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diff --git a/40121-0.txt b/40121-0.txt index 24f17a0..dcfc391 100644 --- a/40121-0.txt +++ b/40121-0.txt @@ -1,39 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Meeting-Place of Geology and History, by -Sir John William Dawson - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: The Meeting-Place of Geology and History - - -Author: Sir John William Dawson - - - -Release Date: July 1, 2012 [eBook #40121] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND -HISTORY*** - - -E-text prepared by Albert László, Tom Cosmas, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40121 *** Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. @@ -5493,363 +5458,4 @@ form used. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: The Meeting-Place of Geology and History - - -Author: Sir John William Dawson - - - -Release Date: July 2, 2012 [eBook #40121] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND -HISTORY*** - - -E-text prepared by Albert László, Tom Cosmas, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 40121-h.htm or 40121-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40121/40121-h/40121-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40121/40121-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/meetingplaceofge00daws - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face italics - (=bold italics=). - - To enhance readability, small-capital text was left as - mixed-case. - - - -THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND HISTORY - - * * * * * - -Sir J. William Dawson, LL.D., F.G.S. - -[Illustration] - -"_The name of Sir William Dawson on a title page is a guarantee of two -things: one, that the book is orthodox and thoroughly evangelical; and -the other, that the matter of it is first-class, according to the -highest scientific standard._" - - --The Illustrated Christian Weekly. - - - =The Meeting-Place of Geology and History.= Illustrated. 12mo, - cloth $1.25 - - Sir William Dawson's aim in this volume is aptly described by the - title. It is to fix with that measure of definiteness which the - best and latest research permits the period when human life began - on the earth, and to discuss from the geologic standpoint the many - questions of interest connected with this event. He shows in how - many different ways science confirms the teaching of Scripture in - this department of knowledge. - - - =Modern Ideas of Evolution as related to Revelation and Science.= - _Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged._ 12mo, cloth 1.50 - - Carefully and thoroughly revised in the light of the criticism, - favorable and adverse, which the preceding five editions have - received. - - "Dr. Dawson is himself a man of eminent judicial temper, a widely - read scholar, and a close, profound thinker, which makes the blow - he deals the Evolution hypothesis all the heavier. We commend it to - our readers as one of the most thorough and searching books on the - subject yet published."--_The Christian at Work._ - - - =The Chain of Life in Geological Time.= A Sketch of the Origin and - Succession of Animals and Plants. Illustrated. _Third and Revised - Edition._ 12mo, cloth 2.00 - - "The judicial style of the writer in argument is enlivened by his - ability to render science most attractive and popular. He holds to - the orthodox view of the ordered plan of the universe, and yet - considers without prejudice the alluring ideas prevalent in modern - scientific circles."--_The Christian Advocate_ (_N.Y._) - - - =Egypt and Syria.= Their Physical Features in Relation to Bible - History. _Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged._ With many - Illustrations. "_By-Paths of Bible Knowledge_," _Vol. VI._ 12mo, - cloth 1.20 - - "This is one of the most interesting of the series to which it - belongs. It is the result of personal observation, and the work of - a practised geological observer."--_The British Quarterly Review._ - - * * * * * - - -THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND HISTORY - -by - -SIR J. WILLIAM DAWSON, LL.D., F.R.S. - -Author of -"The Earth and Man," "Modern Ideas of Evolution," "The Chain of Life in -Geological Time," etc. - - - - - - - -[Illustration] - -Fleming H. Revell Company -New York · Chicago · Toronto -The Religious Tract Society, London - -Copyright, 1894 -Fleming H. Revell Company - - - - -PREFACE - - -The object of this little book is to give a clear and accurate statement -of facts bearing on the character of the debatable ground intervening -between the later part of the geological record and the beginnings of -sacred and secular history. - -The subject is one as yet full of difficulty; but the materials for its -treatment have been rapidly accumulating, and it is hoped that it may -prove possible to render it more interesting and intelligible than -heretofore. - -J. W. D. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. General Nature of the Subject 11 - - II. The World Before Man 18 - - III. The Earliest Traces of Man 27 - - IV. The Palanthropic Age 40 - - V. Subdivisions and Conditions of the Palanthropic Age 69 - - VI. End of the Palanthropic Age 85 - - VII. The Early Neanthropic Age 94 - - VIII. The Palanthropic Age in the Light of History 106 - - IX. The Deluge of Noah 121 - - X. Special Questions Respecting the Deluge 151 - - XI. The Prehistoric and Historic in the East 164 - - XII. The Neanthropic Dispersion 183 - - XIII. Summary of Results 210 - - Index 219 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - Section at Trenton, on the Delaware, showing The Relation of - the Stone Implements to the Glacial (?) Gravels (after Holmes) 32 - - Chipped Quartzites, Modern American (after Holmes) 33 - - Flint Hache of the Ancient or Chellean Type, Aurillac (after - Carthaillac) 41 - - Cave of Goyet, Belgium (Section after Dupont) 47 - - Lance Head formed of a Flint Flake (Cave of Moustier). The Flat - Face shows a Bulb of Percussion (after Falsan) 49 - - Outline of the Skull of the 'Old Man of Cro-magnon' (after - Christy and Lartet) 54 - - The First Skeleton found in the Mentone Caves (after Rivière) 57 - - Handle of a Piercer, or Bodkin, in Bone, from Laugerie Basse, - in Form of a Deer 59 - - Flint Flake Knife, found in the Hand of the 'Giant' Skeleton of - Mentone (after Evans) 59 - - Neanderthal Skull--two Outlines: the Outer giving the more - Correct Form (from _Science_) 60 - - Skull of Canstadt Type found at Spy, Belgium, by Fraipont and - Lohest 61 - - Outline of Mammoth, Carved on a Plate of Ivory, from the Cave - of La Madeleine 68 - - Tooth of Cave Bear, with Engraving of a Seal, from a Collar - found at Sordes, Pyrenees (after Carthaillac) 71 - - The Skeleton of Laugerie Basse, Dordogne, showing the Position - of the Perforated Shells on the Limbs and Forehead (after - Carthaillac) 79 - - Skull from Truchère, showing a peculiar Palanthropic Type allied - to Neanthropic Races (after Quatrefages) 82 - - Flint Flakes of two Types, from Palanthropic and Neanthropic - Caves in the Lebanon 97 - - Restoration of the Sepulchral Cave of Frontal, Belgium (after - Dupont) 99 - - Cromlech at Fontanaccia, Corsica (after De Mortillet) 105 - - Map showing the Geographical and Geological Relations of the - Site of Eden, as described in Genesis 117 - - Map showing Lines of Postdiluvian Migrations from Shinar, as in - Genesis x. 185 - - Head illustrating the most Ancient Type of Cushite Turanian, - from Tel-loh (after de Sarzec). The cap is perhaps an imitation - of the antediluvian shell-caps, like that of the 'Man of - Mentone' 191 - - - - -THE MEETING-PLACE - -OF - -GEOLOGY AND HISTORY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -GENERAL NATURE OF THE SUBJECT - - -The science of the earth and the history of man, though cultivated by -very different classes of specialists and in very different ways, must -have their meeting-place. They must indeed not only meet, but overlap -and run abreast of each other throughout nearly the whole time occupied -by the existence of man on the earth. The geologist, from his point of -view, studies all the stratified crust of the earth, down to the mud -deposited by last year's river inundations. The historian, aided by the -archæologist, has written and monumental evidence carrying him back to -the time of the earliest known men, many thousands of years ago. -Throughout all this interval the two records must have run more or less -parallel to each other, and must be in contact along the whole line. - -The geologist, ascending from the oldest and lowest portions of the -earth's crust, and dealing for millions of years with physical forces -and the instinctive powers of animals alone, at length as he approaches -the surface finds himself in contact with an entirely new agency, the -free-will and conscious action of man. It is true that at first the -effects of these are small, and the time in which they have been active -is insignificant in comparison with that occupied by previous geological -ages; but they introduce new questions which constantly grow in -importance, down to those later times in which human agency has so -profoundly affected the surface of the earth and its living inhabitants. -Finally, the geologist is obliged to have recourse to human observation -and testimony for his information respecting those modern causes to -which he has to appeal for the explanation of former changes, and has to -adduce effects produced by human agency in illustration of, or in -contrast with, mutations in the pre-human periods. - -The historian, on the other hand, finds, as he passes backward into -earlier ages, documentary evidence failing him, and much of what he can -obtain becoming mythical, vague or uncertain, or difficult of -explanation by modern analogies, until at length he is fain to have -recourse to the pick-axe and spade, and to endeavour to disinter from -the earth the scanty relics of primeval man, much as the geologist -searches in the bedded rocks for the fossils which they contain. He has -even learned to use for these earliest ages the term prehistoric, and so -practically to transfer them to the domain of the archæologist and -geologist. - -It is evident, therefore, that if we seek for the meeting-place of -geology and history, we shall find not a mere point or line of contact, -but a series of such points, and even a complicated splicing together of -different threads of investigation, which it may be difficult to -disentangle, and which the geological specialist alone, or the -historical specialist alone, may be unable fully to understand. The -object of this little volume will be to unravel as many as possible of -these threads of contact, and to make their value and meaning plain to -the general reader, so that he may not, on the one hand, blindly follow -mere assertions and speculations, or, on the other, fail to appreciate -ascertained and weighty facts relating to this great and important -matter of human origins. - -This is the more necessary since, even in works of some pretension, -there are tendencies on the one hand to overlook geological evidence in -favour of written records, or even of conjectural hypotheses, and on the -other to reject all early historical testimony or tradition as -valueless. We shall find that neither of these extremes is conducive to -accurate conclusions. Researches of a geologico-historical character -necessarily also bring us in view of the early history of our sacred -books. This may be to some extent an evil, as inviting the excitement of -religious controversy; but on the other hand the fact that the early -history incorporated in the Bible goes back to the introduction of man, -and connects this with the completion of the physical and organic -preparations for his advent, has many and important uses. It would seem -indeed that it is a great advantage to our Christian civilisation that -our sacred books begin with a history of creation, giving an idea of -order and progress in the creative work. Whether we regard the days of -creation as literal days or days of vision of a seer, or whether we hold -them to be days of God and His working, suitable to the Eternal One and -His mighty plan, and bearing the same relation to Him that ordinary -working days bear to us, we cannot escape the idea of an orderly work in -time. This, while it delivers the Bible reader from the extravagant -myths current among heathen peoples, ancient and modern, predisposes him -to expect that something may be learned from nature as to its beginning -and progress. In like manner the short statements in Genesis respecting -the early history of man have awakened curiosity as to human origins, -and have led us to search for further details derivable from ancient -monuments. The ordinary Christian who believes his Bible is thus so far -on his way toward a rational geology and archæology, and cannot say with -truth that he is absolutely ignorant of the pre-human history of the -earth. His notions, it is true, may be imperfect, either by reason of -the brevity of the record to which he trusts, or of his own imperfect -knowledge of its contents, but they give to historical and archæological -inquiry an interest and importance which they could not otherwise -possess.[1] - -[1] It is an interesting fact that the pecuniary means, the skill and -labour expended in research in the more ancient historic regions, have -to so large an extent been those of Christians interested in the Bible -history. Yet some _littérateurs_, who have contributed nothing to these -results, attempt to distort and falsify them in the interest of an -unhistorical and unscientific criticism, and even to taunt the Bible as -adverse to archæological inquiry. - -The earth has indeed, especially in our own time, and under the impulse -of Christian civilisation, made wonderful revelations as to its early -history, to which we do well to take heed, as antidotes to some of the -speculations which are palmed upon a credulous world as established -truths. We have now very complete data for tracing the earth from its -original formless or chaotic state through a number of formative and -preparatory stages up to its modern condition; but perhaps the parts of -its history least clearly known, especially to general readers, are -those that relate to the beginning and the end of the creative work. The -earlier stages are those most different from our experience and whose -monuments are most obscure. The later stages on the other hand have left -fewer monuments, and these have been complicated with modern changes -under human influence. Besides this, it is always difficult to piece -together the deductions from merely monumental evidence and the -statements of written or traditional history. There would seem, however, -to be now in our possession sufficient facts to link the human period to -those which preceded it, and thereby to sweep away a large amount of -misconception and misrepresentation in one department at least of the -relations of natural science with history. - -I have called the subject with which we are to deal the meeting-place of -two sciences. In reality, however, it might be embraced under the name -anthropology, the science of man, which covers both his old prehistoric -ages as revealed by geology and archæology, and the more modern world -which is still present, or of which we have written records. The main -point to be observed is that it is necessary to place distinctly before -our minds the fact that we are studying a period in which, on the one -hand, we have to observe the precautions necessary in geological -investigation, and on the other to examine the evidence of history and -tradition. A failure either on the one side or the other may lead to the -gravest errors. - -In studying the subjects thus indicated it will be necessary first to -notice shortly the history of the earth before the human period, and its -condition at the time of man's introduction. We may then inquire as to -the earliest known remains of man preserved in the crust of the earth, -and trace his progress through the earlier part of the anthropic or -human period, in so far as it is revealed to us by the relics of man -and his works preserved in the earth. We shall then be in a position to -inquire as to the form in which the same chain of events is presented to -us by history and tradition, and to discover the leading points in which -the two records agree or appear to differ. - -It may be necessary here to define a few terms. The two latest of the -great geological periods may be termed respectively the _pleistocene_ -and the modern, or _anthropic_, the latter being the human period or age -of man. The pleistocene includes what has been called the glacial age, a -period of exceptional cold and of much subsidence and elevation of the -land, in the northern hemisphere at least. The modern, or anthropic, is -for our present purpose divisible into two sections--the early modern, -or _palanthropic_, sometimes called quaternary, or post-glacial, and -which may coincide with the antediluvian period of human history; and -the _neanthropic_, extending onward to the present time.[2] - -[2] The terms 'Palæolithic' and 'Neolithic' have been used for the men -of the Palanthropic and Neanthropic ages; but these are objectionable, -as implying that these ages can be best distinguished by the use of -certain stone implements, which is not the fact. I have preferred, -therefore, to call the earlier races of men _palæocosmic_, and the later -_neocosmic_, where it may be necessary to refer to them _as races_; -while the _periods_ to which they belong are respectively the -_Palanthropic_ and _Neanthropic_. By the use of these terms all -ambiguity will be avoided. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE WORLD BEFORE MAN - - -Man is of recent introduction on the earth. For millions of years the -slow process of world-making had been going on, with reference to -physical structure and to the lower grades of living creatures. Only -within a few thousand years does our globe seem to have been fitted for -its highest tenant. The evidence of this is to be found in any text-book -of geology. I propose here merely to present the history of the earth in -a series of word-pictures, introductory to our special subject. - -Our first picture may be that of a nebula, vast and vaporous, containing -the mixed and unconsolidated materials of the sun and planets--a void -and desolate mass, slowly aggregating itself under the influence of -gravitation. - -Our next may be that of an incandescent globe, molten and glowing, and -surrounded by a vast vaporous envelope, but tending by degrees to a -condition in which it shall have a solid crust, on which the greater -part of the watery vapour suspended in its atmosphere is to be condensed -into a heated ocean. - -Our third picture may represent the world of what geologists call the -archæan, or eozoic period, when the crust had been furrowed up into -ridges of land, and corresponding but wider depressions occupied by the -sea. Into the latter the rains falling on the land are carrying sediment -derived from the wasting rocks, though the waters are still warm and the -thinner parts of the crust are still welling out rocky material, either -molten or dissolved in heated water. In this period there were probably -low forms of animal life in the waters and plants on the land, though we -know little of their exact nature. - -A fourth picture may represent that great and long-continued palæozoic -period in which the waters swarmed with many forms of life, when fishes -were introduced into the sea, and when the land became covered with -dense forests of plants allied to the modern club-mosses, ferns, -mares'-tails and pines; while insects, scorpions and snails, and some -of the humbler forms of reptiles, found place on the land. - -Returning after an interval, we should see a fifth picture, that of the -mesozoic world. This was the age of reptiles, when animals of that class -attained their highest and most gigantic forms, and occupied in the sea, -on the land, and in the air the places now held by the mammals and the -birds; while the continents were covered with a flora distinct alike -from that of the previous and succeeding periods, replaced, however, as -time went on by forests very like those of the modern world. In this age -the earliest mammals or ordinary quadrupeds were introduced, few at -first, small and of low rank in their class. Birds also made their -appearance, and toward the close of the period fishes of modern types -swarmed for the first time in the sea. - -Lastly, we might see in the cenozoic, or tertiary age, the newest of -all, quadrupeds dominant on the land and modern types of animal life in -the sea. In this period our continents finally assumed their present -forms. Toward its close and after many vicissitudes of geography and -climate, and several successive dynasties of mammalian life, man and the -land animals now his contemporaries occupied the world, and thus the -cenozoic passes into the _anthropic_, or modern period, called by some, -but without good reason, 'quaternary,' since it is in all respects a -proper continuation of the tertiary, or cenozoic.[3] - -[3] It will be seen that our six pictures are in some degree parallel -with the 'days' of creation. This is not an intentional reconciliation. -It merely expresses the fact of the case, whatever its significance. - -This last age of the world is so intimately connected with man that it -will be necessary to consider it more in detail. More particularly we -may endeavour to answer, if we can, the questions of order and time -involved in man's late appearance. - -No geologist would expect to find any remains of man or his works in the -periods represented by our five earlier pictures, because in these -periods the physical conditions necessary to man and the animals nearest -to him in structure do not appear to have existed, and their places in -nature were occupied by lower types. - -Nor for similar reasons would we expect to meet with man in the earlier -part of that last, or cenozoic, period in which we still live; and in -point of fact it is only in superficial deposits of the later part of -this last great period of the earth's history that we actually meet with -evidence of the existence of the human species. - -If there is based on this fact a question as to the actual date of man's -first appearance, the physical considerations indicate about twenty -millions of years for the whole duration of the earth. Setting apart, -say, a fourth of this time for the early pre-geologic condition of the -world, the remainder may be roughly estimated as five millions for the -archæan, or eozoic, six for the palæozoic, three for the mesozoic, and -one for the cenozoic.[4] Of the last, the later part, in which there is -a possibility of the existence of man, will be limited to less than a -quarter of a million; and within this the certainly known remains of -man, whether attributed as by some to the latest inter-*glacial period, -or to the post-glacial--a mere question of terms, and not of -facts--cannot be older, according to the best geological estimates, than -from seven thousand to ten thousand years. This, according to our -present knowledge, is the maximum date of the oldest traces of man, and -probably these are nearer in age to the smaller than to the larger -number. - -[4] The absolute length of these periods is, of course, a matter of -estimation; but the _relative_ lengths of the different ages may be -regarded as a fair approximation, based on facts. - -If the reader will take the trouble to draw on paper a scale of twenty -inches, each of these will represent a million of years of the earth's -history, and the known duration of the human period may be indicated by -a thickish line at one end of the scale. We may thus represent to the -eye the recency of man's appearance, so far as at present known to -science. - -It may be said that all this is mere assertion. It fairly represents, -however, the conclusions reached on the latest geological evidence, -though this evidence would demand for its full detail a larger space -than the whole of this little volume. References are given below to -works in which this evidence will be found.[5] - -[5] Lyell's _Students' Manual_; Dana's _Manual_; Prestwich's _Geology_; -_The Story of the Earth_, by the author. - -It may also be objected that if, as held by some evolutionists, man was -slowly developed from lower animals, and if his earliest known remains -are still human in their characters, he must have had a vastly longer -history covering the periods of his gradual change from, say, ape-like -forms. This is admitted; but then we have as yet no good evidence that -man was so developed, and no remains of intermediate forms are yet known -to science. Even should some animal, either recent or fossil, be -discovered intermediate in structure between man and the highest apes, -we should still require proof that it was the ancestor of man, by the -occurrence of connecting forms, or otherwise. As the facts now stand, -the earliest known remains of man are _still human_, and tell us nothing -as to previous stages of development. - -We must now glance a little more particularly at what may be termed the -more immediate antecedents of man. The latest great period of the -earth's geological history (the cenozoic) was ingeniously subdivided by -Lyell, on the ground of the percentages of extinct and surviving species -of marine shells contained in its several beds. According to this -method, which, with some modifications in detail, is still accepted, the -eocene age, or that of the dawn of the recent, includes those formations -in which the percentage of modern or still living species of marine -animals does not exceed three and a half, all the other species found -being extinct. The miocene (less recent) includes beds in which the -percentage of living species does not exceed thirty-five. The pliocene -(more recent) includes beds in which the living forms of marine life -exceed thirty-five per cent, but there is still a considerable -proportion of extinct species. Newer than this we have the pleistocene -(most recent), in which there are scarcely as many extinct species as -there are of recent in the eocene. Lastly, the modern, of course, -includes only the living species of the modern seas. Other geologists, -notably Dawkins and Gandry, have arrived at similar results from a -consideration of the vertebrate animals of the land. In the eocene we -find numerous remains of mammals, or ordinary land quadrupeds, but all -are extinct, and nearly all belong to extinct genera. In the miocene -there are many living genera, but no species that survive to the present -time. The pliocene begins to show a few living species, and these are -dominant in the succeeding pleistocene. - -These several stages of the cenozoic were also characterised by great -vicissitudes of geography and climate. In the early and middle portions -of the eocene, much of the land of the northern hemisphere was under the -sea or in the state of swamps and marshes, and there seems to have been -a very mild and equable climate, insomuch that plants now limited to -warm temperate regions could flourish in Greenland. It is further to be -observed that regions such as Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, which are -known to us historically as among the earliest abodes of man, were at -this time under the ocean, as were also rocks that now appear at great -elevations in the highest mountains of Europe and Asia. For example, the -limestones through which the Nile has cut its valley are marine beds of -eocene age, and beds of the same period holding marine remains occur at -an elevation of 16,000 feet in the Himalayan region. - -In the miocene the amount of land was somewhat greater, though large -areas of the continents were still under the sea, and the climate was -still mild, but for reasons to be stated in the sequel it is not likely -that man inhabited the warm continents of this age. The pliocene -inaugurates what has been termed a continental period, when the land of -the northern hemisphere was higher and more extensive than at present. -It was also a time of great physical change, when much erosion of -valleys and sculpturing of the surface of the land occurred, and when -extensive earth movements and ejections of igneous rock increased the -irregularity of the surface and gave greater variety and beauty to the -land. The pliocene was altogether a most important period for giving the -finishing touches of physical geography, and in it several modern -species of land animals were introduced; but we have as yet, as we shall -find in the sequel, no certain evidence that man was a witness of the -movements and sculpturing of the earth's crust, so important in the -preparation of his future home, though statements to this effect have -been made on grounds which we shall have to consider. - -In the course of the pliocene the previously high temperature of the -northern hemisphere was sensibly lowered, and at its close the -pleistocene period introduced a cold and wintry climate, along with -gradual and unequal subsidence of the land, the whole producing that -most dismal of the geological ages, known as the 'glacial period.' At -this time much of the lower land of the continents was submerged and the -mountains became covered with snow and ice, leaving space for vegetable -and animal life only toward the south and in a few favoured spots in the -higher latitudes. There is much difference of opinion among geologists -as to the extent, duration and vicissitudes of this reign of ice, but -there can be no doubt that it destroyed much of the animal and vegetable -life of the pliocene, or obliged it to migrate to the southward. In this -period great deposits of mud, sand and gravel were laid down, which -prepared the world for a new departure in the succeeding age. This we -may name the post-glacial, or early modern period, and in it we have the -most certain evidence of the existence of man, though the geographical -arrangement of our continents and their animal inhabitants were in many -respects different from what they now are. If geologists are right in -the conclusion already stated, that the close of the glacial period is -as recent as 7,000 years ago, this will give us a narrow limit in time -for the age of man, at least under his present conditions. - -While, however, there is an absolute consensus of opinion among -geologists as to the existence of man at or about the close of the -glacial age, in the northern temperate regions at least, there are some -facts which have been supposed to indicate a pre-glacial human period, -or the advent of man even as early as the middle of the cenozoic time. -These merit a short consideration. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE EARLIEST TRACES OF MAN - - -In the eocene, or earliest cenozoic, it is not pretended by anyone that -man existed, except inferentially, on the ground that if the remains we -know in the earliest caves and gravels belong to men who were developed -from apes on the method of natural selection, their ancestors must have -existed, at least in a semi-human form, in the eocene. But no such -precursors of man are yet known to us. It would have been pleasant to -believe that man arrived in time to see the beautiful forests and to -enjoy the mild climate of the golden age of the miocene, and this would -have agreed with some human traditions; but the probabilities are -against it, as we know no one species of higher animal of the many found -in the miocene that has survived to our time. The privilege of enjoying -the forests of the miocene age seems to have been reserved for some -large and specialised monkeys, which even Darwinians can scarcely claim -as probable ancestors of man.[6] It would appear also that owing to -increasing refrigeration of climate these apes were either obliged to -leave Europe for warmer latitudes or became extinct in the succeeding -pliocene. - -[6] _Dryopithecus_ and _Mesopithecus_. - -There are, however, in France two localities, one in the upper and the -other in the middle miocene, which have afforded what are supposed to be -worked flints.[7] The geological age of the deposits seems in both cases -beyond question, but doubts have been cast, and this seemingly with some -reason, on the artificial character of the flint flakes, while in the -case of some examples which appear to be scrapers and borers, like those -in use long afterward by semi-civilised peoples for working in bone and -skin, there are grave doubts whether they actually came from the miocene -beds. Lastly, it has even been suggested that these flints may be the -handiwork of miocene apes, a suggestion not so unreasonable as at first -sight it appears, when taken in connection with the working instincts of -beavers and other animals. Monkeys, however, seem to have less of this -gift as artificers than most other creatures. On the whole, we must -regard the existence of miocene man as not proven, though, if it should -prove to be a fact, it may be useful to some of the scoffers of these -days to know that it would not be so irreconcilable with the Biblical -account of creation as they seem to suppose. It might, however, prove a -serious stumbling-block to orthodox Darwinians, and might raise some -difficulties respecting antediluvian genealogies. - -[7] Puy, Courny and Thenay. - -In the pliocene of Europe there are alleged to be instances of the -occurrence of human bones. One of these is that of the skull now in the -museum of Florence, supposed to have been found in the pliocene of the -Val d'Arno. It is, however, a skull of modern type, and may have been -brought down from the surface by a landslip. But this explanation does -not seem to apply to the human remains found in lower pliocene beds at -Castelnedolo, near Brescia. They include a nearly entire human skeleton, -and are said by good observers to have been imbedded in undisturbed -pliocene beds. M. Quatrefages, who has described them, and whose -testimony should be considered as that of an expert, was satisfied that -the remains had not been interred, but were part of the original -deposit. Unfortunately the skull of the only perfect skeleton is said to -have been of fair proportions and superior to those of the ruder types -of post-glacial men. This has cast a shade of suspicion on the -discovery, especially on the part of evolutionists, who think it is not -in accordance with theory that man should retrograde between the -pliocene and the early modern period, instead of advancing. Still we may -ask, why not? If men existed in the fine climates of the miocene and -early pliocene, why should they not have been a noble race, suited to -their environment; and when the cold of the glacial period intervened, -with its scarcity and hardships, might they not have deteriorated, to be -subsequently improved when better conditions supervened? This would -certainly not be contradictory to experience in the case of varieties of -other animals, however at variance with a hypothetical idea of -necessarily progressive improvement. Let us hope that the existence of -European pliocene man will be established, and that he will be found to -have been not of low and bestial type, but, as the discoveries above -referred to if genuine would indicate, a worthy progenitor of modern -races of men. - -It still remains to inquire whether man may have made his appearance at -the close of the pliocene or in the early stages of the pleistocene, -before the full development of the glacial conditions of that period. -Perhaps the most important indications of this kind are those adduced by -Dr. Mourlon, of the Geological Survey of Belgium,[8] from which it would -appear that worked flints and broken bones of animals occur in deposits, -the relations of which would indicate that they belong either to the -base of the pleistocene or close of the pliocene. They are imbedded in -sands derived from eocene and pliocene beds, and supposed to have been -_remanié_ by wind action. With the modesty of a true man of science, -Mourlon presents his facts, and does not insist too strongly on the -important conclusion to which they seem to tend, but he has certainly -established the strongest case yet on record for the existence of -tertiary man. With this should, however, be placed the facts adduced in -a similar sense by Prestwich in his paper on the worked flints of -Ightham.[9] - -[8] _Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de Belgique_, 1889. - -[9] _Journal of the Geological Society_, London, May 1889. - -Should this be established, the curious result will follow that man must -have been the witness of two great continental subsidences, or deluges, -that of the early pleistocene and the early modern, the former of which, -and perhaps the latter also, must have been accompanied with a great -access of cold in the northern hemisphere. It seems, however, more -likely that the facts will be found to admit of a different explanation. - -Every reader of the scientific journals of the United States must be -aware of the numerous finds of 'palæolithic' implements in 'glacial' -gravels, indicating a far greater antiquity of man in America than on -other grounds we have a right to imagine. I have endeavoured to show, in -a work published several years ago,[10] how much doubt on geological -grounds attaches to the reports of these discoveries, and how uncertain -is the reference of the supposed implements to undisturbed glacial -deposits, and how much such of the 'palæoliths' as appear to be the work -of man resemble the rougher tools and rejectamenta of the modern -Indians. But since the publication of that work, so great a number of -'finds' have been recorded, that despite their individual improbability, -one was almost overwhelmed by the coincidence of so many witnesses. Now -the bubble seems to have been effectually pricked by Mr. W. H. Holmes, -of the American Geological Survey, who has published his observations -in the _American Journal of Anthology_ and elsewhere.[11] - -[10] _Fossil Man_, London, 1880. - -[11] _Science_, November 1892; _Journal of Geology_, 1893. - -[Illustration: SECTION AT TRENTON, ON THE DELAWARE, SHOWING THE RELATION -OF THE STONE IMPLEMENTS TO THE GLACIAL (?) GRAVELS (after Holmes)] - -One of the most widely-known examples was that of Trenton, on the -Delaware, where there was a bed of gravel alleged to be pleistocene, and -which seemed to contain enough of 'palæolithic' implements to stock all -the museums in the world. The evidence of age was not satisfactory from -a geological point of view, and Holmes, with the aid of a deep -excavation made for a city sewer, has shown that the supposed implements -do not belong to the undisturbed gravel, but merely to a talus of loose -_débris_ lying against it, and to which modern Indians resorted to find -material for implements, and left behind them rejected or unfinished -pieces. This alleged discovery has therefore no geological or -anthropological significance. The same acute and industrious observer -has inquired into a number of similar cases in different parts of the -United States, and finds all liable to objections on similar grounds, -except in a few cases in which the alleged implements are probably not -artificial. These observations not only dispose, for the present at -least, of palæolithic man in America, but they suggest the propriety of -a revision of the whole doctrine of 'palæolithic' and 'neolithic' -implements as held in Great Britain and elsewhere. Such distinctions are -often founded on forms which may quite as well represent merely local or -temporary exigencies, or the _débris_ of old work-*shops, as any -difference of time or culture. - -[Illustration: CHIPPED QUARTZITES, MODERN AMERICAN (after Holmes) - -Upper line (1 to 6), unfinished and rejected pieces. Lower line (7 to -18), progress of development from the unfinished oval form to finished -lance and arrow-heads.] - -For the present, therefore, we may afford to pass over with this slight -notice the alleged occurrence of miocene and pliocene man, and this the -rather since, if such men ever existed in the northern hemisphere, the -cold and submergence of the pleistocene must have cut them off from -their more modern successors in such a way that man must practically -have made a new beginning at the close of the glacial age. - -I do not refer here to the finds of skulls and implements in the -auriferous gravels of Western America. Some of these, if genuine, might -go back to the pliocene age, but in so far as the evidence now -available indicates, they all belong to the modern races of Indians, -and, in one way or another, by fraud or error, have had assigned to them -a fabulous antiquity. - -There still seems reason to believe that remains of man and his works -exist in beds which are overlaid by boulders and gravel, implying a cold -climate. These may indicate the last portion of the glacial period -proper, in which case the beds with human remains may be called -inter-glacial, or they may indicate a partial relapse to the cold -conditions occurring after the glacial age had passed away, and in the -early part of the modern period. My own view is, that it is most natural -to draw the boundary line of the pleistocene and anthropic or modern at -the point where the earliest certain evidences of man appear, and that -the anthropic age will be found to include not only an early period of -mild climate succeeding the glacial age, but a little later a return of -cold, not comparable with that of the extreme glacial period, but -sufficient seriously to affect human interests, and which almost -immediately preceded those physical changes which carried away -palæocosmic man, or the man of the earliest period, and many of his -companion animals, and introduced the neanthropic or later human age. We -shall find facts bearing on this in the sequel. - -In the meantime, we may consider it as established beyond cavil that man -was already in Europe immediately after the close of the glacial period, -and was contemporary with the species of animals, many of them large -and formidable, which at that time occupied the land. He must have -entered on the possession of a world more ample and richer in resources -than that which remains to us. The early post-glacial age was, like the -preceding pliocene, a time of continental elevation, in which the dry -land spread itself widely over the now submerged margins of the sea -basins. In Europe, the British Islands were connected with the mainland, -and Ireland was united to England. The Rhine flowed northward to the -Orkneys, through a wide plain probably wooded and swarming with great -quadrupeds, now extinct or strange to Europe. The Thames and the Humber -were tributaries of the Rhine. The land of France and Spain extended out -to the hundred-fathom line. The shallower parts of the Mediterranean -were dry land, and that sea was divided into two parts by land -connecting Italy with Africa. Possibly portions of the shallower areas -of the Atlantic were so elevated as to connect Europe and America more -closely than at present. - -Connected with this elevation of the continents out of the sea was a -great change of climate, whereby the cold of the pleistocene age passed -away and a milder climate overspread the northern hemisphere, while the -newly-raised land and that vacated by snow and ice became clothed with -vegetation, and were occupied by a rich quadrupedal fauna, including -even in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, species of -elephant, rhinoceros, and other genera now confined to the warmer -climates. This new and noble world was the rich heritage of primeval -man. - -Pictet has estimated the number of species of mammals inhabiting -Europe in the palanthropic period at ninety-eight,[12] of which only -fifty-seven now live there, the remainder being either wholly or locally -extinct--that is, they are either not now existing in any part of the -world, or are found only beyond the limits of Central, Western, and -Southern Europe. The extinct species also include the largest and -noblest of all. It has been remarked that the assemblage of palanthropic -species in Europe and Western Asia is so great and varied that with our -present experience we can scarcely imagine them to have existed -contemporaneously in the same region. For example, the association of -species of elephant and rhinoceros, the musk-sheep, the reindeer, the -Cape hyena, and the hippopotamus seems to be incongruous. - -[12] Zittel, in a recent paper (1893), gives 110 species of mammals in -the pleistocene and early modern. Of these about twenty of the largest -and most important are extinct. - -Various theories have been proposed to remove the difficulty. Modern -analogies will allow us to believe in such astounding facts if we take -into account the probability of a warm climate, especially in summer, -along with a wooded state of the country providing much shelter, and -wide continental plains affording facilities for seasonal migrations. -There were no doubt also climatal changes in the course of the age, -which may have tended to the remarkable mixture of animal types in its -deposits. In connection with this there is now every reason to believe -that while, in its earlier part, the palanthropic age was distinguished -by a warm climate, in its later portion a colder and more inclement -atmosphere crept over the northern hemisphere. As an illustration of -this, it is known that in the earlier part of the period a noble species -of elephant named _Elephas antiquus_, and a rhinoceros (_R. Merkii_), -abounded in Europe; but as the age advanced these species disappeared, -and were replaced by the mammoth (_E. primigenius_) and the woolly -rhinoceros (_R. tichorhinus_), animals clothed like the musk-ox in dense -wool and hair, and evidently intended for a rigorous climate. With and -succeeding these last species, the reindeer becomes characteristic and -abundant. It is, as we shall see, a point of much importance in what may -be called the prehistoric history of man, that he was introduced in a -period of genial temperature as well as of wide continental extension, -and survived to find his physical environment gradually becoming less -favourable, and the age ending in that great cataclysm which swept so -many species of animals and tribes of men out of existence, and reduced -the dry land of our continents to its present comparatively limited -area. - -I should, perhaps, have noticed here the worked flints found so -abundantly in some parts of the south of England, which have long -attracted the attention of collectors, and have in some cases been -referred to glacial or pre-glacial times. I believe, however, they are -all really post-glacial, though in some cases belonging to the earliest -portion of that period.[13] - -[13] Prestwich on 'Ightham Beds,' _Journ. Geol. Soc._, 1893; Dawkins, -_Journ. Anthrop. Soc._, 1894. - -We may close the present chapter by presenting to the eye in a tabular -form the series of events included in the pleistocene and modern periods -of the great cenozoic time. - - -LATER CENOZOIC, OR TERTIARY PERIOD - -(_In Ascending Order, or from the Older to the Newer_) - -Newer Pliocene.--A continental period of long duration, elevated land, -much erosion, much volcanic action. - -Pleistocene.--Irregular elevation and depression of the land, ending in -wide submergence with cold climate. Glaciers on all mountains near to -coasts and ice-drift over submerged plains. Glacial period, with an -inter-glacial mild period in the middle and great submergence of the -continents toward the close. - -Anthropic.--_Palanthropic_, or post-glacial, in which the land emerges -and attains a very wide extension, and is inhabited by a varied -mammalian fauna. Man appears in Europe, Asia, and North Africa. -Terminated by a recurrence of cold and great subsidence, deluging all -the lower lands. _Neanthropic._--Area of continents smaller than in the -previous period. Surviving races of men and species of animals repeople -the world. Modern races of men and modern animals. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE PALANTHROPIC AGE[14] - -[14] Called by some 'Palæolithic,' from the use of implements like that -figured on p. 41. - - -We have now to inquire more particularly what we can learn as to the -earliest men known to us, those who appeared in Western Asia and Europe -at the close of the glacial period, when the cold had passed away and a -genial climate had succeeded, and when the continents of the northern -hemisphere had attained to their largest dimensions, were clothed with a -rich vegetation and tenanted by an abundant mammalian fauna, including -many large and important creatures now extinct. - -We may first notice here a necessary limitation to our knowledge. The -dry land of this age was of greater dimensions than at present. A large -portion of what then was land is consequently now under the sea or -deeply buried in alluvial deposits. Hence if any men of this age lived -near the borders of the ocean, their remains must now be inaccessible, -and the relics which we find must be those of inland tribes or of those -who were driven inland by the encroachments of the waters. Our means of -information are thus limited, and we must be prepared to admit that -there may have been in this age great and populous communities of which -we can have no record, at least of a geological character. Hence if we -should find remains of only rude races of men, we should not be -justified in assuming that all the peoples of the palanthropic age were -of this character, more especially if we can find any indications that -the men whose remains are accessible to us, though rude themselves, may -have belonged to more advanced races. - -[Illustration: FLINT HACHE OF THE ANCIENT OR CHELLEAN TYPE, AURILLAC - -(after Carthaillac)] - -The bones, implements and weapons, and _débris_ of the feasts of these -primitive peoples are to be found principally in caves of residence or -of sepulture,[15] and in the alluvia deposited by rivers, and in a few -cases in rock fissures or marine gravels, into which remains were -drifted, or in which they were deposited by water. Here, again, we have -another limitation, for it is possible that large populations may have -lived on plains or in forests in perishable structures, and, like some -modern savages, may have disposed of their dead in such a way that their -bones could not have been preserved. In such cases we can hope to -obtain, and then very rarely, only stone implements and other -imperishable relics. - -[15] Caverns, in relation to this subject, may be divided into those of -residence, in which early men have lived and have left therein the -_débris_ of their food, the ashes and cinders of their fires, and -implements, &c.; those of sepulture, in which the bodies of the dead -have been deposited; and those of inundation, into which the bodies of -animals or men have been drifted by floods. The same cave may, however, -exhibit these different conditions in the deposits on its successive -floors. Thus men may have inhabited a cave for a time; it may next have -been invaded by river floods depositing mud, and it may subsequently -have been used for burial. - -Notwithstanding these limitations, however, it is wonderful that so much -has been recovered from the ground by the diligence of collectors, and -that the material thus obtained has proved so fertile in information -respecting our long-perished ancestors. - -Supposing, then, that we search for remains of palæocosmic men in river -alluvia, or in caves of residence or burial, or in similar repositories, -the question next arises, by what means can we distinguish their bones -from those of later times? The following criteria are available: - -(1) The remains were in their present condition at least as long ago as -the date of the earliest history or tradition. This evidence is of -course of greatest value in those regions in which history extends -farthest back. Thus the remains of early men in the Lebanon caves, which -we know date much farther back than the arrival of the first Phoenicians -and Canaanites in Syria, are in a different position, in so far as -history is concerned, from those occurring in countries whose written -history goes back only a few centuries. - -(2) The deposits containing these remains may underlie those holding -relics of historic times, or may indicate different physical conditions -of the districts in which they occur from those known within historic -periods. This is the case with some river beds, as those of Grenelle, -near Paris, and with the successive deposits in old caves of residence. - -(3) They may be accompanied by remains of animals now extinct in the -regions in question, and whose disappearance and replacement by the -modern fauna implies great lapse of time and physical changes; as, for -instance, when we find that men have left remains of their feasts -holding bones of the extinct woolly rhinoceros and his contemporaries, -or in now temperate climates, those of the reindeer. - -(4) The remains themselves may indicate a race or races of men and a -condition of the arts of life different from any known in the region in -historic times. Thus we may have skulls and skeletons indicating men -racially distinct from any now extant, and implements and weapons -different from those in use in the times of history or tradition. - -We have now to consider what evidence of this kind vindicates the -assertion that man existed on our continents in the second continental -or post-glacial age, or, as others will have it, in the closing period -of the glacial age, and was contemporary with the mammoth and other -great beasts now extinct. This evidence, which has been accumulating -with great rapidity and relates to many parts of the northern -hemisphere, is too voluminous to be reproduced here.[16] But a few -examples of it may be given, more especially from parts of the old world -whose history extends farthest back and where explorations have been -most extensive. - -[16] Reference may be made to Christy and Lartet, _Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ_; -Quatrefages, _Homme Fossile_; Dupont, _L'Homme pendant les Ages de -Pierre_; Carthaillac, _La France Préhistorique_; Dawkins, _Cave Hunting -and Early Man in Britain_; _Fossil Men_ and _Modern Science in Bible -Lands_, by the author. - -My first instance shall be one originally described by Canon Tristram, -and which I had an opportunity to examine in 1884--the caverns or -rock shelters in the face of the limestone cliff of the pass of -Nahr-el-Kelb, north of Beyrout. At this place, in old caverns partly -cut away in the forming of the Roman road round the cliff, there is -a hard stalagmite, or modern limestone, produced by the calcareous -drippings from the rock. This is filled with broken bones intermixed -with flint flakes suitable for use as knives or spears or darts, and -occasional fragments of charcoal. The bones are those of large animals, -and have been broken for the extraction of the marrow; and the whole -is evidently the remnants of the cuisine of some primitive tribe of -hunters, now cemented into a somewhat hard stone by stalagmitic matter. -The bones are not those of the present animals of Syria, but principally -of an extinct species of rhinoceros (_R. tichorhinus_), a species -of bison, and other large mammals which inhabited the region in the -pleistocene and post-glacial periods. It is farther known that these -animals had been extinct long before the early Phoenicians penetrated -into this country, perhaps 3000 B.C., and that the deposits existed in -their present state when the early Egyptian conquerors passed this way, -at least 1500 B.C., on their march to encounter the Hittites. It is also -known that the earliest historic aborigines of the Lebanon, certain rude -tribes which seem to have existed there before the migration of the -Phoenicians, subsisted on the modern animals of the district, and used -flint implements and weapons somewhat differing from those of the -earlier cave men of the region.[17] What, then, were these earlier cave -men? Certainly no people known to history, unless those whom we know as -antediluvians.[18] - -[17] See the illustration on p. 97. - -[18] For more detailed description see _Modern Science in Bible Lands_; -also _Egypt and Syria_, in the _Bypaths of Bible Knowledge_, by the -author. - -From the Lebanon we may pass to the west of Europe, where in France and -Belgium a vast number of interesting relics of palæocosmic man have been -discovered, and have been scientifically examined. - -We may take as an illustration the cave of Goyet, on the cliffs bounding -the ravine of the Samson, a tributary of the Meuse. This cavern is about -forty-five feet above the present ordinary level of the river, but in -post-glacial times seems to have been invaded by inundations, as it -shows on its floor five distinct ossiferous surfaces, separated by -layers of river-mud. These successive surfaces have been carefully -examined by M. Dupont, and their contents noted. - -On the lowest of these, or the first in order of age, were found -numerous skeletons and detached bones of the cave lion and the cave -bear; the former a possible ancestor of the lion of Western Asia, the -latter closely allied to the grizzly bear of North America, but both -entirely extinct in Europe. One of the skeletons of the lion was of -unusually large size, and so complete that when set up it forms the -principal ornament of the cave collection in the Brussels Museum. - -[Illustration: CAVE OF GOYET, BELGIUM (section after Dupont) - -1 to 5, layers of clay deposited in the mammoth ages] - -The next surface, the second in order of time, had a greater variety of -animal remains. The lion had disappeared, and instead hyenas haunted the -cave, and had dragged in animal bones to be gnawed. These included -remains of the cave bear, wolf, rhinoceros, mammoth, wild horse, wapiti, -Irish stag, chamois, reindeer, wild ox, besides several smaller animals. -The above animals are now all unknown in the fauna of modern Europe, -except the reindeer, the chamois, and the wolf. But the most remarkable -discovery on this surface was that of a few human bones, gnawed like the -others by the hyenas. Man was thus already in the country, and -contemporary with all these animals. How the hyena obtained his bones, -whether from some neglected corpse or from some badly-constructed grave, -will never be known; but the discovery introduces us to a tribe or -family of men coming as immigrants into a region already stocked with -many great quadrupeds. They probably did not yet dwell in caves, which, -at a later and perhaps more inclement period, formed their homes. Dupont -concludes from the condition of the bones that on both the older -surfaces the cave bear was the later tenant, and had replaced the lion -on the first and the hyena on the second. - -The remaining surfaces introduce us to man as a cave-dweller. On the -oldest of them are found not only abundance of _débris_ of food, but -worked flints and bones, objects of ornament, and evidences of the use -of fire. The two higher layers show works of art in more varied and -improved forms, as if a certain progress in the arts of life had taken -place during the occupancy of the cave. Among the objects in the upper -layers were red oxide of iron, showing the use of colouring matter for -the skin or garments, bone needles, proving the manufacture of clothing -by sewing, bone points for darts, skilfully-barbed bone harpoons, -ornaments made of perforated teeth of animals, and fragments of bone, -and a remarkable necklace of a hundred and twenty-four silicified shells -of the genus _Turritella_, looking like spirals of agate, with a pendant -made of another and larger shell. These shells are not known to occur -nearer to the cave than Rheims, in Champagne. It is scarcely too much to -say that this necklace might be worn by any lady of the present day. A -certain amount of imitative art is also shown in the carving of animal -and plant forms and fancy devices on pieces of reindeer antler, which -may have served for handles of weapons or implements. But objects of -much more elaborate design have been found in caverns of this age in -France. (See illustrations on pp. 59 and 68.) - -[Illustration: LANCE-HEAD FORMED OF A FLINT FLAKE (CAVE OF MOUSTIER) - -Similar to weapons found in the Goyet cave. The flat face shows a bulb -of percussion (after Falsan)] - -The food of these people, in so far as it was of an animal nature, may -be learned from the broken bones, which show that here as elsewhere they -carried into their caves only the legs and skulls of the larger animals -they killed, leaving the carcases; though it is quite possible that, -like North American hunting Indians, they may have stripped off portions -of flesh from the back, and preserved the heart, liver, &c., which would -of course leave no remains. - -Dupont gives lists of the animals in each layer. Those in the lower of -the anthropic layers consist of twenty-three species of quadrupeds and -some bones of birds. Among the former were the mammoth, the rhinoceros, -two species of bear, the horse, the reindeer, two other species of deer -and two bovine animals. Even the lion, the hyena and the wolf were eaten -by these people. It is interesting to note that the numerical -preponderance was in favour of the reindeer and the wild horse, though -remains were found indicating seven individuals of the mammoth, and four -of the rhinoceros, as having fallen a prey to the old hunters. In the -highest bed the number of species and the proportions of each one are -nearly the same, so that no material change in the fauna had occurred -during the occupancy of this cave. It may also be noted that while -Dupont calls this a cave of the mammoth age, the French archæologists -are in the habit of naming similar deposits those of the reindeer age. -The age of both animals was in reality the same, except that in France -the reindeer seems to have survived the mammoth, and indeed we know -this to be the fact from its continuing in the forests of Germany till -the Roman times. - -This cave may serve as an example of the manner in which the men of the -palanthropic age make their appearance. Let it be observed also that -this is only one instance selected from many giving similar testimony, -and that Dupont adduces evidence to show that there may have been a -contemporary plain-dwelling people, of whom less is known than of the -troglodytes. Let it also be noted that there are other caves in Belgium, -to which we shall return later, which show how the neocosmic men -contemporary with the present fauna succeeded the men of the mammoth -age. - -We may now inquire as to the physical characters of the men of this -period. It may be stated in answer to this question that two races of -men are known in the palanthropic age, both somewhat different from any -existing peoples, and known respectively as the Canstadt and Cro-magnon -races. As the latter is the most important and best known, we may take -it first, though the former may locally at least have been the older. - -The valley of the little river Vezère, a tributary of the Dordogne, in -the south of France, abounding in overhanging rock-shelters, seems to -have been a favourite abode of the men of the mammoth and reindeer age. -The rock-shelter of Cro-magnon explored by Lartet is one of these, and -that of Laugerie Basse is on the opposite side of the same stream. - -The former is a shelter or hollow under an over-*hanging ledge of -limestone, and excavated originally by the action of the weather on a -softer bed. It fronts the south-west, and, having originally been about -eight feet high and nearly twenty deep, must have formed a comfortable -shelter from rain or cold or summer sun, and with a pleasant outlook -from its front. Being nearly fifty feet wide, it was capacious enough to -accommodate several families, and when in use it no doubt had trees or -shrubs in front, and may have been further completed by stones, poles, -or bark placed across the opening. It seems, however, in the first -instance to have been used only at intervals, and to have been left -vacant for considerable portions of time. Perhaps it was visited only by -hunting or war-parties. But subsequently it was permanently occupied, -and this for so long a time that in some places a foot and a half of -ashes and carbonaceous matter, with bones, implements, &c., was -accumulated. All of these, it may be remarked, belong to the -palanthropic age. By this time the height of the cavern had been much -diminished, and, instead of clearing it out for future use, it was made -a place of burial, in which five individuals were interred. Of these, -three were men, one of great age, the other two probably in the prime of -life. The fourth and fifth were a woman of about thirty or forty years -of age, and the remains of a foetus. - -These bones, with others to be mentioned in connection with them, -unquestionably belong to some of the oldest human inhabitants known in -Western Europe. They have been most carefully examined by several -competent anatomists and archæologists, and the results have been -published with excellent figures in the _Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ_, where -will also be found details of their characters and accompaniments, among -which last were about three hundred small shells of different species -pierced for stringing or attachment to garments. These men are, -therefore, of the utmost interest for our present purpose, and I shall -try so to divest the descriptions of anatomical details as to give a -clear notion of their character. The doubts at one time cast on the age -of these skeletons have been removed by the discovery of others at -Laugerie Basse, Mentone, &c. They are no doubt palanthropic, though not -of the earliest part of the period. The 'Old Man of Cro-magnon' was of -great stature, being nearly six feet high. More than this, his bones -show that he was of the strongest and most athletic muscular -development; and the bones of the limbs have the peculiar form which is -characteristic of athletic men habituated to rough walking, climbing, -and running; for this is, I believe, the real meaning of the enormous -strength of the thigh-bone and the flattened condition of the leg in -this and other old skeletons. It occurs to some extent, though much less -than in this old man, in American skeletons. His skull presents all the -characters of advanced age, though the teeth had been worn down to the -sockets without being lost; which, again, is a character often observed -in rude peoples of modern times. The skull proper, or brain-case, is -very long--more so than in ordinary modern skulls--and this length is -accompanied with a great breadth; so that the brain was of greater size -than in average modern men, and the frontal region was largely and well -developed. The face, however, presented very peculiar characters. It was -extremely broad, with projecting cheek-bones and heavy jaw, in this -resembling the coarse types of the American face, and the eye-orbits -were square and elongated laterally in a manner peculiar to the skulls -of this age. The nose was large and prominent, and the jaws projected -somewhat forward. This man, therefore, had, as to his features, some -resemblance to the harsher type of American physiognomy, with -overhanging brows, small and transverse eyes, high cheek-bones, and -coarse mouth. He had not lived to so great an age without some rubs, for -his thigh-bone showed a depression which must have resulted from a -severe wound--perhaps from the horn of some wild animal or the spear of -an enemy. - -[Illustration: OUTLINE OF THE SKULL OF THE 'OLD MAN OF CRO-MAGNON' - -(after Christy and Lartet)] - -The woman presented similar characters of stature and cranial form -modified by her sex, and in form and visage closely resembled her -sisters of the American wilderness in the pre-Columbian times. If her -hair and complexion were suitable, she would have passed at once for an -American-Indian woman, but one of unusual size and development. Her head -bears sad testimony to the violence of her age and people. She died from -the effects of a blow from a stone-headed pogamogan or spear, which has -penetrated the right side of the forehead with so clean a fracture as to -indicate the extreme rapidity and force of its blow. It is inferred from -the condition of the edges of this wound that she may have survived its -infliction for two weeks or more. If, as is most likely, the wound was -received in some sudden attack by a hostile tribe, they must have been -driven off or have retired, leaving the wounded woman in the hands of -her friends to be tended for a time, and then buried, either with other -members of her family or with others who had perished in the same -skirmish. Unless the wound was inflicted in sleep, during a night -attack, she must have fallen, not in flight, but with her face to the -foe, perhaps aiding the resistance of her friends or shielding her -little ones from destruction. With the people of Cro-magnon, as with the -American Indians, the care of the wounded was probably a sacred duty, -not to be neglected without incurring the greatest disgrace and the -vengeance of the guardian spirits of the sufferers. - -Unreasonable doubts have been cast on the burial of the dead by -palæocosmic men. The burial of men of the Cro-magnon race at that place -and at Laugerie Basse and Mentone is established by the most unequivocal -evidence; and interments of men of the Canstadt race have been found at -Spy, in Belgium. Of course, even if interment proper had not been -practised, there might have been cremation, as among the Tasmanians, or -burial on stages or in huts, as among some American Indians. Still, that -interment was practised we know, and this carries with it the certainty -that our palæocosmic men must have had some simple ideas of religion. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST SKELETON FOUND IN THE MENTONE CAVES - -(after Rivière)] - -The skulls of these people have been compared to those of the modern -Esthonians or Lithuanians; but on the authority of M. Quatrefages it is -stated that, while this applies to the probably later race of smaller -men found in some of the Belgian caves, it does not apply so well to the -people of Cro-magnon. Are, then, these people the types of any ancient, -or of the most ancient, European race? The answer is that they are types -of the cave men of the mammoth age in Europe. Another example is the -remarkable skeleton of Mentone, in the south of France, found under -circumstances equally suggestive of great antiquity. Dr. Rivière, in a -memoir on this skeleton, illustrated by two beautiful photographs, shows -that the characters of the skull and of the bones of the limbs are -similar to those of the Cro-magnon skeleton, indicating a perfect -identity of race, while the objects found with the skeleton are similar -in character. I had an opportunity of verifying his description by an -examination of the skeleton in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes, in -1883; and more recent discoveries at Mentone have confirmed the -conclusion that this man really represents a race of giants, some of -them seven feet high, who inhabited Southern Europe in the palanthropic -age. A similar skeleton found by Carthaillac, at Laugerie Basse, was -buried under a great thickness of accumulated _débris_ of cookery, as -well as of large stones fallen from above. This skeleton had its shell -ornaments in place on the forehead, arms, legs and feet, in a manner -which would induce the belief that they had been attached to a -head-dress, sleeves, leggings, and shoes or moccasins. (See illustration -on p. 79.) - -[Illustration: HANDLE OF A PIERCER, OR BODKIN, IN BONE, FROM LAUGERIE -BASSE, IN FORM OF A DEER - -(a) Hollow for thumb; (b) hollow for finger. Reduced to one-half. From a -cast of the original] - -[Illustration: Section at A.A. - -FLINT FLAKE KNIFE, FOUND IN THE HAND OF THE 'GIANT' SKELETON OF MENTONE - -(after Evans)] - -The ornaments of Cro-magnon were perforated shells from the Atlantic and -pieces of ivory. Those at Mentone were perforated _Neritinæ_ from the -Mediterranean and canine teeth of the deer. In both cases there was -evidence that these ancient people painted themselves with red oxide of -iron, and used bodkins of bone, and long and beautifully-formed flint -knives, perhaps for dividing their food, or perhaps for sacrificial -purposes. Skulls found at Clichy and Grenelle in 1868 and 1869 are -described by Professor Broca and M. Fleurens as of the same general -type, and the remains found at Gibraltar and in the cave of Paviland, in -England, seem also to have belonged to this race. The celebrated Engis -skull from one of the Belgian caves, which is believed to have belonged -to a contemporary of the mammoth, is also of this type, though less -massive than that of Cro-magnon; and lastly, even the somewhat degraded -Neanderthal skull, found in a cave near Düsseldorf, though, like those -of Clichy, Canstadt, Spy and Gibraltar, inferior in frontal development, -is referable to the same peculiar long-headed style of man, in so far as -can be judged from the portion that remains, though certainly to a ruder -and more degraded variety, commonly known as the Canstadt man as -distinguished from the Engis or Cro-magnon. - -[Illustration: NEANDERTHAL SKULL--TWO OUTLINES: THE OUTER GIVING THE -MORE CORRECT FORM (from _Science_)] - -Let it be observed, then, that these skulls are probably the oldest -known in the world, and they are all referable to two varieties of one -race of men; and let us ask what they tell as to the position and -character of palanthropic man. The testimony is here fortunately -well-nigh unanimous. All anatomists and archæologists admit the high and -human character of the Engis and even the Neanderthal skulls. - -[Illustration: SKULL OF CANSTADT TYPE FOUND AT SPY, BELGIUM, BY FRAIPONT -AND LOHEST] - -Broca, who has carefully studied the Cro-magnon skulls, has the -following general conclusions: 'The great volume of the brain, the -development of the frontal region, the fine elliptical profile of the -anterior portion of the skull, and the orthognathous form of the upper -facial region, are incontestably evidences of superiority, which are met -with usually only in the civilised races. On the other hand, the great -breadth of face, the alveolar prognathism, the enormous development of -the ascending ramus of the lower jaw, the extent and roughness of the -muscular insertions, especially of the masticatory muscles, give rise to -the idea of a violent and brutal race.' - -He adds that this apparent antithesis, seen also in the limbs as well as -in the skull, accords with the evidence furnished by the associated -weapons and implements of a rude hunter-life, and at the same time of no -mean degree of taste and skill in carving and other arts. He might have -added that this is the antithesis seen in the American tribes, among -whom art and taste of various kinds, and much that is high and spiritual -even in thought, coexisted with barbarous modes of life and intense -ferocity and cruelty. The god and the devil were combined in these -races, but there was nothing of the mere brute. - -Rivière remarks, with expressions of surprise, the same contradictory -points in the Mentone skeleton: its grand development of brain-case and -high facial angle--even higher apparently than in most of these ancient -skulls--combined with other characters which indicate a low type and -barbarous modes of life. - -Another point which strikes us in reading the descriptions of these -skeletons is the indication which they seem to present of an extreme -longevity. The massive proportions of the body, the great development -of the muscular processes, the extreme wearing of the teeth among a -people who predominantly lived on flesh and not on grain, the -obliteration of the sutures of the skull, along with indications of slow -ossification of the ends of the long bones, point in this direction, and -seem to indicate a slow maturity and great length of life in this most -primitive race. - -The picture would be incomplete did we not add that Quatrefages has -described a single skull, that of Truchère, from deposits of this age, -which shows that these gigantic men were contemporaneous with a feebler -race of smaller stature and with different cranial characters, and -inhabiting in all likelihood a more eastern region. - -It is further significant that there is evidence to show that the larger -and stronger race was that which prevailed in Europe at the time of its -greatest elevation above the sea and greatest horizontal extent, and -when its fauna included many large quadrupeds now extinct. This race of -giants was thus in the possession of a greater continental area than -that now existing, and had to contend with gigantic brute rivals for the -possession of the world. It is also not improbable that this early race -became extinct in Europe in consequence of the physical changes which -occurred in connection with the subsidence that reduced the land to its -present limits, and that the feebler race which succeeded came in as the -appropriate accompaniment of a diminished land-surface and a less -genial climate in the early historic period. The older races are those -usually classed as palæolithic, and are supposed to antedate the period -of polished stone; but this may, to some extent, be a prejudice of -collectors, who have arrived at a foregone conclusion as to distinctions -of this kind. Judging from the great cranial capacity of the older race -and the small number of their skeletons found, it might be fair to -suppose that they represent rude outlying tribes belonging to nations -which elsewhere had attained to greater population and culture. - -Lastly, all of these old European races were Turanian, Mongolian, or -American in their head-forms and features, as well as in their habits, -implements, and arts. In other words, their nearest affinities were with -races of men which in the modern world are the oldest and most widely -distributed. - -The reader, reflecting on what he has learned from history, may be -disposed here to ask, Must we suppose Adam to have been one of these -Turanian men, like the 'Old Man of Cro-magnon'? In answer, I would say -that there is no good reason to regard the first man as having resembled -a Greek Apollo or an Adonis. He was probably of sterner and more -muscular mould. But he was probably more akin to the more delicate and -refined race represented by the solitary skull of Truchère, while the -gigantic palæocosmic men of the European caves are more likely to have -been representatives of that terrible and powerful race who filled the -antediluvian world with violence, and who reappear in postdiluvian -times as the Anakim and traditional giants, who constitute a feature in -the early history of so many countries. Perhaps nothing is more curious -in the revelations as to the most ancient cave men than that they -confirm the old belief that there were 'giants in those days.' At the -same time we must bear in mind that the more diminutive race which -survived must have existed previously in some part of the world, and -must have furnished the survivors of the succeeding subsidence (see -illustration on p. 82). - -And now let us pause for a moment to picture these so-called palæolithic -men. What could the 'Old Man of Cro-magnon' have told us, had we -been able to sit by his hearth and listen understandingly to his -speech?--which, if we may judge from the form of his palate-bones, must -have resembled more that of the Americans or Mongolians than of any -modern European people. He had, no doubt, travelled far, for to his -stalwart limbs a long journey through forests and over plains and -mountains would be a mere pastime. He may have bestridden the wild -horse, which seems to have abounded at the time in France, and he may -have launched his canoe on the waters of the Atlantic. His experience -and memory might extend back a century or more, and his traditional lore -might go back to the times of the first mother of our race. Did he live -in that wide post-pliocene continent which extended westward through -Ireland? Did he know and had he visited the more cultured nations that -lived in the great plains of the Mediterranean Valley, or on that -nameless river which flowed through the land now covered by the German -Ocean? Had he visited or seen from afar the great island Atlantis, whose -inhabitants could almost see in the sunset sky the islands of the blest? -Could he have told us of the huge animals of the antediluvian world, and -of the feats of the men of renown who contended with these animal -giants? We can but conjecture all this. But, mute though they may be as -to the details of their lives, the man of Cro-magnon and his -contemporaries are eloquent of one great truth, in which they coincide -with the Americans and with the primitive men of all the early ages. -They tell us that primitive man had the same high cerebral organisation -which he possesses now, and, we may infer, the same high intellectual -and moral nature, fitting him for communion with God and headship over -the lower world. They indicate also, like the mound-builders, who -preceded the North American Indian, that man's earlier state was the -best--that he had been a high and noble creature before he became a -savage. It is not conceivable that their high development of brain and -mind could have spontaneously engrafted itself on a mere brutal and -savage life. These gifts must be remnants of a noble organisation -degraded by moral evil. They thus justify the tradition of a Golden and -Edenic Age, and mutely protest against the philosophy of progressive -development as applied to man, while they bear witness to the -similarity in all important characters of the oldest prehistoric men -with that variety of our species which is at the present day at once the -most widely extended and the most primitive in its manners and -usages.[19] - -[19] Perhaps no feature of this early human age is more remarkable than -its artistic productions. Recent testimony, more especially that of the -very careful explorers of the deposits at Spy, in Belgium, seems to show -existence of the potter's art, though this until lately was denied. -These people ornamented their clothing with pearly and coloured shells, -and made beautiful necklaces. We have already noticed that found in the -cave of Goyet. At Sordes, in the Pyrenees, in a very old interment of -this period, there was a necklace of forty-three teeth of the cave lion -and cave bear, carved with figures of animals (see p. 71). The handle of -a piercer, represented on p. 59, is a marvel of skilful adaptation of an -animal form to produce a handle fitted to be firmly and conveniently -grasped by the human hand. The figure of the mammoth on p. 68 shows how -a few bold lines may produce a vigorous and truthful sketch; and -multitudes of such carvings and drawings have been found in France as -well as in Germany and Belgium. Even the chipping of flint is an art -requiring much skill to produce the fine knives, spears, &c., so -commonly found, and there is evidence that these were fitted into strong -and probably artistic handles. All this and much more testifies to the -fact that our palæocosmic men were no mean artists as well as -artificers. - -[Illustration: OUTLINE OF MAMMOTH, CARVED ON A PLATE OF IVORY, FROM THE -CAVE OF LA MADELEINE] - - - - -CHAPTER V - -SUBDIVISIONS AND CONDITIONS OF THE PALANTHROPIC AGE - - -While all geologists and archæologists are agreed in the existence of -the men contemporary with the mammoth and reindeer in Europe, and in the -fact of two or even three races of men having existed in that period, -various opinions are entertained as to the succession of events and the -chronological classification of the remains. Mortillet, whose -arrangement has been usually adopted in France, recognises a period of -chipped stone or palæolithic period, corresponding to the palanthropic -age, and a period of polished stone, corresponding to the neanthropic -age. Within the former he believes that it is possible to separate -different ages,[20] from the character of the implements and other -remains. The first two are characterised by the presence of two -elephants, the mammoth and another species (_E. antiquus_), the next two -by the mammoth associated with the cave bear and reindeer, the last by -the nearly entire predominance of the reindeer. Dupont is content in -Belgium to recognise a mammoth age and a reindeer age, but the latter -perhaps includes some deposits which are properly neanthropic. - -[20] Respectively the Achulienne, Chellienne, Mousterienne, -Soloutrienne, and Magdalenienne. - -Carthaillac places the whole palanthropic age as quaternary, properly -so-called, which he separates from the tertiary on the one hand and the -modern on the other, and divides his quaternary into two stages, the -first characterised by _E. antiquus_ and Mortillet's Chellean men, the -second by the mammoth and reindeer--the earlier of these two periods -being warm and moist, the latter cold and dry. The table appended to -this chapter is modified from those of Carthaillac. Dawkins, while -admitting a similar twofold division, calls the earlier men those of the -river gravels, the latter those of the caves. - -This twofold division of the palanthropic age requires some -consideration. In the first place, there is reason to believe that the -Canstadt race locally preceded that of Cro-magnon. I say locally, for no -one supposes that they are distinct species, and as varietal forms they -may have originated from a common intermediate ancestor, or the humbler -race may be the earlier, and the higher race an improvement on it, or -the lower race may have been a degraded type of the higher. Probably -also there was a third, the Truchère race, and the Cro-magnon race may -have been a half-breed or metis progeny. - -[Illustration: TOOTH OF CAVE BEAR, WITH ENGRAVING OF A SEAL, FROM A -COLLAR FOUND AT SORDES, PYRENEES (after Carthaillac)] - -Again, there was an undoubted change of fauna within the palanthropic -age, and this dependent on or accompanied by a change of climate. The -earlier elephant of the period (_E. antiquus_) and its companion animals -are believed to have been suited to a warm climate, and to have entered -Europe from the south-*east. With, or immediately after, them came man, -and this conclusion harmonises with human physiology, for we know that -man must have originated in a warm climate, and must in the first place -have been a feeder on fruits and grains or other nutritious vegetable -products. In this early stage he would be nearly destitute of implements -and weapons. But in the succeeding cold period, one tribe after another -might be obliged to resort to hunting habits, to the use of fire and of -clothing, and of natural and artificial shelter. Hence the peculiarities -of the cave men, who, while they advanced in art, may have also advanced -in ferocity and warlike habits, under the pressure of necessity and -competition. Hence also their association more and more closely with -such animals as the reindeer, the hairy mammoth, and the woolly -rhinoceros, while the previous species had migrated to the south or -perished. Thus it would appear that the men of the mammoth age may not -be really the most primitive men, but a derivative from them under -pressure of a severe climate. This possibility may be summed up as -follows. If the early part of the post-glacial or palanthropic era was -characterised by a milder climate than its later period, this may have -had much to do with the change in implements and weapons. The earliest -men probably subsisted merely on natural fruits and other vegetable -productions. To secure these in a mild climate they would require no -implements, except perhaps to dig for roots or to crack nuts. If they -migrated into a colder climate, or if the climate became more severe, -they might be obliged to become hunters and fishermen, and would invent -new implements and weapons, not because they had advanced in -civilisation, but, as Lamech has it in Genesis, 'because of the ground -which the Lord had cursed,' and which would no longer yield food to -them. At the same time they might contend with one another for the most -sheltered and productive stations, and so war might further stimulate -that very questionable advance in civilisation which consists in the -improvement of weapons of destruction. We have much to learn as to these -matters; but we must, if we have any regard to physiology and to natural -probability, start from the idea that the most primitive men were -frugivorous and fitted for a mild climate. In this case we should -expect that these earliest men would leave behind them scarcely any -weapons or implements except of the simplest kind, and that their -apparent progress in the arts of war and the chase might in reality be -evidence, up to a certain point at least, of increasing barbarism. -Primitive as well as modern men present in these respects strange -paradoxes. - -We have to inquire in the sequel as to the cause of the final -disappearance of the palæocosmic men, and as to the question whether -history is cognisant of any such human period as that which has occupied -us in this chapter, or whether, as has sometimes been assumed, it is -altogether prehistoric. - -On the subject of the correlation of the French and Belgian discoveries -as to primitive man, a most interesting and important communication was -made by Dupont to the Geological Society of Belgium in 1892.[21] The -veteran explorer of the Belgian caves addresses himself in this paper to -a careful comparison of the geological relations, animal remains and -human relics in these caves, and in the gravels and 'quaternary' clays -associated with them. He arrives at the conclusion, which I had already -stated,[22] that these deposits are contemporaneous and show similar -stages, but that the mammoth age properly so-called, in which the -primitive people fed on the mammoth and its companion the woolly -rhinoceros, extended to a later date in Belgium than in France, so that -the mammoth age of Dupont and the reindeer age of the French -archæologists overlap one another. He notes in connection with this that -there is evidence of the continued existence of the mammoth in the -so-called reindeer age of France, in the discovery in caves of that -period of plates of ivory with the portrait of the mammoth engraved on -them. It would therefore appear either that the mammoth earlier became -extinct or rare in France, perhaps on account of climatal changes, or -perhaps because of destruction by man, or that the habits of the French -populations changed in such a way as to cause them to confine themselves -to smaller game. In either case, we now find that the whole palanthropic -age is one period. On the other hand, Dupont agrees with Mortillet that -there is a hiatus, physical, palæontological and anthropological, -between the so-called palæolithic and neolithic periods, that is, -between the palanthropic and neanthropic ages. - -[21] _Bulletin de la Société Belge de Géologie_, janvier 1893. This -paper should be studied by all interested in the subject. - -[22] _Fossil Men._ - -Dupont holds that the plain-dwellers (_Pedionomytes_, as he calls them) -were the earliest known men, corresponding to the oldest gravel remains -of Dawkins and Prestwich, and points out that their implements are in -size and form, though not in material and finish, allied to those of the -polished stone age, which might thus be regarded as an improved -continuation or revival of this first period. This might be read to -mean, as above maintained, that the earliest men were peaceful and -perhaps in part agricultural, that they were succeeded by lawless, -powerful, artistic and savage peoples, and when the latter were swept -away that a remnant of the primitive stock repossessed the land. If this -proves to be the net result, it will correspond exactly with our old -historical beliefs. - -I was struck in reading this paper with a remark of Dupont on the -unprogressive character of the men of the mammoth age, who seem to have -made so little advance in the arts of life during the period of their -occupation of Europe. Perhaps he makes too great an estimate of the -length of their residence, or does not sufficiently consider how long -men about their stage of civilisation have remained at the same point in -the historic period. Nor does he consider the possibility of the cave -men belonging to ruder tribes of a race which may have inhabited better -if more perishable residences elsewhere. In any case, all experience -shows that to such a people any great advance in the arts could come -only by missionary influence from abroad, or by the appearance of some -great inventive genius among themselves; and no good fortune of this -kind seems to have happened to the Canstadt or Cro-magnon men, or if it -did, they rejected their opportunity, as so many others have since done. - -Still, perhaps, we need not pity them too much. They lived in a young -and fresh condition of the earth, enjoyed a vigorous health, and were -gifted with rare strength and energy. They were bountifully provided -for by nature as to food and clothing, were in slavery to no man, lived -in families bound together by ties of affection, and were free to -migrate over vast territories according to the exigencies of the -seasons. They had some taste in dress and ornaments, and no doubt -enjoyed their clever carvings on bone and ivory as much as any modern -lovers of art their most finished treasures. A Cro-magnon 'brave,' tall, -muscular and graceful in movement, clad in well-dressed skins, -ornamented with polished shells and ivory pendants, with a pearly shell -helmet, probably decked with feathers, and armed with his flint-headed -lance and skull-cracker of reindeer antler handsomely carved, must have -been a somewhat noble savage, and he must have rejoiced in the chase of -the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the bison, and the wild horse and reindeer, -and in launching his curiously-constructed harpoons against the salmon -and other larger fish that haunted the rivers. - -Nor was he destitute of higher hopes. He laid his dead reverently in the -bosom of mother earth, with such things as had been pleasant or useful -in life, and his rudimentary bible, or 'book of the dead,' must have at -least included the idea--'This corruptible shall put on incorruption, -this mortal immortality.' That is the meaning of such funeral gifts in -every part of the world, and has always been so, as far as we can learn. -But the belief in immortality implies also a belief in a God or gods. -For if there is a spiritual world for the dead, there must be a Power to -care for them there. Whether these beliefs were originally implanted in -him when God breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, or were -taught to him by special revelation, we do not know, but they were there -as a foundation on which he could, with the aid of his sense of right -and wrong, build a happy and harmless life. That he did not always do so -we have some sad evidence, to be gathered even from his bones; and the -testimony of tradition is that his great sin was that of inhuman -violence, and it was for this that he was swept away by the Flood, and -replaced by men of more peaceful mould, whom but for that catastrophe he -would soon have annihilated. - -Carthaillac[23] devotes a chapter to the mortuary customs of the men of -the quaternary (palanthropic) age. He shows that the statement sometimes -made that these men did not care for the dead is entirely incorrect, -though he believes that we know comparatively little of their burials, -owing to the circumstance that only those in caverns were likely to be -preserved or discovered. The discoveries at Spy, in Belgium, show that -even the Canstadt race, the lowest in development, and probably in art, -interred the bodies of their dead, while a large number of interments of -the Cro-magnon race are known. He calls attention to the fact that in -all of these the body lies on its side. The hands are brought up to the -head or neck, and the knees are bent, sometimes slightly, sometimes very -strongly, so as to give the body a crouching posture (p. 79). The idea -seems to have been to place the body in the attitude of sleep or of -rest. The deceased was arrayed in the garments and ornaments worn during -life, and not infrequently a quantity of red oxide of iron was buried -with, or has been scattered over, the body. Flint knives and lances seem -often to have been placed with the dead. It is needless to say that all -this recalls the burial customs of many rude tribes of men up to modern -times. - -[23] _Homme Préhistorique._ - -There is some reason to believe that occasionally, at least, the flesh -has been partially removed from the bones before interment. This reminds -us of the custom of some American tribes, who were in the habit of -disinterring the dead after a temporary burial, carefully cleaning the -bones, and then placing them wrapped in skins in their tribal ossuaries. -It would seem, however, that the primitive men when they removed the -flesh did so in a recent state. Perhaps this practice was resorted to -only when the body had to be kept for some time, or carried some -distance for interment. If the body was disembowelled and the remaining -flesh and ligaments dried, it would be reduced very nearly to the -condition of the imperfect mummies of the Guanches of the Canaries and -of the Peruvians. Thus we may suppose that we have here a rudimentary -condition of the art of the embalmer. - -[Illustration: THE SKELETON OF LAUGERIE BASSE, DORDOGNE, SHOWING THE -POSITION OF THE PERFORATED SHELLS ON THE LIMBS AND FOREHEAD (after -Carthaillac)] - -Some questions still remain as to the races of men actually known to us -in the palanthropic age. It has already been explained that in the -earliest part of this period, that characterised by the presence of the -_Elephas antiquus_ in Europe, there are evidences of the existence of -man, and this in a more genial climate than that prevailing later. Of -these men we have no certain osseous remains. Should these be found, we -may anticipate that their characters would be peculiar, and would -indicate a frugivorous rather than a carnivorous mode of life, and less -of rude power than that evidenced by the Canstadt and Cro-magnon races. - -Of the latter, though both are of the same faunal period, and therefore -geologically contemporaneous, the former, the lower of the two in point -of physical development, is apparently in Western Europe the older, and -represents the earlier part of the mammoth age, when the climate had -become cooler and _Elephas primigenius_ had succeeded to _E. antiquus_. -The Cro-magnon race, beginning in this period, goes on to the close of -the mammoth age, which, as already stated, coincides with the reindeer -age of the French archæologists. This Cro-magnon race I am disposed to -regard as a mixed or half breed tribe, produced by the union of the -Canstadt peoples with the higher race already hinted at. This last may -possibly be represented by a few skulls more resembling those of the men -of the neanthropic age, which are occasionally found in the burials of -the Cro-magnon people, and of which that found at Truchère has been -already referred to. - -We have thus traces of two primitive or antediluvian races, one probably -mild and subsisting on vegetable food, and another fierce, rude and -carnivorous, perhaps a product of degeneracy of the former; and a third, -or mixed race, of greater physical power and energy than either of the -others. This is of course merely a hypothetical reading of the facts, -but it is by no means improbable, and would, as we shall see, bring them -into close relation with the teachings of history and tradition as to -the antediluvian age. - -The most careful and elaborate studies of these several types have been -made by MM. Quatrefages and Hamy. The former sums up the races of fossil -or 'quaternary' men as six in number, viz.: (1) The Canstadt; -(2) the Cro-magnon; (3) the mesitocephalic race of Furfooz; (4) the -sub-brachycephalic race of Furfooz; (5) the race of Grenelle; (6) the -race of Truchère. Of these only three (namely, Nos. 1, 2, and 6) -properly belong to the palanthropic age. The races of Furfooz[24] and of -the upper beds of Grenelle are neanthropic, because they are found with -the animal remains of that age, and they resemble in cranial characters -the neanthropic peoples. - -[24] Noticed later, in Chapter VII. - -The Canstadt and Cro-magnon races resemble each other in being -long-headed or dolichocephalic, and in having strong and coarsely-made -facial bones, but the Canstadt race has a comparatively low fore-*head -with strong superciliary arches, and round eye-sockets. The Cro-magnon -race has a brain-case of more than ordinary capacity, a more elevated -fore-*head, and eye-sockets singularly elongated horizontally. Broca has -measured the cubic contents of the Cro-magnon skull, and gives as the -result 1,590 cubic centimetres, or 119 centimetres more than the -average of 125 modern Parisian skulls. The Canstadt men were of -moderate stature, but strongly built and muscular. The Cro-magnon race -was of great stature, some skeletons approaching to seven feet in -height, and affording evidence of immense muscular development. - -[Illustration: SKULL FROM TRUCHÈRE, SHOWING A PECULIAR PALANTHROPIC TYPE -ALLIED TO NEANTHROPIC RACES (after Quatrefages)] - -The race of Truchère is represented by only a single skull; but -Quatrefages vouches for it as belonging to the age of the mammoth. It is -a well-formed brachycephalic cranium of unusually great internal -capacity, and would be regarded anywhere as indicating a race of high -and refined cerebral endowment. If really of the mammoth age, it may -have belonged to a straggler or captive from a higher and more cultured -tribe, introduced accidentally into a sepulchre of the Cro-magnon -period. It connects itself with the speculation in the preceding pages -as to the existence of such a race. This skull resembles, as we should -expect, the type of the neanthropic men who spread over the earth at the -beginning of that later age. - - Table Showing Relations of Later Cenozoic Ages in Europe - - Later cenozoic - - ______________________________________________________________ - | | | | - | Geological | Geography and Climate | Fauna | - | Periods | | | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | Modern or | The actual climate | Modern quadrupeds, | - | neanthropic | and geographical | including | - | | arrangements | domestic animals | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | | Cold and dry, with | Reindeer, | - L C | | widely extended | mammoth (Elephas | - a e | | continents. Extension | primigenius), | - t n | Post-glacial or | of glaciers &c. | hairy rhinoceros | - e o | palanthropic | | (R. tichorhinus) | - r z | | | | - o | | Warm and moist, | | - i | | extended continents | Elephas antiquus | - c | | | and R. Merkii | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | Pleistocene or | Glacial period. | Arctic animals | - | glacial | Submergence and | and plants | - | | diminished continents | | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | | | Elephas | - | Pliocene | First continental | meridionalis, | - | | period. | Rhinoceros | - | | Mild climate | leptorhinus, and | - | | | other extinct | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - ______________________________________________________________ - | | | | - | Geological | Geography and Climate | Fauna | - | Periods | | | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | Modern or | So-called of Iron, | Recent | - | neanthropic | Bronze, and Polished | Roman | - | | Stone | Gaulish | - | | | Iberian | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | | | Magdalenian | - L C | Post-glacial or | So-called palæolithic | Soloutrian | - a e | palanthropic | or Age of | Mousterian | - t n | | Chipped Stone | Chellean | - e o | | | | - r z | | | | - o | | | | - i | | | | - c | | | | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | - | Pleistocene or | | - | glacial | | - |_________________| No certain trace of Man | - | | | - | Pliocene | | - |_________________|____________________________________________| - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -END OF THE PALANTHROPIC AGE - - -The palanthropic age came to a tragic end, and is somewhat definitely -separated from that which succeeded it. This appears from several -considerations which are too often overlooked by writers who have -a prejudice in favour of everything passing imperceptibly and by -slow degrees into that by which it is followed--an exaggerated -uniformitarianism beyond that of Lyell, but in harmony with the -hypothesis of Darwin, to which many anthropologists appear to tie -themselves hopelessly. - -Three facts are here specially important. The Canstadt and Cro-magnon -races are physically different from any modern races, and give place -at the close of this age to peoples as distinct from them as any now -existing, and who, on the other hand, while separated from the -palæocosmic men preceding them, are linked with the races of modern -times. It is no doubt true that occasional and abnormal human skulls may -to this day be seen on living men which are more or less of the Canstadt -or Cro-magnon type. These are good evidences of the unity of man -through all the ages, but no race exists having all the peculiarities of -these ancient peoples, which thus belong not to a distinct species but -to a distinct racial variety of man. - -Secondly, at the close of the palanthropic age we find a great change in -land animals--a number of important species hunted by early man having -disappeared, and the more meagre modern fauna having come in at once. -Thus it may be affirmed that the land fauna of this primitive time was -distinct from that now living. This implies either long time or a great -physical break. - -Thirdly, this change of fauna consists not so much in the introduction -of new species as in the extinction of old forms, either absolutely or -locally; and this agrees with the fact of diminution of land area, since -it seems to be a law of the geological succession that increasing land -brings in new land animals; diminishing land area leads to extinction, -and not to introduction. - -Fourthly, in accordance with this we find that, at the close of the -palanthropic age, the continents of the northern hemisphere experienced -a subsidence from which they have only partially recovered up to the -present time, and which introduced the modern geographical and climatal -features. This appears from raised beaches and beds of rubble, loam and -loess of modern date overlying the _débris_ of the glacial period and -holding the remains of post-glacial animals. These are widely spread -over the whole northern hemisphere, and ascend in some districts to -high levels. An interesting illustration has recently been given by Dr. -Nuesch and M. Boule, in the deposits under a rock-shelter at -Schweizersbild, near Schaffhausen.[25] These show an overlying deposit -with 'neolithic' implements and bones of recent animals, a bed of rubble -and loam destitute of human remains, and below this a bed containing -bone implements, worked flints, and traces of cookery of the -palanthropic period. The whole rests on a bed of rolled pebbles, -supposed to be the upper part of the glacial deposits. This shows the -interval between the palanthropic and neanthropic periods, and also the -post-glacial date of man in Switzerland, and it accords with a great -many other instances. - -[25] _Nouvelles archives des Missions_, &c. vol. iii. Noticed in -_Natural Science_, 1893. - -Were these changes sudden or gradual? Experience has no answer, for no -similar events have occurred in historic times, and though there are -records in the geological history of many mutations in the elevation of -the land, we have no information as to their rate of progress, and we -know little of their causes. The changes of this kind known to us in -modern times are merely local, not general, and in regard to their rate -are of two kinds. Some are abrupt and accompanied with earthquake -shocks. These are very local, and usually occur in regions of volcanic -activity. Others are so slow and gradual as to be scarcely perceptible, -and are often of wider distribution. It is evident, however, that these -slight and local phenomena furnish but little clue to the mutations of -past periods. These were on a far grander scale and affected vast areas. -We have no modern instances of these almost world-wide depressions of -continents under the sea, though we know that these have occurred, one -of them within the human period, and it is idle to speculate as to their -rate or duration in the absence of facts. We know pretty certainly, -however, from the gauges of time which can be applied to the close of -the glacial period, that this latest subsidence must have occurred -within six thousand years of our time. - -With reference to the particular movement in question, we know that the -close of the palanthropic period was accompanied by a movement at least -equal to the difference between the wide lands of the second continental -period and the shrunken dimensions of the present lands. Besides this we -find on the surface of the land modern raised beaches, deposits of loess -and plateau gravels, intrusions of mud into caves of considerable -elevation, and evidences, as in Siberia, of large herds of animals -perishing on elevated lands on which they seem to have taken refuge.[26] -In short, no geological fact can be better established than the -post-glacial subsidence. - -[26] Prestwich, 'Evidence of Submergence of Western Europe,' _Trans. -Royal Society_, 1893; 'Possible Cause for the Origin of the Tradition of -the Flood,' _Trans. Vict. Inst._, 1894; Dawkins, _Journal Anthrop. -Inst._, February 1894. Kingsmill and Skertchly (_Nature_, November 10, -1892) report the Asiatic loess to be marine, and to extend far upward on -the Caspian plain and the Pamirs, so that all Asia must have been -submerged within a very recent period. See also _Fossil Man_, by the -author, 1880. - -Putting these facts together, we cannot doubt that the submergence at -the close of the palanthropic age was very considerable, and that it was -followed by a partial re-emergence. Further, there is no evidence of any -serious fractures or folding of the crust taking place at the time, -though it is possible that great lava ejections like some of those of -Western America may belong to this period. It is therefore allowable to -suppose that the cause of submergence may have been either depression of -the land, or elevation of the bed of the ocean throwing its waters over -the land, or possibly a combination of both. Movements of these kinds -have recurred again and again in geological time. Their causes are -mysterious, but their effects have been of the most stupendous -character. Fortunately, they occur at rare intervals, and that to which -we are now referring is the last of which we have any record, and -differs from all others in having occurred at a time when man was widely -spread over the world. - -The geological chronometers already referred to inform us that the land -of the northern hemisphere rose from the great pleistocene submergence -about eight thousand to ten thousand years ago, and the second -continental period with its forests and its teeming and widely-extended -animal and human life, may have been established within two thousand -years of that time, or say six thousand to eight thousand years ago. How -long the second continental or palanthropic period continued intact we -do not know, but we can scarcely allow it less than two thousand years. -Perhaps it was considerably longer. Now on historical evidence produced -by Egypt, Chaldea, and other ancient countries in the Mediterranean -region, we can trace the neanthropic age continuously back to, say, -three thousand years B.C., or nearly five thousand years in all. Adding -to this two thousand years for the palanthropic age, we are carried back -to a time within one thousand years of the earliest we can assign on -geological grounds to the termination of the great glacial period. -Therefore, unless we suppose the last continental subsidence to have -begun some time before the close of the palanthropic age, and to have -continued to some degree into the beginning of the neanthropic, we -cannot assign to it a very long time. That it could not have been sudden -in the sense of being instantaneous is evident, because in that case -terrestrial denudation of a stupendous character must have ensued, and -no animal life except that of mountain tops and elevated table-lands -could have escaped its destructive effects, but that it was by no means -secular or long-continued is certain. - -Thus we seem shut up to the conclusion that the close of the -palanthropic age was marked by great geological vicissitudes of the -character of submergence, leading primarily to vast destruction of -animal life, and secondarily to permanent changes both in geography and -climate, under which new conditions the neanthropic age was inaugurated. -How this took place we have to inquire in the sequel. In the meantime we -may merely remark that since the two principal races of primitive men -known to us in Europe seem to have perished, we must infer that -individuals of a third race beyond the limits of Europe were destined to -survive, and again to replenish the earth in the new era, and that -possibly these may be represented by the solitary Truchère skull. In the -case of many of the more bulky and unwieldy animals inhabiting the -plains the case was different. They perished, or if any survived the -submergence they were unable to multiply under the new conditions. - -Desperate attempts have been made in the interests of extreme -uniformitarianism to discredit the abrupt change from palæocosmic to -neocosmic men. It has been supposed that the latter replaced the former -as conquerors--a most unlikely theory, when their relative powers are -considered. It has been conjectured that as the cold decreased the old -races of men followed the reindeer to the north and became Arctic -peoples. But why did they not rather attack the new animals, which in -that case must have come in from the south? It has even been supposed -that the Esquimaux may be their descendants; but they are quite -different in physical characters, and have no nearer resemblance in -their arts than other rude peoples. In opposition to all this we have -not only the remarkable change in the races of men and in their animal -associates, but when we know that the whole geographical features of our -continents have changed since the palanthropic age, and that not only -are our continents reduced in size since the continental post-glacial -period, but that there is evidence of re-elevation as well as -subsidence, and this within a short period--say eight thousand years -less the historic period on the one hand and the early palanthropic on -the other--it seems impossible to doubt the greatness and suddenness of -the physical break that divides the anthropic age into two distinct -portions. All this may be held to be certainly known as geological fact, -and it would be folly to overlook it in any discussions as to primitive -man, or in any comparisons of the evidence afforded by his remains with -that of early human history or tradition. - -But if man was a witness of and sufferer in this great catastrophe, and -if any men survived it, did they preserve no tradition or memory of such -a stupendous event? We may imagine this to be possible. The survivors -may have belonged to the rudest and most isolated of the races of men, -and may have had no means of knowing the extent of the disaster or of -preserving its memory. On the other hand, they may have attained to a -sufficient degree of culture to have had some means of perpetuating the -memory of great events. If so, we may imagine that the great diluvial -cataclysm which separates the human or anthropic period into two parts -may have left an indelible mark in the history or tradition of mankind. -We shall inquire into this in the sequel, but must first consider what -geological monuments remain of the early neanthropic age in Europe.[27] - -[27] A valuable paper by Dawkins 'On the relation of the Palæolithic to -the Neolithic Period,' reaches me when correcting the proof of this -volume. (Reprint from _Journal of Anthropological Society_, February -1894.) - -In the meantime I may remark that, if we take the Canstadt people to -represent the ruder tribes of the antediluvian Cainites, the feebler -folk of Truchère to represent the Sethites, and the giant race of -Cro-magnon and Mentone as the equivalent of the 'mighty men' or Nephelim -of Genesis who arose from the mixture of the two original stocks, we -shall have a somewhat exact parallel between the men of the caves and -gravels and those we have so long been familiar with in the Book of -Genesis. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE EARLY NEANTHROPIC AGE - - -There has been much confusion among anthropologists respecting the -distinction of this from the preceding age. The Cro-magnon race has been -classed as neanthropic, and has been confounded with a very dissimilar -people which succeeded it after an interval of some duration. The gap -between the disappearance of the earlier race and the arrival of the -newer has thus been overlooked, and no account has been taken of the -great intervening faunal and geographical changes. This has arisen from -neglecting or being unable to appreciate the geological part of the -evidence; and the somewhat lamentable result has been that it is -difficult for the ordinary reader to arrive at any certainty, in the -midst of conflicting statements all based on imperfect data. In these -circumstances it will be well to begin this chapter with some examples -of the relations of these different races. - -At Grenelle, near Paris, on the river Seine, there is a succession of -old inundation beds of that river, extending from the oldest part of -the anthropic to modern times, and furnishing what may be regarded as a -chronological series for Northern France, as many human remains have -been from time to time deposited on this old eddy of the Seine and -buried under newer accumulations. Belgrand has shown that in the lowest -gravels of this deposit the long-headed Canstadt man is alone found. -Immediately above this occur remains of the Cro-magnon type, and these -are associated with and overlain by beds holding large stones or erratic -blocks, a monument perhaps of the physical disturbances closing the -palanthropic age. Above these the next remains are those of a race of -men of smaller stature and with less elongated heads, which we shall -find belong to the neanthropic age. Here, as Quatrefages points out, we -have a distinct stratigraphical succession, which accords with that in -other localities. - -If we now turn to England we may select from other examples the -Cresswell caves, so carefully explored by Dawkins and Mello, and in -which we have well-ascertained evidence from fossils as well as from -superposition. Without going into the details as to the several chambers -and passages in these caverns, we find as the result of the whole the -following succession in ascending order: - -1. White calcareous sand, a deposit from water, but with no animal -remains. - -2. Stiff red clay with blocks of limestone, and in places underlaid by a -ferruginous sand. These beds, of which the red clay is the principal, -contain bones of rhinoceros leptorhinus, hippopotamus, bison, bear, -hyena and fox, but no human remains. Dawkins, however, shows that in -other caves farther south some rude flint implements show that man had -already appeared in England, though he may not have made his way as far -north as Yorkshire. - -3. Above this lies a stratum of red sandy cave earth, in which occur the -bones of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros, the horse, the bison, -the bear, and the hyena, but the leptorhine rhinoceros is gone. The -bones are gnawed by hyenas, and there are rude quartzite implements. -Over this, and representing the later part of the palanthropic age, -corresponding to some of the French, Belgian, and Lebanon caves, are an -upper cave earth and breccia, rich in 'palæolithic' flint implements and -bones of the animals of the mammoth age. - -4. Above this, in the surface soil and disturbed portions of the -underlying beds, are remains of the neanthropic period, including twelve -species of modern animals, but with no trace of the great extinct -quadrupeds. Connected with these were human skulls of the same type -found in the ancient burial barrows of England, and belonging to races -still extant. The Cresswell caves give no bones of palæocosmic men, but -they very well show the succession of the early period of mild climate, -the later severe climate, the extinction of the old animals contemporary -with the earliest men, and the final succession of modern men and -animals to the now insular Britain, which, in the times represented by -the beds one, two, and three above mentioned, was a part of the mainland -of Europe. - -[Illustration: FLINT FLAKES OF TWO TYPES FROM PALANTHROPIC AND -NEANTHROPIC CAVES IN THE LEBANON] - -But perhaps the most interesting views of the succession of early men -and the gap between the palanthropic and neanthropic periods are -presented by the Belgian caves explored by Schmerling and Dupont. The -latter has excavated more than sixty caverns, and has carefully noted -the mode of occurrence of their contents, collecting at the same time a -vast number of bones and implements, now admirably arranged in the -museum of Brussels. In Belgium the earlier anthropic period has been -characterised as that of the mammoth. The beginning of the neanthropic -is still a reindeer age, though that animal was apparently becoming -rare. It existed, as we know, in Central Europe till the time of Cæsar. - -[Illustration: RESTORATION OF THE SEPULCHRAL CAVE OF FRONTAL, BELGIUM - -(after Dupont) - -1. and 2. Gravel and clay of mammoth age. 3. Surface of modern -accumulation of angular stones and clay. (D) Slab closing the sepulchre. -(S) Platform for funeral feasts. (F) Hearth. (R) Rock forming the walls -of the cavern.] - -The caves of Furfooz, and especially that of Frontal, are among the most -instructive. Dupont has found that in many caves the older remains of -the mammoth age are contained in or covered by a diluvial or inundation -mud,[28] which seems to be the closing deposit of this age. Now in the -Frontal cave this mud remained undisturbed and extended out into a -platform in front of the cave. The cave itself had been used as a place -of burial, and as many as sixteen skeletons were found in it, with flint -implements, perforated shells, flat pieces of sandstone with sketches of -figures scratched on them, and an earthen vase. All these lay above the -original palanthropic mud floor, and belonged to new tribes which -probably knew nothing of their predecessors, whose bones were covered by -the inundation mud below. On the platform in front of the cave was a -hearth with the ashes of funeral feasts, and around this were found a -multitude of bones of animals, of the modern species of the country. The -people who used this cave as a sepulchre had evidently arrived in -Belgium after the palæocosmic men and the mammoth were not only extinct, -but their remains were buried in muddy deposits; though the reindeer -and even the wild horse still existed, and the time was long before the -dawn of any authentic history in that part of the world. These men have -somewhat shorter heads than the old Cro-magnon race, and they are of -smaller stature, and with finer and more delicate features. In these -respects they resemble the men of the dolmens and long barrows of France -and England, and the existing Auvergnats and Basques, and also the Lapps -of the far north. Dupont observes that their materials for implements -and ornaments came almost entirely from regions to the southward, and -hence he infers commerce with tribes in that direction and the existence -of enemies in the north. I should rather infer that the men of Frontal -had immigrated into Belgium from the south, and that they were a small -and poor outlying tribe of a greater people living south of them. Dupont -also remarks on their evident care of the dead, a characteristic of the -early neocosmic men, their belief in a future life, and the absence of -warlike weapons, whence he infers that they were a mild and pacific -race--a conclusion which makes against the idea entertained by some, -that they may have displaced the formidable palæocosmic men by conquest. - -[28] Sometimes with angular stones--_argile à blocaux_. - -Similar illustrations are afforded by the caves and rock-shelters of -France, Switzerland, and Syria, and have convinced many of the ablest -archæologists of the existence of a decided break between the -palanthropic and neanthropic ages. In such a case also it is to be -observed that a few decided, positive facts are of more value than any -number of examples in which, from local circumstances, the succession -may be obscure or uncertain. - -The above examples relate to the men of the older neanthropic age, the -men of the so-called neolithic or polished stone age of archæologists. -These men can be shown to be identical with the oldest populations of -postdiluvian Europe, peoples whose descendants exist to-day in many -parts of Western Europe, though they have been more or less displaced or -mixed with later intrusive races. These people have gone on without any -physical cataclysm, or change of fauna, or geographical or climatal -changes of any magnitude, into the ages of bronze and iron and of the -modern civilisation. Thus, while the palæocosmic men passed away -abruptly and have left no certain successors, those who succeeded them -pass on without a break into the existing populations of the world. - -We must, however, here guard ourselves from a misconception which has -apparently unconsciously deceived many writers on this subject. It by no -means follows from the facts insisted on above that there are no direct -links of connection between palæocosmic and neocosmic men. The ancestors -of the latter must have existed through the palanthropic period, and -wherever they were living they may have had the same characters which -distinguish them at a later time, and which persist to this day. There -would therefore be nothing contradictory to our general view in finding -that the small, fine-featured men who succeeded the giants of the olden -time were in some more genial parts of the world extant from the first. -Nay, it may even appear that they were similar to the Truchère race, and -that still more primitive people whose bones are yet unknown, and who -inhabited Europe in the early mild period preceding the mammoth age. -Neither is there anything anomalous in the occasional reappearance of -characters similar to those even of the Canstadt race at the present -time, not because any modern men are direct descendants of this race, -but because under certain conditions these characters tend to be -reproduced. Let us put the case conjecturally as follows: - -The original men who peopled the northern continents after the first -glacial period were of small stature, agile, and well formed, with mild -and pleasing countenance and heads of the medium (mesitocephalic) type. -They were dwellers in a warm climate and subsisted on fruits. As -population increased and men became hunters and fishermen, and wandered -widely over the world, a large-boned, coarse-featured, and savage type -of man arose, such as we find in the older caves and gravels, and -weapons of kinds not needed in primitive times were invented. In this -state of affairs, when the coarser and stronger races had made -themselves masters of the world, and had perhaps partially intermixed -with the older and more peaceful peoples, a great diluvial catastrophe -occurred, which swept away the greater part of men. The survivors were -of the old and unmodified stock, and it was they who repeopled the new -world, finding possibly here and there some survivors of the former -population, or themselves locally relapsing into a similar state. In -this case all the seeming paradoxes and contradictions which have -perplexed archæologists would be easily explained. We might even find -occasional captives of the primitive small race among the interments of -the old giants, and we might find new races of superior physical power -arising in the new world and again intruding on the feebler race. - -In closing our notice of this period we may proceed to connect it with -actual history in the British Islands. When the Romans invaded Britain -they found in it two races of men physically very distinct, one of them -the aborigines, who had made their way to the island as its first -population after the close of the mammoth age, the others apparently a -later intrusion. They are known to English antiquaries from their modes -of burial as the men of the long and the round barrows or funeral -mounds. The first of these are beyond doubt the kinsmen of our little -men of the Trou de Frontal, in Belgium. They are thus described by -Greenwell and Taylor[29]: - -[29] Greenwell, _British Barrows_; Taylor, _Origin of the Aryans_. - -They were of feeble build, short stature, dark complexion, and somewhat -long skull. They buried their dead in long barrows or mounds with -interior chambers and passages; some of these are as much as -400 feet in length, and resemble artificial caves; and there can be no -doubt that, as in Belgium, they buried their dead in caves when these -were accessible; and the laborious construction of the long barrows when -caves failed is an indication of the great importance they attached to -the secure and decent sepulture of the dead. No trace of metal is found -in their barrows, and but little pottery, but it is believed that they -had at a very early time domesticated sheep and cattle and practised -agriculture. These people are now identified with the people of the -south and west of England, called by the Romans Silures. They were the -builders of the cromlechs, dolmens, and other megalithic structures so -common in various parts of the old continent. Their type survives to -this day in the small dark people of parts of Wales and the south and -west of Ireland, and in parts of the Hebrides. Their physical characters -connect them with the primitive populations of the hills of Central -France, with the Basques of the Pyrenees, the Corsicans, the Berbers of -Africa, and the Guanches of the Canary Islands, and the term Iberian has -been applied to the whole group. Their language was originally not -Aryan, but Turanian. They represent not merely a new race still -surviving, but a distinct advance in practical civilisation over -that of the peoples of the palanthropic age, in Europe at least. - -At the time of the Roman conquest this primitive race had been replaced -in the east of England and south of Scotland by a wholly different -people, supposed to be identical with the Celtæ of the Romans. They -were tall, muscular, with broader and shorter heads, fair complexion, -and light-coloured hair. They buried their dead in round barrows or -mounds, and seem at a very early period to have possessed bronze, and so -to have introduced what has been termed the bronze age into Britain. At -the time of the Roman invasion, however, they already possessed iron -weapons. These people were Aryan in speech, allied to the Gauls and -Belgæ, and the ancestors of the so-called Celtic populations of the -British Islands. - -[Illustration: CROMLECH AT FONTANACCIA, CORSICA (after De Mortillet)] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE PALANTHROPIC AGE IN THE LIGHT OF HISTORY - - -The time was when the earlier books of the Hebrew Scriptures stood -almost alone in their notices of the creation and antediluvian times, -and when critics could quietly take for granted that they were -altogether mythical. This state of things has now passed away from the -minds of the better informed, and it may be profitable before proceeding -farther to glance for a moment at some of the recent corroborations, if -they may be so called, of the Bible history from altogether unexpected -quarters. - -In the first place, there can now be no doubt that the order of -creation, as revealed to the author of the first chapter of Genesis, -corresponds with the results of astronomical and geological research in -a manner which cannot be accidental.[30] This old document thus stands -in the position of a prophecy which has been fulfilled in its details. -Besides this, the discovery of the similar though not identical -Chaldean creation tablets throws a remarkable and interesting side-light -on the whole question. The Chaldean tablets are unquestionably very -ancient, and borrowed from still older documents from which they are -alleged to have been copied. But they and the Genesis narrative are -independent of each other. Neither can have been copied from the other. -Thus there must have been a still more ancient common source of the -narrative, and, as I have elsewhere urged,[31] the greater simplicity -and monotheistic character of the Hebrew document entitle it to the palm -of the higher antiquity. - -[30] For evidence of this I may be permitted to refer to my work, _The -Origin of the World_. - -[31] _Modern Science in Bible Lands._ - -With reference to the antediluvian age and the Deluge, while the Bible -is here only in accord with almost universal tradition, and this in -reference to an event which if it occurred at all must have fixed itself -in the memory of the survivors, it is in remarkable accordance with very -ancient Chaldean writings commemorative of the same event. Some -principal points of this accordance are the following. The Chaldean -account implies that the anger of the gods, or some of them, against an -evil race of men was the cause of the catastrophe. It gives it a -universal character, so far as the sphere of observation extended. It -represents the survivors as saved in a ship or ark. It represents -Hasisadra, its Noah, as sending out birds to ascertain the subsidence of -the waters. In all these points and many others the Chaldean account -agrees with the Biblical in representing antediluvian men, or some of -them, as civilised, possessing domestic animals, and competent to -construct large ships. - -When we leave the Deluge and come to the postdiluvian or neanthropic -period, similar coincidences occur. The foundation of a primitive -Cushite or Akkadian kingdom in the Euphratean valley, the dispersion of -men according to their families and their languages, the early kingdoms -contemporary with Abraham, mentioned in the narrative of his campaign to -recover the captives taken from the cities of the plain, the extremely -early use of the arrow-headed characters in Asia, of the hieroglyphic -writing in Egypt, and of a proto-Phoenician or early Hebrew alphabet -among the Mineans of ancient Arabia, tend at once to vindicate the Bible -history, and to show how at a very early period this history may have -been rendered permanent in written documents. On all these grounds -scientific archæologists are beginning to attach more value than -formerly to the Hebrew annals, and to recognise them as true historical -accounts of the times to which they relate. - -It may seem rash to make such a statement at a time when it is well -known that many divines of repute avow themselves as believers in the -theory that the earlier Biblical books are of comparatively late -composition. But Science will have her way in a matter of this kind, -whatever literature or criticism may say, and she is beginning strongly -to lift her voice against the destructive criticism of the Pentateuch. -In a recent article, Professor Sayce, one of the best-informed experts -in these subjects, uses the following language: - -'Naturally, the "higher criticism" is disinclined to see its assumptions -swept away along with the conclusions which are based upon them, and to -sit humbly at the feet of the newer science. At first, the results of -Egyptian or Assyrian research were ignored; then they were reluctantly -admitted, so far as they did not clash with the preconceived opinions of -the "higher" critics. It was urged, unfortunately with too much justice, -that the decipherers were not, as a rule, trained critics, and that in -the enthusiasm of research they often announced discoveries which proved -to be false or only partially correct. But it must be remembered, on the -other side, that this charge applies with equal force to all progressive -studies, not excluding the "higher criticism" itself. - -'The time is now come for confronting the conclusions of the "higher -criticism," so far as it applies to the books of the Old Testament, with -the ascertained results of modern Oriental research. The amount of -certain knowledge now possessed by the Egyptologist and Assyriologist -would be surprising to those who are not specialists in these branches -of study, while the discovery of the Tel-el-Amarna tablets has poured a -flood of light upon the ancient world, which is at once startling and -revolutionary. As in the case of Greek history, so too in that of -Israelitish history, the period of critical demolition is at an end, and -it is time for the archæologist to reconstruct the fallen edifice. - -'But the very word "reconstruct" implies that what is built again will -not be exactly that which existed before. It implies that the work of -the "higher criticism" has not been in vain; on the contrary, the work -it has performed has been a very needful and important one, and in its -own sphere has helped us to the discovery of the truth. Egyptian or -Assyrian research has not corroborated every historical statement which -we find in the Old Testament, any more than classical archæology has -corroborated every statement which we find in the Greek writers; what it -has done has been to show that the extreme scepticism of modern -criticism is not justified, that the materials on which the history of -Israel has been based may, and probably do, go back to an early date, -and that much which the "higher" critics have declared to be mythical -and impossible was really possible and true.' - -In point of fact a much stronger position might be held in favour of -Genesis, and we shall find in comparing it with the monuments of the -palanthropic and early neanthropic ages that its statements vindicate -themselves as derived from original contemporary documents, which were -under no obligations to the literature or philosophy of those later -times, to which they have been relegated by some of the critics. - -Let us inquire a little more in detail into the general features of -these early historic notices. - -For the purposes of this inquiry we may content ourselves with the -consideration of the ancient Hebrew documents incorporated in the Book -of Genesis, and the remains which have been preserved of the old -Chaldean literature. Both of these represent an antediluvian period of -long duration.[32] Both refer the primitive seats of population to the -Euphratean region of Western Asia. Both terminate the antediluvian age -with a great diluvial catastrophe. These are sufficient points of -general agreement to make it probable that both originated in one -fundamental history, or at least were based on attempts to describe the -same events. Otherwise there are great differences. The Chaldean -accounts have a prolix iteration, which makes it probable that they were -prepared for popular and liturgic use, and may not fairly represent the -original documents in possession of the priestly class. They also -naturally introduce all the _personnel_ of the Chaldean pantheon, and as -this must have been a thing of gradual growth it gives them an air of -recency, though we know that they are very old. The Hebrew version, on -the other hand, is monotheistic, and has an aspect of severe simplicity -in striking contrast to the florid and popular Chaldean version. - -[32] Hommel has proved (_Journal of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, -1893), what has always been suspected, that the ten patriarchs of -Berosus are the same with those of the Sethite line in Genesis. - -We may first notice what history can tell of the palanthropic age, -supposing this to be the same with that historically known as -antediluvian. The account of creation in the first chapter of Genesis is -altogether general, and has no local colouring. It evidently refers to -the whole history of the making of the earth. The second chapter, on the -other hand, begins at verse 4 the special history of man, and opens with -a picture which is not, as some have rashly supposed, a repetition of -the previous general account of creation, and still less contradictory -to it, but a statement that immediately before the introduction of man -the earth had been in a desolate and comparatively untenanted state, -that state to which we know it had been reduced by the glacial cold and -submergence. - -Thus the two accounts of the creation of man, that in which he appears -in his chronological position in the general development, and that in -which he takes a first place, as introductory to his special history, -are not contradictory, but complementary to each other; and the latter -refers wholly to man and the creatures contemporary with him in the -palanthropic age. It is in accordance with this, and no doubt intended -by the editor to mark this distinction, that the name Elohim is used in -the general narrative, and Jehovah Elohim in the special one. The -failure of so many critics to notice this distinction, which must have -been so plain to the primitive historian himself, is a marked -illustration of the blindness of certain nineteenth-century savants, so -full of their own special knowledge, yet so careless of science and -common sense. - -It would even seem that this distinction appeared in the Chaldean -Genesis as well; for fragments of what has been called a second Chaldean -Genesis have been found which seem to correspond with the statements of -the second chapter of Genesis. - -The following is an extract from this second Chaldean or Akkadian -Genesis as translated by Pinches:[33] - - 1 The glorious house, the house of the gods, in a glorious place - had not been made; - - 2 A plant had not been brought forth, a tree had not been created; - - 3 A brick had not been laid, a beam had not been shaped; - - 4 A house had not been built, a city had not been constructed; - - 5 A city had not been made, a foundation had not been made - glorious; - - 6 Niffer had not been built, Ê-kura had not been constructed; - - 7 Erech had not been built, Ê-ana had not been constructed; - - 8 The Abyss had not been made, Ê-ridu had not been constructed; - - 9 (As for) the glorious house, the house of the gods, its seat had - not been made-- - - 10 The whole of the lands were sea. - -[33] _Expository Times_, December 1892 - -This may be supposed to correspond with the Hebrew verses following: - - And no plant of the field was yet in the earth. - - And no herb of the field had yet sprung up. - - For Jahveh Elohim had not caused it to rain on the earth. - - And there was not a man to till (irrigate) the ground. - - And there went up a vapour from the earth, and watered the surface - of the ground. - -This is the Hebrew idea of the condition of the great Mesopotamian plain -after the pleistocene submergence, and before the appearance of man. The -Chaldean version refers to the same region, but is more elaborate and -artificial, and brings in the historic cities of a later time. This -difference alone would induce us to suppose that the Hebrew record may -be a better guide for our present comparison. - -The Hebrew writer in the first place gives us to understand that a -period of comparative desolation preceded the appearance of man, a great -winter of destruction preparatory to a returning spring. He then -proceeds to localise primeval man by placing him in Eden, the Idinu of -the Chaldean accounts, which we also recognise by the geographical -indications of the Euphrates and Tigris as its rivers, with two -companion streams which can scarcely be other than the Karun and the -Kerkhat. Thus the Bible and the Chaldean account agree in their locality -for the advent of man, for Idinu was the ancient name of the plain of -Babylonia. It has been objected to this locality that much of this -region is low and swampy, and has only recently become land by the -encroachment of the rivers on the head of the Persian Gulf. But if our -Biblical authority really refers to palanthropic man, we must bear in -mind that in the post-glacial period the continents were higher than -now, and the Babylonian plain must have been a dry and elevated -district, in all probability forest-clad. We must also bear in mind that -Eden was a region of country, and that the 'garden' or selected spot -'eastward in Eden' may have been some rich wooded island surrounded by -the river streams, and producing all fruits pleasant to the taste and -good for food. In any case the modern objections to the site are based -on entire ignorance of its geological history, and only serve to show -how much better informed the ancient writer was as to antediluvian -geography than his modern critics.[34] - -[34] See, for full discussion of this, _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, -by the author. - -It is scarcely necessary to say that this Biblical environment of -primitive man corresponds with the requirements of the case. In a genial -climate and sheltered position, and supplied with abundance of food, the -first men would have the conditions necessary for comfortable existence -and for multiplying in numbers. - -We have also in the description of one of the rivers of Eden a hint as -to a few of the wants of early man beyond mere food and shelter. We are -told that the district traversed by this river produced gold, bedolach, -and the shoham stone. I have elsewhere shown that this river must be the -Karun, draining the Luristan mountains, and that the productions -indicated must have been 'native gold and silver, wampum beads, and jade -and similar stones suitable for implements.'[35] Thus we have here a -picture which may well represent the origin and early condition of our -palæocosmic men. But the parallel does not end here. - -[35] _Modern Science in Bible Lands._ - -According to the history, man falls, and is expelled from Eden, is -clothed with skins, and becomes an eater of animal food. Next we find -murderous violence, and a consequent separation of the primitive people -into two tribes, one of which migrates to a distance from the other and -adopts different modes of life. Finally, we have a mixture of the two -races, leading to a powerful and terrible race of half-breeds, or metis, -who filled the earth with violence.[36] - -[36] Genesis vi. 1-6. - -[Illustration: MAP SHOWING THE GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF -THE SITE OF EDEN AS DESCRIBED IN GENESIS] - -In one point only have we reason to doubt whether this old history -fairly represents the palanthropic age. It notes the invention of -musical instruments, the use of metals, the domestication of animals as -already existing in the antediluvian period. Of these we have little or -no archæological evidence. The only musical instrument of this period -known is a whistle made of one of the bones of a deer's foot, and -capable of sounding a tetrachord or four notes, and we have no certain -evidence of metals or domesticated animals. We must bear in mind that -there may have been more civilised races than those of the Cro-magnon -type, and that the latter evince an artistic skill which if it had any -scope for development may have led to great results. The native metals -must have been known to man from the first, though they must have been -rare or only locally common; and many semi-barbarous nations of later -times show us that it is only a short step from the knowledge of native -metals to the art of metallurgy, in so far as it consists in treating -those ores that in weight and metallic lustre most resemble the metals -themselves. It is also deserving of notice that no other hypothesis than -that of antediluvian civilisation can account for the fact that in the -dawn of postdiluvian history we find the dwellers by the Euphrates and -the Nile already practising so many of the arts of civilised life. In -connection with this we may place the early dawn of literature. Without -insisting on the documents which the Chaldean Noah, Hasisadra, is said -to have hid at Sippara before the Deluge, we have the known fact that in -the earliest dawn of postdiluvian history the art of writing was known -in Chaldea and in Egypt. This at once testifies to antediluvian culture, -and shows that the means existed to record important events. - -There is, perhaps, no one of the vagaries now current under the much -abused name of evolution more opposed to facts, whether physical or -historical than the notion that, because 3000 years B.C. we have -evidence of an advanced civilisation in Chaldea and in Egypt, this must -have been preceded by a long and uninterrupted progress through many -thousands of years from a savage state. Two facts alone are sufficient -to show the folly of such a supposition. First, the intervention of that -great physical catastrophe which separates the palanthropic and -neanthropic periods; and secondly, the testimony of history in favour of -the arts of civilisation originating with great inventors, and not by -any slow and gradual process of evolution. According to all history, -sacred and profane, many such inventors existed even in the palanthropic -and early neanthropic ages, and transmitted their arts in an advanced -state to later times. The Book of Genesis testifies to this in its -notices of Tubal Cain and Jubal; and the monuments of Chaldea and Egypt -show that metallurgy, sculpture, and architecture were as far advanced -at the very dawn of history as in any later period. It is true that -Genesis represents its early inventors as mere men, albeit 'sons of -God,' while they often appear as gods or demi-gods in the early history -of the heathen nations; but the fact remains that then, as now, the rare -appearance of God-given inventive genius is the sole cause of the -greater advances in art and civilisation. Spontaneous development may -produce socialistic trades' unions or Chinese stagnation, but great -gifts, whether of prophecy, of song, of scientific insight, or of -inventive power, are the inspiration of the Almighty. - -We have in the closing part of the Bible story of the antediluvian age -even an intimation of the deterioration of climate and means of -subsistence towards the end of the period. Lamech, we are told, named -his son Noah--rest or comfort--in the hope that by his means he should -be comforted, because of the ground which the Lord had cursed. That -curse provoked by the sons of man he may have recognised as fulfilled in -the gradual deterioration of the climate toward the close of the -palanthropic age. There are here surely some curious coincidences which -might be followed farther, did space permit. - -We now come to the close of the whole in the Deluge; and as this has -been made in our own time the subject of much discussion, and as it -contains within itself the whole kernel of the subject, it merits a -separate treatment. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE DELUGE OF NOAH - - -To the older men of this generation, who have followed the changes of -scientific and historical opinion, the story of the Deluge, old though -it is, has passed through a variety of phases like the changes of a -kaleidoscope, and which may afford an instructive illustration of the -modifications of belief in other, and some of them to us more important, -matters, whether of history or of religion, which have presented -themselves in like varied aspects, and may be variously viewed in the -future. - -As children we listened with awe and wonder to the story of the wicked -antediluvians, and of their terrible fate and the salvation of righteous -Noah, and received a deep and abiding impression of the enormity of -moral evil and of the just retribution of the Great Ruler of the -Universe. A little later, though the idea that all the fossil remains -imbedded in the rocks are memorials of the Deluge had passed away from -the minds of the better informed, we read with interest the wonderful -revelations of the bone-caves described by Buckland, and felt that the -antediluvian age had become a scientific reality. But later still all -this seemed to pass away like a dream. Under the guidance of Lyell we -learned that even the caves and gravels must be of greater age than the -historical Deluge, and that the remains of men and animals contained in -them must have belonged to far-off æons, antedating perhaps even the -Biblical creation of man, while the historical Deluge, if it ever -occurred, must have been an affair so small and local that it had left -no traces on the rocks of the earth. At the same time Biblical critics -were busy with the narrative itself, showing that it could be decomposed -into different documents, that it bore traces of a very recent origin, -that it was unhistorical, and to be relegated to the same category with -the fairy-tales of our infancy. Again, however, the kaleidoscope turns, -and the later researches of geology into the physical and human history -of the more recent deposits of the earth's crust, the discoveries of -ancient Assyrian or Chaldean records of the Deluge, and the comparison -of these with the ancient history of other nations, rehabilitate the old -story; and as we study the new facts respecting the so-called -palæolithic and neolithic men, the clay tablets recovered from the -libraries of Nineveh by George Smith, the calculations of Prestwich and -others respecting the recency of the glacial period, and the historical -gatherings of Lenormant, we find ourselves drifting back to the faith -of our childhood, or may congratulate ourselves on having adhered to it -all along, even when the current of opinion tended strongly to turn us -away. - -In illustration of the present aspects of the question I make two -extracts, one from Lenormant's _Beginnings of History_, another from a -recent work of my own. - -'We are,' says Lenormant, 'in a position to affirm that the account of -the Deluge is a universal tradition in all branches of the human family, -with the sole exception of the black race, and a tradition every-*where -so exact and so concordant cannot possibly be referred to an imaginary -myth. No religious or cosmogonic myth possesses this character of -universality. It must necessarily be the reminiscence of an actual and -terrible event, which made so powerful an impression upon the -imaginations of the first parents of our species that their descendants -could never forget it. This cataclysm took place near the primitive -cradle of mankind, and previous to the separation of the families from -whom the principal races were to descend, for it would be altogether -contrary to probability and to the laws of sound criticism to admit that -local phenomena exactly similar in character could have been reproduced -at so many different points on the globe as would enable one to explain -these universal traditions, or that these traditions should always have -assumed an identical form, combined with circumstances which need not -necessarily have suggested themselves to the mind in such a -connection.'[37] - -[37] _Les Origines de l'Histoire._ Brown's translation. - -On the geological side, the following may be accepted as a summary of -facts:[38] - -[38] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, 1888, pp. 244, 245, 251, 252. - -'If the earliest men were those of the river gravels and caves, men of -the mammoth age or of the palæolithic or palæocosmic period, we can form -some definite ideas as to their possible antiquity. They colonised the -continents immediately after the elevation of the land from the great -subsidence which closed the pleistocene or glacial period, or in what -has been called the "continental" period of the post-glacial age, -because the new lands then raised out of the sea exceeded in extent -those which we now have. We have some measures of the date of this great -continental elevation. Many years ago, Sir Charles Lyell used the -recession of the Falls of Niagara as a chronometer, estimating their -cutting power as equal to one foot per annum. He calculated the -beginning of the process, which dates from the post-glacial elevation, -to be about thirty thousand years ago. More recent surveys have shown -that the rate is three times as great as that estimated by Lyell, and -also that a considerable part of the gorge was merely cleaned out by the -river since the pleistocene age. In this way the age of the Niagara -gorge becomes reduced to perhaps seven or eight thousand years. Other -indications of similar bearing are found both in Europe and America, -and lead to the belief that it is physically impossible that man could -have colonised the northern hemisphere at an earlier date. These facts -render necessary an entire revision of the calculations based on the -growth of stalagmite in caves, and other uncertain data which have been -held to indicate a greater lapse of time. - -'If we identify the antediluvians of Genesis with the oldest men known -to geological and archæological science, the parallelism is somewhat -marked in physical characteristics and habits of life, and also in their -apparently sudden and tragical disappearance from Europe and Western -Asia, along with several of the large mammalia which were their -contemporaries. If the Deluge is to be accepted as historical, and if a -similar great break interrupts the geological history of man, separating -extinct races from those which still survive, why may we not correlate -the two? If the Deluge was misused in the early history of geology, by -employing it to account for changes which took place long before the -advent of man, this should not cause us to neglect its legitimate uses, -with reference to the early human period. It is evident that if this -correlation be accepted as probable, it must modify many views now held -as to the antiquity of man. In that case the modern gravels and silts, -spread over the plateaus between the river valleys, will be accounted -for, not by any greater overflow of the existing streams, but by the -abnormal action of currents of water diluvial in their character. -Further, since the historical Deluge must have been of very limited -duration, the physical changes separating the deposits containing the -remains of palæocosmic men from those of later date would in like manner -be accounted for, not by the slow processes imagined by extreme -uniformitarians, but by causes of a more abrupt and cataclysmic -character.'[39] - -[39] See also Howorth, _The Mammoth and the Flood_, and papers by -Professor Prestwich in _Journal Geol. Society_ and _Trans. Royal -Society_ and by Andrews, Winchell, and others in America. - -We may proceed to inquire as to whether the position which we have now -reached is likely to be permanent, or may represent merely one shifting -phase of opinion. For this purpose we may formulate these conclusions in -a few general statements, merely referring to the evidence on which they -are based, as any complete discussion of this would necessarily be -impossible within the limits of this work. We may first summarise the -present position of the matter as indicated by historical and scientific -research, altogether independently of the Bible.[40] - -[40] See articles by the author in _The Contemporary Review_, December -1889, and in _The Magazine of Christian Literature_, October 1890. - -1. The recent discovery of the Chaldean deluge tablets has again -directed attention to the statements of Berosus respecting the -Babylonian tradition of a great flood, and these statements are found to -be borne out in the main by the contents of the tablets. There is thus a -twofold testimony as to the occurrence of a deluge in that Babylonian -plain which the Old Testament history represents as the earliest seat of -antediluvian man. As Lenormant has well shown, the tradition exists in -the ancient literature of India, Persia, Phoenicia, Phrygia, and Greece, -and can be recognised in the traditions of Northern and Western Europe -and of America, while the Egyptians had a similar account of the -destruction of men, but apparently not by water, though their idea -of a submerged continent of Atlantis probably had reference to the -antediluvian world. Thus we find this story widely spread over the -earth, and possessed by members of all the leading divisions of mankind. -This does not necessarily prove the universality of the Deluge, though -every distinct people naturally refers it to its own country. It shows, -however, the existence of some very early common source of the tradition, -and the variations are not more than were to have been expected in the -different channels of transmission. - -2. Parallel with this historical evidence lies the result of geological -and archæological research, which has revealed to us the remains and -works of prehistoric men, racially distinct from those of modern times, -and who inhabited the earth at a period when its animal population was -to a great extent distinct from that at present existing, and when its -physical condition was also in many respects different. Thus in Europe -and Asia, and to some extent also in America, we have evidence that the -present races of men were preceded by others which have passed away, and -this at the same time with many important species of land animals, once -the contemporaries of man, but now known only as fossils. These ancient -men are those called by geologists later pleistocene, or post-glacial, -or the men of the cave and gravel deposits, or of the age of the -mammoth, and who have been designated by archæologists palæolithic men, -or, more properly, palæocosmic men, since the character of their stone -implements is only one not very important feature of their history, and -implements of the palæolithic type have been used in all periods, and -indeed are still used in some places. - -3. The prevalence among geologists of an exaggerated and unreasonable -uniformitarianism, which refused to allow sufficient prominence to -sudden cataclysms arising from the slow accumulation of natural forces, -and which was a natural reaction from the convulsive geology of an -earlier period, has caused the idea to be generally entertained that the -age of palæocosmic men was of vast duration, and passed only by slow -gradations and a gradual transition into the new conditions of the -modern period. This view long was, and still is, an obstacle to any -rational correlation of the geological and traditional history of man. -Recently, however, new views have been forced on geologists, and have -led many of the most sagacious observers and reasoners to see that the -palanthropic period is much nearer to us than we had imagined. The -arguments for this I have referred to in previous pages, and need not -reiterate them, here. A few leading points may, however, be noted. One -of these is the small amount of physical or organic change which has -occurred since the close of the palanthropic period. Another is the more -rapid rate of erosion and deposition by rivers in the modern period than -had previously been supposed. Another is the striking fact that a large -number of mammals, like the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, seem to have -perished simultaneously with the palæocosmic men, and this by some -sudden catastrophe.[41] It has also been shown by Pictet and Dawkins -that all the extant mammals of Europe already existed in the -post-glacial age, but along with many others now altogether or locally -extinct. Thus there seems to have been the removal over the whole -northern hemisphere of a number of the largest mammals, while a selected -number survived and no additions were made. Again, while at one time it -was supposed that the remains of palæocosmic man and his contemporaries -were confined to caverns and river alluvia, it is now known that they -occur also on high plateaus and water-sheds, in beds of gravel and silt -which must have been deposited there under conditions of submergence and -somewhat active current drift, perhaps in some cases aided by floating -ice.[42] Lastly, while, as must naturally be the case, in some places -the remains of ancient and more modern men are mixed, or seem to pass -into each other, in others, as in the Swiss, Belgian and Lebanon caves -and in the superficial deposits, there is a distinct separation, -implying an interval accompanied by physical change between the time of -the earlier and later men. - -[41] Howorth, _The Mammoth and the Flood_. - -[42] Prestwich on deposits at Ightham, Kent, _Journal Geological -Society_, May 1889. - -Such considerations as these, the force of which is most strongly felt -by those best acquainted with the methods of investigation employed by -geologists and archæologists, are forcing us to conclude: (1) That there -are indicated in the latest geological formations two distinct human -periods, an earlier and a later, characterised by differences of faunæ -and of physical conditions, as well as by distinct races of men. (2) -That these two periods are separated by a somewhat rapid physical change -of the nature of submergence, or by a series of changes locally sudden -and generally not long-continued. (3) That it is not improbable that -this greatest of all revolutions in human affairs may be the same that -has so impressed itself on the memory of the survivors as to form the -basis of all the traditions and historical accounts of the Deluge. - -This being the state of the case, it becomes expedient to review our -ideas of the ancient Hebrew records, from which our early, and perhaps -crude, impressions of this event were derived, and to ascertain how much -of our notions of the Deluge of Genesis may be fairly deduced from the -record itself, and how much may be due to more or less correct -interpretations, or to our own fancy. In connection with this we may -also be able to obtain some guidance as to the value to be attached to -the Hebrew document as a veritable and primitive record of the great -catastrophe. - -The key to the understanding of the early human history of Genesis lies -in the story of the fall of man, and its sequel in the murder of Abel by -his brother Cain, the beginning of that reign of violence which endures -even to this day. From this arose the first division of the human race -into hostile clans or tribes, the races of Cain and Seth, on which -hinges the history, characteristics and fate of antediluvian man; and, -as we shall see in the sequel, from this arose profound differences in -religious beliefs, which have tinged the theology and superstitions of -all subsequent times. Of course, in making this statement I refer to the -history given in Genesis, without special reference to its intrinsic -truth or credibility, but merely in relation to its interpretation in -harmony with its own statements. - -It is further evident that this tragic event must have occurred in that -Tigro-Euphratean region which was the Biblical site of Eden[43] and that -while the Sethite race presumably occupied the original home of Adam, -and adhered to that form of religion which is expressed in the worship -of Jahveh, the coming Redeemer and the expected 'Seed of the Woman,' the -other race spread itself more widely, probably attained to a higher -civilisation, in so far as art is concerned, in some of its divisions, -and sank to a deeper barbarism in others, while it retained the original -worship of God the Creator (Elohim). Hence the Sethite race is -designated as the sons of Adam (Beni ha Adam), the true and legitimate -children of the first man, and the Cainites as Beni Elohim, or sons of -God.[44] The mixture of these races produced the godless, heaven-defying -Nephelim, the Titans of the Old Testament, whose wickedness brought on -the diluvial catastrophe. These half-breeds of the antediluvian time -were in all probability the best developed, physically and perhaps -mentally, of the men of their period; and but for the Deluge they might -have become masters of the world. - -[43] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, chap. iv. - -[44] That this is the true meaning of the expressions in Genesis vi. I -cannot doubt. See discussion of the subject in the work cited in -previous note. - -This question of different races and religions before the Flood is, -however, deserving of a little farther elucidation. The names Elohim and -Jahveh are used conjointly throughout the Book of Genesis except in its -first chapter, and their mode of occurrence cannot be explained merely -on the theory of two documents pieced together by an editor. It has a -deeper significance than this, and one which indicates a radical -diversity between Elohists and Jahvists even in this early period. In -the earliest part of the human history, as distinguished from the -general record of creation, the two names are united in the compound -Jahveh-Elohim, but immediately after the fall Eve is represented as -attributing to, or identifying with, Jahveh alone the birth of her -eldest son--'I have produced a man, the Jahveh,' and which may mean that -she supposed Cain to be the promised manifestation of God as the -Redeemer. Accordingly Cain and Abel are represented as offering -sacrifice to Jahveh, and yet it is said in a verse which must be a part -of the same document, that it was not till the time of Enos, a grandson -of Adam, that men began to invoke the name of Jahveh. It would seem also -that this invocation of Jahveh was peculiar to the Sethites, and that -the Cainites were still worshippers of Elohim, the God of nature and -creation, a fact which perhaps has relation to the so-called physical -religion of some ancient peoples. Hence their title of Beni ha Elohim. -Thus the division between the Cainite and Sethite races early became -accentuated by a sectarian distinction as well. We may imagine that the -Cainites, worshipping God as Creator, and ignoring that doctrine of a -Redeemer which seemed confined to the rival race of Seth, were the -deists of their time, and held a position which might, according -to culture and circumstances, degenerate into a polytheistic -nature-worship, or harden into an absolute materialism. On the other -hand, the Sethites, recognised by the author of Genesis as the orthodox -descendants of Adam, and invoking Jahveh, held to the promise of a -coming Saviour, and to a deliverance from the effects of the Fall to be -achieved by His means. - -It is clear that, from the point of view of the author of Genesis, the -chosen seed of Seth should have maintained their separation from a -wicked world. Their failure to do this involves them in the wrath of -Jahveh and renders the destruction of mankind necessary, and in this the -whole Godhead under its combined aspects of Elohim and Jahveh takes a -part. A similar view has caused the Chaldean narrator to invoke the aid -of all the gods in his pantheon to effect the destruction of man. - -These considerations farther throw light on the double character of the -Deluge narrative in Genesis, which has induced those ingenious scholars -who occupy themselves with analysis or disintegration of the Pentateuch -to affirm two narratives, one Elohist and one Jahvist.[45] Whatever -value may attach to this hypothesis, it is evident that if the history -is thus made up of two documents it gains in value, since this would -imply that the editor had at his disposal two chronicles embodying the -observations of two narrators, possibly of different sects, if these -differences were perpetuated in the postdiluvian world; and farther, -that he is enabled to affirm that the catastrophe affected both the -great races of men. It farther would imply that these early documents -were used by the writer to produce his combined narrative almost without -change of diction, so that they remain in their original form of the -alleged testimony of eye-witnesses, a peculiarity which attaches also to -the Chaldean version, as this purports to be in the form given by -Hasisadra, the Chaldean Noah, himself.[46] - -[45] See, for a very clear statement of these views, Professor Green in -_Hebraica_, January 1889, along with Dr. Harper's _résumé_ of the -Pentateuchal criticism in the previous number. - -[46] Translation of G. Smith and others. With reference to the -preservation of this and the Hebrew narrative in writing, we should bear -in mind that writing was an art well known in Chaldea and Egypt -immediately after the Deluge, or at least between 2000 and 3000 B.C., -and that the Chaldean narrator speaks of documents hidden by Noah at -Sippara before the Deluge. - -Let us now inquire into the physical aspects of the Deluge, as they are -said to have presented themselves to the ancient witness or witnesses to -whom we owe the Biblical account of the catastrophe, and endeavour to -ascertain if they have any agreement with the conditions of the great -post-glacial Deluge of geology. Let it be observed here that we are -dealing not with prehistoric events but with a written history, supposed -by some to have been compiled from two contemporary documents, and -corroborated by the testimony of the ancient Chaldean tablets copied by -the scribes of Assurbanipal, apparently from different originals, -preserved in very ancient Chaldean temples. - -The preparation of an ark or ship, and the accommodation therein, not -only of Noah and his family, but of a certain number of animals, is a -feature in which most Deluge narratives agree. This implies a -considerable advance in the arts of construction and navigation, but not -more than we have a right to infer from the perfection of these arts in -early postdiluvian times, when it can scarcely be supposed that the new -communities of men had fully regained the position of their ancestors -before the destruction caused by the great Flood. Lenormant, however, -remarks here: - -'The Biblical narrative bears the stamp of an inland nation, ignorant of -things appertaining to navigation. In Genesis the name of the ark, -Têbâh, signifies "chest," and not "vessel"; and there is nothing said -about launching the ark on the water; no mention either of the sea, or -of navigation, or any pilot. In the Epopee of Uruk, on the other hand, -everything indicates that it was composed among a maritime people; each -circumstance reflects the manners and customs of the dwellers on the -shores of the Persian Gulf. Hasisadra goes on board a vessel, distinctly -alluded to by its appropriate appellation; this ship is launched, and -makes a trial-trip to test it: all its chinks are calked with bitumen, -and it is placed under the charge of a pilot.' - -This remark, which I find made by other commentators as well, suggests, -it seems to me, somewhat different conclusions. The Hebrews when -settled, either in Egypt or in Canaan, were near to the sea-coast, and -familiar with boats and with the ships of the Phoenicians. If, therefore, -they persisted in calling Noah's ark a 'chest,' it must have been from -unwillingness to change an old history derived from their Chaldean or -Mesopotamian ancestors, or because they continued to regard the ark as -rather a great box than a ship properly so called. On the other hand, it -is likely that the particulars in the Chaldean account came from later -manipulation of the narrative, after commerce and navigation on the -Euphrates and Persian Gulf had become familiar to the Chaldeans. Thus in -this as in other respects the Hebrew narrative is the more primitive of -the two, and is consistent with the necessity of Divine instructions to -Noah, which, if he had been familiar with navigation, would not have -been necessary.[47] - -[47] See also the evidence of an inland position of the writers in the -record of creation in Genesis i., as stated in my work cited in previous -note. - -As in the Chaldean version, the Biblical history begins with the -specification of the ark. On this (Elohist) portion it is only necessary -to say that the dimensions of the ark are large and well adapted to -stowage rather than to speed, and that within it was strengthened by -three decks and by a number of bulkheads, or partitions, separating the -rooms or berths into which it was divided. Without, it was protected and -rendered tight by coats of resinous or asphaltic varnish (_copher_), and -it was built of the lightest and most durable kind of wood (gopher or -cypress). Only two openings are mentioned, a hatch or window above, and -a port or door in the side. There is no mention of any masts, rigging, -or other means of propulsion or steerage. The Chaldean history differs -in introducing a steersman, thus implying the means of propulsion as in -an actual ship. - -Noah is instructed, in addition to his own family, to provide for -animals, two of every kind; but these very general terms are afterwards -limited by the words _uph_, _bemah_, and _remesh_, which define birds, -cattle, and small quadrupeds as those specially intended. Noah's ark was -not a menagerie, but rather like a cattle-ship, capable perhaps of -accommodating as many animals as one of those steamers which now -transfer to England the animal produce of Western fields and prairies. -The animals portrayed on the ancient monuments of Egypt and Assyria, -however, inform us that, in early post-diluvial times, and therefore -probably also in the time of Noah, a greater variety of animals were -under the control of man than is the case in any one country at -present.[48] In the passage referring to the embarkation, only the -cattle and fowls are mentioned, but seven pairs are to be taken of the -clean species which could be used as food.[49] The embarkation having -been completed on the very day when the Deluge commenced, we have next -the narrative of the Flood itself. Here it is noteworthy that God -(Elohim) makes the arrangements, and Jahveh shuts the voyagers in. - -[48] Houghton, _Natural History of the Ancients_, and _Transactions of -the Society of Biblical Archæology_; also representations of tame -antelopes, &c., on Egyptian monuments. - -[49] This has been considered a later addition; but the practice of all -primitive peoples has sanctioned the distinction of clean and unclean -beasts, which is merely defined in the Mosaic law, not instituted for -the first time. - -The first note that our witness enters in his 'log' relates to his -impressions of the causes of the catastrophe, which was not effected -supernaturally, but by natural causes. These are the 'breaking up of the -fountains of the great deep' and the 'opening of the windows of heaven.' -These expressions must be interpreted in accordance with the use of -similar terms in the account of creation in Genesis i., the more so that -this statement is a portion regarded by the composite theory as -Elohistic. On this principle of interpretation, the great deep is that -universal ocean which prevailed before the elevation of the dry land, -and the breaking up of its fountains is the removal of that restriction -placed upon it when its waters were gathered together into one place. In -other words, the meaning is the invasion of the land by the ocean. In -like manner, the windows of heaven, the cloudy reservoirs of the -atmospheric expanse, or possibly waterspouts, or even volcanic -eruptions, and not necessarily identical with the great rain extending -for forty days, as stated in the following clause. The Chaldean record -adds the phenomena of thunder and tempest, but omits the great deep; an -indication that it is an independent account, and by a less informed or -less intelligent narrator. It is worthy of note that our narrator has no -idea of any river inundation in the case. - -At this stage we are brought into the presence of the question: Is the -Deluge represented as a miraculous or a merely natural phenomenon? Yet, -from a scientific point of view, this question has not the significance -usually attributed to it. True miracles are not, and cannot be, -contraventions or violations of God's natural laws. They are merely -unusual operations of natural powers under their proper laws, but -employed by the Almighty for effecting spiritual ends. Thus, naturally, -they are under the laws of the material world, but, spiritually, they -belong to a higher sphere. In the present case, according to the -narrative in Genesis, the Flood was physically as much a natural -phenomenon as the earthquakes at Ischia, or the eruption of Krakatoa. It -was a miraculous or spiritual intervention only in so far as it was -related to the destruction of an ungodly race, and as it was announced -beforehand by a prophet. Had the approaching eruption of Krakatoa been -intended as a judgment on the wicked, and had it been revealed to anyone -who had taken pains to warn his countrymen and then to provide for his -own safety, this would have given to that eruption as much of a -miraculous character as the Bible attaches to the Deluge. In the New -Testament, where we have more definite information as to miracles, they -are usually called 'powers' and 'signs,' less prominence being given to -the mere wonder which is implied in the term 'miracle.' Under the aspect -of _powers_, they imply that the Creator can do many things beyond our -power and comprehension, just as in a lesser way a civilised man, from -his greater knowledge of natural laws and command over natural energies, -can do much that is incomprehensible to a savage; and in this direction -science teaches us that, given an omnipotent God, the field of miracle -is infinite. As _signs_, on the other hand, such displays of power -connect themselves with the moral and spiritual world, and become -teachers of higher truths and proofs of Divine interference. The true -position of miracles as signs is remarkably brought out in that argument -of Christ, in which He says, 'If ye believe not My words, believe Me for -the works' sake.' It is as if a civilised visitor to some barbarous -land, who had been describing to an incredulous audience the wonders of -his own country, were to exhibit to them a watch or a microscope, and -then to appeal to them that these were things just as mysterious and -incredible as those of which he had been speaking. - -Returning to the Deluge, we may observe that such an invasion of the -great deep is paralleled by many of which geology presents to us the -evidence, and that our knowledge of nature enables us to conceive of the -possibility of greater miracles of physical change than any on record, -such as, for instance, the explosion of the earth itself into an -infinity of particles, the final extinction of the solar heat, or the -accession to this heat of such additional fierceness as to burn up the -attendant planets. All this might take place without any interference -with God's laws, but merely by correlations and adjustments of them, as -much within His power as the turning on or stopping of a machine is in -the power of a human engineer. Further, such acts of Divine power may be -related to moral and spiritual things, just as easily as any outward -action resulting from our own will may be determined by moral -considerations. The time is past when any rational objection can be made -on the part of science to the so-called miracles of the Bible. - -To return to the passengers in the ark. This must have been built on -high ground, or the progress of the Deluge must have been slow, for -forty days elapsed before the waters reached the ship and floated it. It -is not unlikely that the ark was built on rising ground, for here -supplies of timber would be nearer. It has puzzled some simple -antiquarians to find dug-out canoes of prehistoric date on the tops of -hills; but they did not reflect that the maker of a canoe would -construct his vessel where the suitable wood could be found, since it -would be much easier to carry the finished canoe to the shore than to -drag thither the solid log out of which it was to be fashioned. So Noah -would naturally build his ark where the wood he required could be -procured most easily. The Chaldean narrator seems to have overlooked -this simple consideration, for he mentions a launching and trial-trip of -the ship, a sure mark that he is a later authority than the writer in -Genesis. - -The inmates of the ark now felt that it was moving on the waters, a new -and dread sensation which must have deeply impressed their minds, and -they soon became aware that the ark not merely floated, but 'went,' or -made progress in some definite direction. Remark the simple yet -significant notes--'The ark was lift up from the earth,' and 'the ark -went upon the face of the waters.' The direction of driftage is not -stated, but it is a fair inference, from the probable place of departure -in Chaldea and that of final grounding of the ark, that it was northward -or inland, which would indicate that the chief supply of water was from -the Indian Ocean, and that it was flowing inward toward the great sunken -plain of interior Asia, which, however, the ark did not reach, but -grounded in the hilly region known to the Hebrews as Ararat, to the -Chaldeans as Nisr. A curious statement is made here (Elohist) as to the -depth of the water being fifteen cubits. Even in a flat country so small -a depth would not cover the rising grounds; but this is obviously not -the meaning of the narrator, but something much more sensible and -practical. It is not unlikely that the measure stated was the -water-draught of the loaded ark, and that as the voyagers felt it rise -and fall on the waves, they may have experienced some anxiety lest it -should strike and go to pieces. It was no small part of the providential -arrangement in their case that in the track of the ark everything was -submerged more than fifteen cubits before they reached it. Hence this -note, which is at the same time one of the criteria of the simple -veracity of the history. The only other remark in this part of the -narrative relates to the entire submergence of the whole country within -sight, and the consequent destruction of animal life; and here the -enumeration covers all land animals, and the terms used are thus more -general than those applied to the animals preserved in the ark. The -Deluge culminated, in so far as our narrator observed, in one hundred -and fifty days. - -His next experience is of a gale of wind, accompanied or followed by -cessation of the rain and of the inflow of the oceanic waters.[50] The -waters then decreased, not regularly, but by an intermittent process, -'going and returning'; but whether this was a tidal phenomenon or of the -nature of earthquake waves we have no information. At length the ark -grounded, apparently on high ground or in thick weather, for no land was -visible; but at length, after two months, neighbouring hill-tops were -seen. - -[50] Genesis viii. 1, 2: 'And Elohim made a wind to pass over the earth, -and the waters abated,' &c. - -The incident of sending out birds to test the recession of the waters -deserves notice, because of its apparently trivial nature, because it -appears with variations in the Chaldean account, and because it has been -treated in a remarkably unscientific manner by some critics. It -indicates the uncertainty which would arise in the mind of the patriarch -because of the fluctuating decrease of the waters, and possibly also a -misty condition of the air preventing a distinct view of distant -objects. The birds selected for the purpose were singularly appropriate. -The raven is by habit a wanderer, and remarkable for power of flight -and clearness of distant vision. So long, therefore, as it made the ark -its headquarters, 'going and returning'[51] from its search for food, it -might be inferred that no habitable land was accessible. The dove, sent -out immediately after the raven,[52] is of a different habit. It could -not act as a scavenger of the waters and go and return, but could leave -only if it found land covered with vegetation. As a domesticated bird -also, it would naturally come back to be taken into the ark. Hence it -was sent forth at intervals of seven days, returning with an olive leaf -when it found tree tops above the water, and remaining away when it -found food and shelter. The Chaldean account adds a third bird, the -swallow--a perfectly useless addition, since this bird, if taken into -the ark at all, would from its habits of life be incapable of affording -any information. This addition is a mark of interpolation in the -Chaldean version, and proceeded perhaps from the sacred character -attached by popular superstition to the swallow, or from the familiar -habits of the bird suggesting to some later editor its appropriateness. -Singularly enough, the usually judicious Schrader, probably from -deficient knowledge of the habits of birds, fails to appreciate all -this, and after a long discussion prefers the Babylonian legend for -reasons of a most unscientific character, actually condemning the -perfectly natural and clear Biblical story as artificial and due to a -recent emendation. He says: 'When the story passed over to the Hebrews, -the name of the swallow has disappeared,' and 'it is only from the -Babylonian narrative that the selection of the different birds becomes -clear.' This little disquisition of Schrader is, indeed, one of the most -amusing instances of that inversion of sound criticism which results -when unscientific commentators tamper with the plain statements of -truthful and observant witnesses. - -[51] Margin of Authorised Version; less fully, 'to and fro' in the text. - -[52] There is no reason to suppose, as some have done, a hiatus here in -the narrative. - -The uncertainty indicated by the mission of the birds seems to have -continued from the first day of the tenth to the first day of the first -month, when Noah at length ventured to remove the covering of the ark -and inspect the condition of the surrounding country, now abandoned by -the waters, but not thoroughly dried for some time longer. Still, so -timid was the patriarch that he did not dare without a special command -to leave his place of safety. I am aware that if the two alleged -documents are arbitrarily separated it is possible to see here some -apparent contradiction in dates; but this is not necessary if we leave -them in their original relation.[53] - -[53] See Green, _Hebraica, l. c._ - -It will be observed that a narrative such as that summarised above bears -unmistakably stamped upon it the characteristics of the testimony of an -eye-witness. By whomsoever reduced to writing and finally edited, it -must, if genuine, have come down nearly in its present form from the -time of the catastrophe which it relates. It follows that the narrator -leaves no place for the current questions as to the universality of the -Deluge. It was universal so far as his experience extended, but that is -all. He is not responsible for what occurred beyond the limits of his -observation and beyond the fact that man, so far as known to him, -perished. If, therefore, as some have held,[54] Balaam in his prophecy -refers to Cainite populations as extant in his time, or if Moses -declines to trace to any of the postdiluvian patriarchs the Rephaim, -Emim, Zuzim and other prehistoric peoples of Palestine, we may infer, -without any contradiction of our narrative, that there were surviving -antediluvians other than the Noachidæ, whatever improbability may attach -to this on other grounds, and more especially from the now ascertained -extension of the post-glacial submergence over nearly all parts of the -northern hemisphere. - -[54] Motais, _Déluge Biblique_. - -Let it also be noticed that beyond the prophetic intimation to Noah, and -the one expression, Jahveh 'shut him in,' which may refer merely to -providential care, there is, as already remarked, nothing miraculous, in -the popular sense of that term; and that mythical elements, such as -those introduced into the Babylonian narrative, are altogether absent. -The story relates to plain matters of fact, which, if they happened at -all, any one might observe, and for the proof of which any ordinary -testimony would be sufficient. It may be profitable, however, to revert -here to the probable relation of this narrative to the geological facts -already adverted to, and also its bearing on the mythical and -polytheistic additions which we find in the Deluge stories of heathen -nations. - -Regarding the Biblical Deluge as a record of a submergence of a vast -region of Eur-Asia and Northern Africa, at least, while no similar -catastrophe has been recorded subsequently, it is unquestionable that -submergences equally important have occurred again and again in the -geological history of our continents, and have been equally destructive -of animal life. It is true that most of these are believed to have been -of more slow and gradual character than that recorded in Genesis, but in -the case of many of them this is a very uncertain inference from the -analogy of modern changes; and it is certain that the post-glacial -submergence, which closed the era of palæocosmic man and his companion -animals, must have been one of the most transient on record. On the -other hand, we need not limit the entire duration of the Noachic -submergence to the single year whose record has been preserved to us. -Local subsidence may have been in progress throughout the later -antediluvian age, and the experience of the narrator in Genesis may have -related only to its culmination in the central district of human -residence. Finally, if man was really a witness of this last great -continental submergence, we cannot be too thankful that there were so -intelligent witnesses to preserve the record of the event for our -information. - -It is needless, then, to enter into further details, though these are -sufficient to fill volumes if desired, in proof of the remarkable -convergence of history and geological discovery on the great Flood, -which now constitutes one of the most remarkable illustrations of the -points of contact of science proceeding on its own methods of -investigation and Divine revelation, preserving the records of ancient -events otherwise lost or buried under accretions of myth and fancy. I -have already endeavoured to show that the earliest race of palæocosmic -men, that of Canstadt, very fairly corresponds with what may have been -the characteristics of the ruder tribes of Cainites, and that if we -regard the Truchère skull as representing the Sethite people, we may -suppose the Cro-magnon race to represent the giants, or Nephelim, who -sprung from the union of the two pure types. I have also referred to the -possibility that the Truchère race, so little known to us as yet, may -have been a prot-Iberian people, possessing even before the Flood -domestic animals, agriculture, and some of the arts of life, -corresponding to what we find in the earliest postdiluvian nations. This -is, indeed, implied in the fact that the postdiluvian nations present -themselves to us at once with a somewhat advanced condition of the arts, -especially in Chaldea and in Egypt. Such possibilities may serve to -suggest to speculative archæologists that they cannot safely assume -that all antediluvian or palæolithic tribes were barbarous or -semi-brutal, or that there was a continuous development of humanity -without any diluvial catastrophe. It is also somewhat rash to carry back -the chronology of Egyptians and Babylonians to times when, as we know on -physical evidence, the Valley of the Nile was an arm of the sea, and the -plain of the Euphrates an extension of the Persian Gulf. It is fortunate -for the Bible that such assumptions are not required by its history. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -SPECIAL QUESTIONS RESPECTING THE DELUGE - - -In studying the literature relating to the Deluge, we are constantly met -by questions as to its so-called 'universality.' Was it a local or -universal Deluge and if universal in what sense so? This is a point in -which neglect or ignorance of the necessary physical conditions has led -to the strangest misconceptions. - -It is obvious that there are four senses in which a catastrophe like the -Deluge of Noah may be affirmed or denied to have been universal. - -1. It may have been universal in the sense of being a deep stratum of -water covering the whole globe, both land and sea. Such universality -could not have been in the mind of the writer, and probably has been -claimed knowingly by no writer in modern times. Halley in the last -century understood the conditions of such universality, though he seems -to have supposed that the impact of a comet might supply the necessary -water. Owen has directed attention to the fact that such a deluge might -be as fatal to the inhabitants of the waters as to those of the land. -In any case, such universality would demand an enormous supply of water -from some extra-terrestrial source. - -2. The Deluge may have been universal in the sense of being a submersion -of the whole of the land, either by subsidence or by elevation of the -ocean bed. Such a state of things may have existed in primitive -geological ages before our continents were elevated, but we have no -scientific evidence of its recurrence at any later time, though large -portions of the continents have been again and again submerged. The -writers of Genesis i. and of Psalm civ. seem to have known of no such -total submergence since the elevation of the first dry land, and nothing -of this kind is expressed or certainly implied in the Deluge story. - -3. The Deluge may have been universal in so far as man, its chief -object, and certain animals useful or necessary to him, are concerned. -This kind of universality would seem to have been before the mind of the -writer when he says that 'Noah only, and they who were with him in the -ark, remained alive.'[55] - -[55] Genesis vii. 23. - -4. The Deluge may have been universal in so far as the area and -observation and information of the narrator extended. The story is -evidently told in the form of a narrative derived from eye-witnesses, -and this form seems even to have been chosen or retained purposely to -avoid any question of universality of the first and second kinds -referred to above. The same form of narrative is preserved in the -Chaldean legend. This fact is not affected by the doctrine held by some -of the schools of disintegrators, that the narrative is divisible into -two documents, respectively 'Jahvistic' and 'Elohistic.' I have -elsewhere[56] shown that there is a very different reason for the use of -these two names of God. But if there were two original witnesses whose -statements were put together by an editor, this surely does not -invalidate their testimony or deprive them of the right to have it -understood as they intended. - -[56] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, chap. iv. - -It is thus evident that the whole question of 'universality' is little -more than a mere useless logomachy, having no direct relation to the -facts or to the credibility of the narrative. - -There are also in connection with this question of universality certain -scientific and historical facts already referred to which we may again -summarise here, and which are essential to the understanding of the -question. Nothing is more certainly known in geology than that at the -close of the later tertiary or pleistocene age the continents of the -northern hemisphere stood higher and spread their borders more widely -than at present. In this period also they were tenanted by a very grand -and varied mammalian fauna, and it is in this continental age of the -later pleistocene or early modern time that we find the first -unequivocal evidence of man as existing on various parts of the -continents. At the close of this period occurred changes, whether sudden -or gradual we do not know, though they could not have occupied a very -long time, which led to the extinction of the earliest races of men and -many contemporaneous animals. That these changes were in part, at least, -of the nature of submergence we learn from the fact that our present -continents are more sunken or less elevated out of the water, and also -from the deposit of superficial gravels and other _detritus_ more recent -than the pleistocene over their surfaces. We are thus shut up by -geological facts to the belief in a Deluge geologically modern and -practically universal. - -One other objection to the Deluge narrative perhaps deserves a word of -comment--that urged against the statement of the gradual disappearance -of the waters. The extraordinary difficulty is raised respecting this, -that the water must have rushed seaward in a furious torrent. The -objection is based apparently on the idea that the foundation for the -original narrative was a river inundation in the Mesopotamian plain. -This cannot be admitted; but if it were, the objection would not apply. -River inundations, whether of the Nile or Euphrates, subside inch by -inch, not after the manner of mountain torrents. Thus this objection is -another instance of difficulties gratuitously imported into the history. - -In point of fact the narrator represents the Deluge as prevailing for a -whole year, which would be impossible in the case of a river inundation. -He attributes it in part, at least, to the 'great deep'--that is, the -ocean; and he represents the ark as drifting inland or toward the north. -Such conditions can be satisfied only by the supposition of a subsidence -of the land similar in kind, at least, to the great post-glacial flood -of geology. Partial subsidences of this kind, local but very extreme, -have occurred even in later times, as, for instance, in the Runn of -Cutch, the delta of the Mississippi, and the delta of the Nile; and if -the objectors are determined to make the Deluge of Noah very local and -more recent than the post-glacial flood, it would be more rational to -refer to subsidences like those just mentioned, and of which they will -find examples in Lyell's _Principles_ and other geological books. It is, -however, decidedly more probable that Noah's Flood is identical with -that which destroyed the men of the mammoth age, the palæocosmic or -'palæolithic' men;[57] and in that case the recession of the waters -would probably be gradual, but intermittent, 'going and returning,' as -our ancient narrator has it; but there need not have been any violent -_débâcle_. - -[57] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, chaps. iii. and iv. - -It is also to be noted that a submergence of the land and consequent -deluge may be cataclysmic or tranquil, according to local circumstances, -and that it may have been locally sudden, while for the whole world it -was gradual and of longer duration. Such differences must belong to all -great submergences, which may in one place produce great disturbance and -very coarse deposits, in another may be quiet and deposit the finest -silt. Even the flood of a river or the action of a tide admits of -variations of this kind. In narrow channels the great tides of the Bay -of Fundy rush as torrents; in wide bays they creep in imperceptibly. - -The traditions and Biblical history of the Deluge not only furnish -important material for connecting the geological ages with the period of -human history, and for enabling us to realise the fact that early man -was a witness of some of the later physical and vital vicissitudes that -have passed over the earth, but may be correlated with other ancient -traditions which seem at first sight to have no immediate relation to -it. - -As an example, I may refer to the well-known Egyptian fable of Atlantis, -which may be a reminiscence of early man in the second continental -period, and which we may, perhaps, even connect with the Mexican -tradition of civilisation reaching America from the East.[58] - -[58] It is, perhaps, only an accident that _Atl_ is the Mexican word for -water. - -Plato has handed down to us a circumstantial tradition, derived from -Egypt, of a great Atlantic continent west of Europe, once thickly -peopled, and the seat of an empire that was dominant over the -Mediterranean regions. This continent, or island, was called Atlantis, -and it had been submerged with all its people in prehistoric times. This -tradition may have reference to certain geological facts of the early -modern period already referred to. If the Egyptian tradition really -extended back to the antediluvian period, we can readily understand -their belief in the continent of Atlantis. We have already ascertained -the great extension in that period of the land of Western Europe, and -there may have been outlying insular tracts in the Atlantic now quite -unknown to us. These lands may well have sustained nations of the -gigantic Cro-magnon race, 'men of renown,' who, when their westward -progress was stayed by the ocean, and they were checked in the north by -the increasing cold, may have turned their arms against the dwellers on -the Mediterranean coasts, perhaps in the age immediately preceding the -Deluge. We know little as yet of the history of those Horshesu, or -children of Horus, who are said to have preceded the historic period in -Egypt. There must have been Egyptian literature about these people, and -should this be recovered we shall probably learn more of Atlantis. In -the meantime we may, at least, bring the tradition of that perished -continent into harmony with geology and history. I may add that we need -not consider the above view as at variance with that of those -archæologists who, like the late Sir D. Wilson,[59] suppose the -tradition of Atlantis to have been founded on vague intimations of the -existence of America, since any such intimations which reached the -civilised nations of Southern Europe or Africa would naturally be -considered as an indication that some part of the lost Atlantis still -continued to exist. - -[59] _The Lost Atlantis_, 1892. - -In still another direction does the deluge story connect itself with -physical probabilities. If we examine the Atlantic map representing the -soundings of the Challenger expedition, we shall find evidence not only -of that extension of land in temperate Western Europe which may have -originated the story of Atlantis, but other dispositions of land, -especially in the extreme north and south, which may have influenced -antediluvian climate. We have reason to believe that in the second -continental period, that of palæocosmic man, Baffin's Bay may have been -greatly narrowed and Behring's Straits entirely closed, while large -tracts of land existed around Iceland and west of Norway. There would -thus be almost continuous land connection around the north pole, -permitting easy extension of man and of hardy animals. There would also -be much less access of ice to the North Atlantic. - -At the same time in another region there was probably a land connection -from Florida to South America by the Bahamas, and the equatorial current -may have been more powerfully deflected northward than now. The effect -would be to produce around the North Atlantic, and especially on the -eastern side, a golden age of genial climate, fitted to early man, but -destined as time went on and geographical changes proceeded, preparatory -to the great diluvial subsidence, to fade away into the cool and damp -climate of the later post-glacial or antediluvian period. This again -would lead to migrations, wars, and fierce struggles for existence among -the human populations--a time of anarchy and violence preceding the -final catastrophe. - -Much collateral evidence in substantiation of these probabilities can be -collected from the distribution of marine life[60] and the changes of -level, even on the American coast. They conjure up before us strange -visions of the prehistoric past, and of the vicissitudes of which man -himself has been witness, and of which, whether through memory and -tradition or the revelation of God, he has continued to retain some -written records which, long dim and uncertain, are now beginning to be -put into relation with physical facts ascertained by modern scientific -observation. - -[60] See _The Ice Age in Canada_, by the author. Montreal: 1893. - -We have already seen how the Deluge story and the fate of the -antediluvians have interwoven themselves with the myths and -superstitions of the Old World. The six great gods of the Egyptian -pantheon represent the creative days, and the 'Sons of Horus' the -antediluvians. So we have the ten patriarchs or kings of the old -Chaldeans corresponding to those of Genesis, and the heaven-defying -Titans of the old mythologies representing the giants before the Flood. -Perhaps, however, no illustration of this is more patent or more -touching than that well-known one of Ishtar, the Astarte of the Syrians, -the Artemis of the Greeks, and who has been identified with the chief -female divinity of many other ancient nations, even with that Diana whom -'all Asia and the inhabited world worshippeth.' - -The Chaldean deluge tablets for the first time introduce her to us as an -antediluvian goddess, and inform us that she is the deified mother of -men, the same with the Biblical Isha, or Eve. In the crisis of the -Deluge we are told, 'Ishtar spoke like a little child, the great goddess -pronounced her discourse. Behold how mankind has returned to clay. I am -_the mother who brought forth men_, and like the fishes they fill the -sea. The gods because of the angels of the abyss are weeping with me.' -Ishtar is thus the mother of men, herself deified and gone into the -heavens, but even there mourning over her hapless children. She may be a -star-goddess, or the moon may be her emblem; but for all that she -appears in this old legend as a deified human mother, with a mother's -heart yearning over the progeny that had sprung from her womb, and had -been nourished in her breast. It was this, more than her crescent or -starry diadem, that commended her worship to her children. Her -representative in Genesis, the first mother, Isha, or Eve, is no -goddess, but a woman. Yet is she the emblem of life and the mother of a -promised Redeemer of humanity, who is to undo the results of sin and to -restore the Paradise of God bruising the head of the great serpent who, -in the Chaldean as in the Hebrew story, represents the power of evil. -Ishtar has been represented as the bride of the god Tammuz, the -Adonis[61] of the Greeks, and whose worship was one of the idolatries -that led the women of Israel astray, 'weeping for Tammuz';[62] but it -now appears that, according to the oldest doctrine, she is his -mother,[63] and he was a 'keeper of sheep,' dwelling in Eden, or Idinu, -and murdered by his brother Adar, who is also a god, and more especially -the god of war. In short, the story of Ishtar, Tammuz, and Adar, the -parent of so many myths, is merely the familiar one of Cain and Abel. -Hence the belief that the murder of Tammuz was connected with the -Deluge, and hence the annual lamentation of the women for Tammuz when -the spring inundations swelled and reddened the waters of the streams--a -rite possibly even antediluvian, and commemorative of the mourning of -the first mother for her slain son, to rescue whom it was fabled that -she even descended into Hades. - -[61] From the Semitic title 'Adonai,' my Lord. - -[62] Ezekiel viii. 14. - -[63] Sayce, _Hibbert Lectures_. - -Oppert regards the legend of Tammuz and Ishtar as a solar myth, and -supposes that the story of Cain and Abel was based on it. But a family -history of crime and sorrow is a much more real and probable thing as a -basis for tradition than a solar myth, and naturalists at least will be -disposed to invert the theory, and to believe that the simple Bible -story was the foundation of all the varied cults and superstitions that -clustered round Ishtar and Tammuz, as well as personages like Osiris and -Isis, who seem to have been later avatars, or revivals of the same tale. - -It would be easy to show that the deluge story has intimate connections -with other ancient myths and superstitions, as well as with the results -of modern archæology and geology. But were this all, our inquiry, -however interesting and curious, would have little practical value. It -has two important bearings on the present time. Christianity bases -itself, its founder Himself being witness, on the early chapters of -Genesis, as history and prophecy, and the treatment which these ancient -and inspired records have met with in modern times at the hands of -destructive criticism is doing its worst in aid of the anti-*Christian -tendencies of our time. To remove the doubts that have been cast on -these old records is therefore a clear gain to the highest interests of -humanity, and if theology and philology are unable to secure this -benefit, natural science may well step forward to lend its aid. Another -connection with present interests depends on the fact that, while -superstitions akin to that which deified the mother of the promised -seed, and introduced the world-wide cults of Astarte and Aphrodite, -still reign over great masses of men, absolute materialism and desperate -struggle for existence among men and nations are growing and extending -themselves as never before since the antediluvian times, and are -provoking a like signal and direful vengeance. In the midst of all -this, Christians look forward to the second coming of Jesus Christ to -destroy the powers of evil and to inaugurate a better time; and it was -He who said, 'As it came to pass in the days of Noah, even so shall it -be in the days of the Son of Man.' Let us remember the old story of the -flood of Noah lest those days come on us unawares. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -THE PREHISTORIC AND HISTORIC IN THE EAST - - -The term prehistoric was first used by my friend Sir Daniel Wilson in -his _Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_. It was intended to express 'the -whole period disclosed to us by archæological evidence as distinguished -from what is known by written records.' As Wilson himself reminds us, -the term has no definite chronological significance, since historic -records, properly so-called, extend back in different places to very -different times. With reference, for example, to the Chaldean and Hebrew -peoples, if we take their written records as history, this extends back -to the Deluge at least. Written history in Egypt reaches to at least -3000 years B.C., while in Britain it extends no farther than to the -landing of Julius Cæsar, and in America to the first voyage of Columbus. -In Palestine we possess written records back to the time of Abraham, but -these relate mainly to the Hebrew people. Of the populations which -preceded the Abrahamic immigration, those 'Canaanites who were already -in the land,' we have little history before the Exodus, except the -remarkable letters recently unearthed at Tel-el-Amarna, in Egypt. In -Egypt we have very early records of the dwellers on the Nile, but of the -Arabian and African peoples, whom they called Pun and Kesh, and the -Asiatic peoples, whom they knew as Cheta and Hyksos, we have till lately -known little more than their names and the representations of them on -Egyptian monuments. In both countries there may be unsounded depths of -unwritten history before the first Egyptian dynasty, and before the -Abrahamic clan crossed the Jordan. - -What, then, in Egypt and Palestine may be regarded as prehistoric? I -would answer--(1) The geographical and other conditions of these -countries immediately before the advent of man. (2) The evidence which -they afford of the existence, habits, and history of man in periods -altogether antecedent to any written history, except such notes as we -have in the Bible and elsewhere as to the so-called antediluvian world. -(3) The facts gleaned by archæological evidence as to tribes known to us -by no records of their own, but only by occasional notices in the -history or monuments of other peoples. In Egypt and Palestine such -peoples as the Hyksos, the Anakim, the Amalekites, the Hittites, and -Amorites are of this kind, though contemporary with historic peoples. - -Prehistoric annals may thus, in these countries, embrace a wide scope, -and may introduce us to unexpected facts and questions respecting -primitive humanity. I propose in the present chapter to direct attention -to some points which may be regarded as definitely ascertained in so far -as archæological evidence can give any certainty, though I cannot -pretend, in so limited a space, to enter into details as to their -evidence. - -Before proceeding, I may refer by way of illustration to another -instance brought into very prominent relief by the publication of -Schuchardt's work on Schliemann's excavations. We all know how shadowy -and unreal to our youthful minds were the Homeric stories of the heroic -age of Greece, and our faith and certainty were not increased when we -read in the works of learned German critics that the Homeric poems were -composite productions of an age much later than that to which they were -supposed to belong, and that their events were rather myths than -history. How completely has all this been changed by the discoveries of -Schliemann and his followers! Now we can stand on the very threshold -over which Priam and Hector walked. We can see the jewels that may have -adorned Helen or Andromache. We can see double-handled cups like that of -old Nestor, and can recognise the inlaid work of the shield of Achilles, -and can walk in the halls of Agamemnon. Thus the old Homeric heroes -become real men, as those of our time, and we can understand their -political and commercial relations with other old peoples before quite -as shadowy. Recent discoveries in Egypt take us still farther back. We -now find that the 'Hanebu,' who invaded Egypt in the days of the Hebrew -patriarchs, were prehistoric Greeks, already civilised, and probably -possessing letters ages before the date of the Trojan War. So it is with -the Bible history, when we see the contemporary pictures of the Egyptian -slaves toiling at their bricks, or when we stand in the presence of the -mummy of Rameses II. and know that we look on the face of the Pharaoh -who enslaved the Hebrews, and from whose presence Moses fled. - -Such discoveries give reality to history, and similar discoveries are -daily carrying us back to old events, and to nations of whom there was -no history whatever, and are making them like our daily friends and -companions. A notable case is that of the children of Heth, known to us -only incidentally by a few members of the nation who came in contact -with the early Hebrews. Suddenly we found that these people were the -great and formidable Kheta, or Khatti, who contended on equal terms with -the Egyptians and Assyrians for the empire of Western Asia; and when we -began to look for their remains, there appeared, one after another, -stone monuments, seals, and engraved objects, recording their form and -their greatness, till the tables have quite been turned, and there is -danger that we may attach too much importance to their agency in times -of which we have scarcely any written history. Thus, just as the quarry -and the mine reveal to us the fossil remains of animals and plants great -in their time, but long since passed away, so do the spade and pick of -the excavator constantly turn up for us the bones and the works of a -fossil and prehistoric humanity. - -Egypt may be said to have no prehistoric period, and our task with it -will be limited to showing that its written history scarcely goes back -as far as many Egyptologists suppose and confidently affirm, and that -beyond this it has as yet afforded nothing. Egypt, in short, old though -it seems, is really a new country. When its priests, according to Plato, -taunted Solon with the newness of the Greeks and referred to the old -western empire of Atlantis, they were probably trading on traditions of -antediluvian times, which had no more relation to the actual history of -the Egyptian people than to that of the Greeks. - -The limestones and sandstones which bound the Nile valley, sometimes -rising in precipitous cliffs from the bank of the stream, sometimes -receding for many miles beyond the edge of the green alluvial plain, are -rocks formed in cretaceous and early tertiary times under the sea, when -all Northern Africa and Western Asia were beneath the ocean. When raised -from the sea-bed to form land, they were variously bent and fractured, -and the Nile valley occupies a rift or fault, which, lying between the -hard ridges of the Arabian hills on the east and the more gentle -elevations of the Nubian desert on the west, afforded an outlet for the -waters of interior Africa and for the great floods which in the rainy -season pour down from the mountains of Abyssinia. - -This outlet has been available and has been in process of erosion by -running water from a period long anterior to the advent of man, and with -this early pre-human history belonging to the miocene and pliocene -periods of geology we have no need to meddle, except to state that it -was closed by a great subsidence, that of the pleistocene or glacial -period, when the land of North Africa and Western Asia was depressed -several hundred feet, when Africa was separated from Asia, when the Nile -valley was an arm of the sea, and when sea-shells were deposited on the -rising grounds of Lower Egypt at a height of two hundred feet or -more.[64] Such raised beaches are found not only in the Nile valley but -on the shores of the Red Sea, and, as we shall see, along the coast of -Palestine; but, so far as known, no remains of man have been found in -connection with them. This great depression must, however, geologically -speaking, have been not much earlier than the advent of man, since in -many parts of the world we find human remains in deposits of the next -succeeding era. - -[64] Hull, _Geology of Palestine and adjacent Districts_, Palestine -Exploration Fund. Dawson, _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, p. 311 and -Appendix. References will be found in these works to the labours of -Fraas, Schweinfurth, and others. - -This next period, that known to geologists as the post-glacial or early -modern, was characterised by an entire change of physical conditions. -The continents of the northern hemisphere were higher and wider than -now. The details of this we have already considered, and have seen that -at this time the Mediterranean was divided into two basins, and a broad -fringe of low land, now submerged, lay around its eastern end. This was -the age of those early palæolithic or palæocosmic men whose remains are -found in the caverns and gravels of Europe and Asia. What was the -condition of Egypt at this time? The Nile must have been flowing in its -valley; but there was probably a waterfall or cataract at Silsilis in -Upper Egypt, and rapids lower down, and the alluvial plain was much less -extensive than now and forest-clad, while the river seems to have been -unable to reach the Mediterranean and to have turned abruptly eastward, -discharging into a lake where the Isthmus of Suez now is, and probably -running thence into the Red Sea, so that at this time the waters of the -Nile approached very near to those of the Jordan, a fact which accounts -for that similarity of their modern fauna which has been remarked by so -many naturalists. I have myself collected in the deposits of this old -lake, near Ismailia, fresh-water shells of kinds now living in the Upper -Nile. If at this time men visited the Nile valley, they must have been -only a few bold hunters in search of game, and having their permanent -homes on the Mediterranean plains now submerged. - -If they left any remains we should find these in caverns or rock -shelters, or in the old gravels belonging to this period which here and -there project through the alluvial plain. At one of these places, Jebel -Assart, near Thebes, General Pitt-Rivers has satisfied himself of the -occurrence of flint chips which may have been of human workmanship;[65] -but after a day's collecting at the spot, I failed to convince myself -that the numerous flint flakes in the gravel were other than accidental -fragments. If they really are flint knives they are older than the -period we are now considering, and must be much older than the first -dynasty of the Egyptian historic kings.[66] These gravels were indeed, -in early Egyptian times, so consolidated that tombs were excavated in -them. Independently of this case, I know of no trustworthy evidence of -the residence of the earliest men in Egypt. Yet we know that at this -time rude hunting tribes had spread themselves over Western Asia, and -over Europe as far as the Atlantic, and were slaying the mammoth, the -hairy rhinoceros, the wild horse, and other animals now extinct. They -were the so-called 'palæolithic' or historically antediluvian men, -belonging, like the animals they hunted, to extinct races, quite -dissimilar physically from the historical Egyptians. And yet in a recent -review of the late Miss Edwards's charming work, _Pharaohs, Fellahs, and -Explorers_, she was taken to task by an eminent Egyptologist for -statements similar to the above. On the evidence of two additional finds -of flint implements _on the surface_, he affirms the existence of man -in Egypt at a time when 'the Arabian deserts were covered with verdure -and intersected by numerous streams,' that is, geologically speaking, in -the early pleistocene or pliocene period, or even in the miocene! - -[65] _Journal of Archæological Society_, 1881. Haynes's _Journal of the -American Academy of Sciences_. - -[66] Dawson, _Egypt and Syria_, p. 149. - -Singularly enough, therefore, Egypt is to the prehistoric annalist not -an old country--less old indeed than France and England, in both of -which we find evidence of the residence of the palæolithic cave men of -the mammoth age. Thus, when we go beyond local history into the -prehistoric past, our judgment as to the relative age of countries may -be strangely reversed. - -It is true that in Egypt, as in most other countries, flint flakes, or -other worked flints, are common on the surface and in the superficial -soil; but there is no good evidence that they did not belong to historic -times. A vivid light has been thrown on this point by Petrie's -discovery, in _débris_ attributed to the age of the twelfth dynasty, or -approximately that of the Hebrew patriarchs, of a wooden sickle of the -ordinary shape, but armed with flint fakes serrated at their edges,[67] -though the handle is beautifully curved in such a manner as to give a -better and more convenient hold than with those now in use. This -primitive implement presents to us the Egyptian farmer of that age -reaping his fields of wheat and barley with implements similar to those -of the palæocosmic men. No doubt, at the same time, he used a harrow -armed with rude flints, and may have used flint flakes for cutting wood -or for pointing his arrows. Yet he was a member of a civilised and -highly-organised nation, which could execute great works of canalisation -and embankment, and could construct tombs and temples that have not -since been surpassed. Can we doubt that the common people in Palestine -and other neighbouring countries were equally in the flint age, or be -surprised that, somewhat later, Joshua used flint knives to circumcise -the Israelites?[68] How remarkable are these links of connection between -early Eastern civilisation and the stone age! and they relate to mere -flakes, such as if found separately might be styled 'palæolithic.' - -[67] _Kahun and Garob_, Egyptian Exploration Fund publications. - -[68] Joshua v. 2, marginal reading. - -In accordance with all this, when we examine the tenants of the oldest -Egyptian tombs, who are known to us by their sculptured statues and -their carved and painted portraits, we find them to be the same with the -Egyptians of historic times, and not very dissimilar from the modern -Copts, and we also find that their arts and civilisation were not very -unlike those of comparatively late date. - -There are, however, some points in which the early condition of even -historic Egypt was different from the present or from anything recorded -in written history. - -I have elsewhere endeavoured, with the aid of my friend Dr. -Schweinfurth, to restore the appearance of the Nile valley when first -visited by man in the post-diluvial period. It was then probably -densely wooded with forests similar to those in the modern Soudan, and -must have swarmed with animal life in the air, on the land, and in the -water, including many formidable and dangerous beasts. On the other -hand, to a people derived from the Euphratean plains and accustomed to -irrigation, it must have seemed a very garden of the Lord in its -fertility and resources. - -There is good reason to credit the Egyptian traditions that the first -colonists crossed over from Southern Arabia by the Red Sea from that -land of Pun to which the Egyptians attributed their theology, and -settled in the neighbourhood of Abydos, and that they made their way -thence to the northward, at a time when the delta was yet a mere -swamp,[69] and when they had slowly to extend their cultivation in Lower -Egypt by dikes and canals. If we ask when the first immigrants arrived, -we are met by the most extravagantly varied estimates, derived mainly -from attempts to deduce a chronology from the dynastic lists of Egyptian -kings. That these are very uncertain, and in part duplicated, is now -generally understood, but still there is a tendency to ask for a time -far exceeding that for which we have any good warrant in authentic -history elsewhere. Herodotus estimated the time necessary for the -deposition of the mud of the delta at 20,000 years; but if we assume -that this deposit has been formed since the land approximately attained -to its present level, allowing for some subsidence in the delta in -consequence of the weight of sediment, and estimating the average rate -of deposition at one fifteenth of an inch per annum, which is as low an -amount as can probably be assumed, we shall have numbers ranging from -5,300 to about 7,000 years for the lapse of time since the delta was a -bay of the Mediterranean. - -[69] _Herodotus_, Book II. chap. 15. - -It is true that the recent borings in the delta, under the officers of -the British Engineers, have shown a great depth in some places without -reaching the original bottom of the old bay. Some geologists have -accordingly inferred from this a much greater age for the deposit than -that above stated,[70] and in this they are in one respect justified; -but they have to bear in mind that only the upper part of the material -belongs to the modern period. A vast thickness is due to the pleistocene -and pliocene ages, when the Nile was cutting out its valley and -depositing the excavated material in the sea at its mouth. A careful -examination of the borings proves by their composition that this is -actually the case.[71] Geologists who have been guided by these facts in -their estimates of time have been taunted as affirming that a great -diluvial catastrophe occurred while quiet government and civilised life -were going on in Egypt. The evidence for this early date of Egyptian -colonisation of the Nile valley is, as everyone knows, doubtful, and it -might be retorted that archæologists represent the Egyptian government -as dating from a period when the Nile valley was an inland district, and -when the centres of human population must have been, principally at -least, on lands now submerged. - -[70] Judd, _Report to Royal Society_, 1885. - -[71] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, where evidence of similar dates in -other countries is stated. - -As an example of the fanciful way in which this subject is sometimes -treated, I may cite the fabulous antiquity attributed to the great -sphinx of Gizeh. We are told that it is the most ancient monument in -Egypt, antedating the pyramids, and belonging to the time of the mystic -'Horshesu,' or people of Horus, of Egyptian tradition. In one sense this -is true, since the sphinx is merely an undisturbed mass of the eocene -limestone of the plateau. But its form must have been given to it after -the surrounding limestone was quarried away by the builders of the -pyramids, and consequently long after the founding of Memphis by the -first Egyptian king Mena. The sphinx is, in short, a block of stone left -by the quarrymen, and probably shaped by them as an appropriate monument -to the workmen who died while the neighbouring pyramids were being -built. A similar monument, of immensely greater antiquity from a -geological point of view, exists near Montreal, in a huge boulder of -Laurentian gneiss, placed on a pedestal by the workmen employed on the -Victoria Bridge, in memory of immigrants who died of ship fever in the -years when the bridge was being built. - -It follows from all this that the monumental history of Egypt, extending -to about 3000 years B.C., gives us the whole story of the country, -unless some chance memorial of a population belonging to the -post-glacial age should in future be found. There are, however, things -in Egypt which illustrate prehistoric times in other countries, and some -of these have lately thrown a new and strange light on the early history -of Palestine, and especially on the Bible history. - -One of the kings of the eighteenth dynasty, whose historical position -was probably between the time of Joseph and that of Moses, Amunoph III., -is believed to have married an Asiatic wife, and under her influence, he -and his successor, Amunoph IV., or Khu en-Aten, seem to have swerved -from the old polytheism of Egypt, and introduced a new worship, that of -Aten, a god visibly represented by the disk of the sun, and, therefore, -in some sense identical with Ra, the chief god of Egypt; but there was -something in this new worship offensive to the priests of Ra. Perhaps it -was regarded as a Semitic or Asiatic innovation, or led to the -introduction of unpopular Semitic priests and officers. Amunoph IV. -consequently abandoned the royal residence at Thebes, and established a -new capital at a place now called Tel-el-Amarna, almost at the boundary -of Upper and Lower Egypt, and from this place he ruled not only Egypt -but a vast region in Western Asia, which had been subjected to the -Egyptian government in the reign of the third Amunoph. From these -subject districts, extending from the frontiers of Egypt to Asia Minor -on the north, and to the Euphrates on the east, came great numbers of -despatches to the Pharaoh, and these were written not on papyrus or -skin, but on tablets of clay hardened by baking, and the writing was not -that of Egypt, but the arrow-head script of Chaldea, which seems at this -time to have been the current writing throughout Western Asia.[72] - -[72] It is possible, however, that it may really have been a language of -diplomacy merely, and may have been used by the Semitic agents of -Amunoph as a cipher to communicate with the Egyptian court, and which -could not be read by messengers or enemies acquainted only with Hittite -or Egyptian hieroglyphics or with the Phoenician characters. For a -similar case see 2 Kings xviii. 26. - -The scribes of the Egyptian king read these documents, answered them as -directed by their master, docketed them, and laid them up for reference; -and, strange to say, a few years ago, Arabs, digging in the old mounds, -brought them to light, and we have before us, translated into English, a -great number of letters, written from cities of Palestine and its -vicinity about a hundred years before the Exodus, and giving us -word-pictures of the politics and conflicts of the Canaanites and -Hittites and other peoples, long before Joshua came in contact with -them. Among other things in this correspondence, we find remarkable -confirmation of the sacred and political influence of Jerusalem, which -the Bible presents to us in the widely separated stories of Melchisedec, -king of Salem, in the time of Abraham, and of the suzerainty of -Adonizedec, king of Jerusalem, in the time of Joshua. - -At the time in question, Jerusalem was ruled by a king or chief, subject -to Egypt, but, as in the times of Abraham and Joshua, exercising some -headship over neighbouring cities. He complains of certain hostile -peoples called _chabiri_, a name supposed by Zimmel[73] to be equivalent -to Ibrim or Hebrews, which to some may seem strange, as the Israelites -were, according to the generally received chronology, at this time in -Egypt. We must bear in mind, however, that according to the Bible the -Israelites were not the only 'children of Eber.' The Edomites, Moabites, -Ammonites, Ishmaelites, and Midianites were equally entitled to this -name; and we know, from the second chapter of Deuteronomy, that these -were warlike and intrusive peoples, who had, before the Exodus, -dispossessed several native tribes, so that we do not wonder at the fact -that a king of Jerusalem might have been suffering from their attacks -long before the Exodus.[74] It may be noted incidentally here, that this -wide application of the term Hebrew accords with the use of the name -_Aperiu_ for Semitic peoples other than Israelites in Egypt. - -[73] Inaugural Lecture, Halle, 1891. Possibly these people were merely -'confederate' Hittites and Amorites (Sayce, _Records cf the Past_). - -[74] I cannot agree with Conder that the Exodus took place as early as -the time of Amunoph III. The evidence we have from Egyptian sources -plainly indicates one of the immediate successors of Rameses II. as the -Pharaoh of the Exodus. - -We have here also a note on an obscure passage in the life of Moses, -namely, his apparent want of acquaintance with the name Jehovah until -revealed to him at Horeb.[75] Now, as reported in Exodus, Moses in that -interview addressed God as 'Adon,' which is supposed to be the Hebrew -equivalent of 'Aten,' the meaning being Lord. This is a curious -incidental agreement with the prevalence of the Aten worship in Egypt, -and shows that this name may have been currently used by the Israelites, -whose God Moses himself calls Adon, till commanded to use the name -Jehovah. - -[75] Exodus iii. 16 _et seqq._ This passage has been often -misunderstood, but it certainly shows that the name Jehovah had become -nearly obsolete among the Hebrews in Egypt, and that the name usually -given to God was Adon or Aten. - -A second point of contact of Egypt and Palestine is in the painting and -sculptures of hostile and conquered nations in Egyptian temples and -tombs. These were evidently intended to be portraits, and an admirable -series of them has been published by Mr. Petrie under a commission from -the British Association for the Advancement of Science. By means of -these excellent photographs, now before me, we can see for ourselves the -physiognomy and form of head of the Amorite, Philistine, Hittite, and -many other peoples previously known to us only by name and a few -historical facts; and thus with their correspondence, as preserved in -the Tel-el-Amarna tablets, and their pictures as given by Petrie, we -have them before us much as we have the speeches and portraits of our -contemporaries in the illustrated newspapers, and can venture to express -some opinion as to their ethnic affinities and appearance, and can judge -more accurately as to the familiar statements of the Bible respecting -them.[76] Lastly, Maspero and Tomkins have, with the aid of the names -fixed by the survey of Western Palestine, revised the lists given by -Thothmes III., in the temple of Karnak, of the places which this -Egyptian Alexander had conquered; and they have thus verified the Hebrew -geography of the Books of Joshua and Judges. - -[76] Sayce, _Races of the Old Testament_, Religious Tract Society. - -Another unexpected acquisition is the solution of the mystery which has -enshrouded that mysterious people known as Hyksos or shepherd kings, who -invaded Egypt about the time of the Hebrew patriarchs, and, after -keeping the Egyptians in subjection for centuries, were finally expelled -by the predecessors of the Amunoph already referred to. They constitute -a great feature in early Egyptian history, but disappear mysteriously, -leaving no trace but a few sculptured heads, Turanian in aspect and -markedly contrasting with those of the native Egyptians. It now appears -that a people of Northern Syria and Mesopotamia, known to the Egyptians -at a later time as Mitanni, and who were neighbours of and associated -with the Northern Hittites, have the features of the Hyksos. It also -seems from a letter in the Tel-el-Amarna tablets that they spoke a -non-Semitic or Turanian language akin to that of the Hittites. Thus we -have traced the shepherd kings to their origin, and, curiously enough, -Cushanrish-athaim, who oppressed the Israelites in the days of Othniel, -seems to represent a later inroad of the same people. - -Such 'restitutions of decayed intelligence' now meet us on every hand as -the results of modern exploration, and are enabling us to bridge over -the gaps which have separated the geological ages from the prehistoric -and historic human periods in those ancient countries where civilisation -seems to have originated. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE NEANTHROPIC DISPERSION AND ALLIED TOPICS - - -The remarkable record of the early distribution of the sons of Noah -('Toledoth' of the sons of Noah) in Genesis x. may be regarded, -relatively to most of the nations it refers to, as a scrap of -prehistoric lore of the most intensely interesting character. From the -old 'Phaleg' of Bochart to the recent commentaries of Delitzsch and -other German scholars, it has received a host of more or less -conjectural explanations; and while all agree in extolling its value and -importance as a 'Beginning of History,' nothing can be more various than -the views taken of it. Only in the light of the recent discoveries and -researches already referred to can we arrive at a clear conception of -its import; but with these and some common sense we may hope to be more -fortunate than the older interpreters. It is necessary, however, to -explain here that, for want of a little scientific precision, many -modern archæologists still fail in their interpretations. They tell us -that the Toledoth are not properly 'ethnological,' but rather -'ethnographical,' and that we are to regard the document as referring, -not to the genealogical affiliations of nations, but to their accidental -geographical positions at the time of the record. - -Now this is precisely what the writer, with a sure scientific instinct, -carefully guards against, and explicitly informs us he did not intend. -He tells us that he gives the '_generations_ of the sons of Noah' and -their descendants, and at the ends of the three lists relating to these -sons, he is careful to say that he has given them 'in their lands, each -according to his language, after their families, in their nations,' or -the formula is slightly varied into 'after their families, after their -tongues, in their lands, in their nations.' Lastly, in the conclusion of -the whole table he reiterates, 'These are the _families_ of the sons of -Noah, according to their generations, after their nations.' All these -statements, let it be observed, are acknowledged to be parts of one -(Elohistic) document. It is clear, therefore, that the writer intends us -to understand that the determining elements of his classification are -neither physical characters nor accidents of geographical distribution, -but descent and original language--two primary and scientific grounds of -classification, and which common sense requires us to adhere to in -interpreting the document, whose value will depend on the certainty with -which the writer could ascertain facts as to these criteria: criteria -which are, of course, less open to the observation of later inquirers, -who may find difficulty in ascertaining either descent or _original_ -language, and in default of these may be obliged to resort to other -grounds of classification. - -[Illustration: MAP SHOWING LINES OF POSTDILUVIAN MIGRATIONS FROM SHINAR, -AS IN GENESIS X.] - -Among modern archæologists it has been a fruitful source of controversy -whether we should classify men according to their skulls or to their -tongues; in other words, whether physical characters or linguistic -should be dominant in our classifications. Neither ground is absolutely -certain. We may find long and short skulls in the same grave-mound, and -there are intermediate forms which defy certain arrangement. In like -manner history assures us that people of one race have often adopted the -language of another. True science warns us that we may err unless we -give a fair valuation to every available character. The ethnologist of -Genesis considers both physical and linguistic characters, but bases his -arrangement mainly on the sure ground of descent along with _original_ -language. - -It may be said, however, that if taken in the sense obviously intended -by the writer, the list will not correspond with the facts. A few data -have, however, to be taken into the account in order to give this early -writer fair play. - -1. The record has nothing to do with antediluvian peoples or with -survivors of the Deluge other than the sons of Noah, if there were any -such. Therefore, those ethnologists who are sceptical as to the -historical Deluge, and who postulate an uninterrupted advance of man -through long ages of semi-bestial brutality, have nothing in common -with our narrator, and cannot possibly understand his statements. - -2. The document does not profess to be a series of ethnological -inferences from the present or ancient characters of different nations, -but an actual historical statement of the known migrations of men from a -common centre in Shinar, the Sumir of the Chaldeans. - -3. It relates only to the primary distribution of men from their alleged -centre over certain districts of Western Asia, Eastern Europe, and -Northern Africa, and does not profess to know anything of their -subsequent migrations or history. - -4. It is thus not responsible for those later, even if very ancient, -changes which displaced one race by another, or obliged one race to move -on by the pressure of another, nor for any changes of language or -mixtures of races which may have occurred in these movements. - -5. It affirms nothing as to the physical characters of the races -referred to, except as they may be inferred from heredity, but it -implies some resemblance in language between the derivatives of the same -stock, and this, be it observed, notwithstanding the added narrative of -the confusion of tongues at Babel,[77] which the narrator does not -regard as interfering with the fact of languages originally forming a -few branches proceeding from a common stock. - -[77] Held by some to belong to another (Jahvistic) document, but -certainly incorporated by the early editor. - -6. If we ask what our narrator supposed to be the original or Noachic -tongue, we might infer from his three lines of descent, and from the -locality of the dispersion and the episode of Nimrod's prehistoric -kingdom, that the primitive language of Chaldea would be the original -stem; and this we now know from authentic written records to have been -an agglutinate language of the type usually known as Turanian, and more -closely allied to the Tartar and Chinese tongues than to other kinds of -speech. It would follow that what we now call Semitic and Aryan or -Japhetic forms of speech must, in the view of our ancient authority, -date from the sequelæ of the great 'confusion of tongues.' - -These points being premised, we can clear away the fogs which have been -gathered around this little luminous spot in the early history of the -world, and can trace at least the principal ethnic lines of radiation -from it. Though the writer gives us three main branches of affiliation -of the children of Noah, he really refers to six principal lines of -migration, three of them belonging to that multifarious progeny of Ham, -in which he seems to include both the Turanian and Negroid types of our -ordinary classifications, as well as some of the brown and yellow races. - -One of the lines of affiliation of Ham leads eastward and is not traced; -but if the Cushite people, who are said to have gone to the land which -in earlier antediluvian times was that of 'gold and bedolach and shoham -stone,' that is, along the fertile valley of Susiana, were those -primitive people, preceding the Elamites of history, who are said to -have spoken an agglutinate language,[78] then we have at least one -stage of this migration. A second line leads west to the eastern coast -of the Mediterranean, to Egypt and to North Africa. A third passes -south-westward through Southern Arabia and across the Red Sea into -interior Africa. To the sons of Japhet are ascribed two lines of -migration, one through Asia Minor and the northern coasts of the -Mediterranean; another north-west, around the Black Sea. The Semites -would seem to have been a less wandering people at the first, but -subsequently to have encroached on and mingled with the Hamites, -and especially on that western line of migration leading to the -Mediterranean. All this can be gathered from undisputed national names -in the several lines of migration above sketched, without touching on -the more obscure and doubtful names or referring to tribes which -remained near the original centre. We must, however, inquire a little -more particularly into the movements bearing on Palestine and Egypt. - -[78] Sayce (_Hibbert Lectures_) and Bagster's _Records of the Past_. -Inscriptions of Cyrus published in the last volume of the latter appear -to set at rest the vexed questions relating to early Elam. It would seem -that in the earliest times Cushites and Semitic Elamites contended for -the fertile plains and the mountains east of the Tigris, and were -finally subjugated by Japhetic Medes and Persians. Thus this region -first formed a part of the Cushite Nimrodic empire (Genesis ii. 11, x. -8); it then became the seat of a conquering Elamite power (Genesis xiv. -1 to 4); and was finally a central part of the Medo-Persian empire. All -this agrees with the Bible and the inscriptions, as well as in the main -with Herodotus. - -So far as the writer in Genesis is informed, he does not seem to be -aware of any sons of Japhet having colonised Palestine or Egypt. It was -only in the later reflux of population that the sons of Javan gained a -foothold in these regions. They were both colonised primarily by Hamites -and subsequently intruded on by Semites. - -Here a little prehistoric interlude noted by the writer, or by an author -whom he quotes, gives a valuable clue not often attended to. The oldest -son of Ham, Cush, begat Nimrod, the mighty hunter and prehistoric -conqueror, who organised the first empire in that Euphratean plain which -subsequently became the nucleus of the Babylonian and Assyrian power. -The site of his kingdom cannot be doubted, for cities well known in -historic times, Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, were included in it, as -well as probably Nineveh. The first point which I wish to make in this -connection is that we cannot suppose this to have been a Semitic empire. -Its nucleus must have been composed of Nimrod's tribal connections, who -were Hamites and presumably Cushites. He is, indeed, said to have gone -into or invaded the land of Ashur, and if by this is meant the Semitic -Ashur, he must have been hostile to these people, as indeed the -Chaldeans were in later times. The next point to be noted is that the -Nimrodic empire must have originated at a time when the Cushites were -still strong on the Lower Euphrates, and before that great movement of -these people which carried them across Arabia to the Upper Nile, and -ultimately caused the name Cush or Kesh to be almost exclusively applied -to the Ethiopians of Africa. Now is this history, or mere legend? - -[Illustration: HEAD ILLUSTRATING THE MOST ANCIENT TYPE OF CUSHITE -TURANIAN, FROM TEL-LOH (after de Sarzec). The cap is perhaps an -imitation of the antediluvian shell-caps, like that of the 'man of -Mentorie.'] - -The answer of archæology is not doubtful. We have in the earliest -monuments of Chaldea evidence that there was a pre-Semitic population, -to whom, indeed, it is believed that the Semites who invaded the country -owed much of their civilisation. A recent writer has said that 'outside -of the Bible we know nothing of Nimrod,' but others see a trace of him -in the legendary hero of Chaldean tradition, Gisdubar or Gingamos, while -others think that, as Na-marod, he may be the original of Merodach, the -tutelary god of Babylon. Independently of this, there was certainly an -early Chaldean and 'Turanian' empire, which must have had some founder, -whatever his name, and which was not Semitic or Aryan, and therefore -what an early writer would call Hamitic. Further, our author traces from -this region the great Cushite line of migration, which includes such -well-known names as Seba, Sabta, Sheba and Dedan, into Arabia on the way -to Africa. Here the Egyptian monuments take up the tale, and inform us -of a South Arabian and East African people, the people of Pun or Punt, -represented as like to themselves and to the Kesh or Ethiopians, and who -thus correspond to the Arabian Cushites of Genesis. In accordance with -this the Abyssinian of to-day is scarcely distinguishable from the old -Punites as represented on the Egyptian monuments.[79] - -[79] The recent discoveries of Glaser with reference to the early -civilisation of Southern Arabia also bear on this point. - -Thus the primitive Cushite kingdom and one of the great lines of Cushite -migration are established by ancient monuments. Let it be further -observed that, as represented in Egypt, these primitive Ethiopians were -not black, but of a reddish or brownish colour, like the Egyptians -themselves, and that their migration explains the resemblance of the -customs and religion of early Egypt to those of Babylonia, and the -ascription by the Egyptians of the origin of their gods to the land of -Pun. - -The remaining sons of Ham, Mizraim, Put and Canaan, are not mentioned in -connection with the old Nimrodic kingdom, and seem to have moved -westward at a very early period. They were already 'in the land,' and -apparently constituted a considerable citizen population before the -migration of Abraham. - -Mizraim represents the twin populations of the delta and Lower Egypt, -and the Tel-el-Amarna tablets inform us that long before the time of -Moses Mitzor was the ordinary name of Egypt, while we know that its -early population was closely allied in features and language to the -Cushites. - -Canaan[80] heads a central line of migration, and Sidon and Cheth are -said to have been his leading sons. The first represents the Phoenician -maritime power of Northern Syria, the second that great nation known to -the Egyptians as Kheta and to the Assyrians as Khatti, whose territory -extended from Carchemish on the Euphrates through the plain of -Coele-Syria to Hebron in Southern Palestine, and not improbably into the -delta. They were a people whose language was allied to that of Cushite -Chaldea,[81] whose features were of a coarser type than those of their -more southern _confrères_, and who, according to the Egyptian annals, -were closely allied with the Amorites, Jebusites, and other people -identified with Canaan in the Old Testament. The Cheta, at one time -known only as the sons of Heth in the Old Testament, may be said in our -time to have experienced a sudden resurrection, and now bulk so largely -in the minds of archæologists that their importance is in danger of -being exaggerated. - -[80] Canaan with our old historian is the name of a man, but it came to -designate first the 'low country' or coast region of Western Palestine, -and then the whole of Palestine. - -[81] Conder and others call it Turanian. - -A significant note is added: 'Afterwards were the families of the -Canaanites scattered abroad.' How could this be? Their line of migration -and settlement led directly to the great sea, and was hemmed in by that -of the Japhetites on the north and of the Cushites on the south; but -they made the sea their highway, and soon there was no coast from end to -end of the Mediterranean, and far along the European and African shores -of the Atlantic, that was not familiar with the Phoenician Canaanite. But -it may be said these Phoenicians were a Semitic people. They certainly -spoke a Semitic language allied to the Hebrew, but what right have we to -attribute Semitic languages solely to the descendants of the Biblical -Shem? Even if these languages originated with them they may have spread -to other peoples, as we know they replaced the old Turanian speech of -Babylonia, just as the Arabic has extinguished other languages in Egypt -itself. In whatever way the Phoenicians acquired a Semitic tongue, in -physical character they were not Semitic, but closely allied to the -Hittites, the Philistines, and the people of Mitzor, or Egypt. The -Egyptian sculptures prove this, and the celebrated Capuan bust of -Hannibal reminds us of the features of the old Hyksos kings of Egypt, -who were no doubt of Hamite or Turanian stock. - -Finally, what relation does the record in Genesis x. bear to the -prehistoric peoples of the neanthropic age? These must have been in the -main the advanced colonists and straggling adventurers of the leading -lines of migration. We find such people recorded in the Pentateuch, and -also in the caverns and shelters of Phoenicia, as preceding the -Canaanites in Syria; and such nomads and hunters must have streamed out -into Europe and Africa in advance of the more settled and slowly -advancing agricultural peoples. At first they must have been few, rude, -and users of stone implements only, living chiefly by hunting and -fishing; but some of them may have taken with them domestic animals and -seeds of grains, and so have established here and there civilised -communities. In later times, new colonists and commerce introduced among -them bronze and iron and more advanced arts. Thus these early -neanthropic peoples belonged to one or other of the great lines of -migration indicated in our old record; though by virtue of physical -changes and dialectic differences induced by isolation and new -conditions of life, and which in such circumstances would arise with a -rapidity unexampled in later times, as well as the want of historical -annals, it has in many cases become difficult or impossible precisely to -trace their affinities. Even in Palestine, at the time of the Exodus, -peoples of this kind (Horites, Avvites, &c.)[82] were known, whose -affinities had been lost; and it is not necessary to suppose that these -were remnants of antediluvians, since what we know in modern times of -the wanderers on the outskirts of great migrations sufficiently accounts -for their existence. - -This is, I think, a fair summary of the testimony of the writer of -Genesis x., as compared with the general evidence of history and -archæology. But we have something further to learn from what may be -called the fossil remains of prehistoric peoples as embodied in the -Egyptian monuments, which are conversant with all the nations around the -eastern end of the Mediterranean. - -The Egyptians divided the nations known to them into four groups, of -which they have given us several representations in tombs and public -buildings. One of these consisted of their own race. The other three -were as follows: (1) Southern peoples mostly of dark complexions, -ranging from light brown to black. These included the Cushites, Punites, -and negroes. (2) Western peoples mostly of fair complexions inhabiting -the islands and northern coasts of the Mediterranean, the 'Hanebu' or -chiefs of the north or of the isles, with some populations of North -Africa, the so-called white Lybians and Maxyans. (3) Northern or -north-eastern peoples, or those of Syria and the neighbouring parts of -Western Asia, Amorites, Hittites, Edomites, Arabs, &c., usually -represented as of yellowish complexion. - -[82] Deuteronomy ii. - -The first of these divisions evidently corresponds with the line of -Cushite migration of Genesis, extending from Shinar through Southern -Arabia, Nubia, and Ethiopia, and of which the negroes are apparently -degraded members pushed in advance of the others, while the populations -of Pun and Kesh, the southern Arabians and their relatives in Africa, -closely resemble, as figured in the monuments, the Egyptians themselves. - -The second group of the Egyptian classification represents those -so-called Aryan peoples of Europe and its islands, and parts of Northern -Africa, of whom the Greeks are a typical race, and who in Genesis are -said to have possessed the 'Isles of the Gentiles'; though in the wave -of migration from the east they were in many places preceded by -non-Aryan races, Pelasgians, Iberians, &c., possibly wandering Hamitic -tribes, while they were also invaded by that scattering abroad of the -Phoenician Canaanites referred to in Genesis. They are represented in the -monuments as people with European features, fair complexions, and -sometimes fair hair and blue eyes. - -The third group is the most varied of the whole, because its seat in -Syria was a meeting-place of many tribes. Its most ancient members, the -Phoenicians and allied nations, were, according to the monuments, men -resembling the Egyptian and Cushite type, and these, no doubt, were -those pre-Semitic and prehistoric nations of Canaan referred to in the -remarkable notes regarding the Emim, Zuzim, &c., in the second chapter -of Deuteronomy, which may be regarded as a foot-note to the Toledoth of -Genesis x. These aborigines were invaded by men of different types. -First, we find in the monuments that the Amorites of the Palestine hills -were a fair people with somewhat European features, like some of the -present populations of the Lebanon. When returning over the Lebanon in -1884 we met a large company of men with camels and donkeys carrying -merchandise. They were fair-complexioned and with brown hair, and from -their features I might have supposed they were Scottish Highlanders. I -was told they were Druses, and they were evidently much like, as are -indeed many of the modern fellaheen of the Palestine hills, the Amar as -they are pictured in Egypt. These white peoples, though reckoned in the -Bible as Hamites, may have had a mixture of Aryan blood. It is to be -noted here that the Amorite chiefs, Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre, named as -confederate with Abraham, have non-Semitic names. - -A later inroad was that of the Hittites, evidently a people having -affinity with the Philistines and Egyptians, but whose chiefs and nobles -seem to have been of Tartar blood, like the modern Turks. The names of -their kings seem also to have been non-Semitic. Later, the great -westward migration of Semitic peoples, to which that of Abraham himself -belongs, not only introduced the Israelites but many nations of Semitic -or mixed blood, the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Ishmaelites, &c., -whom we find figuring in the Egyptian monuments as yellow or brownish -people with a Jewish style of features, and all of whom, as mentioned -above, would be known to the Egyptians and Canaanites as 'Hebrews.'[83] - -[83] This is independent of the question whether we regard the name Eber -as that of an ancestor, or merely of men from beyond the Euphrates. - -Thus the monuments confirm the Jewish record, and the confusion which -some ethnologists have introduced into the matter arises from their -applying in an arbitrary manner the special tests of physical and -philological characteristics, and neglecting to distinguish the primary -migrations of men from subsequent intrusions. - -Another singular point of agreement is that, just as in Egypt we find -men civilised from the first, so we find elsewhere. In Egypt writing and -literature date from before the time of Abraham. In like manner we have -no monumental evidence of any time when the Accadian people of Babylonia -were destitute of writing and science, and we now find that there were -learned scribes in all the cities of Canaan, and that the Phoenicians and -Southern Arabians knew their alphabet ages before Moses, while even the -Greeks seem to have known alphabetic writing long before the Mosaic -age.[84] These men, in short, were descendants of the survivors of the -Noachian Deluge, and therefore civilised from the first; and though we -have no certain evidence of letters before the Flood, except the -statement of the author of the Babylonian deluge tablets, that Noah hid -written archives at Sippara before going into the ark, yet it is quite -certain that men who could build Noah's ship are not unworthy ancestors -of the Phoenician seamen, who probably launched their barks on the -Mediterranean before the death of Noah himself. Thus, whatever value we -may attach to the record in Genesis, we cannot refuse to admit that it -is thoroughly consistent with itself and with the testimony of the -oldest monuments of Asia and Africa, as it is also with the evidence of -the geological changes of the pleistocene and early modern epoch. - -[84] Petrie, _Illahun, Kahun and Garob_, 1891. - -In like manner the Egyptian inscriptions of the conquests of Thothmes -III. give us a pre-Mosaic record of Palestinian geography corresponding -with that of the Hebrew conquest, and the pictures of sieges coincide -with the excavations of Petrie at Lachish in restoring those Canaanite -towns, 'walled up to heaven,' which excited the fear of the Israelites. -Neither can we scoff at the illiteracy of men who were carrying on -diplomatic correspondence in written despatches before Genesis itself -was compiled. Nor can we doubt the military prowess of these people, -their chariot forces, their sculptured idols and images, their wealth of -gold and silver, their agricultural and artistic skill. All these are -amply proved by the monuments of the Egyptians and the Hittites.[85] - -[85] Bliss, in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration Fund -for April 1892, figures many interesting objects, found in the lower or -Amorite stratum of the mound of Tell-el-Hesy (Lachish). We have here a -bronze battle-axe and heads of javelins that may have been used against -the soldiers of Joshua, and axes and pottery of equally early date, -along with multitudes of flint flakes, arrow heads, &c., used at this -early time. It is to be hoped that the further exploration of this site -may yield yet more interesting results. - -Palestine thus presents a prehistoric past parallel with the earlier -years of Egypt. It has, however, a still earlier period, for in -Palestine, as stated in a previous chapter, we have evidence of the -existence of man long before the dispersion of the sons of Noah. To -appreciate this evidence, we must go back, as in the case of Egypt, to -the pre-human period. All along the coast of Palestine, from Jaffa to -the northern limit of old Phoenicia, the geological traveller sees -evidence of a recent submergence, in the occurrence of sandstone, -gravel, and limestone with shells and other marine remains of species -still living in the Mediterranean. These are the relics of that -pleistocene submergence already referred to, in which the Nile valley -was an arm of the sea and Africa was an island. No evidence has been -found of the residence of man in Palestine in this period, when, as the -sea washed the very bases of the hills, and the plains were under water, -it was certainly not very well suited to his abode. The climate was also -probably more severe than at present, and the glaciers of Lebanon must -have extended nearly to the sea. This was the time of the so-called -glacial period in Western Europe. - -This, however, was succeeded by that post-glacial period in which, as -already explained, the area of the Mediterranean was much smaller than -at present, and the land encroached far upon the bed of the sea. This, -the second continental period, is that in which man makes his first -undoubted appearance in Europe, and we have evidence of the same kind in -Syria, to which I have already directed attention in the description of -the caverns of the Lebanon, in Chapter IV. - -That the occupancy of these caves is very ancient is proved by the fact -that the old Egyptian conquerors, who cut a road for themselves over -these precipices before the Exodus, seem to have found them in the same -state as at present, while farther south ancient Syrian tombs are -excavated in similar bone breccias. But there is better evidence than -this. The bones and teeth in these caves belong not to the animals which -have inhabited the Lebanon in historic times, but to creatures like the -hairy rhinoceros and the bison, now extinct, which could not have lived -in this region since the comparatively modern period in which the -Mediterranean resumed its dominion over that great plain between -Phoenicia and Cyprus. This we know had been submerged long before the -first migrations of the Hamites into Phoenicia, even before the entrance -of those comparatively rude tribes which seem to have inhabited the -country before the Phoenician colonisation.[86] Unfortunately no burials -of these early men have yet been found, and perhaps the Lebanon caves -were only their summer sojourns on hunting expeditions. They were, -however, probably of the same stock with the races (the Cro-magnon and -Canstadt) of the so-called mammoth age in Western Europe, who have left -similar remains. Thus we can carry man in the Lebanon back to that -absolutely prehistoric age which preceded the Noachian Deluge and the -dispersion of the Noachidæ.[87] - -[86] Some of these tribes also lived in caves, as that of Ant Elias, but -the animals they consumed are those now living in the Lebanon. - -[87] Dawson, _Trans. Vict. Institute_, May 1884; also _Modern Science in -Bible Lands_. - -If in imagination we suppose ourselves to visit the caves of the -Nahr-el-Kelb pass, when they were inhabited by these early men, we -should find them to be tall muscular people, clothed in skins, armed -with flint-tipped javelins and flint hatchets, and cooking the animals -caught in the chase in the mouths of their caves. They were probably -examples of the ruder and less civilised members of that powerful and -energetic antediluvian population which had apparently perfected so many -arts, and the remains of whose more advanced communities are now buried -in the silt of the sea bottom. If we looked out westward on what is now -the Mediterranean, we should see a wide wooded or grassy plain as far as -eye could reach, and perhaps might discern vast herds of elephant, -rhinoceros, and bison wandering over these plains in their annual -migrations. Possibly on the far margin of the land we might see the -smoke of antediluvian towns long ago deeply submerged in the sea. - -The great diluvial catastrophe which closed this period, and finally -introduced the present geographical conditions, we have seen good reason -to identify with the historical Deluge, and the old peoples of the age -of the mammoth and rhinoceros were antediluvians, and must have perished -from the earth before the earliest migration of the Beni Noah. - -Putting together the results referred to in the preceding pages, we may -restore the prehistoric ages of the Eastern Mediterranean under the -following statements: - -1. In the period immediately preceding human occupancy, the land of -Palestine, Egypt, and Arabia participated in the great pleistocene -depression, accompanied by a rigorous climate. - -2. The next stage was one of continental elevation, in which the borders -of the Mediterranean were dry land, and vast plains in this basin, and -even in the Western Atlantic, were open to human migration. In this age -palæocosmic men took up their abode all over Western Asia, Europe, and -Northern Africa, and probably occupied broad lands since submerged. At -this period the region was inhabited by the mammoth, rhinoceros, bison, -and other large animals now altogether or locally extinct. - -3. The earlier part of this post-glacial or antediluvian period was one -of mild climatal conditions, followed by a slight return of the -conditions of the previous glacial age. - -4. The period was terminated by a great submergence, accompanied with -vast destruction of animal and human life; and of comparatively short -duration, corresponding to the historical Deluge. - -5. From this depression the more limited continents of the modern period -were elevated, and man again overspread them from his primitive seats in -the Euphratean region, as recorded in the tenth chapter of Genesis. - -6. In this early migration the Biblical Hamites, forming one of the -groups of men vaguely known as Turanian, first spread themselves over -Palestine and Egypt, and founded the early Phoenician, Canaanite, -Mizraimite, and Cushite tribes and nations. - -7. In early historic times Semitic peoples, Hebrews and others from the -east, and Mongoloid peoples from the north, migrated into Palestine and -dominated and mixed with the primitive tribes, finally penetrating into -Egypt and establishing there the dominion known as that of the Hyksos. -The historical Moabites, Ammonites, Ishmaelites, and Hittites were -peoples of this character, having a substratum of Hamite blood with -aristocracies of Semitic or Tartar origin. - -It will be observed that while archæological evidence tends to -illustrate and corroborate that wonderful collection of early historical -documents contained in the Book of Genesis, and to prove their great -antiquity, on the other hand these documents prove to be the most -precious sources of information as to the antediluvian age, the great -Flood, the earliest dispersion of men, the old Nimrodic empire, the -connections of Asiatic and African civilisation, and other matters -connected with the origins of the oldest nations, respecting which we -have little other written history. - -We thus learn that, relatively to Bible history, there is no prehistoric -age, since it carries us back beyond the Deluge to the origin of man, so -that we might properly restrict this term in its narrower signification -to those parts of the world not covered by this primitive history. It is -true that a tide of criticism hostile to the integrity of Genesis has -been rising for some years; but it seems to beat vainly against a solid -rock, and the ebb has now evidently set in. The battle of historical and -linguistic criticism may indeed rage for a time over the history and -date of the Mosaic law, but in so far as Genesis is concerned it has -been practically decided by scientific exploration. - -Since writing the preceding pages I have met with a remarkable paper -by Mr. Horatio Hale in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of -Canada_.[88] It is one which should commend itself to the study of -every Biblical scholar and archæologist; but is contained in a -periodical which perhaps meets the eyes of few of them. In this paper -he maintains the importance of language as a ground of anthropological -classification, and then uses his wide knowledge of the languages of -American aborigines, and other rude races, to show that the grammatical -complexity and logical perfection of these languages implies a high -intellectual capacity in their original framers, and that where such -complex and perfect languages are spoken by very rude tribes like the -Australian aborigines, they originated with cultivated and intellectual -peoples--in the case of the Australian, with the civilised primitive -Dravidians of India. He thus shows that languages, like alphabets, have -undergone a process of degradation, so that those of modern times are -less perfect exponents of thought than those which preceded them, and -that primitive man in his earliest state must have been endowed with as -high intellectual powers as any of his descendants. - -[88] Vol. IX. Sec. II. 1891. - -On similar grounds he shows that it is not in the outlying barbarous -races that we are to look for truly primitive man, since here we have -merely degraded types, and that the primitive centres of man and -language must have been in the old historic lands of Western Asia and -Northern Africa. On this view the time necessary for the development of -the arts of civilisation and of extensive colonisation would not be -great. 'In five centuries a single human pair planted in a fertile oasis -might have given origin to a people of five hundred thousand souls, -numerous enough to have sent out emigrations to the nearest inviting -lands.' The same lapse of time would have sufficed to develop -agriculture, to domesticate animals, and to make some progress in -architectural and other arts of life. He quotes the remarkable passage -of Reclus[89] as to the agency of woman in the inventions of early art, -and shows that this accords with more modern experience among the less -civilised nations. It is obvious that all this tends to bring scientific -anthropology into the closest relation with the old Biblical history, -though Hale, in deference, perhaps, to modern prejudices, does not refer -to this. - -[89] _Primitive Folk_ (Contemporary Science Series), p. 58. - -In the passage quoted by Hale, Reclus says: 'It is to woman that mankind -owes all that has made us men.' Following this hint of the ingenious -French writer, we may imagine the first man and woman inhabiting some -fertile region, rich in fruits and other natural products, and -subsisting at first on the uncultivated bounty of nature. With the birth -of their first child, perhaps before, would come the need of shelter -either in some dry cavern or booth of poles and leaves or bark, carpeted -perhaps with moss or boughs of pine. This would be the first 'home,' -with the woman for its housekeeper. We may imagine the man bringing to -it the lamb or kid whose dam he had killed, and the woman, with motherly -instinct, pitying the little orphan and training it to be a domestic -pet, the first of tamed animals. She, too, would store grain, seeds and -berries for domestic use, and some of these germinating would produce -patches of grain, or shrubs, or fruit trees around the hut. Noticing -these and protecting them, she would be the first gardener and -orchardist. The woman and her children might add to the cultivated -plants or domesticated quadrupeds and birds; and the man would be -induced, in the intervals of hunting and fishing, to guard, protect, and -fence them. - -When the boys grew up, to one of them might be assigned the care of the -sheep and goats, to the other the culture of the little farm, while they -might aid their father in erecting a better and more artistic -habitation, the first attempt at architecture, and in introducing -artificial irrigation to render their field more fertile. Is not this -little romance of M. Elie Reclus perfectly in harmony with the old -familiar story in Genesis, and also with the most recent results of -modern science? - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -SUMMARY OF RESULTS - - -It may be well, in conclusion, to sum up the general truths we -have arrived at in relation to the place of man in the great and -long-continued drama of the earth's geological history. - -1. We have found no link of derivation connecting man with the lower -animals which preceded him. He appears before us as a new departure in -creation, without any direct relation to the instinctive life of the -lower animals. The earliest men are no less men than their descendants, -and up to the extent of their means, inventors, innovators, and -introducers of new modes of life, just as much as they. We have not even -been able as yet to trace man back to the harmless golden age. As we -find him in the caves and gravels he is already a fallen man, out of -harmony with his environment and the foe of his fellow creatures, -contriving against them instruments of destruction more fatal than those -furnished by nature to the carnivorous wild beasts. Yet we would fain -believe in an Edenic age of innocence; and physiological probability, as -well as the old story in Genesis, demands that we should suppose a -primitive condition in which man, careless and happy, should subsist on -the spontaneous bounty of nature in some favoured 'garden of the Lord.' - - _Scheme of possible Correlation of the Geological and Historical - Records as to Early Man, as the Facts appear in the present Stage - of Investigation, May 1894._ - - { Semitic - { Truchère or Prot-Iberian Race { Turanian - { { Aryan - Primitive { - Man { Mixed Races, Cro-magnon, &c. } - { } Submergence - { Canstadt Race } - - { Sethites { Shem - { { Ham - Adam { Mixed Races, Nephelim, &c. } Noah { Japhet - { } - { Cainites } Deluge - -2. If we inquire as to the nature of the interval which separates man -from the lower animals, we find that it exists with reference both to -his rational and physical nature. With respect to the first we may -affirm in man the existence of a lower (psychical) intelligence, similar -to that of the inferior animals, and of a spiritual nature allying him -with higher intelligences, and with God Himself. Rightly considered, -this places the doctrine of creation in a very firm position. Those who -deny it must adopt one of two alternatives. Either they must refuse to -admit the evidence in man of any nature higher than that of brutes--a -conclusion which common sense, as well as mental science, must always -refuse to admit--or they must attempt to bridge over the 'chasm,' as it -has been called, which separates the instinctive nature of the animal -from the rational and moral nature of man--an effort confessedly futile. - -3. As to the body of man, the case is different, but still perfectly in -harmony with the idea of his higher nature. Man, as to his body, is -confessedly an animal, of the earth earthy. He is also a member of the -province _vertebrata_, and the class _mammalia_; but in that class he -constitutes not only a distinct species and genus, but even a distinct -family, or order. In other words, he is the sole species of his genus, -and of his family, or order. He is thus separated, by a great gap, from -all the animals nearest to him; and even if we admit the doctrine, as -yet unproved, of the derivation of one species from another in the case -of the lower animals, we are unable to supply the 'missing links' which -would be required to connect man with any group of inferior animals. -This physical distinctness has also a special significance, inasmuch as -it depends on certain negative peculiarities such as the absence of -clothing, of natural weapons of attack and defence, as well as on the -positive properties of the erect posture, the hands adapted to various -kinds of manipulation, and the special sensory gifts. Thus viewed in -relation to his environment, his wants as well as his possessions in -regard to structures and powers, would be fatal to any creature not -possessed of his intelligence, and we cannot conceive how such -privations or such gifts could spontaneously arise in nature. - -4. No fact of science is more certainly established than the recency of -man in geological time. Not only do we find no trace of his remains in -the older geological formations, but we find no remains even of the -animals nearest to him; and the conditions of the world in those periods -seem to unfit it for the residence of man. If, following the usual -geological system, we divide the whole history of the earth into four -great periods, extending from the oldest rocks known to us, the eozoic, -or archæan, up to the modern, we find remains of man, or his works, -only in the latest of the four, and in the later part of this. In point -of fact, there is no indisputable proof of the presence of man until we -reach the early modern period. This is, no doubt, what was to have been -expected on the supposition of the orderly development of the chain of -animal life in the long geologic eons; but it is not by any means the -only hypothesis that was possible when, for example, the Book of Genesis -was written. A more fanciful cosmologist might at that time have given -precedence to man, and might have supposed that the other animals were -produced later, and for his benefit, or his injury. This is the view of -the sacred writer himself with respect to the local group of animals -intended to be in immediate association with the first man. Restricted -in this way, the statement of a group of animals created with man in his -earliest abode is not contradictory to the order in Genesis first, nor -scientifically improbable. We have seen that in any case the deductions -from geology are in harmony with the earliest revelations made to the -human mind on the subject, and in accordance with all the later facts of -actual history. - -5. The absolute date of the first appearance of man cannot perhaps be -fixed within a few years or centuries, either by human chronology or by -the science of the earth. It would seem, however, that the Bible -history, as well as such hints as we can gather from the history of -other nations, limits us to two or three thousand years before the -Deluge of Noah, while some estimates of the antiquity of man, based on -physical changes or ancient history, or on philology, greatly exceed -this limit. If the earliest men were those of the river gravels and -caves, men of the 'mammoth age,' or of the 'palæolithic' or palæocosmic -period, we can form some definite ideas as to their possible antiquity. -They colonised the continents immediately after the elevation of the -land from the great subsidence which closed the pleistocene or glacial -period, in what has been called the 'continental' period of the -post-glacial age, because the new lands then raised out of the sea -exceeded in extent those which we have now. We have, as stated in a -previous chapter, some measures of the date of this great continental -elevation, and know that its distance from our time must fall within -about eight thousand years. Many indications, both in Europe and -America, lead to the belief that it is physically impossible that man -could have colonised the northern hemisphere at an earlier date than -this geologically recent continental period. - -6. There is but one species of man, though many races and varieties; and -these races or varieties seem to have developed themselves at a very -early time and have shown a remarkable fixity in their later history. -There is reason to believe, however, from various physiological facts, -that this is a very general law of varietal forms, which are observed to -appear rapidly or suddenly, and then in favourable circumstances to be -propagated continuously. It would seem also to apply to the introduction -of forms regarded as species, since it is not unusual to find a genus at -or near its origin represented by its maximum number of specific forms. - -7. The precise locality of the origin of man can be defined on probable -grounds as in a temperate region, supplied with the vegetable -productions most useful to him in a natural state, and free from -destructive animal rivals. We can scarcely suppose that this locality -can have been in any of those parts of the world in which man finds the -greatest difficulty in subsisting, or becomes most degraded, though this -paradoxical view has been held by some archæologists. It must rather -have been in some fertile and salubrious region of the northern -hemisphere; and probability as well as tradition points to those regions -in South-Western Asia which have not only been the earliest historical -abodes of man, but are also the centres of the animals and plants most -useful to him. It is interesting to note here that Hæckel, on purely -physical grounds, decides against Europe, Africa, Australia, and -America, and concludes that 'most circumstances indicate Southern Asia.' - -8. It is to be observed, however, that the diluvial interlude gives a -double origin of man; but the historical accounts of the neocosmic -dispersion, as we have already seen, refer us in this case also to the -same regions of South-Western Asia. The traditions which ascribe human -origin to a 'Mountain of the North' refer to the second dispersion, and -coincide with the Ararat of Genesis and the 'Mountain of the North' on -which the ship of Hasisadra was supposed by the Chaldeans to have -grounded. - -9. We are now in a position to correlate the historical Deluge with the -great geographical changes which closed the palanthropic age. This, when -regarded as an established fact, furnishes the solution of many of the -most disputed questions of anthropology. The misuse of the Deluge in the -early history of geology, in employing it to account for changes that -took place long before the advent of man, certainly should not cause us -to neglect its legitimate uses, when these arise in the progress of -investigation. It is evident that if this correlation be accepted as -probable, it must modify many views now held as to the antiquity of man. -In that case, the modern rubble spread over plateaus and in river -valleys, far above the reach of the present floods, may be accounted -for, not by the ordinary action of the existing streams, but by the -abnormal action of currents of water diluvial in their character. -Further, since the historical Deluge cannot have been of very long -duration, the physical changes separating the deposits containing the -remains of palæocosmic men from those of later date would, in like -manner, be accounted for, not by slow processes of subsidence, -elevation, and erosion, but by causes of a more abrupt and cataclysmic -character. - -Finally, it has been the tendency of modern geological and -archæological discovery to attach more and more value and importance to -the ancient records of the human race, and especially to those precious -documents which have been preserved to our time in the Book of Genesis. - -We have merely glanced cursorily at a few of the salient points of the -relation of the primitive history of man in Genesis to modern scientific -discovery. Many other details might have been adduced as tending to show -similar coincidences of these two distinct lines of evidence. Enough -has, however, been said to indicate the remarkable manner in which the -history in Genesis has anticipated modern discovery, and to show that -this ancient book is in every way trustworthy, and as remote as possible -from the myths and legends of ancient heathenism, while it shows the -historical origin of beliefs which in more or less corrupted forms lie -at the foundations of the oldest religions of the Gentiles, and find -their true significance in that of the Hebrews. To the Christian the -record in Genesis has a still higher value, as constituting those -historical groundworks of the plan of salvation to which our Lord -Himself so often referred, and on which He founded so much of His -teaching. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - Adam, description of, 64 - Adon, the name, 180 - Akkadian kingdom, foundation of, 108 - Alphabets, early, 108 - Amunoph III., 177 - Amunoph IV., 177 - Anakim, the, 65 - Animals, remains of, 23, 30, 38, 43, 45, 46, 48, 50, 74, 96, 98 - Antediluvians, identification of, 125 - Anthropic age, definition of, 17; - events of, 39 - Anthropology, 16 - Archæan age, the, 19 - Ark, the, description of, 135 - Arrow-headed characters, use of, 108 - Artemis, 160 - Aten, worship of, 177 - Atlantis, fable of, 156 - Auriferous gravel, finds in, 34 - - B - - Bears, cave, 46 - Beni Elohim, 132 - Beni ha Adam, 132 - Bones, human, gnawed, 47 - Boule, on deposits at Schweizersbild, 87 - Britain, early inhabitants of, 103 - Broca, on skulls, 61 - Burials, discoveries of, 56 - - C - - Cain, the race of, 131 - Canaan, migration of, 193 - Canstadt race, the, 51, 80; - age of, 70; - condition of, 75; - interments of, 77; - skulls of, 81 - Carthaillac on palanthropic age, 70; - on the mortuary customs of, 77 - Carving, specimens of, 49 - Castelnedolo, skeleton at, 29 - Cave dwellers, 48; - their food, 49 - Caverns, various, 42 - Celtæ, the, description of, 104 - Cenozoic age, the, 20; - changes of, 24; - events of, 39; - relations of, 84 - Chaldean version of the Deluge, 137; - creation tablets, 107; - Genesis quoted, 113 - Cheth, children of, 167 - Chipped Stone age, the, 69 - Chronometers, geological, 89 - Civilisation, early postdiluvian, 118 - Clichy skull, the, 60 - Climate of the pliocene, 25; - of the eocene, 27; - changes of, 35, 36; - of the post-glacial age, 36; - of the palanthropic age, 38, 40, 171 - Creation, the, order of, in Genesis, 106, 112, 114; - Chaldean account of, 112 - Cresswell caves, description of, 95 - Cro-magnon cave, the, 51 - Cro-magnon race, the, 51; - skeletons of, 53; - skulls of, 61, 81; - age of, 70; - condition of, 75; - appearance of, 76; - belief of, 76; - interments of, 77 - Curse, the, 120 - Cushite kingdom, foundation of, 108 - Cushite migration, the, 192 - - D - - Dawkins on palæolithic and neolithic periods, 93 - Days of creation, the, 14, 18 - Delta, the, age of, 174 - Deluge, the, accounts of, 107; - story of, 121; - Lenormant on, 123; - conclusions as to, 126; - prevalence of story of, 127; - physical aspects of, 135; - Chaldean version of, 136; - history of, 137; - was it miraculous? 140; - was it universal? 147, 151 - Diana, 160 - Dispersion of man, the, 108 - Druses, the, 198 - Dupont on cave of Goyet, 46; - on primitive man, 73; - on plain dwellers, 74; - on Frontal caves, 98 - - E - - Earth, the stages of its history, 15, 18; - age of, 18 - Eber, children of, 179 - Eden, site of, 114 - Edwards, Miss, criticism of, 171 - Egypt, history of, 168; - first colonists of, 174 - Elephant in Europe, the, 38 - Elevation of land in post-glacial age, 36 - Elohim, use of the name, 112 - Embalming, early practice of, 78 - Engis skull, the, 60 - Eocene age, the, 23; - changes of, 24 - Eozoic age, the, 19 - Euphrates, the, 114 - Eve, story of, 160 - Evolution of man, the, 22; - vagaries of, 118 - Exodus, the, Pharaoh of, 179 - - F - - Fall of man, the, 116 - Fauna of palanthropic age, changes of, 86 - Flints, worked, 28 - - Food of cave dwellers, 49 - Furfooz caves, description of, 98 - - G - - Generations of Noah, the, 184 - Genesis, order of creation in, 106 - Geologist, the, method of, 12 - Giants, a race of, 63 - Gibraltar skull, the, 60 - Glacial age, the, 25 - Globe, incandescent, picture of, 18 - Goyet, cave of, description of, 46 - Greenwell on men of Britain, 103 - Grenelle, skull of, 60; - deposit at, 94 - - H - - Hale on importance of language, 206 - Hamites, migrations of, 188 - Hasisadra, the Chaldean Noah, 118 - Hebrew annals, truth of, 106 - Heth, 167 - Higher criticism, Sayce on, 109 - Historian, the, method of, 12 - Hittites, the, inroad of, 198 - Holmes on worked flints, 31 - Homeric heroes, reality of, 166 - Horus, sons of, 159 - Hyksos, the, 181 - - I - - Idinu, or Eden, 114 - Ightham, worked flints of, 31 - Interments, discoveries of, 56; - mode of, 77 - Isha, story of, 160 - Ivory, ornaments of, 58; - engraving on, 74 - - J - - Jahveh, 133 - Japhet, migrations of, 189, 190 - Jebel Assart, flint chips at, 171 - Jehovah Elohim, use of the name, 112, 132 - Jerusalem, ancient state of, 179 - - K - - Karun, a river of Eden, 114, 116 - Kerkhat, the, 114 - Kheta, or Khatti, 167 - Kneeling posture in interments, 77 - - L - - Laugerie Basse, cave at, 51; - skeleton at, 58 - Lebanon caves, human remains in, 43, 45; - visit to, 202 - Lenormant on the Deluge, 123; - on the Ark, 136 - Lion, the cave, 46 - Lyell, on Falls of Niagara, 124 - - M - - Mammals in palanthropic age, species of, 37 - Mammoth age, cave of, 50 - Mammoth, the, in Europe, 38; - extinction of, 74 - Man, date of his appearance, 21, 213; - his earliest remains still human, 22; - antecedents of, 23; - his remains overlaid, 35; - in Europe, 35; - in palanthropic age, 40; - how distinguished, 41; - his remains at Nahr-el-Kelb, 45; - at Goyet, 46; - gnawed bones of, 47; - a cave dweller, 48; - his ornaments, 48, 58; - carving of, 49; - food of, 49; - his physical characters, 51; - his remains at Cro-magnon, 51; - skeleton of, at Mentone, 58; - varieties in skull of, 60; - gigantic size of, 62; - a feebler race, 63; - conditions of, 71; - Dupont on primitive, 73; - unprogressive character of men of mammoth age, 75; - beliefs of, 76; - mortuary customs of palanthropic, 77; - change of, from palæocosmic to neocosmic, 91; - neolithic, 101; - of Britain, 103; - in Eden, 115; - condition of palanthropic, 116; - recency of, 213; - locality of his origin, 216 - Meeting-place of geology and history, 13 - Mentone skeleton, the, 58 - Mesozoic age, the, 19 - Metals, the knowledge of, 118 - Miocene age, the, 23; - changes of, 24; - monkeys of, 27 - Mitanni, 181 - Mizraim, 193 - Monkeys, miocene, 27 - Mortillet on the stone age, 69 - Moses: his knowledge of Divine name, 180 - Mourlon on pleistocene remains, 30 - Musical instruments, invention of, 118 - - N - - Nahr-el-Kelb, caverns of, 44; - people of, 203 - Neanderthal skull, the, 60 - Neanthropic age, definition of, 17; - events of, 39; - men of, 95 - Nebula, picture of, 18 - Necklace, a shell, 48 - Neocosmic age, appearance of, men of, 91, 102 - Neolithic age, men of, 101 - Niagara, Lyell's use of, 124 - Nile valley, limestones of, 168, 201; - appearance of, 174 - Nimrod, kingdom of, 190 - Noah, story of, 121 - Nuesch on deposits at Schweizersbild, 87 - - O - - Old man of Cro-magnon, 53; - supposed history of, 65 - Ornaments, remains of, 48, 58 - - P - - Palæolithic implements, discoveries of, 31 - Palæozoic age, the, 19 - Palanthropic age, definition of, 17; - number of species of mammals in, 37; - climate of, 38; - land of, 40; - caves of, 46; - animals of, 50; - man of, 51; - conditions of, 69; - divisions of, 70; - tragic end of, 85; - changes in fauna of, 80; - subsidence of, 88 - Palestine, people of, 197; - history of, 201 - Paviland skull, the, 60 - Petrie: his photographic portraits, 180 - Pharaoh of the Exodus, the, 179 - Phoenicians, the, 193 - Pictet on number of species in palanthropic age, 37 - Pinches on Chaldean Genesis, 113 - Plain dwellers, 51; - conditions of, 74 - Pleistocene age, definition of, 17; - history of, 23; - human remains of, 30; - events of, 39 - Pliocene age, 23; - changes of, 24; - human remains of, 29; - events of, 39 - Polished Stone age, the, 69; - men of, 101 - Post-glacial age, 26; - elevation of, 36 - Punites, 193 - - Q - - Quaternary period, the, 20 - Quatrefages on Castelnedolo skeleton, 29; - on Truchère skull, 84 - - R - - Ra, worship of, 177 - Recency of man, 213 - Reclus, romance of, 208 - Reindeer age, the, 38, 50 - Rhinoceros in Europe, the, 38 - Rivière on Mentone skeleton, 58, 62 - - S - - Sayce on the higher criticism, 109 - Scale of earth's history, a, 22 - Schliemann, discoveries of, 166 - Schweizersbild, deposits at, 87 - Semites, migrations, 189 - Seth, the race of, 131 - Shell ornaments, remains of, 48, 58 - Sickle, wooden, 172 - Silures, the, 103 - Skeleton of Castelnedolo, 29; - Mentone, 58; - of Laugerie Basse, 58 - Skull from Val d'Arno, 29; - of Cro-magnon, 53, 82; - of Clichy, Grenelle, Gibraltar, Paviland, Neanderthal, Engis, 60; - of Canstadt, 81; - of Truchère, 83 - Species, number of palanthropic, 37 - Sphinx, the, history of, 176 - Spy, interments at, 56 - Stone ages, the, 69 - Submergence, records of, 148 - Subsidence of palanthropic age, 88; - date of, 90 - - T - - Tammuz, story of, 161 - Taylor on early men of Britain, 103 - Teeth, human, condition of, 63 - Tel-el-Amarna tablets, 165, 177 - Tigris, the, 114 - Trenton, flints of, 32 - Tristram on cave shelters, 44 - - V - - Vezère, rock shelters of, 51 - - W - - Whistle, bone, 116 - Woman of Cro-magnon, 55 - Woolly rhinoceros in Europe, the, 38 - - Z - - Zittel on number of species of mammals, 37 - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -All obvious typographical errors were corrected. Minor changes -were made to standardize the text to match the most prevalent -form used. - -To make it easier to locate the Index entries, a line with each -alpha group's first letter was added. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND -HISTORY*** - - -******* This file should be named 40121-8.txt or 40121-8.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/0/1/2/40121 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> -<p>Title: The Meeting-Place of Geology and History</p> -<p>Author: Sir John William Dawson</p> -<p>Release Date: July 2, 2012 [eBook #40121]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND HISTORY***</p> <p> </p> -<h4 class="center">E-text prepared by Albert László, Tom Cosmas,<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="http://archive.org">http://archive.org</a>)</h4> <p> </p> <table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> <tr> @@ -7625,360 +7609,6 @@ Adam { Mixed Races, Nephelim, &c. } Noah { Japhet </div> <p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND HISTORY***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 40121-h.txt or 40121-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/0/1/2/40121">http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/1/2/40121</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed.</p> - -<p> -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.</p> - -<p>Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> - -<p>This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.</p> - +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40121 ***</div> </body> </html> diff --git a/40121.txt b/40121.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ae7e4d3..0000000 --- a/40121.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5855 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Meeting-Place of Geology and History, by -Sir John William Dawson - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: The Meeting-Place of Geology and History - - -Author: Sir John William Dawson - - - -Release Date: July 2, 2012 [eBook #40121] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND -HISTORY*** - - -E-text prepared by Albert László, Tom Cosmas, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 40121-h.htm or 40121-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40121/40121-h/40121-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40121/40121-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/meetingplaceofge00daws - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face italics - (=bold italics=). - - To enhance readability, small-capital text was left as - mixed-case. - - - -THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND HISTORY - - * * * * * - -Sir J. William Dawson, LL.D., F.G.S. - -[Illustration] - -"_The name of Sir William Dawson on a title page is a guarantee of two -things: one, that the book is orthodox and thoroughly evangelical; and -the other, that the matter of it is first-class, according to the -highest scientific standard._" - - --The Illustrated Christian Weekly. - - - =The Meeting-Place of Geology and History.= Illustrated. 12mo, - cloth $1.25 - - Sir William Dawson's aim in this volume is aptly described by the - title. It is to fix with that measure of definiteness which the - best and latest research permits the period when human life began - on the earth, and to discuss from the geologic standpoint the many - questions of interest connected with this event. He shows in how - many different ways science confirms the teaching of Scripture in - this department of knowledge. - - - =Modern Ideas of Evolution as related to Revelation and Science.= - _Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged._ 12mo, cloth 1.50 - - Carefully and thoroughly revised in the light of the criticism, - favorable and adverse, which the preceding five editions have - received. - - "Dr. Dawson is himself a man of eminent judicial temper, a widely - read scholar, and a close, profound thinker, which makes the blow - he deals the Evolution hypothesis all the heavier. We commend it to - our readers as one of the most thorough and searching books on the - subject yet published."--_The Christian at Work._ - - - =The Chain of Life in Geological Time.= A Sketch of the Origin and - Succession of Animals and Plants. Illustrated. _Third and Revised - Edition._ 12mo, cloth 2.00 - - "The judicial style of the writer in argument is enlivened by his - ability to render science most attractive and popular. He holds to - the orthodox view of the ordered plan of the universe, and yet - considers without prejudice the alluring ideas prevalent in modern - scientific circles."--_The Christian Advocate_ (_N.Y._) - - - =Egypt and Syria.= Their Physical Features in Relation to Bible - History. _Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged._ With many - Illustrations. "_By-Paths of Bible Knowledge_," _Vol. VI._ 12mo, - cloth 1.20 - - "This is one of the most interesting of the series to which it - belongs. It is the result of personal observation, and the work of - a practised geological observer."--_The British Quarterly Review._ - - * * * * * - - -THE MEETING-PLACE OF GEOLOGY AND HISTORY - -by - -SIR J. WILLIAM DAWSON, LL.D., F.R.S. - -Author of -"The Earth and Man," "Modern Ideas of Evolution," "The Chain of Life in -Geological Time," etc. - - - - - - - -[Illustration] - -Fleming H. Revell Company -New York . Chicago . Toronto -The Religious Tract Society, London - -Copyright, 1894 -Fleming H. Revell Company - - - - -PREFACE - - -The object of this little book is to give a clear and accurate statement -of facts bearing on the character of the debatable ground intervening -between the later part of the geological record and the beginnings of -sacred and secular history. - -The subject is one as yet full of difficulty; but the materials for its -treatment have been rapidly accumulating, and it is hoped that it may -prove possible to render it more interesting and intelligible than -heretofore. - -J. W. D. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. General Nature of the Subject 11 - - II. The World Before Man 18 - - III. The Earliest Traces of Man 27 - - IV. The Palanthropic Age 40 - - V. Subdivisions and Conditions of the Palanthropic Age 69 - - VI. End of the Palanthropic Age 85 - - VII. The Early Neanthropic Age 94 - - VIII. The Palanthropic Age in the Light of History 106 - - IX. The Deluge of Noah 121 - - X. Special Questions Respecting the Deluge 151 - - XI. The Prehistoric and Historic in the East 164 - - XII. The Neanthropic Dispersion 183 - - XIII. Summary of Results 210 - - Index 219 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - Section at Trenton, on the Delaware, showing The Relation of - the Stone Implements to the Glacial (?) Gravels (after Holmes) 32 - - Chipped Quartzites, Modern American (after Holmes) 33 - - Flint Hache of the Ancient or Chellean Type, Aurillac (after - Carthaillac) 41 - - Cave of Goyet, Belgium (Section after Dupont) 47 - - Lance Head formed of a Flint Flake (Cave of Moustier). The Flat - Face shows a Bulb of Percussion (after Falsan) 49 - - Outline of the Skull of the 'Old Man of Cro-magnon' (after - Christy and Lartet) 54 - - The First Skeleton found in the Mentone Caves (after Riviere) 57 - - Handle of a Piercer, or Bodkin, in Bone, from Laugerie Basse, - in Form of a Deer 59 - - Flint Flake Knife, found in the Hand of the 'Giant' Skeleton of - Mentone (after Evans) 59 - - Neanderthal Skull--two Outlines: the Outer giving the more - Correct Form (from _Science_) 60 - - Skull of Canstadt Type found at Spy, Belgium, by Fraipont and - Lohest 61 - - Outline of Mammoth, Carved on a Plate of Ivory, from the Cave - of La Madeleine 68 - - Tooth of Cave Bear, with Engraving of a Seal, from a Collar - found at Sordes, Pyrenees (after Carthaillac) 71 - - The Skeleton of Laugerie Basse, Dordogne, showing the Position - of the Perforated Shells on the Limbs and Forehead (after - Carthaillac) 79 - - Skull from Truchere, showing a peculiar Palanthropic Type allied - to Neanthropic Races (after Quatrefages) 82 - - Flint Flakes of two Types, from Palanthropic and Neanthropic - Caves in the Lebanon 97 - - Restoration of the Sepulchral Cave of Frontal, Belgium (after - Dupont) 99 - - Cromlech at Fontanaccia, Corsica (after De Mortillet) 105 - - Map showing the Geographical and Geological Relations of the - Site of Eden, as described in Genesis 117 - - Map showing Lines of Postdiluvian Migrations from Shinar, as in - Genesis x. 185 - - Head illustrating the most Ancient Type of Cushite Turanian, - from Tel-loh (after de Sarzec). The cap is perhaps an imitation - of the antediluvian shell-caps, like that of the 'Man of - Mentone' 191 - - - - -THE MEETING-PLACE - -OF - -GEOLOGY AND HISTORY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -GENERAL NATURE OF THE SUBJECT - - -The science of the earth and the history of man, though cultivated by -very different classes of specialists and in very different ways, must -have their meeting-place. They must indeed not only meet, but overlap -and run abreast of each other throughout nearly the whole time occupied -by the existence of man on the earth. The geologist, from his point of -view, studies all the stratified crust of the earth, down to the mud -deposited by last year's river inundations. The historian, aided by the -archaeologist, has written and monumental evidence carrying him back to -the time of the earliest known men, many thousands of years ago. -Throughout all this interval the two records must have run more or less -parallel to each other, and must be in contact along the whole line. - -The geologist, ascending from the oldest and lowest portions of the -earth's crust, and dealing for millions of years with physical forces -and the instinctive powers of animals alone, at length as he approaches -the surface finds himself in contact with an entirely new agency, the -free-will and conscious action of man. It is true that at first the -effects of these are small, and the time in which they have been active -is insignificant in comparison with that occupied by previous geological -ages; but they introduce new questions which constantly grow in -importance, down to those later times in which human agency has so -profoundly affected the surface of the earth and its living inhabitants. -Finally, the geologist is obliged to have recourse to human observation -and testimony for his information respecting those modern causes to -which he has to appeal for the explanation of former changes, and has to -adduce effects produced by human agency in illustration of, or in -contrast with, mutations in the pre-human periods. - -The historian, on the other hand, finds, as he passes backward into -earlier ages, documentary evidence failing him, and much of what he can -obtain becoming mythical, vague or uncertain, or difficult of -explanation by modern analogies, until at length he is fain to have -recourse to the pick-axe and spade, and to endeavour to disinter from -the earth the scanty relics of primeval man, much as the geologist -searches in the bedded rocks for the fossils which they contain. He has -even learned to use for these earliest ages the term prehistoric, and so -practically to transfer them to the domain of the archaeologist and -geologist. - -It is evident, therefore, that if we seek for the meeting-place of -geology and history, we shall find not a mere point or line of contact, -but a series of such points, and even a complicated splicing together of -different threads of investigation, which it may be difficult to -disentangle, and which the geological specialist alone, or the -historical specialist alone, may be unable fully to understand. The -object of this little volume will be to unravel as many as possible of -these threads of contact, and to make their value and meaning plain to -the general reader, so that he may not, on the one hand, blindly follow -mere assertions and speculations, or, on the other, fail to appreciate -ascertained and weighty facts relating to this great and important -matter of human origins. - -This is the more necessary since, even in works of some pretension, -there are tendencies on the one hand to overlook geological evidence in -favour of written records, or even of conjectural hypotheses, and on the -other to reject all early historical testimony or tradition as -valueless. We shall find that neither of these extremes is conducive to -accurate conclusions. Researches of a geologico-historical character -necessarily also bring us in view of the early history of our sacred -books. This may be to some extent an evil, as inviting the excitement of -religious controversy; but on the other hand the fact that the early -history incorporated in the Bible goes back to the introduction of man, -and connects this with the completion of the physical and organic -preparations for his advent, has many and important uses. It would seem -indeed that it is a great advantage to our Christian civilisation that -our sacred books begin with a history of creation, giving an idea of -order and progress in the creative work. Whether we regard the days of -creation as literal days or days of vision of a seer, or whether we hold -them to be days of God and His working, suitable to the Eternal One and -His mighty plan, and bearing the same relation to Him that ordinary -working days bear to us, we cannot escape the idea of an orderly work in -time. This, while it delivers the Bible reader from the extravagant -myths current among heathen peoples, ancient and modern, predisposes him -to expect that something may be learned from nature as to its beginning -and progress. In like manner the short statements in Genesis respecting -the early history of man have awakened curiosity as to human origins, -and have led us to search for further details derivable from ancient -monuments. The ordinary Christian who believes his Bible is thus so far -on his way toward a rational geology and archaeology, and cannot say with -truth that he is absolutely ignorant of the pre-human history of the -earth. His notions, it is true, may be imperfect, either by reason of -the brevity of the record to which he trusts, or of his own imperfect -knowledge of its contents, but they give to historical and archaeological -inquiry an interest and importance which they could not otherwise -possess.[1] - -[1] It is an interesting fact that the pecuniary means, the skill and -labour expended in research in the more ancient historic regions, have -to so large an extent been those of Christians interested in the Bible -history. Yet some _litterateurs_, who have contributed nothing to these -results, attempt to distort and falsify them in the interest of an -unhistorical and unscientific criticism, and even to taunt the Bible as -adverse to archaeological inquiry. - -The earth has indeed, especially in our own time, and under the impulse -of Christian civilisation, made wonderful revelations as to its early -history, to which we do well to take heed, as antidotes to some of the -speculations which are palmed upon a credulous world as established -truths. We have now very complete data for tracing the earth from its -original formless or chaotic state through a number of formative and -preparatory stages up to its modern condition; but perhaps the parts of -its history least clearly known, especially to general readers, are -those that relate to the beginning and the end of the creative work. The -earlier stages are those most different from our experience and whose -monuments are most obscure. The later stages on the other hand have left -fewer monuments, and these have been complicated with modern changes -under human influence. Besides this, it is always difficult to piece -together the deductions from merely monumental evidence and the -statements of written or traditional history. There would seem, however, -to be now in our possession sufficient facts to link the human period to -those which preceded it, and thereby to sweep away a large amount of -misconception and misrepresentation in one department at least of the -relations of natural science with history. - -I have called the subject with which we are to deal the meeting-place of -two sciences. In reality, however, it might be embraced under the name -anthropology, the science of man, which covers both his old prehistoric -ages as revealed by geology and archaeology, and the more modern world -which is still present, or of which we have written records. The main -point to be observed is that it is necessary to place distinctly before -our minds the fact that we are studying a period in which, on the one -hand, we have to observe the precautions necessary in geological -investigation, and on the other to examine the evidence of history and -tradition. A failure either on the one side or the other may lead to the -gravest errors. - -In studying the subjects thus indicated it will be necessary first to -notice shortly the history of the earth before the human period, and its -condition at the time of man's introduction. We may then inquire as to -the earliest known remains of man preserved in the crust of the earth, -and trace his progress through the earlier part of the anthropic or -human period, in so far as it is revealed to us by the relics of man -and his works preserved in the earth. We shall then be in a position to -inquire as to the form in which the same chain of events is presented to -us by history and tradition, and to discover the leading points in which -the two records agree or appear to differ. - -It may be necessary here to define a few terms. The two latest of the -great geological periods may be termed respectively the _pleistocene_ -and the modern, or _anthropic_, the latter being the human period or age -of man. The pleistocene includes what has been called the glacial age, a -period of exceptional cold and of much subsidence and elevation of the -land, in the northern hemisphere at least. The modern, or anthropic, is -for our present purpose divisible into two sections--the early modern, -or _palanthropic_, sometimes called quaternary, or post-glacial, and -which may coincide with the antediluvian period of human history; and -the _neanthropic_, extending onward to the present time.[2] - -[2] The terms 'Palaeolithic' and 'Neolithic' have been used for the men -of the Palanthropic and Neanthropic ages; but these are objectionable, -as implying that these ages can be best distinguished by the use of -certain stone implements, which is not the fact. I have preferred, -therefore, to call the earlier races of men _palaeocosmic_, and the later -_neocosmic_, where it may be necessary to refer to them _as races_; -while the _periods_ to which they belong are respectively the -_Palanthropic_ and _Neanthropic_. By the use of these terms all -ambiguity will be avoided. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE WORLD BEFORE MAN - - -Man is of recent introduction on the earth. For millions of years the -slow process of world-making had been going on, with reference to -physical structure and to the lower grades of living creatures. Only -within a few thousand years does our globe seem to have been fitted for -its highest tenant. The evidence of this is to be found in any text-book -of geology. I propose here merely to present the history of the earth in -a series of word-pictures, introductory to our special subject. - -Our first picture may be that of a nebula, vast and vaporous, containing -the mixed and unconsolidated materials of the sun and planets--a void -and desolate mass, slowly aggregating itself under the influence of -gravitation. - -Our next may be that of an incandescent globe, molten and glowing, and -surrounded by a vast vaporous envelope, but tending by degrees to a -condition in which it shall have a solid crust, on which the greater -part of the watery vapour suspended in its atmosphere is to be condensed -into a heated ocean. - -Our third picture may represent the world of what geologists call the -archaean, or eozoic period, when the crust had been furrowed up into -ridges of land, and corresponding but wider depressions occupied by the -sea. Into the latter the rains falling on the land are carrying sediment -derived from the wasting rocks, though the waters are still warm and the -thinner parts of the crust are still welling out rocky material, either -molten or dissolved in heated water. In this period there were probably -low forms of animal life in the waters and plants on the land, though we -know little of their exact nature. - -A fourth picture may represent that great and long-continued palaeozoic -period in which the waters swarmed with many forms of life, when fishes -were introduced into the sea, and when the land became covered with -dense forests of plants allied to the modern club-mosses, ferns, -mares'-tails and pines; while insects, scorpions and snails, and some -of the humbler forms of reptiles, found place on the land. - -Returning after an interval, we should see a fifth picture, that of the -mesozoic world. This was the age of reptiles, when animals of that class -attained their highest and most gigantic forms, and occupied in the sea, -on the land, and in the air the places now held by the mammals and the -birds; while the continents were covered with a flora distinct alike -from that of the previous and succeeding periods, replaced, however, as -time went on by forests very like those of the modern world. In this age -the earliest mammals or ordinary quadrupeds were introduced, few at -first, small and of low rank in their class. Birds also made their -appearance, and toward the close of the period fishes of modern types -swarmed for the first time in the sea. - -Lastly, we might see in the cenozoic, or tertiary age, the newest of -all, quadrupeds dominant on the land and modern types of animal life in -the sea. In this period our continents finally assumed their present -forms. Toward its close and after many vicissitudes of geography and -climate, and several successive dynasties of mammalian life, man and the -land animals now his contemporaries occupied the world, and thus the -cenozoic passes into the _anthropic_, or modern period, called by some, -but without good reason, 'quaternary,' since it is in all respects a -proper continuation of the tertiary, or cenozoic.[3] - -[3] It will be seen that our six pictures are in some degree parallel -with the 'days' of creation. This is not an intentional reconciliation. -It merely expresses the fact of the case, whatever its significance. - -This last age of the world is so intimately connected with man that it -will be necessary to consider it more in detail. More particularly we -may endeavour to answer, if we can, the questions of order and time -involved in man's late appearance. - -No geologist would expect to find any remains of man or his works in the -periods represented by our five earlier pictures, because in these -periods the physical conditions necessary to man and the animals nearest -to him in structure do not appear to have existed, and their places in -nature were occupied by lower types. - -Nor for similar reasons would we expect to meet with man in the earlier -part of that last, or cenozoic, period in which we still live; and in -point of fact it is only in superficial deposits of the later part of -this last great period of the earth's history that we actually meet with -evidence of the existence of the human species. - -If there is based on this fact a question as to the actual date of man's -first appearance, the physical considerations indicate about twenty -millions of years for the whole duration of the earth. Setting apart, -say, a fourth of this time for the early pre-geologic condition of the -world, the remainder may be roughly estimated as five millions for the -archaean, or eozoic, six for the palaeozoic, three for the mesozoic, and -one for the cenozoic.[4] Of the last, the later part, in which there is -a possibility of the existence of man, will be limited to less than a -quarter of a million; and within this the certainly known remains of -man, whether attributed as by some to the latest inter-*glacial period, -or to the post-glacial--a mere question of terms, and not of -facts--cannot be older, according to the best geological estimates, than -from seven thousand to ten thousand years. This, according to our -present knowledge, is the maximum date of the oldest traces of man, and -probably these are nearer in age to the smaller than to the larger -number. - -[4] The absolute length of these periods is, of course, a matter of -estimation; but the _relative_ lengths of the different ages may be -regarded as a fair approximation, based on facts. - -If the reader will take the trouble to draw on paper a scale of twenty -inches, each of these will represent a million of years of the earth's -history, and the known duration of the human period may be indicated by -a thickish line at one end of the scale. We may thus represent to the -eye the recency of man's appearance, so far as at present known to -science. - -It may be said that all this is mere assertion. It fairly represents, -however, the conclusions reached on the latest geological evidence, -though this evidence would demand for its full detail a larger space -than the whole of this little volume. References are given below to -works in which this evidence will be found.[5] - -[5] Lyell's _Students' Manual_; Dana's _Manual_; Prestwich's _Geology_; -_The Story of the Earth_, by the author. - -It may also be objected that if, as held by some evolutionists, man was -slowly developed from lower animals, and if his earliest known remains -are still human in their characters, he must have had a vastly longer -history covering the periods of his gradual change from, say, ape-like -forms. This is admitted; but then we have as yet no good evidence that -man was so developed, and no remains of intermediate forms are yet known -to science. Even should some animal, either recent or fossil, be -discovered intermediate in structure between man and the highest apes, -we should still require proof that it was the ancestor of man, by the -occurrence of connecting forms, or otherwise. As the facts now stand, -the earliest known remains of man are _still human_, and tell us nothing -as to previous stages of development. - -We must now glance a little more particularly at what may be termed the -more immediate antecedents of man. The latest great period of the -earth's geological history (the cenozoic) was ingeniously subdivided by -Lyell, on the ground of the percentages of extinct and surviving species -of marine shells contained in its several beds. According to this -method, which, with some modifications in detail, is still accepted, the -eocene age, or that of the dawn of the recent, includes those formations -in which the percentage of modern or still living species of marine -animals does not exceed three and a half, all the other species found -being extinct. The miocene (less recent) includes beds in which the -percentage of living species does not exceed thirty-five. The pliocene -(more recent) includes beds in which the living forms of marine life -exceed thirty-five per cent, but there is still a considerable -proportion of extinct species. Newer than this we have the pleistocene -(most recent), in which there are scarcely as many extinct species as -there are of recent in the eocene. Lastly, the modern, of course, -includes only the living species of the modern seas. Other geologists, -notably Dawkins and Gandry, have arrived at similar results from a -consideration of the vertebrate animals of the land. In the eocene we -find numerous remains of mammals, or ordinary land quadrupeds, but all -are extinct, and nearly all belong to extinct genera. In the miocene -there are many living genera, but no species that survive to the present -time. The pliocene begins to show a few living species, and these are -dominant in the succeeding pleistocene. - -These several stages of the cenozoic were also characterised by great -vicissitudes of geography and climate. In the early and middle portions -of the eocene, much of the land of the northern hemisphere was under the -sea or in the state of swamps and marshes, and there seems to have been -a very mild and equable climate, insomuch that plants now limited to -warm temperate regions could flourish in Greenland. It is further to be -observed that regions such as Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, which are -known to us historically as among the earliest abodes of man, were at -this time under the ocean, as were also rocks that now appear at great -elevations in the highest mountains of Europe and Asia. For example, the -limestones through which the Nile has cut its valley are marine beds of -eocene age, and beds of the same period holding marine remains occur at -an elevation of 16,000 feet in the Himalayan region. - -In the miocene the amount of land was somewhat greater, though large -areas of the continents were still under the sea, and the climate was -still mild, but for reasons to be stated in the sequel it is not likely -that man inhabited the warm continents of this age. The pliocene -inaugurates what has been termed a continental period, when the land of -the northern hemisphere was higher and more extensive than at present. -It was also a time of great physical change, when much erosion of -valleys and sculpturing of the surface of the land occurred, and when -extensive earth movements and ejections of igneous rock increased the -irregularity of the surface and gave greater variety and beauty to the -land. The pliocene was altogether a most important period for giving the -finishing touches of physical geography, and in it several modern -species of land animals were introduced; but we have as yet, as we shall -find in the sequel, no certain evidence that man was a witness of the -movements and sculpturing of the earth's crust, so important in the -preparation of his future home, though statements to this effect have -been made on grounds which we shall have to consider. - -In the course of the pliocene the previously high temperature of the -northern hemisphere was sensibly lowered, and at its close the -pleistocene period introduced a cold and wintry climate, along with -gradual and unequal subsidence of the land, the whole producing that -most dismal of the geological ages, known as the 'glacial period.' At -this time much of the lower land of the continents was submerged and the -mountains became covered with snow and ice, leaving space for vegetable -and animal life only toward the south and in a few favoured spots in the -higher latitudes. There is much difference of opinion among geologists -as to the extent, duration and vicissitudes of this reign of ice, but -there can be no doubt that it destroyed much of the animal and vegetable -life of the pliocene, or obliged it to migrate to the southward. In this -period great deposits of mud, sand and gravel were laid down, which -prepared the world for a new departure in the succeeding age. This we -may name the post-glacial, or early modern period, and in it we have the -most certain evidence of the existence of man, though the geographical -arrangement of our continents and their animal inhabitants were in many -respects different from what they now are. If geologists are right in -the conclusion already stated, that the close of the glacial period is -as recent as 7,000 years ago, this will give us a narrow limit in time -for the age of man, at least under his present conditions. - -While, however, there is an absolute consensus of opinion among -geologists as to the existence of man at or about the close of the -glacial age, in the northern temperate regions at least, there are some -facts which have been supposed to indicate a pre-glacial human period, -or the advent of man even as early as the middle of the cenozoic time. -These merit a short consideration. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE EARLIEST TRACES OF MAN - - -In the eocene, or earliest cenozoic, it is not pretended by anyone that -man existed, except inferentially, on the ground that if the remains we -know in the earliest caves and gravels belong to men who were developed -from apes on the method of natural selection, their ancestors must have -existed, at least in a semi-human form, in the eocene. But no such -precursors of man are yet known to us. It would have been pleasant to -believe that man arrived in time to see the beautiful forests and to -enjoy the mild climate of the golden age of the miocene, and this would -have agreed with some human traditions; but the probabilities are -against it, as we know no one species of higher animal of the many found -in the miocene that has survived to our time. The privilege of enjoying -the forests of the miocene age seems to have been reserved for some -large and specialised monkeys, which even Darwinians can scarcely claim -as probable ancestors of man.[6] It would appear also that owing to -increasing refrigeration of climate these apes were either obliged to -leave Europe for warmer latitudes or became extinct in the succeeding -pliocene. - -[6] _Dryopithecus_ and _Mesopithecus_. - -There are, however, in France two localities, one in the upper and the -other in the middle miocene, which have afforded what are supposed to be -worked flints.[7] The geological age of the deposits seems in both cases -beyond question, but doubts have been cast, and this seemingly with some -reason, on the artificial character of the flint flakes, while in the -case of some examples which appear to be scrapers and borers, like those -in use long afterward by semi-civilised peoples for working in bone and -skin, there are grave doubts whether they actually came from the miocene -beds. Lastly, it has even been suggested that these flints may be the -handiwork of miocene apes, a suggestion not so unreasonable as at first -sight it appears, when taken in connection with the working instincts of -beavers and other animals. Monkeys, however, seem to have less of this -gift as artificers than most other creatures. On the whole, we must -regard the existence of miocene man as not proven, though, if it should -prove to be a fact, it may be useful to some of the scoffers of these -days to know that it would not be so irreconcilable with the Biblical -account of creation as they seem to suppose. It might, however, prove a -serious stumbling-block to orthodox Darwinians, and might raise some -difficulties respecting antediluvian genealogies. - -[7] Puy, Courny and Thenay. - -In the pliocene of Europe there are alleged to be instances of the -occurrence of human bones. One of these is that of the skull now in the -museum of Florence, supposed to have been found in the pliocene of the -Val d'Arno. It is, however, a skull of modern type, and may have been -brought down from the surface by a landslip. But this explanation does -not seem to apply to the human remains found in lower pliocene beds at -Castelnedolo, near Brescia. They include a nearly entire human skeleton, -and are said by good observers to have been imbedded in undisturbed -pliocene beds. M. Quatrefages, who has described them, and whose -testimony should be considered as that of an expert, was satisfied that -the remains had not been interred, but were part of the original -deposit. Unfortunately the skull of the only perfect skeleton is said to -have been of fair proportions and superior to those of the ruder types -of post-glacial men. This has cast a shade of suspicion on the -discovery, especially on the part of evolutionists, who think it is not -in accordance with theory that man should retrograde between the -pliocene and the early modern period, instead of advancing. Still we may -ask, why not? If men existed in the fine climates of the miocene and -early pliocene, why should they not have been a noble race, suited to -their environment; and when the cold of the glacial period intervened, -with its scarcity and hardships, might they not have deteriorated, to be -subsequently improved when better conditions supervened? This would -certainly not be contradictory to experience in the case of varieties of -other animals, however at variance with a hypothetical idea of -necessarily progressive improvement. Let us hope that the existence of -European pliocene man will be established, and that he will be found to -have been not of low and bestial type, but, as the discoveries above -referred to if genuine would indicate, a worthy progenitor of modern -races of men. - -It still remains to inquire whether man may have made his appearance at -the close of the pliocene or in the early stages of the pleistocene, -before the full development of the glacial conditions of that period. -Perhaps the most important indications of this kind are those adduced by -Dr. Mourlon, of the Geological Survey of Belgium,[8] from which it would -appear that worked flints and broken bones of animals occur in deposits, -the relations of which would indicate that they belong either to the -base of the pleistocene or close of the pliocene. They are imbedded in -sands derived from eocene and pliocene beds, and supposed to have been -_remanie_ by wind action. With the modesty of a true man of science, -Mourlon presents his facts, and does not insist too strongly on the -important conclusion to which they seem to tend, but he has certainly -established the strongest case yet on record for the existence of -tertiary man. With this should, however, be placed the facts adduced in -a similar sense by Prestwich in his paper on the worked flints of -Ightham.[9] - -[8] _Bulletin de l'Academie Royale de Belgique_, 1889. - -[9] _Journal of the Geological Society_, London, May 1889. - -Should this be established, the curious result will follow that man must -have been the witness of two great continental subsidences, or deluges, -that of the early pleistocene and the early modern, the former of which, -and perhaps the latter also, must have been accompanied with a great -access of cold in the northern hemisphere. It seems, however, more -likely that the facts will be found to admit of a different explanation. - -Every reader of the scientific journals of the United States must be -aware of the numerous finds of 'palaeolithic' implements in 'glacial' -gravels, indicating a far greater antiquity of man in America than on -other grounds we have a right to imagine. I have endeavoured to show, in -a work published several years ago,[10] how much doubt on geological -grounds attaches to the reports of these discoveries, and how uncertain -is the reference of the supposed implements to undisturbed glacial -deposits, and how much such of the 'palaeoliths' as appear to be the work -of man resemble the rougher tools and rejectamenta of the modern -Indians. But since the publication of that work, so great a number of -'finds' have been recorded, that despite their individual improbability, -one was almost overwhelmed by the coincidence of so many witnesses. Now -the bubble seems to have been effectually pricked by Mr. W. H. Holmes, -of the American Geological Survey, who has published his observations -in the _American Journal of Anthology_ and elsewhere.[11] - -[10] _Fossil Man_, London, 1880. - -[11] _Science_, November 1892; _Journal of Geology_, 1893. - -[Illustration: SECTION AT TRENTON, ON THE DELAWARE, SHOWING THE RELATION -OF THE STONE IMPLEMENTS TO THE GLACIAL (?) GRAVELS (after Holmes)] - -One of the most widely-known examples was that of Trenton, on the -Delaware, where there was a bed of gravel alleged to be pleistocene, and -which seemed to contain enough of 'palaeolithic' implements to stock all -the museums in the world. The evidence of age was not satisfactory from -a geological point of view, and Holmes, with the aid of a deep -excavation made for a city sewer, has shown that the supposed implements -do not belong to the undisturbed gravel, but merely to a talus of loose -_debris_ lying against it, and to which modern Indians resorted to find -material for implements, and left behind them rejected or unfinished -pieces. This alleged discovery has therefore no geological or -anthropological significance. The same acute and industrious observer -has inquired into a number of similar cases in different parts of the -United States, and finds all liable to objections on similar grounds, -except in a few cases in which the alleged implements are probably not -artificial. These observations not only dispose, for the present at -least, of palaeolithic man in America, but they suggest the propriety of -a revision of the whole doctrine of 'palaeolithic' and 'neolithic' -implements as held in Great Britain and elsewhere. Such distinctions are -often founded on forms which may quite as well represent merely local or -temporary exigencies, or the _debris_ of old work-*shops, as any -difference of time or culture. - -[Illustration: CHIPPED QUARTZITES, MODERN AMERICAN (after Holmes) - -Upper line (1 to 6), unfinished and rejected pieces. Lower line (7 to -18), progress of development from the unfinished oval form to finished -lance and arrow-heads.] - -For the present, therefore, we may afford to pass over with this slight -notice the alleged occurrence of miocene and pliocene man, and this the -rather since, if such men ever existed in the northern hemisphere, the -cold and submergence of the pleistocene must have cut them off from -their more modern successors in such a way that man must practically -have made a new beginning at the close of the glacial age. - -I do not refer here to the finds of skulls and implements in the -auriferous gravels of Western America. Some of these, if genuine, might -go back to the pliocene age, but in so far as the evidence now -available indicates, they all belong to the modern races of Indians, -and, in one way or another, by fraud or error, have had assigned to them -a fabulous antiquity. - -There still seems reason to believe that remains of man and his works -exist in beds which are overlaid by boulders and gravel, implying a cold -climate. These may indicate the last portion of the glacial period -proper, in which case the beds with human remains may be called -inter-glacial, or they may indicate a partial relapse to the cold -conditions occurring after the glacial age had passed away, and in the -early part of the modern period. My own view is, that it is most natural -to draw the boundary line of the pleistocene and anthropic or modern at -the point where the earliest certain evidences of man appear, and that -the anthropic age will be found to include not only an early period of -mild climate succeeding the glacial age, but a little later a return of -cold, not comparable with that of the extreme glacial period, but -sufficient seriously to affect human interests, and which almost -immediately preceded those physical changes which carried away -palaeocosmic man, or the man of the earliest period, and many of his -companion animals, and introduced the neanthropic or later human age. We -shall find facts bearing on this in the sequel. - -In the meantime, we may consider it as established beyond cavil that man -was already in Europe immediately after the close of the glacial period, -and was contemporary with the species of animals, many of them large -and formidable, which at that time occupied the land. He must have -entered on the possession of a world more ample and richer in resources -than that which remains to us. The early post-glacial age was, like the -preceding pliocene, a time of continental elevation, in which the dry -land spread itself widely over the now submerged margins of the sea -basins. In Europe, the British Islands were connected with the mainland, -and Ireland was united to England. The Rhine flowed northward to the -Orkneys, through a wide plain probably wooded and swarming with great -quadrupeds, now extinct or strange to Europe. The Thames and the Humber -were tributaries of the Rhine. The land of France and Spain extended out -to the hundred-fathom line. The shallower parts of the Mediterranean -were dry land, and that sea was divided into two parts by land -connecting Italy with Africa. Possibly portions of the shallower areas -of the Atlantic were so elevated as to connect Europe and America more -closely than at present. - -Connected with this elevation of the continents out of the sea was a -great change of climate, whereby the cold of the pleistocene age passed -away and a milder climate overspread the northern hemisphere, while the -newly-raised land and that vacated by snow and ice became clothed with -vegetation, and were occupied by a rich quadrupedal fauna, including -even in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, species of -elephant, rhinoceros, and other genera now confined to the warmer -climates. This new and noble world was the rich heritage of primeval -man. - -Pictet has estimated the number of species of mammals inhabiting -Europe in the palanthropic period at ninety-eight,[12] of which only -fifty-seven now live there, the remainder being either wholly or locally -extinct--that is, they are either not now existing in any part of the -world, or are found only beyond the limits of Central, Western, and -Southern Europe. The extinct species also include the largest and -noblest of all. It has been remarked that the assemblage of palanthropic -species in Europe and Western Asia is so great and varied that with our -present experience we can scarcely imagine them to have existed -contemporaneously in the same region. For example, the association of -species of elephant and rhinoceros, the musk-sheep, the reindeer, the -Cape hyena, and the hippopotamus seems to be incongruous. - -[12] Zittel, in a recent paper (1893), gives 110 species of mammals in -the pleistocene and early modern. Of these about twenty of the largest -and most important are extinct. - -Various theories have been proposed to remove the difficulty. Modern -analogies will allow us to believe in such astounding facts if we take -into account the probability of a warm climate, especially in summer, -along with a wooded state of the country providing much shelter, and -wide continental plains affording facilities for seasonal migrations. -There were no doubt also climatal changes in the course of the age, -which may have tended to the remarkable mixture of animal types in its -deposits. In connection with this there is now every reason to believe -that while, in its earlier part, the palanthropic age was distinguished -by a warm climate, in its later portion a colder and more inclement -atmosphere crept over the northern hemisphere. As an illustration of -this, it is known that in the earlier part of the period a noble species -of elephant named _Elephas antiquus_, and a rhinoceros (_R. Merkii_), -abounded in Europe; but as the age advanced these species disappeared, -and were replaced by the mammoth (_E. primigenius_) and the woolly -rhinoceros (_R. tichorhinus_), animals clothed like the musk-ox in dense -wool and hair, and evidently intended for a rigorous climate. With and -succeeding these last species, the reindeer becomes characteristic and -abundant. It is, as we shall see, a point of much importance in what may -be called the prehistoric history of man, that he was introduced in a -period of genial temperature as well as of wide continental extension, -and survived to find his physical environment gradually becoming less -favourable, and the age ending in that great cataclysm which swept so -many species of animals and tribes of men out of existence, and reduced -the dry land of our continents to its present comparatively limited -area. - -I should, perhaps, have noticed here the worked flints found so -abundantly in some parts of the south of England, which have long -attracted the attention of collectors, and have in some cases been -referred to glacial or pre-glacial times. I believe, however, they are -all really post-glacial, though in some cases belonging to the earliest -portion of that period.[13] - -[13] Prestwich on 'Ightham Beds,' _Journ. Geol. Soc._, 1893; Dawkins, -_Journ. Anthrop. Soc._, 1894. - -We may close the present chapter by presenting to the eye in a tabular -form the series of events included in the pleistocene and modern periods -of the great cenozoic time. - - -LATER CENOZOIC, OR TERTIARY PERIOD - -(_In Ascending Order, or from the Older to the Newer_) - -Newer Pliocene.--A continental period of long duration, elevated land, -much erosion, much volcanic action. - -Pleistocene.--Irregular elevation and depression of the land, ending in -wide submergence with cold climate. Glaciers on all mountains near to -coasts and ice-drift over submerged plains. Glacial period, with an -inter-glacial mild period in the middle and great submergence of the -continents toward the close. - -Anthropic.--_Palanthropic_, or post-glacial, in which the land emerges -and attains a very wide extension, and is inhabited by a varied -mammalian fauna. Man appears in Europe, Asia, and North Africa. -Terminated by a recurrence of cold and great subsidence, deluging all -the lower lands. _Neanthropic._--Area of continents smaller than in the -previous period. Surviving races of men and species of animals repeople -the world. Modern races of men and modern animals. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE PALANTHROPIC AGE[14] - -[14] Called by some 'Palaeolithic,' from the use of implements like that -figured on p. 41. - - -We have now to inquire more particularly what we can learn as to the -earliest men known to us, those who appeared in Western Asia and Europe -at the close of the glacial period, when the cold had passed away and a -genial climate had succeeded, and when the continents of the northern -hemisphere had attained to their largest dimensions, were clothed with a -rich vegetation and tenanted by an abundant mammalian fauna, including -many large and important creatures now extinct. - -We may first notice here a necessary limitation to our knowledge. The -dry land of this age was of greater dimensions than at present. A large -portion of what then was land is consequently now under the sea or -deeply buried in alluvial deposits. Hence if any men of this age lived -near the borders of the ocean, their remains must now be inaccessible, -and the relics which we find must be those of inland tribes or of those -who were driven inland by the encroachments of the waters. Our means of -information are thus limited, and we must be prepared to admit that -there may have been in this age great and populous communities of which -we can have no record, at least of a geological character. Hence if we -should find remains of only rude races of men, we should not be -justified in assuming that all the peoples of the palanthropic age were -of this character, more especially if we can find any indications that -the men whose remains are accessible to us, though rude themselves, may -have belonged to more advanced races. - -[Illustration: FLINT HACHE OF THE ANCIENT OR CHELLEAN TYPE, AURILLAC - -(after Carthaillac)] - -The bones, implements and weapons, and _debris_ of the feasts of these -primitive peoples are to be found principally in caves of residence or -of sepulture,[15] and in the alluvia deposited by rivers, and in a few -cases in rock fissures or marine gravels, into which remains were -drifted, or in which they were deposited by water. Here, again, we have -another limitation, for it is possible that large populations may have -lived on plains or in forests in perishable structures, and, like some -modern savages, may have disposed of their dead in such a way that their -bones could not have been preserved. In such cases we can hope to -obtain, and then very rarely, only stone implements and other -imperishable relics. - -[15] Caverns, in relation to this subject, may be divided into those of -residence, in which early men have lived and have left therein the -_debris_ of their food, the ashes and cinders of their fires, and -implements, &c.; those of sepulture, in which the bodies of the dead -have been deposited; and those of inundation, into which the bodies of -animals or men have been drifted by floods. The same cave may, however, -exhibit these different conditions in the deposits on its successive -floors. Thus men may have inhabited a cave for a time; it may next have -been invaded by river floods depositing mud, and it may subsequently -have been used for burial. - -Notwithstanding these limitations, however, it is wonderful that so much -has been recovered from the ground by the diligence of collectors, and -that the material thus obtained has proved so fertile in information -respecting our long-perished ancestors. - -Supposing, then, that we search for remains of palaeocosmic men in river -alluvia, or in caves of residence or burial, or in similar repositories, -the question next arises, by what means can we distinguish their bones -from those of later times? The following criteria are available: - -(1) The remains were in their present condition at least as long ago as -the date of the earliest history or tradition. This evidence is of -course of greatest value in those regions in which history extends -farthest back. Thus the remains of early men in the Lebanon caves, which -we know date much farther back than the arrival of the first Phoenicians -and Canaanites in Syria, are in a different position, in so far as -history is concerned, from those occurring in countries whose written -history goes back only a few centuries. - -(2) The deposits containing these remains may underlie those holding -relics of historic times, or may indicate different physical conditions -of the districts in which they occur from those known within historic -periods. This is the case with some river beds, as those of Grenelle, -near Paris, and with the successive deposits in old caves of residence. - -(3) They may be accompanied by remains of animals now extinct in the -regions in question, and whose disappearance and replacement by the -modern fauna implies great lapse of time and physical changes; as, for -instance, when we find that men have left remains of their feasts -holding bones of the extinct woolly rhinoceros and his contemporaries, -or in now temperate climates, those of the reindeer. - -(4) The remains themselves may indicate a race or races of men and a -condition of the arts of life different from any known in the region in -historic times. Thus we may have skulls and skeletons indicating men -racially distinct from any now extant, and implements and weapons -different from those in use in the times of history or tradition. - -We have now to consider what evidence of this kind vindicates the -assertion that man existed on our continents in the second continental -or post-glacial age, or, as others will have it, in the closing period -of the glacial age, and was contemporary with the mammoth and other -great beasts now extinct. This evidence, which has been accumulating -with great rapidity and relates to many parts of the northern -hemisphere, is too voluminous to be reproduced here.[16] But a few -examples of it may be given, more especially from parts of the old world -whose history extends farthest back and where explorations have been -most extensive. - -[16] Reference may be made to Christy and Lartet, _Reliquiae Aquitanicae_; -Quatrefages, _Homme Fossile_; Dupont, _L'Homme pendant les Ages de -Pierre_; Carthaillac, _La France Prehistorique_; Dawkins, _Cave Hunting -and Early Man in Britain_; _Fossil Men_ and _Modern Science in Bible -Lands_, by the author. - -My first instance shall be one originally described by Canon Tristram, -and which I had an opportunity to examine in 1884--the caverns or -rock shelters in the face of the limestone cliff of the pass of -Nahr-el-Kelb, north of Beyrout. At this place, in old caverns partly -cut away in the forming of the Roman road round the cliff, there is -a hard stalagmite, or modern limestone, produced by the calcareous -drippings from the rock. This is filled with broken bones intermixed -with flint flakes suitable for use as knives or spears or darts, and -occasional fragments of charcoal. The bones are those of large animals, -and have been broken for the extraction of the marrow; and the whole -is evidently the remnants of the cuisine of some primitive tribe of -hunters, now cemented into a somewhat hard stone by stalagmitic matter. -The bones are not those of the present animals of Syria, but principally -of an extinct species of rhinoceros (_R. tichorhinus_), a species -of bison, and other large mammals which inhabited the region in the -pleistocene and post-glacial periods. It is farther known that these -animals had been extinct long before the early Phoenicians penetrated -into this country, perhaps 3000 B.C., and that the deposits existed in -their present state when the early Egyptian conquerors passed this way, -at least 1500 B.C., on their march to encounter the Hittites. It is also -known that the earliest historic aborigines of the Lebanon, certain rude -tribes which seem to have existed there before the migration of the -Phoenicians, subsisted on the modern animals of the district, and used -flint implements and weapons somewhat differing from those of the -earlier cave men of the region.[17] What, then, were these earlier cave -men? Certainly no people known to history, unless those whom we know as -antediluvians.[18] - -[17] See the illustration on p. 97. - -[18] For more detailed description see _Modern Science in Bible Lands_; -also _Egypt and Syria_, in the _Bypaths of Bible Knowledge_, by the -author. - -From the Lebanon we may pass to the west of Europe, where in France and -Belgium a vast number of interesting relics of palaeocosmic man have been -discovered, and have been scientifically examined. - -We may take as an illustration the cave of Goyet, on the cliffs bounding -the ravine of the Samson, a tributary of the Meuse. This cavern is about -forty-five feet above the present ordinary level of the river, but in -post-glacial times seems to have been invaded by inundations, as it -shows on its floor five distinct ossiferous surfaces, separated by -layers of river-mud. These successive surfaces have been carefully -examined by M. Dupont, and their contents noted. - -On the lowest of these, or the first in order of age, were found -numerous skeletons and detached bones of the cave lion and the cave -bear; the former a possible ancestor of the lion of Western Asia, the -latter closely allied to the grizzly bear of North America, but both -entirely extinct in Europe. One of the skeletons of the lion was of -unusually large size, and so complete that when set up it forms the -principal ornament of the cave collection in the Brussels Museum. - -[Illustration: CAVE OF GOYET, BELGIUM (section after Dupont) - -1 to 5, layers of clay deposited in the mammoth ages] - -The next surface, the second in order of time, had a greater variety of -animal remains. The lion had disappeared, and instead hyenas haunted the -cave, and had dragged in animal bones to be gnawed. These included -remains of the cave bear, wolf, rhinoceros, mammoth, wild horse, wapiti, -Irish stag, chamois, reindeer, wild ox, besides several smaller animals. -The above animals are now all unknown in the fauna of modern Europe, -except the reindeer, the chamois, and the wolf. But the most remarkable -discovery on this surface was that of a few human bones, gnawed like the -others by the hyenas. Man was thus already in the country, and -contemporary with all these animals. How the hyena obtained his bones, -whether from some neglected corpse or from some badly-constructed grave, -will never be known; but the discovery introduces us to a tribe or -family of men coming as immigrants into a region already stocked with -many great quadrupeds. They probably did not yet dwell in caves, which, -at a later and perhaps more inclement period, formed their homes. Dupont -concludes from the condition of the bones that on both the older -surfaces the cave bear was the later tenant, and had replaced the lion -on the first and the hyena on the second. - -The remaining surfaces introduce us to man as a cave-dweller. On the -oldest of them are found not only abundance of _debris_ of food, but -worked flints and bones, objects of ornament, and evidences of the use -of fire. The two higher layers show works of art in more varied and -improved forms, as if a certain progress in the arts of life had taken -place during the occupancy of the cave. Among the objects in the upper -layers were red oxide of iron, showing the use of colouring matter for -the skin or garments, bone needles, proving the manufacture of clothing -by sewing, bone points for darts, skilfully-barbed bone harpoons, -ornaments made of perforated teeth of animals, and fragments of bone, -and a remarkable necklace of a hundred and twenty-four silicified shells -of the genus _Turritella_, looking like spirals of agate, with a pendant -made of another and larger shell. These shells are not known to occur -nearer to the cave than Rheims, in Champagne. It is scarcely too much to -say that this necklace might be worn by any lady of the present day. A -certain amount of imitative art is also shown in the carving of animal -and plant forms and fancy devices on pieces of reindeer antler, which -may have served for handles of weapons or implements. But objects of -much more elaborate design have been found in caverns of this age in -France. (See illustrations on pp. 59 and 68.) - -[Illustration: LANCE-HEAD FORMED OF A FLINT FLAKE (CAVE OF MOUSTIER) - -Similar to weapons found in the Goyet cave. The flat face shows a bulb -of percussion (after Falsan)] - -The food of these people, in so far as it was of an animal nature, may -be learned from the broken bones, which show that here as elsewhere they -carried into their caves only the legs and skulls of the larger animals -they killed, leaving the carcases; though it is quite possible that, -like North American hunting Indians, they may have stripped off portions -of flesh from the back, and preserved the heart, liver, &c., which would -of course leave no remains. - -Dupont gives lists of the animals in each layer. Those in the lower of -the anthropic layers consist of twenty-three species of quadrupeds and -some bones of birds. Among the former were the mammoth, the rhinoceros, -two species of bear, the horse, the reindeer, two other species of deer -and two bovine animals. Even the lion, the hyena and the wolf were eaten -by these people. It is interesting to note that the numerical -preponderance was in favour of the reindeer and the wild horse, though -remains were found indicating seven individuals of the mammoth, and four -of the rhinoceros, as having fallen a prey to the old hunters. In the -highest bed the number of species and the proportions of each one are -nearly the same, so that no material change in the fauna had occurred -during the occupancy of this cave. It may also be noted that while -Dupont calls this a cave of the mammoth age, the French archaeologists -are in the habit of naming similar deposits those of the reindeer age. -The age of both animals was in reality the same, except that in France -the reindeer seems to have survived the mammoth, and indeed we know -this to be the fact from its continuing in the forests of Germany till -the Roman times. - -This cave may serve as an example of the manner in which the men of the -palanthropic age make their appearance. Let it be observed also that -this is only one instance selected from many giving similar testimony, -and that Dupont adduces evidence to show that there may have been a -contemporary plain-dwelling people, of whom less is known than of the -troglodytes. Let it also be noted that there are other caves in Belgium, -to which we shall return later, which show how the neocosmic men -contemporary with the present fauna succeeded the men of the mammoth -age. - -We may now inquire as to the physical characters of the men of this -period. It may be stated in answer to this question that two races of -men are known in the palanthropic age, both somewhat different from any -existing peoples, and known respectively as the Canstadt and Cro-magnon -races. As the latter is the most important and best known, we may take -it first, though the former may locally at least have been the older. - -The valley of the little river Vezere, a tributary of the Dordogne, in -the south of France, abounding in overhanging rock-shelters, seems to -have been a favourite abode of the men of the mammoth and reindeer age. -The rock-shelter of Cro-magnon explored by Lartet is one of these, and -that of Laugerie Basse is on the opposite side of the same stream. - -The former is a shelter or hollow under an over-*hanging ledge of -limestone, and excavated originally by the action of the weather on a -softer bed. It fronts the south-west, and, having originally been about -eight feet high and nearly twenty deep, must have formed a comfortable -shelter from rain or cold or summer sun, and with a pleasant outlook -from its front. Being nearly fifty feet wide, it was capacious enough to -accommodate several families, and when in use it no doubt had trees or -shrubs in front, and may have been further completed by stones, poles, -or bark placed across the opening. It seems, however, in the first -instance to have been used only at intervals, and to have been left -vacant for considerable portions of time. Perhaps it was visited only by -hunting or war-parties. But subsequently it was permanently occupied, -and this for so long a time that in some places a foot and a half of -ashes and carbonaceous matter, with bones, implements, &c., was -accumulated. All of these, it may be remarked, belong to the -palanthropic age. By this time the height of the cavern had been much -diminished, and, instead of clearing it out for future use, it was made -a place of burial, in which five individuals were interred. Of these, -three were men, one of great age, the other two probably in the prime of -life. The fourth and fifth were a woman of about thirty or forty years -of age, and the remains of a foetus. - -These bones, with others to be mentioned in connection with them, -unquestionably belong to some of the oldest human inhabitants known in -Western Europe. They have been most carefully examined by several -competent anatomists and archaeologists, and the results have been -published with excellent figures in the _Reliquiae Aquitanicae_, where -will also be found details of their characters and accompaniments, among -which last were about three hundred small shells of different species -pierced for stringing or attachment to garments. These men are, -therefore, of the utmost interest for our present purpose, and I shall -try so to divest the descriptions of anatomical details as to give a -clear notion of their character. The doubts at one time cast on the age -of these skeletons have been removed by the discovery of others at -Laugerie Basse, Mentone, &c. They are no doubt palanthropic, though not -of the earliest part of the period. The 'Old Man of Cro-magnon' was of -great stature, being nearly six feet high. More than this, his bones -show that he was of the strongest and most athletic muscular -development; and the bones of the limbs have the peculiar form which is -characteristic of athletic men habituated to rough walking, climbing, -and running; for this is, I believe, the real meaning of the enormous -strength of the thigh-bone and the flattened condition of the leg in -this and other old skeletons. It occurs to some extent, though much less -than in this old man, in American skeletons. His skull presents all the -characters of advanced age, though the teeth had been worn down to the -sockets without being lost; which, again, is a character often observed -in rude peoples of modern times. The skull proper, or brain-case, is -very long--more so than in ordinary modern skulls--and this length is -accompanied with a great breadth; so that the brain was of greater size -than in average modern men, and the frontal region was largely and well -developed. The face, however, presented very peculiar characters. It was -extremely broad, with projecting cheek-bones and heavy jaw, in this -resembling the coarse types of the American face, and the eye-orbits -were square and elongated laterally in a manner peculiar to the skulls -of this age. The nose was large and prominent, and the jaws projected -somewhat forward. This man, therefore, had, as to his features, some -resemblance to the harsher type of American physiognomy, with -overhanging brows, small and transverse eyes, high cheek-bones, and -coarse mouth. He had not lived to so great an age without some rubs, for -his thigh-bone showed a depression which must have resulted from a -severe wound--perhaps from the horn of some wild animal or the spear of -an enemy. - -[Illustration: OUTLINE OF THE SKULL OF THE 'OLD MAN OF CRO-MAGNON' - -(after Christy and Lartet)] - -The woman presented similar characters of stature and cranial form -modified by her sex, and in form and visage closely resembled her -sisters of the American wilderness in the pre-Columbian times. If her -hair and complexion were suitable, she would have passed at once for an -American-Indian woman, but one of unusual size and development. Her head -bears sad testimony to the violence of her age and people. She died from -the effects of a blow from a stone-headed pogamogan or spear, which has -penetrated the right side of the forehead with so clean a fracture as to -indicate the extreme rapidity and force of its blow. It is inferred from -the condition of the edges of this wound that she may have survived its -infliction for two weeks or more. If, as is most likely, the wound was -received in some sudden attack by a hostile tribe, they must have been -driven off or have retired, leaving the wounded woman in the hands of -her friends to be tended for a time, and then buried, either with other -members of her family or with others who had perished in the same -skirmish. Unless the wound was inflicted in sleep, during a night -attack, she must have fallen, not in flight, but with her face to the -foe, perhaps aiding the resistance of her friends or shielding her -little ones from destruction. With the people of Cro-magnon, as with the -American Indians, the care of the wounded was probably a sacred duty, -not to be neglected without incurring the greatest disgrace and the -vengeance of the guardian spirits of the sufferers. - -Unreasonable doubts have been cast on the burial of the dead by -palaeocosmic men. The burial of men of the Cro-magnon race at that place -and at Laugerie Basse and Mentone is established by the most unequivocal -evidence; and interments of men of the Canstadt race have been found at -Spy, in Belgium. Of course, even if interment proper had not been -practised, there might have been cremation, as among the Tasmanians, or -burial on stages or in huts, as among some American Indians. Still, that -interment was practised we know, and this carries with it the certainty -that our palaeocosmic men must have had some simple ideas of religion. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST SKELETON FOUND IN THE MENTONE CAVES - -(after Riviere)] - -The skulls of these people have been compared to those of the modern -Esthonians or Lithuanians; but on the authority of M. Quatrefages it is -stated that, while this applies to the probably later race of smaller -men found in some of the Belgian caves, it does not apply so well to the -people of Cro-magnon. Are, then, these people the types of any ancient, -or of the most ancient, European race? The answer is that they are types -of the cave men of the mammoth age in Europe. Another example is the -remarkable skeleton of Mentone, in the south of France, found under -circumstances equally suggestive of great antiquity. Dr. Riviere, in a -memoir on this skeleton, illustrated by two beautiful photographs, shows -that the characters of the skull and of the bones of the limbs are -similar to those of the Cro-magnon skeleton, indicating a perfect -identity of race, while the objects found with the skeleton are similar -in character. I had an opportunity of verifying his description by an -examination of the skeleton in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes, in -1883; and more recent discoveries at Mentone have confirmed the -conclusion that this man really represents a race of giants, some of -them seven feet high, who inhabited Southern Europe in the palanthropic -age. A similar skeleton found by Carthaillac, at Laugerie Basse, was -buried under a great thickness of accumulated _debris_ of cookery, as -well as of large stones fallen from above. This skeleton had its shell -ornaments in place on the forehead, arms, legs and feet, in a manner -which would induce the belief that they had been attached to a -head-dress, sleeves, leggings, and shoes or moccasins. (See illustration -on p. 79.) - -[Illustration: HANDLE OF A PIERCER, OR BODKIN, IN BONE, FROM LAUGERIE -BASSE, IN FORM OF A DEER - -(a) Hollow for thumb; (b) hollow for finger. Reduced to one-half. From a -cast of the original] - -[Illustration: Section at A.A. - -FLINT FLAKE KNIFE, FOUND IN THE HAND OF THE 'GIANT' SKELETON OF MENTONE - -(after Evans)] - -The ornaments of Cro-magnon were perforated shells from the Atlantic and -pieces of ivory. Those at Mentone were perforated _Neritinae_ from the -Mediterranean and canine teeth of the deer. In both cases there was -evidence that these ancient people painted themselves with red oxide of -iron, and used bodkins of bone, and long and beautifully-formed flint -knives, perhaps for dividing their food, or perhaps for sacrificial -purposes. Skulls found at Clichy and Grenelle in 1868 and 1869 are -described by Professor Broca and M. Fleurens as of the same general -type, and the remains found at Gibraltar and in the cave of Paviland, in -England, seem also to have belonged to this race. The celebrated Engis -skull from one of the Belgian caves, which is believed to have belonged -to a contemporary of the mammoth, is also of this type, though less -massive than that of Cro-magnon; and lastly, even the somewhat degraded -Neanderthal skull, found in a cave near Duesseldorf, though, like those -of Clichy, Canstadt, Spy and Gibraltar, inferior in frontal development, -is referable to the same peculiar long-headed style of man, in so far as -can be judged from the portion that remains, though certainly to a ruder -and more degraded variety, commonly known as the Canstadt man as -distinguished from the Engis or Cro-magnon. - -[Illustration: NEANDERTHAL SKULL--TWO OUTLINES: THE OUTER GIVING THE -MORE CORRECT FORM (from _Science_)] - -Let it be observed, then, that these skulls are probably the oldest -known in the world, and they are all referable to two varieties of one -race of men; and let us ask what they tell as to the position and -character of palanthropic man. The testimony is here fortunately -well-nigh unanimous. All anatomists and archaeologists admit the high and -human character of the Engis and even the Neanderthal skulls. - -[Illustration: SKULL OF CANSTADT TYPE FOUND AT SPY, BELGIUM, BY FRAIPONT -AND LOHEST] - -Broca, who has carefully studied the Cro-magnon skulls, has the -following general conclusions: 'The great volume of the brain, the -development of the frontal region, the fine elliptical profile of the -anterior portion of the skull, and the orthognathous form of the upper -facial region, are incontestably evidences of superiority, which are met -with usually only in the civilised races. On the other hand, the great -breadth of face, the alveolar prognathism, the enormous development of -the ascending ramus of the lower jaw, the extent and roughness of the -muscular insertions, especially of the masticatory muscles, give rise to -the idea of a violent and brutal race.' - -He adds that this apparent antithesis, seen also in the limbs as well as -in the skull, accords with the evidence furnished by the associated -weapons and implements of a rude hunter-life, and at the same time of no -mean degree of taste and skill in carving and other arts. He might have -added that this is the antithesis seen in the American tribes, among -whom art and taste of various kinds, and much that is high and spiritual -even in thought, coexisted with barbarous modes of life and intense -ferocity and cruelty. The god and the devil were combined in these -races, but there was nothing of the mere brute. - -Riviere remarks, with expressions of surprise, the same contradictory -points in the Mentone skeleton: its grand development of brain-case and -high facial angle--even higher apparently than in most of these ancient -skulls--combined with other characters which indicate a low type and -barbarous modes of life. - -Another point which strikes us in reading the descriptions of these -skeletons is the indication which they seem to present of an extreme -longevity. The massive proportions of the body, the great development -of the muscular processes, the extreme wearing of the teeth among a -people who predominantly lived on flesh and not on grain, the -obliteration of the sutures of the skull, along with indications of slow -ossification of the ends of the long bones, point in this direction, and -seem to indicate a slow maturity and great length of life in this most -primitive race. - -The picture would be incomplete did we not add that Quatrefages has -described a single skull, that of Truchere, from deposits of this age, -which shows that these gigantic men were contemporaneous with a feebler -race of smaller stature and with different cranial characters, and -inhabiting in all likelihood a more eastern region. - -It is further significant that there is evidence to show that the larger -and stronger race was that which prevailed in Europe at the time of its -greatest elevation above the sea and greatest horizontal extent, and -when its fauna included many large quadrupeds now extinct. This race of -giants was thus in the possession of a greater continental area than -that now existing, and had to contend with gigantic brute rivals for the -possession of the world. It is also not improbable that this early race -became extinct in Europe in consequence of the physical changes which -occurred in connection with the subsidence that reduced the land to its -present limits, and that the feebler race which succeeded came in as the -appropriate accompaniment of a diminished land-surface and a less -genial climate in the early historic period. The older races are those -usually classed as palaeolithic, and are supposed to antedate the period -of polished stone; but this may, to some extent, be a prejudice of -collectors, who have arrived at a foregone conclusion as to distinctions -of this kind. Judging from the great cranial capacity of the older race -and the small number of their skeletons found, it might be fair to -suppose that they represent rude outlying tribes belonging to nations -which elsewhere had attained to greater population and culture. - -Lastly, all of these old European races were Turanian, Mongolian, or -American in their head-forms and features, as well as in their habits, -implements, and arts. In other words, their nearest affinities were with -races of men which in the modern world are the oldest and most widely -distributed. - -The reader, reflecting on what he has learned from history, may be -disposed here to ask, Must we suppose Adam to have been one of these -Turanian men, like the 'Old Man of Cro-magnon'? In answer, I would say -that there is no good reason to regard the first man as having resembled -a Greek Apollo or an Adonis. He was probably of sterner and more -muscular mould. But he was probably more akin to the more delicate and -refined race represented by the solitary skull of Truchere, while the -gigantic palaeocosmic men of the European caves are more likely to have -been representatives of that terrible and powerful race who filled the -antediluvian world with violence, and who reappear in postdiluvian -times as the Anakim and traditional giants, who constitute a feature in -the early history of so many countries. Perhaps nothing is more curious -in the revelations as to the most ancient cave men than that they -confirm the old belief that there were 'giants in those days.' At the -same time we must bear in mind that the more diminutive race which -survived must have existed previously in some part of the world, and -must have furnished the survivors of the succeeding subsidence (see -illustration on p. 82). - -And now let us pause for a moment to picture these so-called palaeolithic -men. What could the 'Old Man of Cro-magnon' have told us, had we -been able to sit by his hearth and listen understandingly to his -speech?--which, if we may judge from the form of his palate-bones, must -have resembled more that of the Americans or Mongolians than of any -modern European people. He had, no doubt, travelled far, for to his -stalwart limbs a long journey through forests and over plains and -mountains would be a mere pastime. He may have bestridden the wild -horse, which seems to have abounded at the time in France, and he may -have launched his canoe on the waters of the Atlantic. His experience -and memory might extend back a century or more, and his traditional lore -might go back to the times of the first mother of our race. Did he live -in that wide post-pliocene continent which extended westward through -Ireland? Did he know and had he visited the more cultured nations that -lived in the great plains of the Mediterranean Valley, or on that -nameless river which flowed through the land now covered by the German -Ocean? Had he visited or seen from afar the great island Atlantis, whose -inhabitants could almost see in the sunset sky the islands of the blest? -Could he have told us of the huge animals of the antediluvian world, and -of the feats of the men of renown who contended with these animal -giants? We can but conjecture all this. But, mute though they may be as -to the details of their lives, the man of Cro-magnon and his -contemporaries are eloquent of one great truth, in which they coincide -with the Americans and with the primitive men of all the early ages. -They tell us that primitive man had the same high cerebral organisation -which he possesses now, and, we may infer, the same high intellectual -and moral nature, fitting him for communion with God and headship over -the lower world. They indicate also, like the mound-builders, who -preceded the North American Indian, that man's earlier state was the -best--that he had been a high and noble creature before he became a -savage. It is not conceivable that their high development of brain and -mind could have spontaneously engrafted itself on a mere brutal and -savage life. These gifts must be remnants of a noble organisation -degraded by moral evil. They thus justify the tradition of a Golden and -Edenic Age, and mutely protest against the philosophy of progressive -development as applied to man, while they bear witness to the -similarity in all important characters of the oldest prehistoric men -with that variety of our species which is at the present day at once the -most widely extended and the most primitive in its manners and -usages.[19] - -[19] Perhaps no feature of this early human age is more remarkable than -its artistic productions. Recent testimony, more especially that of the -very careful explorers of the deposits at Spy, in Belgium, seems to show -existence of the potter's art, though this until lately was denied. -These people ornamented their clothing with pearly and coloured shells, -and made beautiful necklaces. We have already noticed that found in the -cave of Goyet. At Sordes, in the Pyrenees, in a very old interment of -this period, there was a necklace of forty-three teeth of the cave lion -and cave bear, carved with figures of animals (see p. 71). The handle of -a piercer, represented on p. 59, is a marvel of skilful adaptation of an -animal form to produce a handle fitted to be firmly and conveniently -grasped by the human hand. The figure of the mammoth on p. 68 shows how -a few bold lines may produce a vigorous and truthful sketch; and -multitudes of such carvings and drawings have been found in France as -well as in Germany and Belgium. Even the chipping of flint is an art -requiring much skill to produce the fine knives, spears, &c., so -commonly found, and there is evidence that these were fitted into strong -and probably artistic handles. All this and much more testifies to the -fact that our palaeocosmic men were no mean artists as well as -artificers. - -[Illustration: OUTLINE OF MAMMOTH, CARVED ON A PLATE OF IVORY, FROM THE -CAVE OF LA MADELEINE] - - - - -CHAPTER V - -SUBDIVISIONS AND CONDITIONS OF THE PALANTHROPIC AGE - - -While all geologists and archaeologists are agreed in the existence of -the men contemporary with the mammoth and reindeer in Europe, and in the -fact of two or even three races of men having existed in that period, -various opinions are entertained as to the succession of events and the -chronological classification of the remains. Mortillet, whose -arrangement has been usually adopted in France, recognises a period of -chipped stone or palaeolithic period, corresponding to the palanthropic -age, and a period of polished stone, corresponding to the neanthropic -age. Within the former he believes that it is possible to separate -different ages,[20] from the character of the implements and other -remains. The first two are characterised by the presence of two -elephants, the mammoth and another species (_E. antiquus_), the next two -by the mammoth associated with the cave bear and reindeer, the last by -the nearly entire predominance of the reindeer. Dupont is content in -Belgium to recognise a mammoth age and a reindeer age, but the latter -perhaps includes some deposits which are properly neanthropic. - -[20] Respectively the Achulienne, Chellienne, Mousterienne, -Soloutrienne, and Magdalenienne. - -Carthaillac places the whole palanthropic age as quaternary, properly -so-called, which he separates from the tertiary on the one hand and the -modern on the other, and divides his quaternary into two stages, the -first characterised by _E. antiquus_ and Mortillet's Chellean men, the -second by the mammoth and reindeer--the earlier of these two periods -being warm and moist, the latter cold and dry. The table appended to -this chapter is modified from those of Carthaillac. Dawkins, while -admitting a similar twofold division, calls the earlier men those of the -river gravels, the latter those of the caves. - -This twofold division of the palanthropic age requires some -consideration. In the first place, there is reason to believe that the -Canstadt race locally preceded that of Cro-magnon. I say locally, for no -one supposes that they are distinct species, and as varietal forms they -may have originated from a common intermediate ancestor, or the humbler -race may be the earlier, and the higher race an improvement on it, or -the lower race may have been a degraded type of the higher. Probably -also there was a third, the Truchere race, and the Cro-magnon race may -have been a half-breed or metis progeny. - -[Illustration: TOOTH OF CAVE BEAR, WITH ENGRAVING OF A SEAL, FROM A -COLLAR FOUND AT SORDES, PYRENEES (after Carthaillac)] - -Again, there was an undoubted change of fauna within the palanthropic -age, and this dependent on or accompanied by a change of climate. The -earlier elephant of the period (_E. antiquus_) and its companion animals -are believed to have been suited to a warm climate, and to have entered -Europe from the south-*east. With, or immediately after, them came man, -and this conclusion harmonises with human physiology, for we know that -man must have originated in a warm climate, and must in the first place -have been a feeder on fruits and grains or other nutritious vegetable -products. In this early stage he would be nearly destitute of implements -and weapons. But in the succeeding cold period, one tribe after another -might be obliged to resort to hunting habits, to the use of fire and of -clothing, and of natural and artificial shelter. Hence the peculiarities -of the cave men, who, while they advanced in art, may have also advanced -in ferocity and warlike habits, under the pressure of necessity and -competition. Hence also their association more and more closely with -such animals as the reindeer, the hairy mammoth, and the woolly -rhinoceros, while the previous species had migrated to the south or -perished. Thus it would appear that the men of the mammoth age may not -be really the most primitive men, but a derivative from them under -pressure of a severe climate. This possibility may be summed up as -follows. If the early part of the post-glacial or palanthropic era was -characterised by a milder climate than its later period, this may have -had much to do with the change in implements and weapons. The earliest -men probably subsisted merely on natural fruits and other vegetable -productions. To secure these in a mild climate they would require no -implements, except perhaps to dig for roots or to crack nuts. If they -migrated into a colder climate, or if the climate became more severe, -they might be obliged to become hunters and fishermen, and would invent -new implements and weapons, not because they had advanced in -civilisation, but, as Lamech has it in Genesis, 'because of the ground -which the Lord had cursed,' and which would no longer yield food to -them. At the same time they might contend with one another for the most -sheltered and productive stations, and so war might further stimulate -that very questionable advance in civilisation which consists in the -improvement of weapons of destruction. We have much to learn as to these -matters; but we must, if we have any regard to physiology and to natural -probability, start from the idea that the most primitive men were -frugivorous and fitted for a mild climate. In this case we should -expect that these earliest men would leave behind them scarcely any -weapons or implements except of the simplest kind, and that their -apparent progress in the arts of war and the chase might in reality be -evidence, up to a certain point at least, of increasing barbarism. -Primitive as well as modern men present in these respects strange -paradoxes. - -We have to inquire in the sequel as to the cause of the final -disappearance of the palaeocosmic men, and as to the question whether -history is cognisant of any such human period as that which has occupied -us in this chapter, or whether, as has sometimes been assumed, it is -altogether prehistoric. - -On the subject of the correlation of the French and Belgian discoveries -as to primitive man, a most interesting and important communication was -made by Dupont to the Geological Society of Belgium in 1892.[21] The -veteran explorer of the Belgian caves addresses himself in this paper to -a careful comparison of the geological relations, animal remains and -human relics in these caves, and in the gravels and 'quaternary' clays -associated with them. He arrives at the conclusion, which I had already -stated,[22] that these deposits are contemporaneous and show similar -stages, but that the mammoth age properly so-called, in which the -primitive people fed on the mammoth and its companion the woolly -rhinoceros, extended to a later date in Belgium than in France, so that -the mammoth age of Dupont and the reindeer age of the French -archaeologists overlap one another. He notes in connection with this that -there is evidence of the continued existence of the mammoth in the -so-called reindeer age of France, in the discovery in caves of that -period of plates of ivory with the portrait of the mammoth engraved on -them. It would therefore appear either that the mammoth earlier became -extinct or rare in France, perhaps on account of climatal changes, or -perhaps because of destruction by man, or that the habits of the French -populations changed in such a way as to cause them to confine themselves -to smaller game. In either case, we now find that the whole palanthropic -age is one period. On the other hand, Dupont agrees with Mortillet that -there is a hiatus, physical, palaeontological and anthropological, -between the so-called palaeolithic and neolithic periods, that is, -between the palanthropic and neanthropic ages. - -[21] _Bulletin de la Societe Belge de Geologie_, janvier 1893. This -paper should be studied by all interested in the subject. - -[22] _Fossil Men._ - -Dupont holds that the plain-dwellers (_Pedionomytes_, as he calls them) -were the earliest known men, corresponding to the oldest gravel remains -of Dawkins and Prestwich, and points out that their implements are in -size and form, though not in material and finish, allied to those of the -polished stone age, which might thus be regarded as an improved -continuation or revival of this first period. This might be read to -mean, as above maintained, that the earliest men were peaceful and -perhaps in part agricultural, that they were succeeded by lawless, -powerful, artistic and savage peoples, and when the latter were swept -away that a remnant of the primitive stock repossessed the land. If this -proves to be the net result, it will correspond exactly with our old -historical beliefs. - -I was struck in reading this paper with a remark of Dupont on the -unprogressive character of the men of the mammoth age, who seem to have -made so little advance in the arts of life during the period of their -occupation of Europe. Perhaps he makes too great an estimate of the -length of their residence, or does not sufficiently consider how long -men about their stage of civilisation have remained at the same point in -the historic period. Nor does he consider the possibility of the cave -men belonging to ruder tribes of a race which may have inhabited better -if more perishable residences elsewhere. In any case, all experience -shows that to such a people any great advance in the arts could come -only by missionary influence from abroad, or by the appearance of some -great inventive genius among themselves; and no good fortune of this -kind seems to have happened to the Canstadt or Cro-magnon men, or if it -did, they rejected their opportunity, as so many others have since done. - -Still, perhaps, we need not pity them too much. They lived in a young -and fresh condition of the earth, enjoyed a vigorous health, and were -gifted with rare strength and energy. They were bountifully provided -for by nature as to food and clothing, were in slavery to no man, lived -in families bound together by ties of affection, and were free to -migrate over vast territories according to the exigencies of the -seasons. They had some taste in dress and ornaments, and no doubt -enjoyed their clever carvings on bone and ivory as much as any modern -lovers of art their most finished treasures. A Cro-magnon 'brave,' tall, -muscular and graceful in movement, clad in well-dressed skins, -ornamented with polished shells and ivory pendants, with a pearly shell -helmet, probably decked with feathers, and armed with his flint-headed -lance and skull-cracker of reindeer antler handsomely carved, must have -been a somewhat noble savage, and he must have rejoiced in the chase of -the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the bison, and the wild horse and reindeer, -and in launching his curiously-constructed harpoons against the salmon -and other larger fish that haunted the rivers. - -Nor was he destitute of higher hopes. He laid his dead reverently in the -bosom of mother earth, with such things as had been pleasant or useful -in life, and his rudimentary bible, or 'book of the dead,' must have at -least included the idea--'This corruptible shall put on incorruption, -this mortal immortality.' That is the meaning of such funeral gifts in -every part of the world, and has always been so, as far as we can learn. -But the belief in immortality implies also a belief in a God or gods. -For if there is a spiritual world for the dead, there must be a Power to -care for them there. Whether these beliefs were originally implanted in -him when God breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, or were -taught to him by special revelation, we do not know, but they were there -as a foundation on which he could, with the aid of his sense of right -and wrong, build a happy and harmless life. That he did not always do so -we have some sad evidence, to be gathered even from his bones; and the -testimony of tradition is that his great sin was that of inhuman -violence, and it was for this that he was swept away by the Flood, and -replaced by men of more peaceful mould, whom but for that catastrophe he -would soon have annihilated. - -Carthaillac[23] devotes a chapter to the mortuary customs of the men of -the quaternary (palanthropic) age. He shows that the statement sometimes -made that these men did not care for the dead is entirely incorrect, -though he believes that we know comparatively little of their burials, -owing to the circumstance that only those in caverns were likely to be -preserved or discovered. The discoveries at Spy, in Belgium, show that -even the Canstadt race, the lowest in development, and probably in art, -interred the bodies of their dead, while a large number of interments of -the Cro-magnon race are known. He calls attention to the fact that in -all of these the body lies on its side. The hands are brought up to the -head or neck, and the knees are bent, sometimes slightly, sometimes very -strongly, so as to give the body a crouching posture (p. 79). The idea -seems to have been to place the body in the attitude of sleep or of -rest. The deceased was arrayed in the garments and ornaments worn during -life, and not infrequently a quantity of red oxide of iron was buried -with, or has been scattered over, the body. Flint knives and lances seem -often to have been placed with the dead. It is needless to say that all -this recalls the burial customs of many rude tribes of men up to modern -times. - -[23] _Homme Prehistorique._ - -There is some reason to believe that occasionally, at least, the flesh -has been partially removed from the bones before interment. This reminds -us of the custom of some American tribes, who were in the habit of -disinterring the dead after a temporary burial, carefully cleaning the -bones, and then placing them wrapped in skins in their tribal ossuaries. -It would seem, however, that the primitive men when they removed the -flesh did so in a recent state. Perhaps this practice was resorted to -only when the body had to be kept for some time, or carried some -distance for interment. If the body was disembowelled and the remaining -flesh and ligaments dried, it would be reduced very nearly to the -condition of the imperfect mummies of the Guanches of the Canaries and -of the Peruvians. Thus we may suppose that we have here a rudimentary -condition of the art of the embalmer. - -[Illustration: THE SKELETON OF LAUGERIE BASSE, DORDOGNE, SHOWING THE -POSITION OF THE PERFORATED SHELLS ON THE LIMBS AND FOREHEAD (after -Carthaillac)] - -Some questions still remain as to the races of men actually known to us -in the palanthropic age. It has already been explained that in the -earliest part of this period, that characterised by the presence of the -_Elephas antiquus_ in Europe, there are evidences of the existence of -man, and this in a more genial climate than that prevailing later. Of -these men we have no certain osseous remains. Should these be found, we -may anticipate that their characters would be peculiar, and would -indicate a frugivorous rather than a carnivorous mode of life, and less -of rude power than that evidenced by the Canstadt and Cro-magnon races. - -Of the latter, though both are of the same faunal period, and therefore -geologically contemporaneous, the former, the lower of the two in point -of physical development, is apparently in Western Europe the older, and -represents the earlier part of the mammoth age, when the climate had -become cooler and _Elephas primigenius_ had succeeded to _E. antiquus_. -The Cro-magnon race, beginning in this period, goes on to the close of -the mammoth age, which, as already stated, coincides with the reindeer -age of the French archaeologists. This Cro-magnon race I am disposed to -regard as a mixed or half breed tribe, produced by the union of the -Canstadt peoples with the higher race already hinted at. This last may -possibly be represented by a few skulls more resembling those of the men -of the neanthropic age, which are occasionally found in the burials of -the Cro-magnon people, and of which that found at Truchere has been -already referred to. - -We have thus traces of two primitive or antediluvian races, one probably -mild and subsisting on vegetable food, and another fierce, rude and -carnivorous, perhaps a product of degeneracy of the former; and a third, -or mixed race, of greater physical power and energy than either of the -others. This is of course merely a hypothetical reading of the facts, -but it is by no means improbable, and would, as we shall see, bring them -into close relation with the teachings of history and tradition as to -the antediluvian age. - -The most careful and elaborate studies of these several types have been -made by MM. Quatrefages and Hamy. The former sums up the races of fossil -or 'quaternary' men as six in number, viz.: (1) The Canstadt; -(2) the Cro-magnon; (3) the mesitocephalic race of Furfooz; (4) the -sub-brachycephalic race of Furfooz; (5) the race of Grenelle; (6) the -race of Truchere. Of these only three (namely, Nos. 1, 2, and 6) -properly belong to the palanthropic age. The races of Furfooz[24] and of -the upper beds of Grenelle are neanthropic, because they are found with -the animal remains of that age, and they resemble in cranial characters -the neanthropic peoples. - -[24] Noticed later, in Chapter VII. - -The Canstadt and Cro-magnon races resemble each other in being -long-headed or dolichocephalic, and in having strong and coarsely-made -facial bones, but the Canstadt race has a comparatively low fore-*head -with strong superciliary arches, and round eye-sockets. The Cro-magnon -race has a brain-case of more than ordinary capacity, a more elevated -fore-*head, and eye-sockets singularly elongated horizontally. Broca has -measured the cubic contents of the Cro-magnon skull, and gives as the -result 1,590 cubic centimetres, or 119 centimetres more than the -average of 125 modern Parisian skulls. The Canstadt men were of -moderate stature, but strongly built and muscular. The Cro-magnon race -was of great stature, some skeletons approaching to seven feet in -height, and affording evidence of immense muscular development. - -[Illustration: SKULL FROM TRUCHERE, SHOWING A PECULIAR PALANTHROPIC TYPE -ALLIED TO NEANTHROPIC RACES (after Quatrefages)] - -The race of Truchere is represented by only a single skull; but -Quatrefages vouches for it as belonging to the age of the mammoth. It is -a well-formed brachycephalic cranium of unusually great internal -capacity, and would be regarded anywhere as indicating a race of high -and refined cerebral endowment. If really of the mammoth age, it may -have belonged to a straggler or captive from a higher and more cultured -tribe, introduced accidentally into a sepulchre of the Cro-magnon -period. It connects itself with the speculation in the preceding pages -as to the existence of such a race. This skull resembles, as we should -expect, the type of the neanthropic men who spread over the earth at the -beginning of that later age. - - Table Showing Relations of Later Cenozoic Ages in Europe - - Later cenozoic - - ______________________________________________________________ - | | | | - | Geological | Geography and Climate | Fauna | - | Periods | | | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | Modern or | The actual climate | Modern quadrupeds, | - | neanthropic | and geographical | including | - | | arrangements | domestic animals | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | | Cold and dry, with | Reindeer, | - L C | | widely extended | mammoth (Elephas | - a e | | continents. Extension | primigenius), | - t n | Post-glacial or | of glaciers &c. | hairy rhinoceros | - e o | palanthropic | | (R. tichorhinus) | - r z | | | | - o | | Warm and moist, | | - i | | extended continents | Elephas antiquus | - c | | | and R. Merkii | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | Pleistocene or | Glacial period. | Arctic animals | - | glacial | Submergence and | and plants | - | | diminished continents | | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | | | Elephas | - | Pliocene | First continental | meridionalis, | - | | period. | Rhinoceros | - | | Mild climate | leptorhinus, and | - | | | other extinct | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - ______________________________________________________________ - | | | | - | Geological | Geography and Climate | Fauna | - | Periods | | | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | Modern or | So-called of Iron, | Recent | - | neanthropic | Bronze, and Polished | Roman | - | | Stone | Gaulish | - | | | Iberian | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | | - | | | Magdalenian | - L C | Post-glacial or | So-called palaeolithic| Soloutrian | - a e | palanthropic | or Age of | Mousterian | - t n | | Chipped Stone | Chellean | - e o | | | | - r z | | | | - o | | | | - i | | | | - c | | | | - |_________________|_______________________|____________________| - | | | - | Pleistocene or | | - | glacial | | - |_________________| No certain trace of Man | - | | | - | Pliocene | | - |_________________|____________________________________________| - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -END OF THE PALANTHROPIC AGE - - -The palanthropic age came to a tragic end, and is somewhat definitely -separated from that which succeeded it. This appears from several -considerations which are too often overlooked by writers who have -a prejudice in favour of everything passing imperceptibly and by -slow degrees into that by which it is followed--an exaggerated -uniformitarianism beyond that of Lyell, but in harmony with the -hypothesis of Darwin, to which many anthropologists appear to tie -themselves hopelessly. - -Three facts are here specially important. The Canstadt and Cro-magnon -races are physically different from any modern races, and give place -at the close of this age to peoples as distinct from them as any now -existing, and who, on the other hand, while separated from the -palaeocosmic men preceding them, are linked with the races of modern -times. It is no doubt true that occasional and abnormal human skulls may -to this day be seen on living men which are more or less of the Canstadt -or Cro-magnon type. These are good evidences of the unity of man -through all the ages, but no race exists having all the peculiarities of -these ancient peoples, which thus belong not to a distinct species but -to a distinct racial variety of man. - -Secondly, at the close of the palanthropic age we find a great change in -land animals--a number of important species hunted by early man having -disappeared, and the more meagre modern fauna having come in at once. -Thus it may be affirmed that the land fauna of this primitive time was -distinct from that now living. This implies either long time or a great -physical break. - -Thirdly, this change of fauna consists not so much in the introduction -of new species as in the extinction of old forms, either absolutely or -locally; and this agrees with the fact of diminution of land area, since -it seems to be a law of the geological succession that increasing land -brings in new land animals; diminishing land area leads to extinction, -and not to introduction. - -Fourthly, in accordance with this we find that, at the close of the -palanthropic age, the continents of the northern hemisphere experienced -a subsidence from which they have only partially recovered up to the -present time, and which introduced the modern geographical and climatal -features. This appears from raised beaches and beds of rubble, loam and -loess of modern date overlying the _debris_ of the glacial period and -holding the remains of post-glacial animals. These are widely spread -over the whole northern hemisphere, and ascend in some districts to -high levels. An interesting illustration has recently been given by Dr. -Nuesch and M. Boule, in the deposits under a rock-shelter at -Schweizersbild, near Schaffhausen.[25] These show an overlying deposit -with 'neolithic' implements and bones of recent animals, a bed of rubble -and loam destitute of human remains, and below this a bed containing -bone implements, worked flints, and traces of cookery of the -palanthropic period. The whole rests on a bed of rolled pebbles, -supposed to be the upper part of the glacial deposits. This shows the -interval between the palanthropic and neanthropic periods, and also the -post-glacial date of man in Switzerland, and it accords with a great -many other instances. - -[25] _Nouvelles archives des Missions_, &c. vol. iii. Noticed in -_Natural Science_, 1893. - -Were these changes sudden or gradual? Experience has no answer, for no -similar events have occurred in historic times, and though there are -records in the geological history of many mutations in the elevation of -the land, we have no information as to their rate of progress, and we -know little of their causes. The changes of this kind known to us in -modern times are merely local, not general, and in regard to their rate -are of two kinds. Some are abrupt and accompanied with earthquake -shocks. These are very local, and usually occur in regions of volcanic -activity. Others are so slow and gradual as to be scarcely perceptible, -and are often of wider distribution. It is evident, however, that these -slight and local phenomena furnish but little clue to the mutations of -past periods. These were on a far grander scale and affected vast areas. -We have no modern instances of these almost world-wide depressions of -continents under the sea, though we know that these have occurred, one -of them within the human period, and it is idle to speculate as to their -rate or duration in the absence of facts. We know pretty certainly, -however, from the gauges of time which can be applied to the close of -the glacial period, that this latest subsidence must have occurred -within six thousand years of our time. - -With reference to the particular movement in question, we know that the -close of the palanthropic period was accompanied by a movement at least -equal to the difference between the wide lands of the second continental -period and the shrunken dimensions of the present lands. Besides this we -find on the surface of the land modern raised beaches, deposits of loess -and plateau gravels, intrusions of mud into caves of considerable -elevation, and evidences, as in Siberia, of large herds of animals -perishing on elevated lands on which they seem to have taken refuge.[26] -In short, no geological fact can be better established than the -post-glacial subsidence. - -[26] Prestwich, 'Evidence of Submergence of Western Europe,' _Trans. -Royal Society_, 1893; 'Possible Cause for the Origin of the Tradition of -the Flood,' _Trans. Vict. Inst._, 1894; Dawkins, _Journal Anthrop. -Inst._, February 1894. Kingsmill and Skertchly (_Nature_, November 10, -1892) report the Asiatic loess to be marine, and to extend far upward on -the Caspian plain and the Pamirs, so that all Asia must have been -submerged within a very recent period. See also _Fossil Man_, by the -author, 1880. - -Putting these facts together, we cannot doubt that the submergence at -the close of the palanthropic age was very considerable, and that it was -followed by a partial re-emergence. Further, there is no evidence of any -serious fractures or folding of the crust taking place at the time, -though it is possible that great lava ejections like some of those of -Western America may belong to this period. It is therefore allowable to -suppose that the cause of submergence may have been either depression of -the land, or elevation of the bed of the ocean throwing its waters over -the land, or possibly a combination of both. Movements of these kinds -have recurred again and again in geological time. Their causes are -mysterious, but their effects have been of the most stupendous -character. Fortunately, they occur at rare intervals, and that to which -we are now referring is the last of which we have any record, and -differs from all others in having occurred at a time when man was widely -spread over the world. - -The geological chronometers already referred to inform us that the land -of the northern hemisphere rose from the great pleistocene submergence -about eight thousand to ten thousand years ago, and the second -continental period with its forests and its teeming and widely-extended -animal and human life, may have been established within two thousand -years of that time, or say six thousand to eight thousand years ago. How -long the second continental or palanthropic period continued intact we -do not know, but we can scarcely allow it less than two thousand years. -Perhaps it was considerably longer. Now on historical evidence produced -by Egypt, Chaldea, and other ancient countries in the Mediterranean -region, we can trace the neanthropic age continuously back to, say, -three thousand years B.C., or nearly five thousand years in all. Adding -to this two thousand years for the palanthropic age, we are carried back -to a time within one thousand years of the earliest we can assign on -geological grounds to the termination of the great glacial period. -Therefore, unless we suppose the last continental subsidence to have -begun some time before the close of the palanthropic age, and to have -continued to some degree into the beginning of the neanthropic, we -cannot assign to it a very long time. That it could not have been sudden -in the sense of being instantaneous is evident, because in that case -terrestrial denudation of a stupendous character must have ensued, and -no animal life except that of mountain tops and elevated table-lands -could have escaped its destructive effects, but that it was by no means -secular or long-continued is certain. - -Thus we seem shut up to the conclusion that the close of the -palanthropic age was marked by great geological vicissitudes of the -character of submergence, leading primarily to vast destruction of -animal life, and secondarily to permanent changes both in geography and -climate, under which new conditions the neanthropic age was inaugurated. -How this took place we have to inquire in the sequel. In the meantime we -may merely remark that since the two principal races of primitive men -known to us in Europe seem to have perished, we must infer that -individuals of a third race beyond the limits of Europe were destined to -survive, and again to replenish the earth in the new era, and that -possibly these may be represented by the solitary Truchere skull. In the -case of many of the more bulky and unwieldy animals inhabiting the -plains the case was different. They perished, or if any survived the -submergence they were unable to multiply under the new conditions. - -Desperate attempts have been made in the interests of extreme -uniformitarianism to discredit the abrupt change from palaeocosmic to -neocosmic men. It has been supposed that the latter replaced the former -as conquerors--a most unlikely theory, when their relative powers are -considered. It has been conjectured that as the cold decreased the old -races of men followed the reindeer to the north and became Arctic -peoples. But why did they not rather attack the new animals, which in -that case must have come in from the south? It has even been supposed -that the Esquimaux may be their descendants; but they are quite -different in physical characters, and have no nearer resemblance in -their arts than other rude peoples. In opposition to all this we have -not only the remarkable change in the races of men and in their animal -associates, but when we know that the whole geographical features of our -continents have changed since the palanthropic age, and that not only -are our continents reduced in size since the continental post-glacial -period, but that there is evidence of re-elevation as well as -subsidence, and this within a short period--say eight thousand years -less the historic period on the one hand and the early palanthropic on -the other--it seems impossible to doubt the greatness and suddenness of -the physical break that divides the anthropic age into two distinct -portions. All this may be held to be certainly known as geological fact, -and it would be folly to overlook it in any discussions as to primitive -man, or in any comparisons of the evidence afforded by his remains with -that of early human history or tradition. - -But if man was a witness of and sufferer in this great catastrophe, and -if any men survived it, did they preserve no tradition or memory of such -a stupendous event? We may imagine this to be possible. The survivors -may have belonged to the rudest and most isolated of the races of men, -and may have had no means of knowing the extent of the disaster or of -preserving its memory. On the other hand, they may have attained to a -sufficient degree of culture to have had some means of perpetuating the -memory of great events. If so, we may imagine that the great diluvial -cataclysm which separates the human or anthropic period into two parts -may have left an indelible mark in the history or tradition of mankind. -We shall inquire into this in the sequel, but must first consider what -geological monuments remain of the early neanthropic age in Europe.[27] - -[27] A valuable paper by Dawkins 'On the relation of the Palaeolithic to -the Neolithic Period,' reaches me when correcting the proof of this -volume. (Reprint from _Journal of Anthropological Society_, February -1894.) - -In the meantime I may remark that, if we take the Canstadt people to -represent the ruder tribes of the antediluvian Cainites, the feebler -folk of Truchere to represent the Sethites, and the giant race of -Cro-magnon and Mentone as the equivalent of the 'mighty men' or Nephelim -of Genesis who arose from the mixture of the two original stocks, we -shall have a somewhat exact parallel between the men of the caves and -gravels and those we have so long been familiar with in the Book of -Genesis. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE EARLY NEANTHROPIC AGE - - -There has been much confusion among anthropologists respecting the -distinction of this from the preceding age. The Cro-magnon race has been -classed as neanthropic, and has been confounded with a very dissimilar -people which succeeded it after an interval of some duration. The gap -between the disappearance of the earlier race and the arrival of the -newer has thus been overlooked, and no account has been taken of the -great intervening faunal and geographical changes. This has arisen from -neglecting or being unable to appreciate the geological part of the -evidence; and the somewhat lamentable result has been that it is -difficult for the ordinary reader to arrive at any certainty, in the -midst of conflicting statements all based on imperfect data. In these -circumstances it will be well to begin this chapter with some examples -of the relations of these different races. - -At Grenelle, near Paris, on the river Seine, there is a succession of -old inundation beds of that river, extending from the oldest part of -the anthropic to modern times, and furnishing what may be regarded as a -chronological series for Northern France, as many human remains have -been from time to time deposited on this old eddy of the Seine and -buried under newer accumulations. Belgrand has shown that in the lowest -gravels of this deposit the long-headed Canstadt man is alone found. -Immediately above this occur remains of the Cro-magnon type, and these -are associated with and overlain by beds holding large stones or erratic -blocks, a monument perhaps of the physical disturbances closing the -palanthropic age. Above these the next remains are those of a race of -men of smaller stature and with less elongated heads, which we shall -find belong to the neanthropic age. Here, as Quatrefages points out, we -have a distinct stratigraphical succession, which accords with that in -other localities. - -If we now turn to England we may select from other examples the -Cresswell caves, so carefully explored by Dawkins and Mello, and in -which we have well-ascertained evidence from fossils as well as from -superposition. Without going into the details as to the several chambers -and passages in these caverns, we find as the result of the whole the -following succession in ascending order: - -1. White calcareous sand, a deposit from water, but with no animal -remains. - -2. Stiff red clay with blocks of limestone, and in places underlaid by a -ferruginous sand. These beds, of which the red clay is the principal, -contain bones of rhinoceros leptorhinus, hippopotamus, bison, bear, -hyena and fox, but no human remains. Dawkins, however, shows that in -other caves farther south some rude flint implements show that man had -already appeared in England, though he may not have made his way as far -north as Yorkshire. - -3. Above this lies a stratum of red sandy cave earth, in which occur the -bones of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros, the horse, the bison, -the bear, and the hyena, but the leptorhine rhinoceros is gone. The -bones are gnawed by hyenas, and there are rude quartzite implements. -Over this, and representing the later part of the palanthropic age, -corresponding to some of the French, Belgian, and Lebanon caves, are an -upper cave earth and breccia, rich in 'palaeolithic' flint implements and -bones of the animals of the mammoth age. - -4. Above this, in the surface soil and disturbed portions of the -underlying beds, are remains of the neanthropic period, including twelve -species of modern animals, but with no trace of the great extinct -quadrupeds. Connected with these were human skulls of the same type -found in the ancient burial barrows of England, and belonging to races -still extant. The Cresswell caves give no bones of palaeocosmic men, but -they very well show the succession of the early period of mild climate, -the later severe climate, the extinction of the old animals contemporary -with the earliest men, and the final succession of modern men and -animals to the now insular Britain, which, in the times represented by -the beds one, two, and three above mentioned, was a part of the mainland -of Europe. - -[Illustration: FLINT FLAKES OF TWO TYPES FROM PALANTHROPIC AND -NEANTHROPIC CAVES IN THE LEBANON] - -But perhaps the most interesting views of the succession of early men -and the gap between the palanthropic and neanthropic periods are -presented by the Belgian caves explored by Schmerling and Dupont. The -latter has excavated more than sixty caverns, and has carefully noted -the mode of occurrence of their contents, collecting at the same time a -vast number of bones and implements, now admirably arranged in the -museum of Brussels. In Belgium the earlier anthropic period has been -characterised as that of the mammoth. The beginning of the neanthropic -is still a reindeer age, though that animal was apparently becoming -rare. It existed, as we know, in Central Europe till the time of Caesar. - -[Illustration: RESTORATION OF THE SEPULCHRAL CAVE OF FRONTAL, BELGIUM - -(after Dupont) - -1. and 2. Gravel and clay of mammoth age. 3. Surface of modern -accumulation of angular stones and clay. (D) Slab closing the sepulchre. -(S) Platform for funeral feasts. (F) Hearth. (R) Rock forming the walls -of the cavern.] - -The caves of Furfooz, and especially that of Frontal, are among the most -instructive. Dupont has found that in many caves the older remains of -the mammoth age are contained in or covered by a diluvial or inundation -mud,[28] which seems to be the closing deposit of this age. Now in the -Frontal cave this mud remained undisturbed and extended out into a -platform in front of the cave. The cave itself had been used as a place -of burial, and as many as sixteen skeletons were found in it, with flint -implements, perforated shells, flat pieces of sandstone with sketches of -figures scratched on them, and an earthen vase. All these lay above the -original palanthropic mud floor, and belonged to new tribes which -probably knew nothing of their predecessors, whose bones were covered by -the inundation mud below. On the platform in front of the cave was a -hearth with the ashes of funeral feasts, and around this were found a -multitude of bones of animals, of the modern species of the country. The -people who used this cave as a sepulchre had evidently arrived in -Belgium after the palaeocosmic men and the mammoth were not only extinct, -but their remains were buried in muddy deposits; though the reindeer -and even the wild horse still existed, and the time was long before the -dawn of any authentic history in that part of the world. These men have -somewhat shorter heads than the old Cro-magnon race, and they are of -smaller stature, and with finer and more delicate features. In these -respects they resemble the men of the dolmens and long barrows of France -and England, and the existing Auvergnats and Basques, and also the Lapps -of the far north. Dupont observes that their materials for implements -and ornaments came almost entirely from regions to the southward, and -hence he infers commerce with tribes in that direction and the existence -of enemies in the north. I should rather infer that the men of Frontal -had immigrated into Belgium from the south, and that they were a small -and poor outlying tribe of a greater people living south of them. Dupont -also remarks on their evident care of the dead, a characteristic of the -early neocosmic men, their belief in a future life, and the absence of -warlike weapons, whence he infers that they were a mild and pacific -race--a conclusion which makes against the idea entertained by some, -that they may have displaced the formidable palaeocosmic men by conquest. - -[28] Sometimes with angular stones--_argile a blocaux_. - -Similar illustrations are afforded by the caves and rock-shelters of -France, Switzerland, and Syria, and have convinced many of the ablest -archaeologists of the existence of a decided break between the -palanthropic and neanthropic ages. In such a case also it is to be -observed that a few decided, positive facts are of more value than any -number of examples in which, from local circumstances, the succession -may be obscure or uncertain. - -The above examples relate to the men of the older neanthropic age, the -men of the so-called neolithic or polished stone age of archaeologists. -These men can be shown to be identical with the oldest populations of -postdiluvian Europe, peoples whose descendants exist to-day in many -parts of Western Europe, though they have been more or less displaced or -mixed with later intrusive races. These people have gone on without any -physical cataclysm, or change of fauna, or geographical or climatal -changes of any magnitude, into the ages of bronze and iron and of the -modern civilisation. Thus, while the palaeocosmic men passed away -abruptly and have left no certain successors, those who succeeded them -pass on without a break into the existing populations of the world. - -We must, however, here guard ourselves from a misconception which has -apparently unconsciously deceived many writers on this subject. It by no -means follows from the facts insisted on above that there are no direct -links of connection between palaeocosmic and neocosmic men. The ancestors -of the latter must have existed through the palanthropic period, and -wherever they were living they may have had the same characters which -distinguish them at a later time, and which persist to this day. There -would therefore be nothing contradictory to our general view in finding -that the small, fine-featured men who succeeded the giants of the olden -time were in some more genial parts of the world extant from the first. -Nay, it may even appear that they were similar to the Truchere race, and -that still more primitive people whose bones are yet unknown, and who -inhabited Europe in the early mild period preceding the mammoth age. -Neither is there anything anomalous in the occasional reappearance of -characters similar to those even of the Canstadt race at the present -time, not because any modern men are direct descendants of this race, -but because under certain conditions these characters tend to be -reproduced. Let us put the case conjecturally as follows: - -The original men who peopled the northern continents after the first -glacial period were of small stature, agile, and well formed, with mild -and pleasing countenance and heads of the medium (mesitocephalic) type. -They were dwellers in a warm climate and subsisted on fruits. As -population increased and men became hunters and fishermen, and wandered -widely over the world, a large-boned, coarse-featured, and savage type -of man arose, such as we find in the older caves and gravels, and -weapons of kinds not needed in primitive times were invented. In this -state of affairs, when the coarser and stronger races had made -themselves masters of the world, and had perhaps partially intermixed -with the older and more peaceful peoples, a great diluvial catastrophe -occurred, which swept away the greater part of men. The survivors were -of the old and unmodified stock, and it was they who repeopled the new -world, finding possibly here and there some survivors of the former -population, or themselves locally relapsing into a similar state. In -this case all the seeming paradoxes and contradictions which have -perplexed archaeologists would be easily explained. We might even find -occasional captives of the primitive small race among the interments of -the old giants, and we might find new races of superior physical power -arising in the new world and again intruding on the feebler race. - -In closing our notice of this period we may proceed to connect it with -actual history in the British Islands. When the Romans invaded Britain -they found in it two races of men physically very distinct, one of them -the aborigines, who had made their way to the island as its first -population after the close of the mammoth age, the others apparently a -later intrusion. They are known to English antiquaries from their modes -of burial as the men of the long and the round barrows or funeral -mounds. The first of these are beyond doubt the kinsmen of our little -men of the Trou de Frontal, in Belgium. They are thus described by -Greenwell and Taylor[29]: - -[29] Greenwell, _British Barrows_; Taylor, _Origin of the Aryans_. - -They were of feeble build, short stature, dark complexion, and somewhat -long skull. They buried their dead in long barrows or mounds with -interior chambers and passages; some of these are as much as -400 feet in length, and resemble artificial caves; and there can be no -doubt that, as in Belgium, they buried their dead in caves when these -were accessible; and the laborious construction of the long barrows when -caves failed is an indication of the great importance they attached to -the secure and decent sepulture of the dead. No trace of metal is found -in their barrows, and but little pottery, but it is believed that they -had at a very early time domesticated sheep and cattle and practised -agriculture. These people are now identified with the people of the -south and west of England, called by the Romans Silures. They were the -builders of the cromlechs, dolmens, and other megalithic structures so -common in various parts of the old continent. Their type survives to -this day in the small dark people of parts of Wales and the south and -west of Ireland, and in parts of the Hebrides. Their physical characters -connect them with the primitive populations of the hills of Central -France, with the Basques of the Pyrenees, the Corsicans, the Berbers of -Africa, and the Guanches of the Canary Islands, and the term Iberian has -been applied to the whole group. Their language was originally not -Aryan, but Turanian. They represent not merely a new race still -surviving, but a distinct advance in practical civilisation over -that of the peoples of the palanthropic age, in Europe at least. - -At the time of the Roman conquest this primitive race had been replaced -in the east of England and south of Scotland by a wholly different -people, supposed to be identical with the Celtae of the Romans. They -were tall, muscular, with broader and shorter heads, fair complexion, -and light-coloured hair. They buried their dead in round barrows or -mounds, and seem at a very early period to have possessed bronze, and so -to have introduced what has been termed the bronze age into Britain. At -the time of the Roman invasion, however, they already possessed iron -weapons. These people were Aryan in speech, allied to the Gauls and -Belgae, and the ancestors of the so-called Celtic populations of the -British Islands. - -[Illustration: CROMLECH AT FONTANACCIA, CORSICA (after De Mortillet)] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE PALANTHROPIC AGE IN THE LIGHT OF HISTORY - - -The time was when the earlier books of the Hebrew Scriptures stood -almost alone in their notices of the creation and antediluvian times, -and when critics could quietly take for granted that they were -altogether mythical. This state of things has now passed away from the -minds of the better informed, and it may be profitable before proceeding -farther to glance for a moment at some of the recent corroborations, if -they may be so called, of the Bible history from altogether unexpected -quarters. - -In the first place, there can now be no doubt that the order of -creation, as revealed to the author of the first chapter of Genesis, -corresponds with the results of astronomical and geological research in -a manner which cannot be accidental.[30] This old document thus stands -in the position of a prophecy which has been fulfilled in its details. -Besides this, the discovery of the similar though not identical -Chaldean creation tablets throws a remarkable and interesting side-light -on the whole question. The Chaldean tablets are unquestionably very -ancient, and borrowed from still older documents from which they are -alleged to have been copied. But they and the Genesis narrative are -independent of each other. Neither can have been copied from the other. -Thus there must have been a still more ancient common source of the -narrative, and, as I have elsewhere urged,[31] the greater simplicity -and monotheistic character of the Hebrew document entitle it to the palm -of the higher antiquity. - -[30] For evidence of this I may be permitted to refer to my work, _The -Origin of the World_. - -[31] _Modern Science in Bible Lands._ - -With reference to the antediluvian age and the Deluge, while the Bible -is here only in accord with almost universal tradition, and this in -reference to an event which if it occurred at all must have fixed itself -in the memory of the survivors, it is in remarkable accordance with very -ancient Chaldean writings commemorative of the same event. Some -principal points of this accordance are the following. The Chaldean -account implies that the anger of the gods, or some of them, against an -evil race of men was the cause of the catastrophe. It gives it a -universal character, so far as the sphere of observation extended. It -represents the survivors as saved in a ship or ark. It represents -Hasisadra, its Noah, as sending out birds to ascertain the subsidence of -the waters. In all these points and many others the Chaldean account -agrees with the Biblical in representing antediluvian men, or some of -them, as civilised, possessing domestic animals, and competent to -construct large ships. - -When we leave the Deluge and come to the postdiluvian or neanthropic -period, similar coincidences occur. The foundation of a primitive -Cushite or Akkadian kingdom in the Euphratean valley, the dispersion of -men according to their families and their languages, the early kingdoms -contemporary with Abraham, mentioned in the narrative of his campaign to -recover the captives taken from the cities of the plain, the extremely -early use of the arrow-headed characters in Asia, of the hieroglyphic -writing in Egypt, and of a proto-Phoenician or early Hebrew alphabet -among the Mineans of ancient Arabia, tend at once to vindicate the Bible -history, and to show how at a very early period this history may have -been rendered permanent in written documents. On all these grounds -scientific archaeologists are beginning to attach more value than -formerly to the Hebrew annals, and to recognise them as true historical -accounts of the times to which they relate. - -It may seem rash to make such a statement at a time when it is well -known that many divines of repute avow themselves as believers in the -theory that the earlier Biblical books are of comparatively late -composition. But Science will have her way in a matter of this kind, -whatever literature or criticism may say, and she is beginning strongly -to lift her voice against the destructive criticism of the Pentateuch. -In a recent article, Professor Sayce, one of the best-informed experts -in these subjects, uses the following language: - -'Naturally, the "higher criticism" is disinclined to see its assumptions -swept away along with the conclusions which are based upon them, and to -sit humbly at the feet of the newer science. At first, the results of -Egyptian or Assyrian research were ignored; then they were reluctantly -admitted, so far as they did not clash with the preconceived opinions of -the "higher" critics. It was urged, unfortunately with too much justice, -that the decipherers were not, as a rule, trained critics, and that in -the enthusiasm of research they often announced discoveries which proved -to be false or only partially correct. But it must be remembered, on the -other side, that this charge applies with equal force to all progressive -studies, not excluding the "higher criticism" itself. - -'The time is now come for confronting the conclusions of the "higher -criticism," so far as it applies to the books of the Old Testament, with -the ascertained results of modern Oriental research. The amount of -certain knowledge now possessed by the Egyptologist and Assyriologist -would be surprising to those who are not specialists in these branches -of study, while the discovery of the Tel-el-Amarna tablets has poured a -flood of light upon the ancient world, which is at once startling and -revolutionary. As in the case of Greek history, so too in that of -Israelitish history, the period of critical demolition is at an end, and -it is time for the archaeologist to reconstruct the fallen edifice. - -'But the very word "reconstruct" implies that what is built again will -not be exactly that which existed before. It implies that the work of -the "higher criticism" has not been in vain; on the contrary, the work -it has performed has been a very needful and important one, and in its -own sphere has helped us to the discovery of the truth. Egyptian or -Assyrian research has not corroborated every historical statement which -we find in the Old Testament, any more than classical archaeology has -corroborated every statement which we find in the Greek writers; what it -has done has been to show that the extreme scepticism of modern -criticism is not justified, that the materials on which the history of -Israel has been based may, and probably do, go back to an early date, -and that much which the "higher" critics have declared to be mythical -and impossible was really possible and true.' - -In point of fact a much stronger position might be held in favour of -Genesis, and we shall find in comparing it with the monuments of the -palanthropic and early neanthropic ages that its statements vindicate -themselves as derived from original contemporary documents, which were -under no obligations to the literature or philosophy of those later -times, to which they have been relegated by some of the critics. - -Let us inquire a little more in detail into the general features of -these early historic notices. - -For the purposes of this inquiry we may content ourselves with the -consideration of the ancient Hebrew documents incorporated in the Book -of Genesis, and the remains which have been preserved of the old -Chaldean literature. Both of these represent an antediluvian period of -long duration.[32] Both refer the primitive seats of population to the -Euphratean region of Western Asia. Both terminate the antediluvian age -with a great diluvial catastrophe. These are sufficient points of -general agreement to make it probable that both originated in one -fundamental history, or at least were based on attempts to describe the -same events. Otherwise there are great differences. The Chaldean -accounts have a prolix iteration, which makes it probable that they were -prepared for popular and liturgic use, and may not fairly represent the -original documents in possession of the priestly class. They also -naturally introduce all the _personnel_ of the Chaldean pantheon, and as -this must have been a thing of gradual growth it gives them an air of -recency, though we know that they are very old. The Hebrew version, on -the other hand, is monotheistic, and has an aspect of severe simplicity -in striking contrast to the florid and popular Chaldean version. - -[32] Hommel has proved (_Journal of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, -1893), what has always been suspected, that the ten patriarchs of -Berosus are the same with those of the Sethite line in Genesis. - -We may first notice what history can tell of the palanthropic age, -supposing this to be the same with that historically known as -antediluvian. The account of creation in the first chapter of Genesis is -altogether general, and has no local colouring. It evidently refers to -the whole history of the making of the earth. The second chapter, on the -other hand, begins at verse 4 the special history of man, and opens with -a picture which is not, as some have rashly supposed, a repetition of -the previous general account of creation, and still less contradictory -to it, but a statement that immediately before the introduction of man -the earth had been in a desolate and comparatively untenanted state, -that state to which we know it had been reduced by the glacial cold and -submergence. - -Thus the two accounts of the creation of man, that in which he appears -in his chronological position in the general development, and that in -which he takes a first place, as introductory to his special history, -are not contradictory, but complementary to each other; and the latter -refers wholly to man and the creatures contemporary with him in the -palanthropic age. It is in accordance with this, and no doubt intended -by the editor to mark this distinction, that the name Elohim is used in -the general narrative, and Jehovah Elohim in the special one. The -failure of so many critics to notice this distinction, which must have -been so plain to the primitive historian himself, is a marked -illustration of the blindness of certain nineteenth-century savants, so -full of their own special knowledge, yet so careless of science and -common sense. - -It would even seem that this distinction appeared in the Chaldean -Genesis as well; for fragments of what has been called a second Chaldean -Genesis have been found which seem to correspond with the statements of -the second chapter of Genesis. - -The following is an extract from this second Chaldean or Akkadian -Genesis as translated by Pinches:[33] - - 1 The glorious house, the house of the gods, in a glorious place - had not been made; - - 2 A plant had not been brought forth, a tree had not been created; - - 3 A brick had not been laid, a beam had not been shaped; - - 4 A house had not been built, a city had not been constructed; - - 5 A city had not been made, a foundation had not been made - glorious; - - 6 Niffer had not been built, E-kura had not been constructed; - - 7 Erech had not been built, E-ana had not been constructed; - - 8 The Abyss had not been made, E-ridu had not been constructed; - - 9 (As for) the glorious house, the house of the gods, its seat had - not been made-- - - 10 The whole of the lands were sea. - -[33] _Expository Times_, December 1892 - -This may be supposed to correspond with the Hebrew verses following: - - And no plant of the field was yet in the earth. - - And no herb of the field had yet sprung up. - - For Jahveh Elohim had not caused it to rain on the earth. - - And there was not a man to till (irrigate) the ground. - - And there went up a vapour from the earth, and watered the surface - of the ground. - -This is the Hebrew idea of the condition of the great Mesopotamian plain -after the pleistocene submergence, and before the appearance of man. The -Chaldean version refers to the same region, but is more elaborate and -artificial, and brings in the historic cities of a later time. This -difference alone would induce us to suppose that the Hebrew record may -be a better guide for our present comparison. - -The Hebrew writer in the first place gives us to understand that a -period of comparative desolation preceded the appearance of man, a great -winter of destruction preparatory to a returning spring. He then -proceeds to localise primeval man by placing him in Eden, the Idinu of -the Chaldean accounts, which we also recognise by the geographical -indications of the Euphrates and Tigris as its rivers, with two -companion streams which can scarcely be other than the Karun and the -Kerkhat. Thus the Bible and the Chaldean account agree in their locality -for the advent of man, for Idinu was the ancient name of the plain of -Babylonia. It has been objected to this locality that much of this -region is low and swampy, and has only recently become land by the -encroachment of the rivers on the head of the Persian Gulf. But if our -Biblical authority really refers to palanthropic man, we must bear in -mind that in the post-glacial period the continents were higher than -now, and the Babylonian plain must have been a dry and elevated -district, in all probability forest-clad. We must also bear in mind that -Eden was a region of country, and that the 'garden' or selected spot -'eastward in Eden' may have been some rich wooded island surrounded by -the river streams, and producing all fruits pleasant to the taste and -good for food. In any case the modern objections to the site are based -on entire ignorance of its geological history, and only serve to show -how much better informed the ancient writer was as to antediluvian -geography than his modern critics.[34] - -[34] See, for full discussion of this, _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, -by the author. - -It is scarcely necessary to say that this Biblical environment of -primitive man corresponds with the requirements of the case. In a genial -climate and sheltered position, and supplied with abundance of food, the -first men would have the conditions necessary for comfortable existence -and for multiplying in numbers. - -We have also in the description of one of the rivers of Eden a hint as -to a few of the wants of early man beyond mere food and shelter. We are -told that the district traversed by this river produced gold, bedolach, -and the shoham stone. I have elsewhere shown that this river must be the -Karun, draining the Luristan mountains, and that the productions -indicated must have been 'native gold and silver, wampum beads, and jade -and similar stones suitable for implements.'[35] Thus we have here a -picture which may well represent the origin and early condition of our -palaeocosmic men. But the parallel does not end here. - -[35] _Modern Science in Bible Lands._ - -According to the history, man falls, and is expelled from Eden, is -clothed with skins, and becomes an eater of animal food. Next we find -murderous violence, and a consequent separation of the primitive people -into two tribes, one of which migrates to a distance from the other and -adopts different modes of life. Finally, we have a mixture of the two -races, leading to a powerful and terrible race of half-breeds, or metis, -who filled the earth with violence.[36] - -[36] Genesis vi. 1-6. - -[Illustration: MAP SHOWING THE GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF -THE SITE OF EDEN AS DESCRIBED IN GENESIS] - -In one point only have we reason to doubt whether this old history -fairly represents the palanthropic age. It notes the invention of -musical instruments, the use of metals, the domestication of animals as -already existing in the antediluvian period. Of these we have little or -no archaeological evidence. The only musical instrument of this period -known is a whistle made of one of the bones of a deer's foot, and -capable of sounding a tetrachord or four notes, and we have no certain -evidence of metals or domesticated animals. We must bear in mind that -there may have been more civilised races than those of the Cro-magnon -type, and that the latter evince an artistic skill which if it had any -scope for development may have led to great results. The native metals -must have been known to man from the first, though they must have been -rare or only locally common; and many semi-barbarous nations of later -times show us that it is only a short step from the knowledge of native -metals to the art of metallurgy, in so far as it consists in treating -those ores that in weight and metallic lustre most resemble the metals -themselves. It is also deserving of notice that no other hypothesis than -that of antediluvian civilisation can account for the fact that in the -dawn of postdiluvian history we find the dwellers by the Euphrates and -the Nile already practising so many of the arts of civilised life. In -connection with this we may place the early dawn of literature. Without -insisting on the documents which the Chaldean Noah, Hasisadra, is said -to have hid at Sippara before the Deluge, we have the known fact that in -the earliest dawn of postdiluvian history the art of writing was known -in Chaldea and in Egypt. This at once testifies to antediluvian culture, -and shows that the means existed to record important events. - -There is, perhaps, no one of the vagaries now current under the much -abused name of evolution more opposed to facts, whether physical or -historical than the notion that, because 3000 years B.C. we have -evidence of an advanced civilisation in Chaldea and in Egypt, this must -have been preceded by a long and uninterrupted progress through many -thousands of years from a savage state. Two facts alone are sufficient -to show the folly of such a supposition. First, the intervention of that -great physical catastrophe which separates the palanthropic and -neanthropic periods; and secondly, the testimony of history in favour of -the arts of civilisation originating with great inventors, and not by -any slow and gradual process of evolution. According to all history, -sacred and profane, many such inventors existed even in the palanthropic -and early neanthropic ages, and transmitted their arts in an advanced -state to later times. The Book of Genesis testifies to this in its -notices of Tubal Cain and Jubal; and the monuments of Chaldea and Egypt -show that metallurgy, sculpture, and architecture were as far advanced -at the very dawn of history as in any later period. It is true that -Genesis represents its early inventors as mere men, albeit 'sons of -God,' while they often appear as gods or demi-gods in the early history -of the heathen nations; but the fact remains that then, as now, the rare -appearance of God-given inventive genius is the sole cause of the -greater advances in art and civilisation. Spontaneous development may -produce socialistic trades' unions or Chinese stagnation, but great -gifts, whether of prophecy, of song, of scientific insight, or of -inventive power, are the inspiration of the Almighty. - -We have in the closing part of the Bible story of the antediluvian age -even an intimation of the deterioration of climate and means of -subsistence towards the end of the period. Lamech, we are told, named -his son Noah--rest or comfort--in the hope that by his means he should -be comforted, because of the ground which the Lord had cursed. That -curse provoked by the sons of man he may have recognised as fulfilled in -the gradual deterioration of the climate toward the close of the -palanthropic age. There are here surely some curious coincidences which -might be followed farther, did space permit. - -We now come to the close of the whole in the Deluge; and as this has -been made in our own time the subject of much discussion, and as it -contains within itself the whole kernel of the subject, it merits a -separate treatment. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE DELUGE OF NOAH - - -To the older men of this generation, who have followed the changes of -scientific and historical opinion, the story of the Deluge, old though -it is, has passed through a variety of phases like the changes of a -kaleidoscope, and which may afford an instructive illustration of the -modifications of belief in other, and some of them to us more important, -matters, whether of history or of religion, which have presented -themselves in like varied aspects, and may be variously viewed in the -future. - -As children we listened with awe and wonder to the story of the wicked -antediluvians, and of their terrible fate and the salvation of righteous -Noah, and received a deep and abiding impression of the enormity of -moral evil and of the just retribution of the Great Ruler of the -Universe. A little later, though the idea that all the fossil remains -imbedded in the rocks are memorials of the Deluge had passed away from -the minds of the better informed, we read with interest the wonderful -revelations of the bone-caves described by Buckland, and felt that the -antediluvian age had become a scientific reality. But later still all -this seemed to pass away like a dream. Under the guidance of Lyell we -learned that even the caves and gravels must be of greater age than the -historical Deluge, and that the remains of men and animals contained in -them must have belonged to far-off aeons, antedating perhaps even the -Biblical creation of man, while the historical Deluge, if it ever -occurred, must have been an affair so small and local that it had left -no traces on the rocks of the earth. At the same time Biblical critics -were busy with the narrative itself, showing that it could be decomposed -into different documents, that it bore traces of a very recent origin, -that it was unhistorical, and to be relegated to the same category with -the fairy-tales of our infancy. Again, however, the kaleidoscope turns, -and the later researches of geology into the physical and human history -of the more recent deposits of the earth's crust, the discoveries of -ancient Assyrian or Chaldean records of the Deluge, and the comparison -of these with the ancient history of other nations, rehabilitate the old -story; and as we study the new facts respecting the so-called -palaeolithic and neolithic men, the clay tablets recovered from the -libraries of Nineveh by George Smith, the calculations of Prestwich and -others respecting the recency of the glacial period, and the historical -gatherings of Lenormant, we find ourselves drifting back to the faith -of our childhood, or may congratulate ourselves on having adhered to it -all along, even when the current of opinion tended strongly to turn us -away. - -In illustration of the present aspects of the question I make two -extracts, one from Lenormant's _Beginnings of History_, another from a -recent work of my own. - -'We are,' says Lenormant, 'in a position to affirm that the account of -the Deluge is a universal tradition in all branches of the human family, -with the sole exception of the black race, and a tradition every-*where -so exact and so concordant cannot possibly be referred to an imaginary -myth. No religious or cosmogonic myth possesses this character of -universality. It must necessarily be the reminiscence of an actual and -terrible event, which made so powerful an impression upon the -imaginations of the first parents of our species that their descendants -could never forget it. This cataclysm took place near the primitive -cradle of mankind, and previous to the separation of the families from -whom the principal races were to descend, for it would be altogether -contrary to probability and to the laws of sound criticism to admit that -local phenomena exactly similar in character could have been reproduced -at so many different points on the globe as would enable one to explain -these universal traditions, or that these traditions should always have -assumed an identical form, combined with circumstances which need not -necessarily have suggested themselves to the mind in such a -connection.'[37] - -[37] _Les Origines de l'Histoire._ Brown's translation. - -On the geological side, the following may be accepted as a summary of -facts:[38] - -[38] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, 1888, pp. 244, 245, 251, 252. - -'If the earliest men were those of the river gravels and caves, men of -the mammoth age or of the palaeolithic or palaeocosmic period, we can form -some definite ideas as to their possible antiquity. They colonised the -continents immediately after the elevation of the land from the great -subsidence which closed the pleistocene or glacial period, or in what -has been called the "continental" period of the post-glacial age, -because the new lands then raised out of the sea exceeded in extent -those which we now have. We have some measures of the date of this great -continental elevation. Many years ago, Sir Charles Lyell used the -recession of the Falls of Niagara as a chronometer, estimating their -cutting power as equal to one foot per annum. He calculated the -beginning of the process, which dates from the post-glacial elevation, -to be about thirty thousand years ago. More recent surveys have shown -that the rate is three times as great as that estimated by Lyell, and -also that a considerable part of the gorge was merely cleaned out by the -river since the pleistocene age. In this way the age of the Niagara -gorge becomes reduced to perhaps seven or eight thousand years. Other -indications of similar bearing are found both in Europe and America, -and lead to the belief that it is physically impossible that man could -have colonised the northern hemisphere at an earlier date. These facts -render necessary an entire revision of the calculations based on the -growth of stalagmite in caves, and other uncertain data which have been -held to indicate a greater lapse of time. - -'If we identify the antediluvians of Genesis with the oldest men known -to geological and archaeological science, the parallelism is somewhat -marked in physical characteristics and habits of life, and also in their -apparently sudden and tragical disappearance from Europe and Western -Asia, along with several of the large mammalia which were their -contemporaries. If the Deluge is to be accepted as historical, and if a -similar great break interrupts the geological history of man, separating -extinct races from those which still survive, why may we not correlate -the two? If the Deluge was misused in the early history of geology, by -employing it to account for changes which took place long before the -advent of man, this should not cause us to neglect its legitimate uses, -with reference to the early human period. It is evident that if this -correlation be accepted as probable, it must modify many views now held -as to the antiquity of man. In that case the modern gravels and silts, -spread over the plateaus between the river valleys, will be accounted -for, not by any greater overflow of the existing streams, but by the -abnormal action of currents of water diluvial in their character. -Further, since the historical Deluge must have been of very limited -duration, the physical changes separating the deposits containing the -remains of palaeocosmic men from those of later date would in like manner -be accounted for, not by the slow processes imagined by extreme -uniformitarians, but by causes of a more abrupt and cataclysmic -character.'[39] - -[39] See also Howorth, _The Mammoth and the Flood_, and papers by -Professor Prestwich in _Journal Geol. Society_ and _Trans. Royal -Society_ and by Andrews, Winchell, and others in America. - -We may proceed to inquire as to whether the position which we have now -reached is likely to be permanent, or may represent merely one shifting -phase of opinion. For this purpose we may formulate these conclusions in -a few general statements, merely referring to the evidence on which they -are based, as any complete discussion of this would necessarily be -impossible within the limits of this work. We may first summarise the -present position of the matter as indicated by historical and scientific -research, altogether independently of the Bible.[40] - -[40] See articles by the author in _The Contemporary Review_, December -1889, and in _The Magazine of Christian Literature_, October 1890. - -1. The recent discovery of the Chaldean deluge tablets has again -directed attention to the statements of Berosus respecting the -Babylonian tradition of a great flood, and these statements are found to -be borne out in the main by the contents of the tablets. There is thus a -twofold testimony as to the occurrence of a deluge in that Babylonian -plain which the Old Testament history represents as the earliest seat of -antediluvian man. As Lenormant has well shown, the tradition exists in -the ancient literature of India, Persia, Phoenicia, Phrygia, and Greece, -and can be recognised in the traditions of Northern and Western Europe -and of America, while the Egyptians had a similar account of the -destruction of men, but apparently not by water, though their idea -of a submerged continent of Atlantis probably had reference to the -antediluvian world. Thus we find this story widely spread over the -earth, and possessed by members of all the leading divisions of mankind. -This does not necessarily prove the universality of the Deluge, though -every distinct people naturally refers it to its own country. It shows, -however, the existence of some very early common source of the tradition, -and the variations are not more than were to have been expected in the -different channels of transmission. - -2. Parallel with this historical evidence lies the result of geological -and archaeological research, which has revealed to us the remains and -works of prehistoric men, racially distinct from those of modern times, -and who inhabited the earth at a period when its animal population was -to a great extent distinct from that at present existing, and when its -physical condition was also in many respects different. Thus in Europe -and Asia, and to some extent also in America, we have evidence that the -present races of men were preceded by others which have passed away, and -this at the same time with many important species of land animals, once -the contemporaries of man, but now known only as fossils. These ancient -men are those called by geologists later pleistocene, or post-glacial, -or the men of the cave and gravel deposits, or of the age of the -mammoth, and who have been designated by archaeologists palaeolithic men, -or, more properly, palaeocosmic men, since the character of their stone -implements is only one not very important feature of their history, and -implements of the palaeolithic type have been used in all periods, and -indeed are still used in some places. - -3. The prevalence among geologists of an exaggerated and unreasonable -uniformitarianism, which refused to allow sufficient prominence to -sudden cataclysms arising from the slow accumulation of natural forces, -and which was a natural reaction from the convulsive geology of an -earlier period, has caused the idea to be generally entertained that the -age of palaeocosmic men was of vast duration, and passed only by slow -gradations and a gradual transition into the new conditions of the -modern period. This view long was, and still is, an obstacle to any -rational correlation of the geological and traditional history of man. -Recently, however, new views have been forced on geologists, and have -led many of the most sagacious observers and reasoners to see that the -palanthropic period is much nearer to us than we had imagined. The -arguments for this I have referred to in previous pages, and need not -reiterate them, here. A few leading points may, however, be noted. One -of these is the small amount of physical or organic change which has -occurred since the close of the palanthropic period. Another is the more -rapid rate of erosion and deposition by rivers in the modern period than -had previously been supposed. Another is the striking fact that a large -number of mammals, like the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, seem to have -perished simultaneously with the palaeocosmic men, and this by some -sudden catastrophe.[41] It has also been shown by Pictet and Dawkins -that all the extant mammals of Europe already existed in the -post-glacial age, but along with many others now altogether or locally -extinct. Thus there seems to have been the removal over the whole -northern hemisphere of a number of the largest mammals, while a selected -number survived and no additions were made. Again, while at one time it -was supposed that the remains of palaeocosmic man and his contemporaries -were confined to caverns and river alluvia, it is now known that they -occur also on high plateaus and water-sheds, in beds of gravel and silt -which must have been deposited there under conditions of submergence and -somewhat active current drift, perhaps in some cases aided by floating -ice.[42] Lastly, while, as must naturally be the case, in some places -the remains of ancient and more modern men are mixed, or seem to pass -into each other, in others, as in the Swiss, Belgian and Lebanon caves -and in the superficial deposits, there is a distinct separation, -implying an interval accompanied by physical change between the time of -the earlier and later men. - -[41] Howorth, _The Mammoth and the Flood_. - -[42] Prestwich on deposits at Ightham, Kent, _Journal Geological -Society_, May 1889. - -Such considerations as these, the force of which is most strongly felt -by those best acquainted with the methods of investigation employed by -geologists and archaeologists, are forcing us to conclude: (1) That there -are indicated in the latest geological formations two distinct human -periods, an earlier and a later, characterised by differences of faunae -and of physical conditions, as well as by distinct races of men. (2) -That these two periods are separated by a somewhat rapid physical change -of the nature of submergence, or by a series of changes locally sudden -and generally not long-continued. (3) That it is not improbable that -this greatest of all revolutions in human affairs may be the same that -has so impressed itself on the memory of the survivors as to form the -basis of all the traditions and historical accounts of the Deluge. - -This being the state of the case, it becomes expedient to review our -ideas of the ancient Hebrew records, from which our early, and perhaps -crude, impressions of this event were derived, and to ascertain how much -of our notions of the Deluge of Genesis may be fairly deduced from the -record itself, and how much may be due to more or less correct -interpretations, or to our own fancy. In connection with this we may -also be able to obtain some guidance as to the value to be attached to -the Hebrew document as a veritable and primitive record of the great -catastrophe. - -The key to the understanding of the early human history of Genesis lies -in the story of the fall of man, and its sequel in the murder of Abel by -his brother Cain, the beginning of that reign of violence which endures -even to this day. From this arose the first division of the human race -into hostile clans or tribes, the races of Cain and Seth, on which -hinges the history, characteristics and fate of antediluvian man; and, -as we shall see in the sequel, from this arose profound differences in -religious beliefs, which have tinged the theology and superstitions of -all subsequent times. Of course, in making this statement I refer to the -history given in Genesis, without special reference to its intrinsic -truth or credibility, but merely in relation to its interpretation in -harmony with its own statements. - -It is further evident that this tragic event must have occurred in that -Tigro-Euphratean region which was the Biblical site of Eden[43] and that -while the Sethite race presumably occupied the original home of Adam, -and adhered to that form of religion which is expressed in the worship -of Jahveh, the coming Redeemer and the expected 'Seed of the Woman,' the -other race spread itself more widely, probably attained to a higher -civilisation, in so far as art is concerned, in some of its divisions, -and sank to a deeper barbarism in others, while it retained the original -worship of God the Creator (Elohim). Hence the Sethite race is -designated as the sons of Adam (Beni ha Adam), the true and legitimate -children of the first man, and the Cainites as Beni Elohim, or sons of -God.[44] The mixture of these races produced the godless, heaven-defying -Nephelim, the Titans of the Old Testament, whose wickedness brought on -the diluvial catastrophe. These half-breeds of the antediluvian time -were in all probability the best developed, physically and perhaps -mentally, of the men of their period; and but for the Deluge they might -have become masters of the world. - -[43] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, chap. iv. - -[44] That this is the true meaning of the expressions in Genesis vi. I -cannot doubt. See discussion of the subject in the work cited in -previous note. - -This question of different races and religions before the Flood is, -however, deserving of a little farther elucidation. The names Elohim and -Jahveh are used conjointly throughout the Book of Genesis except in its -first chapter, and their mode of occurrence cannot be explained merely -on the theory of two documents pieced together by an editor. It has a -deeper significance than this, and one which indicates a radical -diversity between Elohists and Jahvists even in this early period. In -the earliest part of the human history, as distinguished from the -general record of creation, the two names are united in the compound -Jahveh-Elohim, but immediately after the fall Eve is represented as -attributing to, or identifying with, Jahveh alone the birth of her -eldest son--'I have produced a man, the Jahveh,' and which may mean that -she supposed Cain to be the promised manifestation of God as the -Redeemer. Accordingly Cain and Abel are represented as offering -sacrifice to Jahveh, and yet it is said in a verse which must be a part -of the same document, that it was not till the time of Enos, a grandson -of Adam, that men began to invoke the name of Jahveh. It would seem also -that this invocation of Jahveh was peculiar to the Sethites, and that -the Cainites were still worshippers of Elohim, the God of nature and -creation, a fact which perhaps has relation to the so-called physical -religion of some ancient peoples. Hence their title of Beni ha Elohim. -Thus the division between the Cainite and Sethite races early became -accentuated by a sectarian distinction as well. We may imagine that the -Cainites, worshipping God as Creator, and ignoring that doctrine of a -Redeemer which seemed confined to the rival race of Seth, were the -deists of their time, and held a position which might, according -to culture and circumstances, degenerate into a polytheistic -nature-worship, or harden into an absolute materialism. On the other -hand, the Sethites, recognised by the author of Genesis as the orthodox -descendants of Adam, and invoking Jahveh, held to the promise of a -coming Saviour, and to a deliverance from the effects of the Fall to be -achieved by His means. - -It is clear that, from the point of view of the author of Genesis, the -chosen seed of Seth should have maintained their separation from a -wicked world. Their failure to do this involves them in the wrath of -Jahveh and renders the destruction of mankind necessary, and in this the -whole Godhead under its combined aspects of Elohim and Jahveh takes a -part. A similar view has caused the Chaldean narrator to invoke the aid -of all the gods in his pantheon to effect the destruction of man. - -These considerations farther throw light on the double character of the -Deluge narrative in Genesis, which has induced those ingenious scholars -who occupy themselves with analysis or disintegration of the Pentateuch -to affirm two narratives, one Elohist and one Jahvist.[45] Whatever -value may attach to this hypothesis, it is evident that if the history -is thus made up of two documents it gains in value, since this would -imply that the editor had at his disposal two chronicles embodying the -observations of two narrators, possibly of different sects, if these -differences were perpetuated in the postdiluvian world; and farther, -that he is enabled to affirm that the catastrophe affected both the -great races of men. It farther would imply that these early documents -were used by the writer to produce his combined narrative almost without -change of diction, so that they remain in their original form of the -alleged testimony of eye-witnesses, a peculiarity which attaches also to -the Chaldean version, as this purports to be in the form given by -Hasisadra, the Chaldean Noah, himself.[46] - -[45] See, for a very clear statement of these views, Professor Green in -_Hebraica_, January 1889, along with Dr. Harper's _resume_ of the -Pentateuchal criticism in the previous number. - -[46] Translation of G. Smith and others. With reference to the -preservation of this and the Hebrew narrative in writing, we should bear -in mind that writing was an art well known in Chaldea and Egypt -immediately after the Deluge, or at least between 2000 and 3000 B.C., -and that the Chaldean narrator speaks of documents hidden by Noah at -Sippara before the Deluge. - -Let us now inquire into the physical aspects of the Deluge, as they are -said to have presented themselves to the ancient witness or witnesses to -whom we owe the Biblical account of the catastrophe, and endeavour to -ascertain if they have any agreement with the conditions of the great -post-glacial Deluge of geology. Let it be observed here that we are -dealing not with prehistoric events but with a written history, supposed -by some to have been compiled from two contemporary documents, and -corroborated by the testimony of the ancient Chaldean tablets copied by -the scribes of Assurbanipal, apparently from different originals, -preserved in very ancient Chaldean temples. - -The preparation of an ark or ship, and the accommodation therein, not -only of Noah and his family, but of a certain number of animals, is a -feature in which most Deluge narratives agree. This implies a -considerable advance in the arts of construction and navigation, but not -more than we have a right to infer from the perfection of these arts in -early postdiluvian times, when it can scarcely be supposed that the new -communities of men had fully regained the position of their ancestors -before the destruction caused by the great Flood. Lenormant, however, -remarks here: - -'The Biblical narrative bears the stamp of an inland nation, ignorant of -things appertaining to navigation. In Genesis the name of the ark, -Tebah, signifies "chest," and not "vessel"; and there is nothing said -about launching the ark on the water; no mention either of the sea, or -of navigation, or any pilot. In the Epopee of Uruk, on the other hand, -everything indicates that it was composed among a maritime people; each -circumstance reflects the manners and customs of the dwellers on the -shores of the Persian Gulf. Hasisadra goes on board a vessel, distinctly -alluded to by its appropriate appellation; this ship is launched, and -makes a trial-trip to test it: all its chinks are calked with bitumen, -and it is placed under the charge of a pilot.' - -This remark, which I find made by other commentators as well, suggests, -it seems to me, somewhat different conclusions. The Hebrews when -settled, either in Egypt or in Canaan, were near to the sea-coast, and -familiar with boats and with the ships of the Phoenicians. If, therefore, -they persisted in calling Noah's ark a 'chest,' it must have been from -unwillingness to change an old history derived from their Chaldean or -Mesopotamian ancestors, or because they continued to regard the ark as -rather a great box than a ship properly so called. On the other hand, it -is likely that the particulars in the Chaldean account came from later -manipulation of the narrative, after commerce and navigation on the -Euphrates and Persian Gulf had become familiar to the Chaldeans. Thus in -this as in other respects the Hebrew narrative is the more primitive of -the two, and is consistent with the necessity of Divine instructions to -Noah, which, if he had been familiar with navigation, would not have -been necessary.[47] - -[47] See also the evidence of an inland position of the writers in the -record of creation in Genesis i., as stated in my work cited in previous -note. - -As in the Chaldean version, the Biblical history begins with the -specification of the ark. On this (Elohist) portion it is only necessary -to say that the dimensions of the ark are large and well adapted to -stowage rather than to speed, and that within it was strengthened by -three decks and by a number of bulkheads, or partitions, separating the -rooms or berths into which it was divided. Without, it was protected and -rendered tight by coats of resinous or asphaltic varnish (_copher_), and -it was built of the lightest and most durable kind of wood (gopher or -cypress). Only two openings are mentioned, a hatch or window above, and -a port or door in the side. There is no mention of any masts, rigging, -or other means of propulsion or steerage. The Chaldean history differs -in introducing a steersman, thus implying the means of propulsion as in -an actual ship. - -Noah is instructed, in addition to his own family, to provide for -animals, two of every kind; but these very general terms are afterwards -limited by the words _uph_, _bemah_, and _remesh_, which define birds, -cattle, and small quadrupeds as those specially intended. Noah's ark was -not a menagerie, but rather like a cattle-ship, capable perhaps of -accommodating as many animals as one of those steamers which now -transfer to England the animal produce of Western fields and prairies. -The animals portrayed on the ancient monuments of Egypt and Assyria, -however, inform us that, in early post-diluvial times, and therefore -probably also in the time of Noah, a greater variety of animals were -under the control of man than is the case in any one country at -present.[48] In the passage referring to the embarkation, only the -cattle and fowls are mentioned, but seven pairs are to be taken of the -clean species which could be used as food.[49] The embarkation having -been completed on the very day when the Deluge commenced, we have next -the narrative of the Flood itself. Here it is noteworthy that God -(Elohim) makes the arrangements, and Jahveh shuts the voyagers in. - -[48] Houghton, _Natural History of the Ancients_, and _Transactions of -the Society of Biblical Archaeology_; also representations of tame -antelopes, &c., on Egyptian monuments. - -[49] This has been considered a later addition; but the practice of all -primitive peoples has sanctioned the distinction of clean and unclean -beasts, which is merely defined in the Mosaic law, not instituted for -the first time. - -The first note that our witness enters in his 'log' relates to his -impressions of the causes of the catastrophe, which was not effected -supernaturally, but by natural causes. These are the 'breaking up of the -fountains of the great deep' and the 'opening of the windows of heaven.' -These expressions must be interpreted in accordance with the use of -similar terms in the account of creation in Genesis i., the more so that -this statement is a portion regarded by the composite theory as -Elohistic. On this principle of interpretation, the great deep is that -universal ocean which prevailed before the elevation of the dry land, -and the breaking up of its fountains is the removal of that restriction -placed upon it when its waters were gathered together into one place. In -other words, the meaning is the invasion of the land by the ocean. In -like manner, the windows of heaven, the cloudy reservoirs of the -atmospheric expanse, or possibly waterspouts, or even volcanic -eruptions, and not necessarily identical with the great rain extending -for forty days, as stated in the following clause. The Chaldean record -adds the phenomena of thunder and tempest, but omits the great deep; an -indication that it is an independent account, and by a less informed or -less intelligent narrator. It is worthy of note that our narrator has no -idea of any river inundation in the case. - -At this stage we are brought into the presence of the question: Is the -Deluge represented as a miraculous or a merely natural phenomenon? Yet, -from a scientific point of view, this question has not the significance -usually attributed to it. True miracles are not, and cannot be, -contraventions or violations of God's natural laws. They are merely -unusual operations of natural powers under their proper laws, but -employed by the Almighty for effecting spiritual ends. Thus, naturally, -they are under the laws of the material world, but, spiritually, they -belong to a higher sphere. In the present case, according to the -narrative in Genesis, the Flood was physically as much a natural -phenomenon as the earthquakes at Ischia, or the eruption of Krakatoa. It -was a miraculous or spiritual intervention only in so far as it was -related to the destruction of an ungodly race, and as it was announced -beforehand by a prophet. Had the approaching eruption of Krakatoa been -intended as a judgment on the wicked, and had it been revealed to anyone -who had taken pains to warn his countrymen and then to provide for his -own safety, this would have given to that eruption as much of a -miraculous character as the Bible attaches to the Deluge. In the New -Testament, where we have more definite information as to miracles, they -are usually called 'powers' and 'signs,' less prominence being given to -the mere wonder which is implied in the term 'miracle.' Under the aspect -of _powers_, they imply that the Creator can do many things beyond our -power and comprehension, just as in a lesser way a civilised man, from -his greater knowledge of natural laws and command over natural energies, -can do much that is incomprehensible to a savage; and in this direction -science teaches us that, given an omnipotent God, the field of miracle -is infinite. As _signs_, on the other hand, such displays of power -connect themselves with the moral and spiritual world, and become -teachers of higher truths and proofs of Divine interference. The true -position of miracles as signs is remarkably brought out in that argument -of Christ, in which He says, 'If ye believe not My words, believe Me for -the works' sake.' It is as if a civilised visitor to some barbarous -land, who had been describing to an incredulous audience the wonders of -his own country, were to exhibit to them a watch or a microscope, and -then to appeal to them that these were things just as mysterious and -incredible as those of which he had been speaking. - -Returning to the Deluge, we may observe that such an invasion of the -great deep is paralleled by many of which geology presents to us the -evidence, and that our knowledge of nature enables us to conceive of the -possibility of greater miracles of physical change than any on record, -such as, for instance, the explosion of the earth itself into an -infinity of particles, the final extinction of the solar heat, or the -accession to this heat of such additional fierceness as to burn up the -attendant planets. All this might take place without any interference -with God's laws, but merely by correlations and adjustments of them, as -much within His power as the turning on or stopping of a machine is in -the power of a human engineer. Further, such acts of Divine power may be -related to moral and spiritual things, just as easily as any outward -action resulting from our own will may be determined by moral -considerations. The time is past when any rational objection can be made -on the part of science to the so-called miracles of the Bible. - -To return to the passengers in the ark. This must have been built on -high ground, or the progress of the Deluge must have been slow, for -forty days elapsed before the waters reached the ship and floated it. It -is not unlikely that the ark was built on rising ground, for here -supplies of timber would be nearer. It has puzzled some simple -antiquarians to find dug-out canoes of prehistoric date on the tops of -hills; but they did not reflect that the maker of a canoe would -construct his vessel where the suitable wood could be found, since it -would be much easier to carry the finished canoe to the shore than to -drag thither the solid log out of which it was to be fashioned. So Noah -would naturally build his ark where the wood he required could be -procured most easily. The Chaldean narrator seems to have overlooked -this simple consideration, for he mentions a launching and trial-trip of -the ship, a sure mark that he is a later authority than the writer in -Genesis. - -The inmates of the ark now felt that it was moving on the waters, a new -and dread sensation which must have deeply impressed their minds, and -they soon became aware that the ark not merely floated, but 'went,' or -made progress in some definite direction. Remark the simple yet -significant notes--'The ark was lift up from the earth,' and 'the ark -went upon the face of the waters.' The direction of driftage is not -stated, but it is a fair inference, from the probable place of departure -in Chaldea and that of final grounding of the ark, that it was northward -or inland, which would indicate that the chief supply of water was from -the Indian Ocean, and that it was flowing inward toward the great sunken -plain of interior Asia, which, however, the ark did not reach, but -grounded in the hilly region known to the Hebrews as Ararat, to the -Chaldeans as Nisr. A curious statement is made here (Elohist) as to the -depth of the water being fifteen cubits. Even in a flat country so small -a depth would not cover the rising grounds; but this is obviously not -the meaning of the narrator, but something much more sensible and -practical. It is not unlikely that the measure stated was the -water-draught of the loaded ark, and that as the voyagers felt it rise -and fall on the waves, they may have experienced some anxiety lest it -should strike and go to pieces. It was no small part of the providential -arrangement in their case that in the track of the ark everything was -submerged more than fifteen cubits before they reached it. Hence this -note, which is at the same time one of the criteria of the simple -veracity of the history. The only other remark in this part of the -narrative relates to the entire submergence of the whole country within -sight, and the consequent destruction of animal life; and here the -enumeration covers all land animals, and the terms used are thus more -general than those applied to the animals preserved in the ark. The -Deluge culminated, in so far as our narrator observed, in one hundred -and fifty days. - -His next experience is of a gale of wind, accompanied or followed by -cessation of the rain and of the inflow of the oceanic waters.[50] The -waters then decreased, not regularly, but by an intermittent process, -'going and returning'; but whether this was a tidal phenomenon or of the -nature of earthquake waves we have no information. At length the ark -grounded, apparently on high ground or in thick weather, for no land was -visible; but at length, after two months, neighbouring hill-tops were -seen. - -[50] Genesis viii. 1, 2: 'And Elohim made a wind to pass over the earth, -and the waters abated,' &c. - -The incident of sending out birds to test the recession of the waters -deserves notice, because of its apparently trivial nature, because it -appears with variations in the Chaldean account, and because it has been -treated in a remarkably unscientific manner by some critics. It -indicates the uncertainty which would arise in the mind of the patriarch -because of the fluctuating decrease of the waters, and possibly also a -misty condition of the air preventing a distinct view of distant -objects. The birds selected for the purpose were singularly appropriate. -The raven is by habit a wanderer, and remarkable for power of flight -and clearness of distant vision. So long, therefore, as it made the ark -its headquarters, 'going and returning'[51] from its search for food, it -might be inferred that no habitable land was accessible. The dove, sent -out immediately after the raven,[52] is of a different habit. It could -not act as a scavenger of the waters and go and return, but could leave -only if it found land covered with vegetation. As a domesticated bird -also, it would naturally come back to be taken into the ark. Hence it -was sent forth at intervals of seven days, returning with an olive leaf -when it found tree tops above the water, and remaining away when it -found food and shelter. The Chaldean account adds a third bird, the -swallow--a perfectly useless addition, since this bird, if taken into -the ark at all, would from its habits of life be incapable of affording -any information. This addition is a mark of interpolation in the -Chaldean version, and proceeded perhaps from the sacred character -attached by popular superstition to the swallow, or from the familiar -habits of the bird suggesting to some later editor its appropriateness. -Singularly enough, the usually judicious Schrader, probably from -deficient knowledge of the habits of birds, fails to appreciate all -this, and after a long discussion prefers the Babylonian legend for -reasons of a most unscientific character, actually condemning the -perfectly natural and clear Biblical story as artificial and due to a -recent emendation. He says: 'When the story passed over to the Hebrews, -the name of the swallow has disappeared,' and 'it is only from the -Babylonian narrative that the selection of the different birds becomes -clear.' This little disquisition of Schrader is, indeed, one of the most -amusing instances of that inversion of sound criticism which results -when unscientific commentators tamper with the plain statements of -truthful and observant witnesses. - -[51] Margin of Authorised Version; less fully, 'to and fro' in the text. - -[52] There is no reason to suppose, as some have done, a hiatus here in -the narrative. - -The uncertainty indicated by the mission of the birds seems to have -continued from the first day of the tenth to the first day of the first -month, when Noah at length ventured to remove the covering of the ark -and inspect the condition of the surrounding country, now abandoned by -the waters, but not thoroughly dried for some time longer. Still, so -timid was the patriarch that he did not dare without a special command -to leave his place of safety. I am aware that if the two alleged -documents are arbitrarily separated it is possible to see here some -apparent contradiction in dates; but this is not necessary if we leave -them in their original relation.[53] - -[53] See Green, _Hebraica, l. c._ - -It will be observed that a narrative such as that summarised above bears -unmistakably stamped upon it the characteristics of the testimony of an -eye-witness. By whomsoever reduced to writing and finally edited, it -must, if genuine, have come down nearly in its present form from the -time of the catastrophe which it relates. It follows that the narrator -leaves no place for the current questions as to the universality of the -Deluge. It was universal so far as his experience extended, but that is -all. He is not responsible for what occurred beyond the limits of his -observation and beyond the fact that man, so far as known to him, -perished. If, therefore, as some have held,[54] Balaam in his prophecy -refers to Cainite populations as extant in his time, or if Moses -declines to trace to any of the postdiluvian patriarchs the Rephaim, -Emim, Zuzim and other prehistoric peoples of Palestine, we may infer, -without any contradiction of our narrative, that there were surviving -antediluvians other than the Noachidae, whatever improbability may attach -to this on other grounds, and more especially from the now ascertained -extension of the post-glacial submergence over nearly all parts of the -northern hemisphere. - -[54] Motais, _Deluge Biblique_. - -Let it also be noticed that beyond the prophetic intimation to Noah, and -the one expression, Jahveh 'shut him in,' which may refer merely to -providential care, there is, as already remarked, nothing miraculous, in -the popular sense of that term; and that mythical elements, such as -those introduced into the Babylonian narrative, are altogether absent. -The story relates to plain matters of fact, which, if they happened at -all, any one might observe, and for the proof of which any ordinary -testimony would be sufficient. It may be profitable, however, to revert -here to the probable relation of this narrative to the geological facts -already adverted to, and also its bearing on the mythical and -polytheistic additions which we find in the Deluge stories of heathen -nations. - -Regarding the Biblical Deluge as a record of a submergence of a vast -region of Eur-Asia and Northern Africa, at least, while no similar -catastrophe has been recorded subsequently, it is unquestionable that -submergences equally important have occurred again and again in the -geological history of our continents, and have been equally destructive -of animal life. It is true that most of these are believed to have been -of more slow and gradual character than that recorded in Genesis, but in -the case of many of them this is a very uncertain inference from the -analogy of modern changes; and it is certain that the post-glacial -submergence, which closed the era of palaeocosmic man and his companion -animals, must have been one of the most transient on record. On the -other hand, we need not limit the entire duration of the Noachic -submergence to the single year whose record has been preserved to us. -Local subsidence may have been in progress throughout the later -antediluvian age, and the experience of the narrator in Genesis may have -related only to its culmination in the central district of human -residence. Finally, if man was really a witness of this last great -continental submergence, we cannot be too thankful that there were so -intelligent witnesses to preserve the record of the event for our -information. - -It is needless, then, to enter into further details, though these are -sufficient to fill volumes if desired, in proof of the remarkable -convergence of history and geological discovery on the great Flood, -which now constitutes one of the most remarkable illustrations of the -points of contact of science proceeding on its own methods of -investigation and Divine revelation, preserving the records of ancient -events otherwise lost or buried under accretions of myth and fancy. I -have already endeavoured to show that the earliest race of palaeocosmic -men, that of Canstadt, very fairly corresponds with what may have been -the characteristics of the ruder tribes of Cainites, and that if we -regard the Truchere skull as representing the Sethite people, we may -suppose the Cro-magnon race to represent the giants, or Nephelim, who -sprung from the union of the two pure types. I have also referred to the -possibility that the Truchere race, so little known to us as yet, may -have been a prot-Iberian people, possessing even before the Flood -domestic animals, agriculture, and some of the arts of life, -corresponding to what we find in the earliest postdiluvian nations. This -is, indeed, implied in the fact that the postdiluvian nations present -themselves to us at once with a somewhat advanced condition of the arts, -especially in Chaldea and in Egypt. Such possibilities may serve to -suggest to speculative archaeologists that they cannot safely assume -that all antediluvian or palaeolithic tribes were barbarous or -semi-brutal, or that there was a continuous development of humanity -without any diluvial catastrophe. It is also somewhat rash to carry back -the chronology of Egyptians and Babylonians to times when, as we know on -physical evidence, the Valley of the Nile was an arm of the sea, and the -plain of the Euphrates an extension of the Persian Gulf. It is fortunate -for the Bible that such assumptions are not required by its history. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -SPECIAL QUESTIONS RESPECTING THE DELUGE - - -In studying the literature relating to the Deluge, we are constantly met -by questions as to its so-called 'universality.' Was it a local or -universal Deluge and if universal in what sense so? This is a point in -which neglect or ignorance of the necessary physical conditions has led -to the strangest misconceptions. - -It is obvious that there are four senses in which a catastrophe like the -Deluge of Noah may be affirmed or denied to have been universal. - -1. It may have been universal in the sense of being a deep stratum of -water covering the whole globe, both land and sea. Such universality -could not have been in the mind of the writer, and probably has been -claimed knowingly by no writer in modern times. Halley in the last -century understood the conditions of such universality, though he seems -to have supposed that the impact of a comet might supply the necessary -water. Owen has directed attention to the fact that such a deluge might -be as fatal to the inhabitants of the waters as to those of the land. -In any case, such universality would demand an enormous supply of water -from some extra-terrestrial source. - -2. The Deluge may have been universal in the sense of being a submersion -of the whole of the land, either by subsidence or by elevation of the -ocean bed. Such a state of things may have existed in primitive -geological ages before our continents were elevated, but we have no -scientific evidence of its recurrence at any later time, though large -portions of the continents have been again and again submerged. The -writers of Genesis i. and of Psalm civ. seem to have known of no such -total submergence since the elevation of the first dry land, and nothing -of this kind is expressed or certainly implied in the Deluge story. - -3. The Deluge may have been universal in so far as man, its chief -object, and certain animals useful or necessary to him, are concerned. -This kind of universality would seem to have been before the mind of the -writer when he says that 'Noah only, and they who were with him in the -ark, remained alive.'[55] - -[55] Genesis vii. 23. - -4. The Deluge may have been universal in so far as the area and -observation and information of the narrator extended. The story is -evidently told in the form of a narrative derived from eye-witnesses, -and this form seems even to have been chosen or retained purposely to -avoid any question of universality of the first and second kinds -referred to above. The same form of narrative is preserved in the -Chaldean legend. This fact is not affected by the doctrine held by some -of the schools of disintegrators, that the narrative is divisible into -two documents, respectively 'Jahvistic' and 'Elohistic.' I have -elsewhere[56] shown that there is a very different reason for the use of -these two names of God. But if there were two original witnesses whose -statements were put together by an editor, this surely does not -invalidate their testimony or deprive them of the right to have it -understood as they intended. - -[56] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, chap. iv. - -It is thus evident that the whole question of 'universality' is little -more than a mere useless logomachy, having no direct relation to the -facts or to the credibility of the narrative. - -There are also in connection with this question of universality certain -scientific and historical facts already referred to which we may again -summarise here, and which are essential to the understanding of the -question. Nothing is more certainly known in geology than that at the -close of the later tertiary or pleistocene age the continents of the -northern hemisphere stood higher and spread their borders more widely -than at present. In this period also they were tenanted by a very grand -and varied mammalian fauna, and it is in this continental age of the -later pleistocene or early modern time that we find the first -unequivocal evidence of man as existing on various parts of the -continents. At the close of this period occurred changes, whether sudden -or gradual we do not know, though they could not have occupied a very -long time, which led to the extinction of the earliest races of men and -many contemporaneous animals. That these changes were in part, at least, -of the nature of submergence we learn from the fact that our present -continents are more sunken or less elevated out of the water, and also -from the deposit of superficial gravels and other _detritus_ more recent -than the pleistocene over their surfaces. We are thus shut up by -geological facts to the belief in a Deluge geologically modern and -practically universal. - -One other objection to the Deluge narrative perhaps deserves a word of -comment--that urged against the statement of the gradual disappearance -of the waters. The extraordinary difficulty is raised respecting this, -that the water must have rushed seaward in a furious torrent. The -objection is based apparently on the idea that the foundation for the -original narrative was a river inundation in the Mesopotamian plain. -This cannot be admitted; but if it were, the objection would not apply. -River inundations, whether of the Nile or Euphrates, subside inch by -inch, not after the manner of mountain torrents. Thus this objection is -another instance of difficulties gratuitously imported into the history. - -In point of fact the narrator represents the Deluge as prevailing for a -whole year, which would be impossible in the case of a river inundation. -He attributes it in part, at least, to the 'great deep'--that is, the -ocean; and he represents the ark as drifting inland or toward the north. -Such conditions can be satisfied only by the supposition of a subsidence -of the land similar in kind, at least, to the great post-glacial flood -of geology. Partial subsidences of this kind, local but very extreme, -have occurred even in later times, as, for instance, in the Runn of -Cutch, the delta of the Mississippi, and the delta of the Nile; and if -the objectors are determined to make the Deluge of Noah very local and -more recent than the post-glacial flood, it would be more rational to -refer to subsidences like those just mentioned, and of which they will -find examples in Lyell's _Principles_ and other geological books. It is, -however, decidedly more probable that Noah's Flood is identical with -that which destroyed the men of the mammoth age, the palaeocosmic or -'palaeolithic' men;[57] and in that case the recession of the waters -would probably be gradual, but intermittent, 'going and returning,' as -our ancient narrator has it; but there need not have been any violent -_debacle_. - -[57] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, chaps. iii. and iv. - -It is also to be noted that a submergence of the land and consequent -deluge may be cataclysmic or tranquil, according to local circumstances, -and that it may have been locally sudden, while for the whole world it -was gradual and of longer duration. Such differences must belong to all -great submergences, which may in one place produce great disturbance and -very coarse deposits, in another may be quiet and deposit the finest -silt. Even the flood of a river or the action of a tide admits of -variations of this kind. In narrow channels the great tides of the Bay -of Fundy rush as torrents; in wide bays they creep in imperceptibly. - -The traditions and Biblical history of the Deluge not only furnish -important material for connecting the geological ages with the period of -human history, and for enabling us to realise the fact that early man -was a witness of some of the later physical and vital vicissitudes that -have passed over the earth, but may be correlated with other ancient -traditions which seem at first sight to have no immediate relation to -it. - -As an example, I may refer to the well-known Egyptian fable of Atlantis, -which may be a reminiscence of early man in the second continental -period, and which we may, perhaps, even connect with the Mexican -tradition of civilisation reaching America from the East.[58] - -[58] It is, perhaps, only an accident that _Atl_ is the Mexican word for -water. - -Plato has handed down to us a circumstantial tradition, derived from -Egypt, of a great Atlantic continent west of Europe, once thickly -peopled, and the seat of an empire that was dominant over the -Mediterranean regions. This continent, or island, was called Atlantis, -and it had been submerged with all its people in prehistoric times. This -tradition may have reference to certain geological facts of the early -modern period already referred to. If the Egyptian tradition really -extended back to the antediluvian period, we can readily understand -their belief in the continent of Atlantis. We have already ascertained -the great extension in that period of the land of Western Europe, and -there may have been outlying insular tracts in the Atlantic now quite -unknown to us. These lands may well have sustained nations of the -gigantic Cro-magnon race, 'men of renown,' who, when their westward -progress was stayed by the ocean, and they were checked in the north by -the increasing cold, may have turned their arms against the dwellers on -the Mediterranean coasts, perhaps in the age immediately preceding the -Deluge. We know little as yet of the history of those Horshesu, or -children of Horus, who are said to have preceded the historic period in -Egypt. There must have been Egyptian literature about these people, and -should this be recovered we shall probably learn more of Atlantis. In -the meantime we may, at least, bring the tradition of that perished -continent into harmony with geology and history. I may add that we need -not consider the above view as at variance with that of those -archaeologists who, like the late Sir D. Wilson,[59] suppose the -tradition of Atlantis to have been founded on vague intimations of the -existence of America, since any such intimations which reached the -civilised nations of Southern Europe or Africa would naturally be -considered as an indication that some part of the lost Atlantis still -continued to exist. - -[59] _The Lost Atlantis_, 1892. - -In still another direction does the deluge story connect itself with -physical probabilities. If we examine the Atlantic map representing the -soundings of the Challenger expedition, we shall find evidence not only -of that extension of land in temperate Western Europe which may have -originated the story of Atlantis, but other dispositions of land, -especially in the extreme north and south, which may have influenced -antediluvian climate. We have reason to believe that in the second -continental period, that of palaeocosmic man, Baffin's Bay may have been -greatly narrowed and Behring's Straits entirely closed, while large -tracts of land existed around Iceland and west of Norway. There would -thus be almost continuous land connection around the north pole, -permitting easy extension of man and of hardy animals. There would also -be much less access of ice to the North Atlantic. - -At the same time in another region there was probably a land connection -from Florida to South America by the Bahamas, and the equatorial current -may have been more powerfully deflected northward than now. The effect -would be to produce around the North Atlantic, and especially on the -eastern side, a golden age of genial climate, fitted to early man, but -destined as time went on and geographical changes proceeded, preparatory -to the great diluvial subsidence, to fade away into the cool and damp -climate of the later post-glacial or antediluvian period. This again -would lead to migrations, wars, and fierce struggles for existence among -the human populations--a time of anarchy and violence preceding the -final catastrophe. - -Much collateral evidence in substantiation of these probabilities can be -collected from the distribution of marine life[60] and the changes of -level, even on the American coast. They conjure up before us strange -visions of the prehistoric past, and of the vicissitudes of which man -himself has been witness, and of which, whether through memory and -tradition or the revelation of God, he has continued to retain some -written records which, long dim and uncertain, are now beginning to be -put into relation with physical facts ascertained by modern scientific -observation. - -[60] See _The Ice Age in Canada_, by the author. Montreal: 1893. - -We have already seen how the Deluge story and the fate of the -antediluvians have interwoven themselves with the myths and -superstitions of the Old World. The six great gods of the Egyptian -pantheon represent the creative days, and the 'Sons of Horus' the -antediluvians. So we have the ten patriarchs or kings of the old -Chaldeans corresponding to those of Genesis, and the heaven-defying -Titans of the old mythologies representing the giants before the Flood. -Perhaps, however, no illustration of this is more patent or more -touching than that well-known one of Ishtar, the Astarte of the Syrians, -the Artemis of the Greeks, and who has been identified with the chief -female divinity of many other ancient nations, even with that Diana whom -'all Asia and the inhabited world worshippeth.' - -The Chaldean deluge tablets for the first time introduce her to us as an -antediluvian goddess, and inform us that she is the deified mother of -men, the same with the Biblical Isha, or Eve. In the crisis of the -Deluge we are told, 'Ishtar spoke like a little child, the great goddess -pronounced her discourse. Behold how mankind has returned to clay. I am -_the mother who brought forth men_, and like the fishes they fill the -sea. The gods because of the angels of the abyss are weeping with me.' -Ishtar is thus the mother of men, herself deified and gone into the -heavens, but even there mourning over her hapless children. She may be a -star-goddess, or the moon may be her emblem; but for all that she -appears in this old legend as a deified human mother, with a mother's -heart yearning over the progeny that had sprung from her womb, and had -been nourished in her breast. It was this, more than her crescent or -starry diadem, that commended her worship to her children. Her -representative in Genesis, the first mother, Isha, or Eve, is no -goddess, but a woman. Yet is she the emblem of life and the mother of a -promised Redeemer of humanity, who is to undo the results of sin and to -restore the Paradise of God bruising the head of the great serpent who, -in the Chaldean as in the Hebrew story, represents the power of evil. -Ishtar has been represented as the bride of the god Tammuz, the -Adonis[61] of the Greeks, and whose worship was one of the idolatries -that led the women of Israel astray, 'weeping for Tammuz';[62] but it -now appears that, according to the oldest doctrine, she is his -mother,[63] and he was a 'keeper of sheep,' dwelling in Eden, or Idinu, -and murdered by his brother Adar, who is also a god, and more especially -the god of war. In short, the story of Ishtar, Tammuz, and Adar, the -parent of so many myths, is merely the familiar one of Cain and Abel. -Hence the belief that the murder of Tammuz was connected with the -Deluge, and hence the annual lamentation of the women for Tammuz when -the spring inundations swelled and reddened the waters of the streams--a -rite possibly even antediluvian, and commemorative of the mourning of -the first mother for her slain son, to rescue whom it was fabled that -she even descended into Hades. - -[61] From the Semitic title 'Adonai,' my Lord. - -[62] Ezekiel viii. 14. - -[63] Sayce, _Hibbert Lectures_. - -Oppert regards the legend of Tammuz and Ishtar as a solar myth, and -supposes that the story of Cain and Abel was based on it. But a family -history of crime and sorrow is a much more real and probable thing as a -basis for tradition than a solar myth, and naturalists at least will be -disposed to invert the theory, and to believe that the simple Bible -story was the foundation of all the varied cults and superstitions that -clustered round Ishtar and Tammuz, as well as personages like Osiris and -Isis, who seem to have been later avatars, or revivals of the same tale. - -It would be easy to show that the deluge story has intimate connections -with other ancient myths and superstitions, as well as with the results -of modern archaeology and geology. But were this all, our inquiry, -however interesting and curious, would have little practical value. It -has two important bearings on the present time. Christianity bases -itself, its founder Himself being witness, on the early chapters of -Genesis, as history and prophecy, and the treatment which these ancient -and inspired records have met with in modern times at the hands of -destructive criticism is doing its worst in aid of the anti-*Christian -tendencies of our time. To remove the doubts that have been cast on -these old records is therefore a clear gain to the highest interests of -humanity, and if theology and philology are unable to secure this -benefit, natural science may well step forward to lend its aid. Another -connection with present interests depends on the fact that, while -superstitions akin to that which deified the mother of the promised -seed, and introduced the world-wide cults of Astarte and Aphrodite, -still reign over great masses of men, absolute materialism and desperate -struggle for existence among men and nations are growing and extending -themselves as never before since the antediluvian times, and are -provoking a like signal and direful vengeance. In the midst of all -this, Christians look forward to the second coming of Jesus Christ to -destroy the powers of evil and to inaugurate a better time; and it was -He who said, 'As it came to pass in the days of Noah, even so shall it -be in the days of the Son of Man.' Let us remember the old story of the -flood of Noah lest those days come on us unawares. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -THE PREHISTORIC AND HISTORIC IN THE EAST - - -The term prehistoric was first used by my friend Sir Daniel Wilson in -his _Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_. It was intended to express 'the -whole period disclosed to us by archaeological evidence as distinguished -from what is known by written records.' As Wilson himself reminds us, -the term has no definite chronological significance, since historic -records, properly so-called, extend back in different places to very -different times. With reference, for example, to the Chaldean and Hebrew -peoples, if we take their written records as history, this extends back -to the Deluge at least. Written history in Egypt reaches to at least -3000 years B.C., while in Britain it extends no farther than to the -landing of Julius Caesar, and in America to the first voyage of Columbus. -In Palestine we possess written records back to the time of Abraham, but -these relate mainly to the Hebrew people. Of the populations which -preceded the Abrahamic immigration, those 'Canaanites who were already -in the land,' we have little history before the Exodus, except the -remarkable letters recently unearthed at Tel-el-Amarna, in Egypt. In -Egypt we have very early records of the dwellers on the Nile, but of the -Arabian and African peoples, whom they called Pun and Kesh, and the -Asiatic peoples, whom they knew as Cheta and Hyksos, we have till lately -known little more than their names and the representations of them on -Egyptian monuments. In both countries there may be unsounded depths of -unwritten history before the first Egyptian dynasty, and before the -Abrahamic clan crossed the Jordan. - -What, then, in Egypt and Palestine may be regarded as prehistoric? I -would answer--(1) The geographical and other conditions of these -countries immediately before the advent of man. (2) The evidence which -they afford of the existence, habits, and history of man in periods -altogether antecedent to any written history, except such notes as we -have in the Bible and elsewhere as to the so-called antediluvian world. -(3) The facts gleaned by archaeological evidence as to tribes known to us -by no records of their own, but only by occasional notices in the -history or monuments of other peoples. In Egypt and Palestine such -peoples as the Hyksos, the Anakim, the Amalekites, the Hittites, and -Amorites are of this kind, though contemporary with historic peoples. - -Prehistoric annals may thus, in these countries, embrace a wide scope, -and may introduce us to unexpected facts and questions respecting -primitive humanity. I propose in the present chapter to direct attention -to some points which may be regarded as definitely ascertained in so far -as archaeological evidence can give any certainty, though I cannot -pretend, in so limited a space, to enter into details as to their -evidence. - -Before proceeding, I may refer by way of illustration to another -instance brought into very prominent relief by the publication of -Schuchardt's work on Schliemann's excavations. We all know how shadowy -and unreal to our youthful minds were the Homeric stories of the heroic -age of Greece, and our faith and certainty were not increased when we -read in the works of learned German critics that the Homeric poems were -composite productions of an age much later than that to which they were -supposed to belong, and that their events were rather myths than -history. How completely has all this been changed by the discoveries of -Schliemann and his followers! Now we can stand on the very threshold -over which Priam and Hector walked. We can see the jewels that may have -adorned Helen or Andromache. We can see double-handled cups like that of -old Nestor, and can recognise the inlaid work of the shield of Achilles, -and can walk in the halls of Agamemnon. Thus the old Homeric heroes -become real men, as those of our time, and we can understand their -political and commercial relations with other old peoples before quite -as shadowy. Recent discoveries in Egypt take us still farther back. We -now find that the 'Hanebu,' who invaded Egypt in the days of the Hebrew -patriarchs, were prehistoric Greeks, already civilised, and probably -possessing letters ages before the date of the Trojan War. So it is with -the Bible history, when we see the contemporary pictures of the Egyptian -slaves toiling at their bricks, or when we stand in the presence of the -mummy of Rameses II. and know that we look on the face of the Pharaoh -who enslaved the Hebrews, and from whose presence Moses fled. - -Such discoveries give reality to history, and similar discoveries are -daily carrying us back to old events, and to nations of whom there was -no history whatever, and are making them like our daily friends and -companions. A notable case is that of the children of Heth, known to us -only incidentally by a few members of the nation who came in contact -with the early Hebrews. Suddenly we found that these people were the -great and formidable Kheta, or Khatti, who contended on equal terms with -the Egyptians and Assyrians for the empire of Western Asia; and when we -began to look for their remains, there appeared, one after another, -stone monuments, seals, and engraved objects, recording their form and -their greatness, till the tables have quite been turned, and there is -danger that we may attach too much importance to their agency in times -of which we have scarcely any written history. Thus, just as the quarry -and the mine reveal to us the fossil remains of animals and plants great -in their time, but long since passed away, so do the spade and pick of -the excavator constantly turn up for us the bones and the works of a -fossil and prehistoric humanity. - -Egypt may be said to have no prehistoric period, and our task with it -will be limited to showing that its written history scarcely goes back -as far as many Egyptologists suppose and confidently affirm, and that -beyond this it has as yet afforded nothing. Egypt, in short, old though -it seems, is really a new country. When its priests, according to Plato, -taunted Solon with the newness of the Greeks and referred to the old -western empire of Atlantis, they were probably trading on traditions of -antediluvian times, which had no more relation to the actual history of -the Egyptian people than to that of the Greeks. - -The limestones and sandstones which bound the Nile valley, sometimes -rising in precipitous cliffs from the bank of the stream, sometimes -receding for many miles beyond the edge of the green alluvial plain, are -rocks formed in cretaceous and early tertiary times under the sea, when -all Northern Africa and Western Asia were beneath the ocean. When raised -from the sea-bed to form land, they were variously bent and fractured, -and the Nile valley occupies a rift or fault, which, lying between the -hard ridges of the Arabian hills on the east and the more gentle -elevations of the Nubian desert on the west, afforded an outlet for the -waters of interior Africa and for the great floods which in the rainy -season pour down from the mountains of Abyssinia. - -This outlet has been available and has been in process of erosion by -running water from a period long anterior to the advent of man, and with -this early pre-human history belonging to the miocene and pliocene -periods of geology we have no need to meddle, except to state that it -was closed by a great subsidence, that of the pleistocene or glacial -period, when the land of North Africa and Western Asia was depressed -several hundred feet, when Africa was separated from Asia, when the Nile -valley was an arm of the sea, and when sea-shells were deposited on the -rising grounds of Lower Egypt at a height of two hundred feet or -more.[64] Such raised beaches are found not only in the Nile valley but -on the shores of the Red Sea, and, as we shall see, along the coast of -Palestine; but, so far as known, no remains of man have been found in -connection with them. This great depression must, however, geologically -speaking, have been not much earlier than the advent of man, since in -many parts of the world we find human remains in deposits of the next -succeeding era. - -[64] Hull, _Geology of Palestine and adjacent Districts_, Palestine -Exploration Fund. Dawson, _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, p. 311 and -Appendix. References will be found in these works to the labours of -Fraas, Schweinfurth, and others. - -This next period, that known to geologists as the post-glacial or early -modern, was characterised by an entire change of physical conditions. -The continents of the northern hemisphere were higher and wider than -now. The details of this we have already considered, and have seen that -at this time the Mediterranean was divided into two basins, and a broad -fringe of low land, now submerged, lay around its eastern end. This was -the age of those early palaeolithic or palaeocosmic men whose remains are -found in the caverns and gravels of Europe and Asia. What was the -condition of Egypt at this time? The Nile must have been flowing in its -valley; but there was probably a waterfall or cataract at Silsilis in -Upper Egypt, and rapids lower down, and the alluvial plain was much less -extensive than now and forest-clad, while the river seems to have been -unable to reach the Mediterranean and to have turned abruptly eastward, -discharging into a lake where the Isthmus of Suez now is, and probably -running thence into the Red Sea, so that at this time the waters of the -Nile approached very near to those of the Jordan, a fact which accounts -for that similarity of their modern fauna which has been remarked by so -many naturalists. I have myself collected in the deposits of this old -lake, near Ismailia, fresh-water shells of kinds now living in the Upper -Nile. If at this time men visited the Nile valley, they must have been -only a few bold hunters in search of game, and having their permanent -homes on the Mediterranean plains now submerged. - -If they left any remains we should find these in caverns or rock -shelters, or in the old gravels belonging to this period which here and -there project through the alluvial plain. At one of these places, Jebel -Assart, near Thebes, General Pitt-Rivers has satisfied himself of the -occurrence of flint chips which may have been of human workmanship;[65] -but after a day's collecting at the spot, I failed to convince myself -that the numerous flint flakes in the gravel were other than accidental -fragments. If they really are flint knives they are older than the -period we are now considering, and must be much older than the first -dynasty of the Egyptian historic kings.[66] These gravels were indeed, -in early Egyptian times, so consolidated that tombs were excavated in -them. Independently of this case, I know of no trustworthy evidence of -the residence of the earliest men in Egypt. Yet we know that at this -time rude hunting tribes had spread themselves over Western Asia, and -over Europe as far as the Atlantic, and were slaying the mammoth, the -hairy rhinoceros, the wild horse, and other animals now extinct. They -were the so-called 'palaeolithic' or historically antediluvian men, -belonging, like the animals they hunted, to extinct races, quite -dissimilar physically from the historical Egyptians. And yet in a recent -review of the late Miss Edwards's charming work, _Pharaohs, Fellahs, and -Explorers_, she was taken to task by an eminent Egyptologist for -statements similar to the above. On the evidence of two additional finds -of flint implements _on the surface_, he affirms the existence of man -in Egypt at a time when 'the Arabian deserts were covered with verdure -and intersected by numerous streams,' that is, geologically speaking, in -the early pleistocene or pliocene period, or even in the miocene! - -[65] _Journal of Archaeological Society_, 1881. Haynes's _Journal of the -American Academy of Sciences_. - -[66] Dawson, _Egypt and Syria_, p. 149. - -Singularly enough, therefore, Egypt is to the prehistoric annalist not -an old country--less old indeed than France and England, in both of -which we find evidence of the residence of the palaeolithic cave men of -the mammoth age. Thus, when we go beyond local history into the -prehistoric past, our judgment as to the relative age of countries may -be strangely reversed. - -It is true that in Egypt, as in most other countries, flint flakes, or -other worked flints, are common on the surface and in the superficial -soil; but there is no good evidence that they did not belong to historic -times. A vivid light has been thrown on this point by Petrie's -discovery, in _debris_ attributed to the age of the twelfth dynasty, or -approximately that of the Hebrew patriarchs, of a wooden sickle of the -ordinary shape, but armed with flint fakes serrated at their edges,[67] -though the handle is beautifully curved in such a manner as to give a -better and more convenient hold than with those now in use. This -primitive implement presents to us the Egyptian farmer of that age -reaping his fields of wheat and barley with implements similar to those -of the palaeocosmic men. No doubt, at the same time, he used a harrow -armed with rude flints, and may have used flint flakes for cutting wood -or for pointing his arrows. Yet he was a member of a civilised and -highly-organised nation, which could execute great works of canalisation -and embankment, and could construct tombs and temples that have not -since been surpassed. Can we doubt that the common people in Palestine -and other neighbouring countries were equally in the flint age, or be -surprised that, somewhat later, Joshua used flint knives to circumcise -the Israelites?[68] How remarkable are these links of connection between -early Eastern civilisation and the stone age! and they relate to mere -flakes, such as if found separately might be styled 'palaeolithic.' - -[67] _Kahun and Garob_, Egyptian Exploration Fund publications. - -[68] Joshua v. 2, marginal reading. - -In accordance with all this, when we examine the tenants of the oldest -Egyptian tombs, who are known to us by their sculptured statues and -their carved and painted portraits, we find them to be the same with the -Egyptians of historic times, and not very dissimilar from the modern -Copts, and we also find that their arts and civilisation were not very -unlike those of comparatively late date. - -There are, however, some points in which the early condition of even -historic Egypt was different from the present or from anything recorded -in written history. - -I have elsewhere endeavoured, with the aid of my friend Dr. -Schweinfurth, to restore the appearance of the Nile valley when first -visited by man in the post-diluvial period. It was then probably -densely wooded with forests similar to those in the modern Soudan, and -must have swarmed with animal life in the air, on the land, and in the -water, including many formidable and dangerous beasts. On the other -hand, to a people derived from the Euphratean plains and accustomed to -irrigation, it must have seemed a very garden of the Lord in its -fertility and resources. - -There is good reason to credit the Egyptian traditions that the first -colonists crossed over from Southern Arabia by the Red Sea from that -land of Pun to which the Egyptians attributed their theology, and -settled in the neighbourhood of Abydos, and that they made their way -thence to the northward, at a time when the delta was yet a mere -swamp,[69] and when they had slowly to extend their cultivation in Lower -Egypt by dikes and canals. If we ask when the first immigrants arrived, -we are met by the most extravagantly varied estimates, derived mainly -from attempts to deduce a chronology from the dynastic lists of Egyptian -kings. That these are very uncertain, and in part duplicated, is now -generally understood, but still there is a tendency to ask for a time -far exceeding that for which we have any good warrant in authentic -history elsewhere. Herodotus estimated the time necessary for the -deposition of the mud of the delta at 20,000 years; but if we assume -that this deposit has been formed since the land approximately attained -to its present level, allowing for some subsidence in the delta in -consequence of the weight of sediment, and estimating the average rate -of deposition at one fifteenth of an inch per annum, which is as low an -amount as can probably be assumed, we shall have numbers ranging from -5,300 to about 7,000 years for the lapse of time since the delta was a -bay of the Mediterranean. - -[69] _Herodotus_, Book II. chap. 15. - -It is true that the recent borings in the delta, under the officers of -the British Engineers, have shown a great depth in some places without -reaching the original bottom of the old bay. Some geologists have -accordingly inferred from this a much greater age for the deposit than -that above stated,[70] and in this they are in one respect justified; -but they have to bear in mind that only the upper part of the material -belongs to the modern period. A vast thickness is due to the pleistocene -and pliocene ages, when the Nile was cutting out its valley and -depositing the excavated material in the sea at its mouth. A careful -examination of the borings proves by their composition that this is -actually the case.[71] Geologists who have been guided by these facts in -their estimates of time have been taunted as affirming that a great -diluvial catastrophe occurred while quiet government and civilised life -were going on in Egypt. The evidence for this early date of Egyptian -colonisation of the Nile valley is, as everyone knows, doubtful, and it -might be retorted that archaeologists represent the Egyptian government -as dating from a period when the Nile valley was an inland district, and -when the centres of human population must have been, principally at -least, on lands now submerged. - -[70] Judd, _Report to Royal Society_, 1885. - -[71] _Modern Science in Bible Lands_, where evidence of similar dates in -other countries is stated. - -As an example of the fanciful way in which this subject is sometimes -treated, I may cite the fabulous antiquity attributed to the great -sphinx of Gizeh. We are told that it is the most ancient monument in -Egypt, antedating the pyramids, and belonging to the time of the mystic -'Horshesu,' or people of Horus, of Egyptian tradition. In one sense this -is true, since the sphinx is merely an undisturbed mass of the eocene -limestone of the plateau. But its form must have been given to it after -the surrounding limestone was quarried away by the builders of the -pyramids, and consequently long after the founding of Memphis by the -first Egyptian king Mena. The sphinx is, in short, a block of stone left -by the quarrymen, and probably shaped by them as an appropriate monument -to the workmen who died while the neighbouring pyramids were being -built. A similar monument, of immensely greater antiquity from a -geological point of view, exists near Montreal, in a huge boulder of -Laurentian gneiss, placed on a pedestal by the workmen employed on the -Victoria Bridge, in memory of immigrants who died of ship fever in the -years when the bridge was being built. - -It follows from all this that the monumental history of Egypt, extending -to about 3000 years B.C., gives us the whole story of the country, -unless some chance memorial of a population belonging to the -post-glacial age should in future be found. There are, however, things -in Egypt which illustrate prehistoric times in other countries, and some -of these have lately thrown a new and strange light on the early history -of Palestine, and especially on the Bible history. - -One of the kings of the eighteenth dynasty, whose historical position -was probably between the time of Joseph and that of Moses, Amunoph III., -is believed to have married an Asiatic wife, and under her influence, he -and his successor, Amunoph IV., or Khu en-Aten, seem to have swerved -from the old polytheism of Egypt, and introduced a new worship, that of -Aten, a god visibly represented by the disk of the sun, and, therefore, -in some sense identical with Ra, the chief god of Egypt; but there was -something in this new worship offensive to the priests of Ra. Perhaps it -was regarded as a Semitic or Asiatic innovation, or led to the -introduction of unpopular Semitic priests and officers. Amunoph IV. -consequently abandoned the royal residence at Thebes, and established a -new capital at a place now called Tel-el-Amarna, almost at the boundary -of Upper and Lower Egypt, and from this place he ruled not only Egypt -but a vast region in Western Asia, which had been subjected to the -Egyptian government in the reign of the third Amunoph. From these -subject districts, extending from the frontiers of Egypt to Asia Minor -on the north, and to the Euphrates on the east, came great numbers of -despatches to the Pharaoh, and these were written not on papyrus or -skin, but on tablets of clay hardened by baking, and the writing was not -that of Egypt, but the arrow-head script of Chaldea, which seems at this -time to have been the current writing throughout Western Asia.[72] - -[72] It is possible, however, that it may really have been a language of -diplomacy merely, and may have been used by the Semitic agents of -Amunoph as a cipher to communicate with the Egyptian court, and which -could not be read by messengers or enemies acquainted only with Hittite -or Egyptian hieroglyphics or with the Phoenician characters. For a -similar case see 2 Kings xviii. 26. - -The scribes of the Egyptian king read these documents, answered them as -directed by their master, docketed them, and laid them up for reference; -and, strange to say, a few years ago, Arabs, digging in the old mounds, -brought them to light, and we have before us, translated into English, a -great number of letters, written from cities of Palestine and its -vicinity about a hundred years before the Exodus, and giving us -word-pictures of the politics and conflicts of the Canaanites and -Hittites and other peoples, long before Joshua came in contact with -them. Among other things in this correspondence, we find remarkable -confirmation of the sacred and political influence of Jerusalem, which -the Bible presents to us in the widely separated stories of Melchisedec, -king of Salem, in the time of Abraham, and of the suzerainty of -Adonizedec, king of Jerusalem, in the time of Joshua. - -At the time in question, Jerusalem was ruled by a king or chief, subject -to Egypt, but, as in the times of Abraham and Joshua, exercising some -headship over neighbouring cities. He complains of certain hostile -peoples called _chabiri_, a name supposed by Zimmel[73] to be equivalent -to Ibrim or Hebrews, which to some may seem strange, as the Israelites -were, according to the generally received chronology, at this time in -Egypt. We must bear in mind, however, that according to the Bible the -Israelites were not the only 'children of Eber.' The Edomites, Moabites, -Ammonites, Ishmaelites, and Midianites were equally entitled to this -name; and we know, from the second chapter of Deuteronomy, that these -were warlike and intrusive peoples, who had, before the Exodus, -dispossessed several native tribes, so that we do not wonder at the fact -that a king of Jerusalem might have been suffering from their attacks -long before the Exodus.[74] It may be noted incidentally here, that this -wide application of the term Hebrew accords with the use of the name -_Aperiu_ for Semitic peoples other than Israelites in Egypt. - -[73] Inaugural Lecture, Halle, 1891. Possibly these people were merely -'confederate' Hittites and Amorites (Sayce, _Records cf the Past_). - -[74] I cannot agree with Conder that the Exodus took place as early as -the time of Amunoph III. The evidence we have from Egyptian sources -plainly indicates one of the immediate successors of Rameses II. as the -Pharaoh of the Exodus. - -We have here also a note on an obscure passage in the life of Moses, -namely, his apparent want of acquaintance with the name Jehovah until -revealed to him at Horeb.[75] Now, as reported in Exodus, Moses in that -interview addressed God as 'Adon,' which is supposed to be the Hebrew -equivalent of 'Aten,' the meaning being Lord. This is a curious -incidental agreement with the prevalence of the Aten worship in Egypt, -and shows that this name may have been currently used by the Israelites, -whose God Moses himself calls Adon, till commanded to use the name -Jehovah. - -[75] Exodus iii. 16 _et seqq._ This passage has been often -misunderstood, but it certainly shows that the name Jehovah had become -nearly obsolete among the Hebrews in Egypt, and that the name usually -given to God was Adon or Aten. - -A second point of contact of Egypt and Palestine is in the painting and -sculptures of hostile and conquered nations in Egyptian temples and -tombs. These were evidently intended to be portraits, and an admirable -series of them has been published by Mr. Petrie under a commission from -the British Association for the Advancement of Science. By means of -these excellent photographs, now before me, we can see for ourselves the -physiognomy and form of head of the Amorite, Philistine, Hittite, and -many other peoples previously known to us only by name and a few -historical facts; and thus with their correspondence, as preserved in -the Tel-el-Amarna tablets, and their pictures as given by Petrie, we -have them before us much as we have the speeches and portraits of our -contemporaries in the illustrated newspapers, and can venture to express -some opinion as to their ethnic affinities and appearance, and can judge -more accurately as to the familiar statements of the Bible respecting -them.[76] Lastly, Maspero and Tomkins have, with the aid of the names -fixed by the survey of Western Palestine, revised the lists given by -Thothmes III., in the temple of Karnak, of the places which this -Egyptian Alexander had conquered; and they have thus verified the Hebrew -geography of the Books of Joshua and Judges. - -[76] Sayce, _Races of the Old Testament_, Religious Tract Society. - -Another unexpected acquisition is the solution of the mystery which has -enshrouded that mysterious people known as Hyksos or shepherd kings, who -invaded Egypt about the time of the Hebrew patriarchs, and, after -keeping the Egyptians in subjection for centuries, were finally expelled -by the predecessors of the Amunoph already referred to. They constitute -a great feature in early Egyptian history, but disappear mysteriously, -leaving no trace but a few sculptured heads, Turanian in aspect and -markedly contrasting with those of the native Egyptians. It now appears -that a people of Northern Syria and Mesopotamia, known to the Egyptians -at a later time as Mitanni, and who were neighbours of and associated -with the Northern Hittites, have the features of the Hyksos. It also -seems from a letter in the Tel-el-Amarna tablets that they spoke a -non-Semitic or Turanian language akin to that of the Hittites. Thus we -have traced the shepherd kings to their origin, and, curiously enough, -Cushanrish-athaim, who oppressed the Israelites in the days of Othniel, -seems to represent a later inroad of the same people. - -Such 'restitutions of decayed intelligence' now meet us on every hand as -the results of modern exploration, and are enabling us to bridge over -the gaps which have separated the geological ages from the prehistoric -and historic human periods in those ancient countries where civilisation -seems to have originated. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE NEANTHROPIC DISPERSION AND ALLIED TOPICS - - -The remarkable record of the early distribution of the sons of Noah -('Toledoth' of the sons of Noah) in Genesis x. may be regarded, -relatively to most of the nations it refers to, as a scrap of -prehistoric lore of the most intensely interesting character. From the -old 'Phaleg' of Bochart to the recent commentaries of Delitzsch and -other German scholars, it has received a host of more or less -conjectural explanations; and while all agree in extolling its value and -importance as a 'Beginning of History,' nothing can be more various than -the views taken of it. Only in the light of the recent discoveries and -researches already referred to can we arrive at a clear conception of -its import; but with these and some common sense we may hope to be more -fortunate than the older interpreters. It is necessary, however, to -explain here that, for want of a little scientific precision, many -modern archaeologists still fail in their interpretations. They tell us -that the Toledoth are not properly 'ethnological,' but rather -'ethnographical,' and that we are to regard the document as referring, -not to the genealogical affiliations of nations, but to their accidental -geographical positions at the time of the record. - -Now this is precisely what the writer, with a sure scientific instinct, -carefully guards against, and explicitly informs us he did not intend. -He tells us that he gives the '_generations_ of the sons of Noah' and -their descendants, and at the ends of the three lists relating to these -sons, he is careful to say that he has given them 'in their lands, each -according to his language, after their families, in their nations,' or -the formula is slightly varied into 'after their families, after their -tongues, in their lands, in their nations.' Lastly, in the conclusion of -the whole table he reiterates, 'These are the _families_ of the sons of -Noah, according to their generations, after their nations.' All these -statements, let it be observed, are acknowledged to be parts of one -(Elohistic) document. It is clear, therefore, that the writer intends us -to understand that the determining elements of his classification are -neither physical characters nor accidents of geographical distribution, -but descent and original language--two primary and scientific grounds of -classification, and which common sense requires us to adhere to in -interpreting the document, whose value will depend on the certainty with -which the writer could ascertain facts as to these criteria: criteria -which are, of course, less open to the observation of later inquirers, -who may find difficulty in ascertaining either descent or _original_ -language, and in default of these may be obliged to resort to other -grounds of classification. - -[Illustration: MAP SHOWING LINES OF POSTDILUVIAN MIGRATIONS FROM SHINAR, -AS IN GENESIS X.] - -Among modern archaeologists it has been a fruitful source of controversy -whether we should classify men according to their skulls or to their -tongues; in other words, whether physical characters or linguistic -should be dominant in our classifications. Neither ground is absolutely -certain. We may find long and short skulls in the same grave-mound, and -there are intermediate forms which defy certain arrangement. In like -manner history assures us that people of one race have often adopted the -language of another. True science warns us that we may err unless we -give a fair valuation to every available character. The ethnologist of -Genesis considers both physical and linguistic characters, but bases his -arrangement mainly on the sure ground of descent along with _original_ -language. - -It may be said, however, that if taken in the sense obviously intended -by the writer, the list will not correspond with the facts. A few data -have, however, to be taken into the account in order to give this early -writer fair play. - -1. The record has nothing to do with antediluvian peoples or with -survivors of the Deluge other than the sons of Noah, if there were any -such. Therefore, those ethnologists who are sceptical as to the -historical Deluge, and who postulate an uninterrupted advance of man -through long ages of semi-bestial brutality, have nothing in common -with our narrator, and cannot possibly understand his statements. - -2. The document does not profess to be a series of ethnological -inferences from the present or ancient characters of different nations, -but an actual historical statement of the known migrations of men from a -common centre in Shinar, the Sumir of the Chaldeans. - -3. It relates only to the primary distribution of men from their alleged -centre over certain districts of Western Asia, Eastern Europe, and -Northern Africa, and does not profess to know anything of their -subsequent migrations or history. - -4. It is thus not responsible for those later, even if very ancient, -changes which displaced one race by another, or obliged one race to move -on by the pressure of another, nor for any changes of language or -mixtures of races which may have occurred in these movements. - -5. It affirms nothing as to the physical characters of the races -referred to, except as they may be inferred from heredity, but it -implies some resemblance in language between the derivatives of the same -stock, and this, be it observed, notwithstanding the added narrative of -the confusion of tongues at Babel,[77] which the narrator does not -regard as interfering with the fact of languages originally forming a -few branches proceeding from a common stock. - -[77] Held by some to belong to another (Jahvistic) document, but -certainly incorporated by the early editor. - -6. If we ask what our narrator supposed to be the original or Noachic -tongue, we might infer from his three lines of descent, and from the -locality of the dispersion and the episode of Nimrod's prehistoric -kingdom, that the primitive language of Chaldea would be the original -stem; and this we now know from authentic written records to have been -an agglutinate language of the type usually known as Turanian, and more -closely allied to the Tartar and Chinese tongues than to other kinds of -speech. It would follow that what we now call Semitic and Aryan or -Japhetic forms of speech must, in the view of our ancient authority, -date from the sequelae of the great 'confusion of tongues.' - -These points being premised, we can clear away the fogs which have been -gathered around this little luminous spot in the early history of the -world, and can trace at least the principal ethnic lines of radiation -from it. Though the writer gives us three main branches of affiliation -of the children of Noah, he really refers to six principal lines of -migration, three of them belonging to that multifarious progeny of Ham, -in which he seems to include both the Turanian and Negroid types of our -ordinary classifications, as well as some of the brown and yellow races. - -One of the lines of affiliation of Ham leads eastward and is not traced; -but if the Cushite people, who are said to have gone to the land which -in earlier antediluvian times was that of 'gold and bedolach and shoham -stone,' that is, along the fertile valley of Susiana, were those -primitive people, preceding the Elamites of history, who are said to -have spoken an agglutinate language,[78] then we have at least one -stage of this migration. A second line leads west to the eastern coast -of the Mediterranean, to Egypt and to North Africa. A third passes -south-westward through Southern Arabia and across the Red Sea into -interior Africa. To the sons of Japhet are ascribed two lines of -migration, one through Asia Minor and the northern coasts of the -Mediterranean; another north-west, around the Black Sea. The Semites -would seem to have been a less wandering people at the first, but -subsequently to have encroached on and mingled with the Hamites, -and especially on that western line of migration leading to the -Mediterranean. All this can be gathered from undisputed national names -in the several lines of migration above sketched, without touching on -the more obscure and doubtful names or referring to tribes which -remained near the original centre. We must, however, inquire a little -more particularly into the movements bearing on Palestine and Egypt. - -[78] Sayce (_Hibbert Lectures_) and Bagster's _Records of the Past_. -Inscriptions of Cyrus published in the last volume of the latter appear -to set at rest the vexed questions relating to early Elam. It would seem -that in the earliest times Cushites and Semitic Elamites contended for -the fertile plains and the mountains east of the Tigris, and were -finally subjugated by Japhetic Medes and Persians. Thus this region -first formed a part of the Cushite Nimrodic empire (Genesis ii. 11, x. -8); it then became the seat of a conquering Elamite power (Genesis xiv. -1 to 4); and was finally a central part of the Medo-Persian empire. All -this agrees with the Bible and the inscriptions, as well as in the main -with Herodotus. - -So far as the writer in Genesis is informed, he does not seem to be -aware of any sons of Japhet having colonised Palestine or Egypt. It was -only in the later reflux of population that the sons of Javan gained a -foothold in these regions. They were both colonised primarily by Hamites -and subsequently intruded on by Semites. - -Here a little prehistoric interlude noted by the writer, or by an author -whom he quotes, gives a valuable clue not often attended to. The oldest -son of Ham, Cush, begat Nimrod, the mighty hunter and prehistoric -conqueror, who organised the first empire in that Euphratean plain which -subsequently became the nucleus of the Babylonian and Assyrian power. -The site of his kingdom cannot be doubted, for cities well known in -historic times, Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, were included in it, as -well as probably Nineveh. The first point which I wish to make in this -connection is that we cannot suppose this to have been a Semitic empire. -Its nucleus must have been composed of Nimrod's tribal connections, who -were Hamites and presumably Cushites. He is, indeed, said to have gone -into or invaded the land of Ashur, and if by this is meant the Semitic -Ashur, he must have been hostile to these people, as indeed the -Chaldeans were in later times. The next point to be noted is that the -Nimrodic empire must have originated at a time when the Cushites were -still strong on the Lower Euphrates, and before that great movement of -these people which carried them across Arabia to the Upper Nile, and -ultimately caused the name Cush or Kesh to be almost exclusively applied -to the Ethiopians of Africa. Now is this history, or mere legend? - -[Illustration: HEAD ILLUSTRATING THE MOST ANCIENT TYPE OF CUSHITE -TURANIAN, FROM TEL-LOH (after de Sarzec). The cap is perhaps an -imitation of the antediluvian shell-caps, like that of the 'man of -Mentorie.'] - -The answer of archaeology is not doubtful. We have in the earliest -monuments of Chaldea evidence that there was a pre-Semitic population, -to whom, indeed, it is believed that the Semites who invaded the country -owed much of their civilisation. A recent writer has said that 'outside -of the Bible we know nothing of Nimrod,' but others see a trace of him -in the legendary hero of Chaldean tradition, Gisdubar or Gingamos, while -others think that, as Na-marod, he may be the original of Merodach, the -tutelary god of Babylon. Independently of this, there was certainly an -early Chaldean and 'Turanian' empire, which must have had some founder, -whatever his name, and which was not Semitic or Aryan, and therefore -what an early writer would call Hamitic. Further, our author traces from -this region the great Cushite line of migration, which includes such -well-known names as Seba, Sabta, Sheba and Dedan, into Arabia on the way -to Africa. Here the Egyptian monuments take up the tale, and inform us -of a South Arabian and East African people, the people of Pun or Punt, -represented as like to themselves and to the Kesh or Ethiopians, and who -thus correspond to the Arabian Cushites of Genesis. In accordance with -this the Abyssinian of to-day is scarcely distinguishable from the old -Punites as represented on the Egyptian monuments.[79] - -[79] The recent discoveries of Glaser with reference to the early -civilisation of Southern Arabia also bear on this point. - -Thus the primitive Cushite kingdom and one of the great lines of Cushite -migration are established by ancient monuments. Let it be further -observed that, as represented in Egypt, these primitive Ethiopians were -not black, but of a reddish or brownish colour, like the Egyptians -themselves, and that their migration explains the resemblance of the -customs and religion of early Egypt to those of Babylonia, and the -ascription by the Egyptians of the origin of their gods to the land of -Pun. - -The remaining sons of Ham, Mizraim, Put and Canaan, are not mentioned in -connection with the old Nimrodic kingdom, and seem to have moved -westward at a very early period. They were already 'in the land,' and -apparently constituted a considerable citizen population before the -migration of Abraham. - -Mizraim represents the twin populations of the delta and Lower Egypt, -and the Tel-el-Amarna tablets inform us that long before the time of -Moses Mitzor was the ordinary name of Egypt, while we know that its -early population was closely allied in features and language to the -Cushites. - -Canaan[80] heads a central line of migration, and Sidon and Cheth are -said to have been his leading sons. The first represents the Phoenician -maritime power of Northern Syria, the second that great nation known to -the Egyptians as Kheta and to the Assyrians as Khatti, whose territory -extended from Carchemish on the Euphrates through the plain of -Coele-Syria to Hebron in Southern Palestine, and not improbably into the -delta. They were a people whose language was allied to that of Cushite -Chaldea,[81] whose features were of a coarser type than those of their -more southern _confreres_, and who, according to the Egyptian annals, -were closely allied with the Amorites, Jebusites, and other people -identified with Canaan in the Old Testament. The Cheta, at one time -known only as the sons of Heth in the Old Testament, may be said in our -time to have experienced a sudden resurrection, and now bulk so largely -in the minds of archaeologists that their importance is in danger of -being exaggerated. - -[80] Canaan with our old historian is the name of a man, but it came to -designate first the 'low country' or coast region of Western Palestine, -and then the whole of Palestine. - -[81] Conder and others call it Turanian. - -A significant note is added: 'Afterwards were the families of the -Canaanites scattered abroad.' How could this be? Their line of migration -and settlement led directly to the great sea, and was hemmed in by that -of the Japhetites on the north and of the Cushites on the south; but -they made the sea their highway, and soon there was no coast from end to -end of the Mediterranean, and far along the European and African shores -of the Atlantic, that was not familiar with the Phoenician Canaanite. But -it may be said these Phoenicians were a Semitic people. They certainly -spoke a Semitic language allied to the Hebrew, but what right have we to -attribute Semitic languages solely to the descendants of the Biblical -Shem? Even if these languages originated with them they may have spread -to other peoples, as we know they replaced the old Turanian speech of -Babylonia, just as the Arabic has extinguished other languages in Egypt -itself. In whatever way the Phoenicians acquired a Semitic tongue, in -physical character they were not Semitic, but closely allied to the -Hittites, the Philistines, and the people of Mitzor, or Egypt. The -Egyptian sculptures prove this, and the celebrated Capuan bust of -Hannibal reminds us of the features of the old Hyksos kings of Egypt, -who were no doubt of Hamite or Turanian stock. - -Finally, what relation does the record in Genesis x. bear to the -prehistoric peoples of the neanthropic age? These must have been in the -main the advanced colonists and straggling adventurers of the leading -lines of migration. We find such people recorded in the Pentateuch, and -also in the caverns and shelters of Phoenicia, as preceding the -Canaanites in Syria; and such nomads and hunters must have streamed out -into Europe and Africa in advance of the more settled and slowly -advancing agricultural peoples. At first they must have been few, rude, -and users of stone implements only, living chiefly by hunting and -fishing; but some of them may have taken with them domestic animals and -seeds of grains, and so have established here and there civilised -communities. In later times, new colonists and commerce introduced among -them bronze and iron and more advanced arts. Thus these early -neanthropic peoples belonged to one or other of the great lines of -migration indicated in our old record; though by virtue of physical -changes and dialectic differences induced by isolation and new -conditions of life, and which in such circumstances would arise with a -rapidity unexampled in later times, as well as the want of historical -annals, it has in many cases become difficult or impossible precisely to -trace their affinities. Even in Palestine, at the time of the Exodus, -peoples of this kind (Horites, Avvites, &c.)[82] were known, whose -affinities had been lost; and it is not necessary to suppose that these -were remnants of antediluvians, since what we know in modern times of -the wanderers on the outskirts of great migrations sufficiently accounts -for their existence. - -This is, I think, a fair summary of the testimony of the writer of -Genesis x., as compared with the general evidence of history and -archaeology. But we have something further to learn from what may be -called the fossil remains of prehistoric peoples as embodied in the -Egyptian monuments, which are conversant with all the nations around the -eastern end of the Mediterranean. - -The Egyptians divided the nations known to them into four groups, of -which they have given us several representations in tombs and public -buildings. One of these consisted of their own race. The other three -were as follows: (1) Southern peoples mostly of dark complexions, -ranging from light brown to black. These included the Cushites, Punites, -and negroes. (2) Western peoples mostly of fair complexions inhabiting -the islands and northern coasts of the Mediterranean, the 'Hanebu' or -chiefs of the north or of the isles, with some populations of North -Africa, the so-called white Lybians and Maxyans. (3) Northern or -north-eastern peoples, or those of Syria and the neighbouring parts of -Western Asia, Amorites, Hittites, Edomites, Arabs, &c., usually -represented as of yellowish complexion. - -[82] Deuteronomy ii. - -The first of these divisions evidently corresponds with the line of -Cushite migration of Genesis, extending from Shinar through Southern -Arabia, Nubia, and Ethiopia, and of which the negroes are apparently -degraded members pushed in advance of the others, while the populations -of Pun and Kesh, the southern Arabians and their relatives in Africa, -closely resemble, as figured in the monuments, the Egyptians themselves. - -The second group of the Egyptian classification represents those -so-called Aryan peoples of Europe and its islands, and parts of Northern -Africa, of whom the Greeks are a typical race, and who in Genesis are -said to have possessed the 'Isles of the Gentiles'; though in the wave -of migration from the east they were in many places preceded by -non-Aryan races, Pelasgians, Iberians, &c., possibly wandering Hamitic -tribes, while they were also invaded by that scattering abroad of the -Phoenician Canaanites referred to in Genesis. They are represented in the -monuments as people with European features, fair complexions, and -sometimes fair hair and blue eyes. - -The third group is the most varied of the whole, because its seat in -Syria was a meeting-place of many tribes. Its most ancient members, the -Phoenicians and allied nations, were, according to the monuments, men -resembling the Egyptian and Cushite type, and these, no doubt, were -those pre-Semitic and prehistoric nations of Canaan referred to in the -remarkable notes regarding the Emim, Zuzim, &c., in the second chapter -of Deuteronomy, which may be regarded as a foot-note to the Toledoth of -Genesis x. These aborigines were invaded by men of different types. -First, we find in the monuments that the Amorites of the Palestine hills -were a fair people with somewhat European features, like some of the -present populations of the Lebanon. When returning over the Lebanon in -1884 we met a large company of men with camels and donkeys carrying -merchandise. They were fair-complexioned and with brown hair, and from -their features I might have supposed they were Scottish Highlanders. I -was told they were Druses, and they were evidently much like, as are -indeed many of the modern fellaheen of the Palestine hills, the Amar as -they are pictured in Egypt. These white peoples, though reckoned in the -Bible as Hamites, may have had a mixture of Aryan blood. It is to be -noted here that the Amorite chiefs, Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre, named as -confederate with Abraham, have non-Semitic names. - -A later inroad was that of the Hittites, evidently a people having -affinity with the Philistines and Egyptians, but whose chiefs and nobles -seem to have been of Tartar blood, like the modern Turks. The names of -their kings seem also to have been non-Semitic. Later, the great -westward migration of Semitic peoples, to which that of Abraham himself -belongs, not only introduced the Israelites but many nations of Semitic -or mixed blood, the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Ishmaelites, &c., -whom we find figuring in the Egyptian monuments as yellow or brownish -people with a Jewish style of features, and all of whom, as mentioned -above, would be known to the Egyptians and Canaanites as 'Hebrews.'[83] - -[83] This is independent of the question whether we regard the name Eber -as that of an ancestor, or merely of men from beyond the Euphrates. - -Thus the monuments confirm the Jewish record, and the confusion which -some ethnologists have introduced into the matter arises from their -applying in an arbitrary manner the special tests of physical and -philological characteristics, and neglecting to distinguish the primary -migrations of men from subsequent intrusions. - -Another singular point of agreement is that, just as in Egypt we find -men civilised from the first, so we find elsewhere. In Egypt writing and -literature date from before the time of Abraham. In like manner we have -no monumental evidence of any time when the Accadian people of Babylonia -were destitute of writing and science, and we now find that there were -learned scribes in all the cities of Canaan, and that the Phoenicians and -Southern Arabians knew their alphabet ages before Moses, while even the -Greeks seem to have known alphabetic writing long before the Mosaic -age.[84] These men, in short, were descendants of the survivors of the -Noachian Deluge, and therefore civilised from the first; and though we -have no certain evidence of letters before the Flood, except the -statement of the author of the Babylonian deluge tablets, that Noah hid -written archives at Sippara before going into the ark, yet it is quite -certain that men who could build Noah's ship are not unworthy ancestors -of the Phoenician seamen, who probably launched their barks on the -Mediterranean before the death of Noah himself. Thus, whatever value we -may attach to the record in Genesis, we cannot refuse to admit that it -is thoroughly consistent with itself and with the testimony of the -oldest monuments of Asia and Africa, as it is also with the evidence of -the geological changes of the pleistocene and early modern epoch. - -[84] Petrie, _Illahun, Kahun and Garob_, 1891. - -In like manner the Egyptian inscriptions of the conquests of Thothmes -III. give us a pre-Mosaic record of Palestinian geography corresponding -with that of the Hebrew conquest, and the pictures of sieges coincide -with the excavations of Petrie at Lachish in restoring those Canaanite -towns, 'walled up to heaven,' which excited the fear of the Israelites. -Neither can we scoff at the illiteracy of men who were carrying on -diplomatic correspondence in written despatches before Genesis itself -was compiled. Nor can we doubt the military prowess of these people, -their chariot forces, their sculptured idols and images, their wealth of -gold and silver, their agricultural and artistic skill. All these are -amply proved by the monuments of the Egyptians and the Hittites.[85] - -[85] Bliss, in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration Fund -for April 1892, figures many interesting objects, found in the lower or -Amorite stratum of the mound of Tell-el-Hesy (Lachish). We have here a -bronze battle-axe and heads of javelins that may have been used against -the soldiers of Joshua, and axes and pottery of equally early date, -along with multitudes of flint flakes, arrow heads, &c., used at this -early time. It is to be hoped that the further exploration of this site -may yield yet more interesting results. - -Palestine thus presents a prehistoric past parallel with the earlier -years of Egypt. It has, however, a still earlier period, for in -Palestine, as stated in a previous chapter, we have evidence of the -existence of man long before the dispersion of the sons of Noah. To -appreciate this evidence, we must go back, as in the case of Egypt, to -the pre-human period. All along the coast of Palestine, from Jaffa to -the northern limit of old Phoenicia, the geological traveller sees -evidence of a recent submergence, in the occurrence of sandstone, -gravel, and limestone with shells and other marine remains of species -still living in the Mediterranean. These are the relics of that -pleistocene submergence already referred to, in which the Nile valley -was an arm of the sea and Africa was an island. No evidence has been -found of the residence of man in Palestine in this period, when, as the -sea washed the very bases of the hills, and the plains were under water, -it was certainly not very well suited to his abode. The climate was also -probably more severe than at present, and the glaciers of Lebanon must -have extended nearly to the sea. This was the time of the so-called -glacial period in Western Europe. - -This, however, was succeeded by that post-glacial period in which, as -already explained, the area of the Mediterranean was much smaller than -at present, and the land encroached far upon the bed of the sea. This, -the second continental period, is that in which man makes his first -undoubted appearance in Europe, and we have evidence of the same kind in -Syria, to which I have already directed attention in the description of -the caverns of the Lebanon, in Chapter IV. - -That the occupancy of these caves is very ancient is proved by the fact -that the old Egyptian conquerors, who cut a road for themselves over -these precipices before the Exodus, seem to have found them in the same -state as at present, while farther south ancient Syrian tombs are -excavated in similar bone breccias. But there is better evidence than -this. The bones and teeth in these caves belong not to the animals which -have inhabited the Lebanon in historic times, but to creatures like the -hairy rhinoceros and the bison, now extinct, which could not have lived -in this region since the comparatively modern period in which the -Mediterranean resumed its dominion over that great plain between -Phoenicia and Cyprus. This we know had been submerged long before the -first migrations of the Hamites into Phoenicia, even before the entrance -of those comparatively rude tribes which seem to have inhabited the -country before the Phoenician colonisation.[86] Unfortunately no burials -of these early men have yet been found, and perhaps the Lebanon caves -were only their summer sojourns on hunting expeditions. They were, -however, probably of the same stock with the races (the Cro-magnon and -Canstadt) of the so-called mammoth age in Western Europe, who have left -similar remains. Thus we can carry man in the Lebanon back to that -absolutely prehistoric age which preceded the Noachian Deluge and the -dispersion of the Noachidae.[87] - -[86] Some of these tribes also lived in caves, as that of Ant Elias, but -the animals they consumed are those now living in the Lebanon. - -[87] Dawson, _Trans. Vict. Institute_, May 1884; also _Modern Science in -Bible Lands_. - -If in imagination we suppose ourselves to visit the caves of the -Nahr-el-Kelb pass, when they were inhabited by these early men, we -should find them to be tall muscular people, clothed in skins, armed -with flint-tipped javelins and flint hatchets, and cooking the animals -caught in the chase in the mouths of their caves. They were probably -examples of the ruder and less civilised members of that powerful and -energetic antediluvian population which had apparently perfected so many -arts, and the remains of whose more advanced communities are now buried -in the silt of the sea bottom. If we looked out westward on what is now -the Mediterranean, we should see a wide wooded or grassy plain as far as -eye could reach, and perhaps might discern vast herds of elephant, -rhinoceros, and bison wandering over these plains in their annual -migrations. Possibly on the far margin of the land we might see the -smoke of antediluvian towns long ago deeply submerged in the sea. - -The great diluvial catastrophe which closed this period, and finally -introduced the present geographical conditions, we have seen good reason -to identify with the historical Deluge, and the old peoples of the age -of the mammoth and rhinoceros were antediluvians, and must have perished -from the earth before the earliest migration of the Beni Noah. - -Putting together the results referred to in the preceding pages, we may -restore the prehistoric ages of the Eastern Mediterranean under the -following statements: - -1. In the period immediately preceding human occupancy, the land of -Palestine, Egypt, and Arabia participated in the great pleistocene -depression, accompanied by a rigorous climate. - -2. The next stage was one of continental elevation, in which the borders -of the Mediterranean were dry land, and vast plains in this basin, and -even in the Western Atlantic, were open to human migration. In this age -palaeocosmic men took up their abode all over Western Asia, Europe, and -Northern Africa, and probably occupied broad lands since submerged. At -this period the region was inhabited by the mammoth, rhinoceros, bison, -and other large animals now altogether or locally extinct. - -3. The earlier part of this post-glacial or antediluvian period was one -of mild climatal conditions, followed by a slight return of the -conditions of the previous glacial age. - -4. The period was terminated by a great submergence, accompanied with -vast destruction of animal and human life; and of comparatively short -duration, corresponding to the historical Deluge. - -5. From this depression the more limited continents of the modern period -were elevated, and man again overspread them from his primitive seats in -the Euphratean region, as recorded in the tenth chapter of Genesis. - -6. In this early migration the Biblical Hamites, forming one of the -groups of men vaguely known as Turanian, first spread themselves over -Palestine and Egypt, and founded the early Phoenician, Canaanite, -Mizraimite, and Cushite tribes and nations. - -7. In early historic times Semitic peoples, Hebrews and others from the -east, and Mongoloid peoples from the north, migrated into Palestine and -dominated and mixed with the primitive tribes, finally penetrating into -Egypt and establishing there the dominion known as that of the Hyksos. -The historical Moabites, Ammonites, Ishmaelites, and Hittites were -peoples of this character, having a substratum of Hamite blood with -aristocracies of Semitic or Tartar origin. - -It will be observed that while archaeological evidence tends to -illustrate and corroborate that wonderful collection of early historical -documents contained in the Book of Genesis, and to prove their great -antiquity, on the other hand these documents prove to be the most -precious sources of information as to the antediluvian age, the great -Flood, the earliest dispersion of men, the old Nimrodic empire, the -connections of Asiatic and African civilisation, and other matters -connected with the origins of the oldest nations, respecting which we -have little other written history. - -We thus learn that, relatively to Bible history, there is no prehistoric -age, since it carries us back beyond the Deluge to the origin of man, so -that we might properly restrict this term in its narrower signification -to those parts of the world not covered by this primitive history. It is -true that a tide of criticism hostile to the integrity of Genesis has -been rising for some years; but it seems to beat vainly against a solid -rock, and the ebb has now evidently set in. The battle of historical and -linguistic criticism may indeed rage for a time over the history and -date of the Mosaic law, but in so far as Genesis is concerned it has -been practically decided by scientific exploration. - -Since writing the preceding pages I have met with a remarkable paper -by Mr. Horatio Hale in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of -Canada_.[88] It is one which should commend itself to the study of -every Biblical scholar and archaeologist; but is contained in a -periodical which perhaps meets the eyes of few of them. In this paper -he maintains the importance of language as a ground of anthropological -classification, and then uses his wide knowledge of the languages of -American aborigines, and other rude races, to show that the grammatical -complexity and logical perfection of these languages implies a high -intellectual capacity in their original framers, and that where such -complex and perfect languages are spoken by very rude tribes like the -Australian aborigines, they originated with cultivated and intellectual -peoples--in the case of the Australian, with the civilised primitive -Dravidians of India. He thus shows that languages, like alphabets, have -undergone a process of degradation, so that those of modern times are -less perfect exponents of thought than those which preceded them, and -that primitive man in his earliest state must have been endowed with as -high intellectual powers as any of his descendants. - -[88] Vol. IX. Sec. II. 1891. - -On similar grounds he shows that it is not in the outlying barbarous -races that we are to look for truly primitive man, since here we have -merely degraded types, and that the primitive centres of man and -language must have been in the old historic lands of Western Asia and -Northern Africa. On this view the time necessary for the development of -the arts of civilisation and of extensive colonisation would not be -great. 'In five centuries a single human pair planted in a fertile oasis -might have given origin to a people of five hundred thousand souls, -numerous enough to have sent out emigrations to the nearest inviting -lands.' The same lapse of time would have sufficed to develop -agriculture, to domesticate animals, and to make some progress in -architectural and other arts of life. He quotes the remarkable passage -of Reclus[89] as to the agency of woman in the inventions of early art, -and shows that this accords with more modern experience among the less -civilised nations. It is obvious that all this tends to bring scientific -anthropology into the closest relation with the old Biblical history, -though Hale, in deference, perhaps, to modern prejudices, does not refer -to this. - -[89] _Primitive Folk_ (Contemporary Science Series), p. 58. - -In the passage quoted by Hale, Reclus says: 'It is to woman that mankind -owes all that has made us men.' Following this hint of the ingenious -French writer, we may imagine the first man and woman inhabiting some -fertile region, rich in fruits and other natural products, and -subsisting at first on the uncultivated bounty of nature. With the birth -of their first child, perhaps before, would come the need of shelter -either in some dry cavern or booth of poles and leaves or bark, carpeted -perhaps with moss or boughs of pine. This would be the first 'home,' -with the woman for its housekeeper. We may imagine the man bringing to -it the lamb or kid whose dam he had killed, and the woman, with motherly -instinct, pitying the little orphan and training it to be a domestic -pet, the first of tamed animals. She, too, would store grain, seeds and -berries for domestic use, and some of these germinating would produce -patches of grain, or shrubs, or fruit trees around the hut. Noticing -these and protecting them, she would be the first gardener and -orchardist. The woman and her children might add to the cultivated -plants or domesticated quadrupeds and birds; and the man would be -induced, in the intervals of hunting and fishing, to guard, protect, and -fence them. - -When the boys grew up, to one of them might be assigned the care of the -sheep and goats, to the other the culture of the little farm, while they -might aid their father in erecting a better and more artistic -habitation, the first attempt at architecture, and in introducing -artificial irrigation to render their field more fertile. Is not this -little romance of M. Elie Reclus perfectly in harmony with the old -familiar story in Genesis, and also with the most recent results of -modern science? - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -SUMMARY OF RESULTS - - -It may be well, in conclusion, to sum up the general truths we -have arrived at in relation to the place of man in the great and -long-continued drama of the earth's geological history. - -1. We have found no link of derivation connecting man with the lower -animals which preceded him. He appears before us as a new departure in -creation, without any direct relation to the instinctive life of the -lower animals. The earliest men are no less men than their descendants, -and up to the extent of their means, inventors, innovators, and -introducers of new modes of life, just as much as they. We have not even -been able as yet to trace man back to the harmless golden age. As we -find him in the caves and gravels he is already a fallen man, out of -harmony with his environment and the foe of his fellow creatures, -contriving against them instruments of destruction more fatal than those -furnished by nature to the carnivorous wild beasts. Yet we would fain -believe in an Edenic age of innocence; and physiological probability, as -well as the old story in Genesis, demands that we should suppose a -primitive condition in which man, careless and happy, should subsist on -the spontaneous bounty of nature in some favoured 'garden of the Lord.' - - _Scheme of possible Correlation of the Geological and Historical - Records as to Early Man, as the Facts appear in the present Stage - of Investigation, May 1894._ - - { Semitic - { Truchere or Prot-Iberian Race { Turanian - { { Aryan - Primitive { - Man { Mixed Races, Cro-magnon, &c. } - { } Submergence - { Canstadt Race } - - { Sethites { Shem - { { Ham - Adam { Mixed Races, Nephelim, &c. } Noah { Japhet - { } - { Cainites } Deluge - -2. If we inquire as to the nature of the interval which separates man -from the lower animals, we find that it exists with reference both to -his rational and physical nature. With respect to the first we may -affirm in man the existence of a lower (psychical) intelligence, similar -to that of the inferior animals, and of a spiritual nature allying him -with higher intelligences, and with God Himself. Rightly considered, -this places the doctrine of creation in a very firm position. Those who -deny it must adopt one of two alternatives. Either they must refuse to -admit the evidence in man of any nature higher than that of brutes--a -conclusion which common sense, as well as mental science, must always -refuse to admit--or they must attempt to bridge over the 'chasm,' as it -has been called, which separates the instinctive nature of the animal -from the rational and moral nature of man--an effort confessedly futile. - -3. As to the body of man, the case is different, but still perfectly in -harmony with the idea of his higher nature. Man, as to his body, is -confessedly an animal, of the earth earthy. He is also a member of the -province _vertebrata_, and the class _mammalia_; but in that class he -constitutes not only a distinct species and genus, but even a distinct -family, or order. In other words, he is the sole species of his genus, -and of his family, or order. He is thus separated, by a great gap, from -all the animals nearest to him; and even if we admit the doctrine, as -yet unproved, of the derivation of one species from another in the case -of the lower animals, we are unable to supply the 'missing links' which -would be required to connect man with any group of inferior animals. -This physical distinctness has also a special significance, inasmuch as -it depends on certain negative peculiarities such as the absence of -clothing, of natural weapons of attack and defence, as well as on the -positive properties of the erect posture, the hands adapted to various -kinds of manipulation, and the special sensory gifts. Thus viewed in -relation to his environment, his wants as well as his possessions in -regard to structures and powers, would be fatal to any creature not -possessed of his intelligence, and we cannot conceive how such -privations or such gifts could spontaneously arise in nature. - -4. No fact of science is more certainly established than the recency of -man in geological time. Not only do we find no trace of his remains in -the older geological formations, but we find no remains even of the -animals nearest to him; and the conditions of the world in those periods -seem to unfit it for the residence of man. If, following the usual -geological system, we divide the whole history of the earth into four -great periods, extending from the oldest rocks known to us, the eozoic, -or archaean, up to the modern, we find remains of man, or his works, -only in the latest of the four, and in the later part of this. In point -of fact, there is no indisputable proof of the presence of man until we -reach the early modern period. This is, no doubt, what was to have been -expected on the supposition of the orderly development of the chain of -animal life in the long geologic eons; but it is not by any means the -only hypothesis that was possible when, for example, the Book of Genesis -was written. A more fanciful cosmologist might at that time have given -precedence to man, and might have supposed that the other animals were -produced later, and for his benefit, or his injury. This is the view of -the sacred writer himself with respect to the local group of animals -intended to be in immediate association with the first man. Restricted -in this way, the statement of a group of animals created with man in his -earliest abode is not contradictory to the order in Genesis first, nor -scientifically improbable. We have seen that in any case the deductions -from geology are in harmony with the earliest revelations made to the -human mind on the subject, and in accordance with all the later facts of -actual history. - -5. The absolute date of the first appearance of man cannot perhaps be -fixed within a few years or centuries, either by human chronology or by -the science of the earth. It would seem, however, that the Bible -history, as well as such hints as we can gather from the history of -other nations, limits us to two or three thousand years before the -Deluge of Noah, while some estimates of the antiquity of man, based on -physical changes or ancient history, or on philology, greatly exceed -this limit. If the earliest men were those of the river gravels and -caves, men of the 'mammoth age,' or of the 'palaeolithic' or palaeocosmic -period, we can form some definite ideas as to their possible antiquity. -They colonised the continents immediately after the elevation of the -land from the great subsidence which closed the pleistocene or glacial -period, in what has been called the 'continental' period of the -post-glacial age, because the new lands then raised out of the sea -exceeded in extent those which we have now. We have, as stated in a -previous chapter, some measures of the date of this great continental -elevation, and know that its distance from our time must fall within -about eight thousand years. Many indications, both in Europe and -America, lead to the belief that it is physically impossible that man -could have colonised the northern hemisphere at an earlier date than -this geologically recent continental period. - -6. There is but one species of man, though many races and varieties; and -these races or varieties seem to have developed themselves at a very -early time and have shown a remarkable fixity in their later history. -There is reason to believe, however, from various physiological facts, -that this is a very general law of varietal forms, which are observed to -appear rapidly or suddenly, and then in favourable circumstances to be -propagated continuously. It would seem also to apply to the introduction -of forms regarded as species, since it is not unusual to find a genus at -or near its origin represented by its maximum number of specific forms. - -7. The precise locality of the origin of man can be defined on probable -grounds as in a temperate region, supplied with the vegetable -productions most useful to him in a natural state, and free from -destructive animal rivals. We can scarcely suppose that this locality -can have been in any of those parts of the world in which man finds the -greatest difficulty in subsisting, or becomes most degraded, though this -paradoxical view has been held by some archaeologists. It must rather -have been in some fertile and salubrious region of the northern -hemisphere; and probability as well as tradition points to those regions -in South-Western Asia which have not only been the earliest historical -abodes of man, but are also the centres of the animals and plants most -useful to him. It is interesting to note here that Haeckel, on purely -physical grounds, decides against Europe, Africa, Australia, and -America, and concludes that 'most circumstances indicate Southern Asia.' - -8. It is to be observed, however, that the diluvial interlude gives a -double origin of man; but the historical accounts of the neocosmic -dispersion, as we have already seen, refer us in this case also to the -same regions of South-Western Asia. The traditions which ascribe human -origin to a 'Mountain of the North' refer to the second dispersion, and -coincide with the Ararat of Genesis and the 'Mountain of the North' on -which the ship of Hasisadra was supposed by the Chaldeans to have -grounded. - -9. We are now in a position to correlate the historical Deluge with the -great geographical changes which closed the palanthropic age. This, when -regarded as an established fact, furnishes the solution of many of the -most disputed questions of anthropology. The misuse of the Deluge in the -early history of geology, in employing it to account for changes that -took place long before the advent of man, certainly should not cause us -to neglect its legitimate uses, when these arise in the progress of -investigation. It is evident that if this correlation be accepted as -probable, it must modify many views now held as to the antiquity of man. -In that case, the modern rubble spread over plateaus and in river -valleys, far above the reach of the present floods, may be accounted -for, not by the ordinary action of the existing streams, but by the -abnormal action of currents of water diluvial in their character. -Further, since the historical Deluge cannot have been of very long -duration, the physical changes separating the deposits containing the -remains of palaeocosmic men from those of later date would, in like -manner, be accounted for, not by slow processes of subsidence, -elevation, and erosion, but by causes of a more abrupt and cataclysmic -character. - -Finally, it has been the tendency of modern geological and -archaeological discovery to attach more and more value and importance to -the ancient records of the human race, and especially to those precious -documents which have been preserved to our time in the Book of Genesis. - -We have merely glanced cursorily at a few of the salient points of the -relation of the primitive history of man in Genesis to modern scientific -discovery. Many other details might have been adduced as tending to show -similar coincidences of these two distinct lines of evidence. Enough -has, however, been said to indicate the remarkable manner in which the -history in Genesis has anticipated modern discovery, and to show that -this ancient book is in every way trustworthy, and as remote as possible -from the myths and legends of ancient heathenism, while it shows the -historical origin of beliefs which in more or less corrupted forms lie -at the foundations of the oldest religions of the Gentiles, and find -their true significance in that of the Hebrews. To the Christian the -record in Genesis has a still higher value, as constituting those -historical groundworks of the plan of salvation to which our Lord -Himself so often referred, and on which He founded so much of His -teaching. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - Adam, description of, 64 - Adon, the name, 180 - Akkadian kingdom, foundation of, 108 - Alphabets, early, 108 - Amunoph III., 177 - Amunoph IV., 177 - Anakim, the, 65 - Animals, remains of, 23, 30, 38, 43, 45, 46, 48, 50, 74, 96, 98 - Antediluvians, identification of, 125 - Anthropic age, definition of, 17; - events of, 39 - Anthropology, 16 - Archaean age, the, 19 - Ark, the, description of, 135 - Arrow-headed characters, use of, 108 - Artemis, 160 - Aten, worship of, 177 - Atlantis, fable of, 156 - Auriferous gravel, finds in, 34 - - B - - Bears, cave, 46 - Beni Elohim, 132 - Beni ha Adam, 132 - Bones, human, gnawed, 47 - Boule, on deposits at Schweizersbild, 87 - Britain, early inhabitants of, 103 - Broca, on skulls, 61 - Burials, discoveries of, 56 - - C - - Cain, the race of, 131 - Canaan, migration of, 193 - Canstadt race, the, 51, 80; - age of, 70; - condition of, 75; - interments of, 77; - skulls of, 81 - Carthaillac on palanthropic age, 70; - on the mortuary customs of, 77 - Carving, specimens of, 49 - Castelnedolo, skeleton at, 29 - Cave dwellers, 48; - their food, 49 - Caverns, various, 42 - Celtae, the, description of, 104 - Cenozoic age, the, 20; - changes of, 24; - events of, 39; - relations of, 84 - Chaldean version of the Deluge, 137; - creation tablets, 107; - Genesis quoted, 113 - Cheth, children of, 167 - Chipped Stone age, the, 69 - Chronometers, geological, 89 - Civilisation, early postdiluvian, 118 - Clichy skull, the, 60 - Climate of the pliocene, 25; - of the eocene, 27; - changes of, 35, 36; - of the post-glacial age, 36; - of the palanthropic age, 38, 40, 171 - Creation, the, order of, in Genesis, 106, 112, 114; - Chaldean account of, 112 - Cresswell caves, description of, 95 - Cro-magnon cave, the, 51 - Cro-magnon race, the, 51; - skeletons of, 53; - skulls of, 61, 81; - age of, 70; - condition of, 75; - appearance of, 76; - belief of, 76; - interments of, 77 - Curse, the, 120 - Cushite kingdom, foundation of, 108 - Cushite migration, the, 192 - - D - - Dawkins on palaeolithic and neolithic periods, 93 - Days of creation, the, 14, 18 - Delta, the, age of, 174 - Deluge, the, accounts of, 107; - story of, 121; - Lenormant on, 123; - conclusions as to, 126; - prevalence of story of, 127; - physical aspects of, 135; - Chaldean version of, 136; - history of, 137; - was it miraculous? 140; - was it universal? 147, 151 - Diana, 160 - Dispersion of man, the, 108 - Druses, the, 198 - Dupont on cave of Goyet, 46; - on primitive man, 73; - on plain dwellers, 74; - on Frontal caves, 98 - - E - - Earth, the stages of its history, 15, 18; - age of, 18 - Eber, children of, 179 - Eden, site of, 114 - Edwards, Miss, criticism of, 171 - Egypt, history of, 168; - first colonists of, 174 - Elephant in Europe, the, 38 - Elevation of land in post-glacial age, 36 - Elohim, use of the name, 112 - Embalming, early practice of, 78 - Engis skull, the, 60 - Eocene age, the, 23; - changes of, 24 - Eozoic age, the, 19 - Euphrates, the, 114 - Eve, story of, 160 - Evolution of man, the, 22; - vagaries of, 118 - Exodus, the, Pharaoh of, 179 - - F - - Fall of man, the, 116 - Fauna of palanthropic age, changes of, 86 - Flints, worked, 28 - - Food of cave dwellers, 49 - Furfooz caves, description of, 98 - - G - - Generations of Noah, the, 184 - Genesis, order of creation in, 106 - Geologist, the, method of, 12 - Giants, a race of, 63 - Gibraltar skull, the, 60 - Glacial age, the, 25 - Globe, incandescent, picture of, 18 - Goyet, cave of, description of, 46 - Greenwell on men of Britain, 103 - Grenelle, skull of, 60; - deposit at, 94 - - H - - Hale on importance of language, 206 - Hamites, migrations of, 188 - Hasisadra, the Chaldean Noah, 118 - Hebrew annals, truth of, 106 - Heth, 167 - Higher criticism, Sayce on, 109 - Historian, the, method of, 12 - Hittites, the, inroad of, 198 - Holmes on worked flints, 31 - Homeric heroes, reality of, 166 - Horus, sons of, 159 - Hyksos, the, 181 - - I - - Idinu, or Eden, 114 - Ightham, worked flints of, 31 - Interments, discoveries of, 56; - mode of, 77 - Isha, story of, 160 - Ivory, ornaments of, 58; - engraving on, 74 - - J - - Jahveh, 133 - Japhet, migrations of, 189, 190 - Jebel Assart, flint chips at, 171 - Jehovah Elohim, use of the name, 112, 132 - Jerusalem, ancient state of, 179 - - K - - Karun, a river of Eden, 114, 116 - Kerkhat, the, 114 - Kheta, or Khatti, 167 - Kneeling posture in interments, 77 - - L - - Laugerie Basse, cave at, 51; - skeleton at, 58 - Lebanon caves, human remains in, 43, 45; - visit to, 202 - Lenormant on the Deluge, 123; - on the Ark, 136 - Lion, the cave, 46 - Lyell, on Falls of Niagara, 124 - - M - - Mammals in palanthropic age, species of, 37 - Mammoth age, cave of, 50 - Mammoth, the, in Europe, 38; - extinction of, 74 - Man, date of his appearance, 21, 213; - his earliest remains still human, 22; - antecedents of, 23; - his remains overlaid, 35; - in Europe, 35; - in palanthropic age, 40; - how distinguished, 41; - his remains at Nahr-el-Kelb, 45; - at Goyet, 46; - gnawed bones of, 47; - a cave dweller, 48; - his ornaments, 48, 58; - carving of, 49; - food of, 49; - his physical characters, 51; - his remains at Cro-magnon, 51; - skeleton of, at Mentone, 58; - varieties in skull of, 60; - gigantic size of, 62; - a feebler race, 63; - conditions of, 71; - Dupont on primitive, 73; - unprogressive character of men of mammoth age, 75; - beliefs of, 76; - mortuary customs of palanthropic, 77; - change of, from palaeocosmic to neocosmic, 91; - neolithic, 101; - of Britain, 103; - in Eden, 115; - condition of palanthropic, 116; - recency of, 213; - locality of his origin, 216 - Meeting-place of geology and history, 13 - Mentone skeleton, the, 58 - Mesozoic age, the, 19 - Metals, the knowledge of, 118 - Miocene age, the, 23; - changes of, 24; - monkeys of, 27 - Mitanni, 181 - Mizraim, 193 - Monkeys, miocene, 27 - Mortillet on the stone age, 69 - Moses: his knowledge of Divine name, 180 - Mourlon on pleistocene remains, 30 - Musical instruments, invention of, 118 - - N - - Nahr-el-Kelb, caverns of, 44; - people of, 203 - Neanderthal skull, the, 60 - Neanthropic age, definition of, 17; - events of, 39; - men of, 95 - Nebula, picture of, 18 - Necklace, a shell, 48 - Neocosmic age, appearance of, men of, 91, 102 - Neolithic age, men of, 101 - Niagara, Lyell's use of, 124 - Nile valley, limestones of, 168, 201; - appearance of, 174 - Nimrod, kingdom of, 190 - Noah, story of, 121 - Nuesch on deposits at Schweizersbild, 87 - - O - - Old man of Cro-magnon, 53; - supposed history of, 65 - Ornaments, remains of, 48, 58 - - P - - Palaeolithic implements, discoveries of, 31 - Palaeozoic age, the, 19 - Palanthropic age, definition of, 17; - number of species of mammals in, 37; - climate of, 38; - land of, 40; - caves of, 46; - animals of, 50; - man of, 51; - conditions of, 69; - divisions of, 70; - tragic end of, 85; - changes in fauna of, 80; - subsidence of, 88 - Palestine, people of, 197; - history of, 201 - Paviland skull, the, 60 - Petrie: his photographic portraits, 180 - Pharaoh of the Exodus, the, 179 - Phoenicians, the, 193 - Pictet on number of species in palanthropic age, 37 - Pinches on Chaldean Genesis, 113 - Plain dwellers, 51; - conditions of, 74 - Pleistocene age, definition of, 17; - history of, 23; - human remains of, 30; - events of, 39 - Pliocene age, 23; - changes of, 24; - human remains of, 29; - events of, 39 - Polished Stone age, the, 69; - men of, 101 - Post-glacial age, 26; - elevation of, 36 - Punites, 193 - - Q - - Quaternary period, the, 20 - Quatrefages on Castelnedolo skeleton, 29; - on Truchere skull, 84 - - R - - Ra, worship of, 177 - Recency of man, 213 - Reclus, romance of, 208 - Reindeer age, the, 38, 50 - Rhinoceros in Europe, the, 38 - Riviere on Mentone skeleton, 58, 62 - - S - - Sayce on the higher criticism, 109 - Scale of earth's history, a, 22 - Schliemann, discoveries of, 166 - Schweizersbild, deposits at, 87 - Semites, migrations, 189 - Seth, the race of, 131 - Shell ornaments, remains of, 48, 58 - Sickle, wooden, 172 - Silures, the, 103 - Skeleton of Castelnedolo, 29; - Mentone, 58; - of Laugerie Basse, 58 - Skull from Val d'Arno, 29; - of Cro-magnon, 53, 82; - of Clichy, Grenelle, Gibraltar, Paviland, Neanderthal, Engis, 60; - of Canstadt, 81; - of Truchere, 83 - Species, number of palanthropic, 37 - Sphinx, the, history of, 176 - Spy, interments at, 56 - Stone ages, the, 69 - Submergence, records of, 148 - Subsidence of palanthropic age, 88; - date of, 90 - - T - - Tammuz, story of, 161 - Taylor on early men of Britain, 103 - Teeth, human, condition of, 63 - Tel-el-Amarna tablets, 165, 177 - Tigris, the, 114 - Trenton, flints of, 32 - Tristram on cave shelters, 44 - - V - - Vezere, rock shelters of, 51 - - W - - Whistle, bone, 116 - Woman of Cro-magnon, 55 - Woolly rhinoceros in Europe, the, 38 - - Z - - Zittel on number of species of mammals, 37 - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -All obvious typographical errors were corrected. 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