7 @@ passed to Austria, being transferred to Bavaria in 1805.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Boulan, <i>Lindau, vor altem und jetzt</i> (Lindau, 1872); and -Stettners, <i>Führer durch Lindau und Umgebungen</i> (Lindau, 1900).</p> +Stettners, <i>Führer durch Lindau und Umgebungen</i> (Lindau, 1900).</p> </div> @@ -16007,7 +15968,7 @@ the district of Bernay during the session of the Constituent Assembly. Appointed deputy to the Legislative Assembly and subsequently to the Convention, he attained considerable prominence. He was very hostile to the king, furnished a -<i>Rapport sur les crimes imputés à Louis Capet</i> (10th of December +<i>Rapport sur les crimes imputés à Louis Capet</i> (10th of December 1792), and voted for the death of Louis without appeal or respite. He was instrumental in the establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal and contributed to the downfall of @@ -16016,13 +15977,13 @@ he devoted himself particularly to the question of food-supplies, and it was only by dint of dogged perseverance and great administrative talent that he was successful in coping with this difficult problem. He had meanwhile been sent to suppress -revolts in the districts of Rhône, Eure, Calvados and Finistère, +revolts in the districts of Rhône, Eure, Calvados and Finistère, where he had been able to pursue a conciliatory policy. Without being formally opposed to Robespierre, he did not support him, and he was the only member of the Committee of Public Safety who did not sign the order for the execution of Danton and his party. In a like spirit of moderation he opposed the -Thermidorian reaction, and defended Barère, Billaud-Varenne +Thermidorian reaction, and defended Barère, Billaud-Varenne the Collot d’Herbois from the accusations launched against them on the 22nd of March 1795. Himself denounced on the 20th of May 1795, he was defended by his brother Thomas, but only @@ -16159,11 +16120,11 @@ services he rendered to the city may be mentioned the trigonometrical survey executed between 1848 and 1860, and the conduct of the negotiations which in 1852 resulted in the sale of the “Steelyard” on the banks of the Thames belonging to it -jointly with the two other Hanseatic towns, Bremen and Lübeck. +jointly with the two other Hanseatic towns, Bremen and Lübeck. In 1860 he left Hamburg, and during the remaining nineteen years of his professional practice he was responsible for many engineering works in various European cities, among them being -Frankfort-on-the-Main, Warsaw, Pesth, Düsseldorf, Galatz and +Frankfort-on-the-Main, Warsaw, Pesth, Düsseldorf, Galatz and Basel. In Frankfort he constructed sewerage works on the same principles as those he followed in Hamburg, and the system was widely imitated not only in Europe, but also in America. @@ -16319,11 +16280,11 @@ Memoirs, by Thomas Belsham, appeared in 1812.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LINDSTRÖM, GUSTAF<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1829-1901), Swedish palaeontologist, +<p><span class="bold">LINDSTRÖM, GUSTAF<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1829-1901), Swedish palaeontologist, was born at Wisby in Gotland on the 27th of August 1829. In 1848 he entered the university at Upsala, and in 1854 he took his doctor’s degree. Having attended a course of lectures in -Stockholm by S. L. Lovén, he became interested in the zoology +Stockholm by S. L. Lovén, he became interested in the zoology of the Baltic, and published several papers on the invertebrate fauna, and subsequently on the fishes. In 1856 he became a school teacher, and in 1858 a master in the grammar school at @@ -16386,17 +16347,17 @@ tow (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Linen</a></span>). The ultimate or <p>In mathematics several definitions of the line may be framed according to the aspect from which it is viewed. The synthetical genesis of a line from the notion of a point is the basis of Euclid’s -definition, <span class="grk" title="grammê, de mêkos aplates">γραμμὴ, δὲ μῆκος ἀπλατές</span> (“a line is widthless +definition, <span class="grk" title="grammê, de mêkos aplates">γραμμὴ, δὲ μῆκος ἀπλατές</span> (“a line is widthless length”), and in a subsequent definition he affirms that the -boundaries of a line are points, <span class="grk" title="grammês de perata sêmeia">γραμμῆς δὲ πέρατα σημεῖα</span>. +boundaries of a line are points, <span class="grk" title="grammês de perata sêmeia">γραμμῆς δὲ πέρατα σημεῖα</span>. The line appears in definition 6 as the boundary of a surface: <span class="grk" title="epiphaneias de perata grammai">ἐπιφανείας δὲ πέρατα γραμμαἰ</span> (“the boundaries of a surface are lines”). Another synthetical definition, also treated by the ancient Greeks, but not by Euclid, regards the line as -generated by the motion of a point (<span class="grk" title="rhysis sêmeiou">ῥύσις σημείου</span>), and, in a +generated by the motion of a point (<span class="grk" title="rhysis sêmeiou">ῥύσις σημείου</span>), and, in a similar manner, the “surface” was regarded as the flux of a line, and a “solid” as the flux of a surface. Proclus adopts this -view, styling the line <span class="grk" title="archê">ἀρχή</span> in respect of this capacity. Analytical +view, styling the line <span class="grk" title="archê">ἀρχή</span> in respect of this capacity. Analytical definitions, although not finding a place in the Euclidean treatment, have advantages over the synthetical derivation. Thus the boundaries of a solid may define a plane, the edges a line, @@ -16412,8 +16373,8 @@ but only position, has no dimensions.</p> <p>The definition of a “straight” line is a matter of much complexity. Euclid defines it as the line which lies evenly with -respect to the points on itself—<span class="grk" title="eutheia grammê estin hêtis ex -isou tois eph heautês sêmeiois keitai">εὐθεῖα γραμμή ἐστιν ἥτις ἐξ +respect to the points on itself—<span class="grk" title="eutheia grammê estin hêtis ex +isou tois eph heautês sêmeiois keitai">εὐθεῖα γραμμή ἐστιν ἥτις ἐξ ἴσου τοῖς ἐφ᾽ ἑαυτῆς σημείοις κεῖται</span>: Plato defined it as the line having its middle point hidden by the ends, a definition of no purpose since it only defines the line by the path of a ray of @@ -16430,10 +16391,10 @@ This idea was employed by Leibnitz, and most auspiciously by Gierolamo Saccheri in 1733.</p> <p>The drawing of a straight line between any two given points -forms the subject of Euclid’s first postulate—<span class="grk" title="êitêsthô apo -pantos sêmeiou epi pan sêmeion eutheian grammên agagein">ᾐιτήσθω ἀπὸ παντὸς σημείου ἐπὶ πᾶν σημεῖον εὐθεῖαν γραμμὴν ἀγάγειν</span>, +forms the subject of Euclid’s first postulate—<span class="grk" title="êitêsthô apo +pantos sêmeiou epi pan sêmeion eutheian grammên agagein">ᾐιτήσθω ἀπὸ παντὸς σημείου ἐπὶ πᾶν σημεῖον εὐθεῖαν γραμμὴν ἀγάγειν</span>, and the producing of a straight line continuously in a straight -line is treated in the second postulate—<span class="grk" title="kai peperasmenên eutheian +line is treated in the second postulate—<span class="grk" title="kai peperasmenên eutheian kata to suneches ep’ eutheias ekbalein">καὶ πεπερασμένην εὐθεῖαν κατὰ τὸ συνεχὲς ἐπ᾽ εὐθείας ἐκβαλεῖν</span>.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -16617,12 +16578,12 @@ German work they tried to give to their burins something of the German suppleness.</p> <p>The characteristics of early metal engraving in Germany are -seen to perfection in Martin Schongauer and Albert Dürer, +seen to perfection in Martin Schongauer and Albert Dürer, who, though with striking differences, had many points in common. -Schongauer died in 1488; whilst the date of Dürer’s death is +Schongauer died in 1488; whilst the date of Dürer’s death is 1528. Schongauer was therefore a whole generation before -Dürer, yet not greatly inferior to him in the use of the burin, -though Dürer has a much greater reputation, due in great measure +Dürer, yet not greatly inferior to him in the use of the burin, +though Dürer has a much greater reputation, due in great measure to his singular imaginative powers. Schongauer is the first great German engraver known by name, but he was preceded by an unknown German master, called “the Master of 1466,” @@ -16635,7 +16596,7 @@ in advance, and we find in him an evident pleasure in the bold use of the burin. Outline and shade, in Schongauer, are not nearly so much separated as in Baccio Baldini, and the shading, generally in curved lines, is far more masterly than the straight -shading of Mantegna. Dürer continued Schongauer’s curved +shading of Mantegna. Dürer continued Schongauer’s curved shading, with increasing manual delicacy and skill; and as he found himself able to perform feats with the burin which amused both himself and his buyers, he over-loaded his plates with @@ -16647,11 +16608,11 @@ work to another; they drew, like children, first one object and then another object, and so on until the plate was furnished from top to bottom and from the left side to the right. Here, of course, is an element of facility in primitive art which is denied -to the modern artist. In Dürer all objects are on the same plane. +to the modern artist. In Dürer all objects are on the same plane. In his “St Hubert” (otherwise known as “St Eustace”) of c. 1505, the stag is quietly standing on the horse’s back, with one hoof on the saddle, and the kneeling knight looks as if he -were tapping the horse on the nose. Dürer seems to have perceived +were tapping the horse on the nose. Dürer seems to have perceived the mistake about the stag, for he put a tree between us and the animal to correct it, but the stag is on the horse’s back nevertheless. This ignorance of the laws of effect is least visible @@ -16659,7 +16620,7 @@ and obtrusive in plates which have no landscape distances, such as “The Coat of Arms with the Death’s Head” (1503) and “The Coat of Arms with the Cock” (<i>c.</i> 1512).</p> -<p>Dürer’s great manual skill and close observation made him +<p>Dürer’s great manual skill and close observation made him a wonderful engraver of objects taken separately. He saw and rendered all objects; nothing escaped him; he applied the same intensity of study to everything. Though a thorough student of @@ -16679,8 +16640,8 @@ both the undulations of surfaces (see the plane in the Melencolia, 1514) and their texture (see the granular texture of the stones in the same print).</p> -<p>From Dürer we come to Italy again, through Marcantonio, -who copied Dürer, translating more than sixty of his woodcuts +<p>From Dürer we come to Italy again, through Marcantonio, +who copied Dürer, translating more than sixty of his woodcuts upon metal. It is one of the most remarkable things in the history of art, that a man who had trained himself by copying northern work, little removed from pure Gothicism, should have become @@ -16764,7 +16725,7 @@ as they went to Italy, so that the art of engraving became in the 18th century cosmopolitan. In figure-engraving the outline was less and less insisted upon. Strange made it his study to soften and lose the outline. Meanwhile, the great classical Renaissance -school, with Gérard Audran at its head, had carried forward +school, with Gérard Audran at its head, had carried forward the art of modelling with the burin, and had arrived at great perfection of a sober and dignified kind. Audran was very productive in the latter half of the 17th century, and died in 1703, @@ -16779,7 +16740,7 @@ knowledge according to the ideas of that time. The influence of Claude Lorrain on the engraving of landscape was exercised less through his etchings than his pictures, which compelled the engravers to study delicate distinctions in the values of light and -dark. Through Woollett and Vivarès, Claude exercised an influence +dark. Through Woollett and Vivarès, Claude exercised an influence on landscape engraving almost equal to that of Raphael and Rubens on the engraving of the figure, though he did not direct his engravers personally.</p> @@ -16868,7 +16829,7 @@ original work, to spend most of his time in assisting Thomas Landseer to rule the skies on his plates, simply because there was not enough line-engraving to do. Since then there was some promise of a revival, and Mr Bourne engraved a few of the -pictures by Gustave Doré. But little followed. The last of the +pictures by Gustave Doré. But little followed. The last of the line-engravers of Turner’s pictures died in the person of Sir Daniel Wilson (d. 1892), who, recognizing the hopelessness of his early profession, laid his graver aside, and left Europe for Canada @@ -16876,10 +16837,10 @@ and eventually became president of the university of Toronto.</p> <p>If line-engraving still flourishes in France, it is due not a little to official encouragement and to intelligent fostering by -collectors and connoisseurs. The prizes offered by the École +collectors and connoisseurs. The prizes offered by the École des Beaux Arts would probably not suffice to give vitality to the art but for the employment afforded to the finished artist -by the “Chalcographie du Musée du Louvre,” in the name of +by the “Chalcographie du Musée du Louvre,” in the name of which commissions are judiciously distributed. At the same time, it must be recognized that not only are French engravers less busy than they were in days when line-engraving was the @@ -16903,7 +16864,7 @@ engravers were therefore driven at last to simplify their work if they were to satisfy the public and live by the burin. To compensate for loss of colour, the art developed in the direction of elegance and refinement. Gaillard (d. 1887), Blanchard, -and Alphonse François (d. 1888) were perhaps the earliest +and Alphonse François (d. 1888) were perhaps the earliest chiefs of the new school, the characteristics of which are the substitution of exquisite greys for the rich blacks of old, simplicity of method being often allied to extremely high elaboration. @@ -16924,7 +16885,7 @@ and engraved fine plates after Paul Dubois, Cabanel, Bouguereau, Meissonier and Detaille. The freedom of much of his work suggests an affinity with etching and dry-point; indeed, it appears that he uses the etching-needle and acid -to lay in some of his groundwork and outlines. Léopold Flameng’s +to lay in some of his groundwork and outlines. Léopold Flameng’s engraving after Jan van Eyck’s “Virgin with the Donor,” in the Louvre, is one of the most admirable works of its kind, retaining the quality and sentiment of the master, extreme @@ -16945,7 +16906,7 @@ or reproduce anything beyond mechanical excellence.</p> <p>The Belgian School of engraving is not without vitality. Gustave Biot was equally skilful in portraiture and subject -(engraving after Gallait, Cabanel, Gustave Doré, among his best +(engraving after Gallait, Cabanel, Gustave Doré, among his best work); A. M. Danse executed plates after leading painters, and elaborated an effective “mixed method” of graver-work and dry-point; and de Meerman has engraved a number @@ -16965,7 +16926,7 @@ have worked in the old-fashioned manner. Friedrich Zimmermann Guido Reni’s “Ecce Homo” in Dresden, and then devoted himself to the translation of modern German painters. Rudolph Pfnor was an ornamentist representative of his class; and -Joseph Kohlschein, of Düsseldorf, a typical exponent of the +Joseph Kohlschein, of Düsseldorf, a typical exponent of the intelligent conservative manner. His “Marriage at Cana” after Paul Veronese, “The Sistine Madonna” after Raphael, and “St Cecilia” after the same master, are all plates of a high @@ -17000,12 +16961,12 @@ it appears to exist on sufferance and by hot-house encouragement.</p> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—P. G. Hamerton, <i>Drawing and Engraving</i> (Edinburgh, 1892); H. W. Singer and W. Strang, <i>Etching, Engraving, and other methods of Printing Pictures</i> (London, 1897); A. de Lostalot, -<i>Les Procédés de la gravure</i> (Paris, 1882); Le Comte Henri Delaborde, +<i>Les Procédés de la gravure</i> (Paris, 1882); Le Comte Henri Delaborde, La Gravure (Paris, English trans., with a chapter on English engraving methods, by William Walker, London, 1886); H. W. Singer, <i>Geschichte des Kupferstichs</i> (Magdeburg and Leipzig, 1895), and <i>Der Kupferstich</i> (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1904); Alex. Waldow, -<i>Illustrirte Encyklopädie der Graphischen Künste</i> (Leipzig, 1881-1884); +<i>Illustrirte Encyklopädie der Graphischen Künste</i> (Leipzig, 1881-1884); Lippmann, <i>Engraving and Engraving</i>, translated by Martin Hardie (London, 1906); and for those who desire books of gossip on the subject, Arthur Hayden, <i>Chats on Old Prints</i> (London, @@ -17272,7 +17233,7 @@ in a preparing system, so that the number of doublings the flax undergoes, before it arrives at the roving frame, may amount to from one thousand to one hundred thousand, according to the quality of yarn in progress. Thus, for example, the doublings on -one preparing system may be 6 × 12 × 12 × 12 × 8 = 82,944. The slivers +one preparing system may be 6 × 12 × 12 × 12 × 8 = 82,944. The slivers delivered by the last drawing frame are taken to the roving frame, where they are singly passed through feed rollers and over gills, and, after drafting to sufficient tenuity, they are slightly twisted @@ -17302,7 +17263,7 @@ amount of twist given to the thread at the spinning frame varies from 1.5 to 2 times the square root of the count. In wet spinning the general sequence of operations is the same, but the rove, as unwound from its bobbin, first passes through a trough of water -heated to about 120° Fahr.; and the interval between the two pairs +heated to about 120° Fahr.; and the interval between the two pairs of rollers in which the drawing out of the rove is accomplished is very much shorter. The influence of the hot water on the flax fibre appears to be that it softens the gummy substance which @@ -17316,7 +17277,7 @@ extended, when it reaches the spinning spindle, may be stated thus: 35 times on spreading frame, 15 times on first drawing frame, 15 times on second drawing frame, 14 times on third drawing frame, 15 times on roving frame and 10 times on spinning frame, -in all 16,537,500 times its original length, with 8 × 12 × 16 = 1536 +in all 16,537,500 times its original length, with 8 × 12 × 16 = 1536 doublings on the three drawing frames. That is to say, 1 yd. of hackled line fed into the spreading frame is spread out, mixed with other fibres, to a length of about 9400 m. of yarn, when the above @@ -17327,7 +17288,7 @@ yarns.</p> act of parliament, throughout the United Kingdom the standard measure of flax yard is the “lea,” called also in Scotland the “cut” of 300 yds. The flax is wound or reeled on a reel having a circumference -of 90 in. (2½ yds.) making “a thread,” and one hundred and +of 90 in. (2½ yds.) making “a thread,” and one hundred and twenty such threads form a lea. The grist or count of all fine yarns is estimated by the number of leas in 1 ℔; thus “50 lea” indicates that there are 50 leas or cuts of 300 yds. each in 1 ℔ of @@ -17357,7 +17318,7 @@ for the preparation of the finest lace threads it is said the Belgian hand spinners must work in damp cellars, where the spinner is guided by the sense of touch alone, the filament being too fine to be seen by the eye. Such lace yarn is said to have been sold for as -much as £240 per ℔. In the Great Exhibition of 1851, yarn of 760 +much as £240 per ℔. In the Great Exhibition of 1851, yarn of 760 lea, equal to about 130 m. per ℔, was shown which had been spun by an Irish woman eighty-four years of age. In the same exhibition there was shown by a Cambray manufacturing firm hand-spun yarn @@ -17619,7 +17580,7 @@ gymnastics.</p> <p>It may be convenient to summarize here the later history of Ling’s system of medical gymnastics. A <i>Gymnastic Orthopaedic -Institute</i> at Stockholm was founded in 1822 by Dr Nils Åkerman, +Institute</i> at Stockholm was founded in 1822 by Dr Nils Ã…kerman, and after 1827 received a government grant; and Dr Gustaf Zander elaborated a medico-mechanical system of gymnastics, known by his name, about 1857, and started his Zander Institute @@ -17654,7 +17615,7 @@ Elements of Kellgren’s Manual Treatment</i> (1903), by Edgar F. Cyriax, who before taking the M.D. degree at Edinburgh had passed out of the Stockholm Institute as a “gymnastic director.” See also the encyclopaedic work on <i>Sweden: its People and Industry</i> (1904), -p. 348, edited by G. Sundbärg for the Swedish government.</p> +p. 348, edited by G. Sundbärg for the Swedish government.</p> </div> @@ -17754,12 +17715,12 @@ of a Jain king in the 12th century. The Lingayats are specially numerous in the Kanarese country, and to them the Kanarese language owes its cultivation as literature. Their priests are called Jangamas. In 1901 the total number of Lingayats in all -India was returned as more than 2½ millions, mostly in Mysore +India was returned as more than 2½ millions, mostly in Mysore and the adjoining districts of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LINGAYEN,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a town and the capital of the province of Pangasinán, +<p><span class="bold">LINGAYEN,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a town and the capital of the province of Pangasinán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 110 m. N. by W. of Manila, on the S. shore of the Gulf of Lingayen, and on a low and fertile island in the delta of the Agno river. Pop. (1903) @@ -17770,7 +17731,7 @@ The chief industries are the cultivation of rice (the most important crop of the surrounding country), fishing and the making of nipa-wine from the juice of the nipa palm, which grows abundantly in the neighbouring swamps. The principal language -is Pangasinán; Ilocano is also spoken.</p> +is Pangasinán; Ilocano is also spoken.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -17821,7 +17782,7 @@ had married in 1852, but left no issue.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LINGEN,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the -Ems canal, 43 m. N.N.W. of Münster by rail. Pop. 7500. It has +Ems canal, 43 m. N.N.W. of Münster by rail. Pop. 7500. It has iron foundries, machinery factories, railway workshops and a considerable trade in cattle, and among its other industries are weaving and malting and the manufacture of cloth. Lingen was @@ -17839,7 +17800,7 @@ king of Prussia, and in 1815 the lower county was transferred to Hanover, only to be united again with Prussia in 1866.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Möller, <i>Geschichte der vormaligen Grafschaft Lingen</i> (Lingen, +<p>See Möller, <i>Geschichte der vormaligen Grafschaft Lingen</i> (Lingen, 1874); Herrmann, <i>Die Erwerbung der Stadt und Grafschaft Lingen durch die Krone Preussen</i> (Lingen, 1902); and Schriever, <i>Geschichte des Kreiges Lingen</i> (Lingen, 1905).</p> @@ -17850,13 +17811,13 @@ des Kreiges Lingen</i> (Lingen, 1905).</p> <p><span class="bold">LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1736-1794), French journalist and advocate, was born on the 14th of July 1736, at Reims, whither his father, the assistant principal in the -Collège de Beauvais of Paris, had recently been exiled by <i>lettre +Collège de Beauvais of Paris, had recently been exiled by <i>lettre de cachet</i> for engaging in the Jansenist controversy. He attended -the Collège de Beauvais and won the three highest prizes there -in 1751. He accompanied the count palatine of Zweibrücken +the Collège de Beauvais and won the three highest prizes there +in 1751. He accompanied the count palatine of Zweibrücken to Poland, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself to writing. He published partial French translations of Calderon -and Lope de Vega, and wrote parodies for the <i>Opéra Comique</i> +and Lope de Vega, and wrote parodies for the <i>Opéra Comique</i> and pamphlets in favour of the Jesuits. Received at first in the ranks of the <i>philosophes</i>, he soon went over to their opponents, possibly more from contempt than from conviction, the immediate @@ -17871,12 +17832,12 @@ and his record of having lost but two cases, the bitter attacks which he directed against his fellow advocates, especially against Gerbier (1725-1788), caused his dismissal from the bar in 1775. He then turned to journalism and began the <i>Journal de politique -et de littérature</i>, which he employed for two years in literary, +et de littérature</i>, which he employed for two years in literary, philosophical and legal criticisms. But a sarcastic article on the French Academy compelled him to turn over the Journal to La Harpe and seek refuge abroad. Linguet, however, continued his career of free lance, now attacking and now supporting -the government, in the <i>Annales politiques, civiles et littéraires</i>, +the government, in the <i>Annales politiques, civiles et littéraires</i>, published from 1777 to 1792, first at London, then at Brussels and finally at Paris. Attempting to return to France in 1780 he was arrested for a caustic attack on the duc de Duras (1715-1789), @@ -17907,42 +17868,42 @@ and London.” He was guillotined at Paris on the 27th of June <div class="condensed"> <p>Linguet was a prolific writer in many fields. Examples of his -attempted historical writing are <i>Histoire du siècle d’Alexandre le -Grand</i> (Amsterdam, 1762), and <i>Histoire impartiale des Jésuites</i> +attempted historical writing are <i>Histoire du siècle d’Alexandre le +Grand</i> (Amsterdam, 1762), and <i>Histoire impartiale des Jésuites</i> (Madrid, 1768), the latter condemned to be burned. His opposition to the <i>philosophes</i> had its strongest expressions in <i>Fanatisme des -philosophes</i> (Geneva and Paris, 1764) and <i>Histoire des révolutions de</i> +philosophes</i> (Geneva and Paris, 1764) and <i>Histoire des révolutions de</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span> -<i>l’empire romain</i> (Paris, 1766-1768). His <i>Théorie des lois civiles</i> +<i>l’empire romain</i> (Paris, 1766-1768). His <i>Théorie des lois civiles</i> (London, 1767) is a vigorous defence of absolutism and attack on -the politics of Montesquieu. His best legal treatise is <i>Mémoire pour +the politics of Montesquieu. His best legal treatise is <i>Mémoire pour le comte de Morangies</i> (Paris, 1772); Linguet’s imprisonment in the -Bastille afforded him the opportunity of writing his <i>Mémoires sur la +Bastille afforded him the opportunity of writing his <i>Mémoires sur la Bastille</i>, first published in London in 1789; it has been translated into English (Dublin, 1783, and Edinburgh, 1884-1887), and is the best of his works though untrustworthy.</p> -<p>See A. Devérité, <i>Notice pour servir à l’histoire de la vie et des -écrits de S. N. H. Linguet</i> (Liége, 1782); Gardoz, <i>Essai historique sur -la vie et les ouvrages de Linguet</i> (Lyon, 1808); J. F. Barrière, <i>Mémoire -de Linguet et de Latude</i> (Paris, 1884); Ch. Monselet, <i>Les Oubliés et les -dédaignés</i> (Paris, 1885), pp. 1-41; H. Monin “Notice sur Linguet,” -in the 1889 edition of <i>Mémoires sur la Bastille</i>; J. Cruppi, <i>Un avocat -journaliste au 18<span class="sp">e</span> siècle, Linguet</i> (Paris, 1895); A. Philipp. <i>Linguet, -ein Nationalökonom des XVIII Jahrhunderts in seinen rechtlichen, -socialen und volkswirtschaftlichen Anschauungen</i> (Zürich, 1896); +<p>See A. Devérité, <i>Notice pour servir à l’histoire de la vie et des +écrits de S. N. H. Linguet</i> (Liége, 1782); Gardoz, <i>Essai historique sur +la vie et les ouvrages de Linguet</i> (Lyon, 1808); J. F. Barrière, <i>Mémoire +de Linguet et de Latude</i> (Paris, 1884); Ch. Monselet, <i>Les Oubliés et les +dédaignés</i> (Paris, 1885), pp. 1-41; H. Monin “Notice sur Linguet,” +in the 1889 edition of <i>Mémoires sur la Bastille</i>; J. Cruppi, <i>Un avocat +journaliste au 18<span class="sp">e</span> siècle, Linguet</i> (Paris, 1895); A. Philipp. <i>Linguet, +ein Nationalökonom des XVIII Jahrhunderts in seinen rechtlichen, +socialen und volkswirtschaftlichen Anschauungen</i> (Zürich, 1896); A. Lichtenberger, <i>Le Socialisme utopique</i> (1898), pp. 77-131.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LINK.<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1) (Of Scandinavian origin; cf. Swed. <i>länk</i>, Dan. +<p><span class="bold">LINK.<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1) (Of Scandinavian origin; cf. Swed. <i>länk</i>, Dan. <i>laenke</i>; cognate with “flank,” and Ger. <i>Gelenk</i>, joint), one of the loops of which a chain is composed; used as a measure of length in surveying, being <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span>th part of a “chain.” In Gunter’s chain, a “link” = 7.92 in.; the chain used by American engineers consists of 100 links of a foot each in length (for “link -work” and “link motions” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>: § <i>Applied</i>, and +work” and “link motions” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>: § <i>Applied</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steam Engine</a></span>). The term is also applied to anything used for connecting or binding together, metaphorically or absolutely. (2) (O. Eng. <i>hlinc</i>, possibly from the root which appears in “to @@ -17966,11 +17927,11 @@ into sections or “links.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LINKÖPING,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, and chief -town of the district (<i>län</i>) of Östergötland. Pop. (1900) 14,552. +<p><span class="bold">LINKÖPING,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, and chief +town of the district (<i>län</i>) of Östergötland. Pop. (1900) 14,552. It is situated in a fertile plain 142 m. by rail S.W. of Stockholm, -and communicates with Lake Roxen (½ m. to the north) and the -Göta and Kinda canals by means of the navigable Stångå. +and communicates with Lake Roxen (½ m. to the north) and the +Göta and Kinda canals by means of the navigable StÃ¥ngÃ¥. The cathedral (1150-1499), a Romanesque building with a beautiful south portal and a Gothic choir, is, next to the cathedral of Upsala, the largest church in Sweden. It contains an altarpiece @@ -17983,21 +17944,21 @@ a royal palace, and the old gymnasium founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1627, which contains the valuable library of old books and manuscripts belonging to the diocese and state college, and collection of coins and antiquities. There is also the -Östergötland Museum, with an art collection. The town has +Östergötland Museum, with an art collection. The town has manufactures of tobacco, cloth and hosiery. It is the headquarters of the second army division.</p> -<p>Linköping early became a place of mark, and was already a +<p>Linköping early became a place of mark, and was already a bishop’s see in 1082. It was at a council held in the town in 1153 that the payment of Peter’s pence was agreed to at the instigation of Nicholas Breakspeare, afterwards Adrian IV. The coronation of Birger Jarlsson Valdemar took place in the cathedral in 1251; and in the reign of Gustavus Vasa several -important diets were held in the town. At Stångåbro (Stångå +important diets were held in the town. At StÃ¥ngÃ¥bro (StÃ¥ngÃ¥ Bridge), close by, an obelisk (1898) commemorates the battle of -Stångåbro (1598), when Duke Charles (Protestant) defeated +StÃ¥ngÃ¥bro (1598), when Duke Charles (Protestant) defeated the Roman Catholic Sigismund. A circle of stones in the Iron -Market of Linköping marks the spot where Sigismund’s adherents +Market of Linköping marks the spot where Sigismund’s adherents were beheaded in 1600.</p> @@ -18105,7 +18066,7 @@ earl’s son, James, the 4th earl, then became 5th earl of Linlithgow <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LINLITHGOW,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of Linlithgowshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4279. -It lies in a valley on the south side of a loch, 17½ m. W. of Edinburgh +It lies in a valley on the south side of a loch, 17½ m. W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. It long preserved an antique and picturesque appearance, with gardens running down to the lake, or climbing the lower slopes of the rising @@ -18253,8 +18214,8 @@ Colinburn, Main, Ball, Mill and Upper Cannel or Shotts gas coals of Armadale, Torbanehill and Fauldhouse.</p> <p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—The average rainfall for the year is -29.9 in., and the average temperature 47.5° F. (January 38° F.; -July 59.5° F.). More than three-fourths of the county, the agriculture +29.9 in., and the average temperature 47.5° F. (January 38° F.; +July 59.5° F.). More than three-fourths of the county, the agriculture of which is highly developed, is under cultivation. The best land is found along the coast, as at Carriden and Dalmeny. The farming is mostly arable, permanent pasture being practically @@ -18351,13 +18312,13 @@ the Lothians</i> (Edinburgh, 1838).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LINNAEUS,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> the name usually given to <span class="sc">Carl von Linné</span> +<p><span class="bold">LINNAEUS,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> the name usually given to <span class="sc">Carl von Linné</span> (1707-1778), Swedish botanist, who was born on the 13th of -May, O.S. (May 23, N.S.) 1707 at Råshult, in the province -of Småland, Sweden, and was the eldest child of Nils Linnaeus +May, O.S. (May 23, N.S.) 1707 at RÃ¥shult, in the province +of SmÃ¥land, Sweden, and was the eldest child of Nils Linnaeus the comminister, afterwards pastor, of the parish, and Christina Brodersonia, the daughter of the previous incumbent. In -1717 he was sent to the primary school at Wexiö, and in 1724 +1717 he was sent to the primary school at Wexiö, and in 1724 he passed to the gymnasium. His interests were centred on botany, and his progress in the studies considered necessary for admission to holy orders, for which he was intended, was @@ -18377,12 +18338,12 @@ finding him necessitous, offered him board and lodging.</p> <p>During this period, he came upon a critique which ultimately led to the establishment of his artificial system of plant classification. -This was a review of Sébastien Vaillant’s <i>Sermo de +This was a review of Sébastien Vaillant’s <i>Sermo de Structura Florum</i> (Leiden, 1718), a thin quarto in French and Latin; it set him upon examining the stamens and pistils of flowers, and, becoming convinced of the paramount importance of these organs, he formed the idea of basing a system of arrangement -upon them. Another work by Wallin, <span class="grk" title="Gamos phytôn">Γάμος φύτων</span>, <i>sive +upon them. Another work by Wallin, <span class="grk" title="Gamos phytôn">Γάμος φύτων</span>, <i>sive Nuptiae Arborum Dissertatio</i> (Upsala, 1729), having fallen into his hands, he drew up a short treatise on the sexes of plants, which was placed in the hands of the younger Olaf Rudbeck @@ -18399,7 +18360,7 @@ things.</p> <p>In 1732 he undertook to explore Lapland, at the cost of the Academy of Sciences of Upsala; he traversed upwards of 4600 m., and the cost of the journey is given at 530 copper dollars, -or about £25 sterling. His own account was published in +or about £25 sterling. His own account was published in English by Sir J. E. Smith, under the title <i>Lachesis Lapponica</i>, in 1811; the scientific results were published in his <i>Flora Lapponica</i> (Amsterdam, 1737). In 1733 Linnaeus was engaged @@ -18409,10 +18370,10 @@ reasons. At this juncture the governor of Dalecarlia invited him to travel through his province, as he had done through Lapland. Whilst on this journey, he lectured at Fahlun to large audiences; and J. Browallius (1707-1755), the chaplain -there, afterwards bishop of Åbo, strongly urged him to go abroad +there, afterwards bishop of Ã…bo, strongly urged him to go abroad and take his degree of M.D. at a foreign university, by which means he could afterwards settle where he pleased. Accordingly -he left Sweden in 1735. Travelling by Lübeck and Hamburg, +he left Sweden in 1735. Travelling by Lübeck and Hamburg, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span> he proceeded to Harderwijk, where he went through the requisite examinations, and defended his thesis on the cause of intermittent @@ -18462,11 +18423,11 @@ Jussieu, and finally sailed for Sweden from Rouen. In September being unknown as a medical man, no one at first cared to consult him; by degrees, however, he found patients, was appointed naval physician at Stockholm, with minor appointments, and in -June 1730 married Sara Moræa. In 1741 he was appointed to +June 1730 married Sara Moræa. In 1741 he was appointed to the chair of medicine at Upsala, but soon exchanged it for that of botany. In the same year, previous to this exchange, he travelled -through Öland and Gothland, by command of the state, publishing -his results in <i>Oländska och Gothländska Resa</i> (1745). The +through Öland and Gothland, by command of the state, publishing +his results in <i>Oländska och Gothländska Resa</i> (1745). The index to this volume shows the first employment of specific names in nomenclature.</p> @@ -18474,14 +18435,14 @@ names in nomenclature.</p> preparation of other works. In 1745 he issued his <i>Flora Suecica</i> and <i>Fauna Suecica</i>, the latter having occupied his attention during fifteen years; afterwards, two volumes of observations -made during journeys in Sweden, <i>Wästgöta Resa</i> (Stockholm, -1747), and <i>Skånska Resa</i> (Stockholm, 1751). In 1748 he brought +made during journeys in Sweden, <i>Wästgöta Resa</i> (Stockholm, +1747), and <i>SkÃ¥nska Resa</i> (Stockholm, 1751). In 1748 he brought out his <i>Hortus Upsaliensis</i>, showing that he had added eleven hundred species to those formerly in cultivation in that garden. In 1750 his <i>Philosophia Botanica</i> was given to the world; it consists of a commentary on the various axioms he had published in 1735 in his <i>Fundamenta Botanica</i>, and was dictated to his -pupil P. Löfling (1720-1756), while the professor was confined +pupil P. Löfling (1720-1756), while the professor was confined to his bed by an attack of gout. But the most important work of this period was his <i>Species Plantarum</i> (Stockholm, 1753), in which the specific names are fully set forth. In the same year @@ -18490,15 +18451,15 @@ man had been raised to that honour in Sweden. In 1755 he was invited by the king of Spain to settle in that country, with a liberal salary, and full liberty of conscience, but he declined on the ground that whatever merits he possessed should be -devoted to his country’s service, and Löfling was sent instead. -He was enabled now to purchase the estates of Säfja and +devoted to his country’s service, and Löfling was sent instead. +He was enabled now to purchase the estates of Säfja and Hammarby; at the latter he built his museum of stone, to guard against loss by fire. His lectures at the university drew men from all parts of the world; the normal number of students at Upsala was five hundred, but while he occupied the chair of botany there it rose to fifteen hundred. In 1761 he was granted a patent of nobility, antedated to 1757, from which -time he was styled Carl von Linné. To his great delight the +time he was styled Carl von Linné. To his great delight the tea-plant was introduced alive into Europe in 1763; in the same year his surviving son Carl (1741-1783) was allowed to assist his father in his professorial duties, and to be trained as his @@ -18592,7 +18553,7 @@ the Scriptures in the original, and he published several pamphlets and larger treatises of Biblical criticism. Linnell was one of the best friends and kindest patrons of William Blake. He gave him the two largest commissions he ever received for -single series of designs—£150 for drawings and engravings +single series of designs—£150 for drawings and engravings of <i>The Inventions to the Book of Job</i>, and a like sum for those illustrative of Dante.</p> @@ -18604,7 +18565,7 @@ northern English “Lintwhite”—originally a somewhat generalized bird’s name, but latterly specialized for the <i>Fringilla cannabina</i> of Linnaeus, the <i>Linota cannabina</i> of recent ornithologists. This is a common song-bird, frequenting almost the whole of -Europe south of lat. 64°, and in Asia extending to Turkestan. +Europe south of lat. 64°, and in Asia extending to Turkestan. It is known as a winter visitant to Egypt and Abyssinia, and is abundant at all seasons in Barbary, as well as in the Canaries and Madeira. Though the fondness of this species for the seeds @@ -18686,7 +18647,7 @@ nivalis</i>.</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> E.g. Fr. <i>Linotte</i>, Ger. <i>Hänfling</i>, Swed. <i>Hämpling</i>.</p> +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> E.g. Fr. <i>Linotte</i>, Ger. <i>Hänfling</i>, Swed. <i>Hämpling</i>.</p> </div> @@ -18753,7 +18714,7 @@ from the seeds, with or without the aid of heat. Preliminary to the operation of pressing, the seeds are crushed and ground to a fine meal. Cold pressing of the seeds yields a golden-yellow oil, which is often used as an edible oil. Larger quantities are obtained by -heating the crushed seeds to 160° F. (71° C.), and then expressing +heating the crushed seeds to 160° F. (71° C.), and then expressing the oil. So obtained, it is somewhat turbid and yellowish-brown in colour. On storing, moisture and mucilaginous matter gradually settle out. After storing several years it is known commercially as @@ -18772,7 +18733,7 @@ been found in practice to give out 109 ℔ of oil.</p> <p>Commercial linseed oil has a peculiar, rather disagreeable sharp taste and smell; its specific gravity is given as varying from 0.928 -to 0.953, and it solidifies at about -27°. By saponification it yields +to 0.953, and it solidifies at about -27°. By saponification it yields a number of fatty acids—palmitic, myristic, oleic, linolic, linolenic and isolinolenic. Exposed to the air in thin films, linseed oil absorbs oxygen and forms “linoxyn,” a resinous semi-elastic, caoutchouc-like @@ -18858,31 +18819,31 @@ arch” is generally built over it.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LINTH,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Limmat</span>, a river of Switzerland, one of the -tributaries of the Aar. It rises in the glaciers of the Tödi range, +tributaries of the Aar. It rises in the glaciers of the Tödi range, and has cut out a deep bed which forms the Grossthal that comprises the greater portion of the canton of Glarus. A little below the town of Glarus the river, keeping its northerly direction, runs through the alluvial plain which it has formed, towards the -Walensee and the Lake of Zürich. But between the Lake of Zürich +Walensee and the Lake of Zürich. But between the Lake of Zürich and the Walensee the huge desolate alluvial plain grew ever in size, while great damage was done by the river, which overflowed its bed and the dykes built to protect the region near it. The Swiss diet decided in 1804 to undertake the “correction” of this turbulent stream. The necessary works were begun in -1807 under the supervision of Hans Conrad Escher of Zürich +1807 under the supervision of Hans Conrad Escher of Zürich (1767-1823). The first portion of the undertaking was completed in 1811, and received the name of the “Escher canal,” the river being thus diverted into the Walensee. The second portion, known as the “Linth canal,” regulated the course of the river -between the Walensee and the Lake of Zürich and was completed +between the Walensee and the Lake of Zürich and was completed in 1816. Many improvements and extra protective works were carried out after 1816, and it was estimated that the total cost of this great engineering undertaking from 1807 to 1902 amounted -to about £200,000, the date for the completion of the work being +to about £200,000, the date for the completion of the work being 1911. To commemorate the efforts of Escher, the Swiss diet in 1823 (after his death) decided that his male descendants should bear the name of “Escher von der Linth.” On issuing from the -Lake of Zürich the Linth alters its name to that of “Limmat,” +Lake of Zürich the Linth alters its name to that of “Limmat,” it does not appear wherefore, and, keeping the north-westerly direction it had taken from the Walensee, joins the Aar a little way below Brugg, and just below the junction of the Reuss @@ -19143,7 +19104,7 @@ bishopric was established in 1784.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LION<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (Lat. <i>leo</i>, <i>leonis</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="leôn">λέων</span>). From the earliest historic +<p><span class="bold">LION<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (Lat. <i>leo</i>, <i>leonis</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="leôn">λέων</span>). From the earliest historic times few animals have been better known to man than the lion. Its habitat made it familiar to all the races among whom human civilization took its origin. The literature of the ancient Hebrews @@ -19400,9 +19361,9 @@ and behave differently under varying circumstances.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIONNE, HUGUES DE<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1611-1671), French statesman, was born at Grenoble on the 11th of October 1611, of an old family -of Dauphiné. Early trained for diplomacy, his remarkable +of Dauphiné. Early trained for diplomacy, his remarkable abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Mazarin, who sent him -as secretary of the French embassy to the congress of Münster, +as secretary of the French embassy to the congress of Münster, and, in 1642, on a mission to the pope. In 1646 he became secretary to the queen regent; in 1653 obtained high office in the king’s household; and in 1654 was ambassador extraordinary @@ -19423,11 +19384,11 @@ age of great ministers, his consummate statesmanship placed him in the front rank.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Lettres inédites de Hugues de Lionne ... précédées +<p>See Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Lettres inédites de Hugues de Lionne ... précédées d’une notice historique sur la famille de Lionne</i> (Valence, -1879); J. Valfrey, <i>La diplomatie française au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle: Hugues +1879); J. Valfrey, <i>La diplomatie française au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle: Hugues de Lionne, ses ambassadeurs</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1877-1881). For further -works see Rochas, <i>Biogr. du Dauphiné</i> (Paris, 1860), tome ii. p. 87.</p> +works see Rochas, <i>Biogr. du Dauphiné</i> (Paris, 1860), tome ii. p. 87.</p> </div> @@ -19436,7 +19397,7 @@ works see Rochas, <i>Biogr. du Dauphiné</i> (Paris, 1860), tome ii. p. 87.</p> born at Geneva. He began his studies under Professor Gardelle and Petitot, whose enamels and miniatures he copied with considerable skill. He went to Paris in 1725, studying under J. B. -Massé and F. le Moyne, on whose recommendation he was taken +Massé and F. le Moyne, on whose recommendation he was taken to Naples by the Marquis Puysieux. In 1735 he was in Rome, painting the portraits of Pope Clement XII. and several cardinals. Three years later he accompanied Lord Duncannon to Constantinople, @@ -19464,12 +19425,12 @@ Amsterdam, Berne, and Geneva are particularly rich in examples of his paintings and pastel drawings. A picture of a Turk seated is at the Victoria and Albert Museum, while the British Museum owns two of his drawings. The Louvre has, besides twenty-two -drawings, a portrait of General Hérault and a portrait of the +drawings, a portrait of General Hérault and a portrait of the artist is to be found at the Sala dei pittori, in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>La Vie et les œuvres de Jean Etienne Liotard (1702-1789), étude +<p>See <i>La Vie et les œuvres de Jean Etienne Liotard (1702-1789), étude biographique et iconographique</i>, by E. Humbert, A. Revilliod, and J. W. R. Tilanus (Amsterdam, 1897).</p> </div> @@ -19518,7 +19479,7 @@ placed on a reservation in New Mexico.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LIPARI ISLANDS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (anc. <span class="grk" title="Aiolou nêsoi">Αἰόλου νῆσοι</span>, or <i>Aeoliae Insulae</i>), +<p><span class="bold">LIPARI ISLANDS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (anc. <span class="grk" title="Aiolou nêsoi">Αἰόλου νῆσοι</span>, or <i>Aeoliae Insulae</i>), a group of volcanic islands N. of the eastern portion of Sicily. They are seven in number—Lipari (<i>Lipara</i>, pop. in 1901, 15,290), Stromboli (<i>Strongyle</i>), Salina (<i>Didyme</i>, pop. in 1901, @@ -19549,7 +19510,7 @@ night. Salina, 3 m. N.W. of Lipari, consisting of the cones of two extinct volcanoes, that on the S.E., Monte Salvatore (3155 ft.), being the highest point in the islands, is the most fertile of the whole group and produces good Malmsey wine: it takes -its name from the salt-works on the south coast. Vulcano, ½ m. +its name from the salt-works on the south coast. Vulcano, ½ m. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span> S. of Lipari, contains a still smoking crater. Sulphur works were started in 1874, have since been abandoned.</p> @@ -19562,7 +19523,7 @@ Inseln</i>, 8 vols. (for private circulation) (Prague, 1893 seqq.).</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Greek coins of the Lipari Islands are preserved in the museum at -Cefalù.</p> +Cefalù.</p> </div> @@ -19595,7 +19556,7 @@ German empire, bounded N.W., W. and S. by the Prussian province of Westphalia and N.E. and E. by the Prussian provinces of Hanover and Hesse-Nassau and the principality of Waldeck-Pyrmont. It also possesses three small enclaves—Kappel -and Lipperode in Westphalia and Grevenhagen near Höxter. +and Lipperode in Westphalia and Grevenhagen near Höxter. The area is 469 sq. m., and the population (1905) 145,610, showing a density of 125 to the sq. m. The greater part of the surface is hilly, and in the S. and W., where the Teutoburger @@ -19610,7 +19571,7 @@ of the whole area, and consist mostly of deciduous trees, beech preponderating. The valleys contain a considerable amount of good arable land, the tillage of which employs the greater part of the inhabitants. Small farms, the larger proportion -of which are under 2½ acres, are numerous, and their yield shows +of which are under 2½ acres, are numerous, and their yield shows a high degree of prosperity among the peasant farmers. The principal crops are potatoes, beetroot (for sugar), hay, rye, oats, wheat and barley. Cattle, sheep and swine are also @@ -19640,8 +19601,8 @@ classes, rated according to taxation, each of which returns seven members. The courts of law are centred at Detmold, whence an appeal lies to the court of appeal at Celle in the Prussian province of Hanover. The estimated revenue in -1909 was £113,000 and the expenditure £116,000. The public -debt in 1908 was £64,000. Lippe has one vote in the German +1909 was £113,000 and the expenditure £116,000. The public +debt in 1908 was £64,000. Lippe has one vote in the German Reichstag, and also one vote in the Bundesrat, or federal council. Its military forces form a battalion of the 6th Westphalian infantry.</p> @@ -19670,7 +19631,7 @@ of prince of the empire was bestowed in 1789, a dignity already conferred, though not confirmed, in 1720. Philip, the youngest son of Simon VI., received but a scanty part of his father’s possessions, but in 1640 he inherited a large part of the countship -of Schaumburg, including Bückeburg, and adopted the +of Schaumburg, including Bückeburg, and adopted the title of count of Schaumburg-Lippe. The ruler of this territory became a sovereign prince in 1807. Simon VII. had a younger son, Jobst Hermann (d. 1678), who founded the line of counts @@ -19745,7 +19706,7 @@ but the question of the succession was again raised by the prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, who urged that the marriage of Count William Ernest, father of Count Ernest, with Modeste von Unruh, and that of the count regent Ernest himself with Countess -Carline von Wartensleben were not <i>ebenbürtig</i> (equal birth), +Carline von Wartensleben were not <i>ebenbürtig</i> (equal birth), and that the issue of these marriages were therefore excluded from the succession. Prince George of Schaumburg-Lippe and the count regent, Leopold, thereupon entered into a compact, @@ -19760,7 +19721,7 @@ the 13th of January 1905; Count Leopold remained as regent, and on the 25th of October the court of arbitration issued its award, declaring the marriages in question (which were, as proved by document, contracted with the consent of the head of the -house in each case) <i>ebenbürtig</i>, and that in pursuance of the award +house in each case) <i>ebenbürtig</i>, and that in pursuance of the award of the king of Saxony the family of Lippe-Biesterfeld, together with the collateral lines sprung from Count William Ernest (father of the regent, Count Ernest) were in the order of nearest @@ -19768,15 +19729,15 @@ agnates called to the succession. Leopold (b. 1871) thus became prince of Lippe.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See A. Falkmann, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des Fürstenthums Lippe</i> -(Detmold, 1857-1892; 6 vols.); Schwanold, <i>Das Fürstentum +<p>See A. Falkmann, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des Fürstenthums Lippe</i> +(Detmold, 1857-1892; 6 vols.); Schwanold, <i>Das Fürstentum Lippe, das Land und seine Bewohner</i> (Detmold, 1899); Piderit, <i>Die lippischen Edelherrn im Mittelalter</i> (Detmold, 1876); A. Falkmann and O. Preuss, <i>Lippische Regenten</i> (Detmold, 1860-1868); H. -Triepel, <i>Der Streit um die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe</i> (Leipzig, -1903); and P. Laband, <i>Die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe</i> (Freiburg, -1891); and <i>Schiedsspruch in dem Rechtstreit über die Thronfolge -im Fürstentum Lippe vom 25 Okt. 1905</i> (Leipzig, 1906).</p> +Triepel, <i>Der Streit um die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe</i> (Leipzig, +1903); and P. Laband, <i>Die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe</i> (Freiburg, +1891); and <i>Schiedsspruch in dem Rechtstreit über die Thronfolge +im Fürstentum Lippe vom 25 Okt. 1905</i> (Leipzig, 1906).</p> </div> @@ -19902,7 +19863,7 @@ Christ, who is held by two angels; in the National Gallery, London, a an Angel,” in this same gallery, also ascribed to Lippi, is disputable.</p> <p>Few pictures are so thoroughly enjoyable as those of Lippo Lippi; -they show the naiveté of a strong, rich nature, redundant in lively and +they show the naiveté of a strong, rich nature, redundant in lively and somewhat whimsical observation. He approaches religious art from its human side, and is not pietistic though true to a phase of Catholic devotion. He was perhaps the greatest colourist and technical adept @@ -20043,7 +20004,7 @@ authorities.</p> province of Westphalia, lying under the western slope of the Teutoburger Wald, 5 m. N. of Paderborn. Pop. (1905) 3100. The springs, the Arminius Quelle and the Liborius Quelle, for -which it is famous, are saline waters of a temperature of 70° F., +which it is famous, are saline waters of a temperature of 70° F., and are utilized both for bathing and drinking in cases of pulmonary consumption and chronic diseases of the respiratory organs. The annual number of visitors amounts to about 6000. @@ -20054,15 +20015,15 @@ a stronghold. It received civic rights about 1400.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Dammann, <i>Der Kurort Lippspringe</i> (Paderborn, 1900); -Königer, <i>Lippspringe</i> (Berlin, 1893); and Frey, <i>Lippspringe, -Kurort für Lungenkranke</i> (Paderborn, 1899).</p> +Königer, <i>Lippspringe</i> (Berlin, 1893); and Frey, <i>Lippspringe, +Kurort für Lungenkranke</i> (Paderborn, 1899).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIPPSTADT,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the river Lippe, 20 m. by rail W. by S. of Paderborn, on the -main line to Düsseldorf. Pop. (1905) 15,436. The Marien Kirche +main line to Düsseldorf. Pop. (1905) 15,436. The Marien Kirche is a large edifice in the Transitional style, dating from the 13th century. It has several schools, among them being one which was originally founded as a nunnery in 1185. The manufactures @@ -20077,7 +20038,7 @@ Lippstadt was occupied by the Spaniards and in 1757 by the French.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Chalybäus, <i>Lippstadt, ein Beitrag zur deutschen Städtegeschichte</i> +<p>See Chalybäus, <i>Lippstadt, ein Beitrag zur deutschen Städtegeschichte</i> (Lippstadt, 1876).</p> </div> @@ -20156,13 +20117,13 @@ corrected—the last time in 1606, shortly before his death. His Woordenboek der Nederlanden</i> (1865), and in <i>Bibliographie Lipsienne</i> (Ghent, 1886-1888). In addition to the biography by A. le Mire (Aubertus Miraeus) (1609), the only original account of -his life, see M. E. C. Nisard, <i>Le Triumvirat littéraire au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> -(1852); A. Räss, <i>Die Convertiten seit der Reformation</i> (1867); +his life, see M. E. C. Nisard, <i>Le Triumvirat littéraire au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> +(1852); A. Räss, <i>Die Convertiten seit der Reformation</i> (1867); P. Bergman’s <i>Autobiographie de J. Lipse</i> (1889); L. Galesloot, -<i>Particularités sur la vie de J. Lipse</i> (1877); E. Amiel, <i>Un Publiciste -du XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle. Juste Lipse</i> (1884); and L. Müller, <i>Geschichte der +<i>Particularités sur la vie de J. Lipse</i> (1877); E. Amiel, <i>Un Publiciste +du XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle. Juste Lipse</i> (1884); and L. Müller, <i>Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden</i>. The articles by J. J. -Thonissen of Louvain in the <i>Nouvelle Biographie générale</i>, and L. +Thonissen of Louvain in the <i>Nouvelle Biographie générale</i>, and L. Roersch in <i>Biographie nationale de Belgique</i>, may also be consulted.</p> </div> @@ -20195,12 +20156,12 @@ its life” (Otto Pfleiderer). This, in part, is his attitude in Dogmatik</i> (1876; 3rd ed., 1893) he deals in detail with the doctrines of “God,” “Christ,” “Justification” and the “Church.” From 1875 he assisted K. Hase, O. Pfleiderer and -E. Schrader in editing the <i>Jahrbücher für prot. Theologie</i>, and +E. Schrader in editing the <i>Jahrbücher für prot. Theologie</i>, and from 1885 till 1891 he edited the <i>Theol. Jahresbericht</i>.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>His other works include <i>Die Pilatusakten</i> (1871, new ed., 1886), -<i>Dogmatische Beiträge</i> (1878), <i>Die Quellen der ältesten Ketzergeschichte</i> +<i>Dogmatische Beiträge</i> (1878), <i>Die Quellen der ältesten Ketzergeschichte</i> (1875), <i>Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten</i> (1883-1890), <i>Hauptpunkte der christl. Glaubenslehre im Umriss dargestellt</i> (1889), and commentaries on the Epistles to the Galatians, Romans and Philippians @@ -20226,7 +20187,7 @@ and provided his own packing-house for hogs in Chicago, and fruit farms, jam factories, bakeries and bacon-curing establishments in England. In 1898 his business was converted into a limited liability company. At Queen Victoria’s diamond jubilee -in 1897 he gave £20,000 for providing dinners for a large number +in 1897 he gave £20,000 for providing dinners for a large number of the London poor. In 1898 he was knighted, and in 1902 was made a baronet. In the world of yacht-racing he became well known from his repeated attempts to win the America Cup.</p> @@ -20267,14 +20228,14 @@ of home manufacture, and that liqueurs are necessarily of foreign origin, but it is at least doubtful whether this is entirely correct. The French, who excel in the preparation of liqueurs, grade their products, according to their sweetness and alcoholic strength, -into <i>crêmes</i>, <i>huiles</i> or <i>baumes</i>, which have a thick, oily consistency; -and <i>eaux</i>, <i>extraits</i> or <i>élixirs</i>, which, being less sweetened, +into <i>crêmes</i>, <i>huiles</i> or <i>baumes</i>, which have a thick, oily consistency; +and <i>eaux</i>, <i>extraits</i> or <i>élixirs</i>, which, being less sweetened, are relatively limpid. Liqueurs are also classed, according to their commercial quality and composition, as <i>ordinaires</i>, <i>demi-fines</i>, <i>fines</i> and <i>sur-fines</i>. Certain liqueurs, containing only a single flavouring ingredient, or having a prevailing flavour of a particular substance, are named after that body, for instance, -<i>crême de vanille</i>, <i>anisette</i>, <i>kümmel</i>, <i>crême de menthe</i>, &c. On the +<i>crême de vanille</i>, <i>anisette</i>, <i>kümmel</i>, <i>crême de menthe</i>, &c. On the other hand, many well-known liqueurs are compounded of very numerous aromatic principles. The nature and quantities of the flavouring agents employed in the preparation of liqueurs of @@ -20289,13 +20250,13 @@ alcohol by volume in some kinds of absinthe, to 27% in anisette. The liqueur industry is a very considerable one, there being in France some 25,000 factories. Most of these are small, but some 600,000 gallons are annually exported from France alone. -For absinthe, benedictine, chartreuse, curaçoa, kirsch and +For absinthe, benedictine, chartreuse, curaçoa, kirsch and vermouth see under separate headings. Among other well-known trade liqueurs may be mentioned maraschino, which takes its name from a variety of cherry—the marasca—grown in -Dalmatia, the centre of the trade being at Zara; kümmel, the +Dalmatia, the centre of the trade being at Zara; kümmel, the flavour of which is largely due to caraway seeds; allasch, -which is a rich variety of kümmel; and cherry and other “fruit” +which is a rich variety of kümmel; and cherry and other “fruit” brandies and whiskies, the latter being perhaps more properly termed cordials.</p> @@ -20360,384 +20321,7 @@ and performs such duties as are necessary on its behalf (see <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 6, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41472-h.htm or 41472-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/4/7/41472/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41472 ***</div> </body> </html> |