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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Principles of Decorative Design, by
+Christopher Dresser
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Principles of Decorative Design
+       Fourth Edition
+
+
+Author: Christopher Dresser
+
+
+
+Release Date: May 21, 2012  [eBook #39749]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF DECORATIVE DESIGN***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Delphine Lettau, Matthew Wheaton, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Canada Team (http://www.pgdpcanada.net) from page
+images generously made available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      See 39749-h.htm or 39749-h.zip:
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+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39749/39749-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      http://archive.org/details/principlesofdeco00dres
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Decorative Design]
+
+
+PRINCIPLES OF Decorative Design.
+
+by
+
+CHRISTOPHER DRESSER, PH.D., F.L.S., F.E.B.S., ETC.;
+
+Author of "The Art of Decorative Design," "Unity in Variety," etc.
+
+FOURTH EDITION.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co.:
+London, Paris & New York.
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+My object in writing this work has been that of aiding in the
+art-education of those who seek a knowledge of ornament as applied to
+our industrial manufactures.
+
+I have not attempted the production of a pretty book, but have aimed
+at giving what knowledge I possess upon the subjects treated of, in a
+simple and intelligible manner. I have attempted simply to instruct.
+
+The substance of the present work was first published as a series of
+lessons in the _Technical Educator_. These lessons are now collected
+into a work, and have been carefully revised; a few new illustrations
+have been inserted, and a final chapter added.
+
+As the substance of this work was written as a series of lessons for
+the _Technical Educator_, I need not say that the book is addressed to
+working men, for the whole of the lessons in that publication have
+been prepared especially for those noble fellows who, through want of
+early opportunity, have been without the advantages of education, but
+who have the praiseworthy courage to educate themselves in later life,
+when the value of knowledge has become apparent to them.
+
+That the lessons as given in the _Technical Educator_ have not been
+written wholly in vain I already know, for shortly before I had
+completed this revision of them, I had the opportunity of visiting a
+provincial town hall which I had heard was being decorated, and was
+pleasingly surprised to see decoration of considerable merit, and
+evidences that much of what I saw had resulted from a consideration of
+my articles in the _Technical Educator_. The artist engaged upon the
+work, although having suffered the disadvantage of apprenticeship to a
+butcher, has established himself as a decorator while still a young
+man; and from the manifestation of ability which he has already given,
+I hope for a brighter future for one who, as a working man, must have
+studied hard. If these lessons as now collected into a work should
+lead to the development of the art-germs which doubtless lie dormant
+in other working men, the object which I have sought to attain in
+writing and collecting these together will have been accomplished.
+
+    TOWER CRESSY, NOTTING HILL, LONDON, W.
+
+
+
+
+    CONTENTS.
+
+
+    CHAPTER I. PAGE
+
+    INTRODUCTORY
+      DIVISION I. ART-KNOWLEDGE; HISTORIC STYLES
+        "     II. TRUTH, BEAUTY, POWER, ETC.
+        "    III. HUMOUR IN ORNAMENT
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+      COLOUR
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+      FURNITURE
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+      DECORATION OF BUILDINGS
+        DIVISION I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS--CEILINGS
+          "     II. DECORATIONS OF WALLS
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+      CARPETS
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+      CURTAIN MATERIALS, HANGINGS, AND WOVEN FABRICS GENERALLY
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+      HOLLOW VESSELS
+        DIVISION I. POTTERY
+          "     II. GLASS VESSELS
+          "    III. METAL-WORK
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+      HARDWARE
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+      STAINED GLASS
+
+    CHAPTER X.
+      CONCLUSION
+
+
+
+
+PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DIVISION I.
+
+
+There are many handicrafts in which a knowledge of the true principles
+of ornamentation is almost essential to success, and there are few in
+which a knowledge of decorative laws cannot be utilised. The man who
+can form a bowl or a vase well is an artist, and so is the man who can
+make a beautiful chair or table. These are truths; but the converse of
+these facts is also true; for if a man be not an artist he cannot form
+an elegant bowl, nor make a beautiful chair.
+
+At the very outset we must recognise the fact that the beautiful has a
+commercial or money value. We may even say that art can lend to an
+object a value greater than that of the material of which it consists,
+even when the object be formed of precious matter, as of rare marbles,
+scarce woods, or silver or gold.
+
+This being the case, it follows that the workman who can endow his
+productions with those qualities or beauties which give value to his
+works, must be more useful to his employer than the man who produces
+objects devoid of such beauty, and his time must be of higher value
+than that of his less skilful companion. If a man, who has been born
+and brought up as a "son of toil," has that laudable ambition which
+causes him to seek to rise above his fellows by fairly becoming their
+superior, I would say to him that I know of no means of his so readily
+doing so, as by his acquainting himself with the laws of beauty, and
+studying till he learns to perceive the difference between the
+beautiful and the ugly, the graceful and the deformed, the refined and
+the coarse. To perceive delicate beauties is not by any means an easy
+task to those who have not devoted themselves to the consideration of
+the beautiful for a long period of time, and of this be assured, that
+what now appears to you to be beautiful, you may shortly regard as
+less so, and what now fails to attract you, may ultimately become
+charming to your eye. In your study of the beautiful, do not be led
+away by the false judgment of ignorant persons who may suppose
+themselves possessed of good taste. It is common to assume that women
+have better taste than men, and some women seem to consider themselves
+the possessors of even authoritative taste from which there can be no
+appeal. They may be right, only we must be pardoned for not accepting
+such authority, for should there be any over-estimation of the
+accuracy of this good taste, serious loss of progress in art-judgment
+might result.
+
+It may be taken as an invariable truth that knowledge, and knowledge
+alone, can enable us to form an accurate judgment respecting the
+beauty or want of beauty of an object, and he who has the greater
+knowledge of art can judge best of the ornamental qualities of an
+object. He who would judge rightly of art-works must have knowledge.
+Let him who would judge of beauty apply himself, then, to earnest
+study, for thereby he shall have wisdom, and by his wise reasonings he
+will be led to perceive beauty, and thus have opened to him a new
+source of pleasure.
+
+Art-knowledge is of value to the individual and to the country at
+large. To the individual it is riches and wealth, and to the nation it
+saves impoverishment. Take, for example, clay as a natural material:
+in the hands of one man this material becomes flower-pots, worth
+eighteen-pence a "cast" (a number varying from sixty to twelve
+according to size); in the hands of another it becomes a tazza, or a
+vase, worth five pounds, or perhaps fifty. It is the art which gives
+the value, and not the material. To the nation it saves
+impoverishment.
+
+A wise policy induces a country to draw to itself all the wealth that
+it can, without parting with more of its natural material than is
+absolutely necessary. If for every pound of clay that a nation parts
+with, it can draw to itself that amount of gold which we value at five
+pounds sterling, it is obviously better thus to part with but little
+material and yet secure wealth, than it is to part with the material
+at a low rate either in its native condition, or worked into coarse
+vessels, thereby rendering a great impoverishment of the native
+resources of the country necessary in order to its wealth.
+
+Men of the lowest degree of intelligence can dig clay, iron, or
+copper, or quarry stone; but these materials, if bearing the impress
+of mind, are ennobled and rendered valuable, and the more strongly the
+material is marked with this ennobling impress the more valuable it
+becomes.
+
+I must qualify my last statement, for there are possible cases in
+which the impress of mind may degrade rather than exalt, and take from
+rather than enhance, the value of a material. To ennoble, the mind
+must be noble; if debased, it can only debase. Let the mind be refined
+and pure, and the more fully it impresses itself upon a material, the
+more lovely does the material become, for thereby it has received the
+impress of refinement and purity; but if the mind be debased and
+impure, the more does the matter to which its nature is transmitted
+become degraded. Let me have a simple mass of clay as a candle-holder
+rather than the earthen candlestick which only presents such a form as
+is the natural outgoing of a degraded mind.
+
+There is another reason why the material of which beautiful objects
+are formed should be of little intrinsic value besides that arising
+out of a consideration of the exhaustion of the country, and this
+will lead us to see that it is desirable in all cases to form
+beautiful objects as far as possible of an inexpensive material. Clay,
+wood, iron, stone, are materials which may be fashioned into beautiful
+forms, but beware of silver, and of gold, and of precious stones. The
+most fragile material often endures for a long period of time, while
+the almost incorrosible silver and gold rarely escape the ruthless
+hand of the destroyer. "Beautiful though gold and silver are, and
+worthy, even though they were the commonest of things, to be fashioned
+into the most exquisite devices, their money value makes them a
+perilous material for works of art. How many of the choicest relics of
+antiquity are lost to us, because they tempted the thief to steal
+them, and then to hide his theft by melting them! How many unique
+designs in gold and silver have the vicissitudes of war reduced in
+fierce haste into money-changers' nuggets! Where are Benvenuto
+Cellini's vases, Lorenzo Ghiberti's cups, or the silver lamps of
+Ghirlandajo? Gone almost as completely as Aaron's golden pot of manna,
+of which, for another reason than that which kept St. Paul silent, 'we
+cannot now speak particularly.' Nor is it only because this is a world
+'where thieves break through and steal' that the fine gold becomes dim
+and the silver perishes. This, too, is a world where 'love is strong
+as death;' and what has not love--love of family, love of brother,
+love of child, love of lover--prompted man and woman to do with the
+costliest things, when they could be exchanged as mere bullion for the
+lives of those who were beloved?"[1] Workmen! it is fortunate for us
+that the best vehicles for art are the least costly materials.
+
+[1] From a lecture by the late Professor George Wilson, of Edinburgh.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Having made these general remarks, I may explain to my readers what I
+am about to attempt in the little work which I have now commenced. My
+primary aim will be to bring about refinement of mind in all who may
+accompany me through my studies, so that they may individually be
+enabled to judge correctly of the nature of any decorated object, and
+enjoy its beauties--should it present any--and detect its faults, if
+such be present. This refinement I shall attempt to bring about by
+presenting to the mind considerations which it must digest and
+assimilate, so that its new formations, if I may thus speak, may be of
+knowledge. We shall carefully consider certain general principles,
+which are either common to all fine arts or govern the production or
+arrangement of ornamental forms: then we shall notice the laws which
+regulate the combination of colours, and the application of colours to
+objects; after which we shall review our various art-manufactures, and
+consider art as associated with the manufacturing industries. We shall
+thus be led to consider furniture, earthenware, table and window
+glass, wall decorations, carpets, floor cloths, window-hangings, dress
+fabrics, works in silver and gold, hardware, and whatever is a
+combination of art and manufacture. I shall address myself, then, to
+the carpenter, the cabinet-maker, potter, glass-blower, paper-stainer,
+weaver and dyer, silversmith, blacksmith, gas-finisher, designer, and
+all who are in any way engaged in the production of art-objects.
+
+But before we commence our regular work, let me say that without
+laborious study no satisfactory progress can be made. Labour is the
+means whereby we raise ourselves above our fellows; labour is the
+means by which we arrive at affluence. Think not that there is a royal
+road to success--the road is through toil. Deceive not yourself with
+the idea that you were born a genius--that you were born an artist. If
+you are endowed with a love for art, remember that it is by labour
+alone that you can get such knowledge as will enable you to present
+your art-ideas in a manner acceptable to refined and educated people.
+Be content, then, to labour. In the case of an individual, success
+appears to me to depend upon the time which he devotes to the study of
+that which he desires to master. One man works six hours a day;
+another works eighteen. One has three days in one; and what is the
+natural result? Simply this--that the one who works the eighteen hours
+progresses with three times the rapidity of the one who only works six
+hours. It is true that individuals differ in mental capacity, but my
+experience has led me to believe that those who work the hardest
+almost invariably succeed the best.
+
+While I write, I have in my mind's eye one or two on whom Nature
+appeared to have lavishly bestowed art-gifts; yet these have made but
+little progress in life. I see, as it were, before me others who were
+less gifted by Nature, but who industriously persevered in their
+studies, and were content to labour for success; and these have
+achieved positions which the natural genius has failed even to
+approach. Workmen! I am a worker, and a believer in the efficacy of
+work.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We will commence our systematic course by observing that good
+ornament--good decorations of any character, have qualities which
+appeal to the educated, but are silent to the ignorant, and that these
+qualities make utterance of interesting facts; but before we can
+rightly understand what I may term the hidden utterance of ornament,
+we must inquire into the general revelation which the ornament of any
+particular people, or of any historic age, makes to us, and also the
+utterances of individual forms.
+
+As an illustration of my meaning, let us take the ornament produced by
+the Egyptians. In order to see this it may be necessary that we visit
+a museum--say the British Museum--where we search out the mummy-cases;
+but as most provincial museums boast one or more mummy-cases, we are
+almost certain to find in the leading country towns illustrations that
+will serve our present purpose. On a mummy-case you may find a
+singular ornament, which is a conventional drawing of the Egyptian
+lotus, or blue water-lily[2] (see Figs. 1, 2, 3), and in all
+probability you will find this ornamental device repeated over and
+over again on the one mummy-case. Notice this peculiarity of the
+drawing of the lotus--a peculiarity common to Egyptian ornaments--that
+there is a severity, a rigidity of line, a sort of sternness about it.
+This rigidity or severity of drawing is a great peculiarity or
+characteristic of Egyptian drawing. But mark! with this severity there
+is always coupled an amount of dignity, and in some cases this dignity
+is very apparent. Length of line, firmness of drawing, severity of
+form, and subtlety of curve are the great characteristics of Egyptian
+ornamentation.
+
+[2] This can be seen growing in the water-tanks in the Kew Gardens
+conservatories, and in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+What does all this express? It expresses the character of the people
+who created the ornaments. The ornaments of the ancient Egyptians were
+all ordered by the priesthood, amongst whom the learning of this
+people was stored. The priests were the dictators to the people not
+only of religion, but of the forms which their ornaments were to
+assume. Mark, then, the expression of the severity of character and
+dignified bearing of the priesthood: in the very drawing of a simple
+flower we have presented to us the character of the men who brought
+about its production. But this is only what we are in the constant
+habit of witnessing. A man of knowledge writes with power and force;
+while the man of wavering opinions writes timidly and with feebleness.
+The force of the one character (which character has been made forcible
+by knowledge) and the weakness of the other is manifested by his
+written words. So it is with ornaments: power or feebleness of
+character is manifest by the forms produced.
+
+The Egyptians were a severe people; they were hard task-masters. When
+a great work had to be performed, a number of slaves were selected for
+the work, and a portion of food allotted to each, which was to last
+till the work was completed; and if the work was not finished when the
+food was consumed, the slaves perished. We do not wonder at the
+severity of Egyptian drawing. But the Egyptians were a noble
+people--noble in knowledge of the arts, noble in the erection of vast
+and massive buildings, noble in the greatness of their power. Hence we
+have nobility of drawing--power and dignity mingled with severity in
+every ornamental form which they produced.
+
+We have thus noticed the general utterance or expression of Egyptian
+drawing; but what specific communication does this particular lotus
+make? Most of the ornaments of the Egyptians--whether the adornments
+of sarcophagi, of water-vessels, or mere charms to be worn pendent
+from the neck--were symbols of some truth or dogma inculcated by the
+priests. Hence Egyptian ornament is said to be symbolic.
+
+The fertility of the Nile valley was chiefly due to the river annually
+overflowing its banks. In spreading over the land, the water carried
+with it a quantity of rich alluvial earth, which gave fecundity to the
+country on which it was deposited. When the water which had overspread
+the surrounding land had nearly subsided, the corn which was to
+produce the harvest was set by being cast upon the retiring water,
+through which it sank into the rich alluvial earth. The water being
+now well-nigh within the river-banks, the first flower that sprang up
+was the lotus. This flower was to the Egyptians the harbinger of
+coming plenty, for it symbolised the springing forth of the wheat. It
+was the first flower of spring, or their primrose (first rose). The
+priesthood, perceiving the interest with which this flower was viewed,
+and the watchfulness manifested for its appearance, taught that in it
+abode a god, and that it must be worshipped. The acknowledgment of
+this flower as a fit and primary object of worship caused it to be
+delineated on the mummy-cases, and sarcophagi, and on all sacred
+edifices.
+
+We shall have frequent occasion, while considering decorative art, to
+notice symbolic forms; but we must not forget the fact that all good
+ornaments make utterance. Let us in all cases, when beholding them,
+give ear to their teachings!
+
+Egyptian ornament is so full of forms which have interesting
+significance that I cannot forbear giving one other illustration; and
+of this I am sure, that not only does a knowledge of the intention of
+each form employed in a decorative scheme cause the beholder to
+receive a special amount of pleasure when viewing it, but also that
+without such knowledge no one can rightly judge of the nature of any
+ornamental work.
+
+There is a device in Egyptian ornament which the most casual observer
+cannot have failed to notice; it is what is termed the "winged globe,"
+and consists of a small ball or globe, immediately at the sides of
+which are two asps, and from which extend two wings, each wing being
+in length about five to eight times that of the diameter of the ball
+(Fig. 4). The drawing of this device is very grand. The force with
+which the wings are delineated well represents the powerful character
+of the protection which the kingdom of Egypt afforded, and which was
+symbolised by the extended and overshadowing pinions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+I know of few instances where forms of an ornamental character have
+been combined in a manner either more quaint or more interesting than
+in the example before us. The composition presents a charm that few
+ornaments do, and is worthy of careful consideration. But this
+ornament derives a very special and unusual interest when we consider
+its purpose, the blow which was once aimed at it, and the shock which
+its producers must have received, upon finding it powerless to act as
+they had taught, if not believed, it would.
+
+The priesthood instructed the people that this was the symbol of
+protection, and that it so effectually appealed to the preserving
+spirits that no evil could enter where it was portrayed. With the view
+of giving a secure protection to the inmates of Egyptian dwellings,
+this device, or symbol of protection, was ordered to be placed on the
+lintel (the post over the door) of every building of the Egyptians,
+whether residence or temple.
+
+It was to nullify this symbol, and to show the vain character of the
+Egyptian gods, that Moses was commanded to have the blood of the lamb
+slain at the passover placed upon the lintel, in the very position of
+this winged globe. It was also enjoined as a further duty that the
+blood be sprinkled on the door-post; but this was merely a new duty,
+tending further to show that even in position, as well as in nature,
+this winged globe was powerless to secure protection. This device,
+then, is of special interest, both as a symbolic ornament and as
+throwing light on Scripture history.
+
+Besides the two ornamental forms mentioned--_i.e._, the lotus and the
+winged globe--we might notice many others also of great interest, but
+our space will not enable us to do so; further information may,
+however, be got from the South Kensington Museum library,[3] where
+several interesting works on Egyptian ornament may be seen;--from the
+"Grammar of Ornament" by Mr. Owen Jones,--the works on Egypt by Sir
+Gardiner Wilkinson; and, especially,--by a visit to the Egyptian Court
+of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, and by a careful perusal of the
+hand-book to that court.[4] Much might also be said respecting
+Egyptian architecture, but on this we can say little here; yet, as the
+columns of the temples are of a very ornamental character, we may
+notice that in most cases they were formed of a bundle of papyrus[5]
+stems bound together by thongs or straps--the heads of the plant
+forming the capital of the column, and the stems the shaft (Fig. 5).
+In some cases the lotus was substituted for the papyrus; and in other
+instances the palm-leaf was used in a similar way; these modifications
+can be seen in the Egyptian Court at Sydenham with great advantage,
+and many varieties of form resulting from the use of the one plant, as
+of the papyrus, may also there be observed.
+
+[3] Any person can have admission to the South Kensington Museum Art
+library and its Educational library, for a week, by payment of
+sixpence.
+
+[4] A hand-book to each of the historic courts erected in the Sydenham
+Palace was prepared at the time the courts were built. These are still
+to be got in the Literary department, in the north-east gallery of the
+building. They are all worthy of careful study.
+
+[5] The papyrus was the plant from which Egyptian paper was made. It
+was also the bulrush of the Scriptures, in which the infant Moses was
+found.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+We have here an opportunity of noticing how the mode of building,
+however simple or primitive in character, first employed by a nation
+may become embodied in its ultimate architecture; for, undoubtedly,
+the rude houses first erected in Egypt were formed largely of bundles
+of the papyrus, which were gathered from the river-side--for wood was
+rare in Egypt--and, ultimately, when buildings were formed of stone,
+an attempt was made at imitating in the new material the form which
+the old reeds presented. But mark, the imitation was no gross copy of
+the original work, but a well-considered and perfectly idealised work,
+substituting for the bundle of reeds a work having the true
+architectural qualities of a noble-looking and useful column. We must
+now pass from the ornament of the Egyptians to that of the Greeks, and
+here we meet with decorative forms having a different object and
+different aim from those already considered.
+
+Egyptian ornament was symbolical in character. Its individual forms
+had specific meanings--the purport of each shape being taught by the
+priests--but we find no such thing as symbolism in Greek decoration.
+The Greeks were a refined people, who sought not to express their
+power by their art-works so much as their refinement. Before the
+mental eye they always had a perfect ideal, and their most earnest
+efforts were made at the realisation of the perfections of the mental
+conception of absolute refinement. In one respect the Greeks resembled
+the Egyptians, for they rarely created new forms. When once a form
+became sacred to the Egyptians, it could not be altered; but with the
+Greeks, while bound by no such law, the love of old forms was great;
+yet the Greeks did not seek simply to reproduce what they had before
+created, but laboured hard to improve and refine what they had before
+done; and even through succeeding centuries they worked at the
+refinement of simple forms and ornamental compositions, which have
+become characteristic of them as a people.
+
+The general expression of Greek art is that of refinement, and the
+manner in which the delicately cultivated taste of some of the Greeks
+is expressed by their ornaments is astonishing. One decorative device,
+which we term the Greek Anthemion, may be regarded as their principal
+ornament--(the original ornamental composition by one of my pupils,
+Fig. 6, consists primarily of three anthemions)--and the variety of
+refined forms in which it appears is most interesting.
+
+But it must not be thought that the Greek ornaments and architectural
+forms present nothing but refinement made manifest in form, for this
+is not the case. Great as is the refinement of some of these forms, we
+yet notice that they speak of more than the perfected taste of their
+producers, for they reveal to us this fact--that their creators had
+great knowledge of natural forces and the laws by which natural forces
+are governed. This becomes apparent in a marked degree when we inquire
+into the manner in which they arranged the proportion of the various
+parts of their works to the whole, and especially by a consideration
+of the subtle nature of the curves which they employed both in
+architectural members and in decorative forms; but into this we must
+not now inquire. Yet, by way of throwing some faint light upon the
+manner in which knowledge is embodied in Greek forms, I may refer to
+the Doric column, such as was employed in the Parthenon at Athens[6]
+(Fig. 7). The idea presented by this column is that of energetic
+upward growth which has come in contact with some superposed mass, the
+weight of which presses upon the column from above, while the energy
+of the upward growth causes the column to appear fully equal to the
+task of supporting the superincumbent structure. Mark this--that by
+pressure from above, or weight, the shaft of the column is distended,
+or bent out, about one-third of the distance from its base to its
+apex (just where this distension would occur, were the column formed
+of a slightly plastic material), and yet this distension of the shaft
+is not such as to give any idea of weakness, for the column appears to
+rise with the energy of such vigorous life as to be more than able to
+bear the weight which it has to sustain.
+
+[6] A capital, and portion of the shaft, of one of these columns are
+to be seen in the British Museum Sculpture room, and a cast of the
+same at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. This Doric column is employed in
+the Greek Court of the Crystal Palace.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+Mark also the singularly delicate curve of the capital of the column,
+which appears as a slightly plastic cushion intervening between the
+shaft and the superincumbent mass which it has to support. The
+delicacy and refinement of form presented by this capital is perhaps
+greater than that of any other with which we are acquainted.
+
+The same principle of life and energy coming in contact with
+resistance or pressure from above is constantly met with in the
+enrichments of Greek cornices and mouldings; but having called
+attention to the fact, I must leave the student to observe, and think
+upon, these interesting subjects for himself. Let me, however, say
+that there are few classic buildings in England which will aid the
+learner in his researches; there is but little poetry in our
+architectural buildings, and but little refinement in the forms of the
+parts, especially in our classic buildings; and, added to this, Greek
+art without Greek colouring is dead, being almost as the marble statue
+to the living form. For the purposes of my readers, the Greek Court at
+the Crystal Palace will be the best example for study.
+
+I might now review Roman ornament, and show that in the hour of pride
+the materials of which the Roman works were formed were considered,
+rather than the shapes which they assumed; and how we thus get little
+worthy of praise from the all-conquering Romans--how the sunny climate
+and religious superstitions of the East called forth the gorgeous and
+beautiful developments of art which have existed, or still exist, with
+the Persians, Indians, Turks, Moors, Chinese, and Japanese; but I have
+not space to do so; yet all the forms of ornament which these people
+have created are worthy of the most careful and exhaustive
+consideration, as they present art-qualities of the highest kind. I
+know of no ornament more intricately beautiful and mingled than the
+Persian--no geometrical strapwork, or systems of interlacing lines, so
+rich as those of the Moors (the Alhambraic)--no fabrics so gorgeous as
+those of India--none so quaintly harmonious as those of China; and
+Japan can supply the world with the most beautiful domestic articles
+that we can anywhere procure.
+
+We must pass on, however, to what we may term Christian art, or that
+development of ornament which had its rise with the Christian
+religion, and has associated itself in a special manner with
+Christianity.
+
+Neither the Egyptians nor early Greeks appear to have used the arch
+structurally in their buildings; the Romans, however, had the round
+arch as a primary structural element. This round arch was also used by
+the Byzantines, and amongst their ornaments we find those combinations
+of circles, or parts of circles, which so constantly recur in later
+times in Gothic architecture and Gothic ornament. Norman buildings,
+again, show us the round arch, and present us with such intersected
+arcs as would naturally suggest the pointed arch of later times, with
+which came the full development of Gothic or Christian architecture
+and ornamentation. There was a very fine and marvellously clever
+development of decorative art, enthusiastically worked at by the
+Christian monks of the seventh and eighth centuries, called Celtic, of
+which we have many beautiful examples in Professor Westwood's great
+work on early illuminated manuscripts; but what is generally
+understood by Christian or Gothic art had its finest development about
+the thirteenth century.
+
+Gothic ornament, like the Egyptian, is essentially symbolic. Its forms
+have in many instances specific significance. Thus the common
+equilateral triangle is in some cases used to symbolise the Holy
+Trinity; so are the two entwined triangles. But there are many other
+symbols employed in Gothic ornament which set forth the mystery of the
+Unity of the Trinity. Thus in Fig. 8 we have three interlaced circles,
+which beautifully express the eternal Unity of the Holy Trinity, for
+the circle alone symbolises eternity, being without beginning and
+without end, and the three parts point to the Three Persons of the
+Godhead. A very curious and clever symbol of the Trinity is portrayed
+in Fig. 9, where three faces are so combined as to form an ornamental
+figure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+Baptism under the immediate sanction of the Divine Trinity was
+represented by three fishes placed together in the manner of a
+triangle (Fig. 10); but so numerous were Christian symbols after the
+ninth century, that to enumerate them merely would occupy much space.
+Every trefoil symbolised the Holy Trinity, every quatrefoil the four
+evangelists, every cross the Crucifixion, or the martyrdom of some
+saint. And into Gothic ornamentation the chalice, the crown of thorns,
+the dice, the sop, the hammer and nails, the flagellum, and other
+symbols of our Lord's passion have entered. But, besides these, we
+have more purely architectural forms making gentle utterance: the
+church spire points heavenwards, and the long lines of the clustered
+columns of the cathedral direct the thoughts upwards to heaven and to
+God.
+
+Gothic ornament, having passed from its purity towards undue
+elaboration, began to lose its hold on the people for whom it was
+created, and the form of religion with which it had long been
+associated had become old, when the great overthrow of old traditions
+and usages occurred, commonly called the Reformation. With the
+reformation of religion came a revival of classic learning, and a
+general diffusion of knowledge, and thus the immediate necessity for
+art-symbols was passing away, it being especially to an unlettered
+people that an extended system of symbolism appeals. With this revival
+of classic learning came the investigation of classic remains--the
+exploration of Greek and Roman ruins; and while this was going on, a
+dislike to whatever had been associated with the old form of religion
+had sprung up, which dislike turned to hate as the struggle advanced,
+till the feeling against Gothic architecture and ornament became so
+strong that anything was preferred to it. Now arose Renaissance
+architecture and ornament (revival work), which was based on the Roman
+remains, but was yet remoulded, or formed anew; so that the ornament
+of the Renaissance is not Roman ornament, but a new decorative scheme,
+of the same genus as that of the Roman. Here, however, all my
+sympathies end. I confess that all Renaissance ornament, whether
+developed under the soft sky of Italy (Italian ornament), in more
+northerly France (French Renaissance), or on our own soil
+(Elizabethan, or English Renaissance), fails to awaken any feeling of
+sympathy in my breast; and that it, on the contrary, chills and repels
+me. I enjoy the power and vigour of Egyptian ornament, the refinement
+of the Greek, the gorgeousness of the Alhambraic, the richness of the
+Persian and Indian, the quaintness of the Chinese and Japanese, the
+simple honesty and boldness of the Gothic; but with the coarse
+Assyrian, the haughty Roman, and the cold Renaissance, I have no
+kindred feeling--no sympathy. They strike notes which have no chords
+in my nature: hence from them I instinctively fly. I must be pardoned
+for this my feeling by those who differ from me in judgment, but my
+continued studies of these styles only separate me further from them
+in feeling.
+
+It will be said that in my writings I mingle together ornament and
+architecture, and that my sphere is ornament, and not building. I
+cannot separate the two. The material at command, the religion of the
+people, and the climate have, to a great extent, determined the
+character of the architecture of all ages and nations; but they have,
+to the same extent, determined the nature of the ornamentation of the
+edifices raised. Ornament always has arisen out of architecture, or
+been a mere reflex of the art-principles of the building decorated. We
+cannot rightly consider ornament without architecture; but I will
+promise to take no further notice of architecture than is absolutely
+necessary to the proper understanding of our subject.
+
+
+DIVISION II.
+
+In my previous remarks I have attempted to set forth some of the first
+principles of ornament, and to call attention to the purport or
+intention of certain of the leading historic styles, and the manner in
+which they make utterance to us of the faith or sentiments of their
+producers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+But there are other utterances of ornament, and other general
+expressions which decorative forms convey to the mind. Thus sharp,
+angular, or spiny forms are more or less exciting (Fig. 11); while
+bold and broad forms are soothing, or tend to give repose.
+
+Sharp or angular forms, where combined in ornament, act upon the
+senses much as racy and pointed sayings do. Thus "cut" or angular
+glass, spinose metal-work, as the pointed foliage of some wrought-iron
+gates, and other works in which there is a prevalence of angles and
+points, so act upon the mind as to stimulate it, and thus produce an
+effect opposite to repose; while "breadth" of form and "largeness" of
+treatment induce tranquillity and meditation.
+
+Nothing can be more important to the ornamentist than the scientific
+study of art. The metaphysical inquiry into cause and effect, as
+relating to decorative ideas, is very important--indeed,
+all-important--to the true decorator. He must constantly ask himself
+what effect such and such forms have upon the mind--which effects are
+soothing, which cheerful, which melancholy, which rich, which
+ethereal, which gorgeous, which solid, which graceful, which lovable,
+and so on; and in order to do this he must separate the various
+elements of ornamental composition, and consider these apart, so as to
+be sure that he is not mistaken as to what affects the mind in any
+particular manner, and he must then combine these elements in various
+proportions, and consider the effects of the various combinations on
+his own mind and that of others, and thus he will discover what will
+enable him to so act on the senses as to induce effects such as he may
+desire to produce.
+
+Are we to decorate a dining-room, let the decoration give the sense of
+richness; a drawing-room, let it give cheerfulness; a library, let it
+give worth; a bed-room, repose; but glitter must never occur in large
+quantities, for that which excites can only be sparingly indulged
+in--if too freely employed, it gives the sense of vulgarity.
+
+In this chapter I have to speak primarily of _Truth_, _Beauty_, and
+_Power_. Long since I was so fully impressed with the idea that true
+art-principles are so perfectly manifested by these three words, that
+I embodied them in an ornamental device which I painted on my study
+door, so that all who entered might learn the principles which I
+sought to manifest in my works.
+
+There can be morality or immorality in art, the utterance of truth or
+of falsehood; and by his art the ornamentist may exalt or debase a
+nation.
+
+_Truth._--How noble, how beautiful; how righteous to utter it; and how
+debasing is falsehood; yet we see falsehood preferred to truth--that
+which debases to that which exalts, in art as well as morals; and I
+fear that there is almost as much that is false, degrading, and untrue
+in my beautiful art as there is of the noble, righteous, and exalting,
+although art should only be practised by ennobling hands. It is this
+grovelling art, this so-called ornamentation, which tends to debase
+rather than exalt, to degrade rather than make noble, to foster a lie
+rather than utter truth, which brings about the abasement of our
+calling, and causes our art to fail in many instances in laying hold
+of, and clinging to, the affections of the noble and the great.
+Ornamentation is in the highest sense of the word a Fine Art; there is
+no art more noble, none more exalted. It can cheer the sorrowing; it
+can soothe the troubled; it can enhance the joys of those who make
+merry; it can inculcate the doctrine of truth; it can refine, elevate,
+purify, and point onward and upward to heaven and to God. It is a fine
+art, for it embodies and expresses the feelings of the soul of
+man--that inward spirit which was breathed by the Creator into the
+lifeless clay as the image of his life--however noble, pure, or holy.
+
+This being the case, those who ignore decoration cast aside a source
+of refinement, and deprive themselves of what may induce their
+elevation in virtue and morals. Such a neglect on the part of those
+who can afford luxuries would be highly censurable, were it not that
+the professors of the art are for the most part false pretenders,
+knowing not what they practise, and men ignorant of the power which
+they hold in their hands. The true artist is a rare creature; he is
+often unknown, frequently misunderstood, or not understood at all, and
+is not unfrequently lost to a people that prefer shallowness to deep
+meaning, falsehood to truth, and glitter to repose.
+
+We now see the utter folly of appealing simply to what is called
+"taste" in matters of art, and the uselessness of yielding to the
+caprice (falsely called taste) of the uneducated in such matters,
+especially as this so-called taste is often of the most vulgar and
+debased order. We also see the absurdity of persons who employ a true
+artist interfering with his judgment and ideas. The true artist is a
+noble teacher; shall he be told, then, what morals he shall
+inculcate, and what lofty truths he shall embody in his works, or omit
+from them? Do we tell the preacher what he shall say, and ask him to
+withhold whatever is refining and elevating? We do not, and in art we
+must leave the professors free to teach, and hold them responsible for
+their teachings.
+
+If I thought that I had now convinced my reader that decorative art
+does not consist merely in the placing together of forms, however
+beautiful they may be individually or collectively; nor in rendering
+objects simply what is called pretty; but that it is a power for good
+or evil; that it is what will elevate or debase--that which cannot be
+neutral in its tendency--I would advance to consider its principles;
+but I cannot teach, nor can I be understood, unless the reader _feels_
+that he who practises art wields a vast power, for the rightful use of
+which he must be held responsible.
+
+All graining of wood is false, inasmuch as it attempts to deceive; the
+effort being made at causing one material to look like another which
+it is not. All "marbling" is false also: a floor-cloth made in
+imitation of carpet or matting is false; a Brussels carpet that
+imitates a Turkey carpet is false; so is a jug that imitates
+wicker-work, a printed fabric that imitates one which is woven, a
+gas-lamp that imitates an oil-lamp. These are all untruths in
+expression, and are, besides, vulgar absurdities which are the more
+lamentable, as the imitation is always less beautiful than the thing
+imitated; and as each material has the power of expressing beauty
+truthfully, thus the want of truth brings its own punishment. A deal
+door is beautiful, but it will not keep clean; let it then be
+varnished. It is now preserved, and its own characteristic features
+are enhanced by the varnish, so that its individuality is emphasised,
+and no untruth told. A floor-cloth can present a pattern with true and
+beautiful curves--how absurd, then, to try and imitate the dotty
+effect of a carpet; and the Brussels carpet can express truer curves
+than the Turkey carpet, then why imitate the latter in the finer
+material? But perhaps the most senseless of all these absurdities is
+the making an earthen jug in imitation of wicker-work when if so
+formed it would be useless as a water-vessel. I can imagine a fool in
+his simplicity priding himself on such a bright thought as the
+production of a vessel of this kind, but I cannot imagine any rightly
+constituted mind producing or commending such an idea. Let the
+expression of our art ever be truthful.
+
+_Beauty._--I will say little on this head, for decorative forms must
+be beautiful. Shapes which are not beautiful are rarely decorative. I
+will not now attempt to express what character forms should have in
+order that they be considered beautiful, but will content myself by
+saying that they must be truthful in expression, and graceful,
+delicate, and refined in contour, manifesting no coarseness,
+vulgarity, or obtrusiveness. My views of the beautiful must be
+gathered from the series of chapters which will follow, but this I may
+here say, that the beautiful manifests no want, no shortcoming. A
+composition that is beautiful must have no parts which could be taken
+from it and yet leave the remainder equally good or better. The
+perfectly beautiful is that which admits of no improvement. The
+beautiful is lovable, and, as that which is lovable, takes hold of the
+affections and clings to them, binding itself firmer and firmer to
+them as time rolls on. If an object is really beautiful we do not tire
+of it; fashion does not induce us to change it; the merely new does
+not displace it. It becomes as an old friend, more loved as its good
+qualities are better understood.
+
+_Power._--We now come to consider an art-element or principle of great
+importance, for if absent from any composition, feebleness or weakness
+is the result, the manifestation of which is not pleasant. With what
+power do the plants burst from the earth in spring! With what power do
+the buds develop into branches! The powerful orator is a man to be
+admired, the powerful thinker a man we esteem. Even the simple power,
+or brute force, of animals we involuntarily approve--the powerful
+tiger and the powerful horse call forth our commendation, for power is
+antagonistic to weakness. Power also manifests earnestness; power
+means energy; power implies a conqueror. Our compositions, then, must
+be powerful.
+
+But besides all this, we, the professors of decorative art, must
+manifest power in our works, for we are teachers sent forth to
+instruct, and ennoble, and elevate our fellow-creatures. We shall not
+be believed if we do not utter our truths with power; let truth, then,
+be uttered with power, and in the form of beauty.[7]
+
+[7] I have given in this chapter an original sketch (Fig. 12), in
+which I have sought to embody chiefly the one idea of power, energy,
+force, or vigour; and in order to do this, I have employed such lines
+as we see in the bursting buds of spring, when the energy of growth is
+at its maximum, and especially such as are to be seen in the spring
+growth of a luxuriant tropical vegetation; I have also availed myself
+of those forms to be seen in certain bones of birds which are
+associated with the organs of flight, and which give us an impression
+of great strength, as well as those observable in the powerful
+propelling fins of certain species of fish.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There are other principles governing the production and application of
+ornament which we must now notice, the first of which is _utility_,
+for the first aim of the designer of any article must be to render the
+object which he produces useful. I may go further, and say that an
+article must be made not only useful, but as perfectly suited to the
+purpose for which it is intended as it can be. It matters not how
+beautiful the object is intended to be, it must first be formed as
+though it were a mere work of utility, and after it has been carefully
+created with this end in view it may then be rendered as beautiful as
+you please.
+
+There are special reasons why our works should be useful as well as
+beautiful, for if an object, however beautiful it may be in shape,
+however richly covered with beautiful ornaments, or however
+harmoniously coloured, be unpleasant to use, it will ultimately be
+set aside, and that which is more convenient for use will replace it,
+even if the latter be without beauty. As an illustration of this fact,
+let us suppose the balustrade railings of a staircase very beautiful,
+and yet furnished with such projections as render it almost impossible
+that we walk up or down the stairs without tearing the dress, or
+injuring the person, and how soon will our admiration of the beautiful
+railing disappear, and even be replaced by hate! In like manner let
+the handle of a door, or the head of a poker, be so formed as to hurt
+the hand, and the simple round knob, or round head, will be preferred
+to it, however ornamentally or beautifully formed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+In relation to this subject, Professor George Wilson has said: "The
+conviction seems ineradicable from some minds, that a beautiful thing
+cannot be a useful thing, and that the more you increase the beauty of
+the necessary furniture or the implements of every-day life the more
+you lessen their utility. Make the Queen's sceptre as beautiful as you
+please, but don't try to beautify a poker, especially in cold weather.
+My lady's vinaigrette carve and gild as you will, but leave untouched
+my pewter ink-bottle. Put fine furniture, if you choose, into my
+drawing-room; but I am a plain man, and like useful things in my
+parlour, and so on. Good folks of this sort seem to labour under the
+impression that the secret desire of art is to rob them of all
+comfort. Its unconfessed but actual aim, they believe, is to realise
+the faith of their childhood, when it was understood that a monarch
+always wore his crown, held an orb in one hand and a sceptre in the
+other, and a literal interpretation was put upon Shakespeare's words,
+
+    'Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.'
+
+Were art to prosper, farewell to fire-proof, shapeless slippers, which
+bask like salamanders unharmed in the hottest blaze. An æsthetic pair,
+modelled upon Cinderella's foot, and covered with snow-white
+embroidery, must take their place, and dispense chilblains and
+frost-bite to miserable toes. Farewell to shooting-coats out a little
+at the elbows, to patched dressing-gowns, and hair-cloth sofas.
+Nothing but full-dress, varnished boots, spider-legged chairs, white
+satin chair-covers, alabaster ink-bottles, velvet door-mats, and
+scrapers of silver or gold. It is astonishing how many people think
+that a thing cannot be comfortable if it is beautiful. . . . If there
+be one truth which the Author of all has taught us in his works more
+clearly than another, it is the perfect compatibility of the highest
+utility with the greatest beauty. I offer you one example. All are
+familiar with the beautiful shell of the nautilus. Give the nautilus
+itself to a mathematician, and he will show you that one secret of its
+gracefulness lies in its following in its volute or whorl a particular
+geometrical curve with rigid precision. Pass it from the mathematician
+to the natural philosopher, and he will show you how the simple
+superposition of a great number of very thin transparent plates, and
+the close approximation of a multitude of very fine engraved lines,
+are the cause of its exquisite pearly lustre. Pass it from the natural
+philosopher to the engineer, and he will show you that this fairy
+shell is a most perfect practical machine, at once a sailing vessel
+and a diving-bell, in which its living possessor had, centuries before
+Archimedes, applied to utilitarian ends the law of specific gravity,
+and centuries before Halley had dived in his bell to the bottom of the
+sea. Pass it from the engineer to the anatomist, and he will show you
+how, without marring its beauty, it is occupied during its lifetime
+with a most orderly system of rowing and sailing tackle, chambers for
+food, pumps to keep blood circulating, ventilating apparatus, and
+hands to control all, so that it is a model ship with a model mariner
+on board. Pass it lastly from the anatomist to the chemist, and he
+will show you that every part of the shell and the creature is
+compounded of elements, the relative weights of which follow in each
+individual nautilus the same numerically identical ratio.
+
+"Such is the nautilus, a thing so graceful, that when we look at it we
+are content to say with Keats--
+
+    'A thing of beauty is a joy for ever;'
+
+and yet a thing so thoroughly utilitarian, and fulfilling with the
+utmost perfection the purely practical aim of its construction, that
+our shipbuilders would be only too thankful if, though sacrificing all
+beauty, they could make their vessels fulfil their business ends half
+so well."
+
+Viewing our subject in another light, and with special reference to
+architecture, we notice that unless a building is fitted for the
+purpose intended, or, in other words, answers utilitarian ends, it
+cannot be esteemed as it otherwise might be, even though it be of
+great æsthetic beauty. In respect to this subject, Mr. Owen Jones has
+said: "The nave and aisles of a Gothic church become absurd when
+filled with pews for Protestant worship, where all are required to see
+and hear. The columns of the nave which impede sight and sound, the
+aisles for processions which no longer exist, rood screens, and deep
+chancels for the concealment of mysteries, now no longer such, are all
+so many useless reproductions which must be thrown aside." Further,
+"As architecture, so all works of the decorative arts, _should possess
+fitness_, proportion, harmony; the result of all which is repose." Sir
+M. Digby Wyatt has said: "Infinite variety and unerring fitness govern
+all forms in Nature." Vitruvius, that "The perfection of all works
+depends on their fitness to answer the end proposed, and on principles
+resulting from a consideration of Nature itself." Sir Charles L.
+Eastlake, that "In every case in Nature where fitness or utility can
+be traced, the characteristic quality, or _relative_ beauty, is found
+to be identical with that of fitness." A. W. Pugin (the father): "How
+many objects of ordinary use are rendered monstrous and ridiculous
+simply because the artist, instead of seeking the most convenient
+form, and then decorating it, has embodied some extravagance to
+conceal the real purpose for which the article has been made." And
+with the view of pointing out how fitness for, or adaptation to, the
+end proposed is manifested in the structure and disposition upon the
+earth of plants, I have written in a little work now out of print:
+"The trees which grow highest upon the mountains, and the plants which
+grow upon the unsheltered plain, have usually long, narrow, and rigid
+leaves, which, owing to their form, are enabled to bear the fury of
+the tempest, to which they are exposed, without injury. This is seen
+in the ease of the species of fir which grow at great altitudes, where
+the leaves are more like needles than leaves such as commonly occur;
+and also in the species of heath which grow upon exposed moors: in
+both cases the plants are, owing to the form of the leaf, enabled to
+defy the blast, while those with broad leaves would be shattered and
+destroyed.
+
+"Not only is the form of leaf such as fits these plants to dwell in
+such inhospitable regions, but other circumstances also tend to this
+result. The stems are in both cases woody and flexible, so that while
+they bend to the wind they resist its destroying influence by their
+strength and elasticity. In relation to the stem of the papyrus,"
+which is a plant constantly met with in Egyptian ornaments, "the late
+Sir W. J. Hooker mentions an interesting fact which manifests
+adaptation to its position. This plant grows in water, and attaches
+itself to the margins of rivers and streams, by sending forth roots
+and evolving long underground stems in the alluvium of the sides of
+the waters. Owing to its position it is exposed to the influences of
+the current, which it has to withstand, and this it does, not only by
+having its stems of a triangular form--a shape well adapted for
+withstanding pressure--but also by having them so placed in relation
+to the direction of the stream, that one angle always meets the
+current, and thus separates the waters as does the bow of a modern
+steam-ship."
+
+I might multiply illustrations of this principle of _fitness_, or
+_adaptation to purpose_, as manifested in plants, to an almost
+indefinite extent; but when all had been said we should yet have but
+the simple truth before us, that the chief end which we should have in
+creating any object, is that of rendering it perfectly fitted to
+answer the proposed end. If those works which are beautiful were but
+invariably useful, as they should be; if those objects which are most
+beautiful were also the most convenient--and there is no reason why
+they should not be so--how the beautiful would become loved and sought
+after! Cost would be of little moment, the price would not be
+complained of, if beautiful objects were works of perfect utility.
+But, alas! it is far otherwise: that which is useful is often ugly,
+and that which is beautiful is often inconvenient to use. This very
+fact has given rise to the highly absurd fashion of having a second
+poker in a drawing-room set of fire-irons. The one poker is
+ornamental, possibly, but it is to be looked at; the other is for use,
+and as it is not to be looked at, it is hidden away in some corner, or
+close within the fender. I do not wonder at the second poker being
+required; for nineteen out of every twenty pokers of an ornamental
+(?) character which I have seen during the last few years would hurt
+the hand so insufferably if they were used to break a lump of coal
+with, that it would be almost impossible to employ them constantly for
+such a purpose. But why not abolish the detestable thing altogether?
+If the poker is to be retained as an ornament, place it on the table
+or chimney-piece of your drawing-room, and not down on the hearth,
+where it is at such a distance from the eye that its beauties cannot
+be discovered. It is no use saying it would be out of place in such a
+position. If to poke the fire with, its place is within the fender; if
+it is an ornament, it should be placed where it can be best seen--in a
+glass case, if worthy of protection.
+
+I hope that sufficient has now been said upon this all-important
+necessity, that, if an object is to be beautiful it should also be
+useful, to cause us to consider it as a primary principle of design
+that all objects which we create _must_ be useful. To this as a first
+law we shall constantly have to refer. When we construct a chair we
+shall ask, is it useful? is it strong? is it properly put together?
+could it be stronger without using more, or another, material? and
+then we should consider whether it is beautiful. When we design a
+bottle we shall inquire, is it useful? is it all that a bottle should
+be? could it be more useful? and then, is it beautiful? When we create
+a gas-branch we shall ask, does it fulfil all requirements, and
+perfectly answer the end for which it is intended? and then, is it
+beautiful? And in relation to patterns merely we shall also have to
+make similar inquiries. Thus, if drawing a carpet design, we shall
+inquire, is this form of ornament suitable to a woven fabric? is it
+suitable to the particular fabric for which it is intended? is the
+particular treatment of the ornament which we have adopted the best
+possible when we bear in mind that the carpet has to be walked over,
+as it is to act in relation to our furniture as a background does to a
+picture, and is to be viewed at some distance from the eye? and then,
+is it beautiful? Such inquiries we shall put respecting any object the
+formation of which we may suggest: hence, in all our inquiries, I
+shall, as I love art, consider utility before beauty, in order that my
+art may be fostered and not despised.
+
+There are many subjects yet not named in these pages which we ought to
+consider, but I must content myself by merely mentioning them, and you
+must be willing to think of them, and consider them with such care as
+their importance may demand. Some of them, however, we shall refer to
+when considering the various manufactures.
+
+A principle of great importance in respect to design is, that _the
+material of which an object is formed should be used in a manner
+consistent with its own nature, and in that particular way in which it
+can be most easily "worked."_
+
+Another principle of equal importance with that just set forth, is
+this: that _when an object is about to be formed, that material (or
+those materials) which is (or are) most appropriate to its formation
+should be sought and employed_. These two propositions are of very
+great importance, and the principles which they set forth should never
+be lost sight of by the designer. They involve the first principles of
+successful designing, for if ignored the work produced cannot be
+satisfactory.
+
+_Curves will be found to be beautiful just as they are subtle in
+character; those which are most subtle in character being most
+beautiful._
+
+The arc is the least beautiful of curves (I do not here speak of a
+circle, but of the line, as a line, which bounds the circle); being
+struck from one centre its origin is instantly detected, while the
+mind requires that a line, the contemplation of which shall be
+pleasurable, must be in advance of its knowledge, and call into
+activity its powers of inquiry. The elliptic curve, or curve bounding
+the ellipse, is more beautiful than the arc, for its origin is not so
+strikingly apparent, being formed from two centres. The curve of the
+egg is more beautiful still, being formed from three centres.[8] As
+the number of centres necessary to the formation of a curve increases,
+the difficulty of detecting its origin also becomes greater, and the
+variety which the curve presents is also proportionally great; the
+variety being obviously greater as the number of the centres from
+which it is struck is increased.
+
+[8] The ellipse and egg-shape here spoken of are not those which are
+struck by compasses in any way, for the curves of such figures are
+merely combined arcs, but such as are struck with string, or a
+"tramel."
+
+_Proportion, like the curve, must be of a subtle nature._
+
+A surface must never be divided for the purpose of decoration into
+halves. The proportion of 1 to 1 is bad. As proportion increases in
+subtlety it also increases in beauty. The proportion of 2 to 1 is
+little better; the proportion of 3 to 8, or of 5 to 8, or of 5 to 13,
+is, however, good, the last named being the best of those which I have
+adduced; for the pleasure derived from the contemplation of proportion
+increases with the difficulty of detecting it. This principle is true
+in relation to the division of a mass into primary segments, and of
+primary segments into secondary forms, as well as in relation to the
+grouping together of parts of various sizes; hence it is worthy of
+special note.
+
+_A principle of order must prevail in every ornamental composition._
+
+Confusion is the result of accident, while order results from thought
+and care. The operation of mind cannot well be set forth in the
+absence of this principle; at least, the presence of a principle of
+order renders the operation of mind at once manifest.
+
+_The orderly repetition of parts frequently aids in the production of
+ornamental effects._
+
+The kaleidoscope affords a wonderful example of what repetition will
+do. The mere fragments of glass which we view in this instrument would
+altogether fail to please were they not repeated with regularity. Of
+themselves repetition and order can do much. (Figs. 13 and 14.)
+
+_Alternation is a principle of primary importance in certain
+ornamental compositions._
+
+In the case of a flower (as the buttercup, or chickweed, for example)
+the coloured leaves do not fall over the green leaves (the petals do
+not fall over the sepals), but between them--they alternate with them.
+This principle is not only manifested in plants, but also in many
+ornaments produced in the best periods of art (Fig. 15).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+_If plants are employed as ornaments they must not be treated
+imitatively, but must be conventionally treated, or rendered into
+ornaments_ (Fig. 16).
+
+A monkey can imitate, man can create.
+
+These are the chief principles which we shall have to notice, as
+involved in the production of ornamental designs.
+
+
+DIVISION III.
+
+Some other principles of a less noble character than those which we
+have already noticed as entering into ornament yet remain to be
+mentioned. Man will be amused as well as instructed; he must be
+pleased as well as ennobled by what he sees. I hold it as a first
+principle that ornamentation, as a true fine art, can administer to
+man in all his varying moods, and under all phases of feeling.
+Decoration, if properly understood, would at once be seen to be a high
+art in the truest sense of the word, as it can teach, elevate, refine,
+induce lofty aspirations, and allay sorrows; but we have now to notice
+it as a fine art, administering to man in his various moods, rather
+than as the handmaid to religion or morals.
+
+Humour seems to be as much an attribute of our nature as love, and,
+like it, varies in intensity with different individuals. There are few
+in whom there is not a certain amount of humour, and in some this one
+quality predominates over all others. It not unfrequently happens that
+men who are great thinkers are also great humorists--great talent and
+great humour being often combined in the one individual.
+
+The feeling for humour is ministered to in ornament by the grotesque,
+and the grotesque occurs in the works of almost all ages and all
+peoples. The ancient Egyptians employed it, so did the Assyrians, the
+Greeks, and the Romans; but none of these nations used it to the
+extent of the artists of the Celtic, Byzantine, and "Gothic" periods.
+Hideous "evil spirits" were portrayed on the outside of almost every
+Christian edifice at one time, and much of the Celtic ornament
+produced by the early monks consisted of an anastomosis, or network,
+of grotesque creatures.
+
+The old Irish crosses were enriched with this kind of
+ornamentation,[9] and some of the decorative embellishments of these
+works are of extraordinary interest; but those who have access to the
+beautiful work of Professor Westwood on Celtic manuscripts will there
+see this grotesque form of ornament to perfection. As regards the
+Eastern nations, while nearly all have employed the grotesque as an
+element of decorative art, the Chinese and Japanese have employed it
+most largely, and for it they manifest a most decided partiality. The
+drawings of dragons, celestial lions (always spotted), mythical birds,
+beasts, fishes, insects, and other supposed inhabitants of the Elysian
+plains, which these people produce, are most interesting and
+extraordinary.
+
+[9] Casts of one or two of these can be seen in the central transept
+of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.
+
+Without in any way going into a history of the grotesque, let us look
+at the characteristic forms which it has assumed, and what is
+necessary to its successful production. We have said that the
+grotesque in ornament is the analogue of humour in literature. This is
+the case; but the grotesque may represent the truly horrible or
+repellent, and be simply repulsive. This form is so seldom required in
+ornamentation that I shall not dwell upon it, and when required it
+should always be associated with power; for if the horrible is feeble
+it cannot be corrective, but only revolting, like a miserable deformed
+animal.
+
+I think it may be taken as a principle, that the further the grotesque
+is removed from an imitation of a natural object the better it is,
+provided that it be energetic and vigorous--lifelike. Nothing is worse
+than a feeble joke, unless it be a feeble grotesque. The amusing must
+appear to be earnest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+In connection with this subject I give here a series of grotesques,
+with the view of illustrating my meaning, and I would fain give more,
+but space will not permit me to do so.
+
+The initial letter S, formed of a bird, is a characteristic Celtic
+grotesque (Fig. 17). It is quaint and interesting, and is sufficiently
+unlike a living creature to avoid giving any sense of pain to the
+beholder, while it is yet in a most unnatural position. It is, in
+truth, rather an ornament than a copy of a living creature, yet it is
+so suggestive as to call forth the thought of a bird. It should be
+noticed, in connection with this figure, that the interstices between
+certain portions of the creature are filled by a knot. This is
+well--the whole thing; being an ornament, and not a naturalistic
+representation.
+
+Fig. 18 is a Siamese grotesque head, and a fine sample it is of the
+curious form of ornament which it represents. Mark, it is in no way a
+copy of a human head, but is a true ornament, with its parts so
+arranged as to call up the idea of a face, and nothing more. Notice
+the volutes forming the chin; the grotesque, yet highly ornamental,
+lines forming the mouth and the upper boundary of the forehead, and
+the flambeauant ears; the whole thing is worthy of the most careful
+study.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+Fig. 19 is a Gothic foliated face; but here we have features which are
+much too naturalistic. We have, indeed, only a hideous human face with
+a marginal excrescence of leafage. This is a type to be avoided; it is
+not droll, nor quaint; but is simply unpleasant to look upon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+Fig. 20 is a fish, with the feeling of the grotesques of the Middle
+Ages. It is a good type, being truly ornamental, and yet sufficiently
+suggestive.
+
+In order that I convey to the reader a fuller idea of my views
+respecting the grotesque than I otherwise could, I have sketched one
+or two original illustrations--Fig. 21 being suggestive of a face,
+Fig. 22 of a skeleton (old bogey), and Fig. 23 of an impossible
+animal. They are intentionally far from imitative. If naturalistic
+some would awaken a sense of pain, as they are contorted into curious
+positions, whereas that which induces no thought of feeling induces no
+sense of pain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+Of all grotesques with which I am acquainted, the dragons of the
+Chinese and Japanese are those which represent a combination of power,
+vigour, energy, and passion most fully. This is to be accounted for by
+the fact that these peoples are believers in dragons. When the sun or
+moon is eclipsed they believe that the luminous orb has been swallowed
+by some fierce monster, which they give form to in the dragon, and
+upon the occurrence of such a phenomenon they, with cans and kettles,
+make rough music, and thus cause the monster to disgorge the luminary,
+the brilliancy of which it would otherwise have for ever extinguished.
+I can understand a believer in dragons drawing these monsters with the
+power and spirit that the Chinese and Japanese do; but I can scarcely
+imagine that a disbeliever could do so--a man's very nature must be
+saturated with a belief in their existence and mischievous power, in
+order that he embody in his delineation such expression of the
+assumed character of this imaginary creature as do the Chinese and
+Japanese.
+
+Although I am not now considering the structure of objects, I may say
+that the grotesque should frequently be used where we meet with
+naturalistic imitations. We not unfrequently see a figure, naturally
+imitated, placed as a support to a superincumbent weight--a female
+figure as an architectural pillar bearing the weight of the
+entablature above, men crouched in the most painful positions
+supporting the bowl of some colossal fountain. Naturalistic figures in
+such positions are simply revolting, however perfect as works of
+sculpture. If weight has to be supported by that which has a
+resemblance to a living creature of any kind, the semblance should
+only be suggested; and the more unreal and woodeny (if I may make such
+a word) the support, if possessing the quaintness and humour of a true
+grotesque, the better.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+It is not the business of the ornamentist to produce that which shall
+induce the feeling of continued pain, unless there is some exceptional
+reason for his so doing, and such a reason is of rare occurrence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+COLOUR.
+
+
+Having considered some of the chief principles involved in the
+production of decorative design so far as "expression" goes, we come
+to notice that constant adjunct of form which has ever played an
+important part in all decorative schemes--namely, colour.
+
+Form can exist independently of colour, but it never has had any
+important development without the chromatic adjunct. From a
+consideration of history, we should be led to conclude that form alone
+is incapable of yielding such enrichments as satisfy; for no national
+system of decoration has ever existed in the absence of colour. Mere
+outline-form may be good, but it is not satisfying; mere light and
+shade may be pleasing, but it is not all that we require. With form
+our very nature seems to demand colour; and it is only when we get
+well-proportioned forms which are graceful, or noble, or vigorous, in
+combination with colours harmoniously arranged, that we are satisfied.
+
+Possibly this feeling results from our contact with nature. The
+flowers appear in a thousand hues, and the hills are of ever-varying
+tints. What a barren world ours would appear, were the ground, the
+hills, the trees and the flowers, the sky and the waters all of one
+colour! Form we should have, and that in its richest variety; light
+and shade we should have, with ever-varying intensity and change; but
+colour would be gone. There would be no green to cheer, no blue to
+soothe, no red to excite; and, indeed, there would be a deadness,
+although the world be full of life, so appalling that we can scarcely
+conceive of it, and cannot _feel_ it.
+
+Colour alone seems to have greater charms than form alone. A sunset is
+entrancing when the sky glows with radiant hues; the blue is almost
+lost in red, the yellow is as a sea of transparent gold, and the whole
+presents a variety and blending of tints which charm, and soothe, and
+lull to reverie; and yet all form is indistinct and obscure. If so
+charming when separate from form, what is colour when properly
+combined with beautiful shapes? It is difficult, indeed, for many of
+those for whom I write to answer this question, even by a mental
+conception, save by reference to nature; for I could scarcely point to
+a single building in England which would be in any way a satisfactory
+illustration of what may be done by the combination of forms and
+colours. There is a beauty in Art which we in England do not even know
+of: it does not exist around us, it is little talked of, rarely
+thought about, and never seen. A decorator is called in to beautify a
+house, and yet not one in fifty of the so-called decorators know even
+the first principles of their art, and would not believe were they
+told of the power of the art which they employ. They place on the
+walls a few sickly tints--so pale that their want of harmony is not
+very apparent. The colours of the wall become the colours of the
+cornice and of the doors, because they know not how to produce a
+harmony of hues; and the result is a house which may be clean, but
+which is in every other respect an offence against good taste. I do
+not wonder that persons here in England do not care to have their
+houses "decorated," nor do I wonder at their not appreciating the
+"decorations" when they are done. Colour, lovely colour, of itself
+would make our rooms charming.
+
+There are few objects to which colour may not be applied, and many
+articles which are now colourless might be coloured with advantage.
+Our reasons for applying colour to objects are twofold, and here, in
+fact, we see its true use. 1st. Colour lends to objects a new charm--a
+charm which they would not possess if without it; and, 2nd, Colour
+assists in the separation of objects and parts of objects, and thus
+gives assistance to form. These, then, are the two objects of colour.
+Mark, first, it is to bestow on objects a charm, such as they could
+not have in its absence. In the hands of the man of knowledge it will
+do so--it will make an object lovely or lovable, but the mere
+application of colour will not do this. Colour may be so applied to
+objects as to render them infinitely more ugly than they were without
+it. I have seen many a bowl so coloured at our potteries as to be much
+less satisfactory when coloured than when white--the colouring having
+marred, rather than improved, its general effect. Here, again, it is
+knowledge that we want. Knowledge will enable us to transmute base
+materials into works of marvellous beauty, worth their weight in gold.
+Knowledge, then, is the true philosopher's stone; for, we may almost
+say, if possessed by the artist it does enable him to transmute the
+baser metals into gold. But a little knowledge will not do this. In
+order that we produce true beauty, we require much knowledge, and this
+can only be got by constant and diligent labour, as I have before
+said; but the end to be gained is worth the plodding toil. Believe me,
+there is a pleasure in seeing your works develop as things of beauty,
+delighting all who see them--not the illiterate only, but also the
+educated thinker--such as words fail to express. Although there is no
+royal road to art-power, and although the road is long, and lies
+through much toil and many difficulties, yet as you proceed there is
+pleasure in feeling that one obstacle after another is cleared from
+your path, and at the end there is inexpressible satisfaction. The
+second object of colour is that of assisting in the separation of
+form. If objects are placed near to one another, and these objects are
+all of the same colour, the beholder will have much more difficulty in
+seeing the boundaries or terminations of each than he would were they
+variously coloured; he would have to come nearer to them in order to
+see the limits of each, were all coloured in the same manner, than he
+would were they variously coloured; thus colour assists in the
+separation of form. This quality which colour has of separating forms
+is often lost sight of, and much confusion thereby results. If it is
+worth while to produce a decorative form, it is worth while to render
+it visible; and yet, how much ornament, and even good ornament, is
+lost to the eye through not being rendered manifest by colour! Colour
+is the means by which we render form apparent.
+
+Colours, when placed together, can only please and satisfy the
+educated when combined harmoniously, or according to the laws of
+harmony. What, then, are the laws which govern the arrangement of
+colours? and how are they to be applied? We shall endeavour to answer
+these questions by making a series of statements in axiomatic form,
+and then we shall enlarge upon these propositions.
+
+
+GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
+
+1. Regarded from an art point of view, there are but three
+colours--_i.e._, blue, red, and yellow.
+
+2. Blue, red, and yellow have been termed _primary_ colours; they
+cannot be formed by the admixture of any other colours.
+
+3. All colours, other than blue, red, and yellow, result from the
+admixture of the primary colours.
+
+4. By the admixture of blue and red, purple is formed; by the
+admixture of red and yellow, orange is formed; and by the admixture of
+yellow and blue, green is formed.
+
+5. Colours resulting from the admixture of two primary colours are
+termed _secondary_: hence purple, orange, and green are secondary
+colours.
+
+6. By the admixture of two secondary colours a _tertiary_ colour is
+formed: thus, purple and orange produce russet (the red tertiary);
+orange and green produce citrine (the yellow tertiary); and green and
+purple, olive (the blue tertiary); russet, citrine, and olive are the
+three tertiary colours.
+
+
+CONTRAST.
+
+7. When a light colour is juxtaposed to a dark colour, the light
+colour appears lighter than it is, and the dark colour darker.[10]
+
+[10] If a dark grey tint be mixed upon a white slab it will appear
+dark in contrast with the white, but if a small portion of this same
+grey is applied to black paper it will appear almost white.
+
+8. When colours are juxtaposed, they become influenced as to their
+hue. Thus, when red and green are placed side by side, the red appears
+redder than it actually is, and the green greener; and when blue and
+black are juxtaposed, the blue manifests but little alteration, while
+the black assumes an orange tint or becomes "rusty."
+
+9. No one colour can be viewed by the eye without another being
+created. Thus, if red is viewed, the eye creates for itself green, and
+this green is cast upon whatever is near. If it views green, red is
+in like manner created and cast upon adjacent objects; thus, if red
+and green are juxtaposed, each creates the other in the eye, and the
+red created by the green is cast upon the red, and the green created
+by the red is cast upon the green; and the red and the green become
+improved by being juxtaposed. The eye also demands the presence of the
+three primary colours, either in their purity or in combination and if
+these are not present, whatever is deficient will be created in the
+eye, and this induced colour will be cast upon whatever is near. Thus,
+when we view blue, orange, which is a mixture of red and yellow, is
+created in the eye, and this colour is cast upon whatever is near; if
+black is in juxtaposition with the blue, this orange is cast upon it,
+and gives to it an orange tint, thus causing it to look "rusty."
+
+10. In like manner, if we look upon red, green is formed in the eye,
+and is cast upon adjacent colours; or, if we look upon yellow, purple
+is formed.
+
+
+HARMONY.
+
+11. Harmony results from an agreeable contrast.
+
+12. Colours which perfectly harmonise improve one another to the
+utmost.
+
+13. In order to perfect harmony, the three colours are necessary,
+either in their purity or in combination.
+
+14. Red and green combine to yield a harmony. Red is a primary colour,
+and green, which is a secondary colour, consists of blue and
+yellow--the other two primary colours. Blue and orange also produce a
+harmony, and yellow and purple, for in each ease the three primary
+colours are present.
+
+15. It has been found that the primary colours in perfect purity
+produce exact harmonies in the proportions of eight parts of blue, 5
+of red, and 3 of yellow; that the secondary colours harmonise in the
+proportions of 13 of purple, 11 of green, and 8 of orange; and that
+the tertiary colours harmonise in the proportions of olive 24, russet
+21, and citrine 19.
+
+16. There are, however, subtleties of harmony which it is difficult to
+understand.
+
+17. The rarest harmonies frequently lie close on the verge of discord.
+
+18. Harmony of colour is, in many respects, analogous to harmony of
+musical sounds.
+
+
+QUALITIES OF COLOURS.
+
+19. Blue is a cold colour, and appears to recede from the eye.
+
+20. Red is a warm colour, and is exciting; it remains stationary as to
+distance.
+
+21. Yellow is the colour most nearly allied to light; it appears to
+advance towards the spectator.
+
+22. At twilight blue appears much lighter than it is, red much darker,
+and yellow slightly darker. By ordinary gaslight blue becomes darker,
+red brighter, and yellow lighter. By this artificial light a pure
+yellow appears lighter than white itself, when viewed in contrast with
+certain other colours.
+
+23. By certain combinations colour may make glad or depress, convey
+the idea of purity, richness, or poverty, or may affect the mind in
+any desired manner, as does music.
+
+
+TEACHINGS OF EXPERIENCE.
+
+24. When a colour is placed on a gold ground, it should be outlined
+with a darker shade of its own colour.
+
+25. When a gold ornament falls on a coloured ground, it should be
+outlined with black.
+
+26. When an ornament falls on a ground which is in direct harmony with
+it, it must be outlined with a lighter tint of its own colour. Thus,
+when a red ornament falls on a green ground, the ornament must be
+outlined with a lighter red.
+
+27. When the ornament and the ground are in two tints of the same
+colour, if the ornament is darker than the ground, it will require
+outlining with a still darker tint of the same colour; but if lighter
+than the ground no outline will be required.
+
+
+ANALYTICAL TABLES OF COLOUR.
+
+When commencing my studies both in science and art, I found great
+advantage from reducing all facts to a tabular form so far as
+possible, and this mode of study I would recommend to others. To me
+this method appears to have great advantages, for by it we see at a
+glance what otherwise is difficult to understand; if carefully done,
+it becomes an analysis of work; and by preparing these tabular
+arrangements of facts the subject becomes impressed on the mind, and
+the relation of one fact to another, or of one part of a scheme to
+another, is seen.
+
+The following analytical tables will illustrate many of the facts
+stated in our propositions. The figures which follow the colours
+represent the proportions in which they harmonise:--
+
+    _Primary Colours._    _Secondary Colours._    _Tertiary Colours._
+     Blue           8      Purple          13      Olive          24
+     Red            5      Green           11      Russet         21
+     Yellow         3      Orange           8      Citrine        19
+
+    _Primary Colours._  _Secondary Colours._    _Tertiary Colours._
+     Red        5 }
+                  }   Orange       8 }
+     Yellow     3 }                  }
+                                     }   Citrine, or Yellow Tertiary  19
+     Blue       8 }                  }
+                  }   Green       11 }
+     Yellow     3 }
+
+     Blue       8 }
+                  }   Purple      13 }
+     Red        5 }                  }
+                                     }   Russet, or Red Tertiary      21
+     Red        5 }                  }
+                  }   Orange       8 }
+     Yellow     3 }
+
+     Blue       8 }
+                  }   Green       11 }
+     Yellow     3 }                  }
+                                     }   Olive, or Blue Tertiary      24
+     Blue       8 }                  }
+                  }   Purple      13 }
+     Red        5 }
+
+This latter table shows at a glance how each of the secondary and
+tertiary colours is formed, and the proportions in which they
+harmonise. It also shows why the three tertiary colours are called
+respectively the yellow tertiary, the red tertiary, and the blue
+tertiary, for into each tertiary two equivalents[11] of one primary
+enter, and one equivalent of each of the other primaries. Thus, in
+citrine we find two equivalents of yellow, and one each of red and
+blue; hence it is the yellow tertiary. In russet we find two
+equivalents of red, and one each of blue and of yellow; and in olive
+two of blue, and one each of red and yellow. Hence they are
+respectively the red and blue tertiaries.
+
+[11] An equivalent of blue is 8, of red 5, of yellow 3.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+Figs 24 and 25 are diagrams of harmony. I have connected in the
+centre, by three similar lines, the colours which form a harmony;
+thus, blue, red, and yellow harmonise when placed together. Purple,
+green, and orange also harmonise (I have connected them by dotted
+lines in the first of the two diagrams). But when two colours are to
+produce a harmony, the one will be a primary colour, and the other a
+secondary formed of the other two primary colours (for the presence of
+the three primary colours is necessary to a harmony), or the one will
+be a secondary, and the other a tertiary colour formed of the two
+remaining secondary colours. Such harmonies I have placed opposite to
+each other; thus blue, a primary, harmonises with orange, a secondary;
+yellow with purple; and red with green; and the secondary colour is
+placed between the two primary colours of which it is formed; thus,
+orange is formed of red and yellow, between which it stands; green, of
+blue and yellow; and purple, of blue and red. In the second of the two
+diagrams we see that purple, green, and orange produce a harmony, so
+do olive, russet, and citrine. We also see that purple and citrine
+harmonise, and green and russet, and orange and olive.
+
+Continuing this diagrammatic form of illustration, we may set forth
+the quantities in which the various colours harmonise: thus:--
+
+    _Blue._        _Red._        _Yellow._
+    O O O O       O O O O         O O O
+    O O O O       O
+
+    _Blue._                      _Orange._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+
+    _Red._                       _Green._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O                             O O O O
+                                  O O O
+
+    _Yellow._                    _Purple._
+    O O O      harmonises with    O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O
+
+    _Purple._                    _Citrine._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+    O                             O O O O
+                                  O O O
+
+    _Green._                     _Russet._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+    O O O                         O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O
+
+    _Orange._                    _Olive._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+
+To those who are about to practise ornamentation, it is very important
+that they have in the mind's eye a tolerably accurate idea of the
+relative quantities of the various colours necessary to harmony, even
+where the colours are considered as existing in a state of absolute
+purity. We have rarely, however, to use the brightest blues, reds, and
+yellows which pigments furnish, and even these are but poor
+representatives of the potent colours of light as seen in the rainbow,
+and with the agency of the prism; nevertheless, a knowledge of the
+quantities in which these pure colours harmonise is very desirable.
+The proportions in which we have stated that colours perfectly
+harmonise, and in which the primary colours combine to form the
+secondaries, and the secondaries the tertiaries, are given in respect
+to the colours of light, and not of pigments or paints, which, as we
+have just said, are more or less base representatives of the pure
+colours of light. Yet certain pigments may, for our purpose, be
+regarded as representing pure colours. Thus, the purest real
+ultramarine we will regard as blue (cobalt is rather green, that is,
+it has a little yellow in it, and the French and German ultramarines
+are generally rather purple, or have a little red in them, yet the
+best of these latter is a tolerably pure colour), the purest French
+carmine as red (common carmine is frequently rather crimson, that is,
+has blue in it; vermilion is much too yellow), and lemon-chrome as
+yellow (the chrome selected must be without any green shade, and
+without any orange shade, however slight); and these pigments will be
+found to represent the colours of the prism as nearly as any that can
+be found. I would recommend the learner to get a small quantity of
+these colours in their powder form, substituting the best pale German
+ultramarine for real ultramarine, as the latter is of high price,[12]
+and to fill the various circles of our diagrams, which represent the
+primary colours, with these pigments, mixing them with a little
+dissolved gum arabic and water--just ufficient to prevent the colours
+from rubbing off the paper. The secondary colours will be fairly
+represented by pale-green lake, often called drop-green, by
+orange-chrome--that of about the colour of a ripe, rather
+deep-coloured, orange-rind--and the purple by the admixture of pale
+German ultramarine and crimson-lake, in about equal proportions, with
+a little white to bring it to the same depth as the green. I cannot
+name any pigments which would well represent the tertiary colours.
+Citrine is about the colour of candied _lemon_-peel; olive about the
+colour of candied citron-peel, and russet is often seen on the skin of
+certain apples called "russet apples," in the form of a slight
+roughness; but this russet is in many cases not quite sufficiently red
+to represent the colour bearing the same name. Iron rust is rather too
+yellow. This colour should bear the same relation to red that the
+candied lemon-peel does to yellow.
+
+[12] Real ultramarine is sold at £8 per ounce. The best imitation, or
+German ultramarine, is procurable at any oil-shop at about 3s. to 4s.
+per pound. The best carmine should be procurable at 6s. per ounce, but
+artists' colourmen often charge £1 1s., owing to the small demand for
+this pigment. The best chrome yellow (chrome yellow is kept in many
+shades) is about 1s. 6d. per pound.
+
+If the student will try carefully to realise these colours, and will
+fill up the circles in our diagrams with them, he will thereby be much
+assisted in his studies; but it will be still better if he prepare
+fresh diagrams on a larger scale, and use squares instead of circles.
+I should recommend, and that I do strongly, that the student work out
+all the diagrams which I have suggested on a tolerably large scale,
+using the colours where I have used words. I should also advise him to
+do an ornament, say in red on a gold ground, and outline this red
+ornament with a deeper red; to do a gold ornament on a coloured
+ground, and outline it with black; and indeed to carefully work out an
+ornamental illustration of our propositions, Nos. 24, 25, 26, and 27,
+and to keep these before him till he is so impressed by them as to
+_feel_ the principle which they set forth. This should be done on a
+large scale in all our designing-rooms and art-workshops.
+
+As we shall have to refer to colours by naming pigments, and as I am
+constantly asked what pigments I employ, I shall enumerate the paints
+in my colour-box; but I shall place a dagger against those which I
+have in my private box, and which I do not supply in my offices; but
+these I seldom use. Of yellows I have [14]king's yellow (not a permanent
+colour), [14]very pale chrome, lemon-chrome (about the colour of a ripe
+lemon), middle-chrome (half-way between the lemon and orange-chrome),
+orange-chrome (about the colour of the rind of a ripe orange),
+[14]yellow-lake, [14]Indian yellow. Of reds--vermilion, carmine,
+crimson-lake. Of blues--[14]cobalt, German ultramarine, both deep and
+pale, Antwerp blue, indigo. Of greens--emerald, green-lake, pale and
+deep. Of browns--raw Turkey umber, vandyke, Venetian red,
+purple-brown, brown-lake. Besides these I have what is called
+celestial blue, which is a very pure and intense turquoise, vegetable
+black, flake white, and gold bronze.[13]
+
+[13] Some of these colours are not of a permanent character and could
+not be used in work intended to be lasting. I use them for patterns
+for our manufactures, where when the drawing is once copied in a
+fabric it is destroyed. Some of the brightest colours are
+unfortunately the most fleeting.
+
+There are certain facts connected with the mixing of colours which
+must never be lost sight of; thus, while the colours of light
+co-mingle without any deterioration, or loss of brilliancy, pigments
+or paints will not do so, but by admixture tend to destroy one
+another. This takes place only to a small extent when but two primary
+colours are combined; but if any of the third primary enters into the
+composition of a tint, a decided deterioration, or loss of intensity,
+occurs.
+
+For this reason we employ many pigments, so as to avoid as far as
+possible the mixing of colours. But there is another reason why the
+great admixture of colours is undesirable. Colours are chemical
+agents, and in some cases the various pigments act chemically on one
+another. Of all colours yellows suffer most by admixture with other
+colours: but this is accounted for by their delicacy and purity. For
+this reason I use a greater variety of yellow pigments than of red or
+blue.[14]
+
+[14] Of all mediums in which colours can be mixed, paraffine is the
+safest; it is without chemical affinities, and is therefore well
+calculated to preserve pigments in their original condition.
+
+Were it possible to procure three pigments devoid of chemical
+affinities, and each of the same physical constitution, as of equal
+degrees of transparency or opacity, one truly representing the blue of
+light, another the red, and another the yellow, we should need no
+others, for of these we could form all other colours; but as no
+pigments come even near to the fulfilment of these conditions, we have
+to employ roundabout and clumsy methods of arriving at desired
+results.
+
+There is one statement which I have made that, perhaps, needs a little
+elucidation, although the careful student may have seen the reason of
+my assertion. I said that purple harmonised with citrine, green with
+russet, and orange with olive. I might have expressed it (and many
+would have done so) thus:--The complement of citrine is purple, the
+complement of russet is green, and the complement of olive is orange.
+A colour which is complementary to any other is that which, with it,
+completes the presence of the three primary colours: thus green is the
+complement of red, and red of green, for each, together with the
+colour to which it is the complement, completes the presence of the
+three colours. But in order to a harmony, the complement must be made
+up in certain proportions. Let us now refer to our second diagrammatic
+table, and we there see that citrine is formed of two equivalents of
+yellow and only one equivalent of red and of blue. Now, in order to a
+harmony, each primary should be present in two equivalents, as one is
+present in this quantity--_i.e._, the yellow. One equivalent of blue
+and one of red (both of which are wanting in the citrine) form purple;
+hence purple is the complement of citrine, or the colour that with it
+produces a harmony. In russet one equivalent of blue and one of yellow
+are wanting, and these in combination are green--green, then, is the
+complement of russet. And in olive one equivalent of red and one of
+yellow are wanting--red and yellow form orange, hence orange is the
+complement of olive.
+
+I have spoken of all colours as of full intensity and purity, but we
+have to deal also with other conditions. All colours may be darkened
+by black, when _shades_ are produced; or reduced by white, when
+_tints_ are produced. Besides these alterations in intensity, a
+portion of one colour may be added to another. Thus, if a small
+portion of blue be mingled with red, the red becomes a crimson or
+blue-red; or if a small portion of yellow be added to the red, the
+latter becomes a scarlet or yellow-red. In like manner, when yellow is
+in excess in a green, we have a yellow-green; or when blue is in
+excess, a blue-green; and so with the other colours. Such alterations
+produce _hues_ of colour.
+
+We now come to the subtleties of harmony. Thus, if we have a
+yellow-red or scarlet--a red with yellow in it--the green that will
+harmonise with it will be a blue-green; or if we have a blue-red or
+crimson--a red with blue in it--the green that will harmonise with it
+will be a yellow-green. This is obvious, for the following
+reasons:--Let us suppose a red represented by the equivalent number,
+five, with one part of blue added to it, thus causing it to be a
+blue-red or crimson. Were the red pure, there should be eleven parts
+of green as a complement to the five of red, of which green eight
+parts would be blue and three yellow; but the blue-red occurs in six
+parts, one of which is blue--there are, then, but seven parts of blue
+remaining in the equivalent quantity to combine with the three of
+yellow, one being already used; hence the green formed is a
+yellow-green, one of the equivalents of blue necessary to the
+formation of a true green being already in combination with the red,
+and thus absent from the green.
+
+The same reasoning will apply to the scarlet-red and blue-green, and,
+indeed, to all similar cases; but to take the case of the crimson-red
+and yellow-green, as just given, and carry it a stage further, we
+might add two parts (out of the eight) of blue to the red, and make it
+more blue, and then form the complementary green of six parts of blue
+and three of yellow, and thus make it more yellow. Or we may go
+further still, and add to the red six of the eight parts of blue, when
+the admixture would appear as a red-purple rather than as a blue-red,
+in which case the complementary green--or, rather, green-yellow--would
+consist of two parts of blue and three of yellow. These facts are
+diagrammatically expressed in the following:--
+
+  Red     O O O O O }                 Yellow  {         O O O Yellow
+                    } Crimson harmonises with {
+  Blue            O }                  Green  { O O O O O O O Blue
+
+                                      Or,
+
+  Red     O O O O O }  Blue            Very   {        O O O Yellow
+                    }  harmonises with Yellow {
+  Blue          O O }  Crimson         Green  {  O O O O O O Blue
+
+                                      Or,
+
+  Red.    O O O O O }  Red             Green  {        O O O Yellow
+                    }  harmonises with        {
+  Blue. O O O O O O }  Purple    Yellow       {          O O Blue
+
+In all these cases it will be seen that we have eight parts of blue,
+five of red, and three of yellow, only the mode of combination varies.
+This variation may occur to any extent, provided the totals of each be
+always the equivalent proportions.
+
+These remarks will apply equally to hues of colour, shades, and tints,
+and to shades and tints of hues.
+
+Care, and a little practice, will enable the learner to arrange
+colours into a number of degrees of depth, or shades, as they are
+generally called. (We do not here use the term as signifying pure
+colours darkened with black.) Ten shades of each colour differing
+obviously in degree of depth can readily be arranged by the
+experienced, the ten shades being equidistant from each other as
+regards depth--that is, shade 3 will be as much darker than shade 2 as
+shade 2 is darker than shade 1, and so on throughout the whole. Purple
+is a colour intermediate between blue and red. Imagine ten hues
+between the purple and the red, and ten more between the purple and
+the blue: thus we should have purple, then a slightly red purple, then
+a rather redder purple, then a purple still redder, and so on till we
+get purple-reds, and finally the pure red; and the same variations of
+hue at the blue side also. Imagine, further, the green having ten hues
+extending towards the blue, and ten more stretching towards the
+yellow; and the orange having ten hues towards the red, and ten
+towards the yellow--in all cases I count the colour from which we
+start as one of the ten, thus:--
+
+    Blue                     Purple                     Red
+    0  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  0
+
+--and we shall have 54 colours and hues of colour. Of each of these 54
+colours and hues imagine 10 degrees of depth, and we get 540 colours,
+hues, tints, and shades, all differing from one another to an obvious
+degree.
+
+Mark this fact, that any colour, tint, hue, or shade of such a diagram
+has its complement in one other of the colours, tints, hues, or shades
+of the diagram, and that only two of this series of 540 are
+complementary to each other; thus, if you fix on any one colour of the
+540, there is but one colour in the whole that is complementary to it,
+and it is complementary to but this one other colour.
+
+The student will do well to try and make a colour-diagram of this
+kind, of a simple character, say such as the following, only using
+pigments for my numbers; but in doing so he must exercise the utmost
+care, in order that he secure some degree of accuracy of tint or
+shade, and if he can call to his aid an experienced colourist it will
+be of great assistance to him.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This table is highly valuable, as it gives ninety harmonies, if
+carefully prepared in colour; and the preparation of such a table is
+the very best practice that a student can possibly have.
+
+Let us for a moment consider this table, and suppose that we want to
+find the complement to some particular colour, as the third shade of
+red. We find the complement of this in the third shade of green
+opposite. If we want the complement of the second shade of
+orange-yellow, we find it in the second shade of blue-purple opposite,
+and so on. Thus we have a means of at once judging of the harmony of
+colours.
+
+It must ever be borne in mind that pigments mixed in the proportions
+given will not yield results such as would occur when the coloured
+rays of light are combined; thus three parts, either by weight or
+measure, of chrome yellow when combined with eight parts of
+ultramarine would not form a colour representing the secondary green,
+nor would the result be more satisfactory were other pigments combined
+in the proportions given. What we have said in respect to the
+proportions in which colours combine to form new colours applies only
+to the coloured rays of light.
+
+It must now be noticed that while colours harmonise in the proportions
+stated, the areas occupied by the different colours may vary if there
+be a corresponding alteration in intensity. Thus eight of blue and
+eight of orange form a perfect harmony when both colours are of
+prismatic intensity; but we shall still have a perfect harmony if the
+orange is diluted to one-half its strength with white, and thus formed
+into a tint, provided there be sixteen parts of this orange of half
+strength to the eight parts of blue of full strength.
+
+The orange might be further diluted to one-third of its full power,
+but then twenty-four parts would be necessary to a perfect harmony
+with eight parts of prismatic blue; or to one-fourth of its strength,
+when thirty-two parts would be necessary to the harmony.
+
+It is not desirable that I occupy space with diagrams of these
+quantities, but the industrious student will prepare them for himself,
+and will strive to realise a true half-tint, quarter-tint, etc., which
+is not a very easy thing to do. By practice, however, it will readily
+be accomplished, and anything achieved is a new power gained.
+
+What I have said respecting the harmony of blue with tints of orange
+will apply in all similar cases. Thus red will harmonise with tints of
+green, provided the area of the tint be increased as the intensity is
+decreased; and so will yellow harmonise with tints of purple under
+similar conditions.
+
+But we may reverse the conditions, and lower the primary to a tint
+retaining the secondary in its intensity. Thus blue, if reduced to a
+half-tint, will harmonise with orange of prismatic intensity in the
+proportion of sixteen of blue to eight of orange; or, if reduced to a
+quarter-tint, in the proportion o£ thirty-two of blue to eight of
+orange. Red, if reduced to a half-tint, will harmonise in the
+proportion of ten red to eleven of green; and yellow as a half-tint in
+the proportion of six yellow to thirteen of purple.
+
+The same remarks might be made respecting the harmony of shades of
+colour with colours of prismatic intensity. Thus, if orange is diluted
+to a shade of half intensity with black, it will harmonise with pure
+blue in the proportion of sixteen of orange to eight of blue, and so
+on, just as in the case of tints; and this principle applies to the
+harmony of all hues of colour also.
+
+To go one step further: we scarcely ever deal with pure colours or
+their shades or tints, or even come as near them as we can. With great
+intensity of colour we seem to require an ethereal character, such as
+we have in those of light; but our pigments are coarse and
+earthy--they are too real-looking, and are not ethereal--they may be
+said to be corporeal rather than spiritual in character. For this
+reason we have to avoid the use of our purest pigments in such
+quantities as render their poverty of nature manifest, and to use for
+large surfaces such tints as, through their subtlety of composition,
+interest and please. A tint the composition of which is not apparent
+is always preferable to one of more obvious formation. Thus we are led
+to use tints which are subtly formed, and such as please by their
+newness and bewilder by the intricacy of formation.
+
+To do what I here mean it is not necessary that many pigments be mixed
+together in order to the formation of a tint. The effect of which I
+speak can frequently be got by two well-chosen pigments. Thus a fine
+series of low-toned shades can be produced by mixing together
+middle-chrome and brown-lake in various proportions, and in all of the
+shades thus formed the three primary colours will be represented, but
+in some yellow will predominate, and in others red; while in many it
+will not be easy to discover to what proportionate extent the three
+primary colours are present.
+
+Let us suppose that we make a tint by adding white to cobalt blue.
+This blue contains a small amount of yellow, and is a slightly green
+blue. But to this tint we add a small amount of raw umber with the
+view of imparting a greyness[15] or atmospheric character. Raw umber
+is a neutral colour, leaning slightly to yellow--that is, it consists
+of red, blue, and yellow, with a slight excess of the latter. In order
+that an orange harmonise with this grey-blue of a slightly yellow
+tone, the orange must be slightly inclined to red, so as to form the
+complement of the little green formed by the yellow in the blue. It
+may harmonise with the grey-blue as a pure tint if the area of the
+diluted and neutralised primary is sufficiently extended, or may
+itself be likewise reduced to a tint of the same depth, when both
+tints would have the same area.
+
+[15] Cobalt, raw umber, and white make a magnificent grey, both in
+oil-colours, in tempera (powder-colours mixed with gum-water), and in
+distemper (powder-colours mixed with size).
+
+I might go on multiplying cases of this character to almost any
+extent, but these I leave the student to work out for himself, and
+pass to notice that while it is desirable to use subtle tints (often
+called "broken tints") it is rarely expedient to make up the full
+harmony by a large area of a tertiary tone and a single positive
+colour. Thus, we might have a shade or a tint of citrine spreading
+over a large surface as a ground on which we wished to place a figure.
+This figure would harmonise in pure purple were it of a certain size,
+and yet if thus coloured it would give a somewhat common-place effect
+when finished, for the harmony would be too simple and obvious. It
+would be much better to have the nineteen parts of citrine reduced,
+say, to half intensity, when the area would be increased to
+thirty-eight, with the figure of eight parts of blue and five of red,
+than of thirteen parts of purple.
+
+But it would be better still if there were the thirty-eight parts of
+reduced citrine, three parts of pure yellow, thirteen of purple, five
+of red, and eight of blue, together with white, black, or gold, or all
+three (these may be added without altering the conditions, as all act
+as neutrals), for here the harmony is of a more subtle character.
+
+If we count up the equivalents of the colours employed in this scheme
+of harmony, we shall see that we have, in the citrine--
+
+    Yellow  6 (two equivalents).
+    Blue    8 (one equivalent).
+    Red     5 (one equivalent).
+
+In the purple--
+
+    Blue    8 (one equivalent).
+    Red     5 (one equivalent).
+
+Of the pure colours--
+
+    Yellow  3 (one equivalent).
+    Red     5 (one equivalent).
+    Blue    8 (one equivalent).
+
+Thus we have three equivalents of each primary, which give a perfect
+harmony.
+
+I must not say more respecting the laws of harmony, for in the space
+of a small work it is impossible to do so, but proceed to notice
+certain effects or properties of colours, which I have as yet only
+alluded to, or have passed altogether unnoticed.
+
+I have said that black, white, and gold are neutral as regards colour.
+This is the case, although many would suppose that gold was a yellow.
+Gold will act as a yellow, but it is generally employed as a neutral
+in decorative work, and it is more of a neutral than a yellow, for
+both red and blue exist largely in it. The pictorial artist frames his
+picture with gold because it, being a neutral, does not interfere with
+the tints of his work. It has the further advantage of being rich and
+costly in appearance, and thus of giving an impression of worth where
+it exists.
+
+Black, white, and gold, being neutral, may be advantageously employed
+to separate colours where separation is necessary or desirable.
+
+Yellow and purple harmonise, but yellow is a light colour and purple
+is dark. These colours not only harmonise, but also contrast as to
+depth, the one being light and the other dark. The limit of each
+colour, wherever these are used in juxtaposition, is therefore
+obvious.
+
+It is not so with red and green, for these harmonise when of the same
+depth. This being the case, and red being a glowing colour, if a red
+object is placed on a green ground, or a green object on a red ground,
+the "figure" and ground will appear to "swim" together, and will
+produce a dazzling effect. Colour must assist form, and not confuse
+it. It will do this in the instance just named if the figure is
+outlined with black, white, or gold, and there will be no loss of
+harmony. But experience has shown that this effect can also be averted
+by outlining the figure with a lighter tint of its own colour. Thus,
+if the figure is red and the ground green, an outline of lighter red
+(pink) may be employed. (See Proposition 26, page 34.)
+
+A blue figure on a red ground (as ultramarine on carmine), or a red
+figure on a blue ground, will also produce this swimming and
+unsatisfactory effect, but this is again obviated by an outline of
+black, white, or gold.
+
+Employing the outline thus must not be regarded as a means of merely
+rendering what was actually unpleasant endurable, for it does much
+more--it affords one of the richest means of effect. A carmine ground
+well covered with bold green ornament having a gold outline is, if
+well managed, truly gorgeous; and were the figure blue on the red
+ground, the lavish use of gold would render the employment of yellow
+unnecessary as the yellow formed in the eye and cast upon the gold
+would satisfy all requirements.
+
+It is a curious fact that the eye will create any colour of which
+there is a deficiency. This it will do, but the colour so created is
+of little use to the composition unless white or gold is present; if,
+however, there be white or gold in the composition, the colour which
+is absent, or is insufficiently represented, will be formed in the eye
+and cast upon these neutrals, and the white or the gold, as the case
+may be, will assume the tint of the deficient or absent colour. (See
+Propositions 8 and 9, page 32.)
+
+While this occurs (and sometimes it occurs to a marked degree, as can
+be shown by experiment), it must not be supposed that a composition in
+which any element is wanting is as perfect as one which reveals no
+want. It is far otherwise; only Nature here comes to our assistance,
+and is content to help herself rather than endure our short-comings;
+but in the one case we give Nature the labour of completing the
+harmony; while in the other, all being prepared, we receive a sense of
+satisfaction and repose.
+
+In Proposition 8 we showed that when blue and black are juxtaposed,
+the black becomes "rusty," or assumes an orange tint; and in
+Proposition 9 we gave the cause of this effect. Let a blue spot be
+placed on a black silk necktie, and however black the silk, it will
+yet appear rusty. This is a fact; but we sometimes desire to employ
+blue on black, and wish the black to look black, and not an
+orange-black. How can we do this? Obviously by substituting for the
+black a very dark blue, as indigo. The bright blue spot induces orange
+(the complement of blue) in the eye. This orange, when cast upon
+black, causes the latter to look "rusty;" but if we place in the black
+an amount of blue sufficient to neutralise the orange cast upon it,
+the effect will be that of a jet-black.
+
+We have now considered those qualities of colour, and those laws of
+contrast and harmony, which may be said to be of the grosser sort; but
+we have scarcely touched on those considerations which pertain to
+special refinement or tenderness of effect. But let me close the part
+of my subject of which I have treated, by repeating a statement
+already made--a statement, let me say, which first led me to perceive
+really harmony of colour--that _those colours, and those particular
+hues of colour, which improve each other to the utmost, are those
+which perfectly harmonise_. (Consider this statement in connection
+with Propositions 8, 9, 10, and 14, pages 32 and 33.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We come now to consider delicacies and refinements in colour effects,
+which, although dependent upon the skilful exercise of the laws
+enunciated, are yet of a character, the power to produce which only
+results from the consideration of the works of the masters of great
+art-nations; but of these effects I can say little beyond pointing out
+what should be studied.
+
+This principle however I cannot pass without notice--namely, that the
+finest colour effects are those of a rich, mingled, bloomy character.
+
+Imagine a luxuriant garden, the beds in which are filled with a
+thousand flowers, having all the colours of the rainbow, and imagine
+these arranged as closely together as will permit of their growth.
+When viewed from a distance the effect is soft and rich, and full and
+varied, and is all that is pleasant. This is Nature's colouring. It is
+our work humbly to strive at producing like beauty with her.
+
+This leads me to notice that primary colours (and secondary colours,
+also, when of great intensity) should be used chiefly in small masses,
+together with gold, white, or black.
+
+Visit the Indian Museum at Whitehall,[16] and consider the beautiful
+Indian shawls and scarves and table-covers; or, if unable to do so,
+look in the windows of our large drapers in the chief towns, and see
+the true Indian fabrics,[17] and observe the manner in which small
+portions of intense reds, blues, yellows, greens, and a score of
+tertiary tints, are combined with white and black and gold to produce
+a very miracle of bloom. I know of nothing in the way of colour
+combination so rich, so beautiful, so gorgeous, and yet so soft, as
+some of these Indian shawls.
+
+[16] This museum is open free to the public.
+
+[17] These will only be seen in very first-class shops.
+
+It is curious that we never find a purely Indian work otherwise than
+in good taste as regards colour harmony. Indian works, in this
+respect--whether carpets, or shawls, or dress materials, or lacquered
+boxes, or enamelled weapons--are almost perfect--perfect in harmony,
+perfect in richness, perfect in the softness of their general effect.
+How strangely these works contrast with ours, where an harmonious work
+in colours is scarcely ever seen.
+
+By the co-mingling (not co-mixing) of colours in the manner just
+described, a rich and bloomy effect can be got, having the general
+tone of a tertiary colour of any desired hue. Thus, if a wall be
+covered with little ornamental flowerets, by colouring all alike, and
+letting each contain two parts of yellow and one part of blue and one
+of red, as separate and pure colours, the distant hue will be that of
+citrine: the same effect will result if the flowers are coloured
+variously, while the same proportions of the primaries are preserved
+throughout. I can conceive of no decorative effects more subtle, rich,
+and lovely than those of which I now speak.
+
+Imagine three rooms, all connected by open archways, and all decorated
+with a thousand flower-like ornaments, and these so coloured, in this
+mingled manner, that in one room blue predominates, in another red,
+and in another yellow; we should then have a beautiful tertiary bloom
+in each--a subtle mingling of colour, an exquisite delicacy and
+refinement of treatment, a fulness such as always results from a rich
+mingling of hues, and an amount of detail which would interest when
+closely inspected; besides which, we should have the harmony of the
+general effect of the three rooms, the one appearing as olive, another
+as citrine, and the other as russet.
+
+This mode of decoration has this advantage, that it not only gives
+richness and beauty, but it also gives purity. If pigments are mixed
+together they are thereby reduced in intensity, as we have already
+seen; but if placed side by side, when viewed from a distance the eye
+will mix them, but they will suffer no diminution of brilliancy.
+
+With the view of cultivating the eye, Eastern works cannot be too
+carefully studied. The Indian Museum should be the home of all who can
+avail themselves of the opportunity of study which it affords; and the
+small Indian department of the South Kensington Museum should not be
+neglected, small though it is.[18] Chinese works must also be
+considered, for they likewise supply most valuable examples of colour
+harmony; and although they do not present such a perfect colour bloom
+as do the works of India, yet they are never inharmonious, and give
+clearness and sharpness, together with great brilliancy, in a manner
+not attempted by the Indians.
+
+[18] It may not be generally known, but nearly all our large
+manufacturing towns have, in connection with the Chamber of Commerce,
+a collection of Indian fabrics, filling several large volumes, which
+were prepared, at the expense of Government, under the superintendence
+of Dr. Forbes Watson, and which were given to the various towns on the
+condition that they be accessible to all persons who are trustworthy.
+Although these collections do not embrace the costly decorated
+fabrics, yet much can be learned from them, and the combinations of
+colour are always harmonious. A much larger collection is now in
+course of formation.
+
+The best works of Chinese embroidery are rarely seen in this country;
+but these are unsurpassed by the productions of any other people. For
+richness, splendour, and purity of colour, together with a delicious
+coolness, I know of nothing to equal them.
+
+The works of the Japanese are not to be overlooked, for in certain
+branches of art they are inimitable, and as colourists they are almost
+perfect. On the commonest of their lacquer trays we generally have a
+bit of good colouring, and their coloured pictures are sometimes
+marvels of harmony.
+
+As to the styles of colouring adopted by the nations referred to, I
+should say that the Indians produce rich, mingled, bloomy, _warm_
+effects--that is, effects in which red and yellow prevail; that the
+Chinese achieve clearness, repose, and _coolness_--a form of colouring
+in which blue and white prevail; and that the Japanese effects are
+_warm_, simple, and quiet.
+
+Besides studying the works of India, China, and Japan, study those
+also of Turkey and Morocco, and even those of Algeria, for here the
+colouring is much better than with us, although not so good as in the
+countries first named. No aid to progress must be neglected, and no
+help must be despised.[19]
+
+[19] The South Kensington Museum has a very interesting collection of
+art-works from China and Japan; but the latter are chiefly lent. It is
+a strange thing that the perfect works of the East are so poorly
+illustrated in this national collection, while costly, yea, very
+costly works of inferior character, illustrative of Renaissance art,
+swarm as thickly as flies in August. This can only be accounted for by
+the fact that the heads of the institution have a feeling for
+pictorial rather than decorative art, and the Renaissance ornament is
+that which has most of the pictorial element. To me, the style appears
+to owe its very weakness to this fact, for decorative art should be
+wholly ideal. Pictorial art is of necessity more or less imitative.
+
+With the view of refining the judgment further in respect to colour,
+get a good colour-top,[20] and study its beautiful effects. See also
+the "gas tubes" illuminated by electricity, as sold by opticians, and
+let the prism yield you daily instruction. Soap-bubbles may also be
+blown, and the beautiful colours seen in them carefully noted. These
+and any other available means of cultivating the eye should constantly
+be resorted to, as by such means only can we become great colourists.
+
+[20] Not the so-called colour or "chameleon" top sold in the
+toy-shops, but the more scientific toy procurable of opticians,
+together with the perforated discs of Mr. John Graham, M.R.C.S., of
+Tunbridge, Kent.
+
+As to works on colour, we have the writings of Field, to whom we are
+indebted for valuable discoveries; of Hay, the decorator, and friend
+of the late David Roberts, but some of his ideas are wild and Utopian;
+of Chevreul, whose work will be most useful to the student; and the
+small catechism of colour by Mr. Redgrave, of the South Kensington
+Museum, which is excellent. The student will also do well to carefully
+study the excellent manual of "Colour" by Professor Church, of
+Cirencester College.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+FURNITURE.
+
+
+Having considered those principles which are of primary importance to
+the ornamentist, we may commence our notice of the various
+manufactures, and try to discover what particular form of art should
+be applied to each, and the special manner in which decorative
+principles should be considered as applicable to various materials and
+modes of working.
+
+We shall first consider furniture, or cabinet-work, because articles
+of furniture occupy a place of greater importance in a room than
+carpets, wall-papers, or, perhaps, any other decorative works; and,
+also, because we shall learn from a consideration of furniture those
+structural principles which will be of value to us in considering the
+manner in which all art-objects should be formed if they have solid,
+and not simply superficial, dimensions.
+
+In the present chapter, I shall strive to impress the fact that design
+and ornamentation may be essentially different things, and that in
+considering the formation of works of furniture these should be
+regarded as separate and distinct. "Design," says Redgrave, "has
+reference to the construction of any work both for use and beauty, and
+therefore includes its ornamentation also. Ornament is merely the
+decoration of a thing constructed."
+
+The construction of furniture will form the chief theme of this
+chapter, for unless such works are properly constructed they cannot
+possibly be useful, and if not useful they would fail to answer the
+end for which they were contrived.
+
+But before commencing a consideration of the principles involved in
+the construction of works of furniture, let me summarise what is
+required in such works if they are to assume the character of
+art-objects.
+
+1. The general form, or mass form, of all constructed works must be
+carefully considered. The aspect of the "sky-blotch" of an
+architectural edifice is very important, for as the day wanes the
+detail fades and parts become blended, till the members compose but
+one whole, which, when seen from the east, appears as a solid mass
+drawn in darkness on the glowing sky; this is the sky-blotch. If the
+edifice _en masse_ is pleasing, a great point is gained. Indeed, the
+general contour should have primary consideration. In like manner, the
+general form of all works of furniture should first be cared for, and
+every effort should be made at securing to the general mass beauty of
+shape.
+
+2. After having cared for the general form, the manner in which the
+work shall be divided into primary and secondary parts must be
+considered with reference to the laws of proportion, as stated in a
+former chapter.
+
+3. Detail and enrichment may now be considered; but while these cannot
+be too excellent, they must still be subordinate in obtrusiveness to
+the general mass, or to the aspect of the work as a whole.
+
+4. The material of which the object is formed must always be worked in
+the most natural and appropriate manner.
+
+5. The most convenient or appropriate form for an object should always
+be chosen, for unless this has been done, no reasonable hope can be
+entertained that the work will be satisfactory; for the consideration
+of utility must in all cases precede the consideration of beauty, as
+we saw in our first chapter.
+
+Having made these few general remarks, we must consider the structure
+of works of furniture. The material of which we form our furniture is
+wood. Wood has a "grain," and the strength of any particular piece
+largely depends upon the direction of its grain. It may be strong if
+its grain runs parallel with its length, or weak if the grain crosses
+diagonally, or very weak if the grain crosses transversely. However
+strong the wood, it becomes comparatively much weaker if the grain
+crosses the piece; and however weak the wood, it becomes yet weaker if
+the grain is transverse or diagonal. These considerations lead us to
+see that _the grain of the wood must always be parallel with its
+length whenever strength is required_.
+
+For our guidance in the formation of works of furniture, I give the
+following short table of woods arranged as to their strength:--
+
+_Iron-wood_, from Jamaica--very strong, bearing great lateral
+pressure.
+
+_Box_ of Illawarry, New South Wales--very strong, but not so strong as
+iron-wood.
+
+_Mountain ash_, New South Wales--about two-thirds the strength of
+iron-wood.
+
+_Beech_--nearly as strong as mountain ash.
+
+_Mahogany_, from New South Wales--not quite so strong as last.
+
+_Black dog-wood_ of Jamaica--three-fourths as strong as the mahogany
+just named.
+
+_Box-wood_, Jamaica--not half as strong as the box of New South Wales.
+
+_Cedar_ of Jamaica--half as strong as the mahogany of New South
+Wales.[21]
+
+[21] For full particulars on this subject see "Catalogue of the
+Collection illustrating Construction and Building Material," in the
+South Kensington Museum, and the manual of "Technical Drawing for
+Cabinetmakers," by E. A. Davidson.
+
+Wood can be got of sufficient length to meet all the requirements of
+furniture-making, yet we not unfrequently find the arch structurally
+introduced into furniture, while it is absurd to employ it in wooden
+construction of any kind. The arch is a most ingenious invention, as
+it affords a means of spanning a large space with small portions of
+material, as with small stones, and at the same time gives great
+strength. It is, therefore, of the utmost utility in constructing
+stone buildings; but in works of furniture, where we have no large
+spaces to span, and where wood is of the utmost length required, and
+is stronger than our requirements demand, the use of the arch becomes
+structurally foolish and absurd. The folly of this mode of structure
+becomes more apparent when we notice that a wooden arch is always
+formed of one or two pieces, and not of very small portions, and when
+we further consider that, in order to the formation of an arch, the
+wood must be cut across its grain throughout the greater portion of
+its length, whereby its strength is materially decreased; while if the
+arch were formed of small pieces of stone great strength would be
+secured. Nothing can be more absurd than the practice of imitating in
+one material a mode of construction which is only legitimate in the
+case of another, and of failing to avail ourselves of the particular
+mode of utilising a material which secures a maximum of desirable
+results.
+
+While I protest against the arch when structurally used in furniture,
+I see no objection to it if used only as a source of beauty, and when
+so situated as to be free from strain or pressure.
+
+One of the objects which we are frequently called upon to construct is
+a chair. The chair is, throughout Europe and America, considered as a
+necessity of every house. So largely used are chairs, that one firm at
+High Wycombe employs 5,000 hands in making common cane-bottomed chairs
+alone; and yet we see but few chairs in the market which are well
+constructed. All chairs having curved frames--whether the curve is in
+the wood of the back, in the sides of the seat, or in the legs--are
+constructed on false principles. They are of necessity weak, and being
+weak are not useful. As they are formed by using wood in a manner
+which fails to utilise its qualities of strength, these chairs are
+offensive and absurd. It is true that, through being surrounded by
+such ill-formed objects from our earliest infancy, the eye often fails
+to be offended with such works as would offend it were they new to it;
+but this does not show that they are the less offensive, nor that they
+are not constructively wrong. Besides, whenever wood is cut across the
+grain, in order that we get anything approaching the requisite
+strength, it has to be much thicker and more bulky than would be
+required were the wood cut with the grain; hence such furniture is
+unnecessarily heavy and clumsy.
+
+Fig. 26 represents a chair which I have taken the liberty of borrowing
+from Mr. Eastlake's work on household art.[22] This chair Mr. Eastlake
+gives as an illustration of good taste in the construction of
+furniture; but I give it as an illustration of that which is
+essentially bad and wrong. The legs are weak, being cross-grained
+throughout, and the mode of uniting the upper and lower portions of
+the legs (the two semicircles) by a circular boss is defective in the
+highest degree. Were I sitting in such a chair, I should be afraid to
+lean to the right or the left, for fear of the chair giving way. Give
+me a Yorkshire rocking-chair, in preference to one of these, where I
+know of my insecurity, much as I hate such.
+
+[22] The title of the work is "Hints on Household Taste." It is well
+worth reading, as much may be learned from it. I think Mr. Eastlake
+right in many views, yet wrong in others, but I cannot help regarding
+him somewhat as an apostle of ugliness, as he appears to me to despise
+finish and refinement.
+
+A chair is a stool with a back-rest, and a stool is a board elevated
+from the ground or floor by supports, the degree of elevation being
+determined by the length of the legs of the person for whom the seat
+is made, or by the degree of obliquity which the body and legs are
+desired to take when the seat is in use. If the seat is to support the
+body when in an erect sitting posture, about seventeen to eighteen
+inches will be found a convenient height for the average of persons;
+but if the legs of the sitter are to take an oblique forward
+direction, then the seat may be lower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+A stool may consist of a thick piece of wood and of three legs
+inserted into holes bored in this thick top. If these legs pass to the
+upper surface of the seat, and are properly wedged in, a useful yet
+clumsy seat results. In order that the top of the stool be thin and
+light, it will be necessary that the legs be connected by frames, and
+it will be well that they be connected twice, once at the top of each
+leg, so that the seat may rest upon this frame, and once at least
+two-thirds of the distance from the top. The frame would now stand
+alone, and although the seat is formed of thin wood it will not crack,
+as it is supported all round on the upper frame.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+A chair, I have said, is a stool with a back. There is not one chair
+out of fifty that we find with the back so attached to the seat as to
+give a maximum of strength. It is usual to make a back leg and one
+side of the chair-back out of one piece of wood--that is, to continue
+the back legs up above the seat, and cause them to become the sides of
+the chair-back. When this is done the wood is almost invariably curved
+so that the back legs and the chair-back both incline outwards from
+the seat. There is no objection whatever to the sides of the back and
+the legs being formed of the one piece, but there is a great objection
+to either the supports of the back or the legs being formed of
+cross-grained wood, as much of their strength is thereby sacrificed.
+Our illustrations (Figs. 27 to 32) will give several modes of
+constructing chairs such as I think legitimate; but I will ask the
+reader to think for himself upon the construction of a chair, and
+especially upon the proper means of giving due support to the back.
+
+I have given, in an axiomatic form, those principles which should
+guide us in the construction of works of furniture, and endeavoured to
+impress the necessity of using wood in that manner which is most
+natural--that is, "working" it with the grain (the manner in which
+we can most easily work it), and in that way which shall secure
+the greatest amount of strength with the least expenditure of
+material. I wish to impress my readers with the importance of these
+considerations, for they lie at the very root of the successful
+construction of furniture. If the legs of chairs, or their
+seat-frames, or the ends or backs of couches, are formed of wood cut
+across the grain, they must either be thick and clumsy, or weak; but,
+besides this, the rightly constituted mind can only receive pleasure
+from the contemplation of works which are wisely formed. Daily
+contact, as we have before said, with ill-shaped objects may have
+more or less deadened our senses, so that we are not so readily
+offended by deformity and error as we might be; yet, happily for us,
+directly we seek to separate truth from error, the beautiful from the
+deformed, reason assists the judgment, and we learn to feel when we
+are in the presence of the beautiful or in contact with the degraded.
+
+My illustrations will show how I think chairs should be constructed.
+Fig. 26 is essentially bad, although it has traditional sanction,
+hence I pass it over without further comment. Fig. 27 is in the manner
+of an Egyptian chair. It serves to show the careful way in which the
+Egyptians constructed their works. The curved rails against which the
+back would rest are the only parts which are not thoroughly correct
+and satisfactory in a wood structure. Were the curved back members
+metal, the curvature would be desirable and legitimate. The back of
+this chair, if the side members were connected by a straight rail,
+would have immense strength (the backs of some of _our_ chairs are of
+the very weakest), and if well made it is a seat which would endure
+for centuries. Fig. 28 is a chair of my own designing, in which I have
+sought to give strength to the back by connecting its upper portion
+with a strong cross-rail of the frame.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+Fig. 29 is a chair slightly altered from one in Mr. Eastlake's work on
+"Household Taste;" as shown in our illustration, it is a correctly
+formed work. Fig. 30 is an arm-chair in the Greek style, which I have
+designed. Fig. 31 is a Lady's chair in the Gothic style; Fig. 32, a
+lady's chair in early Greek. These I have prepared to show different
+modes of structure; if the legs are fitted to a frame (the
+seat-frame), as in the early Greek chair just alluded to, they should
+be very short, as in this instance, or they must be connected by a
+frame below the seat, as in Figs. 33 and 34. The best general
+structure is that in which the front legs pass to the level of the
+upper surface of the seat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+Fig. 33 is a copy of a chair shown by Messrs. Gillow and Co., of
+Oxford Street, in the last Paris International Exhibition. In many
+respects it is admirably constructed. The skeleton brackets holding
+the back to the seat are very desirable adjuncts to light chairs; so
+are the brackets connecting the legs with the seat-frame, as these
+strengthen the entire chair. The manner in which the upper rail of the
+back passes through the side uprights and is "pinned" is good. The
+chief, and only important, fault in this chair is the bending of the
+back legs, involving their being cut against the grain of the wood.
+
+Fig. 31 is a chair from Mr. Talbert's very excellent work on "Gothic
+Furniture." It shows an admirable method of supporting the back. Fig.
+35 I have designed as a high-backed lounging chair. With the view of
+giving strength to the back, I have extended the seat, and arranged a
+support from this extension to the upper back-rail, and this extension
+of the seat I have supported by a fifth leg. There is no reason
+whatever why a chair should have four legs. If three would be better,
+or five, or any other number, let us use what would be best.[23]
+
+[23] In my drawing, the stuffing of the back has been accidentally
+shown too much rounded.
+
+I have now given several illustrations of modes of forming chairs. I
+might have given many more, but it is not my duty to try and exhaust a
+subject. What I have to do is simply point out principles, and call
+attention to facts. It is the reader who must think for
+himself--first, of the principles and facts which I adduce; secondly,
+of the illustrations which I give; thirdly, of other works which he
+may meet with; and fourthly, of further means of producing desirable
+and satisfactory results than those set forth in my illustrations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+As it cannot be doubted that a well-constructed work, however plain or
+simple it may be, gives satisfaction to those who behold it--while a
+work of the most elaborate character fails to satisfy if badly
+constructed--we shall give a few further illustrations of structure
+for other articles of furniture, besides chairs, which have become
+necessary to our mode of life.
+
+Fig. 36 is one of my sketches for Greek furniture, designed for a
+wealthy client. It was formed of black wood. Here the frame of the
+seat is first formed, and the legs are inserted beneath it, and let
+into it, while the wood-work of the end of the couch stands upon it,
+being inserted into it. This appears to have been the general method
+with the Greeks of forming their furniture, yet it is not so correct
+structurally as Fig. 37, another of my sketches, where the end and the
+leg are formed of one piece of wood. The first formation (that of Fig.
+36) would bear any amount of pressure from above, but it is not well
+calculated for resisting lateral pressure; while the latter would
+resist this lateral pressure, but would not bear quite the same amount
+of pressure from above. The latter, however, could bear more weight
+than would ever be required of it, and would be the more durable piece
+of furniture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+Fig. 38 gives a legitimate formation for a settee; the cutting-out, or
+hollowing, of the sides of the legs is not carried to an extreme, but
+leaves a sufficiency of strong wood with an upright grain to resist
+all the pressure that would be placed on the seat, and the lower and
+upper thickened portions of the legs act as the brackets beneath the
+seat in Fig. 33. The arch here introduced is not used structurally,
+but for the sake of a curved line, and acts simply as a pair of
+brackets. This illustration is also from Mr. Talbert's work. Fig. 39
+is a table such as we occasionally meet with. I see no objection to
+the legs leaning inwards at the top; indeed, we have here a
+picturesque and useful table of legitimate formation. Fig. 40 is the
+end elevation of a sideboard from Mr. Talbert's work. Mark the
+simplicity of the structure. The leading or structural lines are
+straight and obvious. Although Mr. Talbert is not always right, yet
+his book is well worthy of the most careful consideration and study;
+and this I can truly say, that it compares favourably with all other
+works on furniture with which I am acquainted.
+
+The general want which we perceive in modern furniture is simplicity
+of structure and truthfulness of construction. If persons would but
+think out the easiest mode of constructing a work before they commence
+to design it, and would be content with this simplicity of structure,
+we should have very different furniture from what we have. Think first
+of what is wanted, then of the material at command.
+
+I fear that I have very feebly enforced and very inefficiently
+illustrated the true principles on which works of furniture should be
+constructed; and yet I feel that the structure of such works is of
+importance beyond all other considerations. Space is limited, however,
+and I must pass on; hence I only hope that I have induced the reader
+to think for himself, and if I have done so I shall have fulfilled my
+desire, for his progress will then be sure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+Respecting structure I have but a few general remarks further to make,
+and all these are fairly embraced in the one expression, "Be
+truthful." An obvious and true structure is always pleasant. Let,
+then, the "tenon" and the "mortise" pass through the various members,
+and let the parts be "pinned" together by obvious wooden pins. Thus,
+if the frame of a chair-seat is tenoned into the legs, let the tenon
+pass through the leg and be visible on the outer side, and let it be
+held in its place by glue and wooden pins--the pins being visible. Yet
+they need not protrude beyond the surface; but why hide them? In this
+way that old furniture was made which has endured while piece after
+piece of modern furniture, made with invisible joints and concealed
+nails and screws, has perished. This is a true structural treatment,
+and is honest in expression also.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+I do not give this as a principle applicable to one class of furniture
+only, but to all. When we have "pinned" furniture with an open
+structure (see the back of chair, Fig. 33), the mode of putting
+together must of necessity be manifest; but in all other cases the
+tenons should also go through, and the pins by which they are held in
+their place be driven from one surface to the other side right through
+the member.
+
+In the commencement of this chapter on furniture, I said that after
+the most convenient form has been chosen for an object, and after it
+has been arranged that the material of which it is to be formed shall
+be worked in the most natural or befitting way, that then the
+block-form must be looked to, after which comes the division of the
+mass into primary parts, and lastly, the consideration of detail.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+As to the block-form, let it be simple, and have the appearance of
+appropriateness and consistency. Its character must be regulated, to
+an extent, by the nature of the house for which the furniture is
+intended, and by the character of the room in which it is to be
+placed. All I can say to the student on this part of the subject is
+this: Carefully consider good works of furniture whenever opportunity
+occurs, and note their general conformation. A fine work will never
+have strong architectural qualities--that is, it will not look like
+part of a building formed of wood instead of stone. There is but
+small danger of committing any great error in the block-form, if it be
+kept simple, and to look like a work in wood, provided that the
+proportions of height to width and of width and height to thickness
+are duly cared for (see page 23).
+
+After the general form has been considered, the mass may be broken
+into primary and secondary parts. Thus, if we have to construct a
+cabinet, the upper part of which consists of a cupboard, and the lower
+portion of drawers, we should have to determine the proportion which
+the one part should bear to the other. This is an invariable
+rule--that the work must not consist of equal parts; thus, if the
+whole cabinet be six feet in height, the cupboards could not be three
+feet while the drawers occupied three feet also. The division would
+have to be of a subtle character--of a character which could not be
+readily detected. Thus the cupboard might be three feet five inches,
+and the drawers collectively two feet seven inches. If the drawers are
+not all to be of the same depth, then the relation of one drawer, as
+regards its size, to that of another must be considered, and of each
+to the cupboard above. In like manner the proportion of the panels of
+the doors to the styles must be thought out; and until all this has
+been done no work should ever be constructed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+Next comes the enrichment of parts. Carving should be sparingly used,
+and is best confined to mouldings, or projecting or terminal ends. If
+employed in mouldings, those members should be enriched which are more
+or less completely guarded from dust and injury by some overhanging
+member. If more carving is used, it should certainly be a mere
+enrichment of necessary structure--as we see on the legs and other
+uprights of Mr. Crace's sideboard, by Pugin (Fig. 41). I am not fond
+of carved panels, but should these be employed the carving should
+never project beyond the styles surrounding them, and in all cases of
+carving no pointed members must protrude so as to injure the person or
+destroy the dress of those who use the piece of furniture. If carving
+is used sparingly, it gives us the impression that it is valuable;
+if it is lavishly employed, it appears to be comparatively worthless.
+The aim of art is the production of repose. A large work of furniture
+which is carved all over cannot produce the necessary sense of repose,
+and is therefore objectionable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+There may be an excess of finish in works of carving connected with
+cabinet-work; for if the finish is too delicate there is a lack of
+effect in the result. A piece of furniture is not a miniature work,
+which is to be investigated in every detail. It is an object of
+utility, which is to appear beautiful in a room, and is not to command
+undivided attention; it is a work which is to combine with other works
+in rendering an apartment beautiful. The South Kensington Museum
+purchased in the last Paris International Exhibition, at great cost, a
+cabinet from Fourdonois; but it is a very unsatisfactory specimen, as
+it is too delicate, too tender, and too fine for a work of utility--it
+is an example of what should be avoided rather than of what should be
+followed. The delicately carved and beautiful panels of the doors, if
+cut in marble and used as mere pieces of sculpture, would have been
+worthy of the highest commendation; but works of this kind wrought in
+a material that has a "grain," however little the grain may show, are
+absurd. Besides, the subjects are of too pictorial a character for
+"applied work"--that is, they are treated in too pictorial or
+naturalistic a manner. A broad, simple, idealised treatment of the
+figure is that which is alone legitimate in cabinet work.
+
+Supports or columns carved into the form of human figures are always
+objectionable.
+
+Besides carving, as a means of enrichment, we have inlaying, painting,
+and the applying of plaques of stone or earthenware, and of brass or
+ormolu enrichments, and we have the inserting of brass into the
+material when buhl-work is formed.
+
+Inlaying is a very natural and beautiful means of enriching works of
+furniture, for it leaves the flatness of the surface undisturbed. A
+great deal may be done in this way by the employment of simple means.
+A mere row of circular dots of black wood inlaid in oak will often
+give a remarkably good effect; and the dots can be "worked" with the
+utmost ease. Three dots form a trefoil, four dots a quatrefoil, six
+dots a hexafoil, and so on, and desirable effects can often be
+produced by such simple inlays.
+
+Panels of cabinets may be painted, and enriched with ornament or
+flatly-treated figure subjects. This is a beautiful mode of decoration
+very much neglected. The couch (Fig. 37) I intended for enrichment of
+this kind. If this form is employed, care should be exercised in order
+that the painted work be in all cases so situated that it cannot be
+rubbed. It should fill sunk panels and hollows and never appear on
+advancing members.
+
+I am not fond of the application of plaques of stone or earthenware to
+works of furniture. Anything that is brittle is not suitable as an
+enrichment of wood-work, unless it can be so placed as to be out of
+danger.
+
+Ormolu ornaments, when applied to cabinets and other works in wood,
+are also never satisfactory. They look too separate from the wood of
+which the work is formed--too obviously applied; and whatever is
+obviously _applied_ to the work, and is not a portion of its general
+fabric, whether a mass of flowers even if carved in wood or an ormolu
+ornament, is not pleasant.
+
+Buhl-work is often very clever in character and skilfully wrought, but
+I do not care for it. It is of too laborious a nature, and thus
+intrudes upon us the sense of labour as well as that of skill. As a
+means of enrichment, I approve of carving, sparingly used, of inlays,
+and of painted ornament in certain cases; and by the just employment
+of these means the utmost beauty in cabinet-work can be achieved.
+Ebony inlaid with ivory is very beautiful.
+
+In order to illustrate my remarks respecting cabinets, sideboards, and
+similar pieces of furniture, I give an engraving of a sideboard
+executed by Mr. Crace, from the design of Mr. A. Welby Pugin (the
+father), to which I have before alluded (Fig. 41), and a painted
+cabinet by Mr. Burgess (Fig. 42), the well-known Gothic architect,
+whose architecture must be admired. Both of these works are worthy of
+study of a very careful kind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+In the sideboard, notice first the general structure or construction
+of the work, then the manner in which it is broken into parts, and
+lastly, that it is the structural members which are carved. If this
+work has faults, they are these: first, the carving is in
+excess--thus, the panels would have been better plain; and, second, in
+some parts there is a slight indication of a stone structure, as in
+the buttress character of the ends of the sideboard.
+
+To the cabinet much more serious objections may be taken.
+
+1st. A roof is a means whereby the weather is kept out of a dwelling,
+and tiles afford a means whereby small pieces of material enable us to
+form a perfect covering to our houses of a weather-proof character. It
+is very absurd, then, to treat the roof of a cabinet, which is to
+stand in a room, as if it were an entire house, or an object which
+were to stand in a garden.
+
+2nd. The windows in the roof, which in the case of a house let light
+into those rooms which are placed in this part of the building, and
+are formed in a particular manner so as the more perfectly to exclude
+rain, become simply stupid when placed in the roof of a cabinet.
+These, together with the imitation tiled roof, degrade the work to a
+mere doll's house in appearance.
+
+3rd. A panelled structure, which is the strongest and best structure,
+is ignored; hence strong metal bindings are necessary.
+
+The painting of the work is highly interesting, and had it been more
+flatly treated, would then have been truthful, and would yet have lent
+the same interest to the cabinet that it now does, even if we consider
+the matter from a purely pictorial point of view.
+
+Before we pass from a consideration of furniture and cabinet-work
+generally, we must notice a few points to which we have as yet merely
+referred, or which we have left altogether unnoticed. Thus we have to
+consider upholstery as applied to works of furniture, the materials
+employed as coverings for seats, and the nature of picture-frames and
+curtain-poles; we must also notice general errors in furniture,
+strictly so called.
+
+When examining certain wardrobes and cabinets in the International
+Exhibition of 1862, I was forcibly impressed with the structural truth
+of one or two of these works. One especially commended itself to me as
+a fine structural work of classic character. Just as I was expressing
+my admiration, the exhibitor threw open the doors of this well-formed
+wardrobe to show me its internal fittings, when, fancy my feelings at
+beholding the first door bearing with it, as it opened, the two
+pilasters that I conceived to be the supports of the somewhat heavy
+cornice above, and the other door bearing away the third support, and
+thus leaving the superincumbent mass resting on the thin sides of the
+structure only, while they appeared altogether unable to perform the
+duty imposed upon them. "Horrible! horrible!" was all I could exclaim.
+
+Some of the most costly works of furniture shown by the French in the
+last Paris International Exhibition were not free from this defect;
+and this is strange, for to the rightly constituted mind this one
+defect is of such a grave character as to neutralise whatever pleasure
+might otherwise be derived from contemplating the work. We see a man,
+a genius perhaps--a man having qualities that all must admire; but he
+has one great vice--one sin which easily besets him. While the man
+has excellent and estimable qualities, we yet avoid him, for we see
+not the excellences but the vice. It is so with such works of
+furniture as those of which we have been speaking, for their defects
+are such as impress us more powerfully than their excellences.
+
+Respecting these works of furniture, this should be said: they are
+more or less imitative of works of a debased art-period--of a period
+in which structural truth was utterly disregarded--yet this is no
+reason why we should copy the defects of our ancestors.
+
+Infinitely worse than the works just spoken of, is falsely constructed
+Gothic furniture, where the very truthfulness of structure is openly
+set before us. Not long since I was staying with a client whose house
+is of Gothic style. Being about to furnish drawings for the
+decorations of this mansion, I was carefully noting the character of
+the architecture and of the furniture, which latter had been designed
+and manufactured expressly for the house by a large Yorkshire firm of
+cabinet-makers. The structure of the furniture appeared just, the
+proportions tolerably good, the wood honest, and the inlays judicious;
+but, can it be imagined, the whole was a mere series of frauds and
+shams--the cross-grain ends of what should be supports were attached
+to the fronts of drawers, pillars came away, and such falsity became
+apparent as I never before saw. How any person could possibly produce
+such furniture, be he ever so degraded, I cannot think. I have seen
+works that are bad, I have seen falsities in art, but I never before
+saw such falsity of structure and such uncalled-for deception as these
+works presented. The untrue is always offensive; but when a special
+effort is made at causing a lie to appear as truth, a double sense of
+disappointment is experienced when the untruthfulness is discovered.
+
+In his work on "Household Taste," to which I have before alluded, Mr.
+Eastlake objects, and I think very justly, to the character of an
+ordinary telescopic dining-table. He says: "Among the dining-room
+appointments, the table is an article of furniture which stands
+greatly in need of reform. It is generally made of planks of polished
+oak or mahogany laid upon an insecure framework of the same material,
+and supported by four gouty legs, ornamented by the turner with
+mouldings which look like inverted cups and saucers piled upon an
+attic baluster. I call the framework insecure, because I am describing
+what is commonly called a 'telescope' table, or one which can be
+pulled out to twice its usual length, and, by the addition of extra
+leaves in its middle, accommodate twice the usual number of diners.
+Such a table cannot be soundly made in the same sense that ordinary
+furniture is sound; it must depend for its support on some contrivance
+which is not consistent with the material of which it is made. Few
+people would like to sit on a chair the legs of which slid in and out,
+and were fastened at the required height by a pin; there would be a
+sense of insecurity in the notion eminently unpleasant. You might put
+up with such an invention in camp, or on a sketching expedition, but
+to have it and use it under your own roof, instead of a strong and
+serviceable chair, would be absurd. Yet this is very much what we do
+in the case of the modern dining-room table. When it is extended it
+looks weak and untidy at the sides; when it is reduced to its shortest
+length the legs appear heavy and ill-proportioned. It is always liable
+to get out of order, and from the very nature of its construction must
+be an inartistic object. Why should such a table be made at all? A
+dining-room is a room to dine in. Whether there are few or many people
+seated for that purpose, the table might well be kept of a uniform
+length, and if space is an object it is always possible to use in its
+stead two small tables, each on four legs. These might be placed end
+to end when dinner parties are given, and one of them would suffice
+for family use. A table of this kind might be solidly and stoutly
+framed, so as to last for ages, and become, as all furniture ought to
+become, an heirloom in the family. When a man builds himself a house
+on freehold land, he does not intend that it shall only last his
+lifetime; he bequeaths it in sound condition to posterity. We ought to
+be ashamed of furniture which is continually being replaced; at all
+events, we cannot possibly take any interest in such furniture. In
+former days, when the principles of good joinery were really
+understood, the legs of such a large table as that of the dining-room
+would have been made of a very different form from the lumpy,
+pear-shaped things of modern use."
+
+In nearly all these remarks I agree with Mr. Eastlake, and especially
+in his remark that, owing to the very nature of its construction, a
+modern dining-table must be an inartistic object. No work can be
+satisfactory in which any portions of the true supporting structure or
+frame are drawn apart; and this occurs to a marked degree in this
+table, as is shown in Mr. Eastlake's illustration, which we here copy
+(Fig. 43).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+Falsities of structure, although not so glaring as that of the
+telescopic dining-table, are everywhere met with in our shops, and,
+curious as it may appear, the great majority of the works offered to
+the public are not only false in structure, but are utterly offensive
+to good taste in every way, and are formed almost exclusively of wood
+cut across the grain, which secures to the article the maximum amount
+of weakness. Figs. 44, 45, 46, and 47 are examples of utterly bad
+furniture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+Another falsity in furniture is veneering--a practice which should be
+wholly abandoned. Simple honesty is preferable to false show in all
+cases; truthfulness in utterance is always to be desired. It was
+customary at one time to veneer almost every work of furniture, and
+even to place the grain of the veneer in a manner totally at variance
+with the true structure of the framework which it covered. This was a
+method of making works, which might in their unfinished state be
+satisfactory, appear when finished as most unsatisfactory objects.
+Since this time much progress has been made in a knowledge of truthful
+structure and of truthful expression, yet this method of giving a
+false surface by means of veneer is not wholly abandoned as despicable
+and false.
+
+A few months back I had occasion to visit a cabinet warehouse in
+Lancashire, and the owner called my attention to the fine grain of
+some old English oak, and remarked that certain pieces of furniture
+were of solid wood. Upon investigation, however, I discovered that
+while the furniture in question was made throughout of oak, the bulk
+of the structure was of common wainscoting, and the surface was
+veneered with English oak. I confess that I would much rather have had
+the furniture without its false exterior, and daily my love for fine
+grain in wood gets less. I think that this arises from the fact that
+strong grain in wood takes from the "unity" of the work into which it
+is formed, and tends to break it up into parts, by rendering every
+member conspicuous. What is wanted in a work of furniture, before all
+other considerations, is a fine general form--a harmony of all
+parts--so that no one member usurps a primary place--and this it is
+almost impossible to achieve if a wood is employed having a strongly
+marked grain.
+
+With us a room is considered as almost unfurnished if the windows are
+not hung with some kind of drapery. The original object of this
+drapery was that of keeping out a draught of air, which found its way
+through the imperfectly fitting windows; and the antitype of our
+window-hangings was a simple curtain, formed of a material suitable to
+achieve the purpose sought. Such a curtain was legitimate and
+desirable, and would contrast strangely with the elaborate festooning
+and quadrupled curtains of our present windows. We daily see yards of
+valuable material, arranged in massive and absurd folds, shutting out
+that light which is necessary to our health and well-being; a pair of
+heavy stuff curtains and a pair of lace curtains being hung at each
+window, each curtain consisting of a sufficient amount of material to
+more than cover the window of itself. An excess of drapery is always
+vulgar, while a little drapery usefully and judiciously employed is
+pleasant.
+
+Many windows that are well made, and thus keep out all currents of
+air, need no curtains. If the window mouldings are of an architectural
+character, and are coloured much darker than the wall, so as to become
+an obvious frame to the window, and thus do for the window what a
+picture-frame does for a picture, no curtains will be required. I have
+recently had a wonderfully striking illustration of this. Two
+adjoining rooms are alike in their architecture; one is decorated, and
+has the window casement of such colours as strongly contrast, while
+they are yet harmonious, with the wall. Before the room was
+decorated, and the windows were thus treated, a general light colour
+prevailed, both on the wood-work and on the walls of the room, and
+curtains were hung at the windows in the usual way. With the altered
+decorations, the windows became so effective that I at once saw the
+undesirability of re-hanging the curtains, and yet not one of all my
+friends has observed that there are no curtains to the windows; while
+if the curtains are removed from the adjoining room, where the
+window-frames are as light as the walls, the first question asked is,
+"Where are your curtains?"
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+Curtains should be hung on a simple and obvious pole (Fig. 48). All
+means of hiding this pole are foolish and useless. This pole need not
+be very thick, and is better formed of wood than of metal, for then
+the rings to which the curtains are attached pass along almost
+noiselessly. The ends of the pole may be of metal, but I prefer simple
+balls of wood. The pole may be grooved, and any little enrichments may
+be introduced into these grooves, providing the carving does not come
+to the surface, and thus touch the rings, which by their motion would
+injure it. Whatever is used in the way of enrichment should be of
+simple character, for the height at which the curtain pole is placed
+would render fine work altogether ineffective.
+
+As to upholstery, I would say, never indulge in an excess. A wood
+frame should appear in every work of furniture, as in the examples we
+have given. Sofas are now made as though they were feather beds; they
+are so soft that you sink into them, and become uncomfortably warm by
+merely resting upon them, and their gouty forms are relieved only by a
+few inches of wood, which appear as legs. Stuffing should be employed
+only as a means of rendering a properly constructed seat comfortably
+soft. If it goes beyond this it is vulgar and objectionable. Spring
+stuffing is not to be altogether commended; a good old-fashioned
+hair-stuffed seat is more desirable, as it will endure when springs
+have perished. As to the materials with which seats may be covered I
+can say little, for they are many. Hair cloth, although very durable,
+is altogether inartistic in its effect. Nothing is better than leather
+for dining-room chairs; Utrecht velvet, either plain or embossed,
+looks well on library chairs; silk and satin damasks, rep, plain
+cloth, and many other fabrics are appropriate to drawing-room
+furniture. Chintz I am not fond of as a chair covering, and in a
+bed-room I would rather have chairs with plain wooden seats than with
+cushions covered with this glazed material.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+With a mere remark upon picture-frames I will finish this chapter.
+Picture-frames are generally elaborately carved mouldings, or are
+simple mouldings covered with ornaments, which, whether carved or
+formed of putty, are overlaid with gold leaf; they are, indeed, highly
+ornamented gilt mouldings. I much prefer a well-formed, yet somewhat
+simple, black polished moulding, on the interior of which runs a gold
+bead (Fig. 49). A fanciful yet good picture-frame was figured in the
+_Building News_ of September 7th, 1866, which we now repeat (Fig.
+50).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+DECORATION OF BUILDINGS.
+
+
+DIVISION I.--GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS--CEILINGS.
+
+Having considered furniture, the formation of which requires a
+knowledge of construction, or of what we may term structural art, we
+pass on to notice principles involved in the decoration of surfaces,
+or in "surface decoration," as it is usually called. We commence by
+considering how rooms should be decorated; yet, in so doing, we are
+met at the very outset with a great difficulty, as the nature of the
+decoration of a room should be determined by the character of its
+architecture. My difficulty rests here. How am I to tell you what is
+the just decoration for a room, when the suitability of the decoration
+is often dependent upon even structural and ornamental details; and
+when, in all cases, the character of the decoration should be in
+harmony with the character of the architecture? Broadly, if a building
+is in the Gothic style, all that it contains in the way of decoration,
+and of furniture also, should be Gothic. If the building is Greek, the
+decorations and furniture should be Greek. If the building is Italian,
+all its decorations and furniture should be Italian, and so on.
+
+But there are further requirements. Each term that I have now
+employed, as expressive of a style of architecture, is more or less
+generic in character, and is therefore too broad for general use. What
+is usually termed Gothic architecture, is a group of styles having
+common origin and resemblances, known to the architect as the
+Semi-Norman or Transition style, which occurred in the twelfth century
+under Henry II. (it was at this time that the pointed arch was first
+employed). The Early English, which was developed in the end of the
+twelfth and early part of the thirteenth century, under Richard I.,
+John, and Henry III.; the Decorated, which occurred at the end of the
+thirteenth, and early portion of the fourteenth century, under Edward
+I., Edward II., and Edward III.; the Perpendicular, which occurred at
+the latter part of the fourteenth, and through the greater portion of
+the fifteenth century, under Richard II., Henry IV., V., and VI.,
+Edward IV. and V., and Richard III.; and, lastly, the Tudor, which
+occurred at the end of the fifteenth, and the beginning of the
+sixteenth century, under Henry VII. and Henry VIII. All these styles
+are popularly spoken of as one, and are expressed by the one
+term--Gothic. It is so also, to an extent, with the Greek, Roman, and
+Italian styles, for each of these appears in various modifications of
+character, but into such details we will not enter: it must suffice
+to notice that the character of the decoration must be not only
+broadly in the style of the architecture of the building which it is
+intended to beautify, but it must be similar in nature to the ornament
+produced at precisely the same date as the architecture which has been
+employed for the building.
+
+It must not be supposed that I am an advocate of reproducing works, or
+even styles of architecture, such as were created in times gone by,
+for I am not. The peoples of past ages carefully sought to ascertain
+their wants--the wants resulting from climate--the wants resulting
+from the nature of their religion--the wants resulting from social
+arrangements--the wants imposed by the building material at command.
+We, on the contrary, look at a hundred old buildings, and without
+considering our wants, as differing from those of our forefathers,
+take a bit from one and a bit from another, or we reproduce one almost
+as it stands, and thus we bungle on, instead of seeking to raise such
+buildings as are in all respects suited to our modern requirements.
+
+Things are, however, much better in this respect than they were. Bold
+men are dealing with the Gothic style in its various forms. Scott,
+Burgess, Street, and many others are venturing to alter it; and thus,
+while it is losing old characteristics, and is acquiring new elements,
+it is already assuming a character which has nobility of expression,
+truthfulness of structure, and suitability to our special
+requirements. In time to come, further changes will doubtless be made;
+and thus the style which arose as an imitation of the past will have
+become new, through constantly departing from the original type, and
+as constantly adopting new elements.
+
+I have said that the decoration of a building should be brought about
+by the employment of such ornament as was, in time past, associated
+with the particular form of architecture employed in the building to
+be decorated, if a precisely similar form of architecture previously
+existed. Let not the ornament, however, be a mere servile imitation of
+what has gone before, but let the designer study the ornament of
+bygone ages till he understands and _feels_ its spirit, and then let
+him strive to produce new forms and new combinations in the spirit of
+the ornament of the past.
+
+This must also be carefully noted--that the ornament of a particular
+period does not consist merely of the forms employed in the
+architecture, drawn in colour on the wall, or the ceiling, as the case
+may be. The particular form of ornament used in association with some
+forms of Gothic architecture was very different in character from what
+we might expect from the nature of the architecture itself, and did
+not to any extent consist of flatly-treated crockets, gable ends,
+trefoils, cinque-foils, etc. The ornament of the past must be studied
+in its purity, and not from those wretched attempts at the production
+of Gothic decoration which we often see.
+
+In what we may call the typical English house of the present day there
+is really no architecture, and if such a building is to be decorated
+it is almost legitimate to employ any style of ornamentation. In such
+a case I should choose a style which has no very marked
+features--which is not strongly Greek, or strongly Gothic, or strongly
+Italian; and if there is the necessary ability, I should say try and
+produce ornaments having novelty of character, and yet showing your
+knowledge of the good qualities of all styles that are past. If this
+is attempted, care must be exercised in order to avoid getting a mere
+combination of elements from various styles as one ornament. Nothing
+can be worse than to see a bit of Greek, a fragment of Egyptian, an
+Alhambraic scroll, a Gothic flower, and an Italian husk associated
+together as one ornament; unless this were done advisedly and in order
+to meet a very special want, such an ornamental composition would be
+detestable. What I recommend is the production of new forms; but the
+new composition may have the vigour of the best Gothic ornament, the
+severity of Egyptian, the intricacy of the Persian, the gorgeousness
+of the Alhambra, and so on, only it must not imitate in detail the
+various styles of the past.
+
+Now as to the decoration of a room. If one part only can be decorated,
+let that one part be the ceiling. Nothing appears to me more strange
+than that our ceilings, which can be properly seen, are usually white
+in middle-class houses, while the walls, which are always in part
+hidden, and even the floor, on which we tread, should have colour and
+pattern applied to them; and of this I am certain, that, considered
+from a decorative point of view, our ordinary treatment is wrong.
+
+We glory in a clear blue sky overhead, and we speak of the sky as
+increasing in beauty as it becomes deeper and deeper in tint. Thus the
+depth of the tint of the Italian sky is familiar to us all. Why, then,
+make our ceilings white? I often ask this question, and am told that
+the whiteness renders the ceiling almost invisible; hence it is
+preferred. This idea is very absurd; first, because blue is the most
+ethereal and most distant of all colours (see Chap. II., page 33);
+and, second, do we not build a house with the view of procuring
+shelter? hence why do we seek to realise the feeling that we are
+without a covering over our heads? We only like a white ceiling
+because we have been accustomed to such from infancy, and because we
+have been taught to regard a clean white ceiling as all that is to be
+desired. I knew a Yorkshire lady who, upon being asked by her husband
+whether she would like the drawing-room ceiling decorated, replied
+that she thought not, as she could not then have it re-whitewashed
+every year. The idea was clean certainly. Blue, I have said, is
+ethereal in character; it is so, and may become exceedingly so if of
+medium depth and of a grey hue; hence, if a mere atmospheric effect
+was sought, it would be desirable that this colour be used on the
+ceiling rather than white. But, as we have just said, invisibility of
+the ceiling is absurd, as it is our protection from the weather.
+Further, the ceiling may become an object of great beauty, and it can
+be seen as a whole. Why then neglect the opportunity of arranging a
+beautiful object when there is no reason to the contrary? We like a
+beautiful coloured vase, or, if we do not, we can have it whitewashed,
+or even dispense with it altogether. We like beautiful walls, or we
+would have them whitewashed also; indeed, we like our surroundings
+generally beautiful. Why not, then, have beautiful ceilings,
+especially as they can be seen complete, while the wall is in part
+hidden by furniture and pictures?
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
+
+I will suppose that we have an ordinary room to deal with. First, take
+away the wretched plaster ornament in the centre of the ceiling, for
+it is sure to be bad. There is not one such ornament out of a thousand
+that can be so treated as to make the ceiling look as well as it would
+do without it. Now place all over the ceiling a flat painted or
+stencilled pattern, a pattern which repeats equally in all directions
+(as Fig. 51), and let this pattern be in blue (of any depth) and
+white, or in blue (of any depth) and cream-colour, and it is sure to
+look well (the blue being the ground, and the cream-colour or white
+the ornament).
+
+Simple patterns in cream-colour on blue ground, but having a black
+outline, also look well (Fig. 52); and these might be prepared in
+paper, and hung on the ceiling as common paper-hangings, if cheapness
+is essential. Gold ornaments on a deep blue ground, with black
+outline, also look rich and effective. These are all, however, simple
+treatments, for any amount of colour may be used on a ceiling,
+provided the colours are employed in very small masses, and perfectly
+mingled, so that the effect produced is that of a rich coloured bloom
+(see Chap. II., page 46). A ceiling should be beautiful, and should
+also be manifest; but if it must be somewhat indistinct, in order that
+the caprices of the ignorant be humoured, let the pattern be in
+middle-tint or pale blue and white only.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
+
+I like to see the ceiling of a room covered all over with a suitable
+pattern, but I do not at all object to a large central ornament only,
+or to a centre ornament and corners; especially if the cornice is
+heavy, so as to give compensating weight to the margin. I have
+recently designed and seen carried out one or two centre ornaments for
+drawing-rooms, which ornaments were twenty-one feet in diameter. A
+centre ornament, if properly treated, may be very large without
+looking heavy; it may, indeed, extend at least two-thirds of the way
+from the centre to the margin of the ceiling. I do not speak of
+plaster ornaments, but of flat decorations.
+
+If the ceiling is flat all ornament placed upon it must not only be
+flat also, but must not fictitiously represent relief, for no shaded
+ornament can be pleasant when placed as the decoration of a flat
+architectural surface.
+
+I have already noticed that the decoration of a room should be in
+character with its architecture, but that while this should be so, the
+ornament applied by way of enrichment should not be a servile copy of
+the decorative forms employed in ages gone by, but should be such as
+is new in character, while yet of the spirit of the past.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
+
+Many circumstances tend to determine the nature of the decoration
+which should be applied to a ceiling: thus, if a ceiling is
+structurally divided into square panels, the character of the ornament
+is thereby restricted, and should these panels be large it will
+probably be desirable that each be fitted with the same ornament;
+while if they are small three or four different patterns may be
+employed, if arranged in some orderly or methodical manner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
+
+A ceiling may also have the joists or beams visible upon it: in this
+case the decoration would have to be of a very special character. The
+bottoms of the joists might have a string pattern upon them (a running
+pattern), as the "Greek key," or guilloche; whilst the sides might
+have either a running pattern, or a pattern with an upward tendency,
+as the "Greek honeysuckle;" and the ceiling intervening between the
+joists might have a running pattern, or better, a star, or diaper
+pattern, or it might have bands running in the opposite direction to
+the joists, so as, with them, to form squares, which squares might be
+filled with ornament.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.]
+
+If, however, the ceiling is flat, and is not divided into sections
+structurally, almost any "setting out" of the surface may be employed,
+as Fig. 53; or a large centre ornament, as Figs. 54 and 55; or a
+rosette distributed over the entire surface, as Fig. 56. In any case
+it is not necessary or even desirable that the ornament be in relief
+upon the ceiling. Flatly treated ornaments may be employed with
+advantage, and all fictitious appearance of relief, as we have already
+said, must be avoided.
+
+There are so many different ways of setting out ceilings, that I
+cannot attempt even to make any suggestions. I would simply say,
+however, Avoid an architectural setting out, if there are no
+structural members; for ornament which is flat may spread in any
+manner over a surface without even appearing to need structural
+supports. As to the colour of a ceiling if there is to be no ornament
+upon it, let it be a cream-colour (formed of white with a little
+middle-chrome) rather than white. Cream-colour always looks well upon
+a ceiling, and gives the idea of purity. A grey-blue is also a very
+desirable colour for a ceiling, such as is formed of pale ultramarine,
+white, and a little raw umber, just sufficient to make the blue
+slightly grey (or atmospheric). In depth this blue should be about
+half-way between the ultramarine and white. Another effect which I
+like is produced by the full colour of pure (or almost pure)
+ultramarine. In this case the cornice should be carefully coloured,
+and pale blue and white should prevail in it, but a little pure red
+must be present.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
+
+A further and very desirable effect is produced by placing pale
+cream-coloured stars irregularly over the pale blue, or even the deep
+blue ceiling, or by placing pale blue stars upon the cream-coloured
+ceiling. The stars should vary for an ordinary room ceiling (say a
+room sixteen feet square by ten feet high) from about three inches
+from point to point down to one inch; the larger stars having six
+points; others being smaller and with five points; and the small ones
+having, some four points, and some three. If such stars are
+irregularly (without order) intermixed over the ceiling, and yet are
+somewhat equally dispersed, a very pleasing and interesting effect
+will thereby be produced. This effect is in much favour with the
+Japanese. The stars, however, should be smaller if placed on a deep,
+than on a pale, blue ground.
+
+Another good effect is produced by giving the ceiling the colour of
+Bath, or Portland, stone, and starring it with a deeper tint of the
+same colour. This effect is improved by each star having a very fine
+outline of a yet darker tint of the same colour.
+
+I should recommend those interested in the decoration of ceilings to
+study carefully the Egyptian, Alhambra, and Greek Courts at the
+Crystal Palace, Sydenham, especially the two last named; also to
+notice the ceiling in St. James's Great Hall, Piccadilly, London, and
+the ceiling of Ushaw College chapel near Durham. The ceilings in the
+Oriental Courts, by Mr. Owen Jones, at the South Kensington Museum are
+worthy of careful notice; but the Renaissance ceilings in other parts
+of the Museum are both wrong in principle and are bad examples of
+their style. The structurally formed glass ceiling of the Crystal
+Palace Bazaar in Oxford Street, London, and still better, the ceiling
+of Mr. Osler's glass warehouse in Oxford Street, are well worthy of
+note.
+
+On the Continent we very frequently meet with ceilings on which large
+pictures have been painted, as in the Louvre and the Luxembourg in
+Paris; and the authorities of the South Kensington Museum are making
+efforts to introduce this style into England, but such pictorial
+ceilings are in every way wrong.
+
+1st. A ceiling is a flat surface, hence all decoration placed upon it
+should be flat also.
+
+2nd. A picture can only be correctly seen from one point, whereas the
+decoration of a ceiling should be of such a character that it can be
+properly seen from any part of the room.
+
+3rd. Pictures have almost invariably a right and wrong way upwards. A
+picture placed on a ceiling is thus wrong way upwards to almost all
+the guests in the room.
+
+4th. In order to the proper understanding of a picture, you must see
+the whole of its surface at one time; this is very difficult to do
+without almost breaking your neck, or being on your back on the floor,
+if the picture is on the ceiling; whereas an ornament which consists
+of repeated parts may render a ceiling beautiful without requiring
+that the whole ceiling be seen at the one glance.
+
+Most of the French pictorial ceilings are so painted that they are
+properly seen when the spectator stands with his back close to the
+fire. This is very awkward, as the rules of society do not allow us to
+stand in this position before company. Pictorial works are altogether
+out of place on a ceiling; they ought to be framed and hung right way
+upwards upon walls where they can be seen. We have a well-known
+painted ceiling at the Greenwich Hospital.
+
+Arabesque ceilings, such as that of the Roman Court at the Crystal
+Palace, are also very objectionable.
+
+What can be worse than festoons of leafage, like so many sausages,
+painted upon a ceiling, with griffins, small framed pictures,
+impossible flowers, and feeble ornament, all with fictitious light and
+shade? But not content with such absurdities and incongruities, the
+festoons often hang upwards on vaulted or domed ceilings, rather than
+downwards. Such ornaments arose when Rome, intoxicated with its
+conquests, yielded itself up to luxury and vice rather than to a
+consideration of beauty and truth.
+
+Decorations like these were to an extent again revived by the great
+painter Raphael; but it must ever be remembered that Raphael, while
+one of the greatest of painters, was no ornamentist. It requires all
+the energy of a life to become a great painter; and it requires all
+the energy of a life to become a great ornamentist; hence it is not
+expected that the one man should be great at the two arts.
+
+In all ages when decorative art has flourished, ceilings have been
+decorated. The Egyptians decorated their ceilings, so did the Greeks,
+the Byzantines, the Moors, and the people of our Middle Ages, and a
+light ceiling appears not to have been esteemed as essential, or as in
+many cases desirable. It is strange that so few of our houses and
+public buildings contain rooms with decorated ceilings; but the want
+is already felt, the fashion has set in, and many are at this present
+moment being prepared. We must get simple modes of enrichment for
+general rooms--modes of treatment which shall be effective, and yet
+not expensive--and then we may hope that they will become general.
+
+
+DIVISION II.--DECORATIONS OF WALLS.
+
+We must now devote ourselves to the consideration of wall decoration,
+or to the manner in which ornament should be applied to walls with the
+view of rendering them decorative.
+
+It will appear absurd to say that all ornament that is applied to a
+wall should be such as will render the wall more beautiful than it
+would be without it; but this statement is needed, for I have seen
+many walls ornamented in such a manner, that they would have looked
+much better if they had been perfectly plain, and simply washed over
+with a tint of colour.
+
+To ornament is to beautify. To decorate is to ornament. But a surface
+cannot be beautified unless the forms which are drawn upon it are
+graceful, or bold, or vigorous, or true, and unless the colours
+applied to it are harmonious. Yet how many walls do we meet with even
+in good houses--walls of corridors, walls of staircases, walls of
+dining-rooms, walls of libraries, and, indeed, walls of every kind of
+room--which are rendered offensive, rather than pleasing, by the
+decorations they bear.
+
+A wall may look well without decoration strictly so called, and this
+statement leads me to notice the various ways in which walls may be
+treated with the view of rendering them beautiful.
+
+A wall may be simply tinted either with "distemper" colour, or oil
+colour "flatted." Distemper colour gives the best effect, and is much
+the cheapest, but it is not durable, and cannot be washed. Oil colour
+when flatted makes a nice wall, whether "stippled" or plain, and is
+both durable and washable. An entire wall should never be varnished.
+
+I say that a wall can look well even if not decorated. Let me give one
+or two instances; but, perhaps, I had better give treatments for the
+entire room, including the ceiling, and not for the wall simply.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.]
+
+A good effect of a very plain and inexpensive character would be
+produced by having a black skirting, a cream-colour wall (this colour
+to be made of the colour called middle-chrome and white, and to
+resemble in depth the best pure cream), a cornice coloured with pale
+blue of greyish tint, with deep blue, white, and a slight line of red,
+and a ceiling of blue of almost any depth. The ceiling colour to be
+pure French ultramarine, or this ultramarine mixed with white and a
+touch of raw umber (the cornice blues to be made in the same way). The
+red in the cornice to be deep vermilion if very narrow (one-sixteenth
+of an inch), or carmine if broad.[24]
+
+[24] In some parts of the country it is customary to wash the cornice
+over with quick-lime. If this has been done the lime must be carefully
+removed, for lime will turn carmine black.
+
+[Illustration: DECORATIVE DESIGN.
+
+_Illustrating Cornice, Ceiling & Wall Colouring._]
+
+A room of a slightly more decorative character would be produced by
+making the lower three feet of the wall of a different colour (by
+forming a dado) from the upper part of the wall: thus, if the other
+parts of the room were coloured as in the example just given, the
+lower three feet might be red (vermilion toned to a rich Indian red
+with ultramarine blue) or chocolate (purple-brown and white, with a
+little orange-chrome); this lower portion of the wall being separated
+from the upper cream-coloured portion by a line of black an inch
+broad, or better by a double line, the upper line being an inch broad,
+and the lower line three-eighths of an inch, the lines being separated
+from each other by five-eighths of the red or chocolate.
+
+I like the formation of a dado, for it affords an opportunity of
+giving apparent stability to the wall by making its lower portion
+dark; and furniture is invariably much improved by being seen against
+a dark background. The occupants of a room always look better when
+viewed in conjunction with a dark background, and ladies' dresses
+certainly do. The dark dado gives the desired background without
+rendering it necessary that the entire wall be dark. If the furniture
+be mahogany, it will be wonderfully improved by being placed against a
+chocolate wall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
+
+The dado of a room need not be plain; indeed, it may be enriched to
+any extent. It may be plain with a bordering separating it from the
+wall, such as Figs. 57, 58, and 59, or the coloured border on Plate I.
+(frontispiece); or it may have a simple flower regularly dispersed
+over it; or it may be covered with a geometrical repeating pattern, in
+either of which cases it would have a border; or it may be enriched
+with a specially designed piece of ornament, as Fig. 60. This
+particular pattern should not, however, be enlarged to a height of
+more than twenty to twenty-four inches; but if of this width, and
+above a skirting of twelve or fifteen inches, it would look well.
+
+I have designed two or three narrow dado papers for Messrs. Wylie and
+Lockhead, of Glasgow, which are about eighteen inches broad, and are
+printed in the direction of the length of the paper, so as to save
+unnecessary joins; and Messrs. Jeffrey and Co., of Essex Road,
+Islington, are issuing a complete series of my decorations for walls,
+dados, and ceilings.
+
+If the dado is enriched with ornament, and the cornice is coloured,
+and a pattern spreads all over the ceiling, the walls can well be
+plain, but they may be covered with a simple "powdering" as the
+patterns in Fig. 6l, if these are in soft colours, or with patterns
+such as those set forth in colours on Plate I.; but these, especially
+that on the blue ground, would only be used where a very rich effect
+is desired.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.]
+
+A good room would be produced by pattern Fig. 52 being on the ceiling
+in dark blue and cream-colour, by the cornice being coloured with a
+prevalence of dark blue, the walls being cream-colour down to the
+dado; the border separating the dado from the wall being black
+ornament on a dull orange-colour; and by the dado being chocolate with
+a black rosette upon it; the skirting boards being bright black. The
+dado may or may not be varnished; the upper part of the wall can only
+be "dead" (not varnished--dull). If the room is high a bordering may
+run round the upper portion of the wall, about three to four inches
+below the cornice; such a border as Fig. 62 may he employed in dull
+orange and chocolate.
+
+A citrine wall comes well with a deep blue, or blue and white ceiling,
+if blue prevails in the cornice, and this wall may have a dark blue
+(ultramarine and black with a little white) dado, or a rich maroon
+dado (brown-lake). If the blue dado is employed the skirting should be
+indigo, which, when varnished and seen in conjunction with the blue,
+will appear as black as jet. (See the coloured examples on Plate II.,
+and remarks on colour on pages 45 and 46.)
+
+Walls are usually papered in middle-class houses. I must not object to
+this universal custom; but I do say, try to avoid showing the joinings
+of the various strips. In all cases where possible cut the paper to
+the pattern, and not in straight lines, for straight joinings are very
+objectionable. If you use paper for walls, use it artistically, and
+not as so much paper. Let a dado be formed of one paper, the dado
+bordering (dado rail) of a suitable paper bordering; the upper part of
+the wall being covered by another paper of simple and just design, and
+of such colour as shall harmonise with the dado. Proceed as an artist,
+and not as a mere workman. Think out an ornamental scheme, and then
+try to realise the desired effect. Avoid all papers in which huge
+bunches of flowers and animals or the human figure are depicted. The
+best for all purposes are those of a simple geometrical character, or
+in which designs similar to those in Fig. 6l are "powdered" or placed
+at regular intervals over a plain ground.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
+
+Just as the ceiling ornament must accord in character with the
+architecture of the room in which it is placed, so must the wall
+decoration be of the same style as the architecture of the room.
+Indeed, whatever we have said respecting the harmony of the ceiling
+decoration with the architecture of the building, applies equally to
+the ornamentation of the wall.
+
+It has been customary to arrange walls into panels when decorating
+them, and of this mode of treatment we give one illustration (Fig.
+63); yet nothing can be more absurd than such a treatment, unless the
+wall is architecturally (structurally) arched. A wall may be so formed
+that some parts are thick, so as to give the required strength, while
+other portions are thin. In such a case the wall would be formed of
+arched recesses and thickened piers alternately. This being the case,
+the decoration should be so applied as to emphasise, or render
+apparent, this arched structure; but if the wall is of one thickness
+throughout, its division into arches is absurd and foolish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+We sometimes see great follies, and even gross untruths, perpetrated
+with the view of bringing about the so-called decoration of a room.
+Thus it is not unfrequently that we meet with imitation pillars,
+recesses, and arches as the so-called ornamentation of a room.
+
+In low music halls we are not surprised by such decorations, for we do
+not look for truth or any manifestation of delicacy of feeling in such
+places. Falsity and the untrue appear in natural juxtaposition with
+the debased and the vulgar. Sham marble pillars, a fictitious and
+merely imitative architecture, an assumed and unreal, yet coarse and
+vulgar, gorgeousness, are the natural adjuncts of immorality and vice;
+but such falsities cannot be tolerated in the abodes of those who
+pretend to purity and truth, nor in the buildings which they frequent;
+yet even the new Albert Hall has sham marble pillars (I say this to
+our shame), and but recently I visited a church near Edgware, in which
+there is a display of false decoration such as I never before saw.
+Here we find sham pillars, giving a false architecture; sham niches,
+containing sham statues; sham clouds, forming an absurd ceiling; and
+almost every falsity which a falsely constituted mind could
+perpetrate.
+
+How strange it is that in a church, where purity and truth are taught,
+the whole of the decorations should be a sham! It is said that if you
+want to hear a fierce quarrel, and to see true hatred, you must seek
+it in religious sects and among theological discussionists. On the
+same principle, I suppose, we must prepare ourselves for a display of
+the worst art-falsity in the sacred edifice. Perhaps the idea is that
+of contrast. As the teetotal lecturer had a drunken man by him as a
+frightful example of what was to be avoided, so the decorations of
+this church may be intended as a warning, rather than as an example of
+what should be followed. Happily such churches as this are rare, and
+it can be truly said that ecclesiastical architecture and decoration
+has made great strides with us in recent years, and that in very many
+instances it is rigidly truthful as well as beautiful.
+
+Before leaving the consideration of wall decorations, I must object to
+all imitations, as sham marbles, granites, etc., for no wall can be
+satisfactory which is to any extent a display of false grandeur; and
+this is curious, that in many cases it costs more to produce an
+imitation marble staircase than it would to line the same walls with
+the marbles imitated. I have known a case in which the imitation has
+cost double what the genuine stone would have cost, and such a case is
+not exceptional, for hand-polished work is always expensive. To
+imitations of marbles and granites, as I have already said, I strongly
+object, and of the genuine stone I am not fond, unless sparingly and
+judiciously used. My objections to its free use are these:--1st.
+Harmony of colour depends upon great exactness of tint. This exactness
+is rarely attainable in the case of two marbles. One stone may,
+however, be brought into direct and perfect harmony with a coloured
+wall, by the tint of the wall being carefully suited to the marble.
+2nd. The true artist thinks less of the costliness of the material of
+which he forms his works than of the art-effect produced. Thus the old
+Greeks, who were full of art-feeling and refinement, coloured the
+buildings which they constructed of white marble, and they certainly
+thereby improved them; for colour, if harmoniously employed, lends to
+objects a new charm--a charm which they would not without it possess.
+I must further say, before leaving our present subject, that all
+walls, however decorated, should serve as a background to whatever
+stands in front of them. Thus they must retire even behind the
+furniture by their unobtrusiveness.
+
+The order of arrangement in furnishing must be this. The living beings
+in a room should be most attractive and conspicuous, and the dress of
+man should be of such a character as to secure this. Ladies can now
+employ any amount of colour in their attire; but poor man, however
+noble, cannot by his dress be distinguished from his butler; and,
+worst of all, both are dressed in an unbecoming and inartistic manner.
+Next come the furniture and draperies--the one or the other having
+prominence according to circumstances; then come the wall and floor,
+both of which are to serve as backgrounds to all that stands in front
+of them. In decorating walls, or in judging of the merit or
+suitability of wall decorations, this must always be taken into
+consideration, that they are but enriched backgrounds; and it should
+also be remembered that the nature of the enrichment applied is
+determined, to a great extent, by the character of the architecture of
+the building of which the wall forms a part.
+
+We come now to consider wall-papers, which are hangings prepared with
+the view of enabling us to decorate our walls at comparatively small
+cost. I may confess that I am not very fond of wall-papers under any
+circumstances. I prefer a tinted or painted wall. Yet they are largely
+used, and will be for a long time to come. I have already said that if
+wall-papers are used they should not be joined together with straight
+lines, and that we ought to consider them as so much art-material
+which should be used artistically.
+
+As to the nature of the pattern which a wall-paper should have, it is
+almost impossible to speak, as there are endless varieties; but as a
+rule it may be said that those consisting of small, simple, repeated
+parts, which are low-toned or neutral in colour, are the best. Most
+wall-paper patterns are larger than is desirable. The pattern can
+scarcely be too simple, and it should in all cases consist of flat
+ornament.
+
+If the ornament is very good, and the pattern is the work of a true
+artist, it may be larger, for then the parts will be balanced and
+harmonised in a manner that could not be expected from a less skilful
+hand; but even if by the most talented designer, it must ever be
+remembered that he has designed it at random, and not as a suitable
+decoration for any particular room. The man who selects the pattern
+for a particular wall must choose that which is suitable to the
+special case.
+
+The effect of a wall-paper is materially affected by many
+circumstances. Thus, by the quantity of light admitted to the
+room--whether the room is dark or light; by the aspect, whether it
+receives the sun's rays direct or does not; by the character of the
+light, as whether direct from the sky, or reflected from a green lawn,
+or red-brick wall. All these things must be considered, and what looks
+well in the pattern-book may look bad on a wall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
+
+As to colour, the best wall-paper patterns are those which consist of
+somewhat strong colours in very small masses--masses so small that the
+general effect of the paper is rich, low-toned, and neutral, and yet
+has a glowing colour-bloom; but these are rarely to be met with.
+
+It was a fashion some time since to make wall-papers in imitation of
+woven fabrics, and this fashion has not wholly disappeared yet, absurd
+though it be. It arose through the accident of a designer of
+wall-paper patterns having been a shawl pattern designer, and having a
+number of small shawl patterns on hand, which he disposed of as
+wall-paper patterns. A pattern which is suitable for a woven fabric is
+rarely suitable to a printed fabric, and especially when the one
+pattern is to be seen in folds on a moving object, and the other flat
+on a fixed surface. And at all times imitation by one material of
+another is untruthful, and it becomes specially absurd when we think
+that almost every material is capable of producing some good
+art-effect which no other material can. We should always seek to make
+each material as distinctive in its art-character as we can, and to
+cause each to appear as beautiful as possible in that particular
+manner in which it can most naturally be worked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
+
+A word should be said about the particular character which a
+wall-paper pattern should have, but the remarks which I am now about
+to make will apply equally to all patterns employed as wall
+decorations. If we view trees or plants, as we see them against the
+sky as a background, they are objects which point upwards and have a
+bilateral symmetry--their halves are alike (Figs. 64 and 65)--or are
+more or less irregular in form, and when seen in this view we may
+regard them as natural wall decorations. Our wall patterns, then, may
+point upwards, as in Fig. 61, and be bilateral or otherwise; but it
+must be remembered that when the flowers of a primrose protrude from a
+bank they are regular radiating, or star, ornaments. I think that it
+is legitimate for us to use on a wall star, or regular radiating
+ornaments, as well as those having an upward tendency.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
+
+I have said that when seen from the side plants are bilateral, or are
+more or less irregular. As I have referred to plants as furnishing us
+with types of ornament, I should not be doing rightly were I to leave
+this statement in its present form; for the tendency of the vital
+force of all plants is to produce structures of rigidly symmetrical
+character; but insects, which eat buds and leaves, and blights, winds,
+and frosts, so act upon plants as to destroy their normal symmetry,
+hence we find an apparent want of symmetry in the arrangement of the
+parts of plants.
+
+Respecting the colouring of cornices, a few words should be said. 1st.
+Bright colours may here be employed. 2nd. As a rule, get red in shadow
+or in shade, blue on flat or hollow surfaces, especially those that
+recede from the eye, and yellow on rounded advancing members. 3rd. Use
+for red either vermilion or carmine; for blue, ultramarine either pure
+or with white; for yellow, middle chrome much diluted with white. 4th.
+Use red very sparingly, blue abundantly, the pale yellow in medium
+quantity.
+
+Besides primary colours, none others need be used on the cornice. It
+is a mistake to use many, or dull, colours, here, but gold may be used
+instead of yellow. With the view of explaining the principles which we
+have just enunciated by diagrams, we give four illustrations (Figs.
+66, 67, 68, 69), which I advise the student to try and colour in
+accordance with the principles just set forth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+CARPETS.
+
+
+It is not my intention in this chapter to consider in detail the
+various kinds of carpet which are common in our market, nor even to
+review the history of their manufacture, interesting as it would be to
+do so; for we must confine ourselves more particularly to an
+examination of the art-qualities which they present, and to the
+particular form of pattern which may be applied to them with
+advantage.
+
+Although we cannot here enter into a consideration of the manufacture
+of carpets, I cannot too strongly recommend all who intend preparing
+designs for them to consider minutely the powers of the carpet loom;
+for the nature of the effect produced will depend to a large extent
+upon the knowledge which the designer possesses of the capabilities of
+the manufacture for which he designs patterns. In the case of any
+manufacture it is highly desirable, if not absolutely essential, that
+the designer of the patterns to be wrought should be acquainted with
+the process by which his design is to be converted into the particular
+material for which the pattern has been prepared; for this knowledge,
+even when not absolutely essential, gives an amount of freedom and
+power which nothing else can supply.
+
+The carpets most extensively in use are "Brussels;" but there are many
+other kinds both of better and inferior qualities. "Kidderminster
+carpet" (a carpet not now made by even one Kidderminster manufacturer)
+is a common fabric suited to the bedrooms of middle-class houses; but
+the art-capabilities of this material are very small, as it can only
+have two colours in any line running throughout its length. This
+carpet consists of two thicknesses, which are imperfectly united, and
+is not durable. "Brussels carpeting," now made chiefly in Great
+Britain, is a good carpet for general purposes. Its surface consists
+of loops, and it may have five, or, if made of extra quality, six
+colours in any line running throughout its length. If with five
+colours in the same line the carpet will, in a sense, consist of five
+thicknesses of worsted; yet these are united into one fabric. In some
+cases a "Brussels carpet" is woven of very close texture, with the
+loops cut through; thus we have a "velvet pile" or "Wilton carpet"--a
+fabric which is very rich-looking, and durable.
+
+Those called real "Axminster" carpets are, perhaps, the best made.
+They are formed by the knotting together of threads by hand,
+consequently any number of colours may be used in their formation; but
+such are necessarily most costly. A "patent Axminster" carpet is made
+by a double process of hand-weaving, by which fine results are
+achieved, and any number of colours used. In the first weaving a rough
+"cloth" is formed, which is cut into strips called "chenille threads,"
+and these are again woven into the carpet. This process is most
+ingenious, and the carpets produced by it are very good; but they are
+costly.
+
+Some few years since a most ingenious process of manufacturing what
+are known as "tapestry" carpets was patented--a process resembling in
+its nature that of the patent Axminster manufacture, but differing in
+this particular, that the "warp" threads are coloured by printing, and
+thus the first process of weaving is dispensed with. These carpets
+are, like Brussels, made with a looped surface, and also with a pile.
+They cannot be said to compare in any way with the patent Axminster
+carpets, which are of a pretentious and costly character, nor even
+with a good "Brussels;" but they are low in price, and meet a want, as
+is proved by their enormous sale.
+
+Besides these varieties of carpet there are a number of kinds of
+foreign production, most of which are hand-made, and are very
+beautiful. By far the greater number of these have a "pile," although
+this is sometimes rough and uneven, yet rarely, if ever, inartistic;
+but a few are without pile; still these are not without that
+indescribable something which renders them estimable in the eye of an
+artist.
+
+Having hastily noticed the chief kinds of carpet in use in this
+country, and we might say in almost all countries, we come to the
+question--what form of pattern, or what character of ornament, should
+form the "enrichment" of such a fabric?
+
+When speaking in a previous chapter (see page 92) of wall decorations,
+we noticed that a wall-paper pattern, or, indeed, a wall pattern of
+any kind, might desirably have an upward direction and a bilateral
+symmetry. This can never be the case, however, with a carpet pattern,
+which must be equally extended all over the surface, or have a simple
+radiating symmetry, as Fig. 56; and this rule will apply whether the
+pattern be simple or complicated. It is not wrong, as we have said
+before, to have a radiating pattern on a wall, but it is wrong to have
+a bilateral pattern on a floor.
+
+The reason of this is obvious. If such an object as we have indicated
+is placed on a wall, from whatever point the occupants of the room may
+view it, it is yet right way upwards to them; but if such an object
+were placed on a floor it would be wrong way upwards, or sideways, or
+oblique to most of those who viewed it; and to employ a pattern of
+this character in such a position is highly absurd, when a pattern can
+as readily be formed which will avoid this unpleasantness. What would
+we think were we asked to view a picture, or even to visit an
+apartment containing such, were this work of art presented to our view
+in an inverted manner? We should feel astonished at the absurdity; yet
+this would be no worse than expecting us to view a carpet while the
+pattern is to us in an inverted position.
+
+And the principle which we have just set forth is one taught by a
+consideration of plants. If we wander over the moor, where we tread
+on Nature's carpet, we find that all the little plants which nestle in
+the short mossy grass are "radiating ornaments"--that is, they are
+pretty objects which consist of parts spreading regularly from a
+centre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
+
+I cannot too strongly advise the young ornamentist to study the
+principles on which Nature works. Knowledge of the laws which govern
+the development of plant-growth is very desirable; but it is not our
+place to _imitate_ even the most beautiful of plant-forms--this being
+the work of the pictorial artists. Yet it is ours to study Nature's
+laws, and to observe all her beauty, even to her most subtle effects,
+and then we may safely pillage from her all that we can _consistently_
+adapt to our own purposes. But in order that we produce ornament, we
+must infuse mind or soul into whatever we borrow from her. (See page
+2.)
+
+With the view of more fully impressing the manner in which Nature
+teaches us principles which we may apply in art, and of aiding the
+student in his inquiries, we will give one or two illustrations. Thus
+Fig. 64 is a drawing of a spray of the guelder rose (_Viburnum
+opulus_) when seen from the side, or, as I might express it, when
+viewed as a wall decoration; and Fig. 70 is the same spray as seen
+from above, or, to use the same manner of expression, when seen as a
+floor pattern. Further, Fig. 71 represents a young plant of a species
+of speedwell (_Veronica_) as a wall ornament, and Fig. 72, the same
+plant when seen as a floor ornament; and Figs. 65 and 73 represent a
+portion of the goosegrass (_Galium Aparine_) as seen in the same two
+views.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
+
+From these illustrations we see that plants furnish us with types of
+two essentially different ornaments, which are adapted to the
+decoration of the two positions of wall and floor, and may be
+introduced with truthful expression and effect into wall-paper or
+carpet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.]
+
+Even when the leaves appear somewhat dispersed upon the stem, a
+principle of order can yet be distinctly traced in the manner of their
+arrangement, as is diagrammatically expressed in Figs. 74, 75, 76; and
+here, also, the top view gives us a regular radiating ornament.[25]
+
+[25] The spray here represented is that of the oak, and the diagram
+(Fig. 74) shows the orderly spiral manner in which the leaves spring
+from the stem.
+
+The same law prevails in the flower that we have traced as existing in
+the arrangement of leaves upon the stem: thus Fig. 77, which
+represents the London pride (_Saxifraga umbrosa_), affords an example
+of a regular radiating flower, which we find so placed, in different
+examples, as to appear as a floor or wall ornament; and Figs. 78 and
+79, the former being the flower of the speedwell (Veronica), and the
+latter that of the common pansy (_Viola tricolor_), furnish us with
+illustrations of bilateral flowers intended only as wall ornaments. In
+order to secure our seeing the pansy only laterally, it is furnished
+with a bent stalk; hence it never rests horizontally upon the summit
+of its stem, but always hangs so that it is perfectly seen only from
+the side.
+
+There are cases, however, in which bilateral flowers are placed
+horizontally; but it is very interesting to notice that when this
+occurs the disposition or arrangement of the flowers is such as to
+restore the radiating symmetry. Thus, if we take the candytuft
+(_Iberis_) or the common hemlock (_Conium_), we find that while each
+flower is bilateral in character, the flowers are yet arranged around
+a centre in such a manner that the smaller portion of each flower
+points to the centre of the flower-head, while the larger parts point
+outwards from the centre of the group. These, then, are the teachings
+of plants, to which we are called upon to hearken.
+
+The above illustrations are not only useful examples of the
+suggestions of plant-forms to the ornamentist, but form excellent
+material to the art-student for the conventional treatment of leaves
+and sprays, buds and blossoms. They will also serve to indicate the
+kind of plant-forms that should be chosen for decorative purposes.
+Students of this branch of art would find it a useful practice to make
+a collection of flowers and plants or parts of plants that appear to
+offer features similar to those of which we have been writing, and
+test their capabilities for decorative purposes, by endeavouring to
+arrange them for the ornamentation of wall and floor, as we have
+treated the plant-forms indicated in this chapter.
+
+We have now seen the principle on which all carpet patterns should be
+constructed as distinctive from wall patterns, and in order to impress
+the necessity of giving a radiating basis to the ornaments placed upon
+carpets, and not a bilateral structure, we have referred to the
+principle of plant growth, where we noticed that all plants, when
+viewed as floor ornaments (when viewed from above), are of a radiating
+character; whereas if they are seen as wall or vertical ornaments,
+they are either radiating or bilateral. This is a necessity of a
+carpet pattern, that it have a radiating structure, or, in other
+words, that it point in more than two directions.
+
+Man naturally accustomed to tread on grass, when brought into a state
+of civilisation, seeks some covering for his floor which shall be
+softer to the tread and richer in colour than stone or brick. And in
+our northern climate he seeks also warmth; hence he chooses not a mere
+matting, or lattice of reeds, but a covering such as shall satisfy his
+requirements.
+
+In early times our floors appear to have been strewn with sand--a
+custom still lingering in some country districts; then came the habit
+of strewing reeds over the floor, and on the part of the opulent,
+sweet-scented reeds (_Acorus calamus_). And it is curious to notice,
+in connection with this subject, that one of the charges brought by
+Henry VIII. against Cardinal Wolsey was that of extravagance in the
+use of sweet reeds. This use of reeds was succeeded by the employment
+of mats of simple appearance, formed of a kind of grass, and these by
+the introduction of wool mats, which, at first, were chiefly imported,
+but afterwards manufactured in our own country. The wool mats were in
+their turn replaced by carpets, which gradually increased in size till
+their proportions became such as to cover the entire floor on which
+they were placed.
+
+This brief history brings us to notice what is required of a
+carpet:--it should be soft in texture, rich in appearance, and of
+"bloomy" effect.
+
+We may add to these requirements by saying that a carpet should also
+be a suitable background to all works of furniture or other objects
+placed upon it, and that in character it should accord with the
+objects with which it is associated in any particular apartment.
+
+Considering more fully these requirements, we notice that a carpet
+should be soft. This is very desirable, for softness gives a sense of
+comfort, and with softness is generally combined durability of the
+fabric; but softness can scarcely be regarded as an art-quality. Yet
+as the art which an object bears is more leniently viewed when the
+fitness of the object to the purpose for which it is intended is
+apparent, we may safely regard softness as a very desirable quality of
+a carpet.
+
+The Eastern carpets are pre-eminent in this quality of softness, and
+of English-made carpets "Brussels" and tapestry are the least
+satisfactory in this way; as usually made, they have a hard "backing."
+A kind of Brussels carpeting with a soft back has recently been
+brought out, but at present it is not general in the trade. If the
+carpet employed in any apartment as a floor covering is harsh in
+character, it is desirable to place soft felt under it (felt for this
+purpose can be got at carpet warehouses), or evenly spread soft hay,
+for by so doing the wear of the fabric will be greatly increased, and
+the pleasure of walking on it will also be correspondingly greater.
+
+The next quality of a carpet is richness. No carpet is satisfactory
+which is "washy" or faded in appearance. There must be "depth" of
+effect, a "fulness" of art-quality. Hangings may be delicate,
+wall-decorations soft in tint, but a carpet must be rich and "full" in
+effect, yet a general softness of tone is desirable.
+
+But this richness must be of singular character, for the most
+desirable effect which a carpet can present is that of a glowing
+neutral bloom.
+
+I hope that my language does not appear mystical to the general reader
+or young student. To the ornamentist I think it will be intelligible.
+What I wish to say is that the effect should be glowing, or radiant,
+or bright, as opposed to dull, quiet, or heavy; that it should be such
+as results from the use of a predominance of bright and warm colours,
+rather than of cold and neutral hues; that it should be neutral,
+inasmuch as it should not present large masses of positive colour, hut
+should have an equality of rich harmonious colours throughout; that it
+should be "bloomy," or have the effect of a garden full of flowers, or
+better, of the slope of a Swiss alp, where the flowers combine to form
+one vast harmonious "glow" of colour. This is the effect which a
+carpet should present, yet it should never present flowers,
+imitatively rendered, as its ornamentation. Such imitative renderings
+are not to be produced by the ornamentist; they must come from the
+pictorial artist, for they are pictures. They cannot form suitable
+backgrounds to furniture and living objects, for they are positive,
+and not neutral, in their general effect. A picture, also, will not
+bear repetition: whoever heard of one person having two copies of the
+same picture in one room? Yet a pictorial group of flowers may be
+seen repeated many times over a floor, which is very objectionable.
+The effect to be produced is that of a rich "colour-bloom;" but the
+skilled ornamentist will achieve this without violating any laws of
+fitness, and will gently and delicately hint at the beauty of a
+profusion of blossom through his tenderly formed pattern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
+
+Yet a carpet must be neutral in its general effect, as it is the
+background on which objects rest. Neutrality of effect is of two
+kinds. Large masses of tertiary or neutral colours will achieve its
+production, so also will the juxtaposition of the primary colours in
+small quantities, either alone or with the secondary colours, and
+black or white; but there will be this difference between the two
+effects--that produced by low-toned colours will be simply neutral,
+while that produced by the primary colours will be "bloomy" as well as
+neutral, and if yellows and reds slightly predominate in the
+intermingling of colours, the effect will be glowing or radiant.
+
+The radiant, or glowing, bloomy neutrality of effect is that which it
+is most desirable that a carpet should present.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
+
+This effect is rarely produced in English carpets, owing either to the
+want of skill on the part of the ornamentist, who is unable to produce
+such works; the want of judgment on the part of the manufacturer,
+whereby he fails to produce such patterns; or the want of taste on the
+part of the consumer, owing to which he buys works of a more vulgar
+character. I have designed carpets in which I have sought to realise
+as much of this effect as I could with six colours--the number to
+which I have been limited by the conditions of manufacture, and
+fortunately these appear to be commanding a large sale, and to be
+setting a fashion in carpets; but those who wish to study these bloomy
+effects in their more perfect forms, must do so in the carpets of
+India, Persia, Smyrna, and Morocco, but especially in the Indian rugs.
+
+Some of the carpets from India are perfect marvels of colour-harmony,
+and of radiant bloom. They appear to glow as a bed of flowers in the
+sunshine, and yet they are neutral in their general effect, and when
+placed in an apartment do not usurp a primary place, as does any
+pictorially treated pattern.
+
+This "bloom" was seen to perfection in one or two silk rugs which were
+shown at the International Exhibition of 1862 in London, and it was
+not much less apparent in some of the carpets from India shown in the
+Paris Exhibition of 1867. Most Indian carpets have this colour-bloom
+to some extent, and few are unworthy of careful study.
+
+Persian carpets (Fig. 80) are also models of what carpets should be;
+they are less radiant than many of the Indian works, but are almost
+more mingled in colour-effect. In pattern many of the Indian and
+Persian carpets are identical, being traditional, yet in colour they
+differ, and both are worthy of much consideration.
+
+The Morocco carpets (Fig. 81) differ again from both those of India
+and Persia, and even to a greater degree than the Persian carpet
+differs from the Indian. In these there is often a prevalence of soft
+yellows and juicy yellow-greens, intermingled with reds, blues, and
+grey-whites, in such a manner as to produce a most harmonious and
+artistic effect. To the young student, and to any who may desire to
+cultivate his taste in respect to such matters, I say, Study the
+carpets of the East most carefully, especially those of India, Persia,
+and Morocco.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.]
+
+Indian carpets, such as we have just referred to, may be seen at the
+museum in the building of the new India Office at Whitehall, which
+museum is open free to the public (for examples, see Figs. 82, 83,
+84).
+
+As to the nature of the pattern which may be applied to a carpet, we
+have "all-over" patterns, or patterns spreading regularly all over the
+surface; "geometrical" patterns, or those which have an apparent
+regularity of structure; and panel patterns, or those in which
+particular parts are, as it were, framed off from other parts.
+
+First, as to "all-over" patterns. These are what we almost always find
+in both Indian and Persian carpets, and are, undoubtedly, the true
+form of decoration for a woven floor covering. What is desirable is an
+evenly spread pattern, such as will give richness without destroying
+the unity of the entire effect. The pattern may have parts slightly
+accentuated or emphasised beyond other parts, but not strongly so, and
+this emphasising of parts must be arranged with the view of securing
+to the pattern special interest. Thus, if a carpet is viewed at a
+distance it should not appear as devoid of all pattern, but through
+the slight predominance of certain leading features (in Indian
+carpets, generally of ornamental flowers) the plan of the design
+should be indicated. More detail should be apparent when the work is
+seen from a nearer point of view, and still more upon close
+inspection; but in no case should any parts appear strongly
+pronounced, or otherwise than refined and beautiful, and in no case
+should there be a want of interest manifested by the pattern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.]
+
+Carpet patterns are generally better if founded on a geometrical plan.
+In this way most of the Indian and Persian patterns are constructed. A
+geometrical plan secures to the design a manifestation of order and
+thought in its formation. Panel patterns, unless very carefully
+managed, become coarse. In some Indian carpets we find a sort of panel
+in which the colour of the ground is changed from that of the general
+ground of the carpet, but here the panel has usually a truly
+ornamental form, and is, indeed, rather a large ornament than a sort
+of frame enclosing a distinct space. Whenever a panel occurs in an
+Indian, Persian, or Moorish carpet, it is so managed, and its
+surroundings are such, as to cause it to appear as a part natural to
+the general design; but it is far otherwise with the panel patterns
+which we occasionally see in our shop-windows as the produce of native
+industry, and it is far otherwise with those which are used in vast
+quantities by the Americans. Judging from the carpets which they
+order, I imagine that nowhere on earth is taste in matters of
+decorative art so depraved as it is in America. It is true that the
+great floral patterns have ceased to be demanded by them, but they are
+only replaced by coarse, raw-looking panel patterns, coloured in the
+most vulgar manner, and without even a hint at refinement or harmony
+of colour. Let the pattern be "loud" and inharmoniously coloured, and
+the chances of its sale in the American market are great.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.]
+
+But we must not forget that even in our own country bad patterns sell
+equally as well as good, inartistic patterns as well as those which
+are of a more refined character, and that even here in Great Britain
+more of the indifferent, if not of the very bad, sells than of the
+good. Let us cast the beam, then, from our own eye, before we try to
+extract it from that of another.
+
+The ground colour of a carpet may vary much, as we all know; it may be
+black, blue, red, green, or white, or any other colour. If the ground
+of a carpet is pure white, it is almost impossible that it look well.
+When I make this assertion I am often told that some of the Indian
+carpets which I so much admire have white grounds. This is a mistake.
+Some of them have light grounds, but not pure white. They have light
+cream-grey, or green-white grounds, but not pure white, and this
+variety of tone altogether alters the case. Yet even with a
+light-toned ground it is not an easy matter to make a carpet which
+shall appear as a suitable background to the furniture of a room; it
+can be done, but it is a thing difficult to achieve. The safest and
+best ground for a carpet is black or indigo blue. If on this a closely
+fitting, well-studied pattern be arranged, drawn in small masses of
+bright colour, a beautiful bloomy effect may be achieved, and a glance
+at our best shop-windows will show that the most satisfactory carpets
+are coloured in this way.
+
+As to the size of the pattern we can say but little, as this will be
+determined by the coarseness or fineness of the fabric. In a Brussels
+carpet each stitch is about the one-tenth of an inch square. In some
+Turkey carpets each stitch is a quarter of an inch square. It is
+obvious that a much smaller and finer pattern can be produced in
+Brussels than in Turkey carpet.
+
+A carpet pattern is best small, or at least small in detail if not in
+the extent of the design. A pattern may repeat three or four times in
+the width of the fabric (twenty-seven inches if Brussels), or but one
+figure may be shown, yet in this latter case the detail of the pattern
+may be as great as in the former. That degree of smallness which is
+compatible with tolerable distinctness of detail is desirable. For
+this reason Turkey carpets are not altogether satisfactory; no fine
+pattern can be worked in them, and besides this they have no
+colour-bloom and little colour-harmony. In some respects they are
+good, but altogether they are not satisfying.
+
+Before I close these remarks upon carpets, let me say that, as
+designers, manufacturers, and consumers, we are one and all timid of
+new things. We want daring--the energy to produce new things, to
+manufacture them, to use them. What if the pattern is "extreme," if it
+is better than others? what if Mrs. Grundy should think us
+eccentric?--better be eccentric than ever harping on one monotony. If
+we could but bear calmly the derisive smiles of the ignorant,
+art-progress would be easy.
+
+With us carpets cover the entire floor. In London these carpets are
+nailed to the boards, and but seldom taken up. In some parts of
+England we find rings sewn around the under edge of the carpet, which
+rings are looped to the heads of nails. Carpets so furnished can be
+more readily removed for cleaning than those which are nailed to the
+floor. Square carpets, such as the Turkey, Indian, and Persian, are
+spread loosely on the boards, and can be taken up and shaken without
+difficulty. This is unquestionably the most healthy plan of using a
+carpet, and it is also an artistic plan. If the outer portion of the
+room floor is formed of inlaid wood of simple and suitable pattern,
+and a loose square carpet is spread in the centre, we have an artistic
+effect, and the desirable knowledge that cleanliness is also
+attainable with a reasonable expenditure of labour.
+
+Before we leave the consideration of carpets we will state in
+axiomatic form the conditions which govern the application of ornament
+to them, as reference can more easily be made to short concise
+sentences than to more extended remarks.
+
+1st. Carpet patterns may with advantage have a geometrical formation,
+for this gives to the mind an idea of order or arrangement.
+
+2nd. When the pattern has not a geometrical basis, a general evenness
+of surface should be preserved.
+
+3rd. Carpets are better not formed into "panels," as though they were
+works of wood or stone; on the contrary, they should have a general
+"all-over" effect without any great accentuation of particular parts.
+The Indian and Persian carpets meet this requirement.
+
+4th. While a carpet should present a general appearance of evenness,
+parts may yet be slightly "pronounced" or emphasised, so as to give to
+the mind the idea of centres from which the pattern radiates.
+
+5th. A carpet should, in some respects, resemble a bank richly covered
+with flowers; thus, when seen from a distance the effect should be
+that of a general "bloom" of colour; when viewed from a nearer point
+it should present certain features of somewhat special interest; and
+when looked at closely new beauties should make their appearance.
+
+6th. As a floor is a flat surface, no ornamental covering placed on it
+should make it appear otherwise.
+
+7th. A carpet, having to serve as a background to furniture, should be
+of a somewhat neutral character.
+
+8th. Every carpet, however small, should have a border, which is as
+necessary to it as a frame is to a picture.
+
+Having thus summarised the principles that govern the application of
+ornament to carpets, we may proceed to notice the conditions governing
+the decoration of other woven fabrics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+CURTAIN MATERIALS, HANGINGS, AND WOVEN FABRICS GENERALLY.
+
+
+In the consideration of hangings of various kinds, we have first to
+notice the nature of the cloth on which the pattern is to be
+worked--whether it is of open or close texture. Fabrics of an open
+character should bear upon them a larger pattern than those which are
+thicker or closer. The openness or closeness of the fabric will thus
+determine, to an extent, the nature of the ornament which is to be
+placed upon it. Muslins, being open in character, should have larger
+patterns than calicoes, which are closer in texture, or the pattern
+will be indistinct in the one case or coarse in the other.
+
+But not only does texture influence the pattern when considered as to
+coarseness or fineness, but also the nature of the cloth as regards
+material. Thus silk will bear greater fulness of colour than muslins
+or calico-prints, owing to the fact that the lustre of the material,
+by reflecting light to the eye of the observer, destroys a certain
+portion of the intensity of the effect of colour which a less
+reflective material would exhibit. Silk, as a material, also conveys
+to the mind an idea of costliness or worth, and wherever the material
+does so the pattern may be richer in colour than it should be in
+cheaper and commoner fabrics. If a pattern is in two tints of the same
+colour only, as in the case of those woven silks where the pattern is
+formed by the contrast of "tabby" and satin, it may be considerably
+larger than in those cases where it is rendered conspicuous by
+colours.
+
+This latter remark will apply also to damask table-linen, and to all
+similar materials, as well as to dress fabrics, and draperies such as
+window hangings; but of these we shall say a word shortly.
+
+The closeness or openness of a fabric should, then, be considered when
+we design patterns for its enrichment, and so should the nature of the
+material, as this will influence its deadness or lustre. But there are
+also other considerations which must not be lost sight of. If the
+pattern is to be wrought by printing, then one class of conditions
+must be complied with; if by weaving, then another class of
+requirements call for consideration.
+
+The requirements of manufacture are much more numerous than might be
+supposed, and are in some cases very restrictive. The size of the
+repeat, the manner in which colour can be applied, the character of
+surface attainable, and many other considerations have to be carefully
+complied with before a pattern can appear as a manufactured article.
+
+The chief fault of patterns, as applied to fabrics generally, is their
+want of simplicity--want of simple structure, want of simple
+treatment, want of simplicity of effect; and together with this we
+generally find largeness and coarseness of parts.
+
+These errors arise chiefly out of a want of consideration of the
+capabilities of the material. What can be done with this or that
+particular fabric, is a question that we should carefully ask
+ourselves before we think of preparing a design. Have we colour at our
+disposal, or texture merely? and if colour, can it be employed freely
+or only sparingly? and can any desired colours be placed in
+juxtaposition or only certain tints? These are questions of great
+importance, and they should be asked and carefully considered before
+the first step is taken towards the formation of a pattern. Having
+ascertained what can be done with the material at command, let us ever
+remember that we should always endeavour to so employ the capabilities
+of a material as to conceal its weakness and emphasise its more
+desirable effects. If this consideration were always given by
+designers to the power which the material has of yielding effects, we
+should see, in very many instances, effects strangely different from
+those which we often encounter; and this remark applies to no class of
+fabrics more fully than to damask table-linen and coloured damask
+window hangings.
+
+No satisfactory effect can be got in light and shade upon any woven or
+printed fabric; besides, to attempt such a mode of treatment is
+absurd. Light and shade belong only to pictorial art. The ornamentist
+when enriching a fabric deals only with a surface, and has no thought
+of placing pictures thereon; he has simply to enrich or beautify that
+which without his art would be plain and unornamental. A picture will
+never bear repetition. Who ever heard of a man having two copies of
+one picture in a room? Yet how much more absurd is it to repeat a
+little picture--perhaps a pictorially rendered flower--a hundred times
+over one surface! Besides this, a surface must always be treated, for
+decorative purposes, as a surface, and not in a manner calculated to
+deceive by giving apparent relief, or thickness, to that which is
+essentially without thickness. Take a common damask table-cover. This
+is by custom almost always white, although it would be better if of a
+deep cream-colour, or soft buff; and the pattern which it bears
+results from a change of surface only (why a margin of "ingrain"
+colour is not added, I could never see); yet in nine cases out of ten
+the pattern which is presented by such a fabric is a miserable shaded
+attempt at a pictorial treatment, and is also a thorough failure.
+
+Simplicity of pattern naturally accords with a simple mode of
+production, and the means of producing pattern in damasks is certainly
+most simple. That there is a natural harmony between simplicity of
+pattern and simple means of producing an art-effect is obvious, for of
+all patterns that I have ever seen upon damask table-linen the simple
+spot, or dot, is the most satisfactory. If, combined with this spot,
+we have a border formed of a simple Greek "key-pattern," or of mere
+lines (a very usual border to good cloths), the effect is perfectly
+satisfying, and, as far as it goes, is highly to be commended.
+
+It is curious that this spot is only sold in the better quality of
+table-linen (at least so they tell me in the City), and this shows
+that the wealthy, or, in other words, the educated, buy such patterns,
+as they prefer the true to the meretricious, while the false and showy
+devices which we see on the common cloths please only the common
+people of vulgar taste. I am not sure, however, that many persons,
+whose means are limited, would not buy spots and other simple, but
+correctly treated, patterns, if such were to be got in common
+qualities of damask; but when the pocket must govern the purchase, it
+is hard to say that the false is preferred to the true, if the true is
+not procurable with the means at command.
+
+While I cannot withhold praise from this little spot, it must not be
+thought that I thereby give to it a high place as an art-work. Little
+is here attempted, and that little is done well. But let us analyse
+this pattern. First, the spots are of one tint throughout, if I may
+thus express myself--a tint, shall we say, which is the reverse of
+that of the ground. It is not shaded so that it may appear as a ball
+or globe, and is not graduated in "colour" in any way (were it
+graduated or shaded, feebleness of effect must inevitably accrue), but
+is a simple, honest spot, treated as a surface ornament. Secondly,
+this spot is geometrically arranged, or, in other words, has an
+orderly arrangement.
+
+If an attempt is made at rendering a pictorial, or light-and-shade
+effect, in damask, an absurd failure can alone result, for depth of
+shade is not obtainable in the material; and, besides this, what
+appears as shade, when the cloth is seen from one point of view,
+appears as light if seen from another point of view. Nothing could be
+more absurd, then, than seeking to produce shaded effects with such
+means as are here at our disposal. But were the fabric capable of
+rendering such effects, it would still be wrong to employ them, as we
+deal only with the surface, and are seeking to enhance the value of,
+or beautify, a fabric, and not to cover it with pictures. In our
+simple spot we have those elements which may be extended into the
+richest and most artistic damask patterns. We have order--as indicated
+by the geometrical plan of the pattern--and an honest and simple
+expression, or application, of the capabilities of the material.
+
+All table-covers should certainly have a border. Any object which is
+to be used as a whole looks unsatisfactory if it appears as though it
+were part of a whole. If a cloth is without border it is impossible to
+avoid the impression that it is a part of a larger cloth, and in every
+respect the general effect is decidedly unsatisfactory.
+
+It is perhaps well that we notice one peculiarity of a table-cover
+before we dismiss the consideration of such fabrics, which is this,
+that while the central portion is seen flat, the border portion is
+viewed in folds; and here we come to one of the great peculiarities of
+most draperies, that of their being viewed not as flat surfaces, but
+in waves or folds. One portion of a table-cloth is, however, seen
+flat, but this is almost an exception in the case of draperies.
+Another exception to this rule of hangings appearing in folds, and
+that of a very complete character, occurs in silk damasks which are
+used as a rich lining to the walls of palaces and some mansions; but
+of table-cloths we will speak for the present.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.]
+
+The central part of a table-cloth, that portion which is always to be
+viewed as a flat surface, may be enriched with any diaper pattern
+that is simply treated, and this diaper pattern may be full of design,
+provided the parts are not too large or too small. It may also be
+formed of gracefully curved parts, or of straight lines or circles, or
+of any combination of these elements; but, preferably, not wholly of
+straight lines.
+
+Were it not for the fact that much of this central portion of the
+cloth is to be covered by articles of the dinner-table, it might well
+be furnished with a central ornament, repeating only in quarters; but
+as such an ornament, in order that it be satisfying, requires to be
+seen as a whole, it is not desirable that such be here employed. A
+diaper pattern that repeats many times in the centre is preferable, as
+the pattern can then be seen in a satisfactory manner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.]
+
+The border of a table-cloth, like all fabrics that are to be seen in
+folds, requires special treatment, for what looks well when seen as a
+flat surface may not look well when seen on a waved surface. Tender
+and graceful curves are lost when viewed upon folds, for they here
+appear as mere wormy lines. On the contrary, right lines, whether
+horizontal or diagonal, and circles, all look well when seen upon
+waved grounds. These lines become, owing to the folds of the fabric,
+curves of a subtle character. The manner in which lines become
+influenced by falling on a curved surface can be readily illustrated
+by forming semicircles of paper, and folding them into cones, after
+having drawn upon them a series of circles (Fig. 85) or straight lines
+(Fig. 86). If these cones (Figs. 87 and 88) are now viewed from above,
+or in such a manner that the eye rests over the apices, it will be
+seen that the circles have now become richly varied curves, each
+having somewhat the form of a blunt heart or cardioid (Fig. 89), and
+that the straight lines become horse-shoe-shaped (Fig. 90). These
+illustrations will be sufficient to show that what is plain when seen
+upon a flat surface may be delicate and satisfying if seen upon a
+curved surface; and will also lead us to understand that what may be
+delicate and refined when seen upon a flat surface may become feeble
+and unsatisfactory if falling upon a waved ground. I have said that
+stripes or straight lines, if _crossing_ a folded fabric, are
+satisfactory. This is so in almost all cases, the only exception being
+in ladies' dresses. Here lines crossing the fabric are not
+satisfactory, as they become rings around the body, which appear to
+divide it into hoop-like strata. The patterns of dresses _may_ consist
+of narrow, vertical stripes, as these are collected together at the
+waist of the figure, and fall into graceful curves with any motion of
+the body, but the very opposite is the case with window-hangings. All
+vertical stripes are here highly offensive, while horizontal stripes
+are thoroughly satisfactory.
+
+A consideration of the window-hanging materials made in Spain,
+Algeria, and on the Morocco coast, will show us the beauty of
+horizontal stripes; and in some of the little Algerian warehouses,
+such as we have in Regent Street, London, and in the Rue de Rivoli in
+Paris, we see some of these fabrics of a most interesting character.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.]
+
+To state in a concise form the laws which should govern the
+application of ornament to certain fabrics which are to be seen in
+folds, I should say--
+
+1st. Great simplicity of pattern is necessary.
+
+2nd. Circles, straight lines crossing the fabric, and diagonal lines
+are all correct in such a case, and are improved by the folds, which
+form them into subtle and beautiful curves (Fig. 91).
+
+3rd. If curves are tender and graceful, they become commonplace on a
+waved or folded ground.
+
+4th. The size of the pattern should be considered in relation to the
+size of the folds of the material.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93.]
+
+In Germany a kind of ornament is applied to rich stiff fabrics which
+is almost peculiar to the country. This ornament is rich, bold, hard
+or stiff in its lines, and in every way adapted for the decoration of
+a costly fabric which falls in large folds, the folds changing the
+hard and stiff lines into graceful curves. This should also be noted
+respecting these curious yet beautiful patterns, that they are always
+simple in plan, however rich in detail, and are invariably founded on
+a geometrical basis. "German Gothic" is a name by which such ornament
+may be distinguished (flat Gothic ornament has always been quite
+distinct from the stone and metal ornaments of Gothic buildings, which
+have solid and not merely superficial form), see Figs. 92 and 93. This
+particular class of ornament forms the background to many old
+pictures, a most interesting collection of which exists in the museum
+of Cologne, and is certainly worthy of the most careful study.
+
+As to flat silk wall-damasks, which are used in some of the
+upper-class houses as wall-papers are used in the middle-class houses,
+all that need be said is that they should be treated as wall
+decorations, and not as fabrics which are to be seen folded. Were I
+asked whether I approve of these damasks as wall coverings, I should
+say, "Certainly not." A wall is better treated as a wall, and not so
+covered with drapery as to leave space for vermin between the wall and
+its enrichment. There is also the further objection that the lines
+where the fabric is joined are visible, and these are most certainly
+objectionable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.]
+
+Besides the illustrations of German ornament just given, we figure
+also a specimen of Indian embroidery on cotton (Fig. 94). I cannot too
+strongly recommend the designer of patterns for woven goods to study
+the native fabrics of India, exhibited at the Indian Museum,
+Whitehall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.]
+
+Besides the collection here brought together, there is also in most of
+our manufacturing towns a large series of specimens of these cloths
+deposited with the Chamber of Commerce, and these can be consulted by
+all respectable members of the community. Speaking of these Indian
+fabrics, Mr. Redgrave says, in his Report on Design prepared for the
+Commissioners of the International Exhibition of 1851:--"These are
+almost wholly designed on the principles here presumed to be just
+ones--the ornament is always flat, and without shadow; natural
+flowers are never used imitatively or perspectively, but are
+conventionalised by being displayed flat and according to a
+symmetrical arrangement; and all other objects, even animals and
+birds, when used as ornament, are reduced to their simplest flat form.
+When colour is added, it is usually rendered by the simplest local
+hue, often bordered with a darker shade of the colour, to give it a
+clearer expression; but the shades of the flowers are rarely
+introduced. The cloth of gold figured in the loom (Fig. 95), and part
+of an Indian scarf (Fig. 96), illustrate fully these remarks. The
+ornament is geometrically and symmetrically arranged, flat, in simple
+tints, and bordered, as above described, with darker shades of the
+local colour. The principle of colour adopted is a balance of the
+complementaries red and green, in both cases with white introduced to
+give points of expression, and to lead the eye to the symmetrical
+arrangement of the ornament. In Fig. 95 purple is introduced to
+harmonise with the gold ground, a harmony very frequently used in the
+rich tissues of India. In Fig. 96 variety has been obtained by
+introducing two reds, giving an interchange of a lighter tint in every
+other flower in the border. The borders of these scarves are
+beautifully illustrative of the simple and graceful flowing lines
+which characterise Indian ornament; and in Fig. 96 we can observe the
+difference between the Eastern and the mediæval patterns--while the
+same principles are acknowledged in both, the latter are often stiffer
+and more angular than the graceful sprigs of this border. Both these
+works show how much beauty may be obtained by simple means, when
+regulated by just principles, and how perfectly unnecessary are the
+multiplied tints by which modern designers think to give value to
+their works, but which increase the difficulties of production out of
+all proportion to any effect resulting from them--nay, often even to
+the absolute disadvantage of the fabric. If we look at the details of
+the Indian patterns, we shall be surprised at their extreme
+simplicity, and be led to wonder at their rich and satisfactory
+effect; it will soon be evident, however, that their beauty results
+entirely from adherence to the principles above described. The parts
+themselves are often poor, ill-drawn, and common-place; yet, from the
+knowledge of the designer, due attention to the just ornamentation of
+the fabric, and the refined delicacy evident in the selection of
+_quantity_ and the choice of tints, both for the ground, where gold is
+not used as a ground, and for the ornamental forms, the fabrics,
+individually and as a whole, are a lesson to our designers and
+manufacturers, given by those from whom we least expected it."
+
+Much that Mr. Redgrave here says is worthy of careful consideration,
+and I can do no more than recommend the student to study these
+beautiful Indian fabrics, and consider them in conjunction with the
+remarks which we have made respecting them and fabrics in general.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+
+DIVISION I.
+
+In this chapter I have to commence our consideration of pottery, and
+of hollow vessels especially; and this I do with considerable
+pleasure, as works in pottery enjoy a longer existence, though through
+the character of the material of which they are made they are more
+fragile, than those formed of almost any other substance. Many works
+of Greek pottery are known to us, and not a few such works by the
+ancient Egyptians, and these are preserved not as fragments merely,
+but as works in their entirety, and with the same beauty that they
+possessed when first they left the hands of the workman.
+
+Clay is a most desirable material with which to form works of utility
+and of beauty, and this for many reasons. First, it is so inexpensive
+as to be almost valueless; secondly, it is easily formed into vessels
+of almost any required shape; thirdly, it is capable of being "worked"
+into shapes of great beauty by a momentary exercise of skill;
+fourthly, clay is naturally of many beautiful colours; fifthly, it is
+capable of receiving by application to its surface any amount of
+colour, and of preserving such colours as are applied to it in an
+unimpaired state for ages; and sixthly, it is susceptible of the
+highest art-finish, or the bold sketchy touch of the modeller's hand.
+I say that clay is a very desirable material for formation into
+vessels of various kinds, because of its inexpensive character. This
+quality of cheapness gives to the material an advantage over many
+other substances of a much more costly character, such as should not
+be overlooked, for the long existence which so many works of
+earthenware have had is mainly due to the worthlessness of the
+material of which they are composed. In my first chapter I gave an
+extract from the writings of Professor George Wilson, showing that
+gold and silver, while beautiful in themselves, and worthy to be
+fashioned into exquisite devices, are yet too tempting to the thief,
+and to all who are pressed for means, to remain long in the form of
+art-works. Families who have been reduced in circumstances, and have
+thereby been constrained to part with their old plate, have melted it,
+so as to hide their shame. To illustrate this, let me quote from the
+"Handbook of the Arts of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, as applied
+to the Decoration of Furniture, Arms, Jewels, etc., translated from
+the French of M. Jules Labarte, 1856." After giving the names of many
+workers in the precious metals, the author says:--"We may form some
+idea of what artists these Italian goldsmiths were of the fourteenth,
+fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, and what admirable works they must
+have produced. But, alas! these noble works have almost all perished;
+their artistic worth proving no safeguard against cupidity or
+necessity, the fear of pillage, or the love of change. But a very few
+names even of those skilled artists have descended to us, and in
+making known those preserved to us in the writings of Vasari,
+Benvenuto, Cellini, and others, we can rarely point out any of their
+works as being still in existence.
+
+"Cellini tells us that while Pope Clement VII. was besieged in the
+castle of St. Angelo, he received orders to unset all the precious
+stones that were upon the tiaras, the sacred vessels, and the jewels
+of the sovereign pontiff; and to melt down the gold, of which he
+obtained 200 pounds. How many artistic treasures must have perished in
+the crucible of Cellini." We now see clearly that while clay is a much
+more fragile material than either silver or gold, its very
+worthlessness, despite its fragility, gives to it length of years.
+
+We have said that clay is easily formed into vessels of almost any
+required shape. This is so within certain limits. Throughout these
+chapters I have lost no opportunity of insisting upon the importance
+of working every material in a befitting manner, and in the most
+simple and easy way in which the material can be wrought. Almost every
+material can be simply "worked" in some way, or while in some
+particular condition.
+
+Glass has a molten state in which it can be "blown" into the most
+beautiful of shapes, and this process of blowing is the work of but a
+few seconds. Glass has also a solid condition, yet as it can be formed
+into works of great beauty by the exercise of momentary skill, it
+would be extremely foolish to take a mass of the solid glass, and by
+laborious grinding form it into a bottle or a bowl. It fortunately
+happens that if a material is worked in its most simple and befitting
+manner, the results obtained are more beautiful and satisfying than
+those which are arrived at by any roundabout method of production.
+Glass should be formed into hollow vessels only when in its plastic
+condition, for it cannot be shaped into the form of such vessels as we
+require when in its solid state without the expenditure of much
+unnecessary, therefore wasteful, labour. But if a mass of crystal or
+marble is required to assume the form of a bowl or font, then the
+laborious process of grinding must be resorted to, for these
+substances have no plastic state.
+
+The potter's wheel has been known from the earliest historic time, and
+this has at all times been the instrument with which the best earthen
+vessels have been formed. A mass of clay of suitable size is placed on
+a horizontal disc of wood, to which a rotary motion is imparted. The
+operator presses his thumbs into the centre of the clay, and then, by
+causing his fingers to approach his thumbs, manipulates the clay into
+a cup, a bowl, a vase, an earthen bottle, or whatever form he may
+please; and if skilful, the operator can form objects of marvellous
+beauty with a rapidity that astonishes all who see for the first time
+his mode of working.
+
+If potters would but content themselves, in order to the production of
+such articles as we require in common life, with the "potter's
+wheel," we should be almost sure of a certain amount of beauty in
+domestic earthenware, but such is not the case. They make fancy moulds
+of plaster of Paris and of wire gauze, and roll out clay as the
+pastrycook does dough, and manipulate it as so much pie-crust, instead
+of applying to it simple skill. Neither a bowl nor a plate need have a
+scalloped edge, indeed they are much better without it; and if
+unnecessary, and even undesirable, absurdities were avoided, and a
+simple and natural method of working each material alone employed, a
+great improvement in art would speedily take place.
+
+It is strange but true, that the worker in one material seems rarely
+to be satisfied with making his works look as well and as consistent
+as possible; he desires rather to form poor imitations of something
+else. We have all seen earthen jugs made in imitation of wicker-work,
+although to do so is obviously foolish, as no wicker vessel could hold
+water, and the thing imitated is much less beautiful than a thousand
+forms which clay is capable of assuming. Men's heads without brains
+are, or were at least, favourite jugs. Well, that there are many
+models for this idea in Nature, I doubt not; yet why we should copy
+them by making a jug in the form of a hollow head, I know not. I have
+in my possession a milk-jug, such as is common in the district of
+Swansea in South Wales, in the likeness of a cow. The tail is twisted
+into a handle; by a hole in the back the milk is admitted, and through
+the mouth it is ejected. A more wretched and coarse idea it is
+scarcely possible to conceive of, yet the vulgar admire this jug. Let
+us work the material in a simple and befitting manner, and
+satisfactory results are almost sure to accrue.
+
+I have said that clay, as such, has many beautiful colours. Naturally
+clay is black, grey-white, red, brown, and yellow, and it is capable
+of assuming many desirable tints by the agency of chemical means. We
+do not use coloured clays as we should do. We want so much
+white--everything to look so clean. All ornamental ware, at least,
+should be artistic, and the art-effect should supersede that cold
+whiteness which the Dutch and the English mistake for cleanliness. A
+clay of good natural colour is not a thing to be hidden, or ashamed
+of.
+
+Clay is capable, when glazed, of receiving any amount of colour, and
+of preserving these colours in their beauty for almost any length of
+time. These qualities are invaluable to the ornamentist. Colour is not
+always at his disposal. The goldsmith has difficulty in getting it,
+but to the potter it is very accessible. Colour is capable of giving
+to objects a charm which they could not possibly have without it. Let
+us use the power thus placed at our disposal rightly and well, and
+then the enduring character of the colour-harmonies which we produce
+may gladden posterity in ages yet to come.
+
+Clay is susceptible of the highest art-finish, or of a bold sketchy
+treatment. Finish is very desirable in some cases. The cup which my
+lady uses in her boudoir should be delicate and fine, for what is
+worthy to approach the sacred lips of the occupant of a fair apartment
+but such a work as is tender and refined?
+
+As a rule, however, we over-estimate the value of finish, and
+under-value bold art-effects. Excessive finish often (but by no means
+always) destroys art-effect. I have before me some specimens of
+Japanese earthenware, which are formed of a coarse dark brown clay,
+and are to a great extent without that finish which most Europeans
+appear so much to value, yet these are artistic and beautiful. In the
+case of cheap goods we spend time in getting smoothness of surface,
+while the Japanese devote it to the production of an art-effect. We
+get finish without art, they prefer art without finish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
+
+We must now devote ourselves to a special consideration of the shapes
+of earthen vessels, and to the manner in which ornament should be
+applied to them.
+
+In his primitive condition man appears to have used the shells of
+certain fruits as drinking vessels and bottles; and to this day we
+find many tribes of uncivilised or half-civilised men using the same
+class of vessels. "Monkey-pots" (the hard shells of the _Lecythis
+allaria_), the coverings of the Brazil nut (_Bertholetia excelsa_),
+and especially the rinds of the calabash and many species of gourd
+(Figs. 97 and 98), have been used in this way.[26] The first efforts
+made at the production of earthen vessels were mere attempts at
+copying in clay the forms of the fruit-shells which were in use as
+drinking vessels. After a power of forming earthen vessels, having a
+certain amount of perfection of manufacture, was gained, we still find
+the origin of the potter's art manifested by certain works. Thus in
+China, where the potter's art has so long been understood, we still
+find vessels made in the form of the bottle-gourd, just as was their
+custom in the days of their first manufacturing efforts (Fig. 99).
+Before considering the shapes of vessels from a utilitarian point of
+view, I should tell the student that certain shapes are characteristic
+of different nations and of different periods of time.
+
+[26] All who are interested in this subject are referred to a paper
+published in the "Transactions of the Edinburgh Botanical Society,"
+for 1859, by Professor George Wilson, on the "Fruits of the
+Cucurbitaceæ."
+
+The Greek shapes, as we may call them--that is, the forms of those
+vessels which the Greeks produced--are of a particular class, and the
+vessels produced by the Egyptians are of a different type; while those
+of the Chinese, Indians, Japanese, and Mexicans again differ from each
+other, and from those of both the Greeks and the Egyptians. For grace
+of form the vessels of the old Greeks stand pre-eminent (Figs. 101 and
+102); for simple dignified severity, those of the Egyptians (Fig.
+100); for quaintness, those of the Mexicans (Fig. 103); for a
+combination of grace with dignity, those of the Chinese (Figs. 104 and
+105); and for a combination of beauty with quaintness, those of the
+Japanese (Fig. 106); while in many respects the Indian shapes (Figs.
+107 and 108) resemble those of the Japanese. Fig. 109 is a water
+vessel from Ha, and Figs. 110 and 111 are jugs from Morocco.
+
+I cannot enter into any details respecting the characteristic forms of
+vessels produced by these various nations, but must content myself by
+giving a few illustrations of the various shapes, and leaving the
+matter with the learner for study. The British Museum, the South
+Kensington Museum, and the Indian Museum will aid him in his
+researches.
+
+It has been said that the character of a people can be told by their
+water-vessels. As the consideration of this statement will lead us to
+see how perfectly a domestic utensil may answer the end which it
+should serve, I will extract from my "Art of Decorative Design" a few
+remarks on this subject.
+
+This statement can well "be illustrated by the Egyptian and Greek
+water-vessels, the former of which has sides tapering to the top and
+slanting inwards, a small orifice, and a rounded base, and the mouth
+of the vessel bridged by an arched handle, the whole being constructed
+of bronze (Fig. 112); the latter consists of an egg-shaped body (the
+broad end being above) resting upon a secure foot, which is surmounted
+by a large, divergent, funnel-shaped member (Fig. 113). It has no
+handle over the orifice, but has one at either side.
+
+"Not only do these vessels differ in form, but associated
+circumstances differ also; and it is this variation in circumstances
+which brought about the difference in form of the two water-vessels.
+
+"The peculiarities of the Egyptian water-vessel are its formation of
+bronze, the roundness of its base, which renders it unfitted for
+standing, the narrowness of its mouth, and the handle arching the
+orifice; and of the Greek, its being wrought in clay, the secure base,
+the wide mouth, the contraction in the centre, and the handle at
+either side. We should judge from these vessels that the Egyptians
+drew water from a river, or some position which required that the
+vessel be attached to a cord and cast into the source of supply, for
+the roundness of the base at once points to this, it being a provision
+for enabling the vessel to fill by turning upon its side (were its
+base flat it would float on the water); it is also formed out of metal
+so as to facilitate this end. The arched handle not only points to
+the attachment of the vessel to a string in order that it be cast into
+the water, but also to the carrying the vessel pendent from the hand
+in the manner that pails are at present carried, and the contracted
+mouth restrains the splashing over of the water: and what this simple
+water-vessel points to we find to have been the case, for the
+Egyptians derived water from the Nile in the very manner that the
+vessel would indicate; but with the Greeks circumstances were
+different, and the shape of the vessel varies accordingly. The base is
+here flat, in order that the vessel may stand; the mouth is large, in
+order to collect the water which fell from above,--from the
+dripping-rocks and water-spouts. This being the manner in which water
+was gathered, a vessel formed of heavy metal was unnecessary; the
+contraction prevented the water from splashing over when carried, and
+up to this point the vessel was filled, and no higher; and the handles
+at the side show that it was carried on the head. But, in conjunction
+with this mode of carrying, there is another consideration of
+interest, which is, the centre of gravity is high. If we attempt to
+balance a stick, having one enlarged end, on the finger, it will be
+found necessary that the weight be at the top; and in balancing
+anything, it will be found that the object, in order that it ride
+steadily, have its point of greatest weight considerably elevated
+above its base. In the Greek water-vessel, which was carried balanced
+on the head, we find this condition fully complied with, the centre of
+gravity occupying a high position, while in the Egyptian vessel the
+centre of gravity was low; but where the vessel is to be carried
+underhand, it is as great an advantage to have the centre of gravity
+low as it is in the case of a coach, where security is thus gained
+just as the centre of gravity is lowered. The Greek water-vessel,
+then, consists of a cavity for holding water, a funnel to collect and
+guide the water, a base for the vessel to rest upon, and handles to
+enable it to be raised to the head, and the centre of gravity is high
+in order that it be readily balanced; and we should judge from this
+vessel that the Greeks procured water from dripping-rocks and
+water-spouts, and this is exactly what did occur. These are the direct
+teachings of the Egyptian and Greek water-vessels; yet how many
+circumstances and incidents of common life can be conceived as
+associated with these different forms of vessel. There is the gossip
+round the well, and the lingering by the river-side where the image of
+the date-palm is mirrored by the glassy surface of the waters. The
+effect of the noise of the splashing water upon the mind in the one
+case, combined with the comparatively loud and energetic speaking
+which would be necessary in order that the voice be not drowned by the
+noise, and of the calm tranquillity of the river-bank in the other,
+where the limpid water is ever flowing on in silent majesty, must be
+considerable. Then we have the potter's art essential to the
+production of the vessel in the one case, and the metal-worker's in
+the other--the digging of clay, the mining of metal, the kilns and
+smelting furnaces. We will not continue this portion of the subject
+further, and have brought forward this illustration in order to show
+how well-considered objects reveal to us the habits and customs of the
+peoples and nations in which they originated."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.]
+
+It will now be apparent that even a common object may result from such
+careful consideration that its form will at once suggest its use; but
+the object will only reveal the purpose for which it was created with
+definiteness of expression when it perfectly answers the end proposed
+by its formation. The advice which I must give to every designer is to
+study carefully exactly what is required, before he proceeds to form
+his ideas of what the object proposed to be created should be like,
+and then to diligently strive to arrange such a form for it as shall
+cause it to be perfectly suited to the want which it is intended to
+meet.
+
+More will be said upon the subject of form when speaking of glass
+vessels and of silversmiths' work; and when considering these subjects
+we shall also give the law which governs the application of handles
+and spouts to vessels; and it is of the utmost importance that they be
+correctly placed in order that the vessel may be used with convenience
+(see page 140). A word must now be said respecting the decoration of
+earthen vessels, but on this subject our remarks must be brief.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.]
+
+The object to which the decoration is applied must determine the
+nature of the ornament to be employed. In the case of a vessel which
+is to be in part hidden when in use, great simplicity of treatment
+should be adopted, and the ornament may with advantage consist of
+repeated parts. In the case of a plate, little or no ornament should
+be placed in the centre; but if there is a central ornament it should
+be a small, regular, radiating figure, consisting of like parts (Figs.
+114 and 115). The border should also consist of simple members
+repeated, for it will then look well if portions are covered; and
+these remarks will apply equally to all kinds of plates, whether
+intended for use at dinner or dessert.
+
+No plate should have a landscape painted upon it, nor a figure, nor a
+group of flowers. Whatever has a right and wrong way upwards is
+inappropriate in such a position, as whatever ornament a plate bears
+should be in all positions as fully right way upwards to the beholder
+as it can be. Besides, landscapes, groups of flowers, and figures are
+spoiled if in part hidden, provided they are satisfactory when the
+whole is seen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.]
+
+Plates may have a white ground, for it is desirable that those
+articles on which food is presented should manifest the utmost
+cleanliness, yet to a cream tint there can be no objection. I should,
+however, prefer white plates, with a rather deep blue, Indian red,
+maroon, or brown pattern upon them, and a pale buff table-cloth for
+them to rest upon.
+
+In the case of cups and saucers the treatment should be similar to
+that of the plate. The saucer may have a simple border ornament,
+consisting of parts repeated, and little or no ornament in the central
+portion on which the cup rests. The cup may have an external border
+ornament, and a double narrow line of colour around the upper portion
+of the interior, but no other ornament is here required.
+
+Whatever ornament is placed around a cup, or vase, or any tall object
+must be such as will not suffer by perspective, for there is scarcely
+any portion of the ornament that can be seen otherwise than
+foreshortened (Figs. 103 and 111). Let simplicity be the ruling
+principle in the decoration of all rounded objects, and ever remember
+that a line which is straight on a flat surface becomes a curve on a
+round surface (see page 110).
+
+I have given what is a correct decoration for a plate and cup and
+saucer, but there are other methods of treatment than those just
+named. The Japanese are very fond of placing little circular groups of
+flowers on plates, saucers, and bowls (Figs. 116 and 117). The Greeks
+had various methods of enriching their tazzas and vases with
+ornament, and the Egyptians were partial to the plan of rendering a
+cup as a lotus-flower (Fig. 100). But when they formed a cup thus,
+they were careful to draw the flower conventionally and ornamentally,
+and never produced an imitative work (see page 24). The Chinese treat
+the flower of the sacred bean in the same way (Fig. 118).
+
+What I have said has been addressed to the student. The remarks,
+however, made respecting the form chosen being that which is most
+suitable to the end proposed, and the conditions to which I shall make
+reference as governing the application of handle and spout to any
+object, are binding upon all who would produce satisfactory works; but
+to the genius who has power to produce beautiful and vigorous
+ornament, and whose taste has, by years of study and cultivation,
+become refined and judicious, I can give no rules, his own taste being
+his best guide.
+
+
+DIVISION II.
+
+When speaking of earthenware, I insisted upon the desirability of
+using every material in the easiest and most natural manner, and I
+illustrated my meaning by saying that glass has a molten condition as
+well as a solid state, and that while in the molten condition it can
+be "blown" into forms of exquisite beauty. Glass-blowing is an
+operation of skill, and an operation in which natural laws come to our
+aid, and I cannot too strongly repeat my statement that every material
+should be "worked" in the most simple and befitting manner; and I
+think that our consideration of the formation of glass vessels will
+render the reasonableness of my demand apparent.
+
+Let a portion of molten glass be gathered upon the end of a metal
+pipe, and blown into a bubble while the pipe drops vertically from the
+mouth of the operator, and a flask is formed such as is used for the
+conveyance of olive oil (Fig. 119); and what vessel could be more
+beautiful than such a flask? Its grace of form is obvious; the
+delicate curvature of its sides, the gentle swelling of the bulb, and
+the exquisitely rounded base, all manifest beauty.
+
+Here we get a vessel formed for us almost wholly by Nature. It is the
+attraction of gravitation which converts what would be a mere bubble,
+or hollow sphere of glass, into a gracefully elongated and
+delicately-shaped flask. This may be taken as a principle, that
+whenever a material is capable of being "worked" in a manner which
+will so secure the operation of natural laws as to modify the shapes
+of the objects into which it is formed, it is very desirable that we
+avail ourselves of such a means of formation, for the operation of
+gravitation and similar forces upon plastic matter is calculated to
+give beauty of form.
+
+When clay is worked upon the potter's wheel, it is shaped by the
+operator's skill, and is sufficiently stiff to retain the shape given
+to it to a very considerable extent; yet the operation of gravitation
+upon it, so long as it has any plasticity whatever, is calculated to
+secure delicacy of form. This rule should ever be remembered by the
+art-student--that a curve is beautiful just as its origin is difficult
+to detect (see Chap. I., page 23). In the formation of vases, bottles,
+etc., knowledge of this law is very important, and the operation of
+gravity upon hollow plastic vessels is calculated to give to their
+curves subtlety (intricate beauty) of character. Having arranged that
+the material shall be worked in the manner most befitting its nature,
+we must next consider what purpose the object to be formed is intended
+to serve.
+
+Take a common hock-bottle (Fig. 120) and consider it. What is wanted
+is a vessel such as will stand, in which wine can be stored. It must
+have a strong neck, so that a cork may be driven in without splitting
+it, and must be formed of a material that is not absorbent. Glass, as
+a material, admirably answers the want, and this bottle is capable of
+storing wine; it will stand, and has a rim around the neck such as
+gives to it strength. But, besides serving the requirements named, it
+is both easily formed and is beautiful. The designer must be a
+utilitarian, but he must be an artist also. We must have useful
+vessels, but the objects with which we are to surround ourselves must
+likewise be beautiful; and unless they are beautiful, our delicacy of
+feeling and power to appreciate Nature, which is full of beauties,
+will be impaired. A hock-bottle is a mere elongated bubble, with the
+bottom portion pressed in so that it may stand, and the neck thickened
+by a rim of glass being placed around it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.]
+
+Here we have a bottle shaped by natural agency; it is formed of heavy
+glass, and the bubble was thick at its lower part, hence its elongated
+form; but if length is required in any bubble, and the glass is even
+light, it can always be given by swinging the bubble round from the
+centre, so that centrifugal force may be brought into play in the
+direction of its length; or if it has to be widened, this can as
+easily be done by giving to it a rotatory motion, whereby the
+centrifugal force is caused to act from the axis of the vessel
+outwards, and not from the apex to the base, as in the former
+instance. In either case a certain amount of beauty would appear in
+the shape produced, for Nature here works for us. (Compare the short,
+dumpy, yet beautiful bottle, in which we receive curaçao, with the
+hock-bottle, when the two natural modes of forming bottles will be
+illustrated.) Our wine-bottles are moulded, hence their ugliness. We
+work without Nature's assistance, and we reap ugliness as the reward.
+
+Let us now consider what a decanter should be. In many respects, the
+wants which a decanter is intended to meet are similar to those which
+are met by the bottle, as just enumerated, but here is a great
+difference--a bottle is only _intended_ to be filled once, whereas a
+decanter will have to be filled many times; and a bottle is made so
+that it can travel, while a decanter is not meant to be the subject of
+long journeys. It is true that a bottle may be refilled many times,
+but it is not intended that it should, as the fact that we use a
+funnel when we wish to fill it clearly shows, and without a funnel the
+vessel is not complete. All objects which are meant to be refilled
+many times should have a funnel-shaped mouth (see my remarks on the
+Greek water-vessel, page 121), but if a bottle had a distended orifice
+it would not be well adapted for transport. A decanter should have
+capacity for containing liquid; it should stand securely, and have a
+double funnel--a funnel to collect the fluid and conduct it into the
+bottle, and a funnel to collect it and conduct it out of the bottle.
+It must also be convenient to use and hold, and the upper funnel
+should be of such a character that it will guide the liquid in a
+proper direction when poured from the decanter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.]
+
+If we take a flask and flatten its base, and extend the upper portion
+of the neck slightly into the form of a funnel, we have all that is
+required of a decanter, with the exception of a permanent cork, which
+is a stopper (Fig. 121).
+
+But as most decanters are intended to hold wine, the brilliancy of
+which is not readily apparent when that portion of the vessel which
+contains the liquid rests immediately upon the table, it is desirable
+to give to the vessel a foot, or, in other words, raise the body of
+the decanter so that light may surround it as fully as possible (Figs.
+122 and 123).
+
+In Figs. 124 to 135 I give a number of shapes of decanters and jugs,
+such as may be seen in our best shop-windows, and such as I consider
+desirable forms for such vessels; and in considering-the shape of such
+vessels, the character of the upper portion of the neck (the lip) must
+be regarded, as well as that of the body and base. Notice also whether
+the centre of gravity is high or low, and the position and character
+of the handle; but respecting the application of handles to vessels I
+will speak when considering silversmiths' work (see page 140).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.]
+
+Besides decanters and bottles, glass is formed into tumblers,
+wine-glasses, flower-holders, and many other things; but the
+principles which we have already laid down will apply equally to all,
+for if the objects formed result from the easiest mode of working the
+material, and are such as perfectly answer the end proposed by their
+formation, and are beautiful, nothing more can be expected of them.
+
+Many objects of fancy shape have been produced as mere feats of
+glass-blowing, and with some of these efforts I sympathise. Wherever
+the work produced is truly adapted to use, or where an artistic effect
+is achieved, the glass-blower has my warm sympathy; but if the effort
+is made at the production of novelty merely, the result gained is sure
+to be unsatisfactory. Much of the Venetian glass will illustrate these
+last remarks.
+
+Fig. 136 is a very excellent and picturesque spirit-bottle; it is easy
+to hold, and quaint in appearance.[27] Figs. 137, 138, and 139 are
+Venetian glass vessels, wrought entirely at the furnace-mouth, and
+neither cut nor engraved--they are artistic, and of interesting
+appearance; while Fig. 140 is a work of Roman glass, in which the
+upper distension is useful if the liquid contains a sediment which it
+is not desirable to pour out with the liquid.
+
+[27] In order that the nature of this bottle be better understood, I
+give a section of it at A as seen when cut through the central part.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.]
+
+[Illustration: Section of Fig. 136 at A.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.]
+
+There is one thing pertaining to table-glass that we do not now
+sufficiently consider, which is its capacity for colour. Our one idea
+in the formation of glass vessels is the imitation of crystal, unless
+we happen to produce a vessel of the strongest tint. With the
+exception of hock-glasses, which are generally either ruby-colour,
+dark green, or intense yellow-green, we rarely employ tinted glass on
+our tables. These three colours, which we usually employ in
+hock-glasses, are all too strong in tint for ordinary purposes, and
+they are coarse and vulgar. It is curious that we should confine
+ourselves to these colours when glass is capable of assuming the most
+delicate of shades, of appearing as a soft, subtle, golden hue of the
+most beautiful light tertiary green, lilac, and blue, and, indeed, of
+almost any colour.
+
+Why, then, should we employ only two or three colours, and those of
+the most crude character? If the Roman and Greek glass of the British
+Museum be inspected, it will be seen that the Romans employed various
+soft and delicate tints, and why we should not do so I cannot see. For
+many reasons the colours of our hock-glasses are highly objectionable,
+but especially for two. First, as already stated, the colour is so
+strong that they appear as mere dark spots on the cloth, and
+altogether fail in imparting to the table a pleasant colour-effect;
+and, secondly, they utterly destroy the beauty of appearance which the
+wine would otherwise present.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.]
+
+No glass which is to contain a liquid of pleasant colour should be so
+strong in tint as to mar the beauty of the contained fluid, and
+especially is this true when the colour of the glass is of an opposite
+character to that of the liquid: thus a red liquid placed in a
+strongly-coloured green glass becomes highly offensive in appearance,
+and yet we often see claret served in green hock-glasses. A
+dinner-table requires colour. Let the cloth be pale buff, or
+cream-colour, instead of white; and the glass water-vessels of very
+pale, but refined and various, tints; and the salt-cellars, if of
+glass, also coloured, in a tender and befitting manner, and a most
+harmonious effect will be produced. The flowers with which the table
+is adorned would then harmonise with the other things, and much beauty
+might be produced.
+
+Respecting the ornamentation of glass, two methods of treatment are
+resorted to, which are "cutting" and "engraving." Both modes deal with
+glass as a hard, crystal-like substance; and consist in grinding the
+surface, and either leaving it "dead" or repolishing it. In the case
+of "cutting" a considerable portion of the substance of the glass is
+generally removed, and the surface is repolished; but in the case of
+"engraving" little more than the surface is generally acted upon, and
+the engraved portion remains dead.
+
+Cutting may be employed in bringing about ornamental effects in glass,
+but it is rarely to be commended when so lavishly used as to be the
+chief means of giving form to the vessel; indeed, cutting should be
+sparingly and judiciously used. A vessel formed of glass should never
+be wholly shaped by cutting, as though it were a work of stone. If the
+neck of a decanter can be made more convenient by being slightly
+cut--if it can be so treated that it can be held more securely--then
+let it be cut; but in all cases avoid falling into the error of too
+much cutting which causes the work to appear laboured, for any work
+which presents the appearance of having been the result of much labour
+is as unpleasant to look upon as that work is pleasing which results
+from the exercise of momentary skill. There is a great art-principle
+manifested in the expression "Let there be light, and there was
+light."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.]
+
+Engraving is also laborious, and while it is capable of yielding most
+delicate and beautiful effects, it should yet be somewhat sparingly
+used, for extravagance in labour is never desirable, and there is such
+a thing as extravagance of beauty.
+
+However delicate ornament may be, and however well composed, yet if it
+covers the whole of the walls of an apartment and of the objects which
+it contains, it fails to please. There must be the contrast of plain
+surfaces with ornamented--plain for the eye to rest upon, ornament for
+the mind to enjoy. In the enrichment of glass these remarks fully
+apply. Let there be plain surfaces as well as ornamented parts, and
+the effect will be more satisfying than if all be covered with
+ornament.
+
+All that I said respecting the decoration of damask table-linen will
+apply equally to glass, considering only the different way in which
+the effect is produced (see Chap. VI., page 108). Thus we have
+ornament produced only by a variation of surface. Such simple means of
+producing an art-effect are capable of rendering in a satisfactory
+manner simple treatments only, but simple patterns are capable of
+yielding the highest pleasure, and such patterns can be almost
+perfectly rendered by engraving, as shown in Figs. 141, 142, 143.[28]
+
+[28] Fig. 143 represents a decanter made for the Prince of Wales by
+Messrs. Pellatt and Co., which is in good taste. Fig. 141 is a goblet
+from Austria: it was shown in the International Exhibition of Paris in
+1867.
+
+Somewhat elaborate effects can be rendered in glass by very laborious
+engraving, whereby different depths of cutting are attained; but such
+work is the result of great labour, and rarely produces an effect
+proportionate to the toil expended upon it; and if a bottle so
+engraved is filled with a coloured wine, the entire beauty of its
+engraving is destroyed. Fig. 144 is a drawing of a most elaborately
+engraved bottle, which was shown in the Exhibition of 1862. It
+represents, to a great extent, wasted labour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.]
+
+It must be borne in mind that any ornament placed on a decanter,
+wine-glass, or tumbler, is to be seen almost wholly in perspective;
+and the remarks made respecting the effects of folded or waved
+surfaces on ornament (Chap. VI., page 110), and those made in
+reference to the application of ornament to earthen vases (Chap. VII.,
+page 126), apply equally here.
+
+It is not my province to enter into the various methods of
+manipulating glass, nor into all the classes of art-effect which glass
+is capable of yielding: I can only call attention to general
+principles, and leave the art-student to think for himself what should
+be the treatment of any particular object. There is a sort of crackle
+glass which has come into use during the last few years, and is an
+imitation of old Venetian work; this is in some respects pleasant in
+appearance, but it is somewhat uncomfortable to handle, and difficult
+to keep clean; its use must therefore be limited. The Romans were in
+the habit of forming glass which was opaque, dark, and of many
+colours. Fig. 145 is an illustration of this kind of glass, the
+pattern being formed by portions of various coloured glass being
+imbedded in the substance of the vessel.
+
+In another chapter I shall have a few remarks to make upon stained
+glass; but as our present remarks pertain to hollow vessels chiefly,
+and as general principles regulate the formation of all such, whether
+they are formed of earthenware, glass, or metal, I think it better to
+proceed to the consideration of silversmiths' ware, and thus continue
+a notice of hollow vessels, than to pass to glass windows, although
+they are formed of the material now under review. What we are
+specially considering at present are vessels of capacity, or hollow
+wares.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.]
+
+
+DIVISION III.
+
+Continuing our remarks upon hollow vessels, we have now to notice
+silversmiths' work, and here we may observe that while the material
+with which we have now to deal differs in character widely from that
+of which those vessels already noticed have been formed, yet that many
+principles which have been enunciated are equally applicable to the
+objects now under consideration. Silver objects, like those formed of
+clay or glass, should perfectly serve the end for which they have been
+formed; also, the fact that ornament applied to rounded surfaces
+should be adapted for being viewed in perspective remains as binding
+on us as before; but herein the works of the silversmith differ from
+those already discussed--they are formed of a material of intrinsic
+value, which is not the case with articles of earthenware or glass.
+Silver and gold being materials of considerable worth, it is necessary
+that the utmost economy be observed in using them, and in order to
+effect this a special mode of construction must be resorted to. If we
+propose to ourselves the formation of a sugar-basin of semi-circular
+shape, of what thickness must the metal be in order that it may not
+bend when lifted? It is obvious that the vessel must not yield its
+shape to ordinary pressure, nor be subject to alterations of form when
+in ordinary use; but if it is to be formed throughout of metal of such
+thickness as will secure its retaining its shape, it will be costly
+and heavy, and an amount of metal will be used in its formation
+sufficient for the manufacture of two or three such articles.
+
+Instead of forming the vessel throughout of thick metal, we may
+construct it from a thin sheet of silver; but in order that it possess
+sufficient strength we must indent one or more beads in its side (see
+Fig. 146); or we can form an angle by having a rim projecting into the
+basin (Fig. 147), or extending from it, and thus give strength; but
+the two beads are the more desirable, as the one gives strength at the
+top and the other at a lower portion of the vessel.
+
+Modes of economising material, when we are forming vessels of costly
+substances, are of the utmost importance, and should be carefully
+thought out. If the designer forms works which are expensive, he
+places them beyond the reach of those who might otherwise enjoy them,
+and if heavy they appear clumsy in the hands of those accustomed to
+delicate and light objects.
+
+Besides this, works in silver and in gold are always in danger of
+being destroyed, owing to the intrinsic value of these metals; for if
+stolen, the theft is promptly hidden in the melting-pot. Now if we
+form the vessels of thin metal, we render the money value of the
+material less, and thus our works are to a smaller degree tempting to
+the avaricious, and their chance of long existence is greater. The
+precious metals are at all times perilous materials for the formation
+of works of art; but while we use them, let us take care so to employ
+them as to give to our works every possible opportunity for long
+existence. If a work is to be so formed that it may exist for many
+years, it becomes of the highest importance that those objects which
+we create be well considered as to their utility, and at the same time
+be beautiful in form. Long existence is an evil in the case of an ugly
+object, or an ill-considered vessel; that which is not refining in its
+influence is better blotted out. Let that man who will not seek to
+embody beauty in his works make them heavy with metal, so that they
+may tempt the thief, and thus sooner blot out his works from
+existence, as they tend only to debase and degrade; but he who loves
+refinement, and seeks to give chasteness of character to the objects
+which he creates, may well strive to secure to them length of
+duration.
+
+There are various modes of working metal. It may be cast, hammered,
+cut, engraved, and manipulated in various ways.
+
+Little that is satisfactory can result from casting. Casting is a
+rough means of producing a result, and at best achieves the formation
+of a mass which may be less troublesome to cut into shape than a more
+solid piece of metal; but casting without the application of other
+means of working-metal achieves little of an art nature.
+
+Some of the fine iron castings of Berlin are wonderfully good in their
+way, and are to an extent artistic; and certainly they contrast
+strangely with the cast handles and knobs which we often see applied
+to vegetable-dishes, and similar silver objects here in England; yet
+even these will not compare with works wrought by the hammer and the
+chisel. Thin metal hammered into form, and touched where necessary
+with the chisel, the graver, and the chasing-tool, is capable of the
+very finest effects which can be achieved in metal-work. Let the
+reader consider the beautiful vessels with which Arabian metal-work
+presents us: these are all formed by the hammer and chisel, with the
+assistance of the graver and chasing-tool, and how marvellously
+delicate and beautiful are the results! We have in these vessels
+beauty and dignity of form, richness of design, great intricacy and
+delicacy of detail, and altogether a refinement of effect which may
+long be considered and repeatedly enjoyed (Fig. 148).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.]
+
+Several, I may almost say many, of these beautiful objects are to be
+found in the South Kensington Museum, and it should be generally known
+that fac-similes of these lovely works, in the form of electrotype
+copies, have been prepared by Messrs. Elkington and Co., under the
+sanction of the authorities of the Department of Science and Art, and
+that these are procurable at small cost. For purposes of study these
+copies are of almost equal value with the originals, and for the
+adornment of a sideboard they are hardly inferior. I strongly advise
+those who can afford to purchase these beautiful copies to garnish
+their sideboards with plate of this description, rather than with the
+meretricious electro-plate which we often see in our shop-windows.
+
+Having determined on the best mode of working the material, consider
+carefully the requirements which the work to be produced is intended
+to meet, and then strive to form the object so that it may perfectly
+answer the end proposed by its creation.
+
+Let us take a sugar-basin. What form should it have? After much
+consideration, I have arrived at the conclusion that the two shapes
+engraved in Figs. 149 and 150 are those which best fulfil the
+requirements of such a vessel, for in them the sugar is always
+collected together, and the dust sugar separates itself from the
+lumps.
+
+The handles of a sugar-basin are often so small as to be partially or
+wholly useless. It not unfrequently happens that only one or two
+fingers can rest on the handle, owing to its smallness, while the
+thumb has to be placed within the orifice of the basin when it is
+desired to move it. This should not be so; if a handle is to exist at
+all, it should be so formed as to be useful, and afford a means of
+moving the object with ease and comfort.
+
+To form a handle as a mere ornament is an absurdity, for the handle is
+part of the vessel structurally, while the ornamentation is an after
+and separate consideration. In order to its existence a vessel must be
+constructed, but when formed it need not of necessity be ornamented;
+ornamentation must ever be regarded as separate from construction.
+
+Such a sugar-basin as I have suggested would not stand without legs:
+it must therefore have them; but I see no reason why the legs and
+handles should not be combined; hence I propose three feet so formed
+as to serve as handles throughout their upper parts (Figs. 149, 150),
+they being convenient to hold.
+
+Modern European silversmiths have fallen into the error (an error now
+prevailing wherever art can be applied to any object) of making their
+works of a pictorial, rather than an ornamental, character--an error
+which the Arabians, Indians, and Japanese never perpetrate, whose
+works in metal are unsurpassed by any, and equalled by indeed few. It
+is a mistake to cover an entire vase with figures in high relief; but
+wherever anything of the kind is attempted, care must be exercised in
+causing the groups to follow the line of the vase, and not to appear
+as irregular projections from it. As to the modes of decorating works
+in silver and in gold, they are many; of ornamentation by _repoussé_
+work we have already spoken, and of chasing and engraving. But besides
+these there are other methods, and some of great interest, for there
+is damascene work, or inlaying; and applying colour, or enamelling;
+and niello work; jewels may also be added.
+
+Damascene work is of great interest. Metal of one colour is inlaid
+into metal of another colour. India produces, perhaps, the rarest
+examples of this kind of work, the Indians being experts at this
+manufacture; but the Indian work consists chiefly of silver inlaid in
+iron. This mode of work seems to be capable of producing many
+beautiful effects, as all who have examined the large inlaid hookahs
+of India will admit.
+
+Having chosen a form for a vessel, the next question with which we
+have to deal is, will it require a handle and spout? It is curious
+that while the position of a spout and handle in relation to a vessel
+is governed by a simple natural law, we yet rarely find them placed as
+they should be. This is the more curious, as a vessel may become
+practically of great weight, owing to the handle being misplaced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.]
+
+A pound weight is easily lifted, but when applied to the shorter end
+of the steel-yard it will balance a hundredweight. If this principle
+is applied to a tea-pot which actually weighs but little, it may yet
+be very heavy to lift. In nineteen cases out of twenty, handles are so
+placed on tea-pots and similar vessels that they are in use lifted
+only by a force capable of raising two or three such vessels, if the
+principle of the steel-yard was not acting against the person who uses
+the vessel. Take our ordinary forms of tea-pot, and see how far the
+centre of the weight (the centre of gravity) is from the handle in a
+horizontal direction, and you will be able to judge of the leverage
+acting disadvantageously to the person who may pour tea from such
+pots. Now if the part which is grasped is to the right or left of a
+right line passing through the centre of gravity of any vessel, there
+is leverage acting to the disadvantage of the person desiring to pour
+from that vessel, and this leverage increases just as the point held
+is removed from the central line spoken of.
+
+Fig. 151 would pour when in the position shown in Fig. 152, but see
+how far the hand that holds it would be to the right of the centre of
+gravity (_a_), which distance is of great disadvantage, as it causes
+the vessel to appear much heavier than it actually is, and requires a
+much greater expenditure of force in order that the tea-pot be put to
+its use than is necessary were it properly formed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155.]
+
+The law governing the application of handle and spout to vessels is
+this, and the same principle applies whether the vessel be formed of
+metal, glass, or earthenware:--Find the centre of gravity of the
+vessel, which can easily be done by letting a vertical line drop over
+it when placed in two different positions, as in Figs. 153, 154, and
+where the two vertical lines intersect, as in _a_ in Fig. 155, is the
+centre of gravity. The position of the handle being fixed on, draw a
+line through the centre of the handle, and continue it through the
+centre of gravity of the vessel. The spout must now be at right angles
+to this line. If this be the case the vessel will pour freely while
+the handle is just hung upon the thumb or finger of the person
+desiring to pour from it, as may be seen from Figs. 156, 157, in which
+the straight line A, passing through the centre of gravity _a_, is at
+right angles, as it should be, with the straight line passing through
+the spout.
+
+This law, if obeyed, will always enable liquid to be poured from a
+vessel without its appearing heavier than it actually is, but it will
+be seen that the shape of the vessel must be considered so that the
+spout and handle can bear this relation to each other, as in Figs.
+156, 157, 158, 159, and 160. Some shapes will not admit of it, so they
+must be avoided, as may be seen by examining Figs. 151 and 152, which
+show a tea-pot of faulty shape in this respect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 157.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 158.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159.]
+
+A consideration of this law shows that the handles of jugs--those
+formed of silver, of glass, and of earthenware alike--are usually
+placed too high; but in this respect things are much better than they
+were a few years back. Now we somewhat frequently see a jug with the
+handle in the right place, while some years back we never did. Silver
+jugs are now the most generally faulty in this respect, and such
+mistakes as the wrong placing of the handle or spout of a vessel
+result only from ignorance, for no man knowing the law would violate
+it. Fig. 161 shows a common form of jug with its handle, but the
+handle is too high; the position which it should occupy is shown by
+the dotted line. A very excellent handle is applied to many of the
+French water-pots, as shown in Fig. 162.
+
+It is unnecessary that I say more respecting the shape and general
+construction of silver and gold vessels, except to remark that if
+figures or other ornaments are beaten up on their surfaces, they must
+not destroy or mar their general contour.
+
+Iron is not used with us as it should be. Not only is the effect
+produced when it is inlaid with silver and other metals excellent, but
+by this mode of work our art-creations are greatly preserved, for the
+iron is valueless, and the labour of removing the small quantity of
+precious metal inlaid would be so great as to render the gain
+inadequate remuneration for the time consumed in collecting it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.]
+
+M. Christophle, of Paris, and also M. Barbedien in a lesser degree,
+have commenced to inlay copper vessels with silver, and some of their
+works are very beautiful. The Japanese have from an early time inlaid
+silver in bronze. This inlaying of silver into copper is a step in the
+right direction, and should be encouraged by all lovers of art. The
+Indians not only inlay silver in iron, but also gold in silver and in
+iron; and the Italians and other peoples have inlaid metals in a
+similar way; and the firmness and intricacy of some specimens of this
+inlaying are truly marvellous.
+
+By the process of enamelling, colour can be applied to metal, and of
+all arts this art of enamelling produces works which are most lovely;
+at least, if the best works of enamel do not surpass those produced by
+any other manufacture, they are equal in beauty to the works of the
+highest excellence. Transparent enamels are in some cases very
+beautiful, but they do not generally compare with the opaque enamels,
+such as were largely used by the Chinese about a hundred and fifty
+years back, and by the Japanese, or those now so skilfully produced by
+Barbedien, the Algerian Onyx Company, and Christophle, all of Paris.
+
+Chinese _cloisonné_ enamel vases may be seen at the South Kensington
+Museum, and here you may also find one or two small pieces of Japanese
+enamel, as well as one or two grand specimens by Barbedien, of Paris.
+
+The Chinese enamels have most frequently a light blue (sort of
+turquoise) ground, but they occur with both red, white, green, and
+yellow grounds; while the ornament is of mixed colours, but generally
+with light yellow-green, deeper blue-green, or dark blue prevailing in
+it.
+
+The Japanese enamels have a lower tone of colour-effect than the
+Chinese, and the work is finer and the colours more mingled, while the
+modern French enamels are full in colour, and are yet rich and subdued
+in general effect--some of them, indeed, are most beautiful works.
+
+The Elkingtons, of Birmingham and London, have also produced some
+beautiful things in this way, but not in the quantities that Barbedien
+has. I most strongly advise the art-student to study these works in
+enamel.
+
+Niello-work is a form of enrichment applied to metal, but is not in
+general use; it is a difficult process. Silver snuff-boxes and
+pendants for watch-chains with a niello pattern upon them are not
+uncommon, however, in Belgium and Russia, the niello pattern appearing
+as dark lead-pencil work upon the silver. Some niello-work is very
+quiet and beautiful, but much need not be said respecting it.
+
+Jewels may be inserted in metal, but if this is done they should be
+somewhat sparingly used, even in the most costly of works, for if they
+are abundant they produce mere glitter, and the aim of the ornamentist
+must in all cases be the production of repose.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+HARDWARE.
+
+
+Having considered metal-work in its more costly branches, we come to
+the consideration of hardware, and I am glad that we have now to deal
+with such metal-work as results from the use of inexpensive materials,
+for it is such that must be generally employed, while works formed of
+the precious metals can be used only by comparatively few persons. The
+object of art is the giving of pleasure; the mission of the artist is
+that of giving ennobling pleasure. If as an artist I give pleasure, I
+to an extent fulfil my mission; but I do so, perfectly, only when I
+give the greatest amount of the most refined pleasure by my art that
+it is possible for me to give. If by producing works which can be
+procured by many I give pleasure, it is well that I do so; but if the
+many fail to derive pleasure from my works, then I must address myself
+to the few, and be content with my lesser mission. Education appears
+to be necessary to the appreciation of all art; the artist, then, is a
+man who appeals to the educated. If some persons, by their superior
+education, are enabled to appreciate art more fully than those who are
+ignorant, and can consequently derive more pleasure from it than the
+less cultured person, it might then be desirable that the artist
+should address himself, through costly materials, to the few, for
+thereby he might be giving the greatest amount of pleasure. I always,
+however, like to produce works in cheap materials, for then I know
+that I form what is capable of giving pleasure to the poor man--if
+appreciative--who may possess it, as well as the rich.
+
+In hardware we find two classes of work in the market which appear to
+have little in common--the one class being characterised by a
+preponderance of excellence, and the other by the dominance of what is
+coarse and inartistic. The first class of work is that which is
+produced by what are termed ecclesiastical metal-workers; the second
+consists of what is generally known as Birmingham ware.
+
+It is an error to suppose that these so-called ecclesiastical--or
+mediæval, as they are sometimes called--metal-workers produce only
+ecclesiastical and mediæval work. On the contrary, some of these
+men--and they are now many in number--devote themselves almost
+exclusively to domestic work, and most of them fabricate articles in
+all styles of art. If I wanted an artistic set of fire-irons, I should
+go to one of the ecclesiastical warehouses, for there I have seen many
+sets that my reason commends and my judgment approves; but I never saw
+a set produced for the general market that I liked; and the most
+artistic fenders, grates, and gas-fittings, in almost any style, are
+to be got at these shops. I do not mean to convey the impression that
+all things made at these ecclesiastical warehouses are good, and that
+all things of Birmingham (or Sheffield) manufacture are bad, for I
+have seen indifferent works in these mediæval shops, and I have seen
+excellent things from Birmingham--especially I might mention as good
+certain gaseliers produced by two of the smaller Birmingham
+houses--but as a rule the works found in the mediæval warehouses are
+good, and as a rule the works in hardware produced by Birmingham and
+Sheffield are bad, in point of art.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.]
+
+It will appear a mere repetition if I insist that the materials of
+which works of hardware are formed be used in the easiest manner in
+which they can be worked, and that every article be so formed as
+perfectly to answer the end of its formation. Yet I must do so. Let us
+look for a common set of fire-irons, and we shall find that nine
+pokers out of ten have a handle terminating in a pointed knob. Now, as
+the object of this knob is that of enabling us to exercise force
+wherewith to break large pieces of coal, the folly of terminating this
+knob with a point is obvious. A poker is, essentially, an object of
+utility; it should therefore be useful. It is ridiculous to talk
+of a poker as an ornament; yet we find it fashionable now to have a
+bright poker as an ornament, which is obtrusively displayed to the
+visitor, and a little black poker, which is carefully concealed from
+view, reserved for use. I cannot imagine what people will not do for
+show and fashion, but to the thinking mind such littleness as that
+which induces women to keep a poker as an ornament must be
+distressing; and until persons who desire to be regarded as educated
+learn to discriminate between an ornament and an article of utility,
+little progress in art can be made. If a poker is simply a thing to be
+looked at, then it may be as inconvenient as you please, for if it
+has no purpose to fulfil by its creation it cannot be unfitted to its
+purpose. The same remarks will apply to shovel and tongs. If they are
+intended as works of utility, then their form must be carefully
+considered; but if they are to be mere ornaments I have nothing to say
+respecting them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166.]
+
+Utility and beauty are not inseparable; but if an article of any kind
+is intended to answer any particular end, it should be fitted to
+answer the end proposed by its formation; but after it is created as a
+work of utility, care must be exercised in order that it be also a
+work of beauty. With due consideration, almost every work may be
+rendered both useful and beautiful, and it must ever be the aim of the
+intelligent ornamentist to render them so.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.]
+
+Iron is capable of being wrought in various ways; it maybe cast, or
+hammered, or cut, or filed. Casting is the least artistic mode of
+treating iron; but if iron is to be cast, the patterns formed should
+be so fully adapted to this method of manufacture that the mode of
+working may be readily apparent. It is foolish to seek to make
+cast-iron appear as wrought-iron: cast-iron should appear as
+cast-iron, and wrought-iron as wrought-iron. Cast-iron is brittle,
+and must not be relied upon as of great strength; while wrought-iron
+is tough, and will bend under great pressure rather than break.
+Wrought-iron can be readily bent into scrolls, or the end of a rod of
+metal can be hammered flat and shaped into the form of a leaf, and
+parts can either be welded together or fastened by small collars,
+pins, or screws. One or two illustrations of good wrought-iron work by
+Skidmore, Benham, and Hart, are given in the engravings.
+
+As an illustration of a simple railing, is figured one shown in the
+International Exhibition of 1862 (Fig. 163), which is in every respect
+excellent. Its strength is very great, yet it is quaint and beautiful.
+As it was shown it was coloured, and the colours were so applied as to
+increase its effect and beauty. If the student will carefully devote
+himself to the consideration of excellent works in metal, he will
+learn more than by much reading. Let him procure, if possible, the
+illustrated catalogues of such men as Hart of London, Hardman of
+Birmingham, and Dovey of Manchester, and study the sketches which he
+will there see, and he will certainly discover the principles of a
+true art, such as he must seek to apply in a manner concordant with
+his own original feelings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169.]
+
+Of our illustrations, the example by Skidmore (Fig. 161) furnishes us
+with an excellent mode of treatment. Iron bands are readily bent into
+volutes, or curves of various descriptions, and the parts so formed
+can be united by welding, screws, or bolts. Hardman's gate (Fig. 165)
+is in every respect excellent; it is quaint, vigorous, and
+illustrative of a true mode of working metal. The two foliated
+railings (Figs. 166, 167) are also very meritorious. They are simple
+in design, and their parts are well fastened together. I advise very
+strongly that the student carefully consider the illustrations which
+accompany this chapter.
+
+In iron-work the manifestation of a true constructive principle is
+beyond all things desirable. Iron, being a strong material, should not
+be formed into heavy masses unless immense weight has to be
+sustained, or very great strength is required. If we form lamps,
+candelabra, and such works of iron, it is obvious that the portions of
+metal employed in their construction may be thin, as the material is
+of great strength. Were we to form such works of wood, then a greatly
+increased thickness of material would be necessary, in order that the
+same strength be secured, as wood is not nearly so strong as iron.
+
+My remarks will have special reference to wrought-iron, as cast-iron
+cannot so fully be said to have a constructive character. The small
+railing (Fig. 163) is an admirable illustration of a true constructive
+formation, as the parts are all held together, and strengthened to a
+wonderful degree, by the introduction of a horseshoe-shaped member.
+This railing is worthy of the most careful study, for its strength is
+great. Besides strength we have also beauty. The horseshoe form,
+especially when judiciously applied, is far from being offensive.
+Utility must come first, and then beauty, and so it does in this
+particular railing; but here we have great simplicity, and a correct
+structural character has been arrived at in its production rather than
+any elaboration of the principles of beauty.
+
+From the catalogue of J. W. Dovey, of Manchester, I select an
+illustration of structure in the form of a candelabrum which is highly
+satisfactory in character as a simple work (Fig. 168). There is a
+solidly-formed heavy base, an upright stem terminating in a
+candle-holder. There is an arrangement for catching waste grease, and
+extra strength is given to the stem by four slender buttress-like
+brackets, which are securely and well attached to the base and to the
+stem above; and these are strengthened by two hoops, which prevent
+their bending under pressure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.]
+
+Figs. 169 and 170, the former being a ridge or wall cresting, and the
+latter a stair railing, are each illustrations of a correct treatment,
+inasmuch as strength (a structural quality) and beauty (an art
+quality) are secured at the same time. Fig. 169 is admirably
+constructed, only it is a little slender above the middle horizontal
+line. These two illustrations are also from Mr. Dovey's catalogue.
+
+In the catalogue just named, and in those previously named also, many
+good examples may be found illustrative of the successful combination
+of true structural qualities with a considerable amount of beauty, and
+also acknowledging the strength of the material by the lightness of
+the parts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.]
+
+Those who reside in, or visit, London, will do well to go to the South
+Kensington Museum, and study a large and splendid, candelabrum of
+Messrs. Hurt, Son, and Peard, which is well worthy of consideration.
+It is rather heavy, and is of enormous strength, but in most other
+respects it is highly commendable. It, is beautiful, well
+proportioned, and illustrative of a correct treatment of metal.
+Besides this, it exemplifies the manner in which stones or jewels may
+be applied to works in hardware with advantage. As a further
+illustration of a correct and very beautiful treatment of metal, we
+give one segment of the Hereford Cathedral Screen (Fig. 171), the work
+of that most intelligent of metal-workers, Mr. Skidmore of Coventry.
+This screen was shown in the International Exhibition of 1862, in
+London, and was from there removed to its place in the cathedral. All
+who can will do well to view this beautiful work, which is one of the
+finest examples of artistic metal-work with which we are acquainted.
+Notice the ease with which iron may be treated if a correct mode of
+working be employed. Let a bar of iron be taken which is about half an
+inch in thickness, by 1¼ broad. This can be rolled into a volute (the
+filigree mode of treatment), or its end can be hammered out into stems
+and leaves, and to it can be attached other leaves by rivets, screws,
+or ties, or it can be bent into any structural form. To the student I
+say, study the shapes into which simple bars of iron can be beaten,
+both mentally and by observing well-formed works.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.]
+
+Brass, copper, and other metals may be associated with iron in the
+formation of any works. If well managed, brass and other bright metals
+may act as gems--that is, they may give bright spots; but where the
+bright metals are used with this view, care must be exercised in order
+that the bright spots be formed by beautiful parts, and that their
+distribution be just, for that which is bright will attract first
+attention.
+
+Before leaving this part of our subject, I must call attention to a
+hinge by Hardman, of Birmingham, which was shown in the International
+Exhibition of 1862, as it is both quaint and beautiful (Fig. 172). The
+door to which this hinge was applied opened twice; the first half
+opened and folded back on the second half, and then the two halves
+opened as one door, as will be seen from the illustration. It is very
+desirable that we have a little novelty of arrangement in our works.
+We are too apt to repeat ourselves, hence it is a sort of relief to
+meet with a new idea.
+
+It is impossible that I take up each article of hardware and consider
+it separately. All I can do is to point out principles, and leave the
+learner to consider and apply them for himself--principles which, once
+understood, may result in the construction of many excellent works,
+and may lead to the formation of a correct judgment respecting such
+objects as may be brought forward for criticism. I will, however, just
+call attention to gas-branches, as they are often wrongly constructed.
+A gas-branch is a duct through which gas is to be conveyed. It must be
+strong if it is to be exposed to pressure, or if it runs the chance of
+coming in collision with the person, as do standard lights in public
+buildings. The main part of a gas-branch is the tube or pipe which is
+to convey the gas, but this may be supported in many ways, as by such
+buttress-like brackets as in the candelabrum shown in Fig. 168; and if
+there are branch tubes for several lights, these may well be connected
+with the central tube, not only by their own attachment, but by
+brackets of some sort, or with one another by some connecting parts.
+Whether the gas-branch be pendent or standard, this mode of
+strengthening the tube-work should be employed, for the tubes
+themselves are but slightly held together, and by pressure being
+brought to bear upon them, a dangerous and expensive escape of gas may
+result.
+
+In the manufacture of gaseliers one or two of the smaller Birmingham
+houses have certainly distinguished themselves by the production of
+works both beautiful and true; and these lead me to think that a
+better day is dawning for Birmingham, in which its art shall be
+exalted rather than degraded, and shall be such as will win to it the
+esteem of the world rather than call forth the execrations of
+art-loving people.
+
+As to the colouring of iron I can say little. In my judgment the best
+modes of colouring metals were originated by Mr. Skidmore of Coventry,
+of whom I have before spoken. His theory is this, that metals are best
+coloured by the tints of their oxides. When a metal, especially brass,
+is seen in a furnace in a molten condition, the flames, where the
+oxygen of the atmosphere is uniting with the vapour of the metal,
+present the most resplendent tints. The same thing in a lesser degree
+occurs in the case of iron, but here the colours are less brilliant,
+and are more tertiary in character. Mr. Skidmore applies to a metal
+the colours seen in the flames of the furnace where it melts. Without
+attempting to limit the colourist to any theory whereby his ideas
+might be restricted, I must say that Skidmore's colouring of the
+metals is very good.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+STAINED GLASS.
+
+
+From early times it has been customary to colour glass. To the ancient
+Egyptians a method of forming glass of various tints was known, and by
+producing a mass of glass consisting of variously coloured pieces
+vitreously united, and cutting this into slices, they, in a costly and
+laborious manner, produced a sort of stained glass which might have
+been employed for the sides of lanterns or other purposes. The Greeks
+were acquainted with a similar process, and bowls formed in this
+manner by them are common in our museums.
+
+Soon after the re-discovery of glass in our own country, methods of
+colouring it were sought, and cathedral windows were formed, which
+were of such beauty, and were so thoroughly fitted to answer the end
+of their creation, that little or no improvement upon these early
+works has even yet been made, and much of the decorative glass which
+we now produce is far inferior to them as regards design, colour, and
+mode of treatment.
+
+A window must fulfil two purposes--it must keep out rain, wind, and
+cold, and must admit light; having fulfilled these ends, it may be
+beautiful.
+
+If a window commands a lovely view let it, if possible, be formed of
+but few sheets (if not very large, of one sheet) of plate-glass; for
+the works of God are more worthy of contemplation, with their
+ever-changing beauty, than the works of man; but if the window
+commands only a mass of bricks and mortar inartistically arranged, let
+it, if possible, be formed of coloured glass having beauty of design
+manifested by the arrangement of its parts. A window should never
+appear as a picture with parts treated in light and shade. The
+foreshortening of the parts, and all perspective treatments, are best
+avoided, as far as possible. I do not say that the human figure, the
+lower animals, and plants must not be delineated upon window glass,
+for, on the contrary, they may be so treated as not only to be
+beautiful, but also to be a consistent decoration of glass; but this I
+do say, that many stained windows are utterly spoiled through the
+window being treated as a picture, and not as a protection from the
+weather and as a source of light.
+
+If pictorially treated subjects are employed upon window glass, they
+should be treated very simply, and drawn in bold outline without
+shading, and the parts should be separated from each other by varying
+their colours. Thus, the flesh of a figure may be formed of glass
+having a pink tone; the robe of the figure of glass which is green,
+purple, or any other colour; a flower may be formed of white glass, or
+of glass of any colour; the leaves of green glass; and the sky
+background of blue glass. All the parts will thus be distinguished
+from each other by colour, and the distinction of part from part will
+be further enhanced by the strong black outline which bounds the parts
+and furnishes the drawing of the picture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.]
+
+Strong colours should rarely be used in windows, as they retard the
+admission of light. Light is essential to our well-being; our health
+of body depends in a large measure upon the amount of light which
+falls upon the skin. Those wonderful chemical changes, in the absence
+of which there can be no life, in part, at least, depend upon the
+exposure of our bodies to light; let our windows, then, admit these
+life-giving rays. It must also be remembered that if light is not
+freely admitted to an apartment the colours of all the objects which
+it contains, and of its own decorations if it has any, are sacrificed,
+for in the absence of light there is no colour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 178.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 180.]
+
+It is not necessary, in order to the production of a beautiful window,
+that much strong colour be used; tints of creamy yellow, pale amber,
+light tints of tertiary blue, blue-grey, olive, russet, and other
+sombre or delicate hues, if enlivened with small portions of ruby or
+other full colours, produce the most charming effects, and by their
+use we have consistent windows.
+
+A good domestic window is often produced by armorial bearings in
+colour being placed on geometrically arranged tesseræ of slightly
+tinted glass. In some cases such an arrangement as this is highly
+desirable, for the room may thus get the benefit which a bit of colour
+will sometimes afford, and at the same time a pleasant view may be had
+through the uncoloured portion of the window. As an illustration of
+this class of window, we extract one from the catalogue of those
+excellent artists in stained glass, Messrs. Heaton, Butler, and Bayne,
+of Garrick Street (Fig. 173). A good window may also be formed by
+bordering a plain window with colour, (Fig. 174), or in place of the
+plain centre squares of glass may be used, each bearing a diaper
+pattern, as Figs. 175 to 182.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182.]
+
+No architectural constructive feature should be introduced into a
+window--thus, an elaborate architectural canopy overshadowing a figure
+is not at all desirable. If a figure is formed of a perishable
+material, and stands on the outside of a building, it is well that it
+be protected from the rain by a canopy; but such a contrivance when
+introduced over a figure drawn on a flat window is absurd, being
+useless. Let us always consider what we have to do before we commence
+the formation of any ornamental article, and then seek to do it in the
+most simple, consistent, and beautiful manner. Figs. 183 and 184
+represent my views of what stained glass may advantageously be.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183.]
+
+More than once in the course of these chapters I have protested in
+strong terms against pretence in art and art-decoration--the desire to
+make things appear to be made of better material or more costly
+substances than what they have in reality been wrought from--that
+leads men to paint and varnish a plain freestone mantelpiece in
+imitation of some expensive marble, or to make doors and
+window-shutters, skirting and panelling that the carpenter has
+fashioned out of red or yellow deal, assume the appearance of oak, or
+maple, or satinwood, by the deceptive skill of the grainer. In no
+case can the imitation ever approach a fair resemblance to the reality
+it is proposed to imitate. The coarse, rough grain of the soft
+freestone, which is incapable of receiving a polish, or rather of
+being polished until it becomes as smooth, and even, and lustrous as
+good glass, can never be made by successive coatings of paint and
+varnish to afford a satisfactory resemblance to the marble that it is
+supposed to represent, however carefully the cunning hand of the
+painter may have imitated the veins, and spots, and curious
+diversities of colour with which Nature has variegated the surface of
+the substance that he is endeavouring to copy. Nor, again, can a
+coarse-grained, soft wood, however skilled may be the hand that
+manipulates it, be treated so as to resemble the texture and
+smoothness of hard, close-grained wood, which from its very nature is
+capable of receiving the high polish that the softer material can
+never take if treated by the same process--that is, unless the expense
+of producing the imitation greatly exceeds the cost of the thing
+imitated. And what is applicable to the treatment of wood and stone is
+applicable also to the treatment of glass: for as a freestone
+mantelpiece, or deal door, however suitable and pleasing to the eye
+either may be when simply painted in the one case and varnished in the
+other to preserve the surface from the deteriorating influences of
+dirt of any kind, can never be made by the exercise of reasonable time
+and skill to present the appearance of marble or oak; so glass, by the
+application of colour rendered transparent by varnish, can never be
+brought to resemble glass stained or painted by the legitimate method,
+either in delicacy of tint, or depth, and richness, and brilliancy of
+colour. The greater part of the imitative stained glass, or
+"diaphanie" as it is styled, fails not only in colour, but in design;
+and in this indeed it may perhaps be said to be especially faulty. The
+designs, which are printed on paper, with the view of imitating glass
+patterns, err principally in being too elaborate, and in representing
+figures and scenery which are not in character or keeping with the
+designs that are usually represented in painted glass. If confined to
+simple diaper work, or borderings and heraldic emblems, as shown in
+Figs. 173 and 174, or patterns similar to that shown in Fig. 183, the
+artistic effect produced would be more satisfactory, although it can
+never equal genuine stained glass in depth of colour or purity of
+tone.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+I have now treated of art as applied to our industrial manufactures,
+and have pointed out principles which must be recognisable in all
+art-works which pretend to merit. We have seen that material must in
+all cases be used in the simplest and most natural manner; that,
+wherever possible, we must avail ourselves of the friendly aid of
+natural forces;[29] that the most convenient shape must always be
+selected for a vessel or art-object of any kind; and that beauty must
+then be added to that which is useful. All art-objects must be useful
+and then beautiful; they must be utilitarian, and yet so graceful, so
+comely, that they shall be loved for their beauty as well as valued
+for their usefulness. While I have set forth those principles which
+must ever govern the application of ornament to useful articles, I
+cannot show the student any royal road to the attainment of
+art-knowledge. There is something in a true art-work which is too
+subtle for expression by words; there is a "quality" about an
+art-work, or the expression of an amount of "feeling," which cannot be
+described, yet which is so obvious as to be at once apparent to the
+trained eye.
+
+[29] See chapters on glass and earthenware.
+
+The only way in which the power of appreciating art-qualities can be
+gained, especially if these qualities are of a subtle nature, is by
+the careful study of works of known excellence. Could the student
+visit our museums in company with a trained ornamentist, who would
+point out what was good and what was bad in art, he would soon learn,
+by studying the beautiful works, to perceive art-qualities; but as
+this is not possible to most, the learner must be content to consider
+each art-work with which he comes in contact in conjunction with the
+principles I have set forward.
+
+Let him take a work--say a tea-pot. He will now ask himself--has the
+material of which it is formed been judiciously and simply used?--is
+the shape convenient?--is the handle properly applied, and does the
+spout bear a proper relation to the handle?--is the form graceful or
+vigorous?--is the curve which bounds the form of a subtle nature?--is
+the engraving applied in judicious quantities and in just
+proportions?--are the engraved forms beautiful, and such as do not
+suffer by being seen in perspective on a rounded surface? By such
+questions the student will inquire into the nature of whatever is
+presented to his consideration, and only by constantly making such
+inquiries, and seeking to answer them correctly, can he gain the
+knowledge which will enable him rightly to judge of the nature of
+art-works.
+
+Some of these inquiries the young student will readily answer, with
+others he will have difficulty; for, his taste being yet uncultivated,
+he will not know whether a form is beautiful or not. Nevertheless, I
+say to the learner, try to answer these various inquiries as well as
+you can, and then note the shape of the object in a memorandum-book,
+and write your opinion respecting it in brief terms, and your reasons
+for your opinion. By thus noting your studies you gain many
+advantages; thus, you must frame your ideas with some degree of
+exactness when you have to put them into words, and exactness of idea
+is essential to your success. You can also refer to previous thoughts,
+and thus impress them upon the memory; and you can observe your
+progress, which is important, and should be encouraging. In order that
+you acquire the power of perceiving art-merit as quickly as possible,
+you must study those works in which examples of bad taste are rarely
+met with, you must at first consider art-objects from India, Persia,
+China, and Japan, as well as examples of ancient art from Egypt and
+Greece. But in selecting modern works from the East, choose those
+which are not altogether new if possible.
+
+During the last ten years the art-works of Japan have deteriorated to
+a lamentable extent. Contact with Europeans unfortunately brings about
+the deterioration of Eastern art: in order that the European demand be
+met, quantity is produced and quality disregarded, for we cavil
+respecting price, and yet by thus creating a demand for inferior work
+we raise the price even of that which is comparatively bad, and soon
+have to pay for the coarser wares a price for which superior articles
+could at first be procured.
+
+But this should be noted: that the commonest wares which we receive
+from Japan and India are never utterly bad in art. Inharmonious
+colouring does not appear to be produced by these nations, and the
+same may be said of Persia and China, and, to an extent, of Morocco
+and Algeria, the only exceptions being where European influence has
+been long continued. In selecting examples for study you may almost
+rely upon the beauty of all works from China, Japan, Persia, and
+India, which have not been produced under European influence.
+
+A notable example of the deteriorating influence of European taste
+(perhaps chiefly English taste) upon Eastern art is apparent if we
+examine old carved sandalwood boxes from India, and those which are
+now sent to us from the same country; the quiet, unobtrusive
+consistency of the ornament by which it was sought only to enrich a
+properly constructed box was not sufficiently attractive to suit
+European (or English?) taste. The ornament must be more pronounced and
+in higher relief, and the entire work must be more attractive--more
+vulgarly attractive I might say, and thus the exquisite refinement of
+the older works is sacrificed to the wants of a rich but vulgar
+people, whose taste for art is infinitely below that of their
+conquered brethren, from whom they learn the principles of a beautiful
+art but slowly, while they do much to destroy the refinement of
+art-taste which the workmen of our Eastern empire appear to inherit.
+Study the works of the Eastern nations in conjunction with the remarks
+which I made in my first chapter (see pages 6, 9, and 48), and then
+consider the numerous objects left to us by the early Egyptians and
+Greeks, and bear in mind while viewing them what we have said on
+Egyptian and Greek art (see pages 6, 8, and 10), and after having
+learned to understand the merits of Persian, Japanese, Indian, and
+Chinese art, and of that of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, you may
+commence to consider other styles, taking up the study of Italian and
+Renaissance art in its various forms last of all; for in these styles,
+or dialects of a style if I may thus speak, there is so much that is
+false in structure, false in representation, untruthful in expression,
+and pictorial rather than ornamental in effect, that a very complete
+acquaintance with ornamental art is necessary in order that all the
+defects of these styles be apparent, and in order that the student
+avoid falling into the error of regarding a pictorial effect as the
+result of a true style of ornamental art.
+
+Study, when accompanied by individual thought, is the means whereby
+art-knowledge will be gained. No mere looking at works which are
+beautiful and true will make a great ornamentist. He who would attain
+to great knowledge must _study_ whatever commends itself to him as
+worthy of his attention, and, above all, must think much upon the
+works which he contemplates; it is the evidence of mind--not of
+degraded but of noble mind, of refined mind, of cultivated mind, of
+well-informed mind, of mind which has knowledge, of mind which has
+vigour, of mind which is fresh and new--that we find impressed upon a
+work and giving to it value. While we, as art-students, have, above
+all things, to attain to cultivation of the mind, we cannot give
+expression to refined feelings manifested in form unless we can draw,
+and draw almost faultlessly; and the ability to draw with accuracy,
+power, and feeling can only result from much practice.
+
+Let every spare moment, then, find the sketch-book in your hand, and
+be constantly trying to draw both carefully, neatly, and with
+exactness and finish, such objects as you see around you, even if
+examples of good art-works are not at hand; for by constant and
+careful practice you can alone acquire the necessary power of
+expressing refined thought in refined form. Avoid making hasty
+sketches. When a finished artist, you can afford to make sketch
+memoranda; but till you can draw with great power, energy,
+truthfulness, and refinement, let your every drawing be as careful and
+as finished in character, however simple the object portrayed, as
+though your welfare in life depended upon its character, for upon
+every sketch your future position does, to a great extent, depend. The
+habit of careful painstaking should sedulously be cultivated; and with
+every drawing thus made an amount of power is gained which the making
+of a hundred careless sketches would not afford. Let painstaking,
+then, be characteristic of your working.
+
+Ornament of some kind is applied to almost every article that we see
+around us. The papers on our walls, the carpets on our floors, the
+hangings at our windows, the plates from which we eat, are all covered
+by patterns of some kind; yet it is rare, even now when ornamentation
+has become general, to find anything original in ornament; and if we
+do meet with something new in kind it is often feeble or
+timid-looking, if it does not altogether fail to impress us with the
+idea that the producer was a man of knowledge. Let the reader be
+assured that if the designer is a man of knowledge, his ornamental
+compositions will never fail to reveal his learning; that if he is a
+man of power, his works will reveal his strength of character; if he
+is a man of refined feelings, that his designs will manifest his
+tenderness of perception. In like manner, if a man is ignorant he
+cannot withhold from his patterns the manifestation of his ignorance.
+Did not the Egyptians express their power of character in their
+ornaments? did not the Greeks manifest their refinement in the forms
+which they drew? do we not even find an expression of religious
+feeling strongly, yea, impressively, set forth by some art-works, as
+by the illuminated manuscripts of the early Middle Ages? and do we not
+every day see the impress of the ignorant upon certain wall-papers,
+carpets, and other things? It is a fact, and it is necessary that we
+fully recognise it, that the knowledge of the producer is manifested
+by his works; and that the ignorance of the ignorant is also
+manifested in his works.
+
+If ornament is produced having new characters, it is often feeble, and
+is generally without grace; while power is the expression of
+manliness, and grace of refinement. Without claiming to have made a
+successful effort, I put forth, in the frontispiece to this volume
+(Plate I.), four of my studies in original ornament, all of which are
+to me more or less satisfactory as studies in composition. I have
+endeavoured to secure in each an amount of energy, vigour--the power
+of life, yet at the same time to avoid coarseness, or any glaring want
+of refinement. I have sought to combine right lines, which are
+expressive of power, with such curved shapes as shall, with them,
+produce a pleasing contrast of form, and express a certain amount of
+grace. In the light ornament on the citrine ground (that at the lower
+left-hand corner of our plate) I have endeavoured especially to secure
+an expression of grace in combination with that amount of energy which
+avoids any expression of feebleness.
+
+In the border ornament I have introduced the arch form, as it hints at
+a structural "setting out" which is pleasant; and I have endeavoured
+to cause the composition to appear as though it rested on the lower
+dotted band, as this gives a feeling of security. I do not say that it
+is necessary that this be so: all I assert is that in some cases it
+gives a feeling of satisfaction.
+
+So far as I know, the colouring is also original. The colours employed
+are chiefly of a tertiary character, but small masses of primary or
+secondary colours are employed in order to impart "life" to the
+composition.
+
+I do not set these studies before my readers with the idea of showing
+them what original ornament should be: I only set them forth as
+examples of new compositions, and must leave each to clothe his own
+thoughts with a befitting expression of his individual original ideas.
+
+As I am writing for the working man, as well as for others, will he
+pardon me reminding him that we are called to exercise an art, yet at
+the same time our art is associated with the scientific professions--a
+knowledge of natural sciences, of botany, zoology, natural philosophy,
+and chemistry can be very fully utilised in our art--and that we
+should, therefore, act as professional men and as artists of the
+highest rank; for thereby only can we hope to place our calling in
+that position of esteem in which it should be held, and must be held,
+by the people at large, if we are to administer to their pleasure as
+we ought.
+
+In taking leave of my reader, let me say that if I personally can aid
+him in any way, I shall be glad to do so. If any who really seek
+knowledge of decorative design, and are hard workers, choose to send
+me designs for criticism or comment, or desire any other aid that I
+can give them, I shall be happy to do what little I can for them. My
+address will be found at the end of the Preface.
+
+
+
+
+    INDEX.
+
+
+    Alternation in Ornament, 24.
+
+    America, Depraved Artistic Taste in, 104.
+
+    Anthemion; a Greek Decorative Device, 9.
+
+    Arabian Metal-work, 137.
+
+    Arch used in Furniture, 51, 52.
+
+    Art may be Degrading, 2;
+      aims at producing Repose, 63;
+      the Object of, 144.
+
+    Art-knowledge, The Value of, 2.
+
+
+    Baptism, Symbol of, in Gothic Art, 12.
+
+    Beauty in Decoration, 16, 17.
+
+    Bed-room, Decoration for a, 15.
+
+    Birmingham Ware, 144, 145, 152.
+
+    Black, a Neutral in Decorative Work, 45.
+
+    Buhl-work, 64.
+
+    Buildings, Decoration of, 73, _et seq._
+
+    Byzantine Ornament, 11.
+
+
+    Cabinet, Construction of a, 61.
+
+    Calico, Patterns on, 107.
+
+    Carpets, Art-qualities and Patterns of, 94, _et seq._;
+      Different Sorts of, 94, 95;
+      Foreign-made, 102, 103;
+      how they should be laid down, 105;
+      the Conditions which Govern the Application of Ornament to, 106.
+
+    Carving, when to be used, 61, 62.
+
+    Casting in Metal, 136.
+
+    Casting, the least Artistic Mode of Treating Iron, 147.
+
+    Ceilings, Decoration of, 75, _et seq._;
+      Various, worthy of Study, 82;
+      with Painted Pictures Objectionable, 82.
+
+    Celtic Ornament, 25.
+
+    Chair-coverings, 72.
+
+    Chairs, Construction of, 52-57.
+
+    Character of the Designer shown by his Work, 163.
+
+    Chinese Enamels, 143.
+
+    Chinese Harmony of Colour, 48.
+
+    Chinese Ornament, 11.
+
+    Christian Art, 11, 12.
+
+    Clay as a Material for Art-purposes, 117, _et seq._
+
+    Colour--in Decoration, 30, _et seq._;
+      Contrast in, 32, 33;
+      Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary, 32;
+      Harmony in, 33, 39, _et seq._;
+      Qualities of, 33, 34;
+      Analytical Tables of, 34;
+      Teachings of Experience in regard to, 34, 45;
+      Proportions in which Colours Harmonise, 34, 35, 36;
+      Pure, and Pigments, 37, 38;
+      Permanence of, 38, _note_;
+      Shades, Tints, and Hues, 39;
+      Works on, referred to, 49;
+      for Stained Windows, 154, _et seq._
+
+    Colouring Metals. _See_ Skidmore, Mr.
+
+    Colour-top, the, 48, and _note_.
+
+    Copper Vessels Inlaid with Silver, 142.
+
+    Cornices, Colouring of, 93.
+
+    Couches, 57, _et seq._
+
+    Curtain Materials, 107, _et seq._
+
+    Curves, most Beautiful when most Subtle, 23.
+
+
+    Damascene Work, 139.
+
+    Damask Table-linen, Patterns on, 107, 108, 109.
+
+    Damask Wall-coverings. _See_ Silk Wall Damasks.
+
+    Decanters, what they should be, 129.
+
+    Decoration should be in keeping with Architecture, 73, 74, 75.
+
+    Design and Ornament, Redgrave on, 50.
+
+    Dining-room, Decoration for a, 14.
+
+    Dining-tables, Mr. Eastlake on Telescopic, 66, 67.
+
+    Distemper Colours for Wall Decoration, 83.
+
+    Doric Column, The, 9.
+
+    Drawing-room, Decoration for a, 15.
+
+    Dress, Ladies' and Gentlemen's, 90.
+      Patterns for Ladies', 112.
+
+
+    Earthen Vessels, Decoration of, 125, 126, 127.
+
+    Eastlake, Mr., on Household Art, referred to, 52, and _note_.
+
+    Ecclesiastical Metal-workers, 144, 145.
+
+    Egyptian Architecture, 8.
+
+    Egyptian Coloured Glass, 153.
+
+    Egyptian Drawing, Peculiarity of, 5.
+
+    Egyptian Ornament, 4-8.
+
+    Embroidery on Cotton, Indian, 114.
+
+    Enamelling in Metal-work, 143.
+
+    England, Architectural Buildings in, 11;
+      House Decoration in, 30, 31.
+
+    European Influence Injurious to Eastern Art, 161.
+
+    Excess in Upholstery, 70.
+
+
+    Fabrics, Patterns Suitable for Woven, 107, _et seq._
+
+    Finish, its Value Over-estimated, 120.
+
+    Folds, Ornamentation of Fabrics to be seen in, 112, _et seq._
+
+    French Errors of Taste in Furniture, 65.
+
+    Furniture, Decorative Principles applied to, 50, _et seq._;
+      What is Required to make it an Object of Art, 50;
+      Material used for, 51;
+      Truthful Construction of, 59, 65, _et seq._;
+      Proportion and Enrichment of, 61, 63.
+
+
+    Glass, as a Material for Art-purposes, 118, 127, _et seq._;
+      Vessels, Various, 130, _et seq._;
+      Vessels, Coloured, 131, 132;
+      Cutting of, 132;
+      Engraving of, 133; Ornamentation of, 133;
+      Stained, 153, _et seq._
+
+    Gold, a Neutral in Decorative Work, 44, 45.
+
+    Gold and Silver, Works in, 136.
+
+    Gothic Architecture, Modern, 74.
+
+    Gothic Furniture, Falsely Constructed, 66.
+
+    Gothic Ornament, 12.
+
+    Granite Imitated, Objected to, 89.
+
+    Greek Coloured Glass, 153.
+
+    Greek Ornament, 9, 10, 11.
+
+    Greek Vessels, 121.
+
+    Grotesque. _See_ Humour.
+
+
+    Handles of Vessels, 138, 139, 140.
+
+    Hardware, Art in Connection with, 144, _et seq._
+
+    Harmony of Colour. _See_ Colour.
+
+    Historical Inquiry Necessary to the Understanding of Decoration, 4,
+
+    Humour in Ornament, 24-29;
+      Chinese and Japanese, 25, 27, 28.
+
+
+    Imitations of Marbles and Granites, 89.
+
+    Indian Art Injured by European Influence, 161.
+
+    Indian Fabrics, 48, _note_.
+
+    Indian Fabrics, Mr. Redgrave on, 115, 116.
+
+    Indian Metal-work, 142.
+
+    Indian Work in regard to Colouring, 47.
+
+    Inlaying as a means of Enriching Works of Furniture, 63.
+
+    Irish Crosses, Numerous Ornaments on, 25.
+
+    Iron, as an Art-material, 142.
+
+    Iron, how Wrought, 147.
+
+    Iron, Metals that may be Associated with, 151.
+
+    Iron-castings of Berlin, 136.
+
+    Iron-work, Ornamental, 147, _et seq._;
+      must Manifest a True Constructive Principle, 148;
+      Colouring of, 152.
+
+    Italian Metal-work, 142.
+
+
+    Japan, Deterioration in the Art-works of, 161.
+
+    Japanese Art, 11.
+
+    Japanese Colouring, 48.
+
+    Japanese Earthenware, 120.
+
+    Japanese Enamels, 142, 143.
+
+    Japanese Metal-work, 142.
+
+    Jewels in Metal-work, 143.
+
+    Joists in Ceilings, how they should be Treated, 79.
+
+
+    Labour Necessary to Success in Art, 4, 31.
+
+    Library, Decoration for a, 15.
+
+    Lotus in Egyptian Design, 5, 6.
+
+
+    Marble Imitated, Objected to, 89.
+
+    Mediæval Metal-workers, 144, 145.
+
+    Mental Effects produced by Decorative Forms, 14.
+
+    Moorish Ornament, 11.
+
+    Muslin, Patterns on, 107.
+
+
+    Natural Forms in Carpet Patterns, 96, 97, 98.
+
+    Niello-work applied to Metals, 143.
+
+    Norman Architecture, 11.
+
+    Novelty Wanted in Carpet Patterns, 105.
+
+
+    Oil-colour "Flatted" for Wall Decoration, 83.
+
+    Order, a Principle in Ornament, 23.
+
+    Ormolu Ornaments, 64.
+
+    Ornament and Architecture Inseparable, 13.
+
+
+    Papered Walls. _See_ Wall Papers.
+
+    Papyrus in Egyptian Architecture, 8.
+
+    Persian Ornament, 11.
+
+    Picture Frames, 72.
+
+    Pigments. _See_ Colour.
+
+    Plants as Ornaments, How to Treat, 24.
+
+    Plaques of Stone or Earthenware applied to Works of Furniture, 63,
+      64.
+
+    Pottery, Art in, 117, _et seq._
+
+    Power an Art-principle, 17.
+
+    Precious Materials in the Form of Art-works, 117, 118.
+
+    Preface, v., vi.
+
+    Pretence in Art-decoration, 157-159.
+
+    Proportion must be Subtle, 23.
+
+    Purpose, Adaptation to, Taught by Plants, 21.
+
+
+    Renaissance Ornament, 13.
+
+    Repetition of Parts in Ornament, 23.
+
+    Roman Ornament, 11.
+
+
+    Shams in Decoration, 89.
+
+    Silk, Patterns on, 107.
+
+    Silk Wall Damasks, 114.
+
+    Silversmiths' Work, 135, _et seq._
+
+    Skidmore, Mr., and his Theory of Colouring Metals, 152.
+
+    Sofa-coverings, 70, 72.
+
+    South Kensington Museum, 48, _note_.
+
+    Spouts of Vessels, 139, _et seq._
+
+    Stools, 53.
+
+    Study of Art-decoration, how it should be carried on, 14, 160, 161,
+      162.
+
+    Styles of Architecture, 73.
+
+    Sugar-basin, its Form, 138.
+
+    Surface Decoration, 73, _et seq._
+
+    Symbols in Christian Art, 12.
+
+
+    Table-covers, The Borders of, 109, 111.
+
+    Taste of the Uneducated, 15.
+
+    Trinity, Symbols of the, in Gothic Art, 12.
+
+    Truth an Art-principle, 15, 16, 89, 158, 159.
+
+
+    Utility must Govern the Production and Application of Ornament,
+        17-22, 145.
+
+    Utility in Architecture, 20.
+
+    Utility Professor George Wilson on, 19, 20.
+
+    Utility Various Writers on, 20.
+
+
+    Vehicles for Art, The Best, the least Costly, 3.
+
+    Veneering, 69.
+
+    Venetian Glass, 130, 131.
+
+    Vessels, Primitive, 120.
+
+
+    Wall Decorations, 83, _et seq._
+
+    Wall Papers, 87, 90, _et seq._
+
+    Walls should be Unobtrusive, 90.
+
+    Water-vessels, Egyptian and Greek, 121-124.
+
+    White a Neutral in Decorative Work, 45.
+
+    Window-hangings, 69, 70, 108.
+
+    Windows, 69, 70;
+      the Object of, 153;
+      how they should be Treated, 153.
+
+    Wine-bottles, Forms of, 128.
+
+    "Winged Globe," in Egyptian Design, 7.
+
+    Woods and their Relative Strength, 51.
+
+    Workmen; their Study of Decorative Laws, 1.
+
+    " Advice to, 164.
+
+    Wrought-iron, its Qualities, 147, 148.
+
+
+CASSELL, PETTER, & GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, LONDON, E.C.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MANUALS OF TECHNOLOGY.
+
+EDITED BY
+
+PROFESSOR AYRTON, F.R.S.
+
+(_Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute_),
+
+AND RICHARD WORMELL, D.Sc., M.A.
+
+
+During the last two years a very great impetus has been given to the
+advancement of Technical Education, so that at the present time there
+is a widespread demand on the part of technical students for
+text-books. The object of this series is to meet this demand by
+furnishing books which describe _the application of science to
+industry_, which translate the language and results of science into
+the language of the workshop, and will thus bring to the benefit of
+the English Industries the workman's acquaintance with the scientific
+principles which underlie his daily work.
+
+These manuals of Technology are not intended to teach _pure_ science.
+Nor are they intended to enable the reader to dispense with learning,
+by actual practice in the workshop, the handicraft of the various
+trades. They will form a link between these two designs. They will
+give the reader an intelligent grasp of the complicated machinery of
+the factory. They are designed to make workmen thinkers, and not
+merely human tools.
+
+No special knowledge of mathematics or of science is necessary to the
+student of this series, but it is expected that he will have been
+observant of the processes carried on in his workshop, which will be
+here scientifically explained. The subjects will be treated
+analytically rather than synthetically; that is to say, the machine,
+as the workman knows it, will be taken as a whole and analysed, and
+special care will be taken to avoid the method too common in
+scientific books, according to which a number of abstract principles
+are first developed, while their practical application is deferred to
+the end of the book, which, probably, the practical man never reaches.
+
+As text-books for the large and increasing number of candidates at the
+Technological Examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute,
+with which many of the authors are connected, these Manuals of
+Technology will be especially valuable. An author in each case has
+been selected who was able to comprise a well-grounded scientific
+knowledge with a practical familiarity with the minute details of the
+trade treated of in his book. Consequently, while the latest and most
+approved processes of manufacture will be found described, the exact
+scientific reasons for the superiority of these modern methods over
+the older ones will be given in full, as well as such indications as
+science would suggest for improving the present processes.
+
+The following books are already in preparation, and others will be
+added:--
+
+    ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND TRANSMISSION OF POWER Professor Ayrton, F.R.S.
+    APPLIED MECHANICS                           Professor Perry, M.E.
+    CUTTING TOOLS WORKED BY HAND AND MACHINE    Professor Smith.
+    IRON AND STEEL                              W. H. Greenwood, Esq.
+    FLUID MOTORS                                Professor Perry, M.E.
+    CHEMISTRY                                   Dr. Armstrong, F.R.S.
+    FLAX SPINNING                               D. S. Thomson, Esq.
+    WATCH AND CLOCK MAKING                      D. Glasgow, Esq.
+
+_The numerous Illustrations_ to these books will be pictures of the
+actual machines as they exist in the best factories, and will not be
+merely conventional representations conveying but little intelligence
+to the practical man.
+
+The aim throughout has been to prepare books that shall appeal at once
+to the workman. Their preparation has been entrusted to writers who
+know what the workman's difficulties are, what information he needs to
+help him in his trade, and this is presented in such a form that the
+reader may be attracted by a desire to learn the Why and Wherefore,
+instead of being repelled by the supposed difficulties of science.
+
+    P.T.O.
+
+    _CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO., LUDGATE HILL, LONDON._
+
+
+MANUALS OF TECHNOLOGY, NOW READY.
+
+
+     =Applied Mechanics.=--By Prof. JOHN PERRY, M.E. With numerous
+     Illustrations. _Extra fcap. 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+     =Cutting Tools Worked by Hand and Machine.=--By ROBERT H. SMITH,
+     M.I.M.E.; Assoc. M.I.C.E.; Professor of Engineering in the
+     Mason Science College, Birmingham; formerly Professor of
+     Engineering in the Imperial University, Japan. With numerous
+     Practical Drawings. _Extra fcap. 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+    (_For full particulars of this Series, see preceding Page._)
+
+=Intermediate Text-Book of Physical Science.=--By F. H. BOWMAN, D.Sc.,
+F.R.A.S., F.L.S.; Fellow of the Geological, Chemical, and Royal
+Microscopical Societies; Straton Prizeman and Gold Medallist in
+Technology, University of Edinburgh. Illustrated. _Extra fcap. 8vo,
+cloth, 3s. 6d._
+
+This work is the outcome of a speech delivered at Liverpool by
+Professor Huxley, who represented the serious want felt by students at
+night-classes for a general introduction to science suited to their
+needs. It will occupy, as Professor Huxley suggested, an intermediate
+position between the elementary text-books for use in schools, and
+those which are suited for colleges and universities. Not only will it
+be specially suitable for the science classes connected with
+Mechanics' Institutes, Young Men's Associations, Intermediate Schools
+and Colleges, and other educational institutions, but for all
+non-mathematical students who desire a complete _introduction to
+science_. It embodies the latest scientific researches, and contains
+an accurate and philosophical account of the present condition of the
+physical sciences in all branches, enabling its readers to follow the
+advance continually being made in the application of science to the
+arts and uses of every-day life.
+
+=Handrailing and Staircasing.=--A Complete Set of Lines for Handrails
+by "Square-cut System," and Full Practical Instructions for making and
+fixing Geometrical Staircases. By FRANK O. CRESWELL, of the Liverpool
+School of Science; Medallist for Geometry. With upwards of One Hundred
+Working Drawings. _Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d._
+
+The high prices at which works on this subject have been hitherto
+published have placed them quite beyond the reach of ordinary workmen.
+By means of this book, however, mechanics will now have within their
+reach the best practical teaching at a cost that will allow all to
+possess themselves of it.
+
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+    The Story of Captain Cook. With numerous Illustrations.
+
+    At the South Pole. By the late W. H. G. KINGSTON. With numerous
+    Illustrations.
+
+    Soldier and Patriot. The Story of George Washington. By F. M.
+    OWEN. With Map and Illustrations.
+
+    Pictures of School Life and Boyhood. From the best Authors.
+    Edited by PERCY FITZGERALD, M.A.
+
+    The Three Homes. A Tale for Fathers and Sons. By F. T. L. HOPE.
+
+    The Romance of Trade. By H. R. FOX BOURNE. Illustrated.
+
+_A Complete List of_ CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.'S _Children's Books
+will be forwarded post free on application_.
+
+     CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.'S COMPLETE CATALOGUE, containing
+     a List of SEVERAL HUNDRED VOLUMES, including _Bibles_ and
+     _Religious Works_, _Fine-Art Volumes_, _Children's Books_,
+     _Dictionaries_, _Educational Works_, _History_, _Natural
+     History_, _Household_ and _Domestic Treatises_, _Handbooks_ and
+     _Guides_, _Science_, _Travels_, &c. &c., together with a
+     Synopsis of their numerous Illustrated Serial Publications,
+     sent post free on application to CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.,
+     Ludgate Hill, London.
+
+_CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.: LONDON, PARIS & NEW YORK._
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Archaic syntax and punctuation and inconsistent spelling were retained.
+
+Footnote [7]: "in order to this" modified to "in order to do this" to
+fit context.
+
+
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+</head>
+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Principles of Decorative Design, by
+Christopher Dresser</h1>
+<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a
+href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
+<p>Title: Principles of Decorative Design</p>
+<p>       Fourth Edition</p>
+<p>Author: Christopher Dresser</p>
+<p>Release Date: May 21, 2012  [eBook #39749]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF DECORATIVE DESIGN***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Delphine Lettau, Matthew Wheaton,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Canada Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdpcanada.net">http://www.pgdpcanada.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive<br />
+    (<a href="http://archive.org">http://archive.org</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      <a href="http://archive.org/details/principlesofdeco00dres">
+      http://archive.org/details/principlesofdeco00dres</a>
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="trnote">
+<p class="h3">Transcriber's Notes:</p>
+
+<p>Archaic syntax and punctuation and inconsistent spelling were retained.</p>
+
+<p>All illustrations may be enlarged by clicking on the image.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Footnote_7_7">Footnote 7:</a> "in order to this" modified to "in order to do this" to fit
+context.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/coverfull.jpg">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="400" height="542" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p class="spacer">&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p class="h1">Principles of Decorative Design.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i008full.jpg">
+<img id="i008" src="images/i008.jpg" width="400" height="552"
+ alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p class="spacer">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1 class="booktitle">Principles Of Decorative Design</h1>
+
+<p class="h4">BY</p>
+
+<p class="h3">Christopher Dresser,<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ph.D., F.L.S., F.E.B.S., etc.;</span></p>
+
+<p class="h3"><i>Author of "The Art of Decorative Design," "Unity in Variety," etc.</i></p>
+
+<p class="spacer">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="h5">FOURTH EDITION.</p>
+
+<p class="spacer">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="h3"><span class="smcap">Cassell, Petter, Galpin &amp; Co.:</span><br />
+<i>LONDON, PARIS &amp; NEW YORK.</i></p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<div>
+<img id="i011" class="wrap" src="images/i011.jpg" width="100" height="161" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br /></p>
+
+<p><b><span class="hide">M</span>Y</b> object in writing this work has been that of aiding in the
+art-education of those who seek a knowledge of ornament as applied to
+our industrial manufactures.</p>
+
+<p>I have not attempted the production of a pretty book, but have aimed
+at giving what knowledge I possess upon the subjects treated of, in a
+simple and intelligible manner. I have attempted simply to instruct.</p>
+
+<p>The substance of the present work was first published as a series of
+lessons in the <i>Technical Educator</i>. These lessons are now collected
+into a work, and have been carefully revised; a few new illustrations
+have been inserted, and a final chapter added.</p>
+
+<p>As the substance of this work was written as a series of lessons for
+the <i>Technical Educator</i>, I need not say that the book is addressed to
+working men, for the whole of the lessons in that publication have
+been prepared especially for those noble fellows who, through want of
+early opportunity, have been without the advantages of education, but
+who have the praiseworthy courage to educate themselves in later life,
+when the value of knowledge has become apparent to them.</p>
+
+<p>That the lessons as given in the <i>Technical Educator</i> have not been
+written wholly in vain I already know, for shortly before I had
+completed this revision of them, I had the opportunity of visiting a
+provincial town hall which I had heard was being decorated, and was
+pleasingly surprised to see decoration of considerable merit, and
+evidences that much of what I saw had resulted from a consideration of
+my articles in the <i>Technical Educator</i>. The artist engaged upon the
+work, although having suffered the disadvantage of apprenticeship to a
+butcher, has established himself as a decorator while still a young
+man; and from the manifestation of ability which he has already given,
+I hope for a brighter future for one who, as a working man, must have
+studied hard. If these lessons as now collected into a work should
+lead to the development of the art-germs which doubtless lie dormant
+in other working men, the object which I have sought to attain in
+writing and collecting these together will have been accomplished.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap in1">Tower Cressy, Notting Hill,</span><br />
+<span class="in3">London, W.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2 class="smcap">Contents.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdrfirst">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER I.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc2" colspan="3">Introductory</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr width35">Division I.</td>
+  <td class="tdl width40">Art-knowledge; Historic Styles</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Division II.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Truth, Beauty, Power, etc.</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Division III.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Humour in Ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER II.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Colour</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER III.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Furniture</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc2" colspan="3">Decoration of Buildings</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Division I.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">General Considerations&mdash;Ceilings</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Division II.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Decorations of Walls</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER V.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Carpets</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Curtain Materials, Hangings, and Woven Fabrics generally</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc2" colspan="3">Hollow Vessels</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Division I.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Pottery</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Division II.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Glass Vessels</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Division III.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Metal-work</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Hardware</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Stained Glass</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER X.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Conclusion</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="Principles_of_Design"><span class="smcap">Principles of Design.</span></h2>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>DIVISION I.</h3>
+
+<p>There are many handicrafts in which a knowledge of the true principles
+of ornamentation is almost essential to success, and there are few in
+which a knowledge of decorative laws cannot be utilised. The man who
+can form a bowl or a vase well is an artist, and so is the man who can
+make a beautiful chair or table. These are truths; but the converse of
+these facts is also true; for if a man be not an artist he cannot form
+an elegant bowl, nor make a beautiful chair.</p>
+
+<p>At the very outset we must recognise the fact that the beautiful has a
+commercial or money value. We may even say that art can lend to an
+object a value greater than that of the material of which it consists,
+even when the object be formed of precious matter, as of rare marbles,
+scarce woods, or silver or gold.</p>
+
+<p>This being the case, it follows that the workman who can endow his
+productions with those qualities or beauties which give value to his
+works, must be more useful to his employer than the man who produces
+objects devoid of such beauty, and his time must be of higher value
+than that of his less skilful companion. If a man, who has been born
+and brought up as a "son of toil," has that laudable ambition which
+causes him to seek to rise above his fellows by fairly becoming their
+superior, I would say to him that I know of no means of his so readily
+doing so, as by his acquainting himself with the laws of beauty, and
+studying till he learns to perceive the difference between the
+beautiful and the ugly, the graceful and the deformed, the refined and
+the coarse. To perceive delicate beauties is not by any means an easy
+task to those who have not devoted themselves to the consideration of
+the beautiful for a long period of time, and of this be assured, that
+what now appears to you to be beautiful, you may shortly regard as
+less so, and what now fails to attract you, may ultimately become
+charming to your eye. In your study of the beautiful, do not be led
+away by the false judgment of ignorant persons who may suppose
+themselves possessed of good taste. It is common to assume that women
+have better taste than men, and some women seem to consider themselves
+the possessors of even authoritative taste from which there can be no
+appeal. They may be right, only we must be pardoned for not accepting
+such authority, for should there be any over-estimation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> of the
+accuracy of this good taste, serious loss of progress in art-judgment
+might result.</p>
+
+<p>It may be taken as an invariable truth that knowledge, and knowledge
+alone, can enable us to form an accurate judgment respecting the
+beauty or want of beauty of an object, and he who has the greater
+knowledge of art can judge best of the ornamental qualities of an
+object. He who would judge rightly of art-works must have knowledge.
+Let him who would judge of beauty apply himself, then, to earnest
+study, for thereby he shall have wisdom, and by his wise reasonings he
+will be led to perceive beauty, and thus have opened to him a new
+source of pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>Art-knowledge is of value to the individual and to the country at
+large. To the individual it is riches and wealth, and to the nation it
+saves impoverishment. Take, for example, clay as a natural material:
+in the hands of one man this material becomes flower-pots, worth
+eighteen-pence a "cast" (a number varying from sixty to twelve
+according to size); in the hands of another it becomes a tazza, or a
+vase, worth five pounds, or perhaps fifty. It is the art which gives
+the value, and not the material. To the nation it saves
+impoverishment.</p>
+
+<p>A wise policy induces a country to draw to itself all the wealth that
+it can, without parting with more of its natural material than is
+absolutely necessary. If for every pound of clay that a nation parts
+with, it can draw to itself that amount of gold which we value at five
+pounds sterling, it is obviously better thus to part with but little
+material and yet secure wealth, than it is to part with the material
+at a low rate either in its native condition, or worked into coarse
+vessels, thereby rendering a great impoverishment of the native
+resources of the country necessary in order to its wealth.</p>
+
+<p>Men of the lowest degree of intelligence can dig clay, iron, or
+copper, or quarry stone; but these materials, if bearing the impress
+of mind, are ennobled and rendered valuable, and the more strongly the
+material is marked with this ennobling impress the more valuable it
+becomes.</p>
+
+<p>I must qualify my last statement, for there are possible cases in
+which the impress of mind may degrade rather than exalt, and take from
+rather than enhance, the value of a material. To ennoble, the mind
+must be noble; if debased, it can only debase. Let the mind be refined
+and pure, and the more fully it impresses itself upon a material, the
+more lovely does the material become, for thereby it has received the
+impress of refinement and purity; but if the mind be debased and
+impure, the more does the matter to which its nature is transmitted
+become degraded. Let me have a simple mass of clay as a candle-holder
+rather than the earthen candlestick which only presents such a form as
+is the natural outgoing of a degraded mind.</p>
+
+<p>There is another reason why the material of which beautiful objects
+are formed should be of little intrinsic value besides that arising
+out of a consideration of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> exhaustion of the country, and this
+will lead us to see that it is desirable in all cases to form
+beautiful objects as far as possible of an inexpensive material. Clay,
+wood, iron, stone, are materials which may be fashioned into beautiful
+forms, but beware of silver, and of gold, and of precious stones. The
+most fragile material often endures for a long period of time, while
+the almost incorrosible silver and gold rarely escape the ruthless
+hand of the destroyer. "Beautiful though gold and silver are, and
+worthy, even though they were the commonest of things, to be fashioned
+into the most exquisite devices, their money value makes them a
+perilous material for works of art. How many of the choicest relics of
+antiquity are lost to us, because they tempted the thief to steal
+them, and then to hide his theft by melting them! How many unique
+designs in gold and silver have the vicissitudes of war reduced in
+fierce haste into money-changers' nuggets! Where are Benvenuto
+Cellini's vases, Lorenzo Ghiberti's cups, or the silver lamps of
+Ghirlandajo? Gone almost as completely as Aaron's golden pot of manna,
+of which, for another reason than that which kept St. Paul silent, 'we
+cannot now speak particularly.' Nor is it only because this is a world
+'where thieves break through and steal' that the fine gold becomes dim
+and the silver perishes. This, too, is a world where 'love is strong
+as death;' and what has not love&mdash;love of family, love of brother,
+love of child, love of lover&mdash;prompted man and woman to do with the
+costliest things, when they could be exchanged as mere bullion for the
+lives of those who were beloved?"<a id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Workmen! it is fortunate for us
+that the best vehicles for art are the least costly materials.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Having made these general remarks, I may explain to my readers what I
+am about to attempt in the little work which I have now commenced. My
+primary aim will be to bring about refinement of mind in all who may
+accompany me through my studies, so that they may individually be
+enabled to judge correctly of the nature of any decorated object, and
+enjoy its beauties&mdash;should it present any&mdash;and detect its faults, if
+such be present. This refinement I shall attempt to bring about by
+presenting to the mind considerations which it must digest and
+assimilate, so that its new formations, if I may thus speak, may be of
+knowledge. We shall carefully consider certain general principles,
+which are either common to all fine arts or govern the production or
+arrangement of ornamental forms: then we shall notice the laws which
+regulate the combination of colours, and the application of colours to
+objects; after which we shall review our various art-manufactures, and
+consider art as associated with the manufacturing industries. We shall
+thus be led to consider furniture, earthenware, table and window
+glass, wall decorations, carpets, floor cloths, window-hangings, dress
+fabrics, works in silver and gold, hardware, and whatever <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>is a
+combination of art and manufacture. I shall address myself, then, to
+the carpenter, the cabinet-maker, potter, glass-blower, paper-stainer,
+weaver and dyer, silversmith, blacksmith, gas-finisher, designer, and
+all who are in any way engaged in the production of art-objects.</p>
+
+<p>But before we commence our regular work, let me say that without
+laborious study no satisfactory progress can be made. Labour is the
+means whereby we raise ourselves above our fellows; labour is the
+means by which we arrive at affluence. Think not that there is a royal
+road to success&mdash;the road is through toil. Deceive not yourself with
+the idea that you were born a genius&mdash;that you were born an artist. If
+you are endowed with a love for art, remember that it is by labour
+alone that you can get such knowledge as will enable you to present
+your art-ideas in a manner acceptable to refined and educated people.
+Be content, then, to labour. In the case of an individual, success
+appears to me to depend upon the time which he devotes to the study of
+that which he desires to master. One man works six hours a day;
+another works eighteen. One has three days in one; and what is the
+natural result? Simply this&mdash;that the one who works the eighteen hours
+progresses with three times the rapidity of the one who only works six
+hours. It is true that individuals differ in mental capacity, but my
+experience has led me to believe that those who work the hardest
+almost invariably succeed the best.</p>
+
+<p>While I write, I have in my mind's eye one or two on whom Nature
+appeared to have lavishly bestowed art-gifts; yet these have made but
+little progress in life. I see, as it were, before me others who were
+less gifted by Nature, but who industriously persevered in their
+studies, and were content to labour for success; and these have
+achieved positions which the natural genius has failed even to
+approach. Workmen! I am a worker, and a believer in the efficacy of
+work.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We will commence our systematic course by observing that good
+ornament&mdash;good decorations of any character, have qualities which
+appeal to the educated, but are silent to the ignorant, and that these
+qualities make utterance of interesting facts; but before we can
+rightly understand what I may term the hidden utterance of ornament,
+we must inquire into the general revelation which the ornament of any
+particular people, or of any historic age, makes to us, and also the
+utterances of individual forms.</p>
+
+<p>As an illustration of my meaning, let us take the ornament produced by
+the Egyptians. In order to see this it may be necessary that we visit
+a museum&mdash;say the British Museum&mdash;where we search out the mummy-cases;
+but as most provincial museums boast one or more mummy-cases, we are
+almost certain to find in the leading country towns illustrations that
+will serve our present purpose. On a mummy-case you may find a
+singular ornament, which is a conventional drawing of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> the Egyptian
+lotus, or blue water-lily
+<a id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+<a href="#i019">(see Figs. 1, 2, 3)</a>, and in all
+probability you will find this ornamental device repeated over and
+over again on the one mummy-case. Notice this peculiarity of the
+drawing of the lotus&mdash;a peculiarity common to Egyptian ornaments&mdash;that
+there is a severity, a rigidity of line, a sort of sternness about it.
+This rigidity or severity of drawing is a great peculiarity or
+characteristic of Egyptian drawing. But mark! with this severity there
+is always coupled an amount of dignity, and in some cases this dignity
+is very apparent. Length of line, firmness of drawing, severity of
+form, and subtlety of curve are the great characteristics of Egyptian
+ornamentation.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i019full.jpg">
+<img id="i019" class="wrapr" src="images/i019.jpg" width="300" height="490" alt=""
+title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>What does all this express? It expresses the character of the people
+who created the ornaments. The ornaments of the ancient Egyptians were
+all ordered by the priesthood, amongst whom the learning of this
+people was stored. The priests were the dictators to the people not
+only of religion, but of the forms which their ornaments were to
+assume. Mark, then, the expression of the severity of character and
+dignified bearing of the priesthood: in the very drawing of a simple
+flower we have presented to us the character of the men who brought
+about its production. But this is only what we are in the constant
+habit of witnessing. A man of knowledge <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>writes with power and force;
+while the man of wavering opinions writes timidly and with feebleness.
+The force of the one character (which character has been made forcible
+by knowledge) and the weakness of the other is manifested by his
+written words. So it is with ornaments: power or feebleness of
+character is manifest by the forms produced.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians were a severe people; they were hard task-masters. When
+a great work had to be performed, a number of slaves were selected for
+the work, and a portion of food allotted to each, which was to last
+till the work was completed; and if the work was not finished when the
+food was consumed, the slaves perished. We do not wonder at the
+severity of Egyptian drawing. But the Egyptians were a noble
+people&mdash;noble in knowledge of the arts, noble in the erection of vast
+and massive buildings, noble in the greatness of their power. Hence we
+have nobility of drawing&mdash;power and dignity mingled with severity in
+every ornamental form which they produced.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus noticed the general utterance or expression of Egyptian
+drawing; but what specific communication does this particular lotus
+make? Most of the ornaments of the Egyptians&mdash;whether the adornments
+of sarcophagi, of water-vessels, or mere charms to be worn pendent
+from the neck&mdash;were symbols of some truth or dogma inculcated by the
+priests. Hence Egyptian ornament is said to be symbolic.</p>
+
+<p>The fertility of the Nile valley was chiefly due to the river annually
+overflowing its banks. In spreading over the land, the water carried
+with it a quantity of rich alluvial earth, which gave fecundity to the
+country on which it was deposited. When the water which had overspread
+the surrounding land had nearly subsided, the corn which was to
+produce the harvest was set by being cast upon the retiring water,
+through which it sank into the rich alluvial earth. The water being
+now well-nigh within the river-banks, the first flower that sprang up
+was the lotus. This flower was to the Egyptians the harbinger of
+coming plenty, for it symbolised the springing forth of the wheat. It
+was the first flower of spring, or their primrose (first rose). The
+priesthood, perceiving the interest with which this flower was viewed,
+and the watchfulness manifested for its appearance, taught that in it
+abode a god, and that it must be worshipped. The acknowledgment of
+this flower as a fit and primary object of worship caused it to be
+delineated on the mummy-cases, and sarcophagi, and on all sacred
+edifices.</p>
+
+<p>We shall have frequent occasion, while considering decorative art, to
+notice symbolic forms; but we must not forget the fact that all good
+ornaments make utterance. Let us in all cases, when beholding them,
+give ear to their teachings!</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian ornament is so full of forms which have interesting
+significance that I cannot forbear giving one other illustration; and
+of this I am sure, that not only does a knowledge of the intention of
+each form employed in a decorative scheme<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> cause the beholder to
+receive a special amount of pleasure when viewing it, but also that
+without such knowledge no one can rightly judge of the nature of any
+ornamental work.</p>
+
+<p>There is a device in Egyptian ornament which the most casual observer
+cannot have failed to notice; it is what is termed the "winged globe,"
+and consists of a small ball or globe, immediately at the sides of
+which are two asps, and from which extend two wings, each wing being
+in length about five to eight times that of the diameter of the ball
+(Fig. 4). The drawing of this device is very grand. The force with
+which the wings are delineated well represents the powerful character
+of the protection which the kingdom of Egypt afforded, and which was
+symbolised by the extended and overshadowing pinions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i021full.jpg">
+<img id="i021" src="images/i021.jpg" width="600" height="89" alt=""
+title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>I know of few instances where forms of an ornamental character have
+been combined in a manner either more quaint or more interesting than
+in the example before us. The composition presents a charm that few
+ornaments do, and is worthy of careful consideration. But this
+ornament derives a very special and unusual interest when we consider
+its purpose, the blow which was once aimed at it, and the shock which
+its producers must have received, upon finding it powerless to act as
+they had taught, if not believed, it would.</p>
+
+<p>The priesthood instructed the people that this was the symbol of
+protection, and that it so effectually appealed to the preserving
+spirits that no evil could enter where it was portrayed. With the view
+of giving a secure protection to the inmates of Egyptian dwellings,
+this device, or symbol of protection, was ordered to be placed on the
+lintel (the post over the door) of every building of the Egyptians,
+whether residence or temple.</p>
+
+<p>It was to nullify this symbol, and to show the vain character of the
+Egyptian gods, that Moses was commanded to have the blood of the lamb
+slain at the passover placed upon the lintel, in the very position of
+this winged globe. It was also enjoined as a further duty that the
+blood be sprinkled on the door-post; but this was merely a new duty,
+tending further to show that even in position, as well as in nature,
+this winged globe was powerless to secure protection. This device,
+then, is of special interest, both as a symbolic ornament and as
+throwing light on Scripture history.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the two ornamental forms mentioned&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, the lotus and the
+winged globe&mdash;we might notice many others also of great interest, but
+our space will not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> enable us to do so; further information may,
+however, be got from the South Kensington Museum library,<a id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> where
+several interesting works on Egyptian ornament may be seen;&mdash;from the
+"Grammar of Ornament" by Mr. Owen Jones,&mdash;the works on Egypt by Sir
+Gardiner Wilkinson; and, especially,&mdash;by a visit to the Egyptian Court
+of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, and by a careful perusal of the
+hand-book to that court.<a id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Much might also be said respecting
+Egyptian architecture, but on this we can say little here; yet, as the
+columns of the temples are of a very ornamental character, we may
+notice that in most cases they were formed of a bundle of papyrus<a id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+stems bound together by thongs or straps&mdash;the heads of the plant
+forming the capital of the column, and the stems the shaft (Fig. 5).
+In some cases the lotus was substituted for the papyrus; and in other
+instances the palm-leaf was used in a similar way; these modifications
+can be seen in the Egyptian Court at Sydenham with great advantage,
+and many varieties of form resulting from the use of the one plant, as
+of the papyrus, may also there be observed.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i022full.jpg">
+<img id="i022" class="wrap" src="images/i022.jpg" width="250" height="371" alt=""
+title="Click to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have here an opportunity of noticing how the mode of building,
+however simple or primitive in character, first employed by a nation
+may become embodied in its ultimate architecture; for, undoubtedly,
+the rude houses first erected in Egypt were formed largely of bundles
+of the papyrus, which were gathered from the river-side&mdash;for wood was
+rare in Egypt&mdash;and, ultimately, when buildings were formed of stone,
+an attempt was made at imitating in the new material the form which
+the old reeds presented. But mark, the imitation was no gross copy of
+the original work, but a well-considered and perfectly idealised work,
+substituting for the bundle of reeds a work having the true
+architectural qualities of a noble-looking and useful column. We must
+now pass from the ornament of the Egyptians to that of the Greeks, and
+here we meet with decorative forms having a different object and
+different aim from those already considered.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p><p>Egyptian ornament was symbolical in character. Its individual forms
+had specific meanings&mdash;the purport of each shape being taught by the
+priests&mdash;but we find no such thing as symbolism in Greek decoration.
+The Greeks were a refined people, who sought not to express their
+power by their art-works so much as their refinement. Before the
+mental eye they always had a perfect ideal, and their most earnest
+efforts were made at the realisation of the perfections of the mental
+conception of absolute refinement. In one respect the Greeks resembled
+the Egyptians, for they rarely created new forms. When once a form
+became sacred to the Egyptians, it could not be altered; but with the
+Greeks, while bound by no such law, the love of old forms was great;
+yet the Greeks did not seek simply to reproduce what they had before
+created, but laboured hard to improve and refine what they had before
+done; and even through succeeding centuries they worked at the
+refinement of simple forms and ornamental compositions, which have
+become characteristic of them as a people.</p>
+
+<p>The general expression of Greek art is that of refinement, and the
+manner in which the delicately cultivated taste of some of the Greeks
+is expressed by their ornaments is astonishing. One decorative device,
+which we term the Greek Anthemion, may be regarded as their principal
+ornament&mdash;(the original ornamental composition by one of my pupils,
+Fig. 6, consists primarily of three anthemions)&mdash;and the variety of
+refined forms in which it appears is most interesting.</p>
+
+<p>But it must not be thought that the Greek ornaments and architectural
+forms present nothing but refinement made manifest in form, for this
+is not the case. Great as is the refinement of some of these forms, we
+yet notice that they speak of more than the perfected taste of their
+producers, for they reveal to us this fact&mdash;that their creators had
+great knowledge of natural forces and the laws by which natural forces
+are governed. This becomes apparent in a marked degree when we inquire
+into the manner in which they arranged the proportion of the various
+parts of their works to the whole, and especially by a consideration
+of the subtle nature of the curves which they employed both in
+architectural members and in decorative forms; but into this we must
+not now inquire. Yet, by way of throwing some faint light upon the
+manner in which knowledge is embodied in Greek forms, I may refer to
+the Doric column, such as was employed in the Parthenon at Athens<a id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+(Fig. 7). The idea presented by this column is that of energetic
+upward growth which has come in contact with some superposed mass, the
+weight of which presses upon the column from above, while the energy
+of the upward growth causes the column to appear fully equal to the
+task of supporting the superincumbent structure. Mark this&mdash;that by
+pressure from above, or weight, the shaft of the column is distended,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>or bent out, about one-third of the distance from its base to its
+apex (just where this distension would occur, were the column formed
+of a slightly plastic material), and yet this distension of the shaft
+is not such as to give any idea of weakness, for the column appears to
+rise with the energy of such vigorous life as to be more than able to
+bear the weight which it has to sustain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i024full.jpg">
+<img id="i024" src="images/i024.jpg" width="600" height="664" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mark also the singularly delicate curve of the capital of the column,
+which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> appears as a slightly plastic cushion intervening between the
+shaft and the superincumbent mass which it has to support. The
+delicacy and refinement of form presented by this capital is perhaps
+greater than that of any other with which we are acquainted.</p>
+
+<p>The same principle of life and energy coming in contact with
+resistance or pressure from above is constantly met with in the
+enrichments of Greek cornices and mouldings; but having called
+attention to the fact, I must leave the student to observe, and think
+upon, these interesting subjects for himself. Let me, however, say
+that there are few classic buildings in England which will aid the
+learner in his researches; there is but little poetry in our
+architectural buildings, and but little refinement in the forms of the
+parts, especially in our classic buildings; and, added to this, Greek
+art without Greek colouring is dead, being almost as the marble statue
+to the living form. For the purposes of my readers, the Greek Court at
+the Crystal Palace will be the best example for study.</p>
+
+<p>I might now review Roman ornament, and show that in the hour of pride
+the materials of which the Roman works were formed were considered,
+rather than the shapes which they assumed; and how we thus get little
+worthy of praise from the all-conquering Romans&mdash;how the sunny climate
+and religious superstitions of the East called forth the gorgeous and
+beautiful developments of art which have existed, or still exist, with
+the Persians, Indians, Turks, Moors, Chinese, and Japanese; but I have
+not space to do so; yet all the forms of ornament which these people
+have created are worthy of the most careful and exhaustive
+consideration, as they present art-qualities of the highest kind. I
+know of no ornament more intricately beautiful and mingled than the
+Persian&mdash;no geometrical strapwork, or systems of interlacing lines, so
+rich as those of the Moors (the Alhambraic)&mdash;no fabrics so gorgeous as
+those of India&mdash;none so quaintly harmonious as those of China; and
+Japan can supply the world with the most beautiful domestic articles
+that we can anywhere procure.</p>
+
+<p>We must pass on, however, to what we may term Christian art, or that
+development of ornament which had its rise with the Christian
+religion, and has associated itself in a special manner with
+Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>Neither the Egyptians nor early Greeks appear to have used the arch
+structurally in their buildings; the Romans, however, had the round
+arch as a primary structural element. This round arch was also used by
+the Byzantines, and amongst their ornaments we find those combinations
+of circles, or parts of circles, which so constantly recur in later
+times in Gothic architecture and Gothic ornament. Norman buildings,
+again, show us the round arch, and present us with such intersected
+arcs as would naturally suggest the pointed arch of later times, with
+which came the full development of Gothic or Christian architecture
+and ornamentation. There was a very fine and marvellously clever
+development of decorative art, enthusiastically worked at by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+Christian monks of the seventh and eighth centuries, called Celtic, of
+which we have many beautiful examples in Professor Westwood's great
+work on early illuminated manuscripts; but what is generally
+understood by Christian or Gothic art had its finest development about
+the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic ornament, like the Egyptian, is essentially symbolic. Its forms
+have in many instances specific significance. Thus the common
+equilateral triangle is in some cases used to symbolise the Holy
+Trinity; so are the two entwined triangles. But there are many other
+symbols employed in Gothic ornament which set forth the mystery of the
+Unity of the Trinity. Thus in Fig. 8 we have three interlaced circles,
+which beautifully express the eternal Unity of the Holy Trinity, for
+the circle alone symbolises eternity, being without beginning and
+without end, and the three parts point to the Three Persons of the
+Godhead. A very curious and clever symbol of the Trinity is portrayed
+in Fig. 9, where three faces are so combined as to form an ornamental
+figure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i026full.jpg">
+<img id="i026" src="images/i026.jpg" width="600" height="241" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Baptism under the immediate sanction of the Divine Trinity was
+represented by three fishes placed together in the manner of a
+triangle (Fig. 10); but so numerous were Christian symbols after the
+ninth century, that to enumerate them merely would occupy much space.
+Every trefoil symbolised the Holy Trinity, every quatrefoil the four
+evangelists, every cross the Crucifixion, or the martyrdom of some
+saint. And into Gothic ornamentation the chalice, the crown of thorns,
+the dice, the sop, the hammer and nails, the flagellum, and other
+symbols of our Lord's passion have entered. But, besides these, we
+have more purely architectural forms making gentle utterance: the
+church spire points heavenwards, and the long lines of the clustered
+columns of the cathedral direct the thoughts upwards to heaven and to
+God.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic ornament, having passed from its purity towards undue
+elaboration, began to lose its hold on the people for whom it was
+created, and the form of religion<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> with which it had long been
+associated had become old, when the great overthrow of old traditions
+and usages occurred, commonly called the Reformation. With the
+reformation of religion came a revival of classic learning, and a
+general diffusion of knowledge, and thus the immediate necessity for
+art-symbols was passing away, it being especially to an unlettered
+people that an extended system of symbolism appeals. With this revival
+of classic learning came the investigation of classic remains&mdash;the
+exploration of Greek and Roman ruins; and while this was going on, a
+dislike to whatever had been associated with the old form of religion
+had sprung up, which dislike turned to hate as the struggle advanced,
+till the feeling against Gothic architecture and ornament became so
+strong that anything was preferred to it. Now arose Renaissance
+architecture and ornament (revival work), which was based on the Roman
+remains, but was yet remoulded, or formed anew; so that the ornament
+of the Renaissance is not Roman ornament, but a new decorative scheme,
+of the same genus as that of the Roman. Here, however, all my
+sympathies end. I confess that all Renaissance ornament, whether
+developed under the soft sky of Italy (Italian ornament), in more
+northerly France (French Renaissance), or on our own soil
+(Elizabethan, or English Renaissance), fails to awaken any feeling of
+sympathy in my breast; and that it, on the contrary, chills and repels
+me. I enjoy the power and vigour of Egyptian ornament, the refinement
+of the Greek, the gorgeousness of the Alhambraic, the richness of the
+Persian and Indian, the quaintness of the Chinese and Japanese, the
+simple honesty and boldness of the Gothic; but with the coarse
+Assyrian, the haughty Roman, and the cold Renaissance, I have no
+kindred feeling&mdash;no sympathy. They strike notes which have no chords
+in my nature: hence from them I instinctively fly. I must be pardoned
+for this my feeling by those who differ from me in judgment, but my
+continued studies of these styles only separate me further from them
+in feeling.</p>
+
+<p>It will be said that in my writings I mingle together ornament and
+architecture, and that my sphere is ornament, and not building. I
+cannot separate the two. The material at command, the religion of the
+people, and the climate have, to a great extent, determined the
+character of the architecture of all ages and nations; but they have,
+to the same extent, determined the nature of the ornamentation of the
+edifices raised. Ornament always has arisen out of architecture, or
+been a mere reflex of the art-principles of the building decorated. We
+cannot rightly consider ornament without architecture; but I will
+promise to take no further notice of architecture than is absolutely
+necessary to the proper understanding of our subject.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>DIVISION II.</h3>
+
+<p>In my previous remarks I have attempted to set forth some of the first
+principles of ornament, and to call attention to the purport or
+intention of certain of the leading historic styles, and the manner in
+which they make utterance to us of the faith or sentiments of their
+producers.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i028full.jpg">
+<img id="i028" class="wrap" src="images/i028.jpg" width="300" height="381" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>But there are other utterances of ornament, and other general
+expressions which decorative forms convey to the mind. Thus sharp,
+angular, or spiny forms are more or less exciting (Fig. 11); while
+bold and broad forms are soothing, or tend to give repose.</p>
+
+<p>Sharp or angular forms, where combined in ornament, act upon the
+senses much as racy and pointed sayings do. Thus "cut" or angular
+glass, spinose metal-work, as the pointed foliage of some wrought-iron
+gates, and other works in which there is a prevalence of angles and
+points, so act upon the mind as to stimulate it, and thus produce an
+effect opposite to repose; while "breadth" of form and "largeness" of
+treatment induce tranquillity and meditation.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing can be more important to the ornamentist than the scientific
+study of art. The metaphysical inquiry into cause and effect, as
+relating to decorative ideas, is very important&mdash;indeed,
+all-important&mdash;to the true decorator. He must constantly ask himself
+what effect such and such forms have upon the mind&mdash;which effects are
+soothing, which cheerful, which melancholy, which rich, which
+ethereal, which gorgeous, which solid, which graceful, which lovable,
+and so on; and in order to do this he must separate the various
+elements of ornamental composition, and consider these apart, so as to
+be sure that he is not mistaken as to what affects the mind in any
+particular manner, and he must then combine these elements in various
+proportions, and consider the effects of the various combinations on
+his own mind and that of others, and thus he will discover what will
+enable him to so act on the senses as to induce effects such as he may
+desire to produce.</p>
+
+<p>Are we to decorate a dining-room, let the decoration give the sense of
+richness;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> a drawing-room, let it give cheerfulness; a library, let it
+give worth; a bed-room, repose; but glitter must never occur in large
+quantities, for that which excites can only be sparingly indulged
+in&mdash;if too freely employed, it gives the sense of vulgarity.</p>
+
+<p>In this chapter I have to speak primarily of <i>Truth</i>, <i>Beauty</i>, and
+<i>Power</i>. Long since I was so fully impressed with the idea that true
+art-principles are so perfectly manifested by these three words, that
+I embodied them in an ornamental device which I painted on my study
+door, so that all who entered might learn the principles which I
+sought to manifest in my works.</p>
+
+<p>There can be morality or immorality in art, the utterance of truth or
+of falsehood; and by his art the ornamentist may exalt or debase a
+nation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Truth.</i>&mdash;How noble, how beautiful; how righteous to utter it; and how
+debasing is falsehood; yet we see falsehood preferred to truth&mdash;that
+which debases to that which exalts, in art as well as morals; and I
+fear that there is almost as much that is false, degrading, and untrue
+in my beautiful art as there is of the noble, righteous, and exalting,
+although art should only be practised by ennobling hands. It is this
+grovelling art, this so-called ornamentation, which tends to debase
+rather than exalt, to degrade rather than make noble, to foster a lie
+rather than utter truth, which brings about the abasement of our
+calling, and causes our art to fail in many instances in laying hold
+of, and clinging to, the affections of the noble and the great.
+Ornamentation is in the highest sense of the word a Fine Art; there is
+no art more noble, none more exalted. It can cheer the sorrowing; it
+can soothe the troubled; it can enhance the joys of those who make
+merry; it can inculcate the doctrine of truth; it can refine, elevate,
+purify, and point onward and upward to heaven and to God. It is a fine
+art, for it embodies and expresses the feelings of the soul of
+man&mdash;that inward spirit which was breathed by the Creator into the
+lifeless clay as the image of his life&mdash;however noble, pure, or holy.</p>
+
+<p>This being the case, those who ignore decoration cast aside a source
+of refinement, and deprive themselves of what may induce their
+elevation in virtue and morals. Such a neglect on the part of those
+who can afford luxuries would be highly censurable, were it not that
+the professors of the art are for the most part false pretenders,
+knowing not what they practise, and men ignorant of the power which
+they hold in their hands. The true artist is a rare creature; he is
+often unknown, frequently misunderstood, or not understood at all, and
+is not unfrequently lost to a people that prefer shallowness to deep
+meaning, falsehood to truth, and glitter to repose.</p>
+
+<p>We now see the utter folly of appealing simply to what is called
+"taste" in matters of art, and the uselessness of yielding to the
+caprice (falsely called taste) of the uneducated in such matters,
+especially as this so-called taste is often of the most vulgar and
+debased order. We also see the absurdity of persons who employ a true
+artist interfering with his judgment and ideas. The true artist is a
+noble<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> teacher; shall he be told, then, what morals he shall
+inculcate, and what lofty truths he shall embody in his works, or omit
+from them? Do we tell the preacher what he shall say, and ask him to
+withhold whatever is refining and elevating? We do not, and in art we
+must leave the professors free to teach, and hold them responsible for
+their teachings.</p>
+
+<p>If I thought that I had now convinced my reader that decorative art
+does not consist merely in the placing together of forms, however
+beautiful they may be individually or collectively; nor in rendering
+objects simply what is called pretty; but that it is a power for good
+or evil; that it is what will elevate or debase&mdash;that which cannot be
+neutral in its tendency&mdash;I would advance to consider its principles;
+but I cannot teach, nor can I be understood, unless the reader <i>feels</i>
+that he who practises art wields a vast power, for the rightful use of
+which he must be held responsible.</p>
+
+<p>All graining of wood is false, inasmuch as it attempts to deceive; the
+effort being made at causing one material to look like another which
+it is not. All "marbling" is false also: a floor-cloth made in
+imitation of carpet or matting is false; a Brussels carpet that
+imitates a Turkey carpet is false; so is a jug that imitates
+wicker-work, a printed fabric that imitates one which is woven, a
+gas-lamp that imitates an oil-lamp. These are all untruths in
+expression, and are, besides, vulgar absurdities which are the more
+lamentable, as the imitation is always less beautiful than the thing
+imitated; and as each material has the power of expressing beauty
+truthfully, thus the want of truth brings its own punishment. A deal
+door is beautiful, but it will not keep clean; let it then be
+varnished. It is now preserved, and its own characteristic features
+are enhanced by the varnish, so that its individuality is emphasised,
+and no untruth told. A floor-cloth can present a pattern with true and
+beautiful curves&mdash;how absurd, then, to try and imitate the dotty
+effect of a carpet; and the Brussels carpet can express truer curves
+than the Turkey carpet, then why imitate the latter in the finer
+material? But perhaps the most senseless of all these absurdities is
+the making an earthen jug in imitation of wicker-work when if so
+formed it would be useless as a water-vessel. I can imagine a fool in
+his simplicity priding himself on such a bright thought as the
+production of a vessel of this kind, but I cannot imagine any rightly
+constituted mind producing or commending such an idea. Let the
+expression of our art ever be truthful.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beauty.</i>&mdash;I will say little on this head, for decorative forms must
+be beautiful. Shapes which are not beautiful are rarely decorative. I
+will not now attempt to express what character forms should have in
+order that they be considered beautiful, but will content myself by
+saying that they must be truthful in expression, and graceful,
+delicate, and refined in contour, manifesting no coarseness,
+vulgarity, or obtrusiveness. My views of the beautiful must be
+gathered from the series of chapters which will follow, but this I may
+here say, that the beautiful manifests<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> no want, no shortcoming. A
+composition that is beautiful must have no parts which could be taken
+from it and yet leave the remainder equally good or better. The
+perfectly beautiful is that which admits of no improvement. The
+beautiful is lovable, and, as that which is lovable, takes hold of the
+affections and clings to them, binding itself firmer and firmer to
+them as time rolls on. If an object is really beautiful we do not tire
+of it; fashion does not induce us to change it; the merely new does
+not displace it. It becomes as an old friend, more loved as its good
+qualities are better understood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Power.</i>&mdash;We now come to consider an art-element or principle of great
+importance, for if absent from any composition, feebleness or weakness
+is the result, the manifestation of which is not pleasant. With what
+power do the plants burst from the earth in spring! With what power do
+the buds develop into branches! The powerful orator is a man to be
+admired, the powerful thinker a man we esteem. Even the simple power,
+or brute force, of animals we involuntarily approve&mdash;the powerful
+tiger and the powerful horse call forth our commendation, for power is
+antagonistic to weakness. Power also manifests earnestness; power
+means energy; power implies a conqueror. Our compositions, then, must
+be powerful.</p>
+
+<p>But besides all this, we, the professors of decorative art, must
+manifest power in our works, for we are teachers sent forth to
+instruct, and ennoble, and elevate our fellow-creatures. We shall not
+be believed if we do not utter our truths with power; let truth, then,
+be uttered with power, and in the form of beauty.<a id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>There are other principles governing the production and application of
+ornament which we must now notice, the first of which is <i>utility</i>,
+for the first aim of the designer of any article must be to render the
+object which he produces useful. I may go further, and say that an
+article must be made not only useful, but as perfectly suited to the
+purpose for which it is intended as it can be. It matters not how
+beautiful the object is intended to be, it must first be formed as
+though it were a mere work of utility, and after it has been carefully
+created with this end in view it may then be rendered as beautiful as
+you please.</p>
+
+<p>There are special reasons why our works should be useful as well as
+beautiful, for if an object, however beautiful it may be in shape,
+however richly covered with beautiful ornaments, or however
+harmoniously coloured, be unpleasant to use, it will <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">[18]</a><br /><a id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>ultimately be
+set aside, and that which is more convenient for use will replace it,
+even if the latter be without beauty. As an illustration of this fact,
+let us suppose the balustrade railings of a staircase very beautiful,
+and yet furnished with such projections as render it almost impossible
+that we walk up or down the stairs without tearing the dress, or
+injuring the person, and how soon will our admiration of the beautiful
+railing disappear, and even be replaced by hate! In like manner let
+the handle of a door, or the head of a poker, be so formed as to hurt
+the hand, and the simple round knob, or round head, will be preferred
+to it, however ornamentally or beautifully formed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i032full.jpg">
+<img id="i032" src="images/i032.jpg" width="562" height="878" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>In relation to this subject, Professor George Wilson has said: "The
+conviction seems ineradicable from some minds, that a beautiful thing
+cannot be a useful thing, and that the more you increase the beauty of
+the necessary furniture or the implements of every-day life the more
+you lessen their utility. Make the Queen's sceptre as beautiful as you
+please, but don't try to beautify a poker, especially in cold weather.
+My lady's vinaigrette carve and gild as you will, but leave untouched
+my pewter ink-bottle. Put fine furniture, if you choose, into my
+drawing-room; but I am a plain man, and like useful things in my
+parlour, and so on. Good folks of this sort seem to labour under the
+impression that the secret desire of art is to rob them of all
+comfort. Its unconfessed but actual aim, they believe, is to realise
+the faith of their childhood, when it was understood that a monarch
+always wore his crown, held an orb in one hand and a sceptre in the
+other, and a literal interpretation was put upon Shakespeare's words,</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="in2">'Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.'</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Were art to prosper, farewell to fire-proof, shapeless slippers, which
+bask like salamanders unharmed in the hottest blaze. An &aelig;sthetic pair,
+modelled upon Cinderella's foot, and covered with snow-white
+embroidery, must take their place, and dispense chilblains and
+frost-bite to miserable toes. Farewell to shooting-coats out a little
+at the elbows, to patched dressing-gowns, and hair-cloth sofas.
+Nothing but full-dress, varnished boots, spider-legged chairs, white
+satin chair-covers, alabaster ink-bottles, velvet door-mats, and
+scrapers of silver or gold. It is astonishing how many people think
+that a thing cannot be comfortable if it is beautiful. . . . If there
+be one truth which the Author of all has taught us in his works more
+clearly than another, it is the perfect compatibility of the highest
+utility with the greatest beauty. I offer you one example. All are
+familiar with the beautiful shell of the nautilus. Give the nautilus
+itself to a mathematician, and he will show you that one secret of its
+gracefulness lies in its following in its volute or whorl a particular
+geometrical curve with rigid precision. Pass it from the mathematician
+to the natural philosopher, and he will show you how the simple
+superposition of a great number of very thin transparent plates, and
+the close<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> approximation of a multitude of very fine engraved lines,
+are the cause of its exquisite pearly lustre. Pass it from the natural
+philosopher to the engineer, and he will show you that this fairy
+shell is a most perfect practical machine, at once a sailing vessel
+and a diving-bell, in which its living possessor had, centuries before
+Archimedes, applied to utilitarian ends the law of specific gravity,
+and centuries before Halley had dived in his bell to the bottom of the
+sea. Pass it from the engineer to the anatomist, and he will show you
+how, without marring its beauty, it is occupied during its lifetime
+with a most orderly system of rowing and sailing tackle, chambers for
+food, pumps to keep blood circulating, ventilating apparatus, and
+hands to control all, so that it is a model ship with a model mariner
+on board. Pass it lastly from the anatomist to the chemist, and he
+will show you that every part of the shell and the creature is
+compounded of elements, the relative weights of which follow in each
+individual nautilus the same numerically identical ratio.</p>
+
+<p>"Such is the nautilus, a thing so graceful, that when we look at it we
+are content to say with Keats&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="in2">'A thing of beauty is a joy for ever;'</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>and yet a thing so thoroughly utilitarian, and fulfilling with the
+utmost perfection the purely practical aim of its construction, that
+our shipbuilders would be only too thankful if, though sacrificing all
+beauty, they could make their vessels fulfil their business ends half
+so well."</p>
+
+<p>Viewing our subject in another light, and with special reference to
+architecture, we notice that unless a building is fitted for the
+purpose intended, or, in other words, answers utilitarian ends, it
+cannot be esteemed as it otherwise might be, even though it be of
+great &aelig;sthetic beauty. In respect to this subject, Mr. Owen Jones has
+said: "The nave and aisles of a Gothic church become absurd when
+filled with pews for Protestant worship, where all are required to see
+and hear. The columns of the nave which impede sight and sound, the
+aisles for processions which no longer exist, rood screens, and deep
+chancels for the concealment of mysteries, now no longer such, are all
+so many useless reproductions which must be thrown aside." Further,
+"As architecture, so all works of the decorative arts, <i>should possess
+fitness</i>, proportion, harmony; the result of all which is repose." Sir
+M. Digby Wyatt has said: "Infinite variety and unerring fitness govern
+all forms in Nature." Vitruvius, that "The perfection of all works
+depends on their fitness to answer the end proposed, and on principles
+resulting from a consideration of Nature itself." Sir Charles L.
+Eastlake, that "In every case in Nature where fitness or utility can
+be traced, the characteristic quality, or <i>relative</i> beauty, is found
+to be identical with that of fitness." A. W. Pugin (the father): "How
+many objects of ordinary use are rendered monstrous and ridiculous
+simply because the artist, instead of seeking the most convenient
+form, and then decorating it, has embodied some extravagance to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+conceal the real purpose for which the article has been made." And
+with the view of pointing out how fitness for, or adaptation to, the
+end proposed is manifested in the structure and disposition upon the
+earth of plants, I have written in a little work now out of print:
+"The trees which grow highest upon the mountains, and the plants which
+grow upon the unsheltered plain, have usually long, narrow, and rigid
+leaves, which, owing to their form, are enabled to bear the fury of
+the tempest, to which they are exposed, without injury. This is seen
+in the ease of the species of fir which grow at great altitudes, where
+the leaves are more like needles than leaves such as commonly occur;
+and also in the species of heath which grow upon exposed moors: in
+both cases the plants are, owing to the form of the leaf, enabled to
+defy the blast, while those with broad leaves would be shattered and
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>"Not only is the form of leaf such as fits these plants to dwell in
+such inhospitable regions, but other circumstances also tend to this
+result. The stems are in both cases woody and flexible, so that while
+they bend to the wind they resist its destroying influence by their
+strength and elasticity. In relation to the stem of the papyrus,"
+which is a plant constantly met with in Egyptian ornaments, "the late
+Sir W. J. Hooker mentions an interesting fact which manifests
+adaptation to its position. This plant grows in water, and attaches
+itself to the margins of rivers and streams, by sending forth roots
+and evolving long underground stems in the alluvium of the sides of
+the waters. Owing to its position it is exposed to the influences of
+the current, which it has to withstand, and this it does, not only by
+having its stems of a triangular form&mdash;a shape well adapted for
+withstanding pressure&mdash;but also by having them so placed in relation
+to the direction of the stream, that one angle always meets the
+current, and thus separates the waters as does the bow of a modern
+steam-ship."</p>
+
+<p>I might multiply illustrations of this principle of <i>fitness</i>, or
+<i>adaptation to purpose</i>, as manifested in plants, to an almost
+indefinite extent; but when all had been said we should yet have but
+the simple truth before us, that the chief end which we should have in
+creating any object, is that of rendering it perfectly fitted to
+answer the proposed end. If those works which are beautiful were but
+invariably useful, as they should be; if those objects which are most
+beautiful were also the most convenient&mdash;and there is no reason why
+they should not be so&mdash;how the beautiful would become loved and sought
+after! Cost would be of little moment, the price would not be
+complained of, if beautiful objects were works of perfect utility.
+But, alas! it is far otherwise: that which is useful is often ugly,
+and that which is beautiful is often inconvenient to use. This very
+fact has given rise to the highly absurd fashion of having a second
+poker in a drawing-room set of fire-irons. The one poker is
+ornamental, possibly, but it is to be looked at; the other is for use,
+and as it is not to be looked at, it is hidden away in some corner, or
+close within the fender. I do not wonder at the second poker being
+required; for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> nineteen out of every twenty pokers of an ornamental
+(?) character which I have seen during the last few years would hurt
+the hand so insufferably if they were used to break a lump of coal
+with, that it would be almost impossible to employ them constantly for
+such a purpose. But why not abolish the detestable thing altogether?
+If the poker is to be retained as an ornament, place it on the table
+or chimney-piece of your drawing-room, and not down on the hearth,
+where it is at such a distance from the eye that its beauties cannot
+be discovered. It is no use saying it would be out of place in such a
+position. If to poke the fire with, its place is within the fender; if
+it is an ornament, it should be placed where it can be best seen&mdash;in a
+glass case, if worthy of protection.</p>
+
+<p>I hope that sufficient has now been said upon this all-important
+necessity, that, if an object is to be beautiful it should also be
+useful, to cause us to consider it as a primary principle of design
+that all objects which we create <i>must</i> be useful. To this as a first
+law we shall constantly have to refer. When we construct a chair we
+shall ask, is it useful? is it strong? is it properly put together?
+could it be stronger without using more, or another, material? and
+then we should consider whether it is beautiful. When we design a
+bottle we shall inquire, is it useful? is it all that a bottle should
+be? could it be more useful? and then, is it beautiful? When we create
+a gas-branch we shall ask, does it fulfil all requirements, and
+perfectly answer the end for which it is intended? and then, is it
+beautiful? And in relation to patterns merely we shall also have to
+make similar inquiries. Thus, if drawing a carpet design, we shall
+inquire, is this form of ornament suitable to a woven fabric? is it
+suitable to the particular fabric for which it is intended? is the
+particular treatment of the ornament which we have adopted the best
+possible when we bear in mind that the carpet has to be walked over,
+as it is to act in relation to our furniture as a background does to a
+picture, and is to be viewed at some distance from the eye? and then,
+is it beautiful? Such inquiries we shall put respecting any object the
+formation of which we may suggest: hence, in all our inquiries, I
+shall, as I love art, consider utility before beauty, in order that my
+art may be fostered and not despised.</p>
+
+<p>There are many subjects yet not named in these pages which we ought to
+consider, but I must content myself by merely mentioning them, and you
+must be willing to think of them, and consider them with such care as
+their importance may demand. Some of them, however, we shall refer to
+when considering the various manufactures.</p>
+
+<p>A principle of great importance in respect to design is, that <i>the
+material of which an object is formed should be used in a manner
+consistent with its own nature, and in that particular way in which it
+can be most easily "worked."</i></p>
+
+<p>Another principle of equal importance with that just set forth, is
+this: that <i>when an object is about to be formed, that material (or
+those materials) which is (or are) most appropriate to its formation
+should be sought and employed</i>. These two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> propositions are of very
+great importance, and the principles which they set forth should never
+be lost sight of by the designer. They involve the first principles of
+successful designing, for if ignored the work produced cannot be
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><i>Curves will be found to be beautiful just as they are subtle in
+character; those which are most subtle in character being most
+beautiful.</i></p>
+
+<p>The arc is the least beautiful of curves (I do not here speak of a
+circle, but of the line, as a line, which bounds the circle); being
+struck from one centre its origin is instantly detected, while the
+mind requires that a line, the contemplation of which shall be
+pleasurable, must be in advance of its knowledge, and call into
+activity its powers of inquiry. The elliptic curve, or curve bounding
+the ellipse, is more beautiful than the arc, for its origin is not so
+strikingly apparent, being formed from two centres. The curve of the
+egg is more beautiful still, being formed from three centres.<a id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> As
+the number of centres necessary to the formation of a curve increases,
+the difficulty of detecting its origin also becomes greater, and the
+variety which the curve presents is also proportionally great; the
+variety being obviously greater as the number of the centres from
+which it is struck is increased.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proportion, like the curve, must be of a subtle nature.</i></p>
+
+<p>A surface must never be divided for the purpose of decoration into
+halves. The proportion of 1 to 1 is bad. As proportion increases in
+subtlety it also increases in beauty. The proportion of 2 to 1 is
+little better; the proportion of 3 to 8, or of 5 to 8, or of 5 to 13,
+is, however, good, the last named being the best of those which I have
+adduced; for the pleasure derived from the contemplation of proportion
+increases with the difficulty of detecting it. This principle is true
+in relation to the division of a mass into primary segments, and of
+primary segments into secondary forms, as well as in relation to the
+grouping together of parts of various sizes; hence it is worthy of
+special note.</p>
+
+<p><i>A principle of order must prevail in every ornamental composition.</i></p>
+
+<p>Confusion is the result of accident, while order results from thought
+and care. The operation of mind cannot well be set forth in the
+absence of this principle; at least, the presence of a principle of
+order renders the operation of mind at once manifest.</p>
+
+<p><i>The orderly repetition of parts frequently aids in the production of
+ornamental effects.</i></p>
+
+<p>The kaleidoscope affords a wonderful example of what repetition will
+do. The mere fragments of glass which we view in this instrument would
+altogether fail to please were they not repeated with regularity. Of
+themselves repetition and order can do much. (Figs. 13 and 14.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p><p><i>Alternation is a principle of primary importance in certain
+ornamental compositions.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the case of a flower (as the buttercup, or chickweed, for example)
+the coloured leaves do not fall over the green leaves (the petals do
+not fall over the sepals), but between them&mdash;they alternate with them.
+This principle is not only manifested in plants, but also in many
+ornaments produced in the best periods of art (Fig. 15).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i038full.jpg">
+<img id="i038" src="images/i038.jpg" width="600" height="545" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>If plants are employed as ornaments they must not be treated
+imitatively, but must be conventionally treated, or rendered into
+ornaments</i> (Fig. 16).</p>
+
+<p>A monkey can imitate, man can create.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These are the chief principles which we shall have to notice, as
+involved in the production of ornamental designs.</p>
+
+<h3>DIVISION III.</h3>
+
+<p>Some other principles of a less noble character than those which we
+have already noticed as entering into ornament yet remain to be
+mentioned. Man will be amused as well as instructed; he must be
+pleased as well as ennobled by what he sees. I hold it as a first
+principle that ornamentation, as a true fine art, can administer to
+man in all his varying moods, and under all phases of feeling.
+Decoration, if properly understood, would at once be seen to be a high
+art in the truest sense of the word, as it can teach, elevate, refine,
+induce lofty aspirations, and allay sorrows; but we have now to notice
+it as a fine art, administering to man in his various moods, rather
+than as the handmaid to religion or morals.</p>
+
+<p>Humour seems to be as much an attribute of our nature as love, and,
+like it, varies in intensity with different individuals. There are few
+in whom there is not a certain amount of humour, and in some this one
+quality predominates over all others. It not unfrequently happens that
+men who are great thinkers are also great humorists&mdash;great talent and
+great humour being often combined in the one individual.</p>
+
+<p>The feeling for humour is ministered to in ornament by the grotesque,
+and the grotesque occurs in the works of almost all ages and all
+peoples. The ancient Egyptians employed it, so did the Assyrians, the
+Greeks, and the Romans; but none of these nations used it to the
+extent of the artists of the Celtic, Byzantine, and "Gothic" periods.
+Hideous "evil spirits" were portrayed on the outside of almost every
+Christian edifice at one time, and much of the Celtic ornament
+produced by the early monks consisted of an anastomosis, or network,
+of grotesque creatures.</p>
+
+<p>The old Irish crosses were enriched with this kind of
+ornamentation,<a id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> and some of the decorative embellishments of these
+works are of extraordinary interest; but those who have access to the
+beautiful work of Professor Westwood on Celtic manuscripts will there
+see this grotesque form of ornament to perfection. As regards the
+Eastern nations, while nearly all have employed the grotesque as an
+element of decorative art, the Chinese and Japanese have employed it
+most largely, and for it they manifest a most decided partiality. The
+drawings of dragons, celestial lions (always spotted), mythical birds,
+beasts, fishes, insects, and other supposed inhabitants of the Elysian
+plains, which these people produce, are most interesting and
+extraordinary.</p>
+
+<p>Without in any way going into a history of the grotesque, let us look
+at the characteristic forms which it has assumed, and what is
+necessary to its successful <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>production. We have said that the
+grotesque in ornament is the analogue of humour in literature. This is
+the case; but the grotesque may represent the truly horrible or
+repellent, and be simply repulsive. This form is so seldom required in
+ornamentation that I shall not dwell upon it, and when required it
+should always be associated with power; for if the horrible is feeble
+it cannot be corrective, but only revolting, like a miserable deformed
+animal.</p>
+
+<p>I think it may be taken as a principle, that the further the grotesque
+is removed from an imitation of a natural object the better it is,
+provided that it be energetic and vigorous&mdash;lifelike. Nothing is worse
+than a feeble joke, unless it be a feeble grotesque. The amusing must
+appear to be earnest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i040full.jpg">
+<img id="i040" src="images/i040.jpg" width="600" height="543" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>In connection with this subject I give here a series of grotesques,
+with the view of illustrating my meaning, and I would fain give more,
+but space will not permit me to do so.</p>
+
+<p>The initial letter S, formed of a bird, is a characteristic Celtic
+grotesque (Fig. 17). It is quaint and interesting, and is sufficiently
+unlike a living creature to avoid giving any sense of pain to the
+beholder, while it is yet in a most unnatural position. It is, in
+truth, rather an ornament than a copy of a living creature, yet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> it is
+so suggestive as to call forth the thought of a bird. It should be
+noticed, in connection with this figure, that the interstices between
+certain portions of the creature are filled by a knot. This is
+well&mdash;the whole thing; being an ornament, and not a naturalistic
+representation.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 18 is a Siamese grotesque head, and a fine sample it is of the
+curious form of ornament which it represents. Mark, it is in no way a
+copy of a human head, but is a true ornament, with its parts so
+arranged as to call up the idea of a face, and nothing more. Notice
+the volutes forming the chin; the grotesque, yet highly ornamental,
+lines forming the mouth and the upper boundary of the forehead, and
+the flambeauant ears; the whole thing is worthy of the most careful
+study.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i041full.jpg">
+<img id="i041" src="images/i041.jpg" width="400" height="725" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 19 is a Gothic foliated face; but here we have features which are
+much too naturalistic. We have, indeed, only a hideous human face with
+a marginal excrescence of leafage. This is a type to be avoided; it is
+not droll, nor quaint; but is simply unpleasant to look upon.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 20 is a fish, with the feeling of the grotesques of the Middle
+Ages. It is a good type, being truly ornamental, and yet sufficiently
+suggestive.</p>
+
+<p>In order that I convey to the reader a fuller idea of my views
+respecting the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> grotesque than I otherwise could, I have sketched one
+or two original illustrations&mdash;Fig. 21 being suggestive of a face,
+Fig. 22 of a skeleton (old bogey), and Fig. 23 of an impossible
+animal. They are intentionally far from imitative. If naturalistic
+some would awaken a sense of pain, as they are contorted into curious
+positions, whereas that which induces no thought of feeling induces no
+sense of pain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i042full.jpg">
+<img id="i042" src="images/i042.jpg" width="606" height="490" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of all grotesques with which I am acquainted, the dragons of the
+Chinese and Japanese are those which represent a combination of power,
+vigour, energy, and passion most fully. This is to be accounted for by
+the fact that these peoples are believers in dragons. When the sun or
+moon is eclipsed they believe that the luminous orb has been swallowed
+by some fierce monster, which they give form to in the dragon, and
+upon the occurrence of such a phenomenon they, with cans and kettles,
+make rough music, and thus cause the monster to disgorge the luminary,
+the brilliancy of which it would otherwise have for ever extinguished.
+I can understand a believer in dragons drawing these monsters with the
+power and spirit that the Chinese and Japanese do; but I can scarcely
+imagine that a disbeliever could do so&mdash;a man's very nature must be
+saturated with a belief in their existence and mischievous power, in
+order that he embody in his delineation such expression<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> of the
+assumed character of this imaginary creature as do the Chinese and
+Japanese.</p>
+
+<p>Although I am not now considering the structure of objects, I may say
+that the grotesque should frequently be used where we meet with
+naturalistic imitations. We not unfrequently see a figure, naturally
+imitated, placed as a support to a superincumbent weight&mdash;a female
+figure as an architectural pillar bearing the weight of the
+entablature above, men crouched in the most painful positions
+supporting the bowl of some colossal fountain. Naturalistic figures in
+such positions are simply revolting, however perfect as works of
+sculpture. If weight has to be supported by that which has a
+resemblance to a living creature of any kind, the semblance should
+only be suggested; and the more unreal and woodeny (if I may make such
+a word) the support, if possessing the quaintness and humour of a true
+grotesque, the better.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i043full.jpg">
+<img id="i043" src="images/i043.jpg" width="500" height="274" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not the business of the ornamentist to produce that which shall
+induce the feeling of continued pain, unless there is some exceptional
+reason for his so doing, and such a reason is of rare occurrence.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> From a lecture by the late Professor George Wilson, of
+Edinburgh.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> This can be seen growing in the water-tanks in the Kew
+Gardens conservatories, and in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Any person can have admission to the South Kensington
+Museum Art library and its Educational library, for a week, by payment
+of sixpence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> A hand-book to each of the historic courts erected in the
+Sydenham Palace was prepared at the time the courts were built. These
+are still to be got in the Literary department, in the north-east
+gallery of the building. They are all worthy of careful study.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The papyrus was the plant from which Egyptian paper was
+made. It was also the bulrush of the Scriptures, in which the infant
+Moses was found.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> A capital, and portion of the shaft, of one of these
+columns are to be seen in the British Museum Sculpture room, and a
+cast of the same at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. This Doric column is
+employed in the Greek Court of the Crystal Palace.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> I have given in this chapter an original sketch (Fig.
+12), in which I have sought to embody chiefly the one idea of power,
+energy, force, or vigour; and in order to do this, I have employed
+such lines as we see in the bursting buds of spring, when the energy
+of growth is at its maximum, and especially such as are to be seen in
+the spring growth of a luxuriant tropical vegetation; I have also
+availed myself of those forms to be seen in certain bones of birds
+which are associated with the organs of flight, and which give us an
+impression of great strength, as well as those observable in the
+powerful propelling fins of certain species of fish.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The ellipse and egg-shape here spoken of are not those
+which are struck by compasses in any way, for the curves of such
+figures are merely combined arcs, but such as are struck with string,
+or a "tramel."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Casts of one or two of these can be seen in the central
+transept of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>COLOUR.</h3>
+
+<p>Having considered some of the chief principles involved in the
+production of decorative design so far as "expression" goes, we come
+to notice that constant adjunct of form which has ever played an
+important part in all decorative schemes&mdash;namely, colour.</p>
+
+<p>Form can exist independently of colour, but it never has had any
+important development without the chromatic adjunct. From a
+consideration of history, we should be led to conclude that form alone
+is incapable of yielding such enrichments as satisfy; for no national
+system of decoration has ever existed in the absence of colour. Mere
+outline-form may be good, but it is not satisfying; mere light and
+shade may be pleasing, but it is not all that we require. With form
+our very nature seems to demand colour; and it is only when we get
+well-proportioned forms which are graceful, or noble, or vigorous, in
+combination with colours harmoniously arranged, that we are satisfied.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly this feeling results from our contact with nature. The
+flowers appear in a thousand hues, and the hills are of ever-varying
+tints. What a barren world ours would appear, were the ground, the
+hills, the trees and the flowers, the sky and the waters all of one
+colour! Form we should have, and that in its richest variety; light
+and shade we should have, with ever-varying intensity and change; but
+colour would be gone. There would be no green to cheer, no blue to
+soothe, no red to excite; and, indeed, there would be a deadness,
+although the world be full of life, so appalling that we can scarcely
+conceive of it, and cannot <i>feel</i> it.</p>
+
+<p>Colour alone seems to have greater charms than form alone. A sunset is
+entrancing when the sky glows with radiant hues; the blue is almost
+lost in red, the yellow is as a sea of transparent gold, and the whole
+presents a variety and blending of tints which charm, and soothe, and
+lull to reverie; and yet all form is indistinct and obscure. If so
+charming when separate from form, what is colour when properly
+combined with beautiful shapes? It is difficult, indeed, for many of
+those for whom I write to answer this question, even by a mental
+conception, save by reference to nature; for I could scarcely point to
+a single building in England which would be in any way a satisfactory
+illustration of what may be done by the combination of forms and
+colours. There is a beauty in Art which we in England do not even know
+of: it does not exist around us, it is little talked of, rarely
+thought about, and never seen. A decorator is called in to beautify a
+house, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> yet not one in fifty of the so-called decorators know even
+the first principles of their art, and would not believe were they
+told of the power of the art which they employ. They place on the
+walls a few sickly tints&mdash;so pale that their want of harmony is not
+very apparent. The colours of the wall become the colours of the
+cornice and of the doors, because they know not how to produce a
+harmony of hues; and the result is a house which may be clean, but
+which is in every other respect an offence against good taste. I do
+not wonder that persons here in England do not care to have their
+houses "decorated," nor do I wonder at their not appreciating the
+"decorations" when they are done. Colour, lovely colour, of itself
+would make our rooms charming.</p>
+
+<p>There are few objects to which colour may not be applied, and many
+articles which are now colourless might be coloured with advantage.
+Our reasons for applying colour to objects are twofold, and here, in
+fact, we see its true use. 1st. Colour lends to objects a new charm&mdash;a
+charm which they would not possess if without it; and, 2nd, Colour
+assists in the separation of objects and parts of objects, and thus
+gives assistance to form. These, then, are the two objects of colour.
+Mark, first, it is to bestow on objects a charm, such as they could
+not have in its absence. In the hands of the man of knowledge it will
+do so&mdash;it will make an object lovely or lovable, but the mere
+application of colour will not do this. Colour may be so applied to
+objects as to render them infinitely more ugly than they were without
+it. I have seen many a bowl so coloured at our potteries as to be much
+less satisfactory when coloured than when white&mdash;the colouring having
+marred, rather than improved, its general effect. Here, again, it is
+knowledge that we want. Knowledge will enable us to transmute base
+materials into works of marvellous beauty, worth their weight in gold.
+Knowledge, then, is the true philosopher's stone; for, we may almost
+say, if possessed by the artist it does enable him to transmute the
+baser metals into gold. But a little knowledge will not do this. In
+order that we produce true beauty, we require much knowledge, and this
+can only be got by constant and diligent labour, as I have before
+said; but the end to be gained is worth the plodding toil. Believe me,
+there is a pleasure in seeing your works develop as things of beauty,
+delighting all who see them&mdash;not the illiterate only, but also the
+educated thinker&mdash;such as words fail to express. Although there is no
+royal road to art-power, and although the road is long, and lies
+through much toil and many difficulties, yet as you proceed there is
+pleasure in feeling that one obstacle after another is cleared from
+your path, and at the end there is inexpressible satisfaction. The
+second object of colour is that of assisting in the separation of
+form. If objects are placed near to one another, and these objects are
+all of the same colour, the beholder will have much more difficulty in
+seeing the boundaries or terminations of each than he would were they
+variously coloured; he would have to come nearer to them in order to
+see the limits of each, were all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> coloured in the same manner, than he
+would were they variously coloured; thus colour assists in the
+separation of form. This quality which colour has of separating forms
+is often lost sight of, and much confusion thereby results. If it is
+worth while to produce a decorative form, it is worth while to render
+it visible; and yet, how much ornament, and even good ornament, is
+lost to the eye through not being rendered manifest by colour! Colour
+is the means by which we render form apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Colours, when placed together, can only please and satisfy the
+educated when combined harmoniously, or according to the laws of
+harmony. What, then, are the laws which govern the arrangement of
+colours? and how are they to be applied? We shall endeavour to answer
+these questions by making a series of statements in axiomatic form,
+and then we shall enlarge upon these propositions.</p>
+
+<h3>GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>1. Regarded from an art point of view, there are but three
+colours&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, blue, red, and yellow.</p>
+
+<p>2. Blue, red, and yellow have been termed <i>primary</i> colours; they
+cannot be formed by the admixture of any other colours.</p>
+
+<p>3. All colours, other than blue, red, and yellow, result from the
+admixture of the primary colours.</p>
+
+<p>4. By the admixture of blue and red, purple is formed; by the
+admixture of red and yellow, orange is formed; and by the admixture of
+yellow and blue, green is formed.</p>
+
+<p>5. Colours resulting from the admixture of two primary colours are
+termed <i>secondary</i>: hence purple, orange, and green are secondary
+colours.</p>
+
+<p>6. By the admixture of two secondary colours a <i>tertiary</i> colour is
+formed: thus, purple and orange produce russet (the red tertiary);
+orange and green produce citrine (the yellow tertiary); and green and
+purple, olive (the blue tertiary); russet, citrine, and olive are the
+three tertiary colours.</p>
+
+<h3>CONTRAST.</h3>
+
+<p>7. When a light colour is juxtaposed to a dark colour, the light
+colour appears lighter than it is, and the dark colour darker.<a id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p id="prop8">8. When colours are juxtaposed, they become influenced as to their
+hue. Thus, when red and green are placed side by side, the red appears
+redder than it actually is, and the green greener; and when blue and
+black are juxtaposed, the blue manifests but little alteration, while
+the black assumes an orange tint or becomes "rusty."</p>
+
+<p>9. No one colour can be viewed by the eye without another being
+created. Thus, if red is viewed, the eye creates for itself green, and
+this green is cast upon <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>whatever is near. If it views green, red is
+in like manner created and cast upon adjacent objects; thus, if red
+and green are juxtaposed, each creates the other in the eye, and the
+red created by the green is cast upon the red, and the green created
+by the red is cast upon the green; and the red and the green become
+improved by being juxtaposed. The eye also demands the presence of the
+three primary colours, either in their purity or in combination and if
+these are not present, whatever is deficient will be created in the
+eye, and this induced colour will be cast upon whatever is near. Thus,
+when we view blue, orange, which is a mixture of red and yellow, is
+created in the eye, and this colour is cast upon whatever is near; if
+black is in juxtaposition with the blue, this orange is cast upon it,
+and gives to it an orange tint, thus causing it to look "rusty."</p>
+
+<p>10. In like manner, if we look upon red, green is formed in the eye,
+and is cast upon adjacent colours; or, if we look upon yellow, purple
+is formed.</p>
+
+<h3>HARMONY.</h3>
+
+<p>11. Harmony results from an agreeable contrast.</p>
+
+<p>12. Colours which perfectly harmonise improve one another to the
+utmost.</p>
+
+<p>13. In order to perfect harmony, the three colours are necessary,
+either in their purity or in combination.</p>
+
+<p>14. Red and green combine to yield a harmony. Red is a primary colour,
+and green, which is a secondary colour, consists of blue and
+yellow&mdash;the other two primary colours. Blue and orange also produce a
+harmony, and yellow and purple, for in each ease the three primary
+colours are present.</p>
+
+<p>15. It has been found that the primary colours in perfect purity
+produce exact harmonies in the proportions of eight parts of blue, 5
+of red, and 3 of yellow; that the secondary colours harmonise in the
+proportions of 13 of purple, 11 of green, and 8 of orange; and that
+the tertiary colours harmonise in the proportions of olive 24, russet
+21, and citrine 19.</p>
+
+<p>16. There are, however, subtleties of harmony which it is difficult to
+understand.</p>
+
+<p>17. The rarest harmonies frequently lie close on the verge of discord.</p>
+
+<p>18. Harmony of colour is, in many respects, analogous to harmony of
+musical sounds.</p>
+
+<h3>QUALITIES OF COLOURS.</h3>
+
+<p>19. Blue is a cold colour, and appears to recede from the eye.</p>
+
+<p>20. Red is a warm colour, and is exciting; it remains stationary as to
+distance.</p>
+
+<p>21. Yellow is the colour most nearly allied to light; it appears to
+advance towards the spectator.</p>
+
+<p>22. At twilight blue appears much lighter than it is, red much darker,
+and yellow slightly darker. By ordinary gaslight blue becomes darker,
+red brighter, and yellow lighter. By this artificial light a pure
+yellow appears lighter than white itself, when viewed in contrast with
+certain other colours.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>23. By certain combinations colour may make glad or depress, convey
+the idea of purity, richness, or poverty, or may affect the mind in
+any desired manner, as does music.</p>
+
+<h3>TEACHINGS OF EXPERIENCE.</h3>
+
+<p>24. When a colour is placed on a gold ground, it should be outlined
+with a darker shade of its own colour.</p>
+
+<p>25. When a gold ornament falls on a coloured ground, it should be
+outlined with black.</p>
+
+<p id="prop26">26. When an ornament falls on a ground which is in direct harmony with
+it, it must be outlined with a lighter tint of its own colour. Thus,
+when a red ornament falls on a green ground, the ornament must be
+outlined with a lighter red.</p>
+
+<p>27. When the ornament and the ground are in two tints of the same
+colour, if the ornament is darker than the ground, it will require
+outlining with a still darker tint of the same colour; but if lighter
+than the ground no outline will be required.</p>
+
+<h3>ANALYTICAL TABLES OF COLOUR.</h3>
+
+<p>When commencing my studies both in science and art, I found great
+advantage from reducing all facts to a tabular form so far as
+possible, and this mode of study I would recommend to others. To me
+this method appears to have great advantages, for by it we see at a
+glance what otherwise is difficult to understand; if carefully done,
+it becomes an analysis of work; and by preparing these tabular
+arrangements of facts the subject becomes impressed on the mind, and
+the relation of one fact to another, or of one part of a scheme to
+another, is seen.</p>
+
+<p>The following analytical tables will illustrate many of the facts
+stated in our propositions. The figures which follow the colours
+represent the proportions in which they harmonise:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i048full.jpg">
+<img id="i048" src="images/i048.jpg" width="542" height="300" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This latter table shows at a glance how each of the secondary and
+tertiary colours is formed, and the proportions in which they
+harmonise. It also shows why the three tertiary colours are called
+respectively the yellow tertiary, the red tertiary, and the blue
+tertiary, for into each tertiary two equivalents<a id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> of one primary
+enter, and one equivalent of each of the other primaries. Thus, in
+citrine we find two equivalents of yellow, and one each of red and
+blue; hence it is the yellow tertiary. In russet we find two
+equivalents of red, and one each of blue and of yellow; and in olive
+two of blue, and one each of red and yellow. Hence they are
+respectively the red and blue tertiaries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i049full.jpg">
+<img id="i049" src="images/i049.jpg" width="500" height="204" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Figs 24 and 25 are diagrams of harmony. I have connected in the
+centre, by three similar lines, the colours which form a harmony;
+thus, blue, red, and yellow harmonise when placed together. Purple,
+green, and orange also harmonise (I have connected them by dotted
+lines in the first of the two diagrams). But when two colours are to
+produce a harmony, the one will be a primary colour, and the other a
+secondary formed of the other two primary colours (for the presence of
+the three primary colours is necessary to a harmony), or the one will
+be a secondary, and the other a tertiary colour formed of the two
+remaining secondary colours. Such harmonies I have placed opposite to
+each other; thus blue, a primary, harmonises with orange, a secondary;
+yellow with purple; and red with green; and the secondary colour is
+placed between the two primary colours of which it is formed; thus,
+orange is formed of red and yellow, between which it stands; green, of
+blue and yellow; and purple, of blue and red. In the second of the two
+diagrams we see that purple, green, and orange produce a harmony, so
+do olive, russet, and citrine. We also see that purple and citrine
+harmonise, and green and russet, and orange and olive.</p>
+
+<p>Continuing this diagrammatic form of illustration, we may set forth
+the quantities in which the various colours harmonise: thus:&mdash;
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i050full.jpg">
+<img id="i050" src="images/i050.jpg" width="500" height="688" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>To those who are about to practise ornamentation, it is very important
+that they have in the mind's eye a tolerably accurate idea of the
+relative quantities of the various colours necessary to harmony, even
+where the colours are considered as existing in a state of absolute
+purity. We have rarely, however, to use the brightest blues, reds, and
+yellows which pigments furnish, and even these are but poor
+representatives of the potent colours of light as seen in the rainbow,
+and with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> the agency of the prism; nevertheless, a knowledge of the
+quantities in which these pure colours harmonise is very desirable.
+The proportions in which we have stated that colours perfectly
+harmonise, and in which the primary colours combine to form the
+secondaries, and the secondaries the tertiaries, are given in respect
+to the colours of light, and not of pigments or paints, which, as we
+have just said, are more or less base representatives of the pure
+colours of light. Yet certain pigments may, for our purpose, be
+regarded as representing pure colours. Thus, the purest real
+ultramarine we will regard as blue (cobalt is rather green, that is,
+it has a little yellow in it, and the French and German ultramarines
+are generally rather purple, or have a little red in them, yet the
+best of these latter is a tolerably pure colour), the purest French
+carmine as red (common carmine is frequently rather crimson, that is,
+has blue in it; vermilion is much too yellow), and lemon-chrome as
+yellow (the chrome selected must be without any green shade, and
+without any orange shade, however slight); and these pigments will be
+found to represent the colours of the prism as nearly as any that can
+be found. I would recommend the learner to get a small quantity of
+these colours in their powder form, substituting the best pale German
+ultramarine for real ultramarine, as the latter is of high price,<a id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
+and to fill the various circles of our diagrams, which represent the
+primary colours, with these pigments, mixing them with a little
+dissolved gum arabic and water&mdash;just ufficient to prevent the colours
+from rubbing off the paper. The secondary colours will be fairly
+represented by pale-green lake, often called drop-green, by
+orange-chrome&mdash;that of about the colour of a ripe, rather
+deep-coloured, orange-rind&mdash;and the purple by the admixture of pale
+German ultramarine and crimson-lake, in about equal proportions, with
+a little white to bring it to the same depth as the green. I cannot
+name any pigments which would well represent the tertiary colours.
+Citrine is about the colour of candied <i>lemon</i>-peel; olive about the
+colour of candied citron-peel, and russet is often seen on the skin of
+certain apples called "russet apples," in the form of a slight
+roughness; but this russet is in many cases not quite sufficiently red
+to represent the colour bearing the same name. Iron rust is rather too
+yellow. This colour should bear the same relation to red that the
+candied lemon-peel does to yellow.</p>
+
+<p>If the student will try carefully to realise these colours, and will
+fill up the circles in our diagrams with them, he will thereby be much
+assisted in his studies; but it will be still better if he prepare
+fresh diagrams on a larger scale, and use squares instead of circles.
+I should recommend, and that I do strongly, that the <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>student work out
+all the diagrams which I have suggested on a tolerably large scale,
+using the colours where I have used words. I should also advise him to
+do an ornament, say in red on a gold ground, and outline this red
+ornament with a deeper red; to do a gold ornament on a coloured
+ground, and outline it with black; and indeed to carefully work out an
+ornamental illustration of our propositions, Nos. 24, 25, 26, and 27,
+and to keep these before him till he is so impressed by them as to
+<i>feel</i> the principle which they set forth. This should be done on a
+large scale in all our designing-rooms and art-workshops.</p>
+
+<p>As we shall have to refer to colours by naming pigments, and as I am
+constantly asked what pigments I employ, I shall enumerate the paints
+in my colour-box; but I shall place a dagger against those which I
+have in my private box, and which I do not supply in my offices; but
+these I seldom use. Of yellows I have <a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>king's yellow (not a permanent
+colour), <a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>very pale chrome, lemon-chrome (about the colour of a ripe
+lemon), middle-chrome (half-way between the lemon and orange-chrome),
+orange-chrome (about the colour of the rind of a ripe orange),
+<a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>yellow-lake, <a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>Indian yellow. Of reds&mdash;vermilion, carmine,
+crimson-lake. Of blues&mdash;<a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>cobalt, German ultramarine, both deep and
+pale, Antwerp blue, indigo. Of greens&mdash;emerald, green-lake, pale and
+deep. Of browns&mdash;raw Turkey umber, vandyke, Venetian red,
+purple-brown, brown-lake. Besides these I have what is called
+celestial blue, which is a very pure and intense turquoise, vegetable
+black, flake white, and gold bronze.<a id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are certain facts connected with the mixing of colours which
+must never be lost sight of; thus, while the colours of light
+co-mingle without any deterioration, or loss of brilliancy, pigments
+or paints will not do so, but by admixture tend to destroy one
+another. This takes place only to a small extent when but two primary
+colours are combined; but if any of the third primary enters into the
+composition of a tint, a decided deterioration, or loss of intensity,
+occurs.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason we employ many pigments, so as to avoid as far as
+possible the mixing of colours. But there is another reason why the
+great admixture of colours is undesirable. Colours are chemical
+agents, and in some cases the various pigments act chemically on one
+another. Of all colours yellows suffer most by admixture with other
+colours: but this is accounted for by their delicacy and purity. For
+this reason I use a greater variety of yellow pigments than of red or
+blue.<a id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>Were it possible to procure three pigments devoid of chemical
+affinities, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>each of the same physical constitution, as of equal
+degrees of transparency or opacity, one truly representing the blue of
+light, another the red, and another the yellow, we should need no
+others, for of these we could form all other colours; but as no
+pigments come even near to the fulfilment of these conditions, we have
+to employ roundabout and clumsy methods of arriving at desired
+results.</p>
+
+<p>There is one statement which I have made that, perhaps, needs a little
+elucidation, although the careful student may have seen the reason of
+my assertion. I said that purple harmonised with citrine, green with
+russet, and orange with olive. I might have expressed it (and many
+would have done so) thus:&mdash;The complement of citrine is purple, the
+complement of russet is green, and the complement of olive is orange.
+A colour which is complementary to any other is that which, with it,
+completes the presence of the three primary colours: thus green is the
+complement of red, and red of green, for each, together with the
+colour to which it is the complement, completes the presence of the
+three colours. But in order to a harmony, the complement must be made
+up in certain proportions. Let us now refer to our second diagrammatic
+table, and we there see that citrine is formed of two equivalents of
+yellow and only one equivalent of red and of blue. Now, in order to a
+harmony, each primary should be present in two equivalents, as one is
+present in this quantity&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, the yellow. One equivalent of blue
+and one of red (both of which are wanting in the citrine) form purple;
+hence purple is the complement of citrine, or the colour that with it
+produces a harmony. In russet one equivalent of blue and one of yellow
+are wanting, and these in combination are green&mdash;green, then, is the
+complement of russet. And in olive one equivalent of red and one of
+yellow are wanting&mdash;red and yellow form orange, hence orange is the
+complement of olive.</p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of all colours as of full intensity and purity, but we
+have to deal also with other conditions. All colours may be darkened
+by black, when <i>shades</i> are produced; or reduced by white, when
+<i>tints</i> are produced. Besides these alterations in intensity, a
+portion of one colour may be added to another. Thus, if a small
+portion of blue be mingled with red, the red becomes a crimson or
+blue-red; or if a small portion of yellow be added to the red, the
+latter becomes a scarlet or yellow-red. In like manner, when yellow is
+in excess in a green, we have a yellow-green; or when blue is in
+excess, a blue-green; and so with the other colours. Such alterations
+produce <i>hues</i> of colour.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the subtleties of harmony. Thus, if we have a
+yellow-red or scarlet&mdash;a red with yellow in it&mdash;the green that will
+harmonise with it will be a blue-green; or if we have a blue-red or
+crimson&mdash;a red with blue in it&mdash;the green that will harmonise with it
+will be a yellow-green. This is obvious, for the following
+reasons:&mdash;Let us suppose a red represented by the equivalent number,
+five, with one part of blue added to it, thus causing it to be a
+blue-red or crimson. Were the red<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> pure, there should be eleven parts
+of green as a complement to the five of red, of which green eight
+parts would be blue and three yellow; but the blue-red occurs in six
+parts, one of which is blue&mdash;there are, then, but seven parts of blue
+remaining in the equivalent quantity to combine with the three of
+yellow, one being already used; hence the green formed is a
+yellow-green, one of the equivalents of blue necessary to the
+formation of a true green being already in combination with the red,
+and thus absent from the green.</p>
+
+<p>The same reasoning will apply to the scarlet-red and blue-green, and,
+indeed, to all similar cases; but to take the case of the crimson-red
+and yellow-green, as just given, and carry it a stage further, we
+might add two parts (out of the eight) of blue to the red, and make it
+more blue, and then form the complementary green of six parts of blue
+and three of yellow, and thus make it more yellow. Or we may go
+further still, and add to the red six of the eight parts of blue, when
+the admixture would appear as a red-purple rather than as a blue-red,
+in which case the complementary green&mdash;or, rather, green-yellow&mdash;would
+consist of two parts of blue and three of yellow. These facts are
+diagrammatically expressed in the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i054full.jpg">
+<img id="i054" src="images/i054.jpg" width="500" height="154" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all these cases it will be seen that we have eight parts of blue,
+five of red, and three of yellow, only the mode of combination varies.
+This variation may occur to any extent, provided the totals of each be
+always the equivalent proportions.</p>
+
+<p>These remarks will apply equally to hues of colour, shades, and tints,
+and to shades and tints of hues.</p>
+
+<p>Care, and a little practice, will enable the learner to arrange
+colours into a number of degrees of depth, or shades, as they are
+generally called. (We do not here use the term as signifying pure
+colours darkened with black.) Ten shades of each colour differing
+obviously in degree of depth can readily be arranged by the
+experienced, the ten shades being equidistant from each other as
+regards depth&mdash;that is, shade 3 will be as much darker than shade 2 as
+shade 2 is darker than shade 1, and so on throughout the whole. Purple
+is a colour intermediate between blue and red. Imagine ten hues
+between the purple and the red, and ten more between the purple and
+the blue: thus we should have purple, then a slightly red purple, then
+a rather redder purple, then a purple still redder, and so on till we
+get purple-reds, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> finally the pure red; and the same variations of
+hue at the blue side also. Imagine, further, the green having ten hues
+extending towards the blue, and ten more stretching towards the
+yellow; and the orange having ten hues towards the red, and ten
+towards the yellow&mdash;in all cases I count the colour from which we
+start as one of the ten, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i055afull.jpg">
+<img id="i055a" src="images/i055a.jpg" width="500" height="38" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>&mdash;and we shall have 54 colours and hues of colour. Of each of these 54
+colours and hues imagine 10 degrees of depth, and we get 540 colours,
+hues, tints, and shades, all differing from one another to an obvious
+degree.</p>
+
+<p>Mark this fact, that any colour, tint, hue, or shade of such a diagram
+has its complement in one other of the colours, tints, hues, or shades
+of the diagram, and that only two of this series of 540 are
+complementary to each other; thus, if you fix on any one colour of the
+540, there is but one colour in the whole that is complementary to it,
+and it is complementary to but this one other colour.</p>
+
+<p>The student will do well to try and make a colour-diagram of this
+kind, of a simple character, say such as the following, only using
+pigments for my numbers; but in doing so he must exercise the utmost
+care, in order that he secure some degree of accuracy of tint or
+shade, and if he can call to his aid an experienced colourist it will
+be of great assistance to him.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i055full.jpg">
+<img id="i055" src="images/i055.jpg" width="500" height="470" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This table is highly valuable, as it gives ninety harmonies, if
+carefully prepared in colour; and the preparation of such a table is
+the very best practice that a student can possibly have.</p>
+
+<p>Let us for a moment consider this table, and suppose that we want to
+find the complement to some particular colour, as the third shade of
+red. We find the complement of this in the third shade of green
+opposite. If we want the complement of the second shade of
+orange-yellow, we find it in the second shade of blue-purple opposite,
+and so on. Thus we have a means of at once judging of the harmony of
+colours.</p>
+
+<p>It must ever be borne in mind that pigments mixed in the proportions
+given will not yield results such as would occur when the coloured
+rays of light are combined; thus three parts, either by weight or
+measure, of chrome yellow when combined with eight parts of
+ultramarine would not form a colour representing the secondary green,
+nor would the result be more satisfactory were other pigments combined
+in the proportions given. What we have said in respect to the
+proportions in which colours combine to form new colours applies only
+to the coloured rays of light.</p>
+
+<p>It must now be noticed that while colours harmonise in the proportions
+stated, the areas occupied by the different colours may vary if there
+be a corresponding alteration in intensity. Thus eight of blue and
+eight of orange form a perfect harmony when both colours are of
+prismatic intensity; but we shall still have a perfect harmony if the
+orange is diluted to one-half its strength with white, and thus formed
+into a tint, provided there be sixteen parts of this orange of half
+strength to the eight parts of blue of full strength.</p>
+
+<p>The orange might be further diluted to one-third of its full power,
+but then twenty-four parts would be necessary to a perfect harmony
+with eight parts of prismatic blue; or to one-fourth of its strength,
+when thirty-two parts would be necessary to the harmony.</p>
+
+<p>It is not desirable that I occupy space with diagrams of these
+quantities, but the industrious student will prepare them for himself,
+and will strive to realise a true half-tint, quarter-tint, etc., which
+is not a very easy thing to do. By practice, however, it will readily
+be accomplished, and anything achieved is a new power gained.</p>
+
+<p>What I have said respecting the harmony of blue with tints of orange
+will apply in all similar cases. Thus red will harmonise with tints of
+green, provided the area of the tint be increased as the intensity is
+decreased; and so will yellow harmonise with tints of purple under
+similar conditions.</p>
+
+<p>But we may reverse the conditions, and lower the primary to a tint
+retaining the secondary in its intensity. Thus blue, if reduced to a
+half-tint, will harmonise with orange of prismatic intensity in the
+proportion of sixteen of blue to eight of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> orange; or, if reduced to a
+quarter-tint, in the proportion o&pound; thirty-two of blue to eight of
+orange. Red, if reduced to a half-tint, will harmonise in the
+proportion of ten red to eleven of green; and yellow as a half-tint in
+the proportion of six yellow to thirteen of purple.</p>
+
+<p>The same remarks might be made respecting the harmony of shades of
+colour with colours of prismatic intensity. Thus, if orange is diluted
+to a shade of half intensity with black, it will harmonise with pure
+blue in the proportion of sixteen of orange to eight of blue, and so
+on, just as in the case of tints; and this principle applies to the
+harmony of all hues of colour also.</p>
+
+<p>To go one step further: we scarcely ever deal with pure colours or
+their shades or tints, or even come as near them as we can. With great
+intensity of colour we seem to require an ethereal character, such as
+we have in those of light; but our pigments are coarse and
+earthy&mdash;they are too real-looking, and are not ethereal&mdash;they may be
+said to be corporeal rather than spiritual in character. For this
+reason we have to avoid the use of our purest pigments in such
+quantities as render their poverty of nature manifest, and to use for
+large surfaces such tints as, through their subtlety of composition,
+interest and please. A tint the composition of which is not apparent
+is always preferable to one of more obvious formation. Thus we are led
+to use tints which are subtly formed, and such as please by their
+newness and bewilder by the intricacy of formation.</p>
+
+<p>To do what I here mean it is not necessary that many pigments be mixed
+together in order to the formation of a tint. The effect of which I
+speak can frequently be got by two well-chosen pigments. Thus a fine
+series of low-toned shades can be produced by mixing together
+middle-chrome and brown-lake in various proportions, and in all of the
+shades thus formed the three primary colours will be represented, but
+in some yellow will predominate, and in others red; while in many it
+will not be easy to discover to what proportionate extent the three
+primary colours are present.</p>
+
+<p>Let us suppose that we make a tint by adding white to cobalt blue.
+This blue contains a small amount of yellow, and is a slightly green
+blue. But to this tint we add a small amount of raw umber with the
+view of imparting a greyness<a id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> or atmospheric character. Raw umber
+is a neutral colour, leaning slightly to yellow&mdash;that is, it consists
+of red, blue, and yellow, with a slight excess of the latter. In order
+that an orange harmonise with this grey-blue of a slightly yellow
+tone, the orange must be slightly inclined to red, so as to form the
+complement of the little green formed by the yellow in the blue. It
+may harmonise with the grey-blue as a pure tint if the area of the
+diluted and neutralised primary is <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>sufficiently extended, or may
+itself be likewise reduced to a tint of the same depth, when both
+tints would have the same area.</p>
+
+<p>I might go on multiplying cases of this character to almost any
+extent, but these I leave the student to work out for himself, and
+pass to notice that while it is desirable to use subtle tints (often
+called "broken tints") it is rarely expedient to make up the full
+harmony by a large area of a tertiary tone and a single positive
+colour. Thus, we might have a shade or a tint of citrine spreading
+over a large surface as a ground on which we wished to place a figure.
+This figure would harmonise in pure purple were it of a certain size,
+and yet if thus coloured it would give a somewhat common-place effect
+when finished, for the harmony would be too simple and obvious. It
+would be much better to have the nineteen parts of citrine reduced,
+say, to half intensity, when the area would be increased to
+thirty-eight, with the figure of eight parts of blue and five of red,
+than of thirteen parts of purple.</p>
+
+<p>But it would be better still if there were the thirty-eight parts of
+reduced citrine, three parts of pure yellow, thirteen of purple, five
+of red, and eight of blue, together with white, black, or gold, or all
+three (these may be added without altering the conditions, as all act
+as neutrals), for here the harmony is of a more subtle character.</p>
+
+<p>If we count up the equivalents of the colours employed in this scheme
+of harmony, we shall see that we have, in the citrine&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="div300">
+<p>
+<span class="in2">Yellow</span><span class="right">6 (two equivalents).</span><br />
+<span class="in2">Blue</span><span class="right">8 (one equivalent).</span><br />
+<span class="in2">Red</span><span class="right">5 (one equivalent).</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In the purple&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="in2">Blue</span><span class="right">8 (one equivalent).</span><br />
+<span class="in2">Red</span><span class="right">5 (one equivalent).</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Of the pure colours&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="in2">Yellow</span><span class="right">3 (one equivalent).</span><br />
+<span class="in2">Red</span><span class="right">5 (one equivalent).</span><br />
+<span class="in2">Blue</span><span class="right">8 (one equivalent).</span><br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus we have three equivalents of each primary, which give a perfect
+harmony.</p>
+
+<p>I must not say more respecting the laws of harmony, for in the space
+of a small work it is impossible to do so, but proceed to notice
+certain effects or properties of colours, which I have as yet only
+alluded to, or have passed altogether unnoticed.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that black, white, and gold are neutral as regards colour.
+This is the case, although many would suppose that gold was a yellow.
+Gold will act as a yellow, but it is generally employed as a neutral
+in decorative work, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> it is more of a neutral than a yellow, for
+both red and blue exist largely in it. The pictorial artist frames his
+picture with gold because it, being a neutral, does not interfere with
+the tints of his work. It has the further advantage of being rich and
+costly in appearance, and thus of giving an impression of worth where
+it exists.</p>
+
+<p>Black, white, and gold, being neutral, may be advantageously employed
+to separate colours where separation is necessary or desirable.</p>
+
+<p>Yellow and purple harmonise, but yellow is a light colour and purple
+is dark. These colours not only harmonise, but also contrast as to
+depth, the one being light and the other dark. The limit of each
+colour, wherever these are used in juxtaposition, is therefore
+obvious.</p>
+
+<p>It is not so with red and green, for these harmonise when of the same
+depth. This being the case, and red being a glowing colour, if a red
+object is placed on a green ground, or a green object on a red ground,
+the "figure" and ground will appear to "swim" together, and will
+produce a dazzling effect. Colour must assist form, and not confuse
+it. It will do this in the instance just named if the figure is
+outlined with black, white, or gold, and there will be no loss of
+harmony. But experience has shown that this effect can also be averted
+by outlining the figure with a lighter tint of its own colour. Thus,
+if the figure is red and the ground green, an outline of lighter red
+(pink) may be employed. <a href="#prop26">(See Proposition 26, page 34.)</a></p>
+
+<p>A blue figure on a red ground (as ultramarine on carmine), or a red
+figure on a blue ground, will also produce this swimming and
+unsatisfactory effect, but this is again obviated by an outline of
+black, white, or gold.</p>
+
+<p>Employing the outline thus must not be regarded as a means of merely
+rendering what was actually unpleasant endurable, for it does much
+more&mdash;it affords one of the richest means of effect. A carmine ground
+well covered with bold green ornament having a gold outline is, if
+well managed, truly gorgeous; and were the figure blue on the red
+ground, the lavish use of gold would render the employment of yellow
+unnecessary as the yellow formed in the eye and cast upon the gold
+would satisfy all requirements.</p>
+
+<p>It is a curious fact that the eye will create any colour of which
+there is a deficiency. This it will do, but the colour so created is
+of little use to the composition unless white or gold is present; if,
+however, there be white or gold in the composition, the colour which
+is absent, or is insufficiently represented, will be formed in the eye
+and cast upon these neutrals, and the white or the gold, as the case
+may be, will assume the tint of the deficient or absent colour.
+<a href="#prop8">(See Propositions 8</a> and 9, page 32.)</p>
+
+<p>While this occurs (and sometimes it occurs to a marked degree, as can
+be shown by experiment), it must not be supposed that a composition in
+which any element is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> wanting is as perfect as one which reveals no
+want. It is far otherwise; only Nature here comes to our assistance,
+and is content to help herself rather than endure our short-comings;
+but in the one case we give Nature the labour of completing the
+harmony; while in the other, all being prepared, we receive a sense of
+satisfaction and repose.</p>
+
+<p>In Proposition 8 we showed that when blue and black are juxtaposed,
+the black becomes "rusty," or assumes an orange tint; and in
+Proposition 9 we gave the cause of this effect. Let a blue spot be
+placed on a black silk necktie, and however black the silk, it will
+yet appear rusty. This is a fact; but we sometimes desire to employ
+blue on black, and wish the black to look black, and not an
+orange-black. How can we do this? Obviously by substituting for the
+black a very dark blue, as indigo. The bright blue spot induces orange
+(the complement of blue) in the eye. This orange, when cast upon
+black, causes the latter to look "rusty;" but if we place in the black
+an amount of blue sufficient to neutralise the orange cast upon it,
+the effect will be that of a jet-black.</p>
+
+<p>We have now considered those qualities of colour, and those laws of
+contrast and harmony, which may be said to be of the grosser sort; but
+we have scarcely touched on those considerations which pertain to
+special refinement or tenderness of effect. But let me close the part
+of my subject of which I have treated, by repeating a statement
+already made&mdash;a statement, let me say, which first led me to perceive
+really harmony of colour&mdash;that <i>those colours, and those particular
+hues of colour, which improve each other to the utmost, are those
+which perfectly harmonise</i>. (Consider this statement in connection
+with <a href="#prop8">Propositions 8</a>, 9, 10, and 14, pages 32 and 33.)</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We come now to consider delicacies and refinements in colour effects,
+which, although dependent upon the skilful exercise of the laws
+enunciated, are yet of a character, the power to produce which only
+results from the consideration of the works of the masters of great
+art-nations; but of these effects I can say little beyond pointing out
+what should be studied.</p>
+
+<p>This principle however I cannot pass without notice&mdash;namely, that the
+finest colour effects are those of a rich, mingled, bloomy character.</p>
+
+<p>Imagine a luxuriant garden, the beds in which are filled with a
+thousand flowers, having all the colours of the rainbow, and imagine
+these arranged as closely together as will permit of their growth.
+When viewed from a distance the effect is soft and rich, and full and
+varied, and is all that is pleasant. This is Nature's colouring. It is
+our work humbly to strive at producing like beauty with her.</p>
+
+<p>This leads me to notice that primary colours (and secondary colours,
+also, when of great intensity) should be used chiefly in small masses,
+together with gold, white, or black.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Visit the Indian Museum at Whitehall,<a id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> and consider the beautiful
+Indian shawls and scarves and table-covers; or, if unable to do so,
+look in the windows of our large drapers in the chief towns, and see
+the true Indian fabrics,<a id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and observe the manner in which small
+portions of intense reds, blues, yellows, greens, and a score of
+tertiary tints, are combined with white and black and gold to produce
+a very miracle of bloom. I know of nothing in the way of colour
+combination so rich, so beautiful, so gorgeous, and yet so soft, as
+some of these Indian shawls.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious that we never find a purely Indian work otherwise than
+in good taste as regards colour harmony. Indian works, in this
+respect&mdash;whether carpets, or shawls, or dress materials, or lacquered
+boxes, or enamelled weapons&mdash;are almost perfect&mdash;perfect in harmony,
+perfect in richness, perfect in the softness of their general effect.
+How strangely these works contrast with ours, where an harmonious work
+in colours is scarcely ever seen.</p>
+
+<p>By the co-mingling (not co-mixing) of colours in the manner just
+described, a rich and bloomy effect can be got, having the general
+tone of a tertiary colour of any desired hue. Thus, if a wall be
+covered with little ornamental flowerets, by colouring all alike, and
+letting each contain two parts of yellow and one part of blue and one
+of red, as separate and pure colours, the distant hue will be that of
+citrine: the same effect will result if the flowers are coloured
+variously, while the same proportions of the primaries are preserved
+throughout. I can conceive of no decorative effects more subtle, rich,
+and lovely than those of which I now speak.</p>
+
+<p>Imagine three rooms, all connected by open archways, and all decorated
+with a thousand flower-like ornaments, and these so coloured, in this
+mingled manner, that in one room blue predominates, in another red,
+and in another yellow; we should then have a beautiful tertiary bloom
+in each&mdash;a subtle mingling of colour, an exquisite delicacy and
+refinement of treatment, a fulness such as always results from a rich
+mingling of hues, and an amount of detail which would interest when
+closely inspected; besides which, we should have the harmony of the
+general effect of the three rooms, the one appearing as olive, another
+as citrine, and the other as russet.</p>
+
+<p>This mode of decoration has this advantage, that it not only gives
+richness and beauty, but it also gives purity. If pigments are mixed
+together they are thereby reduced in intensity, as we have already
+seen; but if placed side by side, when viewed from a distance the eye
+will mix them, but they will suffer no diminution of brilliancy.</p>
+
+<p>With the view of cultivating the eye, Eastern works cannot be too
+carefully studied. The Indian Museum should be the home of all who can
+avail themselves of the opportunity of study which it affords; and the
+small Indian department of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>South Kensington Museum should not be
+neglected, small though it is.<a id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Chinese works must also be
+considered, for they likewise supply most valuable examples of colour
+harmony; and although they do not present such a perfect colour bloom
+as do the works of India, yet they are never inharmonious, and give
+clearness and sharpness, together with great brilliancy, in a manner
+not attempted by the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>The best works of Chinese embroidery are rarely seen in this country;
+but these are unsurpassed by the productions of any other people. For
+richness, splendour, and purity of colour, together with a delicious
+coolness, I know of nothing to equal them.</p>
+
+<p>The works of the Japanese are not to be overlooked, for in certain
+branches of art they are inimitable, and as colourists they are almost
+perfect. On the commonest of their lacquer trays we generally have a
+bit of good colouring, and their coloured pictures are sometimes
+marvels of harmony.</p>
+
+<p>As to the styles of colouring adopted by the nations referred to, I
+should say that the Indians produce rich, mingled, bloomy, <i>warm</i>
+effects&mdash;that is, effects in which red and yellow prevail; that the
+Chinese achieve clearness, repose, and <i>coolness</i>&mdash;a form of colouring
+in which blue and white prevail; and that the Japanese effects are
+<i>warm</i>, simple, and quiet.</p>
+
+<p>Besides studying the works of India, China, and Japan, study those
+also of Turkey and Morocco, and even those of Algeria, for here the
+colouring is much better than with us, although not so good as in the
+countries first named. No aid to progress must be neglected, and no
+help must be despised.<a id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>With the view of refining the judgment further in respect to colour,
+get a good colour-top,<a id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> and study its beautiful effects. See also
+the "gas tubes" illuminated <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>by electricity, as sold by opticians, and
+let the prism yield you daily instruction. Soap-bubbles may also be
+blown, and the beautiful colours seen in them carefully noted. These
+and any other available means of cultivating the eye should constantly
+be resorted to, as by such means only can we become great colourists.</p>
+
+<p>As to works on colour, we have the writings of Field, to whom we are
+indebted for valuable discoveries; of Hay, the decorator, and friend
+of the late David Roberts, but some of his ideas are wild and Utopian;
+of Chevreul, whose work will be most useful to the student; and the
+small catechism of colour by Mr. Redgrave, of the South Kensington
+Museum, which is excellent. The student will also do well to carefully
+study the excellent manual of "Colour" by Professor Church, of
+Cirencester College.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> If a dark grey tint be mixed upon a white slab it will
+appear dark in contrast with the white, but if a small portion of this
+same grey is applied to black paper it will appear almost white.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> An equivalent of blue is 8, of red 5, of yellow 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Real ultramarine is sold at &pound;8 per ounce. The best
+imitation, or German ultramarine, is procurable at any oil-shop at
+about 3s. to 4s. per pound. The best carmine should be procurable at
+6s. per ounce, but artists' colourmen often charge &pound;1 1s., owing to
+the small demand for this pigment. The best chrome yellow (chrome
+yellow is kept in many shades) is about 1s. 6d. per pound.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Some of these colours are not of a permanent character
+and could not be used in work intended to be lasting. I use them for
+patterns for our manufactures, where when the drawing is once copied
+in a fabric it is destroyed. Some of the brightest colours are
+unfortunately the most fleeting.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Of all mediums in which colours can be mixed, paraffine
+is the safest; it is without chemical affinities, and is therefore
+well calculated to preserve pigments in their original condition.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Cobalt, raw umber, and white make a magnificent grey,
+both in oil-colours, in tempera (powder-colours mixed with gum-water),
+and in distemper (powder-colours mixed with size).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> This museum is open free to the public.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> These will only be seen in very first-class shops.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> It may not be generally known, but nearly all our large
+manufacturing towns have, in connection with the Chamber of Commerce,
+a collection of Indian fabrics, filling several large volumes, which
+were prepared, at the expense of Government, under the superintendence
+of Dr. Forbes Watson, and which were given to the various towns on the
+condition that they be accessible to all persons who are trustworthy.
+Although these collections do not embrace the costly decorated
+fabrics, yet much can be learned from them, and the combinations of
+colour are always harmonious. A much larger collection is now in
+course of formation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The South Kensington Museum has a very interesting
+collection of art-works from China and Japan; but the latter are
+chiefly lent. It is a strange thing that the perfect works of the East
+are so poorly illustrated in this national collection, while costly,
+yea, very costly works of inferior character, illustrative of
+Renaissance art, swarm as thickly as flies in August. This can only be
+accounted for by the fact that the heads of the institution have a
+feeling for pictorial rather than decorative art, and the Renaissance
+ornament is that which has most of the pictorial element. To me, the
+style appears to owe its very weakness to this fact, for decorative
+art should be wholly ideal. Pictorial art is of necessity more or less
+imitative.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Not the so-called colour or "chameleon" top sold in the
+toy-shops, but the more scientific toy procurable of opticians,
+together with the perforated discs of Mr. John Graham, M.R.C.S., of
+Tunbridge, Kent.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>FURNITURE.</h3>
+
+<p>Having considered those principles which are of primary importance to
+the ornamentist, we may commence our notice of the various
+manufactures, and try to discover what particular form of art should
+be applied to each, and the special manner in which decorative
+principles should be considered as applicable to various materials and
+modes of working.</p>
+
+<p>We shall first consider furniture, or cabinet-work, because articles
+of furniture occupy a place of greater importance in a room than
+carpets, wall-papers, or, perhaps, any other decorative works; and,
+also, because we shall learn from a consideration of furniture those
+structural principles which will be of value to us in considering the
+manner in which all art-objects should be formed if they have solid,
+and not simply superficial, dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>In the present chapter, I shall strive to impress the fact that design
+and ornamentation may be essentially different things, and that in
+considering the formation of works of furniture these should be
+regarded as separate and distinct. "Design," says Redgrave, "has
+reference to the construction of any work both for use and beauty, and
+therefore includes its ornamentation also. Ornament is merely the
+decoration of a thing constructed."</p>
+
+<p>The construction of furniture will form the chief theme of this
+chapter, for unless such works are properly constructed they cannot
+possibly be useful, and if not useful they would fail to answer the
+end for which they were contrived.</p>
+
+<p>But before commencing a consideration of the principles involved in
+the construction of works of furniture, let me summarise what is
+required in such works if they are to assume the character of
+art-objects.</p>
+
+<p>1. The general form, or mass form, of all constructed works must be
+carefully considered. The aspect of the "sky-blotch" of an
+architectural edifice is very important, for as the day wanes the
+detail fades and parts become blended, till the members compose but
+one whole, which, when seen from the east, appears as a solid mass
+drawn in darkness on the glowing sky; this is the sky-blotch. If the
+edifice <i>en masse</i> is pleasing, a great point is gained. Indeed, the
+general contour should have primary consideration. In like manner, the
+general form of all works of furniture should first be cared for, and
+every effort should be made at securing to the general mass beauty of
+shape.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. After having cared for the general form, the manner in which the
+work shall be divided into primary and secondary parts must be
+considered with reference to the laws of proportion, as stated in a
+former chapter.</p>
+
+<p>3. Detail and enrichment may now be considered; but while these cannot
+be too excellent, they must still be subordinate in obtrusiveness to
+the general mass, or to the aspect of the work as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>4. The material of which the object is formed must always be worked in
+the most natural and appropriate manner.</p>
+
+<p>5. The most convenient or appropriate form for an object should always
+be chosen, for unless this has been done, no reasonable hope can be
+entertained that the work will be satisfactory; for the consideration
+of utility must in all cases precede the consideration of beauty, as
+we saw in our first chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Having made these few general remarks, we must consider the structure
+of works of furniture. The material of which we form our furniture is
+wood. Wood has a "grain," and the strength of any particular piece
+largely depends upon the direction of its grain. It may be strong if
+its grain runs parallel with its length, or weak if the grain crosses
+diagonally, or very weak if the grain crosses transversely. However
+strong the wood, it becomes comparatively much weaker if the grain
+crosses the piece; and however weak the wood, it becomes yet weaker if
+the grain is transverse or diagonal. These considerations lead us to
+see that <i>the grain of the wood must always be parallel with its
+length whenever strength is required</i>.</p>
+
+<p>For our guidance in the formation of works of furniture, I give the
+following short table of woods arranged as to their strength:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Iron-wood</i>, from Jamaica&mdash;very strong, bearing great lateral
+pressure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Box</i> of Illawarry, New South Wales&mdash;very strong, but not so strong as
+iron-wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mountain ash</i>, New South Wales&mdash;about two-thirds the strength of
+iron-wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beech</i>&mdash;nearly as strong as mountain ash.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mahogany</i>, from New South Wales&mdash;not quite so strong as last.</p>
+
+<p><i>Black dog-wood</i> of Jamaica&mdash;three-fourths as strong as the mahogany
+just named.</p>
+
+<p><i>Box-wood</i>, Jamaica&mdash;not half as strong as the box of New South Wales.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cedar</i> of Jamaica&mdash;half as strong as the mahogany of New South
+Wales.<a id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>Wood can be got of sufficient length to meet all the requirements of
+furniture-making, yet we not unfrequently find the arch structurally
+introduced into furniture, while it is absurd to employ it in wooden
+construction of any kind. The arch is a most ingenious invention, as
+it affords a means of spanning a large space with small portions of
+material, as with small stones, and at the same time gives great
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>strength. It is, therefore, of the utmost utility in constructing
+stone buildings; but in works of furniture, where we have no large
+spaces to span, and where wood is of the utmost length required, and
+is stronger than our requirements demand, the use of the arch becomes
+structurally foolish and absurd. The folly of this mode of structure
+becomes more apparent when we notice that a wooden arch is always
+formed of one or two pieces, and not of very small portions, and when
+we further consider that, in order to the formation of an arch, the
+wood must be cut across its grain throughout the greater portion of
+its length, whereby its strength is materially decreased; while if the
+arch were formed of small pieces of stone great strength would be
+secured. Nothing can be more absurd than the practice of imitating in
+one material a mode of construction which is only legitimate in the
+case of another, and of failing to avail ourselves of the particular
+mode of utilising a material which secures a maximum of desirable
+results.</p>
+
+<p>While I protest against the arch when structurally used in furniture,
+I see no objection to it if used only as a source of beauty, and when
+so situated as to be free from strain or pressure.</p>
+
+<p>One of the objects which we are frequently called upon to construct is
+a chair. The chair is, throughout Europe and America, considered as a
+necessity of every house. So largely used are chairs, that one firm at
+High Wycombe employs 5,000 hands in making common cane-bottomed chairs
+alone; and yet we see but few chairs in the market which are well
+constructed. All chairs having curved frames&mdash;whether the curve is in
+the wood of the back, in the sides of the seat, or in the legs&mdash;are
+constructed on false principles. They are of necessity weak, and being
+weak are not useful. As they are formed by using wood in a manner
+which fails to utilise its qualities of strength, these chairs are
+offensive and absurd. It is true that, through being surrounded by
+such ill-formed objects from our earliest infancy, the eye often fails
+to be offended with such works as would offend it were they new to it;
+but this does not show that they are the less offensive, nor that they
+are not constructively wrong. Besides, whenever wood is cut across the
+grain, in order that we get anything approaching the requisite
+strength, it has to be much thicker and more bulky than would be
+required were the wood cut with the grain; hence such furniture is
+unnecessarily heavy and clumsy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+<p>Fig. 26 represents a chair which I have taken the liberty of borrowing
+from Mr. Eastlake's work on household art.<a id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> This chair Mr. Eastlake
+gives as an illustration of good taste in the construction of
+furniture; but I give it as an illustration of that which is
+essentially bad and wrong. The legs are weak, being cross-grained
+throughout, and the mode of uniting the upper and lower portions of
+the legs (the two semicircles) by a circular boss is defective in the
+highest degree. Were I sitting in such a chair, I should be afraid to
+lean to the right or the left, for fear of the chair giving way. Give
+me a Yorkshire rocking-chair, in preference to one of these, where I
+know of my insecurity, much as I hate such.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i067full.jpg">
+<img id="i067" class="wrapr" src="images/i067.jpg" width="300" height="714" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A chair is a stool with a back-rest, and a stool is a board elevated
+from the ground or floor by supports, the degree of elevation being
+determined by the length of the legs of the person for whom the seat
+is made, or by the degree of obliquity which the body and legs are
+desired to take when the seat is in use. If the seat is to support the
+body when in an erect sitting posture, about seventeen to eighteen
+inches will be found a convenient height for the average of persons;
+but if the legs of the sitter are to take an oblique forward
+direction, then the seat may be lower.</p>
+
+<p>A stool may consist of a thick piece of wood and of three legs
+inserted into holes bored in this thick top. If these legs pass to the
+upper surface of the seat, and are properly wedged in, a useful yet
+clumsy seat results. In order that the top of the stool be thin and
+light, it will be necessary that the legs be connected by frames, and
+it will be well that they be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> connected twice, once at the top of each
+leg, so that the seat may rest upon this frame, and once at least
+two-thirds of the distance from the top. The frame would now stand
+alone, and although the seat is formed of thin wood it will not crack,
+as it is supported all round on the upper frame.</p>
+
+<p>A chair, I have said, is a stool with a back. There is not one chair
+out of fifty that we find with the back so attached to the seat as to
+give a maximum of strength. It is usual to make a back leg and one
+side of the chair-back out of one piece of wood&mdash;that is, to continue
+the back legs up above the seat, and cause them to become the sides of
+the chair-back. When this is done the wood is almost invariably curved
+so that the back legs and the chair-back both incline outwards from
+the seat. There is no objection whatever to the sides of the back and
+the legs being formed of the one piece, but there is a great objection
+to either the supports of the back or the legs being formed of
+cross-grained wood, as much of their strength is thereby sacrificed.
+Our illustrations (Figs. 27 to 32) will give several modes of
+constructing chairs such as I think legitimate; but I will ask the
+reader to think for himself upon the construction of a chair, and
+especially upon the proper means of giving due support to the back.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i068full.jpg">
+<img id="i068" class="wrap" src="images/i068.jpg" width="300" height="266" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have given, in an axiomatic form, those principles which should
+guide us in the construction of works of furniture, and endeavoured to
+impress the necessity of using wood in that manner which is most
+natural&mdash;that is, "working" it with the grain (the manner in which we
+can most easily work it), and in that way which shall secure the
+greatest amount of strength with the least expenditure of material. I
+wish to impress my readers with the importance of these
+considerations, for they lie at the very root of the successful
+construction of furniture. If the legs of chairs, or their
+seat-frames, or the ends or backs of couches, are formed of wood cut
+across the grain, they must either be thick and clumsy, or weak; but,
+besides this, the rightly constituted mind can only receive pleasure
+from the contemplation of works which are wisely formed. Daily
+contact, as we have before said, with ill-shaped<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> objects may have
+more or less deadened our senses, so that we are not so readily
+offended by deformity and error as we might be; yet, happily for us,
+directly we seek to separate truth from error, the beautiful from the
+deformed, reason assists the judgment, and we learn to feel when we
+are in the presence of the beautiful or in contact with the degraded.</p>
+
+<p>My illustrations will show how I think chairs should be constructed.
+Fig. 26 is essentially bad, although it has traditional sanction,
+hence I pass it over without further comment. Fig. 27 is in the manner
+of an Egyptian chair. It serves to show the careful way in which the
+Egyptians constructed their works. The curved rails against which the
+back would rest are the only parts which are not thoroughly correct
+and satisfactory in a wood structure. Were the curved back members
+metal, the curvature would be desirable and legitimate. The back of
+this chair, if the side members were connected by a straight rail,
+would have immense strength (the backs of some of <i>our</i> chairs are of
+the very weakest), and if well made it is a seat which would endure
+for centuries. Fig. 28 is a chair of my own designing, in which I have
+sought to give strength to the back by connecting its upper portion
+with a strong cross-rail of the frame.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i069full.jpg">
+<img id="i069" src="images/i069.jpg" width="600" height="360" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 29 is a chair slightly altered from one in Mr. Eastlake's work on
+"Household Taste;" as shown in our illustration, it is a correctly
+formed work. Fig. 30 is an arm-chair in the Greek style, which I have
+designed. Fig. 31 is a Lady's chair in the Gothic style; Fig. 32, a
+lady's chair in early Greek. These I have prepared to show different
+modes of structure; if the legs are fitted to a frame<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> (the
+seat-frame), as in the early Greek chair just alluded to, they should
+be very short, as in this instance, or they must be connected by a
+frame below the seat, as in Figs. 33 and 34. The best general
+structure is that in which the front legs pass to the level of the
+upper surface of the seat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i070full.jpg">
+<img id="i070" src="images/i070.jpg" width="600" height="476" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 33 is a copy of a chair shown by Messrs. Gillow and Co., of
+Oxford Street, in the last Paris International Exhibition. In many
+respects it is admirably constructed. The skeleton brackets holding
+the back to the seat are very desirable adjuncts to light chairs; so
+are the brackets connecting the legs with the seat-frame, as these
+strengthen the entire chair. The manner in which the upper rail of the
+back passes through the side uprights and is "pinned" is good. The
+chief, and only important, fault in this chair is the bending of the
+back legs, involving their being cut against the grain of the wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i071full.jpg">
+<img id="i071" src="images/i071.jpg" width="600" height="521" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 31 is a chair from Mr. Talbert's very excellent work on "Gothic
+Furniture." It shows an admirable method of supporting the back. Fig.
+35 I have designed as a high-backed lounging chair. With the view of
+giving strength to the back, I have extended the seat, and arranged a
+support from this extension to the upper back-rail, and this extension
+of the seat I have supported by a fifth leg.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> There is no reason
+whatever why a chair should have four legs. If three would be better,
+or five, or any other number, let us use what would be best.<a id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i072full.jpg">
+<img id="i072" class="wrap" src="images/i072.jpg" width="300" height="412" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have now given several illustrations of modes of forming chairs. I
+might have given many more, but it is not my duty to try and exhaust a
+subject. What I have to do is simply point out principles, and call
+attention to facts. It is the reader who must think for
+himself&mdash;first, of the principles and facts which I adduce; secondly,
+of the illustrations which I give; thirdly, of other works which he
+may meet with; and fourthly, of further means of producing desirable
+and satisfactory results than those set forth in my illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>As it cannot be doubted that a well-constructed work, however plain or
+simple it may be, gives satisfaction to those who behold it&mdash;while a
+work of the most elaborate character fails to satisfy if badly
+constructed&mdash;we shall give a few further illustrations of structure
+for other articles of furniture, besides chairs, which have become
+necessary to our mode of life.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 36 is one of my sketches for Greek furniture, designed for a
+wealthy client. It was formed of black wood. Here the frame of the
+seat is first formed, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>and the legs are inserted beneath it, and let
+into it, while the wood-work of the end of the couch stands upon it,
+being inserted into it. This appears to have been the general method
+with the Greeks of forming their furniture, yet it is not so correct
+structurally as Fig. 37, another of my sketches, where the end and the
+leg are formed of one piece of wood. The first formation (that of Fig.
+36) would bear any amount of pressure from above, but it is not well
+calculated for resisting lateral pressure; while the latter would
+resist this lateral pressure, but would not bear quite the same amount
+of pressure from above. The latter, however, could bear more weight
+than would ever be required of it, and would be the more durable piece
+of furniture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter clearleft">
+<a href="images/i073afull.jpg">
+<img id="i073a" src="images/i073a.jpg" width="600" height="242" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 38 gives a legitimate formation for a settee; the cutting-out, or
+hollowing, of the sides of the legs is not carried to an extreme, but
+leaves a sufficiency of strong wood with an upright grain to resist
+all the pressure that would be placed on the seat, and the lower and
+upper thickened portions of the legs act as the brackets beneath the
+seat in Fig. 33. The arch here introduced is not used structurally,
+but for the sake of a curved line, and acts simply as a pair of
+brackets. This illustration is also from Mr. Talbert's work. Fig. 39
+is a table such as we occasionally meet with. I see no objection to
+the legs leaning inwards at the top; indeed, we have here a
+picturesque and useful table of legitimate formation. Fig. 40 is the
+end elevation of a sideboard from Mr. Talbert's work. Mark the
+simplicity of the structure. The leading or structural lines are
+straight and obvious. Although Mr. Talbert is not always right, yet
+his book is well worthy of the most careful consideration and study;
+and this I can truly say, that it compares favourably with all other
+works on furniture with which I am acquainted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i073bfull.jpg">
+<img id="i073b" src="images/i073b.jpg" width="600" height="230" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general want which we perceive in modern furniture is simplicity
+of structure and truthfulness of construction. If persons would but
+think out the easiest mode of constructing a work before they commence
+to design it, and would be content with this simplicity of structure,
+we should have very different furniture from what we have. Think first
+of what is wanted, then of the material at command.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i074afull.jpg">
+<img id="i074a" class="wrapr" src="images/i074a.jpg" width="300" height="276" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>I fear that I have very feebly enforced and very inefficiently
+illustrated the true principles on which works of furniture should be
+constructed; and yet I feel that the structure of such works is of
+importance beyond all other considerations. Space is limited, however,
+and I must pass on; hence I only hope that I have induced the reader
+to think for himself, and if I have done so I shall have fulfilled my
+desire, for his progress will then be sure.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting structure I have but a few general remarks further to make,
+and all these are fairly embraced in the one expression, "Be
+truthful." An obvious and true structure is always pleasant. Let,
+then, the "tenon" and the "mortise" pass through the various members,
+and let the parts be "pinned" together by obvious wooden pins. Thus,
+if the frame of a chair-seat is tenoned into the legs, let the tenon
+pass through the leg and be visible on the outer side, and let it be
+held in its place by glue and wooden pins&mdash;the pins being visible. Yet
+they need not protrude beyond the surface; but why hide them? In this
+way that old furniture<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> was made which has endured while piece after
+piece of modern furniture, made with invisible joints and concealed
+nails and screws, has perished. This is a true structural treatment,
+and is honest in expression also.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i074bfull.jpg">
+<img id="i074b" class="wrap" src="images/i074b.jpg" width="300" height="213" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>I do not give this as a principle applicable to one class of furniture
+only, but to all. When we have "pinned" furniture with an open
+structure <a href="#i071">(see the back of chair, Fig. 33)</a>, the mode of putting
+together must of necessity be manifest; but in all other cases the
+tenons should also go through, and the pins by which they are held in
+their place be driven from one surface to the other side right through
+the member.</p>
+
+<p>In the commencement of this chapter on furniture, I said that after
+the most convenient form has been chosen for an object, and after it
+has been arranged that the material of which it is to be formed shall
+be worked in the most natural or befitting way, that then the
+block-form must be looked to, after which comes the division of the
+mass into primary parts, and lastly, the consideration of detail.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i075full.jpg">
+<img id="i075" class="wrapr" src="images/i075.jpg" width="300" height="583" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>As to the block-form, let it be simple, and have the appearance of
+appropriateness and consistency. Its character must be regulated, to
+an extent, by the nature of the house for which the furniture is
+intended, and by the character of the room in which it is to be
+placed. All I can say to the student on this part of the subject is
+this: Carefully consider good works of furniture whenever opportunity
+occurs, and note their general conformation. A fine work will never
+have strong architectural qualities&mdash;that is, it will not look like
+part of a building formed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> of wood instead of stone. There is but
+small danger of committing any great error in the block-form, if it be
+kept simple, and to look like a work in wood, provided that the
+proportions of height to width and of width and height to thickness
+are duly cared for <a href="#Page_23">(see page 23)</a>.</p>
+
+<p>After the general form has been considered, the mass may be broken
+into primary and secondary parts. Thus, if we have to construct a
+cabinet, the upper part of which consists of a cupboard, and the lower
+portion of drawers, we should have to determine the proportion which
+the one part should bear to the other. This is an invariable
+rule&mdash;that the work must not consist of equal parts; thus, if the
+whole cabinet be six feet in height, the cupboards could not be three
+feet while the drawers occupied three feet also. The division would
+have to be of a subtle character&mdash;of a character which could not be
+readily detected. Thus the cupboard might be three feet five inches,
+and the drawers collectively two feet seven inches. If the drawers are
+not all to be of the same depth, then the relation of one drawer, as
+regards its size, to that of another must be considered, and of each
+to the cupboard above. In like manner the proportion of the panels of
+the doors to the styles must be thought out; and until all this has
+been done no work should ever be constructed.</p>
+
+<p>Next comes the enrichment of parts. Carving should be sparingly used,
+and is best confined to mouldings, or projecting or terminal ends. If
+employed in mouldings, those members should be enriched which are more
+or less completely guarded from dust and injury by some overhanging
+member. If more carving is used, it should certainly be a mere
+enrichment of necessary structure&mdash;as we see on the legs and other
+uprights of Mr. Crace's sideboard, by Pugin (Fig. 41). I am not fond
+of carved panels, but should these be employed the carving should
+never project beyond the styles surrounding them, and in all cases of
+carving no pointed members must protrude so as to injure the person or
+destroy the dress of those who use the piece of furniture. If carving
+is used sparingly, it gives us the impression<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>that it is valuable;
+if it is lavishly employed, it appears to be comparatively worthless.
+The aim of art is the production of repose. A large work of furniture
+which is carved all over cannot produce the necessary sense of repose,
+and is therefore objectionable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter clearright">
+<a href="images/i076full.jpg">
+<img id="i076" src="images/i076.jpg" width="600" height="781" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>There may be an excess of finish in works of carving connected with
+cabinet-work; for if the finish is too delicate there is a lack of
+effect in the result. A piece of furniture is not a miniature work,
+which is to be investigated in every detail. It is an object of
+utility, which is to appear beautiful in a room, and is not to command
+undivided attention; it is a work which is to combine with other works
+in rendering an apartment beautiful. The South Kensington Museum
+purchased in the last Paris International Exhibition, at great cost, a
+cabinet from Fourdonois; but it is a very unsatisfactory specimen, as
+it is too delicate, too tender, and too fine for a work of utility&mdash;it
+is an example of what should be avoided rather than of what should be
+followed. The delicately carved and beautiful panels of the doors, if
+cut in marble and used as mere pieces of sculpture, would have been
+worthy of the highest commendation; but works of this kind wrought in
+a material that has a "grain," however little the grain may show, are
+absurd. Besides, the subjects are of too pictorial a character for
+"applied work"&mdash;that is, they are treated in too pictorial or
+naturalistic a manner. A broad, simple, idealised treatment of the
+figure is that which is alone legitimate in cabinet work.</p>
+
+<p>Supports or columns carved into the form of human figures are always
+objectionable.</p>
+
+<p>Besides carving, as a means of enrichment, we have inlaying, painting,
+and the applying of plaques of stone or earthenware, and of brass or
+ormolu enrichments, and we have the inserting of brass into the
+material when buhl-work is formed.</p>
+
+<p>Inlaying is a very natural and beautiful means of enriching works of
+furniture, for it leaves the flatness of the surface undisturbed. A
+great deal may be done in this way by the employment of simple means.
+A mere row of circular dots of black wood inlaid in oak will often
+give a remarkably good effect; and the dots can be "worked" with the
+utmost ease. Three dots form a trefoil, four dots a quatrefoil, six
+dots a hexafoil, and so on, and desirable effects can often be
+produced by such simple inlays.</p>
+
+<p>Panels of cabinets may be painted, and enriched with ornament or
+flatly-treated figure subjects. This is a beautiful mode of decoration
+very much neglected. The couch (Fig. 37) I intended for enrichment of
+this kind. If this form is employed, care should be exercised in order
+that the painted work be in all cases so situated that it cannot be
+rubbed. It should fill sunk panels and hollows and never appear on
+advancing members.</p>
+
+<p>I am not fond of the application of plaques of stone or earthenware to
+works<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> of furniture. Anything that is brittle is not suitable as an
+enrichment of wood-work, unless it can be so placed as to be out of
+danger.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i078full.jpg">
+<img id="i078" class="wrap" src="images/i078.jpg" width="300" height="481" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ormolu ornaments, when applied to cabinets and other works in wood,
+are also never satisfactory. They look too separate from the wood of
+which the work is formed&mdash;too obviously applied; and whatever is
+obviously <i>applied</i> to the work, and is not a portion of its general
+fabric, whether a mass of flowers even if carved in wood or an ormolu
+ornament, is not pleasant.</p>
+
+<p>Buhl-work is often very clever in character and skilfully wrought, but
+I do not care for it. It is of too laborious a nature, and thus
+intrudes upon us the sense of labour as well as that of skill. As a
+means of enrichment, I approve of carving, sparingly used, of inlays,
+and of painted ornament in certain cases; and by the just employment
+of these means the utmost beauty in cabinet-work can be achieved.
+Ebony inlaid with ivory is very beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>In order to illustrate my remarks respecting cabinets, sideboards, and
+similar pieces of furniture, I give an engraving of a sideboard
+executed by Mr. Crace, from the design of Mr. A. Welby Pugin (the
+father), to which I have before alluded (Fig. 41), and a painted
+cabinet by Mr. Burgess (Fig. 42), the well-known Gothic architect,
+whose architecture must be admired. Both of these works are worthy of
+study of a very careful kind.</p>
+
+<p>In the sideboard, notice first the general structure or construction
+of the work, then the manner in which it is broken into parts, and
+lastly, that it is the structural members which are carved. If this
+work has faults, they are these: first, the carving is in
+excess&mdash;thus, the panels would have been better plain; and, second, in
+some parts there is a slight indication of a stone structure, as in
+the buttress character of the ends of the sideboard.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To the cabinet much more serious objections may be taken.</p>
+
+<p>1st. A roof is a means whereby the weather is kept out of a dwelling,
+and tiles afford a means whereby small pieces of material enable us to
+form a perfect covering to our houses of a weather-proof character. It
+is very absurd, then, to treat the roof of a cabinet, which is to
+stand in a room, as if it were an entire house, or an object which
+were to stand in a garden.</p>
+
+<p>2nd. The windows in the roof, which in the case of a house let light
+into those rooms which are placed in this part of the building, and
+are formed in a particular manner so as the more perfectly to exclude
+rain, become simply stupid when placed in the roof of a cabinet.
+These, together with the imitation tiled roof, degrade the work to a
+mere doll's house in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>3rd. A panelled structure, which is the strongest and best structure,
+is ignored; hence strong metal bindings are necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The painting of the work is highly interesting, and had it been more
+flatly treated, would then have been truthful, and would yet have lent
+the same interest to the cabinet that it now does, even if we consider
+the matter from a purely pictorial point of view.</p>
+
+<p>Before we pass from a consideration of furniture and cabinet-work
+generally, we must notice a few points to which we have as yet merely
+referred, or which we have left altogether unnoticed. Thus we have to
+consider upholstery as applied to works of furniture, the materials
+employed as coverings for seats, and the nature of picture-frames and
+curtain-poles; we must also notice general errors in furniture,
+strictly so called.</p>
+
+<p>When examining certain wardrobes and cabinets in the International
+Exhibition of 1862, I was forcibly impressed with the structural truth
+of one or two of these works. One especially commended itself to me as
+a fine structural work of classic character. Just as I was expressing
+my admiration, the exhibitor threw open the doors of this well-formed
+wardrobe to show me its internal fittings, when, fancy my feelings at
+beholding the first door bearing with it, as it opened, the two
+pilasters that I conceived to be the supports of the somewhat heavy
+cornice above, and the other door bearing away the third support, and
+thus leaving the superincumbent mass resting on the thin sides of the
+structure only, while they appeared altogether unable to perform the
+duty imposed upon them. "Horrible! horrible!" was all I could exclaim.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most costly works of furniture shown by the French in the
+last Paris International Exhibition were not free from this defect;
+and this is strange, for to the rightly constituted mind this one
+defect is of such a grave character as to neutralise whatever pleasure
+might otherwise be derived from contemplating the work. We see a man,
+a genius perhaps&mdash;a man having qualities that all must admire; but he
+has one great vice&mdash;one sin which easily besets him. While the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> man
+has excellent and estimable qualities, we yet avoid him, for we see
+not the excellences but the vice. It is so with such works of
+furniture as those of which we have been speaking, for their defects
+are such as impress us more powerfully than their excellences.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting these works of furniture, this should be said: they are
+more or less imitative of works of a debased art-period&mdash;of a period
+in which structural truth was utterly disregarded&mdash;yet this is no
+reason why we should copy the defects of our ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>Infinitely worse than the works just spoken of, is falsely constructed
+Gothic furniture, where the very truthfulness of structure is openly
+set before us. Not long since I was staying with a client whose house
+is of Gothic style. Being about to furnish drawings for the
+decorations of this mansion, I was carefully noting the character of
+the architecture and of the furniture, which latter had been designed
+and manufactured expressly for the house by a large Yorkshire firm of
+cabinet-makers. The structure of the furniture appeared just, the
+proportions tolerably good, the wood honest, and the inlays judicious;
+but, can it be imagined, the whole was a mere series of frauds and
+shams&mdash;the cross-grain ends of what should be supports were attached
+to the fronts of drawers, pillars came away, and such falsity became
+apparent as I never before saw. How any person could possibly produce
+such furniture, be he ever so degraded, I cannot think. I have seen
+works that are bad, I have seen falsities in art, but I never before
+saw such falsity of structure and such uncalled-for deception as these
+works presented. The untrue is always offensive; but when a special
+effort is made at causing a lie to appear as truth, a double sense of
+disappointment is experienced when the untruthfulness is discovered.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i081full.jpg">
+<img id="i081" class="wrapr" src="images/i081.jpg" width="300" height="312" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>In his work on "Household Taste," to which I have before alluded, Mr.
+Eastlake objects, and I think very justly, to the character of an
+ordinary telescopic dining-table. He says: "Among the dining-room
+appointments, the table is an article of furniture which stands
+greatly in need of reform. It is generally made of planks of polished
+oak or mahogany laid upon an insecure framework of the same material,
+and supported by four gouty legs, ornamented by the turner with
+mouldings which look like inverted cups and saucers piled upon an
+attic baluster. I call the framework insecure, because I am describing
+what is commonly called a 'telescope' table, or one which can be
+pulled out to twice its usual length, and, by the addition of extra
+leaves in its middle, accommodate twice the usual number of diners.
+Such a table cannot be soundly made in the same sense that ordinary
+furniture is sound; it must depend for its support on some contrivance
+which is not consistent with the material of which it is made. Few
+people would like to sit on a chair the legs of which slid in and out,
+and were fastened at the required height by a pin; there would be a
+sense of insecurity in the notion eminently unpleasant. You might put
+up with such an invention in camp, or on a sketching expedition, but
+to have it and use it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> under your own roof, instead of a strong and
+serviceable chair, would be absurd. Yet this is very much what we do
+in the case of the modern dining-room table. When it is extended it
+looks weak and untidy at the sides; when it is reduced to its shortest
+length the legs appear heavy and ill-proportioned. It is always liable
+to get out of order, and from the very nature of its construction must
+be an inartistic object. Why should such a table be made at all? A
+dining-room is a room to dine in. Whether there are few or many people
+seated for that purpose, the table might well be kept of a uniform
+length, and if space is an object it is always possible to use in its
+stead two small tables, each on four legs. These might be placed end
+to end when dinner parties are given, and one of them would suffice
+for family use. A table of this kind might be solidly and stoutly
+framed, so as to last for ages, and become, as all furniture ought to
+become, an heirloom in the family. When a man builds himself a house
+on freehold land, he does not intend that it shall only last his
+lifetime; he bequeaths it in sound condition to posterity. We ought to
+be ashamed of furniture which is continually being replaced; at all
+events, we cannot possibly take any interest in such furniture. In
+former days, when the principles of good joinery were really
+understood, the legs of such a large table as that of the dining-room
+would have been made of a very different form from the lumpy,
+pear-shaped things of modern use."</p>
+
+<p>In nearly all these remarks I agree with Mr. Eastlake, and especially
+in his remark that, owing to the very nature of its construction, a
+modern dining-table must be an inartistic object. No work can be
+satisfactory in which any portions of the true supporting structure or
+frame are drawn apart; and this occurs to a marked degree in this
+table, as is shown in Mr. Eastlake's illustration, which we here copy
+(Fig. 43).</p>
+
+<p>Falsities of structure, although not so glaring as that of the
+telescopic dining-table, are everywhere met with in our shops, and,
+curious as it may appear, the great majority of the works offered to
+the public are not only false in structure, but are utterly offensive
+to good taste in every way, and are formed almost exclusively of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> wood
+cut across the grain, which secures to the article the maximum amount
+of weakness. Figs. 44, 45, 46, and 47 are examples of utterly bad
+furniture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i082full.jpg">
+<img id="i082" src="images/i082.jpg" width="600" height="739" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another falsity in furniture is veneering&mdash;a practice which should be
+wholly abandoned. Simple honesty is preferable to false show in all
+cases; truthfulness in utterance is always to be desired. It was
+customary at one time to veneer almost<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> every work of furniture, and
+even to place the grain of the veneer in a manner totally at variance
+with the true structure of the framework which it covered. This was a
+method of making works, which might in their unfinished state be
+satisfactory, appear when finished as most unsatisfactory objects.
+Since this time much progress has been made in a knowledge of truthful
+structure and of truthful expression, yet this method of giving a
+false surface by means of veneer is not wholly abandoned as despicable
+and false.</p>
+
+<p>A few months back I had occasion to visit a cabinet warehouse in
+Lancashire, and the owner called my attention to the fine grain of
+some old English oak, and remarked that certain pieces of furniture
+were of solid wood. Upon investigation, however, I discovered that
+while the furniture in question was made throughout of oak, the bulk
+of the structure was of common wainscoting, and the surface was
+veneered with English oak. I confess that I would much rather have had
+the furniture without its false exterior, and daily my love for fine
+grain in wood gets less. I think that this arises from the fact that
+strong grain in wood takes from the "unity" of the work into which it
+is formed, and tends to break it up into parts, by rendering every
+member conspicuous. What is wanted in a work of furniture, before all
+other considerations, is a fine general form&mdash;a harmony of all
+parts&mdash;so that no one member usurps a primary place&mdash;and this it is
+almost impossible to achieve if a wood is employed having a strongly
+marked grain.</p>
+
+<p>With us a room is considered as almost unfurnished if the windows are
+not hung with some kind of drapery. The original object of this
+drapery was that of keeping out a draught of air, which found its way
+through the imperfectly fitting windows; and the antitype of our
+window-hangings was a simple curtain, formed of a material suitable to
+achieve the purpose sought. Such a curtain was legitimate and
+desirable, and would contrast strangely with the elaborate festooning
+and quadrupled curtains of our present windows. We daily see yards of
+valuable material, arranged in massive and absurd folds, shutting out
+that light which is necessary to our health and well-being; a pair of
+heavy stuff curtains and a pair of lace curtains being hung at each
+window, each curtain consisting of a sufficient amount of material to
+more than cover the window of itself. An excess of drapery is always
+vulgar, while a little drapery usefully and judiciously employed is
+pleasant.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i084afull.jpg">
+<img id="i084a" class="wrapr" src="images/i084a.jpg" width="300" height="135" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many windows that are well made, and thus keep out all currents of
+air, need no curtains. If the window mouldings are of an architectural
+character, and are coloured much darker than the wall, so as to become
+an obvious frame to the window, and thus do for the window what a
+picture-frame does for a picture, no curtains will be required. I have
+recently had a wonderfully striking illustration of this. Two
+adjoining rooms are alike in their architecture; one is decorated, and
+has the window casement of such colours as strongly contrast, while
+they are yet harmonious, with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> the wall. Before the room was
+decorated, and the windows were thus treated, a general light colour
+prevailed, both on the wood-work and on the walls of the room, and
+curtains were hung at the windows in the usual way. With the altered
+decorations, the windows became so effective that I at once saw the
+undesirability of re-hanging the curtains, and yet not one of all my
+friends has observed that there are no curtains to the windows; while
+if the curtains are removed from the adjoining room, where the
+window-frames are as light as the walls, the first question asked is,
+"Where are your curtains?"</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i084bfull.jpg">
+<img id="i084b" class="wrap" src="images/i084b.jpg" width="300" height="391" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Curtains should be hung on a simple and obvious pole (Fig. 48). All
+means of hiding this pole are foolish and useless. This pole need not
+be very thick, and is better formed of wood than of metal, for then
+the rings to which the curtains are attached pass along almost
+noiselessly. The ends of the pole may be of metal, but I prefer simple
+balls of wood. The pole may be grooved, and any little enrichments may
+be introduced into these grooves, providing the carving does not come
+to the surface, and thus touch the rings, which by their motion would
+injure it. Whatever is used in the way of enrichment should be of
+simple character, for the height at which the curtain pole is placed
+would render fine work altogether ineffective.</p>
+
+<p>As to upholstery, I would say, never indulge in an excess. A wood
+frame should appear in every work of furniture, as in the examples we
+have given. Sofas are now made as though they were feather beds; they
+are so soft that you sink into them, and become uncomfortably warm by
+merely resting upon them, and their gouty forms are relieved only by a
+few inches of wood, which appear as legs. Stuffing should be employed
+only as a means of rendering a properly constructed seat comfortably
+soft. If it goes beyond this it is vulgar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>and objectionable. Spring
+stuffing is not to be altogether commended; a good old-fashioned
+hair-stuffed seat is more desirable, as it will endure when springs
+have perished. As to the materials with which seats may be covered I
+can say little, for they are many. Hair cloth, although very durable,
+is altogether inartistic in its effect. Nothing is better than leather
+for dining-room chairs; Utrecht velvet, either plain or embossed,
+looks well on library chairs; silk and satin damasks, rep, plain
+cloth, and many other fabrics are appropriate to drawing-room
+furniture. Chintz I am not fond of as a chair covering, and in a
+bed-room I would rather have chairs with plain wooden seats than with
+cushions covered with this glazed material.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter clearleft">
+<a href="images/i085full.jpg">
+<img id="i085" src="images/i085.jpg" width="600" height="890" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>With a mere remark upon picture-frames I will finish this chapter.
+Picture-frames are generally elaborately carved mouldings, or are
+simple mouldings covered with ornaments, which, whether carved or
+formed of putty, are overlaid with gold leaf; they are, indeed, highly
+ornamented gilt mouldings. I much prefer a well-formed, yet somewhat
+simple, black polished moulding, on the interior of which runs a gold
+bead (Fig. 49). A fanciful yet good picture-frame was figured in the
+<i>Building News</i> of September 7th, 1866, which we now repeat (Fig.
+50).</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> For full particulars on this subject see "Catalogue of
+the Collection illustrating Construction and Building Material," in
+the South Kensington Museum, and the manual of "Technical Drawing for
+Cabinetmakers," by E. A. Davidson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> The title of the work is "Hints on Household Taste." It
+is well worth reading, as much may be learned from it. I think Mr.
+Eastlake right in many views, yet wrong in others, but I cannot help
+regarding him somewhat as an apostle of ugliness, as he appears to me
+to despise finish and refinement.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> In my drawing, the stuffing of the back has been
+accidentally shown too much rounded.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>DECORATION OF BUILDINGS.</h3>
+
+<h3>DIVISION I.&mdash;GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS&mdash;CEILINGS.</h3>
+
+<p>Having considered furniture, the formation of which requires a
+knowledge of construction, or of what we may term structural art, we
+pass on to notice principles involved in the decoration of surfaces,
+or in "surface decoration," as it is usually called. We commence by
+considering how rooms should be decorated; yet, in so doing, we are
+met at the very outset with a great difficulty, as the nature of the
+decoration of a room should be determined by the character of its
+architecture. My difficulty rests here. How am I to tell you what is
+the just decoration for a room, when the suitability of the decoration
+is often dependent upon even structural and ornamental details; and
+when, in all cases, the character of the decoration should be in
+harmony with the character of the architecture? Broadly, if a building
+is in the Gothic style, all that it contains in the way of decoration,
+and of furniture also, should be Gothic. If the building is Greek, the
+decorations and furniture should be Greek. If the building is Italian,
+all its decorations and furniture should be Italian, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>But there are further requirements. Each term that I have now
+employed, as expressive of a style of architecture, is more or less
+generic in character, and is therefore too broad for general use. What
+is usually termed Gothic architecture, is a group of styles having
+common origin and resemblances, known to the architect as the
+Semi-Norman or Transition style, which occurred in the twelfth century
+under Henry II. (it was at this time that the pointed arch was first
+employed). The Early English, which was developed in the end of the
+twelfth and early part of the thirteenth century, under Richard I.,
+John, and Henry III.; the Decorated, which occurred at the end of the
+thirteenth, and early portion of the fourteenth century, under Edward
+I., Edward II., and Edward III.; the Perpendicular, which occurred at
+the latter part of the fourteenth, and through the greater portion of
+the fifteenth century, under Richard II., Henry IV., V., and VI.,
+Edward IV. and V., and Richard III.; and, lastly, the Tudor, which
+occurred at the end of the fifteenth, and the beginning of the
+sixteenth century, under Henry VII. and Henry VIII. All these styles
+are popularly spoken of as one, and are expressed by the one
+term&mdash;Gothic. It is so also, to an extent, with the Greek, Roman, and
+Italian styles, for each of these appears in various modifications of
+character, but into such details we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> will not enter: it must suffice
+to notice that the character of the decoration must be not only
+broadly in the style of the architecture of the building which it is
+intended to beautify, but it must be similar in nature to the ornament
+produced at precisely the same date as the architecture which has been
+employed for the building.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be supposed that I am an advocate of reproducing works, or
+even styles of architecture, such as were created in times gone by,
+for I am not. The peoples of past ages carefully sought to ascertain
+their wants&mdash;the wants resulting from climate&mdash;the wants resulting
+from the nature of their religion&mdash;the wants resulting from social
+arrangements&mdash;the wants imposed by the building material at command.
+We, on the contrary, look at a hundred old buildings, and without
+considering our wants, as differing from those of our forefathers,
+take a bit from one and a bit from another, or we reproduce one almost
+as it stands, and thus we bungle on, instead of seeking to raise such
+buildings as are in all respects suited to our modern requirements.</p>
+
+<p>Things are, however, much better in this respect than they were. Bold
+men are dealing with the Gothic style in its various forms. Scott,
+Burgess, Street, and many others are venturing to alter it; and thus,
+while it is losing old characteristics, and is acquiring new elements,
+it is already assuming a character which has nobility of expression,
+truthfulness of structure, and suitability to our special
+requirements. In time to come, further changes will doubtless be made;
+and thus the style which arose as an imitation of the past will have
+become new, through constantly departing from the original type, and
+as constantly adopting new elements.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the decoration of a building should be brought about
+by the employment of such ornament as was, in time past, associated
+with the particular form of architecture employed in the building to
+be decorated, if a precisely similar form of architecture previously
+existed. Let not the ornament, however, be a mere servile imitation of
+what has gone before, but let the designer study the ornament of
+bygone ages till he understands and <i>feels</i> its spirit, and then let
+him strive to produce new forms and new combinations in the spirit of
+the ornament of the past.</p>
+
+<p>This must also be carefully noted&mdash;that the ornament of a particular
+period does not consist merely of the forms employed in the
+architecture, drawn in colour on the wall, or the ceiling, as the case
+may be. The particular form of ornament used in association with some
+forms of Gothic architecture was very different in character from what
+we might expect from the nature of the architecture itself, and did
+not to any extent consist of flatly-treated crockets, gable ends,
+trefoils, cinque-foils, etc. The ornament of the past must be studied
+in its purity, and not from those wretched attempts at the production
+of Gothic decoration which we often see.</p>
+
+<p>In what we may call the typical English house of the present day there
+is really no architecture, and if such a building is to be decorated
+it is almost legitimate to employ any style of ornamentation. In such
+a case I should choose a style<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> which has no very marked
+features&mdash;which is not strongly Greek, or strongly Gothic, or strongly
+Italian; and if there is the necessary ability, I should say try and
+produce ornaments having novelty of character, and yet showing your
+knowledge of the good qualities of all styles that are past. If this
+is attempted, care must be exercised in order to avoid getting a mere
+combination of elements from various styles as one ornament. Nothing
+can be worse than to see a bit of Greek, a fragment of Egyptian, an
+Alhambraic scroll, a Gothic flower, and an Italian husk associated
+together as one ornament; unless this were done advisedly and in order
+to meet a very special want, such an ornamental composition would be
+detestable. What I recommend is the production of new forms; but the
+new composition may have the vigour of the best Gothic ornament, the
+severity of Egyptian, the intricacy of the Persian, the gorgeousness
+of the Alhambra, and so on, only it must not imitate in detail the
+various styles of the past.</p>
+
+<p>Now as to the decoration of a room. If one part only can be decorated,
+let that one part be the ceiling. Nothing appears to me more strange
+than that our ceilings, which can be properly seen, are usually white
+in middle-class houses, while the walls, which are always in part
+hidden, and even the floor, on which we tread, should have colour and
+pattern applied to them; and of this I am certain, that, considered
+from a decorative point of view, our ordinary treatment is wrong.</p>
+
+<p>We glory in a clear blue sky overhead, and we speak of the sky as
+increasing in beauty as it becomes deeper and deeper in tint. Thus the
+depth of the tint of the Italian sky is familiar to us all. Why, then,
+make our ceilings white? I often ask this question, and am told that
+the whiteness renders the ceiling almost invisible; hence it is
+preferred. This idea is very absurd; first, because blue is the most
+ethereal and most distant of all colours
+<a href="#Page_33">(see Chap. II., page 33)</a>;
+and, second, do we not build a house with the view of procuring
+shelter? hence why do we seek to realise the feeling that we are
+without a covering over our heads? We only like a white ceiling
+because we have been accustomed to such from infancy, and because we
+have been taught to regard a clean white ceiling as all that is to be
+desired. I knew a Yorkshire lady who, upon being asked by her husband
+whether she would like the drawing-room ceiling decorated, replied
+that she thought not, as she could not then have it re-whitewashed
+every year. The idea was clean certainly. Blue, I have said, is
+ethereal in character; it is so, and may become exceedingly so if of
+medium depth and of a grey hue; hence, if a mere atmospheric effect
+was sought, it would be desirable that this colour be used on the
+ceiling rather than white. But, as we have just said, invisibility of
+the ceiling is absurd, as it is our protection from the weather.
+Further, the ceiling may become an object of great beauty, and it can
+be seen as a whole. Why then neglect the opportunity of arranging a
+beautiful object when there is no reason to the contrary? We like a
+beautiful coloured vase, or, if we do not, we can have it whitewashed,
+or even dispense with it altogether.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> We like beautiful walls, or we
+would have them whitewashed also; indeed, we like our surroundings
+generally beautiful. Why not, then, have beautiful ceilings,
+especially as they can be seen complete, while the wall is in part
+hidden by furniture and pictures?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i090full.jpg">
+<img id="i090" src="images/i090.jpg" width="600" height="613" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>I will suppose that we have an ordinary room to deal with. First, take
+away<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> the wretched plaster ornament in the centre of the ceiling, for
+it is sure to be bad. There is not one such ornament out of a thousand
+that can be so treated as to make the ceiling look as well as it would
+do without it. Now place all over the ceiling a flat painted or
+stencilled pattern, a pattern which repeats equally in all directions
+(as Fig. 51), and let this pattern be in blue (of any depth) and
+white, or in blue (of any depth) and cream-colour, and it is sure to
+look well (the blue being the ground, and the cream-colour or white
+the ornament).</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i091full.jpg">
+<img id="i091" class="wrapr" src="images/i091.jpg" width="300" height="409" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Simple patterns in cream-colour on blue ground, but having a black
+outline, also look well (Fig. 52); and these might be prepared in
+paper, and hung on the ceiling as common paper-hangings, if cheapness
+is essential. Gold ornaments on a deep blue ground, with black
+outline, also look rich and effective. These are all, however, simple
+treatments, for any amount of colour may be used on a ceiling,
+provided the colours are employed in very small masses, and perfectly
+mingled, so that the effect produced is that of a rich coloured bloom
+<a href="#Page_46">(see Chap. II., page 46)</a>. A ceiling should be beautiful, and should
+also be manifest; but if it must be somewhat indistinct, in order that
+the caprices of the ignorant be humoured, let the pattern be in
+middle-tint or pale blue and white only.</p>
+
+<p>I like to see the ceiling of a room covered all over with a suitable
+pattern, but I do not at all object to a large central ornament only,
+or to a centre ornament and corners; especially if the cornice is
+heavy, so as to give compensating weight to the margin. I have
+recently designed and seen carried out one or two centre ornaments for
+drawing-rooms, which ornaments were twenty-one feet in diameter. A
+centre ornament, if properly treated, may be very large without
+looking heavy; it may, indeed, extend at least two-thirds of the way
+from the centre to the margin of the ceiling. I do not speak of
+plaster ornaments, but of flat decorations.</p>
+
+<p>If the ceiling is flat all ornament placed upon it must not only be
+flat also, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> must not fictitiously represent relief, for no shaded
+ornament can be pleasant when placed as the decoration of a flat
+architectural surface.</p>
+
+<p>I have already noticed that the decoration of a room should be in
+character with its architecture, but that while this should be so, the
+ornament applied by way of enrichment should not be a servile copy of
+the decorative forms employed in ages gone by, but should be such as
+is new in character, while yet of the spirit of the past.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i092full.jpg">
+<img id="i092" src="images/i092.jpg" width="600" height="598" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many circumstances tend to determine the nature of the decoration
+which should be applied to a ceiling: thus, if a ceiling is
+structurally divided into square panels, the character of the ornament
+is thereby restricted, and should these panels be large it will
+probably be desirable that each be fitted with the same ornament;
+while if they are small three or four different patterns may be
+employed, if arranged in some orderly or methodical manner.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i093full.jpg">
+<img id="i093" src="images/i093.jpg" width="600" height="761" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A ceiling may also have the joists or beams visible upon it: in this
+case the decoration would have to be of a very special character. The
+bottoms of the joists might have a string pattern upon them (a running
+pattern), as the "Greek key," or guilloche; whilst the sides might
+have either a running pattern, or a pattern with an upward tendency,
+as the "Greek honeysuckle;" and the ceiling intervening<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> between the
+joists might have a running pattern, or better, a star, or diaper
+pattern, or it might have bands running in the opposite direction to
+the joists, so as, with them, to form squares, which squares might be
+filled with ornament.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i094full.jpg">
+<img id="i094" src="images/i094.jpg" width="600" height="716" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>If, however, the ceiling is flat, and is not divided into sections
+structurally, almost any "setting out" of the surface may be employed,
+as Fig. 53; or a large centre ornament, as Figs. 54 and 55; or a
+rosette distributed over the entire surface, as Fig. 56. In any case
+it is not necessary or even desirable that the ornament be in relief
+upon the ceiling. Flatly treated ornaments may be employed with
+advantage, and all fictitious appearance of relief, as we have already
+said, must be avoided.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are so many different ways of setting out ceilings, that I
+cannot attempt even to make any suggestions. I would simply say,
+however, Avoid an architectural setting out, if there are no
+structural members; for ornament which is flat may spread in any
+manner over a surface without even appearing to need structural
+supports. As to the colour of a ceiling if there is to be no ornament
+upon it, let it be a cream-colour (formed of white with a little
+middle-chrome) rather than white. Cream-colour always looks well upon
+a ceiling, and gives the idea of purity. A grey-blue is also a very
+desirable colour for a ceiling, such as is formed of pale ultramarine,
+white, and a little raw umber, just sufficient to make the blue
+slightly grey (or atmospheric). In depth this blue should be about
+half-way between the ultramarine and white. Another effect which I
+like is produced by the full colour of pure (or almost pure)
+ultramarine. In this case the cornice should be carefully coloured,
+and pale blue and white should prevail in it, but a little pure red
+must be present.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i095full.jpg">
+<img id="i095" class="wrapr" src="images/i095.jpg" width="300" height="304" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A further and very desirable effect is produced by placing pale
+cream-coloured stars irregularly over the pale blue, or even the deep
+blue ceiling, or by placing pale blue stars upon the cream-coloured
+ceiling. The stars should vary for an ordinary room ceiling (say a
+room sixteen feet square by ten feet high) from about three inches
+from point to point down to one inch; the larger stars having six
+points; others being smaller and with five points; and the small ones
+having, some four points, and some three. If such stars are
+irregularly (without order) intermixed over the ceiling, and yet are
+somewhat equally dispersed, a very pleasing and interesting effect
+will thereby be produced. This effect is in much favour with the
+Japanese. The stars, however, should be smaller if placed on a deep,
+than on a pale, blue ground.</p>
+
+<p>Another good effect is produced by giving the ceiling the colour of
+Bath, or Portland, stone, and starring it with a deeper tint of the
+same colour. This effect<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> is improved by each star having a very fine
+outline of a yet darker tint of the same colour.</p>
+
+<p>I should recommend those interested in the decoration of ceilings to
+study carefully the Egyptian, Alhambra, and Greek Courts at the
+Crystal Palace, Sydenham, especially the two last named; also to
+notice the ceiling in St. James's Great Hall, Piccadilly, London, and
+the ceiling of Ushaw College chapel near Durham. The ceilings in the
+Oriental Courts, by Mr. Owen Jones, at the South Kensington Museum are
+worthy of careful notice; but the Renaissance ceilings in other parts
+of the Museum are both wrong in principle and are bad examples of
+their style. The structurally formed glass ceiling of the Crystal
+Palace Bazaar in Oxford Street, London, and still better, the ceiling
+of Mr. Osler's glass warehouse in Oxford Street, are well worthy of
+note.</p>
+
+<p>On the Continent we very frequently meet with ceilings on which large
+pictures have been painted, as in the Louvre and the Luxembourg in
+Paris; and the authorities of the South Kensington Museum are making
+efforts to introduce this style into England, but such pictorial
+ceilings are in every way wrong.</p>
+
+<p>1st. A ceiling is a flat surface, hence all decoration placed upon it
+should be flat also.</p>
+
+<p>2nd. A picture can only be correctly seen from one point, whereas the
+decoration of a ceiling should be of such a character that it can be
+properly seen from any part of the room.</p>
+
+<p>3rd. Pictures have almost invariably a right and wrong way upwards. A
+picture placed on a ceiling is thus wrong way upwards to almost all
+the guests in the room.</p>
+
+<p>4th. In order to the proper understanding of a picture, you must see
+the whole of its surface at one time; this is very difficult to do
+without almost breaking your neck, or being on your back on the floor,
+if the picture is on the ceiling; whereas an ornament which consists
+of repeated parts may render a ceiling beautiful without requiring
+that the whole ceiling be seen at the one glance.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the French pictorial ceilings are so painted that they are
+properly seen when the spectator stands with his back close to the
+fire. This is very awkward, as the rules of society do not allow us to
+stand in this position before company. Pictorial works are altogether
+out of place on a ceiling; they ought to be framed and hung right way
+upwards upon walls where they can be seen. We have a well-known
+painted ceiling at the Greenwich Hospital.</p>
+
+<p>Arabesque ceilings, such as that of the Roman Court at the Crystal
+Palace, are also very objectionable.</p>
+
+<p>What can be worse than festoons of leafage, like so many sausages,
+painted upon a ceiling, with griffins, small framed pictures,
+impossible flowers, and feeble ornament, all with fictitious light and
+shade? But not content with such absurdities<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> and incongruities, the
+festoons often hang upwards on vaulted or domed ceilings, rather than
+downwards. Such ornaments arose when Rome, intoxicated with its
+conquests, yielded itself up to luxury and vice rather than to a
+consideration of beauty and truth.</p>
+
+<p>Decorations like these were to an extent again revived by the great
+painter Raphael; but it must ever be remembered that Raphael, while
+one of the greatest of painters, was no ornamentist. It requires all
+the energy of a life to become a great painter; and it requires all
+the energy of a life to become a great ornamentist; hence it is not
+expected that the one man should be great at the two arts.</p>
+
+<p>In all ages when decorative art has flourished, ceilings have been
+decorated. The Egyptians decorated their ceilings, so did the Greeks,
+the Byzantines, the Moors, and the people of our Middle Ages, and a
+light ceiling appears not to have been esteemed as essential, or as in
+many cases desirable. It is strange that so few of our houses and
+public buildings contain rooms with decorated ceilings; but the want
+is already felt, the fashion has set in, and many are at this present
+moment being prepared. We must get simple modes of enrichment for
+general rooms&mdash;modes of treatment which shall be effective, and yet
+not expensive&mdash;and then we may hope that they will become general.</p>
+
+<h3>DIVISION II.&mdash;DECORATIONS OF WALLS.</h3>
+
+<p>We must now devote ourselves to the consideration of wall decoration,
+or to the manner in which ornament should be applied to walls with the
+view of rendering them decorative.</p>
+
+<p>It will appear absurd to say that all ornament that is applied to a
+wall should be such as will render the wall more beautiful than it
+would be without it; but this statement is needed, for I have seen
+many walls ornamented in such a manner, that they would have looked
+much better if they had been perfectly plain, and simply washed over
+with a tint of colour.</p>
+
+<p>To ornament is to beautify. To decorate is to ornament. But a surface
+cannot be beautified unless the forms which are drawn upon it are
+graceful, or bold, or vigorous, or true, and unless the colours
+applied to it are harmonious. Yet how many walls do we meet with even
+in good houses&mdash;walls of corridors, walls of staircases, walls of
+dining-rooms, walls of libraries, and, indeed, walls of every kind of
+room&mdash;which are rendered offensive, rather than pleasing, by the
+decorations they bear.</p>
+
+<p>A wall may look well without decoration strictly so called, and this
+statement leads me to notice the various ways in which walls may be
+treated with the view of rendering them beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>A wall may be simply tinted either with "distemper" colour, or oil
+colour "flatted." Distemper colour gives the best effect, and is much
+the cheapest, but it is not durable, and cannot be washed. Oil colour
+when flatted makes a nice wall,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> whether "stippled" or plain, and is
+both durable and washable. An entire wall should never be varnished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i098afull.jpg">
+<img id="i098a" src="images/i098a.jpg" width="600" height="256" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>I say that a wall can look well even if not decorated. Let me give one
+or two instances; but, perhaps, I had better give treatments for the
+entire room, including the ceiling, and not for the wall simply.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i098bfull.jpg">
+<img id="i098b" src="images/i098b.jpg" width="600" height="321" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A good effect of a very plain and inexpensive character would be
+produced by having a black skirting, a cream-colour wall (this colour
+to be made of the colour called middle-chrome and white, and to
+resemble in depth the best pure cream), a cornice coloured with pale
+blue of greyish tint, with deep blue, white, and a slight line of red,
+and a ceiling of blue of almost any depth. The ceiling colour to be
+pure French ultramarine, or this ultramarine mixed with white and a
+touch of raw umber (the cornice blues to be made in the same way). The
+red in the cornice to be deep vermilion if very narrow (one-sixteenth
+of an inch), or carmine if broad.<a id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i099full.jpg">
+<img id="i099" src="images/i099.jpg" width="500" height="739" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A room of a slightly more decorative character would be produced by
+making the lower three feet of the wall of a different colour (by
+forming a dado) from the upper part of the wall: thus, if the other
+parts of the room were coloured as in the example just given, the
+lower three feet might be red (vermilion toned to a rich Indian red
+with ultramarine blue) or chocolate (purple-brown and white, with a
+little orange-chrome); this lower portion of the wall being separated
+from the upper cream-coloured portion by a line of black an inch
+broad, or better by a double line, the upper line being an inch broad,
+and the lower line three-eighths of an inch, the lines being separated
+from each other by five-eighths of the red or chocolate.</p>
+
+<p>I like the formation of a dado, for it affords an opportunity of
+giving apparent stability to the wall by making its lower portion
+dark; and furniture is invariably much improved by being seen against
+a dark background. The occupants of a room always look better when
+viewed in conjunction with a dark background, and ladies' dresses
+certainly do. The dark dado gives the desired background without
+rendering it necessary that the entire wall be dark. If the furniture
+be mahogany, it will be wonderfully improved by being placed against a
+chocolate wall.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i101full.jpg">
+<img id="i101" class="wrapr" src="images/i101.jpg" width="300" height="369" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dado of a room need not be plain; indeed, it may be enriched to
+any extent. It may be plain with a bordering separating it from the
+wall, such as Figs. 57, 58, and 59, or the coloured border on Plate I.
+(frontispiece); or it may have a simple flower regularly dispersed
+over it; or it may be covered with a geometrical repeating pattern, in
+either of which cases it would have a border; or it may be enriched
+with a specially designed piece of ornament, as Fig. 60. This
+particular pattern should not, however, be enlarged to a height of
+more than twenty <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">[85]</a><br /><a id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>to twenty-four inches; but if of this width, and
+above a skirting of twelve or fifteen inches, it would look well.</p>
+
+<p>I have designed two or three narrow dado papers for Messrs. Wylie and
+Lockhead, of Glasgow, which are about eighteen inches broad, and are
+printed in the direction of the length of the paper, so as to save
+unnecessary joins; and Messrs. Jeffrey and Co., of Essex Road,
+Islington, are issuing a complete series of my decorations for walls,
+dados, and ceilings.</p>
+
+<p>If the dado is enriched with ornament, and the cornice is coloured,
+and a pattern spreads all over the ceiling, the walls can well be
+plain, but they may be covered with a simple "powdering" as the
+patterns in Fig. 6l, if these are in soft colours, or with patterns
+such as those set forth in colours on Plate I.; but these, especially
+that on the blue ground, would only be used where a very rich effect
+is desired.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i102full.jpg">
+<img id="i102" class="wrap" src="images/i102.jpg" width="300" height="435" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A good room would be produced by pattern Fig. 52 being on the ceiling
+in dark blue and cream-colour, by the cornice being coloured with a
+prevalence of dark blue, the walls being cream-colour down to the
+dado; the border separating the dado from the wall being black
+ornament on a dull orange-colour; and by the dado being chocolate with
+a black rosette upon it; the skirting boards being bright black. The
+dado may or may not be varnished; the upper part of the wall can only
+be "dead" (not varnished&mdash;dull). If the room is high a bordering may
+run round the upper portion of the wall, about three to four inches<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+below the cornice; such a border as Fig. 62 may he employed in dull
+orange and chocolate.</p>
+
+<p>A citrine wall comes well with a deep blue, or blue and white ceiling,
+if blue prevails in the cornice, and this wall may have a dark blue
+(ultramarine and black with a little white) dado, or a rich maroon
+dado (brown-lake). If the blue dado is employed the skirting should be
+indigo, which, when varnished and seen in conjunction with the blue,
+will appear as black as jet. (See the coloured examples on
+<a href="#i099">Plate II</a>.,
+and remarks on colour on pages <a href="#Page_45">45</a> and <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Walls are usually papered in middle-class houses. I must not object to
+this universal custom; but I do say, try to avoid showing the joinings
+of the various strips. In all cases where possible cut the paper to
+the pattern, and not in straight lines, for straight joinings are very
+objectionable. If you use paper for walls, use it artistically, and
+not as so much paper. Let a dado be formed of one paper, the dado
+bordering (dado rail) of a suitable paper bordering; the upper part of
+the wall being covered by another paper of simple and just design, and
+of such colour as shall harmonise with the dado. Proceed as an artist,
+and not as a mere workman. Think out an ornamental scheme, and then
+try to realise the desired effect. Avoid all papers in which huge
+bunches of flowers and animals or the human figure are depicted. The
+best for all purposes are those of a simple geometrical character, or
+in which designs similar to those in Fig. 6l are "powdered" or placed
+at regular intervals over a plain ground.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i103full.jpg">
+<img id="i103" src="images/i103.jpg" width="600" height="244" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Just as the ceiling ornament must accord in character with the
+architecture of the room in which it is placed, so must the wall
+decoration be of the same style as the architecture of the room.
+Indeed, whatever we have said respecting the harmony of the ceiling
+decoration with the architecture of the building, applies equally to
+the ornamentation of the wall.</p>
+
+<p>It has been customary to arrange walls into panels when decorating
+them, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> of this mode of treatment we give one illustration (Fig.
+63); yet nothing can be more absurd than such a treatment, unless the
+wall is architecturally (structurally) arched. A wall may be so formed
+that some parts are thick, so as to give the required strength, while
+other portions are thin. In such a case the wall would be formed of
+arched recesses and thickened piers alternately. This being the case,
+the decoration should be so applied as to emphasise, or render
+apparent, this arched structure; but if the wall is of one thickness
+throughout, its division into arches is absurd and foolish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i104full.jpg">
+<img id="i104" src="images/i104.jpg" width="600" height="545" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>We sometimes see great follies, and even gross untruths, perpetrated
+with the view of bringing about the so-called decoration of a room.
+Thus it is not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> unfrequently that we meet with imitation pillars,
+recesses, and arches as the so-called ornamentation of a room.</p>
+
+<p>In low music halls we are not surprised by such decorations, for we do
+not look for truth or any manifestation of delicacy of feeling in such
+places. Falsity and the untrue appear in natural juxtaposition with
+the debased and the vulgar. Sham marble pillars, a fictitious and
+merely imitative architecture, an assumed and unreal, yet coarse and
+vulgar, gorgeousness, are the natural adjuncts of immorality and vice;
+but such falsities cannot be tolerated in the abodes of those who
+pretend to purity and truth, nor in the buildings which they frequent;
+yet even the new Albert Hall has sham marble pillars (I say this to
+our shame), and but recently I visited a church near Edgware, in which
+there is a display of false decoration such as I never before saw.
+Here we find sham pillars, giving a false architecture; sham niches,
+containing sham statues; sham clouds, forming an absurd ceiling; and
+almost every falsity which a falsely constituted mind could
+perpetrate.</p>
+
+<p>How strange it is that in a church, where purity and truth are taught,
+the whole of the decorations should be a sham! It is said that if you
+want to hear a fierce quarrel, and to see true hatred, you must seek
+it in religious sects and among theological discussionists. On the
+same principle, I suppose, we must prepare ourselves for a display of
+the worst art-falsity in the sacred edifice. Perhaps the idea is that
+of contrast. As the teetotal lecturer had a drunken man by him as a
+frightful example of what was to be avoided, so the decorations of
+this church may be intended as a warning, rather than as an example of
+what should be followed. Happily such churches as this are rare, and
+it can be truly said that ecclesiastical architecture and decoration
+has made great strides with us in recent years, and that in very many
+instances it is rigidly truthful as well as beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the consideration of wall decorations, I must object to
+all imitations, as sham marbles, granites, etc., for no wall can be
+satisfactory which is to any extent a display of false grandeur; and
+this is curious, that in many cases it costs more to produce an
+imitation marble staircase than it would to line the same walls with
+the marbles imitated. I have known a case in which the imitation has
+cost double what the genuine stone would have cost, and such a case is
+not exceptional, for hand-polished work is always expensive. To
+imitations of marbles and granites, as I have already said, I strongly
+object, and of the genuine stone I am not fond, unless sparingly and
+judiciously used. My objections to its free use are these:&mdash;1st.
+Harmony of colour depends upon great exactness of tint. This exactness
+is rarely attainable in the case of two marbles. One stone may,
+however, be brought into direct and perfect harmony with a coloured
+wall, by the tint of the wall being carefully suited to the marble.
+2nd. The true artist thinks less of the costliness of the material of
+which he forms his works than of the art-effect produced. Thus the old
+Greeks, who were full of art-feeling and refinement, coloured the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+buildings which they constructed of white marble, and they certainly
+thereby improved them; for colour, if harmoniously employed, lends to
+objects a new charm&mdash;a charm which they would not without it possess.
+I must further say, before leaving our present subject, that all
+walls, however decorated, should serve as a background to whatever
+stands in front of them. Thus they must retire even behind the
+furniture by their unobtrusiveness.</p>
+
+<p>The order of arrangement in furnishing must be this. The living beings
+in a room should be most attractive and conspicuous, and the dress of
+man should be of such a character as to secure this. Ladies can now
+employ any amount of colour in their attire; but poor man, however
+noble, cannot by his dress be distinguished from his butler; and,
+worst of all, both are dressed in an unbecoming and inartistic manner.
+Next come the furniture and draperies&mdash;the one or the other having
+prominence according to circumstances; then come the wall and floor,
+both of which are to serve as backgrounds to all that stands in front
+of them. In decorating walls, or in judging of the merit or
+suitability of wall decorations, this must always be taken into
+consideration, that they are but enriched backgrounds; and it should
+also be remembered that the nature of the enrichment applied is
+determined, to a great extent, by the character of the architecture of
+the building of which the wall forms a part.</p>
+
+<p>We come now to consider wall-papers, which are hangings prepared with
+the view of enabling us to decorate our walls at comparatively small
+cost. I may confess that I am not very fond of wall-papers under any
+circumstances. I prefer a tinted or painted wall. Yet they are largely
+used, and will be for a long time to come. I have already said that if
+wall-papers are used they should not be joined together with straight
+lines, and that we ought to consider them as so much art-material
+which should be used artistically.</p>
+
+<p>As to the nature of the pattern which a wall-paper should have, it is
+almost impossible to speak, as there are endless varieties; but as a
+rule it may be said that those consisting of small, simple, repeated
+parts, which are low-toned or neutral in colour, are the best. Most
+wall-paper patterns are larger than is desirable. The pattern can
+scarcely be too simple, and it should in all cases consist of flat
+ornament.</p>
+
+<p>If the ornament is very good, and the pattern is the work of a true
+artist, it may be larger, for then the parts will be balanced and
+harmonised in a manner that could not be expected from a less skilful
+hand; but even if by the most talented designer, it must ever be
+remembered that he has designed it at random, and not as a suitable
+decoration for any particular room. The man who selects the pattern
+for a particular wall must choose that which is suitable to the
+special case.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of a wall-paper is materially affected by many
+circumstances. Thus, by the quantity of light admitted to the
+room&mdash;whether the room is dark or light; by the aspect, whether it
+receives the sun's rays direct or does not; by the character<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> of the
+light, as whether direct from the sky, or reflected from a green lawn,
+or red-brick wall. All these things must be considered, and what looks
+well in the pattern-book may look bad on a wall.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i107full.jpg">
+<img id="i107" src="images/i107.jpg" width="600" height="671" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>As to colour, the best wall-paper patterns are those which consist of
+somewhat strong colours in very small masses&mdash;masses so small that the
+general effect of the paper is rich, low-toned, and neutral, and yet
+has a glowing colour-bloom; but these are rarely to be met with.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was a fashion some time since to make wall-papers in imitation of
+woven fabrics, and this fashion has not wholly disappeared yet, absurd
+though it be. It arose through the accident of a designer of
+wall-paper patterns having been a shawl pattern designer, and having a
+number of small shawl patterns on hand, which he disposed of as
+wall-paper patterns. A pattern which is suitable for a woven fabric is
+rarely suitable to a printed fabric, and especially when the one
+pattern is to be seen in folds on a moving object, and the other flat
+on a fixed surface. And at all times imitation by one material of
+another is untruthful, and it becomes specially absurd when we think
+that almost every material is capable of producing some good
+art-effect which no other material can. We should always seek to make
+each material as distinctive in its art-character as we can, and to
+cause each to appear as beautiful as possible in that particular
+manner in which it can most naturally be worked.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i108full.jpg">
+<img id="i108" class="wrap" src="images/i108.jpg" width="300" height="347" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A word should be said about the particular character which a
+wall-paper pattern should have, but the remarks which I am now about
+to make will apply equally to all patterns employed as wall
+decorations. If we view trees or plants, as we see them against the
+sky as a background, they are objects which point upwards and have a
+bilateral symmetry&mdash;their halves are alike (Figs. 64 and 65)&mdash;or are
+more or less irregular in form, and when seen in this view we may
+regard them as natural wall decorations. Our wall patterns, then, may
+point upwards, as in Fig. 61, and be bilateral or otherwise; but it
+must be remembered that when the flowers of a primrose protrude from a
+bank they are regular radiating, or star, ornaments. I think that it
+is legitimate for us to use on a wall star, or regular radiating
+ornaments, as well as those having an upward tendency.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that when seen from the side plants are bilateral, or are
+more or less irregular. As I have referred to plants as furnishing us
+with types of ornament, I should not be doing rightly were I to leave
+this statement in its present form; for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> the tendency of the vital
+force of all plants is to produce structures of rigidly symmetrical
+character; but insects, which eat buds and leaves, and blights, winds,
+and frosts, so act upon plants as to destroy their normal symmetry,
+hence we find an apparent want of symmetry in the arrangement of the
+parts of plants.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting the colouring of cornices, a few words should be said. 1st.
+Bright colours may here be employed. 2nd. As a rule, get red in shadow
+or in shade, blue on flat or hollow surfaces, especially those that
+recede from the eye, and yellow on rounded advancing members. 3rd. Use
+for red either vermilion or carmine; for blue, ultramarine either pure
+or with white; for yellow, middle chrome much diluted with white. 4th.
+Use red very sparingly, blue abundantly, the pale yellow in medium
+quantity.</p>
+
+<p>Besides primary colours, none others need be used on the cornice. It
+is a mistake to use many, or dull, colours, here, but gold may be used
+instead of yellow. With the view of explaining the principles which we
+have just enunciated by diagrams, we give four illustrations (Figs.
+66, 67, 68, 69), which I advise the student to try and colour in
+accordance with the principles just set forth.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> In some parts of the country it is customary to wash the
+cornice over with quick-lime. If this has been done the lime must be
+carefully removed, for lime will turn carmine black.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>CARPETS.</h3>
+
+<p>It is not my intention in this chapter to consider in detail the
+various kinds of carpet which are common in our market, nor even to
+review the history of their manufacture, interesting as it would be to
+do so; for we must confine ourselves more particularly to an
+examination of the art-qualities which they present, and to the
+particular form of pattern which may be applied to them with
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Although we cannot here enter into a consideration of the manufacture
+of carpets, I cannot too strongly recommend all who intend preparing
+designs for them to consider minutely the powers of the carpet loom;
+for the nature of the effect produced will depend to a large extent
+upon the knowledge which the designer possesses of the capabilities of
+the manufacture for which he designs patterns. In the case of any
+manufacture it is highly desirable, if not absolutely essential, that
+the designer of the patterns to be wrought should be acquainted with
+the process by which his design is to be converted into the particular
+material for which the pattern has been prepared; for this knowledge,
+even when not absolutely essential, gives an amount of freedom and
+power which nothing else can supply.</p>
+
+<p>The carpets most extensively in use are "Brussels;" but there are many
+other kinds both of better and inferior qualities. "Kidderminster
+carpet" (a carpet not now made by even one Kidderminster manufacturer)
+is a common fabric suited to the bedrooms of middle-class houses; but
+the art-capabilities of this material are very small, as it can only
+have two colours in any line running throughout its length. This
+carpet consists of two thicknesses, which are imperfectly united, and
+is not durable. "Brussels carpeting," now made chiefly in Great
+Britain, is a good carpet for general purposes. Its surface consists
+of loops, and it may have five, or, if made of extra quality, six
+colours in any line running throughout its length. If with five
+colours in the same line the carpet will, in a sense, consist of five
+thicknesses of worsted; yet these are united into one fabric. In some
+cases a "Brussels carpet" is woven of very close texture, with the
+loops cut through; thus we have a "velvet pile" or "Wilton carpet"&mdash;a
+fabric which is very rich-looking, and durable.</p>
+
+<p>Those called real "Axminster" carpets are, perhaps, the best made.
+They are formed by the knotting together of threads by hand,
+consequently any number of colours may be used in their formation; but
+such are necessarily most costly. A<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> "patent Axminster" carpet is made
+by a double process of hand-weaving, by which fine results are
+achieved, and any number of colours used. In the first weaving a rough
+"cloth" is formed, which is cut into strips called "chenille threads,"
+and these are again woven into the carpet. This process is most
+ingenious, and the carpets produced by it are very good; but they are
+costly.</p>
+
+<p>Some few years since a most ingenious process of manufacturing what
+are known as "tapestry" carpets was patented&mdash;a process resembling in
+its nature that of the patent Axminster manufacture, but differing in
+this particular, that the "warp" threads are coloured by printing, and
+thus the first process of weaving is dispensed with. These carpets
+are, like Brussels, made with a looped surface, and also with a pile.
+They cannot be said to compare in any way with the patent Axminster
+carpets, which are of a pretentious and costly character, nor even
+with a good "Brussels;" but they are low in price, and meet a want, as
+is proved by their enormous sale.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these varieties of carpet there are a number of kinds of
+foreign production, most of which are hand-made, and are very
+beautiful. By far the greater number of these have a "pile," although
+this is sometimes rough and uneven, yet rarely, if ever, inartistic;
+but a few are without pile; still these are not without that
+indescribable something which renders them estimable in the eye of an
+artist.</p>
+
+<p>Having hastily noticed the chief kinds of carpet in use in this
+country, and we might say in almost all countries, we come to the
+question&mdash;what form of pattern, or what character of ornament, should
+form the "enrichment" of such a fabric?</p>
+
+<p>When speaking in a previous chapter <a href="#Page_92">(see page 92)</a> of wall decorations,
+we noticed that a wall-paper pattern, or, indeed, a wall pattern of
+any kind, might desirably have an upward direction and a bilateral
+symmetry. This can never be the case, however, with a carpet pattern,
+which must be equally extended all over the surface, or have a simple
+radiating symmetry, as Fig. 56; and this rule will apply whether the
+pattern be simple or complicated. It is not wrong, as we have said
+before, to have a radiating pattern on a wall, but it is wrong to have
+a bilateral pattern on a floor.</p>
+
+<p>The reason of this is obvious. If such an object as we have indicated
+is placed on a wall, from whatever point the occupants of the room may
+view it, it is yet right way upwards to them; but if such an object
+were placed on a floor it would be wrong way upwards, or sideways, or
+oblique to most of those who viewed it; and to employ a pattern of
+this character in such a position is highly absurd, when a pattern can
+as readily be formed which will avoid this unpleasantness. What would
+we think were we asked to view a picture, or even to visit an
+apartment containing such, were this work of art presented to our view
+in an inverted manner? We should feel astonished at the absurdity; yet
+this would be no worse than expecting us to view a carpet while the
+pattern is to us in an inverted position.</p>
+
+<p>And the principle which we have just set forth is one taught by a
+consideration<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> of plants. If we wander over the moor, where we tread
+on Nature's carpet, we find that all the little plants which nestle in
+the short mossy grass are "radiating ornaments"&mdash;that is, they are
+pretty objects which consist of parts spreading regularly from a
+centre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i112full.jpg">
+<img id="i112" src="images/i112.jpg" width="600" height="453" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>I cannot too strongly advise the young ornamentist to study the
+principles on which Nature works. Knowledge of the laws which govern
+the development of plant-growth is very desirable; but it is not our
+place to <i>imitate</i> even the most beautiful of plant-forms&mdash;this being
+the work of the pictorial artists. Yet it is ours to study Nature's
+laws, and to observe all her beauty, even to her most subtle effects,
+and then we may safely pillage from her all that we can <i>consistently</i>
+adapt to our own purposes. But in order that we produce ornament, we
+must infuse mind or soul into whatever we borrow from her.
+<a href="#Page_2">(See page 2.)</a></p>
+
+<p>With the view of more fully impressing the manner in which Nature
+teaches us principles which we may apply in art, and of aiding the
+student in his inquiries, we will give one or two illustrations. Thus
+Fig. 64 is a drawing of a spray of the guelder rose (<i>Viburnum
+opulus</i>) when seen from the side, or, as I might express it, when
+viewed as a wall decoration; and Fig. 70 is the same spray as seen
+from above, or, to use the same manner of expression, when seen as a
+floor pattern. Further,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> Fig. 71 represents a young plant of a species
+of speedwell (<i>Veronica</i>) as a wall ornament, and Fig. 72, the same
+plant when seen as a floor ornament; and Figs. 65 and 73 represent a
+portion of the goosegrass (<i>Galium Aparine</i>) as seen in the same two
+views.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i113afull.jpg">
+<img id="i113a" src="images/i113a.jpg" width="600" height="288" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>From these illustrations we see that plants furnish us with types of
+two essentially different ornaments, which are adapted to the
+decoration of the two positions of wall and floor, and may be
+introduced with truthful expression and effect into wall-paper or
+carpet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i113bfull.jpg">
+<img id="i113b" src="images/i113b.jpg" width="600" height="140" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even when the leaves appear somewhat dispersed upon the stem, a
+principle of order can yet be distinctly traced in the manner of their
+arrangement, as is diagrammatically expressed in Figs. 74, 75, 76; and
+here, also, the top view gives us a regular radiating ornament.<a id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>The same law prevails in the flower that we have traced as existing in
+the arrangement of leaves upon the stem: thus Fig. 77, which
+represents the London pride (<i>Saxifraga umbrosa</i>), affords an example
+of a regular radiating flower, which <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>we find so placed, in different
+examples, as to appear as a floor or wall ornament; and Figs. 78 and
+79, the former being the flower of the speedwell (Veronica), and the
+latter that of the common pansy (<i>Viola tricolor</i>), furnish us with
+illustrations of bilateral flowers intended only as wall ornaments. In
+order to secure our seeing the pansy only laterally, it is furnished
+with a bent stalk; hence it never rests horizontally upon the summit
+of its stem, but always hangs so that it is perfectly seen only from
+the side.</p>
+
+<p>There are cases, however, in which bilateral flowers are placed
+horizontally; but it is very interesting to notice that when this
+occurs the disposition or arrangement of the flowers is such as to
+restore the radiating symmetry. Thus, if we take the candytuft
+(<i>Iberis</i>) or the common hemlock (<i>Conium</i>), we find that while each
+flower is bilateral in character, the flowers are yet arranged around
+a centre in such a manner that the smaller portion of each flower
+points to the centre of the flower-head, while the larger parts point
+outwards from the centre of the group. These, then, are the teachings
+of plants, to which we are called upon to hearken.</p>
+
+<p>The above illustrations are not only useful examples of the
+suggestions of plant-forms to the ornamentist, but form excellent
+material to the art-student for the conventional treatment of leaves
+and sprays, buds and blossoms. They will also serve to indicate the
+kind of plant-forms that should be chosen for decorative purposes.
+Students of this branch of art would find it a useful practice to make
+a collection of flowers and plants or parts of plants that appear to
+offer features similar to those of which we have been writing, and
+test their capabilities for decorative purposes, by endeavouring to
+arrange them for the ornamentation of wall and floor, as we have
+treated the plant-forms indicated in this chapter.</p>
+
+<p>We have now seen the principle on which all carpet patterns should be
+constructed as distinctive from wall patterns, and in order to impress
+the necessity of giving a radiating basis to the ornaments placed upon
+carpets, and not a bilateral structure, we have referred to the
+principle of plant growth, where we noticed that all plants, when
+viewed as floor ornaments (when viewed from above), are of a radiating
+character; whereas if they are seen as wall or vertical ornaments,
+they are either radiating or bilateral. This is a necessity of a
+carpet pattern, that it have a radiating structure, or, in other
+words, that it point in more than two directions.</p>
+
+<p>Man naturally accustomed to tread on grass, when brought into a state
+of civilisation, seeks some covering for his floor which shall be
+softer to the tread and richer in colour than stone or brick. And in
+our northern climate he seeks also warmth; hence he chooses not a mere
+matting, or lattice of reeds, but a covering such as shall satisfy his
+requirements.</p>
+
+<p>In early times our floors appear to have been strewn with sand&mdash;a
+custom still lingering in some country districts; then came the habit
+of strewing reeds over the floor, and on the part of the opulent,
+sweet-scented reeds (<i>Acorus calamus</i>). And it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> is curious to notice,
+in connection with this subject, that one of the charges brought by
+Henry VIII. against Cardinal Wolsey was that of extravagance in the
+use of sweet reeds. This use of reeds was succeeded by the employment
+of mats of simple appearance, formed of a kind of grass, and these by
+the introduction of wool mats, which, at first, were chiefly imported,
+but afterwards manufactured in our own country. The wool mats were in
+their turn replaced by carpets, which gradually increased in size till
+their proportions became such as to cover the entire floor on which
+they were placed.</p>
+
+<p>This brief history brings us to notice what is required of a
+carpet:&mdash;it should be soft in texture, rich in appearance, and of
+"bloomy" effect.</p>
+
+<p>We may add to these requirements by saying that a carpet should also
+be a suitable background to all works of furniture or other objects
+placed upon it, and that in character it should accord with the
+objects with which it is associated in any particular apartment.</p>
+
+<p>Considering more fully these requirements, we notice that a carpet
+should be soft. This is very desirable, for softness gives a sense of
+comfort, and with softness is generally combined durability of the
+fabric; but softness can scarcely be regarded as an art-quality. Yet
+as the art which an object bears is more leniently viewed when the
+fitness of the object to the purpose for which it is intended is
+apparent, we may safely regard softness as a very desirable quality of
+a carpet.</p>
+
+<p>The Eastern carpets are pre-eminent in this quality of softness, and
+of English-made carpets "Brussels" and tapestry are the least
+satisfactory in this way; as usually made, they have a hard "backing."
+A kind of Brussels carpeting with a soft back has recently been
+brought out, but at present it is not general in the trade. If the
+carpet employed in any apartment as a floor covering is harsh in
+character, it is desirable to place soft felt under it (felt for this
+purpose can be got at carpet warehouses), or evenly spread soft hay,
+for by so doing the wear of the fabric will be greatly increased, and
+the pleasure of walking on it will also be correspondingly greater.</p>
+
+<p>The next quality of a carpet is richness. No carpet is satisfactory
+which is "washy" or faded in appearance. There must be "depth" of
+effect, a "fulness" of art-quality. Hangings may be delicate,
+wall-decorations soft in tint, but a carpet must be rich and "full" in
+effect, yet a general softness of tone is desirable.</p>
+
+<p>But this richness must be of singular character, for the most
+desirable effect which a carpet can present is that of a glowing
+neutral bloom.</p>
+
+<p>I hope that my language does not appear mystical to the general reader
+or young student. To the ornamentist I think it will be intelligible.
+What I wish to say is that the effect should be glowing, or radiant,
+or bright, as opposed to dull, quiet, or heavy; that it should be such
+as results from the use of a predominance of bright and warm colours,
+rather than of cold and neutral hues; that it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> should be neutral,
+inasmuch as it should not present large masses of positive colour, hut
+should have an equality of rich harmonious colours throughout; that it
+should be "bloomy," or have the effect of a garden full of flowers, or
+better, of the slope of a Swiss alp, where the flowers combine to form
+one vast harmonious "glow" of colour. This is the effect which a
+carpet should present, yet it should never present flowers,
+imitatively rendered, as its ornamentation. Such imitative renderings
+are not to be produced by the ornamentist; they must come from the
+pictorial artist, for they are pictures. They cannot form suitable
+backgrounds to furniture and living objects, for they are positive,
+and not neutral, in their general effect. A picture, also, will not
+bear repetition: whoever heard of one person having two copies of the
+same picture in one room? Yet a pictorial group of flowers may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> be
+seen repeated many times over a floor, which is very objectionable.
+The effect to be produced is that of a rich "colour-bloom;" but the
+skilled ornamentist will achieve this without violating any laws of
+fitness, and will gently and delicately hint at the beauty of a
+profusion of blossom through his tenderly formed pattern.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i116full.jpg">
+<img id="i116" src="images/i116.jpg" width="600" height="554" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Yet a carpet must be neutral in its general effect, as it is the
+background on which objects rest. Neutrality of effect is of two
+kinds. Large masses of tertiary or neutral colours will achieve its
+production, so also will the juxtaposition of the primary colours in
+small quantities, either alone or with the secondary colours, and
+black or white; but there will be this difference between the two
+effects&mdash;that produced by low-toned colours will be simply neutral,
+while that produced by the primary colours will be "bloomy" as well as
+neutral, and if yellows and reds slightly predominate in the
+intermingling of colours, the effect will be glowing or radiant.</p>
+
+<p>The radiant, or glowing, bloomy neutrality of effect is that which it
+is most desirable that a carpet should present.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i117full.jpg">
+<img id="i117" class="wrapr" src="images/i117.jpg" width="300" height="552" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>This effect is rarely produced in English carpets, owing either to the
+want of skill on the part of the ornamentist, who is unable to produce
+such works; the want of judgment on the part of the manufacturer,
+whereby he fails to produce such patterns; or the want of taste on the
+part of the consumer, owing to which he buys works of a more vulgar
+character. I have designed carpets in which I have sought to realise
+as much of this effect as I could with six colours&mdash;the number to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+which I have been limited by the conditions of manufacture, and
+fortunately these appear to be commanding a large sale, and to be
+setting a fashion in carpets; but those who wish to study these bloomy
+effects in their more perfect forms, must do so in the carpets of
+India, Persia, Smyrna, and Morocco, but especially in the Indian rugs.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the carpets from India are perfect marvels of colour-harmony,
+and of radiant bloom. They appear to glow as a bed of flowers in the
+sunshine, and yet they are neutral in their general effect, and when
+placed in an apartment do not usurp a primary place, as does any
+pictorially treated pattern.</p>
+
+<p>This "bloom" was seen to perfection in one or two silk rugs which were
+shown at the International Exhibition of 1862 in London, and it was
+not much less apparent in some of the carpets from India shown in the
+Paris Exhibition of 1867. Most Indian carpets have this colour-bloom
+to some extent, and few are unworthy of careful study.</p>
+
+<p>Persian carpets (Fig. 80) are also models of what carpets should be;
+they are less radiant than many of the Indian works, but are almost
+more mingled in colour-effect. In pattern many of the Indian and
+Persian carpets are identical, being traditional, yet in colour they
+differ, and both are worthy of much consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The Morocco carpets (Fig. 81) differ again from both those of India
+and Persia, and even to a greater degree than the Persian carpet
+differs from the Indian. In these there is often a prevalence of soft
+yellows and juicy yellow-greens, intermingled with reds, blues, and
+grey-whites, in such a manner as to produce a most harmonious and
+artistic effect. To the young student, and to any who may desire to
+cultivate his taste in respect to such matters, I say, Study the
+carpets of the East most carefully, especially those of India, Persia,
+and Morocco.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i118full.jpg">
+<img id="i118" class="wrap" src="images/i118.jpg" width="300" height="452" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Indian carpets, such as we have just referred to, may be seen at the
+museum in the building of the new India Office at Whitehall, which
+museum is open free to the public (for examples,
+<a href="#i118">see Figs. 82</a>, 83,
+84).</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As to the nature of the pattern which may be applied to a carpet, we
+have "all-over" patterns, or patterns spreading regularly all over the
+surface; "geometrical" patterns, or those which have an apparent
+regularity of structure; and panel patterns, or those in which
+particular parts are, as it were, framed off from other parts.</p>
+
+<p>First, as to "all-over" patterns. These are what we almost always find
+in both Indian and Persian carpets, and are, undoubtedly, the true
+form of decoration for a woven floor covering. What is desirable is an
+evenly spread pattern, such as will give richness without destroying
+the unity of the entire effect. The pattern may have parts slightly
+accentuated or emphasised beyond other parts, but not strongly so, and
+this emphasising of parts must be arranged with the view of securing
+to the pattern special interest. Thus, if a carpet is viewed at a
+distance it should not appear as devoid of all pattern, but through
+the slight predominance of certain leading features (in Indian
+carpets, generally of ornamental flowers) the plan of the design
+should be indicated. More detail should be apparent when the work is
+seen from a nearer point of view, and still more upon close
+inspection; but in no case should any parts appear strongly
+pronounced, or otherwise than refined and beautiful, and in no case
+should there be a want of interest manifested by the pattern.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i119full.jpg">
+<img id="i119" class="wrapr" src="images/i119.jpg" width="300" height="328" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carpet patterns are generally better if founded on a geometrical plan.
+In this way most of the Indian and Persian patterns are constructed. A
+geometrical plan secures to the design a manifestation of order and
+thought in its formation. Panel patterns, unless very carefully
+managed, become coarse. In some Indian carpets we find a sort of panel
+in which the colour of the ground is changed from that of the general
+ground of the carpet, but here the panel has usually a truly
+ornamental form, and is, indeed, rather a large ornament than a sort
+of frame enclosing a distinct space. Whenever a panel occurs in an
+Indian, Persian, or Moorish carpet, it is so managed, and its
+surroundings are such, as to cause it to appear as a part natural to
+the general design; but it is far otherwise with the panel patterns
+which we occasionally see in our shop-windows as the produce of native
+industry, and it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> far otherwise with those which are used in vast
+quantities by the Americans. Judging from the carpets which they
+order, I imagine that nowhere on earth is taste in matters of
+decorative art so depraved as it is in America. It is true that the
+great floral patterns have ceased to be demanded by them, but they are
+only replaced by coarse, raw-looking panel patterns, coloured in the
+most vulgar manner, and without even a hint at refinement or harmony
+of colour. Let the pattern be "loud" and inharmoniously coloured, and
+the chances of its sale in the American market are great.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter clearright">
+<a href="images/i120full.jpg">
+<img id="i120" src="images/i120.jpg" width="600" height="746" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>But we must not forget that even in our own country bad patterns sell
+equally as well as good, inartistic patterns as well as those which
+are of a more refined character, and that even here in Great Britain
+more of the indifferent, if not of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> very bad, sells than of the
+good. Let us cast the beam, then, from our own eye, before we try to
+extract it from that of another.</p>
+
+<p>The ground colour of a carpet may vary much, as we all know; it may be
+black, blue, red, green, or white, or any other colour. If the ground
+of a carpet is pure white, it is almost impossible that it look well.
+When I make this assertion I am often told that some of the Indian
+carpets which I so much admire have white grounds. This is a mistake.
+Some of them have light grounds, but not pure white. They have light
+cream-grey, or green-white grounds, but not pure white, and this
+variety of tone altogether alters the case. Yet even with a
+light-toned ground it is not an easy matter to make a carpet which
+shall appear as a suitable background to the furniture of a room; it
+can be done, but it is a thing difficult to achieve. The safest and
+best ground for a carpet is black or indigo blue. If on this a closely
+fitting, well-studied pattern be arranged, drawn in small masses of
+bright colour, a beautiful bloomy effect may be achieved, and a glance
+at our best shop-windows will show that the most satisfactory carpets
+are coloured in this way.</p>
+
+<p>As to the size of the pattern we can say but little, as this will be
+determined by the coarseness or fineness of the fabric. In a Brussels
+carpet each stitch is about the one-tenth of an inch square. In some
+Turkey carpets each stitch is a quarter of an inch square. It is
+obvious that a much smaller and finer pattern can be produced in
+Brussels than in Turkey carpet.</p>
+
+<p>A carpet pattern is best small, or at least small in detail if not in
+the extent of the design. A pattern may repeat three or four times in
+the width of the fabric (twenty-seven inches if Brussels), or but one
+figure may be shown, yet in this latter case the detail of the pattern
+may be as great as in the former. That degree of smallness which is
+compatible with tolerable distinctness of detail is desirable. For
+this reason Turkey carpets are not altogether satisfactory; no fine
+pattern can be worked in them, and besides this they have no
+colour-bloom and little colour-harmony. In some respects they are
+good, but altogether they are not satisfying.</p>
+
+<p>Before I close these remarks upon carpets, let me say that, as
+designers, manufacturers, and consumers, we are one and all timid of
+new things. We want daring&mdash;the energy to produce new things, to
+manufacture them, to use them. What if the pattern is "extreme," if it
+is better than others? what if Mrs. Grundy should think us
+eccentric?&mdash;better be eccentric than ever harping on one monotony. If
+we could but bear calmly the derisive smiles of the ignorant,
+art-progress would be easy.</p>
+
+<p>With us carpets cover the entire floor. In London these carpets are
+nailed to the boards, and but seldom taken up. In some parts of
+England we find rings sewn around the under edge of the carpet, which
+rings are looped to the heads of nails. Carpets so furnished can be
+more readily removed for cleaning than those which are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> nailed to the
+floor. Square carpets, such as the Turkey, Indian, and Persian, are
+spread loosely on the boards, and can be taken up and shaken without
+difficulty. This is unquestionably the most healthy plan of using a
+carpet, and it is also an artistic plan. If the outer portion of the
+room floor is formed of inlaid wood of simple and suitable pattern,
+and a loose square carpet is spread in the centre, we have an artistic
+effect, and the desirable knowledge that cleanliness is also
+attainable with a reasonable expenditure of labour.</p>
+
+<p>Before we leave the consideration of carpets we will state in
+axiomatic form the conditions which govern the application of ornament
+to them, as reference can more easily be made to short concise
+sentences than to more extended remarks.</p>
+
+<p>1st. Carpet patterns may with advantage have a geometrical formation,
+for this gives to the mind an idea of order or arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>2nd. When the pattern has not a geometrical basis, a general evenness
+of surface should be preserved.</p>
+
+<p>3rd. Carpets are better not formed into "panels," as though they were
+works of wood or stone; on the contrary, they should have a general
+"all-over" effect without any great accentuation of particular parts.
+The Indian and Persian carpets meet this requirement.</p>
+
+<p>4th. While a carpet should present a general appearance of evenness,
+parts may yet be slightly "pronounced" or emphasised, so as to give to
+the mind the idea of centres from which the pattern radiates.</p>
+
+<p>5th. A carpet should, in some respects, resemble a bank richly covered
+with flowers; thus, when seen from a distance the effect should be
+that of a general "bloom" of colour; when viewed from a nearer point
+it should present certain features of somewhat special interest; and
+when looked at closely new beauties should make their appearance.</p>
+
+<p>6th. As a floor is a flat surface, no ornamental covering placed on it
+should make it appear otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>7th. A carpet, having to serve as a background to furniture, should be
+of a somewhat neutral character.</p>
+
+<p>8th. Every carpet, however small, should have a border, which is as
+necessary to it as a frame is to a picture.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus summarised the principles that govern the application of
+ornament to carpets, we may proceed to notice the conditions governing
+the decoration of other woven fabrics.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> The spray here represented is that of the oak, and the
+diagram (Fig. 74) shows the orderly spiral manner in which the leaves
+spring from the stem.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>CURTAIN MATERIALS, HANGINGS, AND WOVEN FABRICS GENERALLY.</h3>
+
+<p>In the consideration of hangings of various kinds, we have first to
+notice the nature of the cloth on which the pattern is to be
+worked&mdash;whether it is of open or close texture. Fabrics of an open
+character should bear upon them a larger pattern than those which are
+thicker or closer. The openness or closeness of the fabric will thus
+determine, to an extent, the nature of the ornament which is to be
+placed upon it. Muslins, being open in character, should have larger
+patterns than calicoes, which are closer in texture, or the pattern
+will be indistinct in the one case or coarse in the other.</p>
+
+<p>But not only does texture influence the pattern when considered as to
+coarseness or fineness, but also the nature of the cloth as regards
+material. Thus silk will bear greater fulness of colour than muslins
+or calico-prints, owing to the fact that the lustre of the material,
+by reflecting light to the eye of the observer, destroys a certain
+portion of the intensity of the effect of colour which a less
+reflective material would exhibit. Silk, as a material, also conveys
+to the mind an idea of costliness or worth, and wherever the material
+does so the pattern may be richer in colour than it should be in
+cheaper and commoner fabrics. If a pattern is in two tints of the same
+colour only, as in the case of those woven silks where the pattern is
+formed by the contrast of "tabby" and satin, it may be considerably
+larger than in those cases where it is rendered conspicuous by
+colours.</p>
+
+<p>This latter remark will apply also to damask table-linen, and to all
+similar materials, as well as to dress fabrics, and draperies such as
+window hangings; but of these we shall say a word shortly.</p>
+
+<p>The closeness or openness of a fabric should, then, be considered when
+we design patterns for its enrichment, and so should the nature of the
+material, as this will influence its deadness or lustre. But there are
+also other considerations which must not be lost sight of. If the
+pattern is to be wrought by printing, then one class of conditions
+must be complied with; if by weaving, then another class of
+requirements call for consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The requirements of manufacture are much more numerous than might be
+supposed, and are in some cases very restrictive. The size of the
+repeat, the manner in which colour can be applied, the character of
+surface attainable, and many other considerations have to be carefully
+complied with before a pattern can appear as a manufactured article.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The chief fault of patterns, as applied to fabrics generally, is their
+want of simplicity&mdash;want of simple structure, want of simple
+treatment, want of simplicity of effect; and together with this we
+generally find largeness and coarseness of parts.</p>
+
+<p>These errors arise chiefly out of a want of consideration of the
+capabilities of the material. What can be done with this or that
+particular fabric, is a question that we should carefully ask
+ourselves before we think of preparing a design. Have we colour at our
+disposal, or texture merely? and if colour, can it be employed freely
+or only sparingly? and can any desired colours be placed in
+juxtaposition or only certain tints? These are questions of great
+importance, and they should be asked and carefully considered before
+the first step is taken towards the formation of a pattern. Having
+ascertained what can be done with the material at command, let us ever
+remember that we should always endeavour to so employ the capabilities
+of a material as to conceal its weakness and emphasise its more
+desirable effects. If this consideration were always given by
+designers to the power which the material has of yielding effects, we
+should see, in very many instances, effects strangely different from
+those which we often encounter; and this remark applies to no class of
+fabrics more fully than to damask table-linen and coloured damask
+window hangings.</p>
+
+<p>No satisfactory effect can be got in light and shade upon any woven or
+printed fabric; besides, to attempt such a mode of treatment is
+absurd. Light and shade belong only to pictorial art. The ornamentist
+when enriching a fabric deals only with a surface, and has no thought
+of placing pictures thereon; he has simply to enrich or beautify that
+which without his art would be plain and unornamental. A picture will
+never bear repetition. Who ever heard of a man having two copies of
+one picture in a room? Yet how much more absurd is it to repeat a
+little picture&mdash;perhaps a pictorially rendered flower&mdash;a hundred times
+over one surface! Besides this, a surface must always be treated, for
+decorative purposes, as a surface, and not in a manner calculated to
+deceive by giving apparent relief, or thickness, to that which is
+essentially without thickness. Take a common damask table-cover. This
+is by custom almost always white, although it would be better if of a
+deep cream-colour, or soft buff; and the pattern which it bears
+results from a change of surface only (why a margin of "ingrain"
+colour is not added, I could never see); yet in nine cases out of ten
+the pattern which is presented by such a fabric is a miserable shaded
+attempt at a pictorial treatment, and is also a thorough failure.</p>
+
+<p>Simplicity of pattern naturally accords with a simple mode of
+production, and the means of producing pattern in damasks is certainly
+most simple. That there is a natural harmony between simplicity of
+pattern and simple means of producing an art-effect is obvious, for of
+all patterns that I have ever seen upon damask table-linen the simple
+spot, or dot, is the most satisfactory. If, combined with this spot,
+we have a border formed of a simple Greek "key-pattern," or of mere
+lines (a very<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> usual border to good cloths), the effect is perfectly
+satisfying, and, as far as it goes, is highly to be commended.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious that this spot is only sold in the better quality of
+table-linen (at least so they tell me in the City), and this shows
+that the wealthy, or, in other words, the educated, buy such patterns,
+as they prefer the true to the meretricious, while the false and showy
+devices which we see on the common cloths please only the common
+people of vulgar taste. I am not sure, however, that many persons,
+whose means are limited, would not buy spots and other simple, but
+correctly treated, patterns, if such were to be got in common
+qualities of damask; but when the pocket must govern the purchase, it
+is hard to say that the false is preferred to the true, if the true is
+not procurable with the means at command.</p>
+
+<p>While I cannot withhold praise from this little spot, it must not be
+thought that I thereby give to it a high place as an art-work. Little
+is here attempted, and that little is done well. But let us analyse
+this pattern. First, the spots are of one tint throughout, if I may
+thus express myself&mdash;a tint, shall we say, which is the reverse of
+that of the ground. It is not shaded so that it may appear as a ball
+or globe, and is not graduated in "colour" in any way (were it
+graduated or shaded, feebleness of effect must inevitably accrue), but
+is a simple, honest spot, treated as a surface ornament. Secondly,
+this spot is geometrically arranged, or, in other words, has an
+orderly arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>If an attempt is made at rendering a pictorial, or light-and-shade
+effect, in damask, an absurd failure can alone result, for depth of
+shade is not obtainable in the material; and, besides this, what
+appears as shade, when the cloth is seen from one point of view,
+appears as light if seen from another point of view. Nothing could be
+more absurd, then, than seeking to produce shaded effects with such
+means as are here at our disposal. But were the fabric capable of
+rendering such effects, it would still be wrong to employ them, as we
+deal only with the surface, and are seeking to enhance the value of,
+or beautify, a fabric, and not to cover it with pictures. In our
+simple spot we have those elements which may be extended into the
+richest and most artistic damask patterns. We have order&mdash;as indicated
+by the geometrical plan of the pattern&mdash;and an honest and simple
+expression, or application, of the capabilities of the material.</p>
+
+<p>All table-covers should certainly have a border. Any object which is
+to be used as a whole looks unsatisfactory if it appears as though it
+were part of a whole. If a cloth is without border it is impossible to
+avoid the impression that it is a part of a larger cloth, and in every
+respect the general effect is decidedly unsatisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>It is perhaps well that we notice one peculiarity of a table-cover
+before we dismiss the consideration of such fabrics, which is this,
+that while the central portion is seen flat, the border portion is
+viewed in folds; and here we come to one of the great peculiarities of
+most draperies, that of their being viewed not as flat<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> surfaces, but
+in waves or folds. One portion of a table-cloth is, however, seen
+flat, but this is almost an exception in the case of draperies.
+Another exception to this rule of hangings appearing in folds, and
+that of a very complete character, occurs in silk damasks which are
+used as a rich lining to the walls of palaces and some mansions; but
+of table-cloths we will speak for the present.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i126full.jpg">
+<img id="i126" src="images/i126.jpg" width="600" height="769" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The central part of a table-cloth, that portion which is always to be
+viewed as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> a flat surface, may be enriched with any diaper pattern
+that is simply treated, and this diaper pattern may be full of design,
+provided the parts are not too large or too small. It may also be
+formed of gracefully curved parts, or of straight lines or circles, or
+of any combination of these elements; but, preferably, not wholly of
+straight lines.</p>
+
+<p>Were it not for the fact that much of this central portion of the
+cloth is to be covered by articles of the dinner-table, it might well
+be furnished with a central ornament, repeating only in quarters; but
+as such an ornament, in order that it be satisfying, requires to be
+seen as a whole, it is not desirable that such be here employed. A
+diaper pattern that repeats many times in the centre is preferable, as
+the pattern can then be seen in a satisfactory manner.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i127full.jpg">
+<img id="i127" class="wrapr" src="images/i127.jpg" width="300" height="353" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The border of a table-cloth, like all fabrics that are to be seen in
+folds, requires special treatment, for what looks well when seen as a
+flat surface may not look well when seen on a waved surface. Tender
+and graceful curves are lost when viewed upon folds, for they here
+appear as mere wormy lines. On the contrary, right lines, whether
+horizontal or diagonal, and circles, all look well when seen upon
+waved grounds. These lines become, owing to the folds of the fabric,
+curves of a subtle character. The manner in which lines become
+influenced by falling on a curved surface can be readily illustrated
+by forming semicircles of paper, and folding them into cones, after
+having drawn upon them a series of circles (Fig. 85) or straight lines
+(Fig. 86). If these cones (Figs. 87 and 88) are now viewed from above,
+or in such a manner that the eye rests over the apices, it will be
+seen that the circles have now become richly varied curves, each
+having somewhat the form of a blunt heart or cardioid (Fig. 89), and
+that the straight lines become horse-shoe-shaped (Fig. 90). These
+illustrations will be sufficient to show that what is plain when seen
+upon a flat surface may be delicate and satisfying if seen upon a
+curved surface; and will also lead us to understand that what may be
+delicate and refined when seen upon a flat<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> surface may become feeble
+and unsatisfactory if falling upon a waved ground. I have said that
+stripes or straight lines, if <i>crossing</i> a folded fabric, are
+satisfactory. This is so in almost all cases, the only exception being
+in ladies' dresses. Here lines crossing the fabric are not
+satisfactory, as they become rings around the body, which appear to
+divide it into hoop-like strata. The patterns of dresses <i>may</i> consist
+of narrow, vertical stripes, as these are collected together at the
+waist of the figure, and fall into graceful curves with any motion of
+the body, but the very opposite is the case with window-hangings. All
+vertical stripes are here highly offensive, while horizontal stripes
+are thoroughly satisfactory.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i128full.jpg">
+<img id="i128" class="wrap" src="images/i128.jpg" width="300" height="416" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A consideration of the window-hanging materials made in Spain,
+Algeria, and on the Morocco coast, will show us the beauty of
+horizontal stripes; and in some of the little Algerian warehouses,
+such as we have in Regent Street, London, and in the Rue de Rivoli in
+Paris, we see some of these fabrics of a most interesting character.</p>
+
+<p>To state in a concise form the laws which should govern the
+application of ornament to certain fabrics which are to be seen in
+folds, I should say&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1st. Great simplicity of pattern is necessary.</p>
+
+<p>2nd. Circles, straight lines crossing the fabric, and diagonal lines
+are all correct in such a case, and are improved by the folds, which
+form them into subtle and beautiful curves (Fig. 91).</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3rd. If curves are tender and graceful, they become commonplace on a
+waved or folded ground.</p>
+
+<p>4th. The size of the pattern should be considered in relation to the
+size of the folds of the material.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter clearleft">
+<a href="images/i129full.jpg">
+<img id="i129" src="images/i129.jpg" width="600" height="793" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Germany a kind of ornament is applied to rich stiff fabrics which
+is almost peculiar to the country. This ornament is rich, bold, hard
+or stiff in its lines, and in every way adapted for the decoration of
+a costly fabric which falls in large folds, the folds changing the
+hard and stiff lines into graceful curves. This should also be noted
+respecting these curious yet beautiful patterns, that they are always
+simple in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> plan, however rich in detail, and are invariably founded on
+a geometrical basis. "German Gothic" is a name by which such ornament
+may be distinguished (flat Gothic ornament has always been quite
+distinct from the stone and metal ornaments of Gothic buildings, which
+have solid and not merely superficial form),
+<a href="#i128">see Figs. 92</a> and 93. This
+particular class of ornament forms the background to many old
+pictures, a most interesting collection of which exists in the museum
+of Cologne, and is certainly worthy of the most careful study.</p>
+
+<p>As to flat silk wall-damasks, which are used in some of the
+upper-class houses as wall-papers are used in the middle-class houses,
+all that need be said is that they should be treated as wall
+decorations, and not as fabrics which are to be seen folded. Were I
+asked whether I approve of these damasks as wall coverings, I should
+say, "Certainly not." A wall is better treated as a wall, and not so
+covered with drapery as to leave space for vermin between the wall and
+its enrichment. There is also the further objection that the lines
+where the fabric is joined are visible, and these are most certainly
+objectionable.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i130full.jpg">
+<img id="i130" class="wrap" src="images/i130.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides the illustrations of German ornament just given, we figure
+also a specimen of Indian embroidery on cotton (Fig. 94). I cannot too
+strongly recommend the designer of patterns for woven goods to study
+the native fabrics of India, exhibited at the Indian Museum,
+Whitehall.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the collection here brought together, there is also in most of
+our<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> manufacturing towns a large series of specimens of these cloths
+deposited with the Chamber of Commerce, and these can be consulted by
+all respectable members of the community. Speaking of these Indian
+fabrics, Mr. Redgrave says, in his Report on Design prepared for the
+Commissioners of the International Exhibition of 1851:&mdash;"These are
+almost wholly designed on the principles here presumed to be just
+ones<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>&mdash;the ornament is always flat, and without shadow; natural
+flowers are never used imitatively or perspectively, but are
+conventionalised by being displayed flat and according to a
+symmetrical arrangement; and all other objects, even animals and
+birds, when used as ornament, are reduced to their simplest flat form.
+When colour is added, it is usually rendered by the simplest local
+hue, often bordered with a darker shade of the colour, to give it a
+clearer expression; but the shades of the flowers are rarely
+introduced. The cloth of gold figured in the loom (Fig. 95), and part
+of an Indian scarf (Fig. 96), illustrate fully these remarks. The
+ornament is geometrically and symmetrically arranged, flat, in simple
+tints, and bordered, as above described, with darker shades of the
+local colour. The principle of colour adopted is a balance of the
+complementaries red and green, in both cases with white introduced to
+give points of expression, and to lead the eye to the symmetrical
+arrangement of the ornament. In Fig. 95 purple is introduced to
+harmonise with the gold ground, a harmony very frequently used in the
+rich tissues of India. In Fig. 96 variety has been obtained by
+introducing two reds, giving an interchange of a lighter tint in every
+other flower in the border. The borders of these scarves are
+beautifully illustrative of the simple and graceful flowing lines
+which characterise Indian ornament; and in Fig. 96 we can observe the
+difference between the Eastern and the medi&aelig;val patterns&mdash;while the
+same principles are acknowledged in both, the latter are often stiffer
+and more angular than the graceful sprigs of this border. Both these
+works show how much beauty may be obtained by simple means, when
+regulated by just principles, and how perfectly unnecessary are the
+multiplied tints by which modern designers think to give value to
+their works, but which increase the difficulties of production out of
+all proportion to any effect resulting from them&mdash;nay, often even to
+the absolute disadvantage of the fabric. If we look at the details of
+the Indian patterns, we shall be surprised at their extreme
+simplicity, and be led to wonder at their rich and satisfactory
+effect; it will soon be evident, however, that their beauty results
+entirely from adherence to the principles above described. The parts
+themselves are often poor, ill-drawn, and common-place; yet, from the
+knowledge of the designer, due attention to the just ornamentation of
+the fabric, and the refined delicacy evident in the selection of
+<i>quantity</i> and the choice of tints, both for the ground, where gold is
+not used as a ground, and for the ornamental forms, the fabrics,
+individually and as a whole, are a lesson to our designers and
+manufacturers, given by those from whom we least expected it."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i131full.jpg">
+<img id="i131" src="images/i131.jpg" width="600" height="857" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Much that Mr. Redgrave here says is worthy of careful consideration,
+and I can do no more than recommend the student to study these
+beautiful Indian fabrics, and consider them in conjunction with the
+remarks which we have made respecting them and fabrics in general.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>DIVISION I.</h3>
+
+<p>In this chapter I have to commence our consideration of pottery, and
+of hollow vessels especially; and this I do with considerable
+pleasure, as works in pottery enjoy a longer existence, though through
+the character of the material of which they are made they are more
+fragile, than those formed of almost any other substance. Many works
+of Greek pottery are known to us, and not a few such works by the
+ancient Egyptians, and these are preserved not as fragments merely,
+but as works in their entirety, and with the same beauty that they
+possessed when first they left the hands of the workman.</p>
+
+<p>Clay is a most desirable material with which to form works of utility
+and of beauty, and this for many reasons. First, it is so inexpensive
+as to be almost valueless; secondly, it is easily formed into vessels
+of almost any required shape; thirdly, it is capable of being "worked"
+into shapes of great beauty by a momentary exercise of skill;
+fourthly, clay is naturally of many beautiful colours; fifthly, it is
+capable of receiving by application to its surface any amount of
+colour, and of preserving such colours as are applied to it in an
+unimpaired state for ages; and sixthly, it is susceptible of the
+highest art-finish, or the bold sketchy touch of the modeller's hand.
+I say that clay is a very desirable material for formation into
+vessels of various kinds, because of its inexpensive character. This
+quality of cheapness gives to the material an advantage over many
+other substances of a much more costly character, such as should not
+be overlooked, for the long existence which so many works of
+earthenware have had is mainly due to the worthlessness of the
+material of which they are composed. In my first chapter I gave an
+extract from the writings of Professor George Wilson, showing that
+gold and silver, while beautiful in themselves, and worthy to be
+fashioned into exquisite devices, are yet too tempting to the thief,
+and to all who are pressed for means, to remain long in the form of
+art-works. Families who have been reduced in circumstances, and have
+thereby been constrained to part with their old plate, have melted it,
+so as to hide their shame. To illustrate this, let me quote from the
+"Handbook of the Arts of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, as applied
+to the Decoration of Furniture, Arms, Jewels, etc., translated from
+the French of M. Jules Labarte, 1856." After giving the names of many
+workers in the precious metals, the author says:&mdash;"We may form some
+idea of what artists these Italian goldsmiths were of the fourteenth,
+fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, and what admirable works they must
+have produced. But,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> alas! these noble works have almost all perished;
+their artistic worth proving no safeguard against cupidity or
+necessity, the fear of pillage, or the love of change. But a very few
+names even of those skilled artists have descended to us, and in
+making known those preserved to us in the writings of Vasari,
+Benvenuto, Cellini, and others, we can rarely point out any of their
+works as being still in existence.</p>
+
+<p>"Cellini tells us that while Pope Clement VII. was besieged in the
+castle of St. Angelo, he received orders to unset all the precious
+stones that were upon the tiaras, the sacred vessels, and the jewels
+of the sovereign pontiff; and to melt down the gold, of which he
+obtained 200 pounds. How many artistic treasures must have perished in
+the crucible of Cellini." We now see clearly that while clay is a much
+more fragile material than either silver or gold, its very
+worthlessness, despite its fragility, gives to it length of years.</p>
+
+<p>We have said that clay is easily formed into vessels of almost any
+required shape. This is so within certain limits. Throughout these
+chapters I have lost no opportunity of insisting upon the importance
+of working every material in a befitting manner, and in the most
+simple and easy way in which the material can be wrought. Almost every
+material can be simply "worked" in some way, or while in some
+particular condition.</p>
+
+<p>Glass has a molten state in which it can be "blown" into the most
+beautiful of shapes, and this process of blowing is the work of but a
+few seconds. Glass has also a solid condition, yet as it can be formed
+into works of great beauty by the exercise of momentary skill, it
+would be extremely foolish to take a mass of the solid glass, and by
+laborious grinding form it into a bottle or a bowl. It fortunately
+happens that if a material is worked in its most simple and befitting
+manner, the results obtained are more beautiful and satisfying than
+those which are arrived at by any roundabout method of production.
+Glass should be formed into hollow vessels only when in its plastic
+condition, for it cannot be shaped into the form of such vessels as we
+require when in its solid state without the expenditure of much
+unnecessary, therefore wasteful, labour. But if a mass of crystal or
+marble is required to assume the form of a bowl or font, then the
+laborious process of grinding must be resorted to, for these
+substances have no plastic state.</p>
+
+<p>The potter's wheel has been known from the earliest historic time, and
+this has at all times been the instrument with which the best earthen
+vessels have been formed. A mass of clay of suitable size is placed on
+a horizontal disc of wood, to which a rotary motion is imparted. The
+operator presses his thumbs into the centre of the clay, and then, by
+causing his fingers to approach his thumbs, manipulates the clay into
+a cup, a bowl, a vase, an earthen bottle, or whatever form he may
+please; and if skilful, the operator can form objects of marvellous
+beauty with a rapidity that astonishes all who see for the first time
+his mode of working.</p>
+
+<p>If potters would but content themselves, in order to the production of
+such<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> articles as we require in common life, with the "potter's
+wheel," we should be almost sure of a certain amount of beauty in
+domestic earthenware, but such is not the case. They make fancy moulds
+of plaster of Paris and of wire gauze, and roll out clay as the
+pastrycook does dough, and manipulate it as so much pie-crust, instead
+of applying to it simple skill. Neither a bowl nor a plate need have a
+scalloped edge, indeed they are much better without it; and if
+unnecessary, and even undesirable, absurdities were avoided, and a
+simple and natural method of working each material alone employed, a
+great improvement in art would speedily take place.</p>
+
+<p>It is strange but true, that the worker in one material seems rarely
+to be satisfied with making his works look as well and as consistent
+as possible; he desires rather to form poor imitations of something
+else. We have all seen earthen jugs made in imitation of wicker-work,
+although to do so is obviously foolish, as no wicker vessel could hold
+water, and the thing imitated is much less beautiful than a thousand
+forms which clay is capable of assuming. Men's heads without brains
+are, or were at least, favourite jugs. Well, that there are many
+models for this idea in Nature, I doubt not; yet why we should copy
+them by making a jug in the form of a hollow head, I know not. I have
+in my possession a milk-jug, such as is common in the district of
+Swansea in South Wales, in the likeness of a cow. The tail is twisted
+into a handle; by a hole in the back the milk is admitted, and through
+the mouth it is ejected. A more wretched and coarse idea it is
+scarcely possible to conceive of, yet the vulgar admire this jug. Let
+us work the material in a simple and befitting manner, and
+satisfactory results are almost sure to accrue.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that clay, as such, has many beautiful colours. Naturally
+clay is black, grey-white, red, brown, and yellow, and it is capable
+of assuming many desirable tints by the agency of chemical means. We
+do not use coloured clays as we should do. We want so much
+white&mdash;everything to look so clean. All ornamental ware, at least,
+should be artistic, and the art-effect should supersede that cold
+whiteness which the Dutch and the English mistake for cleanliness. A
+clay of good natural colour is not a thing to be hidden, or ashamed
+of.</p>
+
+<p>Clay is capable, when glazed, of receiving any amount of colour, and
+of preserving these colours in their beauty for almost any length of
+time. These qualities are invaluable to the ornamentist. Colour is not
+always at his disposal. The goldsmith has difficulty in getting it,
+but to the potter it is very accessible. Colour is capable of giving
+to objects a charm which they could not possibly have without it. Let
+us use the power thus placed at our disposal rightly and well, and
+then the enduring character of the colour-harmonies which we produce
+may gladden posterity in ages yet to come.</p>
+
+<p>Clay is susceptible of the highest art-finish, or of a bold sketchy
+treatment. Finish is very desirable in some cases. The cup which my
+lady uses in her boudoir<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> should be delicate and fine, for what is
+worthy to approach the sacred lips of the occupant of a fair apartment
+but such a work as is tender and refined?</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, however, we over-estimate the value of finish, and
+under-value bold art-effects. Excessive finish often (but by no means
+always) destroys art-effect. I have before me some specimens of
+Japanese earthenware, which are formed of a coarse dark brown clay,
+and are to a great extent without that finish which most Europeans
+appear so much to value, yet these are artistic and beautiful. In the
+case of cheap goods we spend time in getting smoothness of surface,
+while the Japanese devote it to the production of an art-effect. We
+get finish without art, they prefer art without finish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i136full.jpg">
+<img id="i136" src="images/i136.jpg" width="600" height="284" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>We must now devote ourselves to a special consideration of the shapes
+of earthen vessels, and to the manner in which ornament should be
+applied to them.</p>
+
+<p>In his primitive condition man appears to have used the shells of
+certain fruits as drinking vessels and bottles; and to this day we
+find many tribes of uncivilised or half-civilised men using the same
+class of vessels. "Monkey-pots" (the hard shells of the <i>Lecythis
+allaria</i>), the coverings of the Brazil nut (<i>Bertholetia excelsa</i>),
+and especially the rinds of the calabash and many species of gourd
+(Figs. 97 and 98), have been used in this way.<a id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> The first efforts
+made at the production of earthen vessels were mere attempts at
+copying in clay the forms of the fruit-shells which were in use as
+drinking vessels. After a power of forming earthen vessels, having a
+certain amount of perfection of manufacture, was gained, we still find
+the origin of the potter's art manifested by certain works. Thus in
+China, where the potter's art has <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>so long been understood, we still
+find vessels made in the form of the bottle-gourd, just as was their
+custom in the days of their first manufacturing efforts (Fig. 99).
+Before considering the shapes of vessels from a utilitarian point of
+view, I should tell the student that certain shapes are characteristic
+of different nations and of different periods of time.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek shapes, as we may call them&mdash;that is, the forms of those
+vessels which the Greeks produced&mdash;are of a particular class, and the
+vessels produced by the Egyptians are of a different type; while those
+of the Chinese, Indians, Japanese, and Mexicans again differ from each
+other, and from those of both the Greeks and the Egyptians. For grace
+of form the vessels of the old Greeks stand pre-eminent (Figs. 101 and
+102); for simple dignified severity, those of the Egyptians (Fig.
+100); for quaintness, those of the Mexicans (Fig. 103); for a
+combination of grace with dignity, those of the Chinese (Figs. 104 and
+105); and for a combination of beauty with quaintness, those of the
+Japanese (Fig. 106); while in many respects the Indian shapes (Figs.
+107 and 108) resemble those of the Japanese. Fig. 109 is a water
+vessel from Ha, and Figs. 110 and 111 are jugs from Morocco.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot enter into any details respecting the characteristic forms of
+vessels produced by these various nations, but must content myself by
+giving a few illustrations of the various shapes, and leaving the
+matter with the learner for study. The British Museum, the South
+Kensington Museum, and the Indian Museum will aid him in his
+researches.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that the character of a people can be told by their
+water-vessels. As the consideration of this statement will lead us to
+see how perfectly a domestic utensil may answer the end which it
+should serve, I will extract from my "Art of Decorative Design" a few
+remarks on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>This statement can well "be illustrated by the Egyptian and Greek
+water-vessels, the former of which has sides tapering to the top and
+slanting inwards, a small orifice, and a rounded base, and the mouth
+of the vessel bridged by an arched handle, the whole being constructed
+of bronze (Fig. 112); the latter consists of an egg-shaped body (the
+broad end being above) resting upon a secure foot, which is surmounted
+by a large, divergent, funnel-shaped member (Fig. 113). It has no
+handle over the orifice, but has one at either side.</p>
+
+<p>"Not only do these vessels differ in form, but associated
+circumstances differ also; and it is this variation in circumstances
+which brought about the difference in form of the two water-vessels.</p>
+
+<p>"The peculiarities of the Egyptian water-vessel are its formation of
+bronze, the roundness of its base, which renders it unfitted for
+standing, the narrowness of its mouth, and the handle arching the
+orifice; and of the Greek, its being wrought in clay, the secure base,
+the wide mouth, the contraction in the centre, and the handle at
+either side. We should judge from these vessels that the Egyptians
+drew water<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> from a river, or some position which required that the
+vessel be attached to a cord and cast into the source of supply, for
+the roundness of the base at once points to this, it being a provision
+for enabling the vessel to fill by turning upon its side (were its
+base flat it would float on the water); it is also formed out of metal
+so as to facilitate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> this end. The arched handle not only points to
+the attachment of the vessel to a string in order that it be cast into
+the water, but also to the carrying the vessel pendent from the hand
+in the manner that pails are at present carried, and the contracted
+mouth restrains the splashing over of the water: and what this simple
+water-vessel points to we find to have been the case, for the
+Egyptians derived water from the Nile in the very manner that the
+vessel would indicate; but with the Greeks circumstances were
+different, and the shape of the vessel varies accordingly. The base is
+here flat, in order that the vessel may stand; the mouth is large, in
+order to collect the water which fell from above,&mdash;from the
+dripping-rocks and water-spouts. This being the manner in which water
+was gathered, a vessel formed of heavy metal was unnecessary; the
+contraction prevented the water from splashing over when carried, and
+up to this point the vessel was filled, and no higher; and the handles
+at the side<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> show that it was carried on the head. But, in conjunction
+with this mode of carrying, there is another consideration of
+interest, which is, the centre of gravity is high. If we attempt to
+balance a stick, having one enlarged end, on the finger, it will be
+found necessary that the weight be at the top; and in balancing
+anything, it will be found that the object, in order that it ride
+steadily, have its point of greatest weight considerably elevated
+above its base. In the Greek water-vessel, which was carried balanced
+on the head, we find this condition fully complied with, the centre of
+gravity occupying a high position, while in the Egyptian vessel the
+centre of gravity was low; but where the vessel is to be carried
+underhand, it is as great an advantage to have the centre of gravity
+low as it is in the case of a coach, where security is thus gained
+just as the centre of gravity is lowered. The Greek water-vessel,
+then, consists of a cavity for holding water, a funnel to collect and
+guide the water, a base for the vessel to rest upon, and handles to
+enable it to be raised to the head, and the centre of gravity is high
+in order that it be readily balanced; and we should judge from this
+vessel that the Greeks procured water from dripping-rocks and
+water-spouts, and this is exactly what did occur. These are the direct
+teachings of the Egyptian and Greek water-vessels; yet how many
+circumstances and incidents of common life can be conceived as
+associated with these different forms of vessel. There is the gossip
+round the well, and the lingering by the river-side where the image of
+the date-palm is mirrored by the glassy surface of the waters. The
+effect of the noise of the splashing water upon the mind in the one
+case, combined with the comparatively loud and energetic speaking
+which would be necessary in order that the voice be not drowned by the
+noise, and of the calm tranquillity of the river-bank in the other,
+where the limpid water is ever flowing on in silent majesty, must be
+considerable. Then we have the potter's art essential to the
+production of the vessel in the one case, and the metal-worker's in
+the other&mdash;the digging of clay, the mining of metal, the kilns and
+smelting furnaces. We will not continue this portion of the subject
+further, and have brought forward this illustration in order to show
+how well-considered objects reveal to us the habits and customs of the
+peoples and nations in which they originated."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i138full.jpg">
+<img id="i138" src="images/i138.jpg" width="600" height="723" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will now be apparent that even a common object may result from such
+careful consideration that its form will at once suggest its use; but
+the object will only reveal the purpose for which it was created with
+definiteness of expression when it perfectly answers the end proposed
+by its formation. The advice which I must give to every designer is to
+study carefully exactly what is required, before he proceeds to form
+his ideas of what the object proposed to be created should be like,
+and then to diligently strive to arrange such a form for it as shall
+cause it to be perfectly suited to the want which it is intended to
+meet.</p>
+
+<p>More will be said upon the subject of form when speaking of glass
+vessels and of silversmiths' work; and when considering these subjects
+we shall also give the law<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> which governs the application of handles
+and spouts to vessels; and it is of the utmost importance that they be
+correctly placed in order that the vessel may be used with convenience
+<a href="#Page_140">(see page 140)</a>.
+A word must now be said respecting the decoration of
+earthen vessels, but on this subject our remarks must be brief.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i139full.jpg">
+<img id="i139" src="images/i139.jpg" width="600" height="694" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The object to which the decoration is applied must determine the
+nature of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> ornament to be employed. In the case of a vessel which
+is to be in part hidden when in use, great simplicity of treatment
+should be adopted, and the ornament may with advantage consist of
+repeated parts. In the case of a plate, little or no ornament should
+be placed in the centre; but if there is a central ornament it should
+be a small, regular, radiating figure, consisting of like parts (Figs.
+114 and 115). The border should also consist of simple members
+repeated, for it will then look well if portions are covered; and
+these remarks will apply equally to all kinds of plates, whether
+intended for use at dinner or dessert.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i141full.jpg">
+<img id="i141" src="images/i141.jpg" width="600" height="716" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>No plate should have a landscape painted upon it, nor a figure, nor a
+group of flowers. Whatever has a right and wrong way upwards is
+inappropriate in such a position, as whatever ornament a plate bears
+should be in all positions as fully right way upwards to the beholder
+as it can be. Besides, landscapes, groups of flowers, and figures are
+spoiled if in part hidden, provided they are satisfactory when the
+whole is seen.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i142full.jpg">
+<img id="i142" class="wrap" src="images/i142.jpg" width="300" height="138" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Plates may have a white ground, for it is desirable that those
+articles on which food is presented should manifest the utmost
+cleanliness, yet to a cream tint there can be no objection. I should,
+however, prefer white plates, with a rather deep blue, Indian red,
+maroon, or brown pattern upon them, and a pale buff table-cloth for
+them to rest upon.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of cups and saucers the treatment should be similar to
+that of the plate. The saucer may have a simple border ornament,
+consisting of parts repeated, and little or no ornament in the central
+portion on which the cup rests. The cup may have an external border
+ornament, and a double narrow line of colour around the upper portion
+of the interior, but no other ornament is here required.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever ornament is placed around a cup, or vase, or any tall object
+must be such as will not suffer by perspective, for there is scarcely
+any portion of the ornament that can be seen otherwise than
+foreshortened (Figs. 103 and 111). Let simplicity be the ruling
+principle in the decoration of all rounded objects, and ever remember
+that a line which is straight on a flat surface becomes a curve on a
+round surface <a href="#Page_110">(see page 110)</a>.</p>
+
+<p>I have given what is a correct decoration for a plate and cup and
+saucer, but there are other methods of treatment than those just
+named. The Japanese are very fond of placing little circular groups of
+flowers on plates, saucers, and bowls (Figs. 116 and 117). The Greeks
+had various methods of enriching their tazzas and vases with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+ornament, and the Egyptians were partial to the plan of rendering a
+cup as a lotus-flower (Fig. 100). But when they formed a cup thus,
+they were careful to draw the flower conventionally and ornamentally,
+and never produced an imitative work <a href="#Page_24">(see page 24)</a>. The Chinese treat
+the flower of the sacred bean in the same way (Fig. 118).</p>
+
+<p>What I have said has been addressed to the student. The remarks,
+however, made respecting the form chosen being that which is most
+suitable to the end proposed, and the conditions to which I shall make
+reference as governing the application of handle and spout to any
+object, are binding upon all who would produce satisfactory works; but
+to the genius who has power to produce beautiful and vigorous
+ornament, and whose taste has, by years of study and cultivation,
+become refined and judicious, I can give no rules, his own taste being
+his best guide.</p>
+
+<h3>DIVISION II.</h3>
+
+<p>When speaking of earthenware, I insisted upon the desirability of
+using every material in the easiest and most natural manner, and I
+illustrated my meaning by saying that glass has a molten condition as
+well as a solid state, and that while in the molten condition it can
+be "blown" into forms of exquisite beauty. Glass-blowing is an
+operation of skill, and an operation in which natural laws come to our
+aid, and I cannot too strongly repeat my statement that every material
+should be "worked" in the most simple and befitting manner; and I
+think that our consideration of the formation of glass vessels will
+render the reasonableness of my demand apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Let a portion of molten glass be gathered upon the end of a metal
+pipe, and blown into a bubble while the pipe drops vertically from the
+mouth of the operator, and a flask is formed such as is used for the
+conveyance of olive oil (Fig. 119); and what vessel could be more
+beautiful than such a flask? Its grace of form is obvious; the
+delicate curvature of its sides, the gentle swelling of the bulb, and
+the exquisitely rounded base, all manifest beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Here we get a vessel formed for us almost wholly by Nature. It is the
+attraction of gravitation which converts what would be a mere bubble,
+or hollow sphere of glass, into a gracefully elongated and
+delicately-shaped flask. This may be taken as a principle, that
+whenever a material is capable of being "worked" in a manner which
+will so secure the operation of natural laws as to modify the shapes
+of the objects into which it is formed, it is very desirable that we
+avail ourselves of such a means of formation, for the operation of
+gravitation and similar forces upon plastic matter is calculated to
+give beauty of form.</p>
+
+<p>When clay is worked upon the potter's wheel, it is shaped by the
+operator's skill, and is sufficiently stiff to retain the shape given
+to it to a very considerable extent; yet the operation of gravitation
+upon it, so long as it has any plasticity<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> whatever, is calculated to
+secure delicacy of form. This rule should ever be remembered by the
+art-student&mdash;that a curve is beautiful just as its origin is difficult
+to detect <a href="#Page_23">(see Chap. I., page 23)</a>. In the formation of vases, bottles,
+etc., knowledge of this law is very important, and the operation of
+gravity upon hollow plastic vessels is calculated to give to their
+curves subtlety (intricate beauty) of character. Having arranged that
+the material shall be worked in the manner most befitting its nature,
+we must next consider what purpose the object to be formed is intended
+to serve.</p>
+
+<p>Take a common hock-bottle (Fig. 120) and consider it. What is wanted
+is a vessel such as will stand, in which wine can be stored. It must
+have a strong neck, so that a cork may be driven in without splitting
+it, and must be formed of a material that is not absorbent. Glass, as
+a material, admirably answers the want, and this bottle is capable of
+storing wine; it will stand, and has a rim around the neck such as
+gives to it strength. But, besides serving the requirements named, it
+is both easily formed and is beautiful. The designer must be a
+utilitarian, but he must be an artist also. We must have useful
+vessels, but the objects with which we are to surround ourselves must
+likewise be beautiful; and unless they are beautiful, our delicacy of
+feeling and power to appreciate Nature, which is full of beauties,
+will be impaired. A hock-bottle is a mere elongated bubble, with the
+bottom portion pressed in so that it may stand, and the neck thickened
+by a rim of glass being placed around it.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i144full.jpg">
+<img id="i144" class="wrap" src="images/i144.jpg" width="200" height="330" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here we have a bottle shaped by natural agency; it is formed of heavy
+glass, and the bubble was thick at its lower part, hence its elongated
+form; but if length is required in any bubble, and the glass is even
+light, it can always be given by swinging the bubble round from the
+centre, so that centrifugal force may be brought into play in the
+direction of its length; or if it has to be widened, this can as
+easily be done by giving to it a rotatory motion, whereby the
+centrifugal force is caused to act from the axis of the vessel
+outwards, and not from the apex to the base, as in the former
+instance. In either case a certain amount of beauty would appear in
+the shape produced, for Nature here works for us. (Compare the short,
+dumpy, yet beautiful bottle, in which we receive cura&ccedil;ao, with the
+hock-bottle, when the two natural modes of forming bottles will be
+illustrated.) Our wine-bottles are moulded, hence their ugliness. We
+work without Nature's assistance, and we reap ugliness as the reward.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider what a decanter should be. In many respects, the
+wants which a decanter is intended to meet are similar to those which
+are met by the bottle, as just enumerated, but here is a great
+difference&mdash;a bottle is only <i>intended</i> to be filled once, whereas a
+decanter will have to be filled many times; and a bottle is made so
+that it can travel, while a decanter is not meant to be the subject of
+long journeys. It is true that a bottle may be refilled many times,
+but it is not intended that it should, as the fact that we use a
+funnel when we wish to fill it clearly shows, and without a funnel the
+vessel is not complete. All objects which are meant to be refilled
+many times should have a funnel-shaped mouth (see my remarks on the
+Greek water-vessel, <a href="#Page_121">page 121</a>), but if a bottle had a distended orifice
+it would not be well adapted for transport. A decanter should have
+capacity for containing liquid; it should stand securely, and have a
+double funnel&mdash;a funnel to collect the fluid and conduct it into the
+bottle, and a funnel to collect it and conduct it out of the bottle.
+It must also be convenient to use and hold, and the upper funnel
+should be of such a character that it will guide the liquid in a
+proper direction when poured from the decanter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i145full.jpg">
+<img id="i145" src="images/i145.jpg" width="600" height="460" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>If we take a flask and flatten its base, and extend the upper portion
+of the neck slightly into the form of a funnel, we have all that is
+required of a decanter, with the exception of a permanent cork, which
+is a stopper (Fig. 121).</p>
+
+<p>But as most decanters are intended to hold wine, the brilliancy of
+which is not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> readily apparent when that portion of the vessel which
+contains the liquid rests immediately upon the table, it is desirable
+to give to the vessel a foot, or, in other words, raise the body of
+the decanter so that light may surround it as fully as possible (Figs.
+122 and 123).</p>
+
+<p>In Figs. 124 to 135 I give a number of shapes of decanters and jugs,
+such as may be seen in our best shop-windows, and such as I consider
+desirable forms for such vessels; and in considering-the shape of such
+vessels, the character of the upper portion of the neck (the lip) must
+be regarded, as well as that of the body and base. Notice also whether
+the centre of gravity is high or low, and the position and character
+of the handle; but respecting the application of handles to vessels I
+will speak when considering silversmiths' work
+<a href="#Page_140">(see page 140)</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i146full.jpg">
+<img id="i146" src="images/i146.jpg" width="600" height="359" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides decanters and bottles, glass is formed into tumblers,
+wine-glasses, flower-holders, and many other things; but the
+principles which we have already laid down will apply equally to all,
+for if the objects formed result from the easiest mode of working the
+material, and are such as perfectly answer the end proposed by their
+formation, and are beautiful, nothing more can be expected of them.</p>
+
+<p>Many objects of fancy shape have been produced as mere feats of
+glass-blowing, and with some of these efforts I sympathise. Wherever
+the work produced is truly adapted to use, or where an artistic effect
+is achieved, the glass-blower has my warm sympathy; but if the effort
+is made at the production of novelty merely, the result gained is sure
+to be unsatisfactory. Much of the Venetian glass will illustrate these
+last remarks.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Fig. 136 is a very excellent and picturesque spirit-bottle; it is easy
+to hold, and quaint in appearance.<a id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Figs. 137, 138, and 139 are
+Venetian glass vessels, wrought entirely at the furnace-mouth, and
+neither cut nor engraved&mdash;they are artistic, and of interesting
+appearance; while Fig. 140 is a work of Roman glass, in which the
+upper distension is useful if the liquid contains a sediment which it
+is not desirable to pour out with the liquid.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i147full.jpg">
+<img id="i147" src="images/i147.jpg" width="600" height="443" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is one thing pertaining to table-glass that we do not now
+sufficiently consider, which is its capacity for colour. Our one idea
+in the formation of glass vessels is the imitation of crystal, unless
+we happen to produce a vessel of the strongest tint. With the
+exception of hock-glasses, which are generally either ruby-colour,
+dark green, or intense yellow-green, we rarely employ tinted glass on
+our tables. These three colours, which we usually employ in
+hock-glasses, are all too strong in tint for ordinary purposes, and
+they are coarse and vulgar. It is curious that we should confine
+ourselves to these colours when glass is capable of assuming the most
+delicate of shades, of appearing as a soft, subtle, golden hue of the
+most beautiful light tertiary green, lilac, and blue, and, indeed, of
+almost any colour.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p><p>Why, then, should we employ only two or three colours, and those of
+the most crude character? If the Roman and Greek glass of the British
+Museum be inspected, it will be seen that the Romans employed various
+soft and delicate tints, and why we should not do so I cannot see. For
+many reasons the colours of our hock-glasses are highly objectionable,
+but especially for two. First, as already stated, the colour is so
+strong that they appear as mere dark spots on the cloth, and
+altogether fail in imparting to the table a pleasant colour-effect;
+and, secondly, they utterly destroy the beauty of appearance which the
+wine would otherwise present.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i148full.jpg">
+<img id="i148" src="images/i148.jpg" width="600" height="425" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>No glass which is to contain a liquid of pleasant colour should be so
+strong in tint as to mar the beauty of the contained fluid, and
+especially is this true when the colour of the glass is of an opposite
+character to that of the liquid: thus a red liquid placed in a
+strongly-coloured green glass becomes highly offensive in appearance,
+and yet we often see claret served in green hock-glasses. A
+dinner-table requires colour. Let the cloth be pale buff, or
+cream-colour, instead of white; and the glass water-vessels of very
+pale, but refined and various, tints; and the salt-cellars, if of
+glass, also coloured, in a tender and befitting manner, and a most
+harmonious effect will be produced. The flowers with which the table
+is adorned would then harmonise with the other things, and much beauty
+might be produced.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting the ornamentation of glass, two methods of treatment are
+resorted to, which are "cutting" and "engraving." Both modes deal with
+glass as a hard, crystal-like substance; and consist in grinding the
+surface, and either leaving it "dead" or repolishing it. In the case
+of "cutting" a considerable portion of the substance of the glass is
+generally removed, and the surface is repolished; but in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> the case of
+"engraving" little more than the surface is generally acted upon, and
+the engraved portion remains dead.</p>
+
+<p>Cutting may be employed in bringing about ornamental effects in glass,
+but it is rarely to be commended when so lavishly used as to be the
+chief means of giving form to the vessel; indeed, cutting should be
+sparingly and judiciously used. A vessel formed of glass should never
+be wholly shaped by cutting, as though it were a work of stone. If the
+neck of a decanter can be made more convenient by being slightly
+cut&mdash;if it can be so treated that it can be held more securely&mdash;then
+let it be cut; but in all cases avoid falling into the error of too
+much cutting which causes the work to appear laboured, for any work
+which presents the appearance of having been the result of much labour
+is as unpleasant to look upon as that work is pleasing which results
+from the exercise of momentary skill. There is a great art-principle
+manifested in the expression "Let there be light, and there was
+light."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i149full.jpg">
+<img id="i149" src="images/i149.jpg" width="600" height="545" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Engraving is also laborious, and while it is capable of yielding most
+delicate and beautiful effects, it should yet be somewhat sparingly
+used, for extravagance in labour is never desirable, and there is such
+a thing as extravagance of beauty.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>However delicate ornament may be, and however well composed, yet if it
+covers the whole of the walls of an apartment and of the objects which
+it contains, it fails to please. There must be the contrast of plain
+surfaces with ornamented&mdash;plain for the eye to rest upon, ornament for
+the mind to enjoy. In the enrichment of glass these remarks fully
+apply. Let there be plain surfaces as well as ornamented parts, and
+the effect will be more satisfying than if all be covered with
+ornament.</p>
+
+<p>All that I said respecting the decoration of damask table-linen will
+apply equally to glass, considering only the different way in which
+the effect is produced (see Chap. VI., <a href="#Page_108">page 108</a>). Thus we have
+ornament produced only by a variation of surface. Such simple means of
+producing an art-effect are capable of rendering in a satisfactory
+manner simple treatments only, but simple patterns are capable of
+yielding the highest pleasure, and such patterns can be almost
+perfectly rendered by engraving, as shown in Figs. 141, 142, 143.<a id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>Somewhat elaborate effects can be rendered in glass by very laborious
+engraving, whereby different depths of cutting are attained; but such
+work is the result of great labour, and rarely produces an effect
+proportionate to the toil expended upon it; and if a bottle so
+engraved is filled with a coloured wine, the entire beauty of its
+engraving is destroyed. Fig. 144 is a drawing of a most elaborately
+engraved bottle, which was shown in the Exhibition of 1862. It
+represents, to a great extent, wasted labour.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i150full.jpg">
+<img id="i150" class="wrap" src="images/i150.jpg" width="300" height="668" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind that any ornament placed on a decanter,
+wine-glass, or tumbler, is to be seen almost wholly in perspective;
+and the remarks made respecting the effects of folded or waved
+surfaces on ornament (Chap. VI., page 110), and those made in
+reference to the application of ornament to earthen vases (Chap. VII.,
+page 126), apply equally here.</p>
+
+<p>It is not my province to enter into the various methods of
+manipulating glass, nor into all the classes of art-effect which glass
+is capable of yielding: I can only call attention to general
+principles, and leave the art-student to think for himself what should
+be the treatment of any particular object. There is a sort of crackle
+glass which has come into use during the last few years, and is an
+imitation of old Venetian work; this is in some respects pleasant in
+appearance, but it is somewhat uncomfortable to handle, and difficult
+to keep clean; its use must therefore be <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>limited. The Romans were in
+the habit of forming glass which was opaque, dark, and of many
+colours. Fig. 145 is an illustration of this kind of glass, the
+pattern being formed by portions of various coloured glass being
+imbedded in the substance of the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>In another chapter I shall have a few remarks to make upon stained
+glass; but as our present remarks pertain to hollow vessels chiefly,
+and as general principles regulate the formation of all such, whether
+they are formed of earthenware, glass, or metal, I think it better to
+proceed to the consideration of silversmiths' ware, and thus continue
+a notice of hollow vessels, than to pass to glass windows, although
+they are formed of the material now under review. What we are
+specially considering at present are vessels of capacity, or hollow
+wares.</p>
+
+<h3>DIVISION III.</h3>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i151full.jpg">
+<img id="i151" class="wrapr" src="images/i151.jpg" width="300" height="333" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Continuing our remarks upon hollow vessels, we have now to notice
+silversmiths' work, and here we may observe that while the material
+with which we have now to deal differs in character widely from that
+of which those vessels already noticed have been formed, yet that many
+principles which have been enunciated are equally applicable to the
+objects now under consideration. Silver objects, like those formed of
+clay or glass, should perfectly serve the end for which they have been
+formed; also, the fact that ornament applied to rounded surfaces
+should be adapted for being viewed in perspective remains as binding
+on us as before; but herein the works of the silversmith differ from
+those already discussed&mdash;they are formed of a material of intrinsic
+value, which is not the case with articles of earthenware or glass.
+Silver and gold being materials of considerable worth, it is necessary
+that the utmost economy be observed in using them, and in order to
+effect this a special mode of construction must be resorted to. If we
+propose to ourselves the formation of a sugar-basin of semi-circular
+shape, of what thickness must the metal be in order that it may not
+bend when lifted? It is obvious that the vessel must not yield its
+shape to ordinary pressure, nor be subject to alterations of form when
+in ordinary use; but if it is to be formed throughout of metal of such
+thickness as will secure its retaining its shape, it will be costly
+and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> heavy, and an amount of metal will be used in its formation
+sufficient for the manufacture of two or three such articles.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of forming the vessel throughout of thick metal, we may
+construct it from a thin sheet of silver; but in order that it possess
+sufficient strength we must indent one or more beads in its side
+<a href="#i151">(see Fig. 146)</a>; or we can form an angle by having a rim projecting into the
+basin (Fig. 147), or extending from it, and thus give strength; but
+the two beads are the more desirable, as the one gives strength at the
+top and the other at a lower portion of the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>Modes of economising material, when we are forming vessels of costly
+substances, are of the utmost importance, and should be carefully
+thought out. If the designer forms works which are expensive, he
+places them beyond the reach of those who might otherwise enjoy them,
+and if heavy they appear clumsy in the hands of those accustomed to
+delicate and light objects.</p>
+
+<p>Besides this, works in silver and in gold are always in danger of
+being destroyed, owing to the intrinsic value of these metals; for if
+stolen, the theft is promptly hidden in the melting-pot. Now if we
+form the vessels of thin metal, we render the money value of the
+material less, and thus our works are to a smaller degree tempting to
+the avaricious, and their chance of long existence is greater. The
+precious metals are at all times perilous materials for the formation
+of works of art; but while we use them, let us take care so to employ
+them as to give to our works every possible opportunity for long
+existence. If a work is to be so formed that it may exist for many
+years, it becomes of the highest importance that those objects which
+we create be well considered as to their utility, and at the same time
+be beautiful in form. Long existence is an evil in the case of an ugly
+object, or an ill-considered vessel; that which is not refining in its
+influence is better blotted out. Let that man who will not seek to
+embody beauty in his works make them heavy with metal, so that they
+may tempt the thief, and thus sooner blot out his works from
+existence, as they tend only to debase and degrade; but he who loves
+refinement, and seeks to give chasteness of character to the objects
+which he creates, may well strive to secure to them length of
+duration.</p>
+
+<p>There are various modes of working metal. It may be cast, hammered,
+cut, engraved, and manipulated in various ways.</p>
+
+<p>Little that is satisfactory can result from casting. Casting is a
+rough means of producing a result, and at best achieves the formation
+of a mass which may be less troublesome to cut into shape than a more
+solid piece of metal; but casting without the application of other
+means of working-metal achieves little of an art nature.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the fine iron castings of Berlin are wonderfully good in their
+way, and are to an extent artistic; and certainly they contrast
+strangely with the cast handles and knobs which we often see applied
+to vegetable-dishes, and similar silver objects here in England; yet
+even these will not compare with works wrought by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> hammer and the
+chisel. Thin metal hammered into form, and touched where necessary
+with the chisel, the graver, and the chasing-tool, is capable of the
+very finest effects which can be achieved in metal-work. Let the
+reader consider the beautiful vessels with which Arabian metal-work
+presents us: these are all formed by the hammer and chisel, with the
+assistance of the graver and chasing-tool, and how marvellously
+delicate and beautiful are the results! We have in these vessels
+beauty and dignity of form, richness of design, great intricacy and
+delicacy of detail, and altogether a refinement of effect which may
+long be considered and repeatedly enjoyed (Fig. 148).</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i153full.jpg">
+<img id="i153" class="wrapr" src="images/i153.jpg" width="300" height="563" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several, I may almost say many, of these beautiful objects are to be
+found in the South Kensington Museum, and it should be generally known
+that fac-similes of these lovely works, in the form of electrotype
+copies, have been prepared by Messrs. Elkington and Co., under the
+sanction of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> authorities of the Department of Science and Art, and
+that these are procurable at small cost. For purposes of study these
+copies are of almost equal value with the originals, and for the
+adornment of a sideboard they are hardly inferior. I strongly advise
+those who can afford to purchase these beautiful copies to garnish
+their sideboards with plate of this description, rather than with the
+meretricious electro-plate which we often see in our shop-windows.</p>
+
+<p>Having determined on the best mode of working the material, consider
+carefully the requirements which the work to be produced is intended
+to meet, and then strive to form the object so that it may perfectly
+answer the end proposed by its creation.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take a sugar-basin. What form should it have? After much
+consideration, I have arrived at the conclusion that the two shapes
+engraved in Figs. 149 and 150 are those which best fulfil the
+requirements of such a vessel, for in them the sugar is always
+collected together, and the dust sugar separates itself from the
+lumps.</p>
+
+<p>The handles of a sugar-basin are often so small as to be partially or
+wholly useless. It not unfrequently happens that only one or two
+fingers can rest on the handle, owing to its smallness, while the
+thumb has to be placed within the orifice of the basin when it is
+desired to move it. This should not be so; if a handle is to exist at
+all, it should be so formed as to be useful, and afford a means of
+moving the object with ease and comfort.</p>
+
+<p>To form a handle as a mere ornament is an absurdity, for the handle is
+part of the vessel structurally, while the ornamentation is an after
+and separate consideration. In order to its existence a vessel must be
+constructed, but when formed it need not of necessity be ornamented;
+ornamentation must ever be regarded as separate from construction.</p>
+
+<p>Such a sugar-basin as I have suggested would not stand without legs:
+it must therefore have them; but I see no reason why the legs and
+handles should not be combined; hence I propose three feet so formed
+as to serve as handles throughout their upper parts (Figs. 149, 150),
+they being convenient to hold.</p>
+
+<p>Modern European silversmiths have fallen into the error (an error now
+prevailing wherever art can be applied to any object) of making their
+works of a pictorial, rather than an ornamental, character&mdash;an error
+which the Arabians, Indians, and Japanese never perpetrate, whose
+works in metal are unsurpassed by any, and equalled by indeed few. It
+is a mistake to cover an entire vase with figures in high relief; but
+wherever anything of the kind is attempted, care must be exercised in
+causing the groups to follow the line of the vase, and not to appear
+as irregular projections from it. As to the modes of decorating works
+in silver and in gold, they are many; of ornamentation by <i>repouss&eacute;</i>
+work we have already spoken, and of chasing and engraving. But besides
+these there are other methods, and some of great interest, for there
+is damascene work, or inlaying; and applying colour, or enamelling;
+and niello work; jewels may also be added.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i155afull.jpg">
+<img id="i155a" class="wrapr" src="images/i155a.jpg" width="300" height="166" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Damascene work is of great interest. Metal of one colour is inlaid
+into metal of another colour. India produces, perhaps, the rarest
+examples of this kind of work, the Indians being experts at this
+manufacture; but the Indian work consists chiefly of silver inlaid in
+iron. This mode of work seems to be capable of producing many
+beautiful effects, as all who have examined the large inlaid hookahs
+of India will admit.</p>
+
+<p>Having chosen a form for a vessel, the next question with which we
+have to deal is, will it require a handle and spout? It is curious
+that while the position of a spout and handle in relation to a vessel
+is governed by a simple natural law, we yet rarely find them placed as
+they should be. This is the more curious, as a vessel may become
+practically of great weight, owing to the handle being misplaced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i155bfull.jpg">
+<img id="i155b" src="images/i155b.jpg" width="600" height="246" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A pound weight is easily lifted, but when applied to the shorter end
+of the steel-yard it will balance a hundredweight. If this principle
+is applied to a tea-pot which actually weighs but little, it may yet
+be very heavy to lift. In nineteen cases out of twenty, handles are so
+placed on tea-pots and similar vessels that they are in use lifted
+only by a force capable of raising two or three such vessels, if the
+principle of the steel-yard was not acting against the person who uses
+the vessel. Take our ordinary forms of tea-pot, and see how far the
+centre of the weight (the centre of gravity) is from the handle in a
+horizontal direction, and you will be able to judge of the leverage
+acting disadvantageously to the person who may pour tea from such<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+pots. Now if the part which is grasped is to the right or left of a
+right line passing through the centre of gravity of any vessel, there
+is leverage acting to the disadvantage of the person desiring to pour
+from that vessel, and this leverage increases just as the point held
+is removed from the central line spoken of.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 151 would pour when in the position shown in Fig. 152, but see
+how far the hand that holds it would be to the right of the centre of
+gravity (<i>a</i>), which distance is of great disadvantage, as it causes
+the vessel to appear much heavier than it actually is, and requires a
+much greater expenditure of force in order that the tea-pot be put to
+its use than is necessary were it properly formed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i156full.jpg">
+<img id="i156" src="images/i156.jpg" width="600" height="458" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The law governing the application of handle and spout to vessels is
+this, and the same principle applies whether the vessel be formed of
+metal, glass, or earthenware:&mdash;Find the centre of gravity of the
+vessel, which can easily be done by letting a vertical line drop over
+it when placed in two different positions, as in Figs. 153, 154, and
+where the two vertical lines intersect, as in <i>a</i> in Fig. 155, is the
+centre of gravity. The position of the handle being fixed on, draw a
+line through the centre of the handle, and continue it through the
+centre of gravity of the vessel. The spout must now be at right angles
+to this line. If this be the case the vessel will pour freely while
+the handle is just hung upon the thumb or finger of the person
+desiring to pour from it, as may be seen from Figs. 156, 157, in which
+the straight line A,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> passing through the centre of gravity <i>a</i>, is at
+right angles, as it should be, with the straight line passing through
+the spout.</p>
+
+<p>This law, if obeyed, will always enable liquid to be poured from a
+vessel without its appearing heavier than it actually is, but it will
+be seen that the shape of the vessel must be considered so that the
+spout and handle can bear this relation to each other, as in Figs.
+156, 157, 158, 159, and 160. Some shapes will not admit of it, so they
+must be avoided, as may be seen by examining Figs. 151 and 152, which
+show a tea-pot of faulty shape in this respect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i157full.jpg">
+<img id="i157" src="images/i157.jpg" width="600" height="517" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A consideration of this law shows that the handles of jugs&mdash;those
+formed of silver, of glass, and of earthenware alike&mdash;are usually
+placed too high; but in this respect things are much better than they
+were a few years back. Now we somewhat frequently see a jug with the
+handle in the right place, while some years back we never did. Silver
+jugs are now the most generally faulty in this respect, and such
+mistakes as the wrong placing of the handle or spout of a vessel
+result only from ignorance, for no man knowing the law would violate
+it. Fig. 161 shows a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> common form of jug with its handle, but the
+handle is too high; the position which it should occupy is shown by
+the dotted line. A very excellent handle is applied to many of the
+French water-pots, as shown in Fig. 162.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary that I say more respecting the shape and general
+construction of silver and gold vessels, except to remark that if
+figures or other ornaments are beaten up on their surfaces, they must
+not destroy or mar their general contour.</p>
+
+<p>Iron is not used with us as it should be. Not only is the effect
+produced when it is inlaid with silver and other metals excellent, but
+by this mode of work our art-creations are greatly preserved, for the
+iron is valueless, and the labour of removing the small quantity of
+precious metal inlaid would be so great as to render the gain
+inadequate remuneration for the time consumed in collecting it.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i158full.jpg">
+<img id="i158" class="wrap" src="images/i158.jpg" width="300" height="478" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>M. Christophle, of Paris, and also M. Barbedien in a lesser degree,
+have commenced to inlay copper vessels with silver, and some of their
+works are very beautiful. The Japanese have from an early time inlaid
+silver in bronze. This inlaying of silver into copper is a step in the
+right direction, and should be encouraged by all lovers of art. The
+Indians not only inlay silver in iron, but also gold in silver and in
+iron; and the Italians and other peoples have inlaid metals in a
+similar way; and the firmness and intricacy of some specimens of this
+inlaying are truly marvellous.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By the process of enamelling, colour can be applied to metal, and of
+all arts this art of enamelling produces works which are most lovely;
+at least, if the best works of enamel do not surpass those produced by
+any other manufacture, they are equal in beauty to the works of the
+highest excellence. Transparent enamels are in some cases very
+beautiful, but they do not generally compare with the opaque enamels,
+such as were largely used by the Chinese about a hundred and fifty
+years back, and by the Japanese, or those now so skilfully produced by
+Barbedien, the Algerian Onyx Company, and Christophle, all of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Chinese <i>cloisonn&eacute;</i> enamel vases may be seen at the South Kensington
+Museum, and here you may also find one or two small pieces of Japanese
+enamel, as well as one or two grand specimens by Barbedien, of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese enamels have most frequently a light blue (sort of
+turquoise) ground, but they occur with both red, white, green, and
+yellow grounds; while the ornament is of mixed colours, but generally
+with light yellow-green, deeper blue-green, or dark blue prevailing in
+it.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese enamels have a lower tone of colour-effect than the
+Chinese, and the work is finer and the colours more mingled, while the
+modern French enamels are full in colour, and are yet rich and subdued
+in general effect&mdash;some of them, indeed, are most beautiful works.</p>
+
+<p>The Elkingtons, of Birmingham and London, have also produced some
+beautiful things in this way, but not in the quantities that Barbedien
+has. I most strongly advise the art-student to study these works in
+enamel.</p>
+
+<p>Niello-work is a form of enrichment applied to metal, but is not in
+general use; it is a difficult process. Silver snuff-boxes and
+pendants for watch-chains with a niello pattern upon them are not
+uncommon, however, in Belgium and Russia, the niello pattern appearing
+as dark lead-pencil work upon the silver. Some niello-work is very
+quiet and beautiful, but much need not be said respecting it.</p>
+
+<p>Jewels may be inserted in metal, but if this is done they should be
+somewhat sparingly used, even in the most costly of works, for if they
+are abundant they produce mere glitter, and the aim of the ornamentist
+must in all cases be the production of repose.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> All who are interested in this subject are referred to a
+paper published in the "Transactions of the Edinburgh Botanical
+Society," for 1859, by Professor George Wilson, on the "Fruits of the
+Cucurbitace&aelig;."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> In order that the nature of this bottle be better
+understood, I give a section of it at A as seen when cut through the
+central part.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Fig. 143 represents a decanter made for the Prince of
+Wales by Messrs. Pellatt and Co., which is in good taste. Fig. 141 is
+a goblet from Austria: it was shown in the International Exhibition of
+Paris in 1867.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>HARDWARE.</h3>
+
+<p>Having considered metal-work in its more costly branches, we come to
+the consideration of hardware, and I am glad that we have now to deal
+with such metal-work as results from the use of inexpensive materials,
+for it is such that must be generally employed, while works formed of
+the precious metals can be used only by comparatively few persons. The
+object of art is the giving of pleasure; the mission of the artist is
+that of giving ennobling pleasure. If as an artist I give pleasure, I
+to an extent fulfil my mission; but I do so, perfectly, only when I
+give the greatest amount of the most refined pleasure by my art that
+it is possible for me to give. If by producing works which can be
+procured by many I give pleasure, it is well that I do so; but if the
+many fail to derive pleasure from my works, then I must address myself
+to the few, and be content with my lesser mission. Education appears
+to be necessary to the appreciation of all art; the artist, then, is a
+man who appeals to the educated. If some persons, by their superior
+education, are enabled to appreciate art more fully than those who are
+ignorant, and can consequently derive more pleasure from it than the
+less cultured person, it might then be desirable that the artist
+should address himself, through costly materials, to the few, for
+thereby he might be giving the greatest amount of pleasure. I always,
+however, like to produce works in cheap materials, for then I know
+that I form what is capable of giving pleasure to the poor man&mdash;if
+appreciative&mdash;who may possess it, as well as the rich.</p>
+
+<p>In hardware we find two classes of work in the market which appear to
+have little in common&mdash;the one class being characterised by a
+preponderance of excellence, and the other by the dominance of what is
+coarse and inartistic. The first class of work is that which is
+produced by what are termed ecclesiastical metal-workers; the second
+consists of what is generally known as Birmingham ware.</p>
+
+<p>It is an error to suppose that these so-called ecclesiastical&mdash;or
+medi&aelig;val, as they are sometimes called&mdash;metal-workers produce only
+ecclesiastical and medi&aelig;val work. On the contrary, some of these
+men&mdash;and they are now many in number&mdash;devote themselves almost
+exclusively to domestic work, and most of them fabricate articles in
+all styles of art. If I wanted an artistic set of fire-irons, I should
+go to one of the ecclesiastical warehouses, for there I have seen many
+sets that my reason commends and my judgment approves; but I never saw
+a set produced for the general market that I liked; and the most
+artistic fenders, grates, and gas-fittings, in almost any style, are
+to be got at these shops. I do not mean to convey the impression that
+all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> things made at these ecclesiastical warehouses are good, and that
+all things of Birmingham (or Sheffield) manufacture are bad, for I
+have seen indifferent works in these medi&aelig;val shops, and I have seen
+excellent things from Birmingham&mdash;especially I might mention as good
+certain gaseliers produced by two of the smaller Birmingham
+houses&mdash;but as a rule the works found in the medi&aelig;val warehouses are
+good, and as a rule the works in hardware produced by Birmingham and
+Sheffield are bad, in point of art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i161full.jpg">
+<img id="i161" src="images/i161.jpg" width="600" height="510" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will appear a mere repetition if I insist that the materials of
+which works of hardware are formed be used in the easiest manner in
+which they can be worked, and that every article be so formed as
+perfectly to answer the end of its formation. Yet I must do so. Let us
+look for a common set of fire-irons, and we shall find that nine
+pokers out of ten have a handle terminating in a pointed knob. Now, as
+the object of this knob is that of enabling us to exercise force
+wherewith to break large pieces of coal, the folly of terminating this
+knob with a point is obvious. A poker is, essentially, an object of
+utility; it should therefore be useful. It is ridiculous to talk<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+of a poker as an ornament; yet we find it fashionable now to have a
+bright poker as an ornament, which is obtrusively displayed to the
+visitor, and a little black poker, which is carefully concealed from
+view, reserved for use. I cannot imagine what people will not do for
+show and fashion, but to the thinking mind such littleness as that
+which induces women to keep a poker as an ornament must be
+distressing; and until persons who desire to be regarded as educated
+learn to discriminate between an ornament and an article of utility,
+little progress in art can be made. If a poker is simply a thing to be
+looked at, then it may be as inconvenient as you please, for if<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> it
+has no purpose to fulfil by its creation it cannot be unfitted to its
+purpose. The same remarks will apply to shovel and tongs. If they are
+intended as works of utility, then their form must be carefully
+considered; but if they are to be mere ornaments I have nothing to say
+respecting them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i162full.jpg">
+<img id="i162" src="images/i162.jpg" width="600" height="668" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Utility and beauty are not inseparable; but if an article of any kind
+is intended to answer any particular end, it should be fitted to
+answer the end proposed by its formation; but after it is created as a
+work of utility, care must be exercised in order that it be also a
+work of beauty. With due consideration, almost every work may be
+rendered both useful and beautiful, and it must ever be the aim of the
+intelligent ornamentist to render them so.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i163full.jpg">
+<img id="i163" src="images/i163.jpg" width="600" height="638" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Iron is capable of being wrought in various ways; it maybe cast, or
+hammered, or cut, or filed. Casting is the least artistic mode of
+treating iron; but if iron is to be cast, the patterns formed should
+be so fully adapted to this method of manufacture that the mode of
+working may be readily apparent. It is foolish to seek to make
+cast-iron appear as wrought-iron: cast-iron should appear as
+cast-iron, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> wrought-iron as wrought-iron. Cast-iron is brittle,
+and must not be relied upon as of great strength; while wrought-iron
+is tough, and will bend under great pressure rather than break.
+Wrought-iron can be readily bent into scrolls, or the end of a rod of
+metal can be hammered flat and shaped into the form of a leaf, and
+parts can either be welded together or fastened by small collars,
+pins, or screws. One or two illustrations of good wrought-iron work by
+Skidmore, Benham, and Hart, are given in the engravings.</p>
+
+<p>As an illustration of a simple railing, is figured one shown in the
+International Exhibition of 1862 (Fig. 163), which is in every respect
+excellent. Its strength is very great, yet it is quaint and beautiful.
+As it was shown it was coloured, and the colours were so applied as to
+increase its effect and beauty. If the student will carefully devote
+himself to the consideration of excellent works in metal, he will
+learn more than by much reading. Let him procure, if possible, the
+illustrated catalogues of such men as Hart of London, Hardman of
+Birmingham, and Dovey of Manchester, and study the sketches which he
+will there see, and he will certainly discover the principles of a
+true art, such as he must seek to apply in a manner concordant with
+his own original feelings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i164full.jpg">
+<img id="i164" src="images/i164.jpg" width="600" height="346" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of our illustrations, the example by Skidmore (Fig. 161) furnishes us
+with an excellent mode of treatment. Iron bands are readily bent into
+volutes, or curves of various descriptions, and the parts so formed
+can be united by welding, screws, or bolts. Hardman's gate (Fig. 165)
+is in every respect excellent; it is quaint, vigorous, and
+illustrative of a true mode of working metal. The two foliated
+railings (Figs. 166, 167) are also very meritorious. They are simple
+in design, and their parts are well fastened together. I advise very
+strongly that the student carefully consider the illustrations which
+accompany this chapter.</p>
+
+<p>In iron-work the manifestation of a true constructive principle is
+beyond all things desirable. Iron, being a strong material, should not
+be formed into heavy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> masses unless immense weight has to be
+sustained, or very great strength is required. If we form lamps,
+candelabra, and such works of iron, it is obvious that the portions of
+metal employed in their construction may be thin, as the material is
+of great strength. Were we to form such works of wood, then a greatly
+increased thickness of material would be necessary, in order that the
+same strength be secured, as wood is not nearly so strong as iron.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i165full.jpg">
+<img id="i165" class="wrapr" src="images/i165.jpg" width="300" height="490" alt="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>My remarks will have special reference to wrought-iron, as cast-iron
+cannot so fully be said to have a constructive character. The small
+railing (Fig. 163) is an admirable illustration of a true constructive
+formation, as the parts are all held together, and strengthened to a
+wonderful degree, by the introduction of a horseshoe-shaped member.
+This railing is worthy of the most careful study, for its strength is
+great. Besides strength we have also beauty. The horseshoe form,
+especially when judiciously applied, is far from being offensive.
+Utility must come first, and then beauty, and so it does in this
+particular railing; but here we have great simplicity, and a correct
+structural character has been arrived at in its production rather than
+any elaboration of the principles of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>From the catalogue of J. W. Dovey, of Manchester, I select an
+illustration of structure in the form of a candelabrum which is highly
+satisfactory in character as a simple work (Fig. 168). There is a
+solidly-formed heavy base, an upright stem terminating in a
+candle-holder. There is an arrangement for catching waste grease, and
+extra strength is given to the stem by four slender buttress-like
+brackets, which are securely and well attached to the base and to the
+stem above; and these are strengthened by two hoops, which prevent
+their bending under pressure.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 169 and 170, the former being a ridge or wall cresting, and the
+latter a stair railing, are each illustrations of a correct treatment,
+inasmuch as strength (a structural quality) and beauty (an art
+quality) are secured at the same time. Fig. 169 is admirably
+constructed, only it is a little slender above the middle horizontal
+line. These two illustrations are also from Mr. Dovey's catalogue.</p>
+
+<p>In the catalogue just named, and in those previously named also, many
+good examples may be found illustrative of the successful combination
+of true structural qualities with a considerable amount of beauty, and
+also acknowledging the strength of the material by the lightness of
+the parts.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter clearright">
+<a href="images/i166full.jpg">
+<img id="i166" src="images/i166.jpg" width="600" height="555" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Those who reside in, or visit, London, will do well to go to the South
+Kensington Museum, and study a large and splendid, candelabrum of
+Messrs. Hurt, Son, and Peard, which is well worthy of consideration.
+It is rather heavy, and is of enormous strength, but in most other
+respects it is highly commendable. It, is beautiful, well
+proportioned, and illustrative of a correct treatment of metal.
+Besides this, it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> exemplifies the manner in which stones or jewels may
+be applied to works in hardware with advantage. As a further
+illustration of a correct and very beautiful treatment of metal, we
+give one segment of the Hereford Cathedral Screen (Fig. 171), the work
+of that most intelligent of metal-workers, Mr. Skidmore of Coventry.
+This screen was shown in the International Exhibition of 1862, in
+London, and was from there removed to its place in the cathedral. All
+who can will do well to view this beautiful work, which is one of the
+finest examples of artistic metal-work with which we are acquainted.
+Notice the ease with which iron may be treated if a correct mode of
+working be employed. Let a bar of iron be taken which is about half an
+inch in thickness, by 1&frac14; broad. This can be rolled into a volute (the
+filigree mode of treatment), or its end can be hammered out into stems
+and leaves, and to it can be attached other leaves by rivets, screws,
+or ties, or it can be bent into any structural form. To the student I
+say, study the shapes into which simple bars of iron can be beaten,
+both mentally and by observing well-formed works.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i167full.jpg">
+<img id="i167" src="images/i167.jpg" width="600" height="337" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Brass, copper, and other metals may be associated with iron in the
+formation of any works. If well managed, brass and other bright metals
+may act as gems&mdash;that is, they may give bright spots; but where the
+bright metals are used with this view, care must be exercised in order
+that the bright spots be formed by beautiful parts, and that their
+distribution be just, for that which is bright will attract first
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving this part of our subject, I must call attention to a
+hinge by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> Hardman, of Birmingham, which was shown in the International
+Exhibition of 1862, as it is both quaint and beautiful (Fig. 172). The
+door to which this hinge was applied opened twice; the first half
+opened and folded back on the second half, and then the two halves
+opened as one door, as will be seen from the illustration. It is very
+desirable that we have a little novelty of arrangement in our works.
+We are too apt to repeat ourselves, hence it is a sort of relief to
+meet with a new idea.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible that I take up each article of hardware and consider
+it separately. All I can do is to point out principles, and leave the
+learner to consider and apply them for himself&mdash;principles which, once
+understood, may result in the construction of many excellent works,
+and may lead to the formation of a correct judgment respecting such
+objects as may be brought forward for criticism. I will, however, just
+call attention to gas-branches, as they are often wrongly constructed.
+A gas-branch is a duct through which gas is to be conveyed. It must be
+strong if it is to be exposed to pressure, or if it runs the chance of
+coming in collision with the person, as do standard lights in public
+buildings. The main part of a gas-branch is the tube or pipe which is
+to convey the gas, but this may be supported in many ways, as by such
+buttress-like brackets as in the candelabrum shown in Fig. 168; and if
+there are branch tubes for several lights, these may well be connected
+with the central tube, not only by their own attachment, but by
+brackets of some sort, or with one another by some connecting parts.
+Whether the gas-branch be pendent or standard, this mode of
+strengthening the tube-work should be employed, for the tubes
+themselves are but slightly held together, and by pressure being
+brought to bear upon them, a dangerous and expensive escape of gas may
+result.</p>
+
+<p>In the manufacture of gaseliers one or two of the smaller Birmingham
+houses have certainly distinguished themselves by the production of
+works both beautiful and true; and these lead me to think that a
+better day is dawning for Birmingham, in which its art shall be
+exalted rather than degraded, and shall be such as will win to it the
+esteem of the world rather than call forth the execrations of
+art-loving people.</p>
+
+<p>As to the colouring of iron I can say little. In my judgment the best
+modes of colouring metals were originated by Mr. Skidmore of Coventry,
+of whom I have before spoken. His theory is this, that metals are best
+coloured by the tints of their oxides. When a metal, especially brass,
+is seen in a furnace in a molten condition, the flames, where the
+oxygen of the atmosphere is uniting with the vapour of the metal,
+present the most resplendent tints. The same thing in a lesser degree
+occurs in the case of iron, but here the colours are less brilliant,
+and are more tertiary in character. Mr. Skidmore applies to a metal
+the colours seen in the flames of the furnace where it melts. Without
+attempting to limit the colourist to any theory whereby his ideas
+might be restricted, I must say that Skidmore's colouring of the
+metals is very good.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>STAINED GLASS.</h3>
+
+<p>From early times it has been customary to colour glass. To the ancient
+Egyptians a method of forming glass of various tints was known, and by
+producing a mass of glass consisting of variously coloured pieces
+vitreously united, and cutting this into slices, they, in a costly and
+laborious manner, produced a sort of stained glass which might have
+been employed for the sides of lanterns or other purposes. The Greeks
+were acquainted with a similar process, and bowls formed in this
+manner by them are common in our museums.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the re-discovery of glass in our own country, methods of
+colouring it were sought, and cathedral windows were formed, which
+were of such beauty, and were so thoroughly fitted to answer the end
+of their creation, that little or no improvement upon these early
+works has even yet been made, and much of the decorative glass which
+we now produce is far inferior to them as regards design, colour, and
+mode of treatment.</p>
+
+<p>A window must fulfil two purposes&mdash;it must keep out rain, wind, and
+cold, and must admit light; having fulfilled these ends, it may be
+beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>If a window commands a lovely view let it, if possible, be formed of
+but few sheets (if not very large, of one sheet) of plate-glass; for
+the works of God are more worthy of contemplation, with their
+ever-changing beauty, than the works of man; but if the window
+commands only a mass of bricks and mortar inartistically arranged, let
+it, if possible, be formed of coloured glass having beauty of design
+manifested by the arrangement of its parts. A window should never
+appear as a picture with parts treated in light and shade. The
+foreshortening of the parts, and all perspective treatments, are best
+avoided, as far as possible. I do not say that the human figure, the
+lower animals, and plants must not be delineated upon window glass,
+for, on the contrary, they may be so treated as not only to be
+beautiful, but also to be a consistent decoration of glass; but this I
+do say, that many stained windows are utterly spoiled through the
+window being treated as a picture, and not as a protection from the
+weather and as a source of light.</p>
+
+<p>If pictorially treated subjects are employed upon window glass, they
+should be treated very simply, and drawn in bold outline without
+shading, and the parts should be separated from each other by varying
+their colours. Thus, the flesh of a figure may be formed of glass
+having a pink tone; the robe of the figure of glass which is green,
+purple, or any other colour; a flower may be formed of white glass, or
+of glass<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> of any colour; the leaves of green glass; and the sky
+background of blue glass. All the parts will thus be distinguished
+from each other by colour, and the distinction of part from part will
+be further enhanced by the strong black outline which bounds the parts
+and furnishes the drawing of the picture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i170full.jpg">
+<img id="i170" src="images/i170.jpg" width="600" height="755" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Strong colours should rarely be used in windows, as they retard the
+admission of light. Light is essential to our well-being; our health
+of body depends in a large<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> measure upon the amount of light which
+falls upon the skin. Those wonderful chemical changes, in the absence
+of which there can be no life, in part, at least, depend upon the
+exposure of our bodies to light; let our windows, then, admit these
+life-giving rays. It must also be remembered that if light is not
+freely admitted to an apartment the colours of all the objects which
+it contains, and of its own decorations if it has any, are sacrificed,
+for in the absence of light there is no colour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i171full.jpg">
+<img id="i171" src="images/i171.jpg" width="600" height="649" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not necessary, in order to the production of a beautiful window,
+that much strong colour be used; tints of creamy yellow, pale amber,
+light tints of tertiary blue, blue-grey, olive, russet, and other
+sombre or delicate hues, if enlivened with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> small portions of ruby or
+other full colours, produce the most charming effects, and by their
+use we have consistent windows.</p>
+
+<p>A good domestic window is often produced by armorial bearings in
+colour being placed on geometrically arranged tesser&aelig; of slightly
+tinted glass. In some cases such an arrangement as this is highly
+desirable, for the room may thus get the benefit which a bit of colour
+will sometimes afford, and at the same time a pleasant view may be had
+through the uncoloured portion of the window. As an illustration of
+this class of window, we extract one from the catalogue of those
+excellent artists in stained glass, Messrs. Heaton, Butler, and Bayne,
+of Garrick Street (Fig. 173). A good window may also be formed by
+bordering a plain window with colour, (Fig. 174), or in place of the
+plain centre squares of glass may be used, each bearing a diaper
+pattern, as Figs. 175 to 182.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/i172full.jpg">
+<img id="i172" src="images/i172.jpg" width="600" height="491" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>No architectural constructive feature should be introduced into a
+window&mdash;thus, an elaborate architectural canopy overshadowing a figure
+is not at all desirable. If a figure is formed of a perishable
+material, and stands on the outside of a building, it is well that it
+be protected from the rain by a canopy; but such a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> contrivance when
+introduced over a figure drawn on a flat window is absurd, being
+useless. Let us always consider what we have to do before we commence
+the formation of any ornamental article, and then seek to do it in the
+most simple, consistent, and beautiful manner. Figs. 183 and 184
+represent my views of what stained glass may advantageously be.</p>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i173full.jpg">
+<img id="i173" class="wrapr" src="images/i173.jpg" width="300" height="562" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<a href="images/i174full.jpg">
+<img id="i174" class="wrap" src="images/i174.jpg" width="300" height="927" alt="" title="Select to enlarge." />
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>More than once in the course of these chapters I have protested in
+strong terms against pretence in art and art-decoration&mdash;the desire to
+make things appear to be made of better material or more costly
+substances than what they have in reality been wrought from&mdash;that
+leads men to paint and varnish a plain freestone mantelpiece in
+imitation of some expensive marble, or to make doors and
+window-shutters, skirting and panelling that the carpenter has
+fashioned out of red or yellow deal, assume the appearance of oak, or
+maple, or satinwood, by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> the deceptive skill of the grainer. In no
+case can the imitation ever approach a fair resemblance to the reality
+it is proposed to imitate. The coarse, rough grain of the soft
+freestone, which is incapable of receiving a polish, or rather of
+being polished until it becomes as smooth, and even, and lustrous as
+good glass, can never be made by successive coatings of paint and
+varnish to afford a satisfactory resemblance to the marble that it is
+supposed to represent, however carefully the cunning hand of the
+painter may have imitated the veins, and spots, and curious
+diversities of colour with which Nature has variegated the surface of
+the substance that he is endeavouring to copy. Nor, again, can a
+coarse-grained, soft wood, however skilled may be the hand that
+manipulates it, be treated so as to resemble the texture and
+smoothness of hard, close-grained wood, which from its very nature is
+capable of receiving the high polish that the softer material can
+never take if treated by the same process&mdash;that is, unless the expense
+of producing the imitation greatly exceeds the cost of the thing
+imitated. And what is applicable to the treatment of wood and stone is
+applicable also to the treatment of glass: for as a freestone
+mantelpiece, or deal door, however suitable and pleasing to the eye
+either may be when simply painted in the one case and varnished in the
+other to preserve the surface from the deteriorating influences of
+dirt of any kind, can never be made by the exercise of reasonable time
+and skill to present the appearance of marble or oak; so glass, by the
+application of colour rendered transparent by varnish, can never be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+brought to resemble glass stained or painted by the legitimate method,
+either in delicacy of tint, or depth, and richness, and brilliancy of
+colour. The greater part of the imitative stained glass, or
+"diaphanie" as it is styled, fails not only in colour, but in design;
+and in this indeed it may perhaps be said to be especially faulty. The
+designs, which are printed on paper, with the view of imitating glass
+patterns, err principally in being too elaborate, and in representing
+figures and scenery which are not in character or keeping with the
+designs that are usually represented in painted glass. If confined to
+simple diaper work, or borderings and heraldic emblems, as shown in
+Figs. 173 and 174, or patterns similar to that shown in Fig. 183, the
+artistic effect produced would be more satisfactory, although it can
+never equal genuine stained glass in depth of colour or purity of
+tone.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<h3>CONCLUSION.</h3>
+
+<p>I have now treated of art as applied to our industrial manufactures,
+and have pointed out principles which must be recognisable in all
+art-works which pretend to merit. We have seen that material must in
+all cases be used in the simplest and most natural manner; that,
+wherever possible, we must avail ourselves of the friendly aid of
+natural forces;<a id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> that the most convenient shape must always be
+selected for a vessel or art-object of any kind; and that beauty must
+then be added to that which is useful. All art-objects must be useful
+and then beautiful; they must be utilitarian, and yet so graceful, so
+comely, that they shall be loved for their beauty as well as valued
+for their usefulness. While I have set forth those principles which
+must ever govern the application of ornament to useful articles, I
+cannot show the student any royal road to the attainment of
+art-knowledge. There is something in a true art-work which is too
+subtle for expression by words; there is a "quality" about an
+art-work, or the expression of an amount of "feeling," which cannot be
+described, yet which is so obvious as to be at once apparent to the
+trained eye.</p>
+
+<p>The only way in which the power of appreciating art-qualities can be
+gained, especially if these qualities are of a subtle nature, is by
+the careful study of works of known excellence. Could the student
+visit our museums in company with a trained ornamentist, who would
+point out what was good and what was bad in art, he would soon learn,
+by studying the beautiful works, to perceive art-qualities; but as
+this is not possible to most, the learner must be content to consider
+each art-work with which he comes in contact in conjunction with the
+principles I have set forward.</p>
+
+<p>Let him take a work&mdash;say a tea-pot. He will now ask himself&mdash;has the
+material of which it is formed been judiciously and simply used?&mdash;is
+the shape convenient?&mdash;is the handle properly applied, and does the
+spout bear a proper relation to the handle?&mdash;is the form graceful or
+vigorous?&mdash;is the curve which bounds the form of a subtle nature?&mdash;is
+the engraving applied in judicious quantities and in just
+proportions?&mdash;are the engraved forms beautiful, and such as do not
+suffer by being seen in perspective on a rounded surface? By such
+questions the student will inquire into the nature of whatever is
+presented to his consideration, and only by constantly making such
+inquiries, and seeking to answer them correctly, can he gain the
+knowledge which will enable him rightly to judge of the nature of
+art-works.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p><p>Some of these inquiries the young student will readily answer, with
+others he will have difficulty; for, his taste being yet uncultivated,
+he will not know whether a form is beautiful or not. Nevertheless, I
+say to the learner, try to answer these various inquiries as well as
+you can, and then note the shape of the object in a memorandum-book,
+and write your opinion respecting it in brief terms, and your reasons
+for your opinion. By thus noting your studies you gain many
+advantages; thus, you must frame your ideas with some degree of
+exactness when you have to put them into words, and exactness of idea
+is essential to your success. You can also refer to previous thoughts,
+and thus impress them upon the memory; and you can observe your
+progress, which is important, and should be encouraging. In order that
+you acquire the power of perceiving art-merit as quickly as possible,
+you must study those works in which examples of bad taste are rarely
+met with, you must at first consider art-objects from India, Persia,
+China, and Japan, as well as examples of ancient art from Egypt and
+Greece. But in selecting modern works from the East, choose those
+which are not altogether new if possible.</p>
+
+<p>During the last ten years the art-works of Japan have deteriorated to
+a lamentable extent. Contact with Europeans unfortunately brings about
+the deterioration of Eastern art: in order that the European demand be
+met, quantity is produced and quality disregarded, for we cavil
+respecting price, and yet by thus creating a demand for inferior work
+we raise the price even of that which is comparatively bad, and soon
+have to pay for the coarser wares a price for which superior articles
+could at first be procured.</p>
+
+<p>But this should be noted: that the commonest wares which we receive
+from Japan and India are never utterly bad in art. Inharmonious
+colouring does not appear to be produced by these nations, and the
+same may be said of Persia and China, and, to an extent, of Morocco
+and Algeria, the only exceptions being where European influence has
+been long continued. In selecting examples for study you may almost
+rely upon the beauty of all works from China, Japan, Persia, and
+India, which have not been produced under European influence.</p>
+
+<p>A notable example of the deteriorating influence of European taste
+(perhaps chiefly English taste) upon Eastern art is apparent if we
+examine old carved sandalwood boxes from India, and those which are
+now sent to us from the same country; the quiet, unobtrusive
+consistency of the ornament by which it was sought only to enrich a
+properly constructed box was not sufficiently attractive to suit
+European (or English?) taste. The ornament must be more pronounced and
+in higher relief, and the entire work must be more attractive&mdash;more
+vulgarly attractive I might say, and thus the exquisite refinement of
+the older works is sacrificed to the wants of a rich but vulgar
+people, whose taste for art is infinitely below that of their
+conquered brethren, from whom they learn the principles of a beautiful
+art but slowly, while they do much to destroy the refinement of
+art-taste which the workmen of our Eastern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> empire appear to inherit.
+Study the works of the Eastern nations in conjunction with the remarks
+which I made in my first chapter (see pages
+<a href="#Page_6">6</a>,
+<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, and
+<a href="#Page_48">48</a>), and then
+consider the numerous objects left to us by the early Egyptians and
+Greeks, and bear in mind while viewing them what we have said on
+Egyptian and Greek art (see pages
+<a href="#Page_6">6</a>,
+<a href="#Page_8">8</a>, and
+<a href="#Page_10">10</a>), and after having
+learned to understand the merits of Persian, Japanese, Indian, and
+Chinese art, and of that of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, you may
+commence to consider other styles, taking up the study of Italian and
+Renaissance art in its various forms last of all; for in these styles,
+or dialects of a style if I may thus speak, there is so much that is
+false in structure, false in representation, untruthful in expression,
+and pictorial rather than ornamental in effect, that a very complete
+acquaintance with ornamental art is necessary in order that all the
+defects of these styles be apparent, and in order that the student
+avoid falling into the error of regarding a pictorial effect as the
+result of a true style of ornamental art.</p>
+
+<p>Study, when accompanied by individual thought, is the means whereby
+art-knowledge will be gained. No mere looking at works which are
+beautiful and true will make a great ornamentist. He who would attain
+to great knowledge must <i>study</i> whatever commends itself to him as
+worthy of his attention, and, above all, must think much upon the
+works which he contemplates; it is the evidence of mind&mdash;not of
+degraded but of noble mind, of refined mind, of cultivated mind, of
+well-informed mind, of mind which has knowledge, of mind which has
+vigour, of mind which is fresh and new&mdash;that we find impressed upon a
+work and giving to it value. While we, as art-students, have, above
+all things, to attain to cultivation of the mind, we cannot give
+expression to refined feelings manifested in form unless we can draw,
+and draw almost faultlessly; and the ability to draw with accuracy,
+power, and feeling can only result from much practice.</p>
+
+<p>Let every spare moment, then, find the sketch-book in your hand, and
+be constantly trying to draw both carefully, neatly, and with
+exactness and finish, such objects as you see around you, even if
+examples of good art-works are not at hand; for by constant and
+careful practice you can alone acquire the necessary power of
+expressing refined thought in refined form. Avoid making hasty
+sketches. When a finished artist, you can afford to make sketch
+memoranda; but till you can draw with great power, energy,
+truthfulness, and refinement, let your every drawing be as careful and
+as finished in character, however simple the object portrayed, as
+though your welfare in life depended upon its character, for upon
+every sketch your future position does, to a great extent, depend. The
+habit of careful painstaking should sedulously be cultivated; and with
+every drawing thus made an amount of power is gained which the making
+of a hundred careless sketches would not afford. Let painstaking,
+then, be characteristic of your working.</p>
+
+<p>Ornament of some kind is applied to almost every article that we see
+around us.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> The papers on our walls, the carpets on our floors, the
+hangings at our windows, the plates from which we eat, are all covered
+by patterns of some kind; yet it is rare, even now when ornamentation
+has become general, to find anything original in ornament; and if we
+do meet with something new in kind it is often feeble or
+timid-looking, if it does not altogether fail to impress us with the
+idea that the producer was a man of knowledge. Let the reader be
+assured that if the designer is a man of knowledge, his ornamental
+compositions will never fail to reveal his learning; that if he is a
+man of power, his works will reveal his strength of character; if he
+is a man of refined feelings, that his designs will manifest his
+tenderness of perception. In like manner, if a man is ignorant he
+cannot withhold from his patterns the manifestation of his ignorance.
+Did not the Egyptians express their power of character in their
+ornaments? did not the Greeks manifest their refinement in the forms
+which they drew? do we not even find an expression of religious
+feeling strongly, yea, impressively, set forth by some art-works, as
+by the illuminated manuscripts of the early Middle Ages? and do we not
+every day see the impress of the ignorant upon certain wall-papers,
+carpets, and other things? It is a fact, and it is necessary that we
+fully recognise it, that the knowledge of the producer is manifested
+by his works; and that the ignorance of the ignorant is also
+manifested in his works.</p>
+
+<p>If ornament is produced having new characters, it is often feeble, and
+is generally without grace; while power is the expression of
+manliness, and grace of refinement. Without claiming to have made a
+successful effort, I put forth, in the frontispiece to this volume
+(Plate I.), four of my studies in original ornament, all of which are
+to me more or less satisfactory as studies in composition. I have
+endeavoured to secure in each an amount of energy, vigour&mdash;the power
+of life, yet at the same time to avoid coarseness, or any glaring want
+of refinement. I have sought to combine right lines, which are
+expressive of power, with such curved shapes as shall, with them,
+produce a pleasing contrast of form, and express a certain amount of
+grace. In the light ornament on the citrine ground (that at the lower
+left-hand corner of our plate) I have endeavoured especially to secure
+an expression of grace in combination with that amount of energy which
+avoids any expression of feebleness.</p>
+
+<p>In the border ornament I have introduced the arch form, as it hints at
+a structural "setting out" which is pleasant; and I have endeavoured
+to cause the composition to appear as though it rested on the lower
+dotted band, as this gives a feeling of security. I do not say that it
+is necessary that this be so: all I assert is that in some cases it
+gives a feeling of satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>So far as I know, the colouring is also original. The colours employed
+are chiefly of a tertiary character, but small masses of primary or
+secondary colours are employed in order to impart "life" to the
+composition.</p>
+
+<p>I do not set these studies before my readers with the idea of showing
+them<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> what original ornament should be: I only set them forth as
+examples of new compositions, and must leave each to clothe his own
+thoughts with a befitting expression of his individual original ideas.</p>
+
+<p>As I am writing for the working man, as well as for others, will he
+pardon me reminding him that we are called to exercise an art, yet at
+the same time our art is associated with the scientific professions&mdash;a
+knowledge of natural sciences, of botany, zoology, natural philosophy,
+and chemistry can be very fully utilised in our art&mdash;and that we
+should, therefore, act as professional men and as artists of the
+highest rank; for thereby only can we hope to place our calling in
+that position of esteem in which it should be held, and must be held,
+by the people at large, if we are to administer to their pleasure as
+we ought.</p>
+
+<p>In taking leave of my reader, let me say that if I personally can aid
+him in any way, I shall be glad to do so. If any who really seek
+knowledge of decorative design, and are hard workers, choose to send
+me designs for criticism or comment, or desire any other aid that I
+can give them, I shall be happy to do what little I can for them. My
+address will be found at the end of the Preface.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> See chapters on glass and earthenware.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p>
+<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="ifrst">Alternation in Ornament, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">America, Depraved Artistic Taste in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anthemion; a Greek Decorative Device, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arabian Metal-work, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arch used in Furniture, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Art may be Degrading, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">aims at producing Repose, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Object of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Art-knowledge, The Value of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Baptism, Symbol of, in Gothic Art, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beauty in Decoration, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bed-room, Decoration for a, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Birmingham Ware, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black, a Neutral in Decorative Work, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buhl-work, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buildings, Decoration of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Byzantine Ornament, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Cabinet, Construction of a, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calico, Patterns on, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carpets, Art-qualities and Patterns of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Different Sorts of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Foreign-made, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">how they should be laid down, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Conditions which Govern the Application of Ornament to, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carving, when to be used, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Casting in Metal, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Casting, the least Artistic Mode of Treating Iron, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ceilings, Decoration of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Various, worthy of Study, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">with Painted Pictures Objectionable, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Celtic Ornament, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chair-coverings, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chairs, Construction of, <a href="#Page_52">52-57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Character of the Designer shown by his Work, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chinese Enamels, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chinese Harmony of Colour, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chinese Ornament, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christian Art, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clay as a Material for Art-purposes, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colour&mdash;in Decoration, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Contrast in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Harmony in, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Qualities of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Analytical Tables of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Teachings of Experience in regard to, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Proportions in which Colours Harmonise, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pure, and Pigments, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Permanence of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <i>note</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Shades, Tints, and Hues, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Works on, referred to, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">for Stained Windows, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colouring Metals. <i>See</i> Skidmore, Mr.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colour-top, the, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, and <i>note</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Copper Vessels Inlaid with Silver, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cornices, Colouring of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Couches, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Curtain Materials, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Curves, most Beautiful when most Subtle, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Damascene Work, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damask Table-linen, Patterns on, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damask Wall-coverings. <i>See</i> Silk Wall Damasks.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Decanters, what they should be, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Decoration should be in keeping with Architecture, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Design and Ornament, Redgrave on, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dining-room, Decoration for a, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dining-tables, Mr. Eastlake on Telescopic, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Distemper Colours for Wall Decoration, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Doric Column, The, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drawing-room, Decoration for a, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dress, Ladies' and Gentlemen's, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Patterns for Ladies', <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Earthen Vessels, Decoration of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eastlake, Mr., on Household Art, referred to, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, and <i>note</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ecclesiastical Metal-workers, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian Architecture, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian Coloured Glass, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian Drawing, Peculiarity of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian Ornament, <a href="#Page_4">4-8</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Embroidery on Cotton, Indian, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Enamelling in Metal-work, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">England, Architectural Buildings in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">House Decoration in, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">European Influence Injurious to Eastern Art, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Excess in Upholstery, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Fabrics, Patterns Suitable for Woven, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finish, its Value Over-estimated, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Folds, Ornamentation of Fabrics to be seen in, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">French Errors of Taste in Furniture, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Furniture, Decorative Principles applied to, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">What is Required to make it an Object of Art, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Material used for, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Truthful Construction of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Proportion and Enrichment of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Glass, as a Material for Art-purposes, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vessels, Various, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vessels, Coloured, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cutting of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Engraving of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>; Ornamentation of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stained, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gold, a Neutral in Decorative Work, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gold and Silver, Works in, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gothic Architecture, Modern, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gothic Furniture, Falsely Constructed, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gothic Ornament, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Granite Imitated, Objected to, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek Coloured Glass, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek Ornament, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek Vessels, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grotesque. <i>See</i> Humour.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Handles of Vessels, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hardware, Art in Connection with, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harmony of Colour. <i>See</i> Colour.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Historical Inquiry Necessary to the Understanding of Decoration, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Humour in Ornament, <a href="#Page_24">24-29</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Chinese and Japanese, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Imitations of Marbles and Granites, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indian Art Injured by European Influence, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indian Fabrics, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <i>note</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indian Fabrics, Mr. Redgrave on, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indian Metal-work, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indian Work in regard to Colouring, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inlaying as a means of Enriching Works of Furniture, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Irish Crosses, Numerous Ornaments on, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron, as an Art-material, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron, how Wrought, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron, Metals that may be Associated with, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron-castings of Berlin, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron-work, Ornamental, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">must Manifest a True Constructive Principle, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Colouring of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Italian Metal-work, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Japan, Deterioration in the Art-works of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Japanese Art, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Japanese Colouring, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Japanese Earthenware, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Japanese Enamels, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Japanese Metal-work, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jewels in Metal-work, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Joists in Ceilings, how they should be Treated, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Labour Necessary to Success in Art, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Library, Decoration for a, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lotus in Egyptian Design, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Marble Imitated, Objected to, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Medi&aelig;val Metal-workers, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mental Effects produced by Decorative Forms, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moorish Ornament, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muslin, Patterns on, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Natural Forms in Carpet Patterns, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niello-work applied to Metals, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norman Architecture, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Novelty Wanted in Carpet Patterns, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oil-colour "Flatted" for Wall Decoration, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Order, a Principle in Ornament, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ormolu Ornaments, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ornament and Architecture Inseparable, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Papered Walls. <i>See</i> Wall Papers.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Papyrus in Egyptian Architecture, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Persian Ornament, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Picture Frames, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pigments. <i>See</i> Colour.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plants as Ornaments, How to Treat, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plaques of Stone or Earthenware applied to Works of Furniture, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pottery, Art in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Power an Art-principle, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Precious Materials in the Form of Art-works, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Preface, v., vi.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pretence in Art-decoration, <a href="#Page_157">157-159</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Proportion must be Subtle, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Purpose, Adaptation to, Taught by Plants, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Renaissance Ornament, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Repetition of Parts in Ornament, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roman Ornament, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Shams in Decoration, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silk, Patterns on, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silk Wall Damasks, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silversmiths' Work, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skidmore, Mr., and his Theory of Colouring Metals, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sofa-coverings, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">South Kensington Museum, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <i>note</i>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spouts of Vessels, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stools, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Study of Art-decoration, how it should be carried on, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Styles of Architecture, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sugar-basin, its Form, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Surface Decoration, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Symbols in Christian Art, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Table-covers, The Borders of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Taste of the Uneducated, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trinity, Symbols of the, in Gothic Art, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Truth an Art-principle, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Utility must Govern the Production and Application of Ornament, <a href="#Page_17">17-22</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Utility in Architecture, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Utility Professor George Wilson on, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Utility Various Writers on, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Vehicles for Art, The Best, the least Costly, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Veneering, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Venetian Glass, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vessels, Primitive, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Wall Decorations, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wall Papers, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Walls should be Unobtrusive, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Water-vessels, Egyptian and Greek, <a href="#Page_121">121-124</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">White a Neutral in Decorative Work, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Window-hangings, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Windows, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Object of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">how they should be Treated, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wine-bottles, Forms of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">"Winged Globe," in Egyptian Design, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Woods and their Relative Strength, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Workmen; their Study of Decorative Laws, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">" Advice to, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wrought-iron, its Qualities, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
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@@ -0,0 +1,8267 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Principles of Decorative Design, by
+Christopher Dresser
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Principles of Decorative Design
+       Fourth Edition
+
+
+Author: Christopher Dresser
+
+
+
+Release Date: May 21, 2012  [eBook #39749]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF DECORATIVE DESIGN***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Delphine Lettau, Matthew Wheaton, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Canada Team (http://www.pgdpcanada.net) from page
+images generously made available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the numerous original illustrations.
+      See 39749-h.htm or 39749-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39749/39749-h/39749-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39749/39749-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      http://archive.org/details/principlesofdeco00dres
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Decorative Design]
+
+
+PRINCIPLES OF Decorative Design.
+
+by
+
+CHRISTOPHER DRESSER, PH.D., F.L.S., F.E.B.S., ETC.;
+
+Author of "The Art of Decorative Design," "Unity in Variety," etc.
+
+FOURTH EDITION.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co.:
+London, Paris & New York.
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+My object in writing this work has been that of aiding in the
+art-education of those who seek a knowledge of ornament as applied to
+our industrial manufactures.
+
+I have not attempted the production of a pretty book, but have aimed
+at giving what knowledge I possess upon the subjects treated of, in a
+simple and intelligible manner. I have attempted simply to instruct.
+
+The substance of the present work was first published as a series of
+lessons in the _Technical Educator_. These lessons are now collected
+into a work, and have been carefully revised; a few new illustrations
+have been inserted, and a final chapter added.
+
+As the substance of this work was written as a series of lessons for
+the _Technical Educator_, I need not say that the book is addressed to
+working men, for the whole of the lessons in that publication have
+been prepared especially for those noble fellows who, through want of
+early opportunity, have been without the advantages of education, but
+who have the praiseworthy courage to educate themselves in later life,
+when the value of knowledge has become apparent to them.
+
+That the lessons as given in the _Technical Educator_ have not been
+written wholly in vain I already know, for shortly before I had
+completed this revision of them, I had the opportunity of visiting a
+provincial town hall which I had heard was being decorated, and was
+pleasingly surprised to see decoration of considerable merit, and
+evidences that much of what I saw had resulted from a consideration of
+my articles in the _Technical Educator_. The artist engaged upon the
+work, although having suffered the disadvantage of apprenticeship to a
+butcher, has established himself as a decorator while still a young
+man; and from the manifestation of ability which he has already given,
+I hope for a brighter future for one who, as a working man, must have
+studied hard. If these lessons as now collected into a work should
+lead to the development of the art-germs which doubtless lie dormant
+in other working men, the object which I have sought to attain in
+writing and collecting these together will have been accomplished.
+
+    TOWER CRESSY, NOTTING HILL, LONDON, W.
+
+
+
+
+    CONTENTS.
+
+
+    CHAPTER I. PAGE
+
+    INTRODUCTORY
+      DIVISION I. ART-KNOWLEDGE; HISTORIC STYLES
+        "     II. TRUTH, BEAUTY, POWER, ETC.
+        "    III. HUMOUR IN ORNAMENT
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+      COLOUR
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+      FURNITURE
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+      DECORATION OF BUILDINGS
+        DIVISION I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS--CEILINGS
+          "     II. DECORATIONS OF WALLS
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+      CARPETS
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+      CURTAIN MATERIALS, HANGINGS, AND WOVEN FABRICS GENERALLY
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+      HOLLOW VESSELS
+        DIVISION I. POTTERY
+          "     II. GLASS VESSELS
+          "    III. METAL-WORK
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+      HARDWARE
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+      STAINED GLASS
+
+    CHAPTER X.
+      CONCLUSION
+
+
+
+
+PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DIVISION I.
+
+
+There are many handicrafts in which a knowledge of the true principles
+of ornamentation is almost essential to success, and there are few in
+which a knowledge of decorative laws cannot be utilised. The man who
+can form a bowl or a vase well is an artist, and so is the man who can
+make a beautiful chair or table. These are truths; but the converse of
+these facts is also true; for if a man be not an artist he cannot form
+an elegant bowl, nor make a beautiful chair.
+
+At the very outset we must recognise the fact that the beautiful has a
+commercial or money value. We may even say that art can lend to an
+object a value greater than that of the material of which it consists,
+even when the object be formed of precious matter, as of rare marbles,
+scarce woods, or silver or gold.
+
+This being the case, it follows that the workman who can endow his
+productions with those qualities or beauties which give value to his
+works, must be more useful to his employer than the man who produces
+objects devoid of such beauty, and his time must be of higher value
+than that of his less skilful companion. If a man, who has been born
+and brought up as a "son of toil," has that laudable ambition which
+causes him to seek to rise above his fellows by fairly becoming their
+superior, I would say to him that I know of no means of his so readily
+doing so, as by his acquainting himself with the laws of beauty, and
+studying till he learns to perceive the difference between the
+beautiful and the ugly, the graceful and the deformed, the refined and
+the coarse. To perceive delicate beauties is not by any means an easy
+task to those who have not devoted themselves to the consideration of
+the beautiful for a long period of time, and of this be assured, that
+what now appears to you to be beautiful, you may shortly regard as
+less so, and what now fails to attract you, may ultimately become
+charming to your eye. In your study of the beautiful, do not be led
+away by the false judgment of ignorant persons who may suppose
+themselves possessed of good taste. It is common to assume that women
+have better taste than men, and some women seem to consider themselves
+the possessors of even authoritative taste from which there can be no
+appeal. They may be right, only we must be pardoned for not accepting
+such authority, for should there be any over-estimation of the
+accuracy of this good taste, serious loss of progress in art-judgment
+might result.
+
+It may be taken as an invariable truth that knowledge, and knowledge
+alone, can enable us to form an accurate judgment respecting the
+beauty or want of beauty of an object, and he who has the greater
+knowledge of art can judge best of the ornamental qualities of an
+object. He who would judge rightly of art-works must have knowledge.
+Let him who would judge of beauty apply himself, then, to earnest
+study, for thereby he shall have wisdom, and by his wise reasonings he
+will be led to perceive beauty, and thus have opened to him a new
+source of pleasure.
+
+Art-knowledge is of value to the individual and to the country at
+large. To the individual it is riches and wealth, and to the nation it
+saves impoverishment. Take, for example, clay as a natural material:
+in the hands of one man this material becomes flower-pots, worth
+eighteen-pence a "cast" (a number varying from sixty to twelve
+according to size); in the hands of another it becomes a tazza, or a
+vase, worth five pounds, or perhaps fifty. It is the art which gives
+the value, and not the material. To the nation it saves
+impoverishment.
+
+A wise policy induces a country to draw to itself all the wealth that
+it can, without parting with more of its natural material than is
+absolutely necessary. If for every pound of clay that a nation parts
+with, it can draw to itself that amount of gold which we value at five
+pounds sterling, it is obviously better thus to part with but little
+material and yet secure wealth, than it is to part with the material
+at a low rate either in its native condition, or worked into coarse
+vessels, thereby rendering a great impoverishment of the native
+resources of the country necessary in order to its wealth.
+
+Men of the lowest degree of intelligence can dig clay, iron, or
+copper, or quarry stone; but these materials, if bearing the impress
+of mind, are ennobled and rendered valuable, and the more strongly the
+material is marked with this ennobling impress the more valuable it
+becomes.
+
+I must qualify my last statement, for there are possible cases in
+which the impress of mind may degrade rather than exalt, and take from
+rather than enhance, the value of a material. To ennoble, the mind
+must be noble; if debased, it can only debase. Let the mind be refined
+and pure, and the more fully it impresses itself upon a material, the
+more lovely does the material become, for thereby it has received the
+impress of refinement and purity; but if the mind be debased and
+impure, the more does the matter to which its nature is transmitted
+become degraded. Let me have a simple mass of clay as a candle-holder
+rather than the earthen candlestick which only presents such a form as
+is the natural outgoing of a degraded mind.
+
+There is another reason why the material of which beautiful objects
+are formed should be of little intrinsic value besides that arising
+out of a consideration of the exhaustion of the country, and this
+will lead us to see that it is desirable in all cases to form
+beautiful objects as far as possible of an inexpensive material. Clay,
+wood, iron, stone, are materials which may be fashioned into beautiful
+forms, but beware of silver, and of gold, and of precious stones. The
+most fragile material often endures for a long period of time, while
+the almost incorrosible silver and gold rarely escape the ruthless
+hand of the destroyer. "Beautiful though gold and silver are, and
+worthy, even though they were the commonest of things, to be fashioned
+into the most exquisite devices, their money value makes them a
+perilous material for works of art. How many of the choicest relics of
+antiquity are lost to us, because they tempted the thief to steal
+them, and then to hide his theft by melting them! How many unique
+designs in gold and silver have the vicissitudes of war reduced in
+fierce haste into money-changers' nuggets! Where are Benvenuto
+Cellini's vases, Lorenzo Ghiberti's cups, or the silver lamps of
+Ghirlandajo? Gone almost as completely as Aaron's golden pot of manna,
+of which, for another reason than that which kept St. Paul silent, 'we
+cannot now speak particularly.' Nor is it only because this is a world
+'where thieves break through and steal' that the fine gold becomes dim
+and the silver perishes. This, too, is a world where 'love is strong
+as death;' and what has not love--love of family, love of brother,
+love of child, love of lover--prompted man and woman to do with the
+costliest things, when they could be exchanged as mere bullion for the
+lives of those who were beloved?"[1] Workmen! it is fortunate for us
+that the best vehicles for art are the least costly materials.
+
+[1] From a lecture by the late Professor George Wilson, of Edinburgh.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Having made these general remarks, I may explain to my readers what I
+am about to attempt in the little work which I have now commenced. My
+primary aim will be to bring about refinement of mind in all who may
+accompany me through my studies, so that they may individually be
+enabled to judge correctly of the nature of any decorated object, and
+enjoy its beauties--should it present any--and detect its faults, if
+such be present. This refinement I shall attempt to bring about by
+presenting to the mind considerations which it must digest and
+assimilate, so that its new formations, if I may thus speak, may be of
+knowledge. We shall carefully consider certain general principles,
+which are either common to all fine arts or govern the production or
+arrangement of ornamental forms: then we shall notice the laws which
+regulate the combination of colours, and the application of colours to
+objects; after which we shall review our various art-manufactures, and
+consider art as associated with the manufacturing industries. We shall
+thus be led to consider furniture, earthenware, table and window
+glass, wall decorations, carpets, floor cloths, window-hangings, dress
+fabrics, works in silver and gold, hardware, and whatever is a
+combination of art and manufacture. I shall address myself, then, to
+the carpenter, the cabinet-maker, potter, glass-blower, paper-stainer,
+weaver and dyer, silversmith, blacksmith, gas-finisher, designer, and
+all who are in any way engaged in the production of art-objects.
+
+But before we commence our regular work, let me say that without
+laborious study no satisfactory progress can be made. Labour is the
+means whereby we raise ourselves above our fellows; labour is the
+means by which we arrive at affluence. Think not that there is a royal
+road to success--the road is through toil. Deceive not yourself with
+the idea that you were born a genius--that you were born an artist. If
+you are endowed with a love for art, remember that it is by labour
+alone that you can get such knowledge as will enable you to present
+your art-ideas in a manner acceptable to refined and educated people.
+Be content, then, to labour. In the case of an individual, success
+appears to me to depend upon the time which he devotes to the study of
+that which he desires to master. One man works six hours a day;
+another works eighteen. One has three days in one; and what is the
+natural result? Simply this--that the one who works the eighteen hours
+progresses with three times the rapidity of the one who only works six
+hours. It is true that individuals differ in mental capacity, but my
+experience has led me to believe that those who work the hardest
+almost invariably succeed the best.
+
+While I write, I have in my mind's eye one or two on whom Nature
+appeared to have lavishly bestowed art-gifts; yet these have made but
+little progress in life. I see, as it were, before me others who were
+less gifted by Nature, but who industriously persevered in their
+studies, and were content to labour for success; and these have
+achieved positions which the natural genius has failed even to
+approach. Workmen! I am a worker, and a believer in the efficacy of
+work.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We will commence our systematic course by observing that good
+ornament--good decorations of any character, have qualities which
+appeal to the educated, but are silent to the ignorant, and that these
+qualities make utterance of interesting facts; but before we can
+rightly understand what I may term the hidden utterance of ornament,
+we must inquire into the general revelation which the ornament of any
+particular people, or of any historic age, makes to us, and also the
+utterances of individual forms.
+
+As an illustration of my meaning, let us take the ornament produced by
+the Egyptians. In order to see this it may be necessary that we visit
+a museum--say the British Museum--where we search out the mummy-cases;
+but as most provincial museums boast one or more mummy-cases, we are
+almost certain to find in the leading country towns illustrations that
+will serve our present purpose. On a mummy-case you may find a
+singular ornament, which is a conventional drawing of the Egyptian
+lotus, or blue water-lily[2] (see Figs. 1, 2, 3), and in all
+probability you will find this ornamental device repeated over and
+over again on the one mummy-case. Notice this peculiarity of the
+drawing of the lotus--a peculiarity common to Egyptian ornaments--that
+there is a severity, a rigidity of line, a sort of sternness about it.
+This rigidity or severity of drawing is a great peculiarity or
+characteristic of Egyptian drawing. But mark! with this severity there
+is always coupled an amount of dignity, and in some cases this dignity
+is very apparent. Length of line, firmness of drawing, severity of
+form, and subtlety of curve are the great characteristics of Egyptian
+ornamentation.
+
+[2] This can be seen growing in the water-tanks in the Kew Gardens
+conservatories, and in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+What does all this express? It expresses the character of the people
+who created the ornaments. The ornaments of the ancient Egyptians were
+all ordered by the priesthood, amongst whom the learning of this
+people was stored. The priests were the dictators to the people not
+only of religion, but of the forms which their ornaments were to
+assume. Mark, then, the expression of the severity of character and
+dignified bearing of the priesthood: in the very drawing of a simple
+flower we have presented to us the character of the men who brought
+about its production. But this is only what we are in the constant
+habit of witnessing. A man of knowledge writes with power and force;
+while the man of wavering opinions writes timidly and with feebleness.
+The force of the one character (which character has been made forcible
+by knowledge) and the weakness of the other is manifested by his
+written words. So it is with ornaments: power or feebleness of
+character is manifest by the forms produced.
+
+The Egyptians were a severe people; they were hard task-masters. When
+a great work had to be performed, a number of slaves were selected for
+the work, and a portion of food allotted to each, which was to last
+till the work was completed; and if the work was not finished when the
+food was consumed, the slaves perished. We do not wonder at the
+severity of Egyptian drawing. But the Egyptians were a noble
+people--noble in knowledge of the arts, noble in the erection of vast
+and massive buildings, noble in the greatness of their power. Hence we
+have nobility of drawing--power and dignity mingled with severity in
+every ornamental form which they produced.
+
+We have thus noticed the general utterance or expression of Egyptian
+drawing; but what specific communication does this particular lotus
+make? Most of the ornaments of the Egyptians--whether the adornments
+of sarcophagi, of water-vessels, or mere charms to be worn pendent
+from the neck--were symbols of some truth or dogma inculcated by the
+priests. Hence Egyptian ornament is said to be symbolic.
+
+The fertility of the Nile valley was chiefly due to the river annually
+overflowing its banks. In spreading over the land, the water carried
+with it a quantity of rich alluvial earth, which gave fecundity to the
+country on which it was deposited. When the water which had overspread
+the surrounding land had nearly subsided, the corn which was to
+produce the harvest was set by being cast upon the retiring water,
+through which it sank into the rich alluvial earth. The water being
+now well-nigh within the river-banks, the first flower that sprang up
+was the lotus. This flower was to the Egyptians the harbinger of
+coming plenty, for it symbolised the springing forth of the wheat. It
+was the first flower of spring, or their primrose (first rose). The
+priesthood, perceiving the interest with which this flower was viewed,
+and the watchfulness manifested for its appearance, taught that in it
+abode a god, and that it must be worshipped. The acknowledgment of
+this flower as a fit and primary object of worship caused it to be
+delineated on the mummy-cases, and sarcophagi, and on all sacred
+edifices.
+
+We shall have frequent occasion, while considering decorative art, to
+notice symbolic forms; but we must not forget the fact that all good
+ornaments make utterance. Let us in all cases, when beholding them,
+give ear to their teachings!
+
+Egyptian ornament is so full of forms which have interesting
+significance that I cannot forbear giving one other illustration; and
+of this I am sure, that not only does a knowledge of the intention of
+each form employed in a decorative scheme cause the beholder to
+receive a special amount of pleasure when viewing it, but also that
+without such knowledge no one can rightly judge of the nature of any
+ornamental work.
+
+There is a device in Egyptian ornament which the most casual observer
+cannot have failed to notice; it is what is termed the "winged globe,"
+and consists of a small ball or globe, immediately at the sides of
+which are two asps, and from which extend two wings, each wing being
+in length about five to eight times that of the diameter of the ball
+(Fig. 4). The drawing of this device is very grand. The force with
+which the wings are delineated well represents the powerful character
+of the protection which the kingdom of Egypt afforded, and which was
+symbolised by the extended and overshadowing pinions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+I know of few instances where forms of an ornamental character have
+been combined in a manner either more quaint or more interesting than
+in the example before us. The composition presents a charm that few
+ornaments do, and is worthy of careful consideration. But this
+ornament derives a very special and unusual interest when we consider
+its purpose, the blow which was once aimed at it, and the shock which
+its producers must have received, upon finding it powerless to act as
+they had taught, if not believed, it would.
+
+The priesthood instructed the people that this was the symbol of
+protection, and that it so effectually appealed to the preserving
+spirits that no evil could enter where it was portrayed. With the view
+of giving a secure protection to the inmates of Egyptian dwellings,
+this device, or symbol of protection, was ordered to be placed on the
+lintel (the post over the door) of every building of the Egyptians,
+whether residence or temple.
+
+It was to nullify this symbol, and to show the vain character of the
+Egyptian gods, that Moses was commanded to have the blood of the lamb
+slain at the passover placed upon the lintel, in the very position of
+this winged globe. It was also enjoined as a further duty that the
+blood be sprinkled on the door-post; but this was merely a new duty,
+tending further to show that even in position, as well as in nature,
+this winged globe was powerless to secure protection. This device,
+then, is of special interest, both as a symbolic ornament and as
+throwing light on Scripture history.
+
+Besides the two ornamental forms mentioned--_i.e._, the lotus and the
+winged globe--we might notice many others also of great interest, but
+our space will not enable us to do so; further information may,
+however, be got from the South Kensington Museum library,[3] where
+several interesting works on Egyptian ornament may be seen;--from the
+"Grammar of Ornament" by Mr. Owen Jones,--the works on Egypt by Sir
+Gardiner Wilkinson; and, especially,--by a visit to the Egyptian Court
+of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, and by a careful perusal of the
+hand-book to that court.[4] Much might also be said respecting
+Egyptian architecture, but on this we can say little here; yet, as the
+columns of the temples are of a very ornamental character, we may
+notice that in most cases they were formed of a bundle of papyrus[5]
+stems bound together by thongs or straps--the heads of the plant
+forming the capital of the column, and the stems the shaft (Fig. 5).
+In some cases the lotus was substituted for the papyrus; and in other
+instances the palm-leaf was used in a similar way; these modifications
+can be seen in the Egyptian Court at Sydenham with great advantage,
+and many varieties of form resulting from the use of the one plant, as
+of the papyrus, may also there be observed.
+
+[3] Any person can have admission to the South Kensington Museum Art
+library and its Educational library, for a week, by payment of
+sixpence.
+
+[4] A hand-book to each of the historic courts erected in the Sydenham
+Palace was prepared at the time the courts were built. These are still
+to be got in the Literary department, in the north-east gallery of the
+building. They are all worthy of careful study.
+
+[5] The papyrus was the plant from which Egyptian paper was made. It
+was also the bulrush of the Scriptures, in which the infant Moses was
+found.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+We have here an opportunity of noticing how the mode of building,
+however simple or primitive in character, first employed by a nation
+may become embodied in its ultimate architecture; for, undoubtedly,
+the rude houses first erected in Egypt were formed largely of bundles
+of the papyrus, which were gathered from the river-side--for wood was
+rare in Egypt--and, ultimately, when buildings were formed of stone,
+an attempt was made at imitating in the new material the form which
+the old reeds presented. But mark, the imitation was no gross copy of
+the original work, but a well-considered and perfectly idealised work,
+substituting for the bundle of reeds a work having the true
+architectural qualities of a noble-looking and useful column. We must
+now pass from the ornament of the Egyptians to that of the Greeks, and
+here we meet with decorative forms having a different object and
+different aim from those already considered.
+
+Egyptian ornament was symbolical in character. Its individual forms
+had specific meanings--the purport of each shape being taught by the
+priests--but we find no such thing as symbolism in Greek decoration.
+The Greeks were a refined people, who sought not to express their
+power by their art-works so much as their refinement. Before the
+mental eye they always had a perfect ideal, and their most earnest
+efforts were made at the realisation of the perfections of the mental
+conception of absolute refinement. In one respect the Greeks resembled
+the Egyptians, for they rarely created new forms. When once a form
+became sacred to the Egyptians, it could not be altered; but with the
+Greeks, while bound by no such law, the love of old forms was great;
+yet the Greeks did not seek simply to reproduce what they had before
+created, but laboured hard to improve and refine what they had before
+done; and even through succeeding centuries they worked at the
+refinement of simple forms and ornamental compositions, which have
+become characteristic of them as a people.
+
+The general expression of Greek art is that of refinement, and the
+manner in which the delicately cultivated taste of some of the Greeks
+is expressed by their ornaments is astonishing. One decorative device,
+which we term the Greek Anthemion, may be regarded as their principal
+ornament--(the original ornamental composition by one of my pupils,
+Fig. 6, consists primarily of three anthemions)--and the variety of
+refined forms in which it appears is most interesting.
+
+But it must not be thought that the Greek ornaments and architectural
+forms present nothing but refinement made manifest in form, for this
+is not the case. Great as is the refinement of some of these forms, we
+yet notice that they speak of more than the perfected taste of their
+producers, for they reveal to us this fact--that their creators had
+great knowledge of natural forces and the laws by which natural forces
+are governed. This becomes apparent in a marked degree when we inquire
+into the manner in which they arranged the proportion of the various
+parts of their works to the whole, and especially by a consideration
+of the subtle nature of the curves which they employed both in
+architectural members and in decorative forms; but into this we must
+not now inquire. Yet, by way of throwing some faint light upon the
+manner in which knowledge is embodied in Greek forms, I may refer to
+the Doric column, such as was employed in the Parthenon at Athens[6]
+(Fig. 7). The idea presented by this column is that of energetic
+upward growth which has come in contact with some superposed mass, the
+weight of which presses upon the column from above, while the energy
+of the upward growth causes the column to appear fully equal to the
+task of supporting the superincumbent structure. Mark this--that by
+pressure from above, or weight, the shaft of the column is distended,
+or bent out, about one-third of the distance from its base to its
+apex (just where this distension would occur, were the column formed
+of a slightly plastic material), and yet this distension of the shaft
+is not such as to give any idea of weakness, for the column appears to
+rise with the energy of such vigorous life as to be more than able to
+bear the weight which it has to sustain.
+
+[6] A capital, and portion of the shaft, of one of these columns are
+to be seen in the British Museum Sculpture room, and a cast of the
+same at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. This Doric column is employed in
+the Greek Court of the Crystal Palace.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+Mark also the singularly delicate curve of the capital of the column,
+which appears as a slightly plastic cushion intervening between the
+shaft and the superincumbent mass which it has to support. The
+delicacy and refinement of form presented by this capital is perhaps
+greater than that of any other with which we are acquainted.
+
+The same principle of life and energy coming in contact with
+resistance or pressure from above is constantly met with in the
+enrichments of Greek cornices and mouldings; but having called
+attention to the fact, I must leave the student to observe, and think
+upon, these interesting subjects for himself. Let me, however, say
+that there are few classic buildings in England which will aid the
+learner in his researches; there is but little poetry in our
+architectural buildings, and but little refinement in the forms of the
+parts, especially in our classic buildings; and, added to this, Greek
+art without Greek colouring is dead, being almost as the marble statue
+to the living form. For the purposes of my readers, the Greek Court at
+the Crystal Palace will be the best example for study.
+
+I might now review Roman ornament, and show that in the hour of pride
+the materials of which the Roman works were formed were considered,
+rather than the shapes which they assumed; and how we thus get little
+worthy of praise from the all-conquering Romans--how the sunny climate
+and religious superstitions of the East called forth the gorgeous and
+beautiful developments of art which have existed, or still exist, with
+the Persians, Indians, Turks, Moors, Chinese, and Japanese; but I have
+not space to do so; yet all the forms of ornament which these people
+have created are worthy of the most careful and exhaustive
+consideration, as they present art-qualities of the highest kind. I
+know of no ornament more intricately beautiful and mingled than the
+Persian--no geometrical strapwork, or systems of interlacing lines, so
+rich as those of the Moors (the Alhambraic)--no fabrics so gorgeous as
+those of India--none so quaintly harmonious as those of China; and
+Japan can supply the world with the most beautiful domestic articles
+that we can anywhere procure.
+
+We must pass on, however, to what we may term Christian art, or that
+development of ornament which had its rise with the Christian
+religion, and has associated itself in a special manner with
+Christianity.
+
+Neither the Egyptians nor early Greeks appear to have used the arch
+structurally in their buildings; the Romans, however, had the round
+arch as a primary structural element. This round arch was also used by
+the Byzantines, and amongst their ornaments we find those combinations
+of circles, or parts of circles, which so constantly recur in later
+times in Gothic architecture and Gothic ornament. Norman buildings,
+again, show us the round arch, and present us with such intersected
+arcs as would naturally suggest the pointed arch of later times, with
+which came the full development of Gothic or Christian architecture
+and ornamentation. There was a very fine and marvellously clever
+development of decorative art, enthusiastically worked at by the
+Christian monks of the seventh and eighth centuries, called Celtic, of
+which we have many beautiful examples in Professor Westwood's great
+work on early illuminated manuscripts; but what is generally
+understood by Christian or Gothic art had its finest development about
+the thirteenth century.
+
+Gothic ornament, like the Egyptian, is essentially symbolic. Its forms
+have in many instances specific significance. Thus the common
+equilateral triangle is in some cases used to symbolise the Holy
+Trinity; so are the two entwined triangles. But there are many other
+symbols employed in Gothic ornament which set forth the mystery of the
+Unity of the Trinity. Thus in Fig. 8 we have three interlaced circles,
+which beautifully express the eternal Unity of the Holy Trinity, for
+the circle alone symbolises eternity, being without beginning and
+without end, and the three parts point to the Three Persons of the
+Godhead. A very curious and clever symbol of the Trinity is portrayed
+in Fig. 9, where three faces are so combined as to form an ornamental
+figure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+Baptism under the immediate sanction of the Divine Trinity was
+represented by three fishes placed together in the manner of a
+triangle (Fig. 10); but so numerous were Christian symbols after the
+ninth century, that to enumerate them merely would occupy much space.
+Every trefoil symbolised the Holy Trinity, every quatrefoil the four
+evangelists, every cross the Crucifixion, or the martyrdom of some
+saint. And into Gothic ornamentation the chalice, the crown of thorns,
+the dice, the sop, the hammer and nails, the flagellum, and other
+symbols of our Lord's passion have entered. But, besides these, we
+have more purely architectural forms making gentle utterance: the
+church spire points heavenwards, and the long lines of the clustered
+columns of the cathedral direct the thoughts upwards to heaven and to
+God.
+
+Gothic ornament, having passed from its purity towards undue
+elaboration, began to lose its hold on the people for whom it was
+created, and the form of religion with which it had long been
+associated had become old, when the great overthrow of old traditions
+and usages occurred, commonly called the Reformation. With the
+reformation of religion came a revival of classic learning, and a
+general diffusion of knowledge, and thus the immediate necessity for
+art-symbols was passing away, it being especially to an unlettered
+people that an extended system of symbolism appeals. With this revival
+of classic learning came the investigation of classic remains--the
+exploration of Greek and Roman ruins; and while this was going on, a
+dislike to whatever had been associated with the old form of religion
+had sprung up, which dislike turned to hate as the struggle advanced,
+till the feeling against Gothic architecture and ornament became so
+strong that anything was preferred to it. Now arose Renaissance
+architecture and ornament (revival work), which was based on the Roman
+remains, but was yet remoulded, or formed anew; so that the ornament
+of the Renaissance is not Roman ornament, but a new decorative scheme,
+of the same genus as that of the Roman. Here, however, all my
+sympathies end. I confess that all Renaissance ornament, whether
+developed under the soft sky of Italy (Italian ornament), in more
+northerly France (French Renaissance), or on our own soil
+(Elizabethan, or English Renaissance), fails to awaken any feeling of
+sympathy in my breast; and that it, on the contrary, chills and repels
+me. I enjoy the power and vigour of Egyptian ornament, the refinement
+of the Greek, the gorgeousness of the Alhambraic, the richness of the
+Persian and Indian, the quaintness of the Chinese and Japanese, the
+simple honesty and boldness of the Gothic; but with the coarse
+Assyrian, the haughty Roman, and the cold Renaissance, I have no
+kindred feeling--no sympathy. They strike notes which have no chords
+in my nature: hence from them I instinctively fly. I must be pardoned
+for this my feeling by those who differ from me in judgment, but my
+continued studies of these styles only separate me further from them
+in feeling.
+
+It will be said that in my writings I mingle together ornament and
+architecture, and that my sphere is ornament, and not building. I
+cannot separate the two. The material at command, the religion of the
+people, and the climate have, to a great extent, determined the
+character of the architecture of all ages and nations; but they have,
+to the same extent, determined the nature of the ornamentation of the
+edifices raised. Ornament always has arisen out of architecture, or
+been a mere reflex of the art-principles of the building decorated. We
+cannot rightly consider ornament without architecture; but I will
+promise to take no further notice of architecture than is absolutely
+necessary to the proper understanding of our subject.
+
+
+DIVISION II.
+
+In my previous remarks I have attempted to set forth some of the first
+principles of ornament, and to call attention to the purport or
+intention of certain of the leading historic styles, and the manner in
+which they make utterance to us of the faith or sentiments of their
+producers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+But there are other utterances of ornament, and other general
+expressions which decorative forms convey to the mind. Thus sharp,
+angular, or spiny forms are more or less exciting (Fig. 11); while
+bold and broad forms are soothing, or tend to give repose.
+
+Sharp or angular forms, where combined in ornament, act upon the
+senses much as racy and pointed sayings do. Thus "cut" or angular
+glass, spinose metal-work, as the pointed foliage of some wrought-iron
+gates, and other works in which there is a prevalence of angles and
+points, so act upon the mind as to stimulate it, and thus produce an
+effect opposite to repose; while "breadth" of form and "largeness" of
+treatment induce tranquillity and meditation.
+
+Nothing can be more important to the ornamentist than the scientific
+study of art. The metaphysical inquiry into cause and effect, as
+relating to decorative ideas, is very important--indeed,
+all-important--to the true decorator. He must constantly ask himself
+what effect such and such forms have upon the mind--which effects are
+soothing, which cheerful, which melancholy, which rich, which
+ethereal, which gorgeous, which solid, which graceful, which lovable,
+and so on; and in order to do this he must separate the various
+elements of ornamental composition, and consider these apart, so as to
+be sure that he is not mistaken as to what affects the mind in any
+particular manner, and he must then combine these elements in various
+proportions, and consider the effects of the various combinations on
+his own mind and that of others, and thus he will discover what will
+enable him to so act on the senses as to induce effects such as he may
+desire to produce.
+
+Are we to decorate a dining-room, let the decoration give the sense of
+richness; a drawing-room, let it give cheerfulness; a library, let it
+give worth; a bed-room, repose; but glitter must never occur in large
+quantities, for that which excites can only be sparingly indulged
+in--if too freely employed, it gives the sense of vulgarity.
+
+In this chapter I have to speak primarily of _Truth_, _Beauty_, and
+_Power_. Long since I was so fully impressed with the idea that true
+art-principles are so perfectly manifested by these three words, that
+I embodied them in an ornamental device which I painted on my study
+door, so that all who entered might learn the principles which I
+sought to manifest in my works.
+
+There can be morality or immorality in art, the utterance of truth or
+of falsehood; and by his art the ornamentist may exalt or debase a
+nation.
+
+_Truth._--How noble, how beautiful; how righteous to utter it; and how
+debasing is falsehood; yet we see falsehood preferred to truth--that
+which debases to that which exalts, in art as well as morals; and I
+fear that there is almost as much that is false, degrading, and untrue
+in my beautiful art as there is of the noble, righteous, and exalting,
+although art should only be practised by ennobling hands. It is this
+grovelling art, this so-called ornamentation, which tends to debase
+rather than exalt, to degrade rather than make noble, to foster a lie
+rather than utter truth, which brings about the abasement of our
+calling, and causes our art to fail in many instances in laying hold
+of, and clinging to, the affections of the noble and the great.
+Ornamentation is in the highest sense of the word a Fine Art; there is
+no art more noble, none more exalted. It can cheer the sorrowing; it
+can soothe the troubled; it can enhance the joys of those who make
+merry; it can inculcate the doctrine of truth; it can refine, elevate,
+purify, and point onward and upward to heaven and to God. It is a fine
+art, for it embodies and expresses the feelings of the soul of
+man--that inward spirit which was breathed by the Creator into the
+lifeless clay as the image of his life--however noble, pure, or holy.
+
+This being the case, those who ignore decoration cast aside a source
+of refinement, and deprive themselves of what may induce their
+elevation in virtue and morals. Such a neglect on the part of those
+who can afford luxuries would be highly censurable, were it not that
+the professors of the art are for the most part false pretenders,
+knowing not what they practise, and men ignorant of the power which
+they hold in their hands. The true artist is a rare creature; he is
+often unknown, frequently misunderstood, or not understood at all, and
+is not unfrequently lost to a people that prefer shallowness to deep
+meaning, falsehood to truth, and glitter to repose.
+
+We now see the utter folly of appealing simply to what is called
+"taste" in matters of art, and the uselessness of yielding to the
+caprice (falsely called taste) of the uneducated in such matters,
+especially as this so-called taste is often of the most vulgar and
+debased order. We also see the absurdity of persons who employ a true
+artist interfering with his judgment and ideas. The true artist is a
+noble teacher; shall he be told, then, what morals he shall
+inculcate, and what lofty truths he shall embody in his works, or omit
+from them? Do we tell the preacher what he shall say, and ask him to
+withhold whatever is refining and elevating? We do not, and in art we
+must leave the professors free to teach, and hold them responsible for
+their teachings.
+
+If I thought that I had now convinced my reader that decorative art
+does not consist merely in the placing together of forms, however
+beautiful they may be individually or collectively; nor in rendering
+objects simply what is called pretty; but that it is a power for good
+or evil; that it is what will elevate or debase--that which cannot be
+neutral in its tendency--I would advance to consider its principles;
+but I cannot teach, nor can I be understood, unless the reader _feels_
+that he who practises art wields a vast power, for the rightful use of
+which he must be held responsible.
+
+All graining of wood is false, inasmuch as it attempts to deceive; the
+effort being made at causing one material to look like another which
+it is not. All "marbling" is false also: a floor-cloth made in
+imitation of carpet or matting is false; a Brussels carpet that
+imitates a Turkey carpet is false; so is a jug that imitates
+wicker-work, a printed fabric that imitates one which is woven, a
+gas-lamp that imitates an oil-lamp. These are all untruths in
+expression, and are, besides, vulgar absurdities which are the more
+lamentable, as the imitation is always less beautiful than the thing
+imitated; and as each material has the power of expressing beauty
+truthfully, thus the want of truth brings its own punishment. A deal
+door is beautiful, but it will not keep clean; let it then be
+varnished. It is now preserved, and its own characteristic features
+are enhanced by the varnish, so that its individuality is emphasised,
+and no untruth told. A floor-cloth can present a pattern with true and
+beautiful curves--how absurd, then, to try and imitate the dotty
+effect of a carpet; and the Brussels carpet can express truer curves
+than the Turkey carpet, then why imitate the latter in the finer
+material? But perhaps the most senseless of all these absurdities is
+the making an earthen jug in imitation of wicker-work when if so
+formed it would be useless as a water-vessel. I can imagine a fool in
+his simplicity priding himself on such a bright thought as the
+production of a vessel of this kind, but I cannot imagine any rightly
+constituted mind producing or commending such an idea. Let the
+expression of our art ever be truthful.
+
+_Beauty._--I will say little on this head, for decorative forms must
+be beautiful. Shapes which are not beautiful are rarely decorative. I
+will not now attempt to express what character forms should have in
+order that they be considered beautiful, but will content myself by
+saying that they must be truthful in expression, and graceful,
+delicate, and refined in contour, manifesting no coarseness,
+vulgarity, or obtrusiveness. My views of the beautiful must be
+gathered from the series of chapters which will follow, but this I may
+here say, that the beautiful manifests no want, no shortcoming. A
+composition that is beautiful must have no parts which could be taken
+from it and yet leave the remainder equally good or better. The
+perfectly beautiful is that which admits of no improvement. The
+beautiful is lovable, and, as that which is lovable, takes hold of the
+affections and clings to them, binding itself firmer and firmer to
+them as time rolls on. If an object is really beautiful we do not tire
+of it; fashion does not induce us to change it; the merely new does
+not displace it. It becomes as an old friend, more loved as its good
+qualities are better understood.
+
+_Power._--We now come to consider an art-element or principle of great
+importance, for if absent from any composition, feebleness or weakness
+is the result, the manifestation of which is not pleasant. With what
+power do the plants burst from the earth in spring! With what power do
+the buds develop into branches! The powerful orator is a man to be
+admired, the powerful thinker a man we esteem. Even the simple power,
+or brute force, of animals we involuntarily approve--the powerful
+tiger and the powerful horse call forth our commendation, for power is
+antagonistic to weakness. Power also manifests earnestness; power
+means energy; power implies a conqueror. Our compositions, then, must
+be powerful.
+
+But besides all this, we, the professors of decorative art, must
+manifest power in our works, for we are teachers sent forth to
+instruct, and ennoble, and elevate our fellow-creatures. We shall not
+be believed if we do not utter our truths with power; let truth, then,
+be uttered with power, and in the form of beauty.[7]
+
+[7] I have given in this chapter an original sketch (Fig. 12), in
+which I have sought to embody chiefly the one idea of power, energy,
+force, or vigour; and in order to do this, I have employed such lines
+as we see in the bursting buds of spring, when the energy of growth is
+at its maximum, and especially such as are to be seen in the spring
+growth of a luxuriant tropical vegetation; I have also availed myself
+of those forms to be seen in certain bones of birds which are
+associated with the organs of flight, and which give us an impression
+of great strength, as well as those observable in the powerful
+propelling fins of certain species of fish.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There are other principles governing the production and application of
+ornament which we must now notice, the first of which is _utility_,
+for the first aim of the designer of any article must be to render the
+object which he produces useful. I may go further, and say that an
+article must be made not only useful, but as perfectly suited to the
+purpose for which it is intended as it can be. It matters not how
+beautiful the object is intended to be, it must first be formed as
+though it were a mere work of utility, and after it has been carefully
+created with this end in view it may then be rendered as beautiful as
+you please.
+
+There are special reasons why our works should be useful as well as
+beautiful, for if an object, however beautiful it may be in shape,
+however richly covered with beautiful ornaments, or however
+harmoniously coloured, be unpleasant to use, it will ultimately be
+set aside, and that which is more convenient for use will replace it,
+even if the latter be without beauty. As an illustration of this fact,
+let us suppose the balustrade railings of a staircase very beautiful,
+and yet furnished with such projections as render it almost impossible
+that we walk up or down the stairs without tearing the dress, or
+injuring the person, and how soon will our admiration of the beautiful
+railing disappear, and even be replaced by hate! In like manner let
+the handle of a door, or the head of a poker, be so formed as to hurt
+the hand, and the simple round knob, or round head, will be preferred
+to it, however ornamentally or beautifully formed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+In relation to this subject, Professor George Wilson has said: "The
+conviction seems ineradicable from some minds, that a beautiful thing
+cannot be a useful thing, and that the more you increase the beauty of
+the necessary furniture or the implements of every-day life the more
+you lessen their utility. Make the Queen's sceptre as beautiful as you
+please, but don't try to beautify a poker, especially in cold weather.
+My lady's vinaigrette carve and gild as you will, but leave untouched
+my pewter ink-bottle. Put fine furniture, if you choose, into my
+drawing-room; but I am a plain man, and like useful things in my
+parlour, and so on. Good folks of this sort seem to labour under the
+impression that the secret desire of art is to rob them of all
+comfort. Its unconfessed but actual aim, they believe, is to realise
+the faith of their childhood, when it was understood that a monarch
+always wore his crown, held an orb in one hand and a sceptre in the
+other, and a literal interpretation was put upon Shakespeare's words,
+
+    'Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.'
+
+Were art to prosper, farewell to fire-proof, shapeless slippers, which
+bask like salamanders unharmed in the hottest blaze. An aesthetic pair,
+modelled upon Cinderella's foot, and covered with snow-white
+embroidery, must take their place, and dispense chilblains and
+frost-bite to miserable toes. Farewell to shooting-coats out a little
+at the elbows, to patched dressing-gowns, and hair-cloth sofas.
+Nothing but full-dress, varnished boots, spider-legged chairs, white
+satin chair-covers, alabaster ink-bottles, velvet door-mats, and
+scrapers of silver or gold. It is astonishing how many people think
+that a thing cannot be comfortable if it is beautiful. . . . If there
+be one truth which the Author of all has taught us in his works more
+clearly than another, it is the perfect compatibility of the highest
+utility with the greatest beauty. I offer you one example. All are
+familiar with the beautiful shell of the nautilus. Give the nautilus
+itself to a mathematician, and he will show you that one secret of its
+gracefulness lies in its following in its volute or whorl a particular
+geometrical curve with rigid precision. Pass it from the mathematician
+to the natural philosopher, and he will show you how the simple
+superposition of a great number of very thin transparent plates, and
+the close approximation of a multitude of very fine engraved lines,
+are the cause of its exquisite pearly lustre. Pass it from the natural
+philosopher to the engineer, and he will show you that this fairy
+shell is a most perfect practical machine, at once a sailing vessel
+and a diving-bell, in which its living possessor had, centuries before
+Archimedes, applied to utilitarian ends the law of specific gravity,
+and centuries before Halley had dived in his bell to the bottom of the
+sea. Pass it from the engineer to the anatomist, and he will show you
+how, without marring its beauty, it is occupied during its lifetime
+with a most orderly system of rowing and sailing tackle, chambers for
+food, pumps to keep blood circulating, ventilating apparatus, and
+hands to control all, so that it is a model ship with a model mariner
+on board. Pass it lastly from the anatomist to the chemist, and he
+will show you that every part of the shell and the creature is
+compounded of elements, the relative weights of which follow in each
+individual nautilus the same numerically identical ratio.
+
+"Such is the nautilus, a thing so graceful, that when we look at it we
+are content to say with Keats--
+
+    'A thing of beauty is a joy for ever;'
+
+and yet a thing so thoroughly utilitarian, and fulfilling with the
+utmost perfection the purely practical aim of its construction, that
+our shipbuilders would be only too thankful if, though sacrificing all
+beauty, they could make their vessels fulfil their business ends half
+so well."
+
+Viewing our subject in another light, and with special reference to
+architecture, we notice that unless a building is fitted for the
+purpose intended, or, in other words, answers utilitarian ends, it
+cannot be esteemed as it otherwise might be, even though it be of
+great aesthetic beauty. In respect to this subject, Mr. Owen Jones has
+said: "The nave and aisles of a Gothic church become absurd when
+filled with pews for Protestant worship, where all are required to see
+and hear. The columns of the nave which impede sight and sound, the
+aisles for processions which no longer exist, rood screens, and deep
+chancels for the concealment of mysteries, now no longer such, are all
+so many useless reproductions which must be thrown aside." Further,
+"As architecture, so all works of the decorative arts, _should possess
+fitness_, proportion, harmony; the result of all which is repose." Sir
+M. Digby Wyatt has said: "Infinite variety and unerring fitness govern
+all forms in Nature." Vitruvius, that "The perfection of all works
+depends on their fitness to answer the end proposed, and on principles
+resulting from a consideration of Nature itself." Sir Charles L.
+Eastlake, that "In every case in Nature where fitness or utility can
+be traced, the characteristic quality, or _relative_ beauty, is found
+to be identical with that of fitness." A. W. Pugin (the father): "How
+many objects of ordinary use are rendered monstrous and ridiculous
+simply because the artist, instead of seeking the most convenient
+form, and then decorating it, has embodied some extravagance to
+conceal the real purpose for which the article has been made." And
+with the view of pointing out how fitness for, or adaptation to, the
+end proposed is manifested in the structure and disposition upon the
+earth of plants, I have written in a little work now out of print:
+"The trees which grow highest upon the mountains, and the plants which
+grow upon the unsheltered plain, have usually long, narrow, and rigid
+leaves, which, owing to their form, are enabled to bear the fury of
+the tempest, to which they are exposed, without injury. This is seen
+in the ease of the species of fir which grow at great altitudes, where
+the leaves are more like needles than leaves such as commonly occur;
+and also in the species of heath which grow upon exposed moors: in
+both cases the plants are, owing to the form of the leaf, enabled to
+defy the blast, while those with broad leaves would be shattered and
+destroyed.
+
+"Not only is the form of leaf such as fits these plants to dwell in
+such inhospitable regions, but other circumstances also tend to this
+result. The stems are in both cases woody and flexible, so that while
+they bend to the wind they resist its destroying influence by their
+strength and elasticity. In relation to the stem of the papyrus,"
+which is a plant constantly met with in Egyptian ornaments, "the late
+Sir W. J. Hooker mentions an interesting fact which manifests
+adaptation to its position. This plant grows in water, and attaches
+itself to the margins of rivers and streams, by sending forth roots
+and evolving long underground stems in the alluvium of the sides of
+the waters. Owing to its position it is exposed to the influences of
+the current, which it has to withstand, and this it does, not only by
+having its stems of a triangular form--a shape well adapted for
+withstanding pressure--but also by having them so placed in relation
+to the direction of the stream, that one angle always meets the
+current, and thus separates the waters as does the bow of a modern
+steam-ship."
+
+I might multiply illustrations of this principle of _fitness_, or
+_adaptation to purpose_, as manifested in plants, to an almost
+indefinite extent; but when all had been said we should yet have but
+the simple truth before us, that the chief end which we should have in
+creating any object, is that of rendering it perfectly fitted to
+answer the proposed end. If those works which are beautiful were but
+invariably useful, as they should be; if those objects which are most
+beautiful were also the most convenient--and there is no reason why
+they should not be so--how the beautiful would become loved and sought
+after! Cost would be of little moment, the price would not be
+complained of, if beautiful objects were works of perfect utility.
+But, alas! it is far otherwise: that which is useful is often ugly,
+and that which is beautiful is often inconvenient to use. This very
+fact has given rise to the highly absurd fashion of having a second
+poker in a drawing-room set of fire-irons. The one poker is
+ornamental, possibly, but it is to be looked at; the other is for use,
+and as it is not to be looked at, it is hidden away in some corner, or
+close within the fender. I do not wonder at the second poker being
+required; for nineteen out of every twenty pokers of an ornamental
+(?) character which I have seen during the last few years would hurt
+the hand so insufferably if they were used to break a lump of coal
+with, that it would be almost impossible to employ them constantly for
+such a purpose. But why not abolish the detestable thing altogether?
+If the poker is to be retained as an ornament, place it on the table
+or chimney-piece of your drawing-room, and not down on the hearth,
+where it is at such a distance from the eye that its beauties cannot
+be discovered. It is no use saying it would be out of place in such a
+position. If to poke the fire with, its place is within the fender; if
+it is an ornament, it should be placed where it can be best seen--in a
+glass case, if worthy of protection.
+
+I hope that sufficient has now been said upon this all-important
+necessity, that, if an object is to be beautiful it should also be
+useful, to cause us to consider it as a primary principle of design
+that all objects which we create _must_ be useful. To this as a first
+law we shall constantly have to refer. When we construct a chair we
+shall ask, is it useful? is it strong? is it properly put together?
+could it be stronger without using more, or another, material? and
+then we should consider whether it is beautiful. When we design a
+bottle we shall inquire, is it useful? is it all that a bottle should
+be? could it be more useful? and then, is it beautiful? When we create
+a gas-branch we shall ask, does it fulfil all requirements, and
+perfectly answer the end for which it is intended? and then, is it
+beautiful? And in relation to patterns merely we shall also have to
+make similar inquiries. Thus, if drawing a carpet design, we shall
+inquire, is this form of ornament suitable to a woven fabric? is it
+suitable to the particular fabric for which it is intended? is the
+particular treatment of the ornament which we have adopted the best
+possible when we bear in mind that the carpet has to be walked over,
+as it is to act in relation to our furniture as a background does to a
+picture, and is to be viewed at some distance from the eye? and then,
+is it beautiful? Such inquiries we shall put respecting any object the
+formation of which we may suggest: hence, in all our inquiries, I
+shall, as I love art, consider utility before beauty, in order that my
+art may be fostered and not despised.
+
+There are many subjects yet not named in these pages which we ought to
+consider, but I must content myself by merely mentioning them, and you
+must be willing to think of them, and consider them with such care as
+their importance may demand. Some of them, however, we shall refer to
+when considering the various manufactures.
+
+A principle of great importance in respect to design is, that _the
+material of which an object is formed should be used in a manner
+consistent with its own nature, and in that particular way in which it
+can be most easily "worked."_
+
+Another principle of equal importance with that just set forth, is
+this: that _when an object is about to be formed, that material (or
+those materials) which is (or are) most appropriate to its formation
+should be sought and employed_. These two propositions are of very
+great importance, and the principles which they set forth should never
+be lost sight of by the designer. They involve the first principles of
+successful designing, for if ignored the work produced cannot be
+satisfactory.
+
+_Curves will be found to be beautiful just as they are subtle in
+character; those which are most subtle in character being most
+beautiful._
+
+The arc is the least beautiful of curves (I do not here speak of a
+circle, but of the line, as a line, which bounds the circle); being
+struck from one centre its origin is instantly detected, while the
+mind requires that a line, the contemplation of which shall be
+pleasurable, must be in advance of its knowledge, and call into
+activity its powers of inquiry. The elliptic curve, or curve bounding
+the ellipse, is more beautiful than the arc, for its origin is not so
+strikingly apparent, being formed from two centres. The curve of the
+egg is more beautiful still, being formed from three centres.[8] As
+the number of centres necessary to the formation of a curve increases,
+the difficulty of detecting its origin also becomes greater, and the
+variety which the curve presents is also proportionally great; the
+variety being obviously greater as the number of the centres from
+which it is struck is increased.
+
+[8] The ellipse and egg-shape here spoken of are not those which are
+struck by compasses in any way, for the curves of such figures are
+merely combined arcs, but such as are struck with string, or a
+"tramel."
+
+_Proportion, like the curve, must be of a subtle nature._
+
+A surface must never be divided for the purpose of decoration into
+halves. The proportion of 1 to 1 is bad. As proportion increases in
+subtlety it also increases in beauty. The proportion of 2 to 1 is
+little better; the proportion of 3 to 8, or of 5 to 8, or of 5 to 13,
+is, however, good, the last named being the best of those which I have
+adduced; for the pleasure derived from the contemplation of proportion
+increases with the difficulty of detecting it. This principle is true
+in relation to the division of a mass into primary segments, and of
+primary segments into secondary forms, as well as in relation to the
+grouping together of parts of various sizes; hence it is worthy of
+special note.
+
+_A principle of order must prevail in every ornamental composition._
+
+Confusion is the result of accident, while order results from thought
+and care. The operation of mind cannot well be set forth in the
+absence of this principle; at least, the presence of a principle of
+order renders the operation of mind at once manifest.
+
+_The orderly repetition of parts frequently aids in the production of
+ornamental effects._
+
+The kaleidoscope affords a wonderful example of what repetition will
+do. The mere fragments of glass which we view in this instrument would
+altogether fail to please were they not repeated with regularity. Of
+themselves repetition and order can do much. (Figs. 13 and 14.)
+
+_Alternation is a principle of primary importance in certain
+ornamental compositions._
+
+In the case of a flower (as the buttercup, or chickweed, for example)
+the coloured leaves do not fall over the green leaves (the petals do
+not fall over the sepals), but between them--they alternate with them.
+This principle is not only manifested in plants, but also in many
+ornaments produced in the best periods of art (Fig. 15).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+_If plants are employed as ornaments they must not be treated
+imitatively, but must be conventionally treated, or rendered into
+ornaments_ (Fig. 16).
+
+A monkey can imitate, man can create.
+
+These are the chief principles which we shall have to notice, as
+involved in the production of ornamental designs.
+
+
+DIVISION III.
+
+Some other principles of a less noble character than those which we
+have already noticed as entering into ornament yet remain to be
+mentioned. Man will be amused as well as instructed; he must be
+pleased as well as ennobled by what he sees. I hold it as a first
+principle that ornamentation, as a true fine art, can administer to
+man in all his varying moods, and under all phases of feeling.
+Decoration, if properly understood, would at once be seen to be a high
+art in the truest sense of the word, as it can teach, elevate, refine,
+induce lofty aspirations, and allay sorrows; but we have now to notice
+it as a fine art, administering to man in his various moods, rather
+than as the handmaid to religion or morals.
+
+Humour seems to be as much an attribute of our nature as love, and,
+like it, varies in intensity with different individuals. There are few
+in whom there is not a certain amount of humour, and in some this one
+quality predominates over all others. It not unfrequently happens that
+men who are great thinkers are also great humorists--great talent and
+great humour being often combined in the one individual.
+
+The feeling for humour is ministered to in ornament by the grotesque,
+and the grotesque occurs in the works of almost all ages and all
+peoples. The ancient Egyptians employed it, so did the Assyrians, the
+Greeks, and the Romans; but none of these nations used it to the
+extent of the artists of the Celtic, Byzantine, and "Gothic" periods.
+Hideous "evil spirits" were portrayed on the outside of almost every
+Christian edifice at one time, and much of the Celtic ornament
+produced by the early monks consisted of an anastomosis, or network,
+of grotesque creatures.
+
+The old Irish crosses were enriched with this kind of
+ornamentation,[9] and some of the decorative embellishments of these
+works are of extraordinary interest; but those who have access to the
+beautiful work of Professor Westwood on Celtic manuscripts will there
+see this grotesque form of ornament to perfection. As regards the
+Eastern nations, while nearly all have employed the grotesque as an
+element of decorative art, the Chinese and Japanese have employed it
+most largely, and for it they manifest a most decided partiality. The
+drawings of dragons, celestial lions (always spotted), mythical birds,
+beasts, fishes, insects, and other supposed inhabitants of the Elysian
+plains, which these people produce, are most interesting and
+extraordinary.
+
+[9] Casts of one or two of these can be seen in the central transept
+of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.
+
+Without in any way going into a history of the grotesque, let us look
+at the characteristic forms which it has assumed, and what is
+necessary to its successful production. We have said that the
+grotesque in ornament is the analogue of humour in literature. This is
+the case; but the grotesque may represent the truly horrible or
+repellent, and be simply repulsive. This form is so seldom required in
+ornamentation that I shall not dwell upon it, and when required it
+should always be associated with power; for if the horrible is feeble
+it cannot be corrective, but only revolting, like a miserable deformed
+animal.
+
+I think it may be taken as a principle, that the further the grotesque
+is removed from an imitation of a natural object the better it is,
+provided that it be energetic and vigorous--lifelike. Nothing is worse
+than a feeble joke, unless it be a feeble grotesque. The amusing must
+appear to be earnest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+In connection with this subject I give here a series of grotesques,
+with the view of illustrating my meaning, and I would fain give more,
+but space will not permit me to do so.
+
+The initial letter S, formed of a bird, is a characteristic Celtic
+grotesque (Fig. 17). It is quaint and interesting, and is sufficiently
+unlike a living creature to avoid giving any sense of pain to the
+beholder, while it is yet in a most unnatural position. It is, in
+truth, rather an ornament than a copy of a living creature, yet it is
+so suggestive as to call forth the thought of a bird. It should be
+noticed, in connection with this figure, that the interstices between
+certain portions of the creature are filled by a knot. This is
+well--the whole thing; being an ornament, and not a naturalistic
+representation.
+
+Fig. 18 is a Siamese grotesque head, and a fine sample it is of the
+curious form of ornament which it represents. Mark, it is in no way a
+copy of a human head, but is a true ornament, with its parts so
+arranged as to call up the idea of a face, and nothing more. Notice
+the volutes forming the chin; the grotesque, yet highly ornamental,
+lines forming the mouth and the upper boundary of the forehead, and
+the flambeauant ears; the whole thing is worthy of the most careful
+study.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+Fig. 19 is a Gothic foliated face; but here we have features which are
+much too naturalistic. We have, indeed, only a hideous human face with
+a marginal excrescence of leafage. This is a type to be avoided; it is
+not droll, nor quaint; but is simply unpleasant to look upon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+Fig. 20 is a fish, with the feeling of the grotesques of the Middle
+Ages. It is a good type, being truly ornamental, and yet sufficiently
+suggestive.
+
+In order that I convey to the reader a fuller idea of my views
+respecting the grotesque than I otherwise could, I have sketched one
+or two original illustrations--Fig. 21 being suggestive of a face,
+Fig. 22 of a skeleton (old bogey), and Fig. 23 of an impossible
+animal. They are intentionally far from imitative. If naturalistic
+some would awaken a sense of pain, as they are contorted into curious
+positions, whereas that which induces no thought of feeling induces no
+sense of pain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+Of all grotesques with which I am acquainted, the dragons of the
+Chinese and Japanese are those which represent a combination of power,
+vigour, energy, and passion most fully. This is to be accounted for by
+the fact that these peoples are believers in dragons. When the sun or
+moon is eclipsed they believe that the luminous orb has been swallowed
+by some fierce monster, which they give form to in the dragon, and
+upon the occurrence of such a phenomenon they, with cans and kettles,
+make rough music, and thus cause the monster to disgorge the luminary,
+the brilliancy of which it would otherwise have for ever extinguished.
+I can understand a believer in dragons drawing these monsters with the
+power and spirit that the Chinese and Japanese do; but I can scarcely
+imagine that a disbeliever could do so--a man's very nature must be
+saturated with a belief in their existence and mischievous power, in
+order that he embody in his delineation such expression of the
+assumed character of this imaginary creature as do the Chinese and
+Japanese.
+
+Although I am not now considering the structure of objects, I may say
+that the grotesque should frequently be used where we meet with
+naturalistic imitations. We not unfrequently see a figure, naturally
+imitated, placed as a support to a superincumbent weight--a female
+figure as an architectural pillar bearing the weight of the
+entablature above, men crouched in the most painful positions
+supporting the bowl of some colossal fountain. Naturalistic figures in
+such positions are simply revolting, however perfect as works of
+sculpture. If weight has to be supported by that which has a
+resemblance to a living creature of any kind, the semblance should
+only be suggested; and the more unreal and woodeny (if I may make such
+a word) the support, if possessing the quaintness and humour of a true
+grotesque, the better.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+It is not the business of the ornamentist to produce that which shall
+induce the feeling of continued pain, unless there is some exceptional
+reason for his so doing, and such a reason is of rare occurrence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+COLOUR.
+
+
+Having considered some of the chief principles involved in the
+production of decorative design so far as "expression" goes, we come
+to notice that constant adjunct of form which has ever played an
+important part in all decorative schemes--namely, colour.
+
+Form can exist independently of colour, but it never has had any
+important development without the chromatic adjunct. From a
+consideration of history, we should be led to conclude that form alone
+is incapable of yielding such enrichments as satisfy; for no national
+system of decoration has ever existed in the absence of colour. Mere
+outline-form may be good, but it is not satisfying; mere light and
+shade may be pleasing, but it is not all that we require. With form
+our very nature seems to demand colour; and it is only when we get
+well-proportioned forms which are graceful, or noble, or vigorous, in
+combination with colours harmoniously arranged, that we are satisfied.
+
+Possibly this feeling results from our contact with nature. The
+flowers appear in a thousand hues, and the hills are of ever-varying
+tints. What a barren world ours would appear, were the ground, the
+hills, the trees and the flowers, the sky and the waters all of one
+colour! Form we should have, and that in its richest variety; light
+and shade we should have, with ever-varying intensity and change; but
+colour would be gone. There would be no green to cheer, no blue to
+soothe, no red to excite; and, indeed, there would be a deadness,
+although the world be full of life, so appalling that we can scarcely
+conceive of it, and cannot _feel_ it.
+
+Colour alone seems to have greater charms than form alone. A sunset is
+entrancing when the sky glows with radiant hues; the blue is almost
+lost in red, the yellow is as a sea of transparent gold, and the whole
+presents a variety and blending of tints which charm, and soothe, and
+lull to reverie; and yet all form is indistinct and obscure. If so
+charming when separate from form, what is colour when properly
+combined with beautiful shapes? It is difficult, indeed, for many of
+those for whom I write to answer this question, even by a mental
+conception, save by reference to nature; for I could scarcely point to
+a single building in England which would be in any way a satisfactory
+illustration of what may be done by the combination of forms and
+colours. There is a beauty in Art which we in England do not even know
+of: it does not exist around us, it is little talked of, rarely
+thought about, and never seen. A decorator is called in to beautify a
+house, and yet not one in fifty of the so-called decorators know even
+the first principles of their art, and would not believe were they
+told of the power of the art which they employ. They place on the
+walls a few sickly tints--so pale that their want of harmony is not
+very apparent. The colours of the wall become the colours of the
+cornice and of the doors, because they know not how to produce a
+harmony of hues; and the result is a house which may be clean, but
+which is in every other respect an offence against good taste. I do
+not wonder that persons here in England do not care to have their
+houses "decorated," nor do I wonder at their not appreciating the
+"decorations" when they are done. Colour, lovely colour, of itself
+would make our rooms charming.
+
+There are few objects to which colour may not be applied, and many
+articles which are now colourless might be coloured with advantage.
+Our reasons for applying colour to objects are twofold, and here, in
+fact, we see its true use. 1st. Colour lends to objects a new charm--a
+charm which they would not possess if without it; and, 2nd, Colour
+assists in the separation of objects and parts of objects, and thus
+gives assistance to form. These, then, are the two objects of colour.
+Mark, first, it is to bestow on objects a charm, such as they could
+not have in its absence. In the hands of the man of knowledge it will
+do so--it will make an object lovely or lovable, but the mere
+application of colour will not do this. Colour may be so applied to
+objects as to render them infinitely more ugly than they were without
+it. I have seen many a bowl so coloured at our potteries as to be much
+less satisfactory when coloured than when white--the colouring having
+marred, rather than improved, its general effect. Here, again, it is
+knowledge that we want. Knowledge will enable us to transmute base
+materials into works of marvellous beauty, worth their weight in gold.
+Knowledge, then, is the true philosopher's stone; for, we may almost
+say, if possessed by the artist it does enable him to transmute the
+baser metals into gold. But a little knowledge will not do this. In
+order that we produce true beauty, we require much knowledge, and this
+can only be got by constant and diligent labour, as I have before
+said; but the end to be gained is worth the plodding toil. Believe me,
+there is a pleasure in seeing your works develop as things of beauty,
+delighting all who see them--not the illiterate only, but also the
+educated thinker--such as words fail to express. Although there is no
+royal road to art-power, and although the road is long, and lies
+through much toil and many difficulties, yet as you proceed there is
+pleasure in feeling that one obstacle after another is cleared from
+your path, and at the end there is inexpressible satisfaction. The
+second object of colour is that of assisting in the separation of
+form. If objects are placed near to one another, and these objects are
+all of the same colour, the beholder will have much more difficulty in
+seeing the boundaries or terminations of each than he would were they
+variously coloured; he would have to come nearer to them in order to
+see the limits of each, were all coloured in the same manner, than he
+would were they variously coloured; thus colour assists in the
+separation of form. This quality which colour has of separating forms
+is often lost sight of, and much confusion thereby results. If it is
+worth while to produce a decorative form, it is worth while to render
+it visible; and yet, how much ornament, and even good ornament, is
+lost to the eye through not being rendered manifest by colour! Colour
+is the means by which we render form apparent.
+
+Colours, when placed together, can only please and satisfy the
+educated when combined harmoniously, or according to the laws of
+harmony. What, then, are the laws which govern the arrangement of
+colours? and how are they to be applied? We shall endeavour to answer
+these questions by making a series of statements in axiomatic form,
+and then we shall enlarge upon these propositions.
+
+
+GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
+
+1. Regarded from an art point of view, there are but three
+colours--_i.e._, blue, red, and yellow.
+
+2. Blue, red, and yellow have been termed _primary_ colours; they
+cannot be formed by the admixture of any other colours.
+
+3. All colours, other than blue, red, and yellow, result from the
+admixture of the primary colours.
+
+4. By the admixture of blue and red, purple is formed; by the
+admixture of red and yellow, orange is formed; and by the admixture of
+yellow and blue, green is formed.
+
+5. Colours resulting from the admixture of two primary colours are
+termed _secondary_: hence purple, orange, and green are secondary
+colours.
+
+6. By the admixture of two secondary colours a _tertiary_ colour is
+formed: thus, purple and orange produce russet (the red tertiary);
+orange and green produce citrine (the yellow tertiary); and green and
+purple, olive (the blue tertiary); russet, citrine, and olive are the
+three tertiary colours.
+
+
+CONTRAST.
+
+7. When a light colour is juxtaposed to a dark colour, the light
+colour appears lighter than it is, and the dark colour darker.[10]
+
+[10] If a dark grey tint be mixed upon a white slab it will appear
+dark in contrast with the white, but if a small portion of this same
+grey is applied to black paper it will appear almost white.
+
+8. When colours are juxtaposed, they become influenced as to their
+hue. Thus, when red and green are placed side by side, the red appears
+redder than it actually is, and the green greener; and when blue and
+black are juxtaposed, the blue manifests but little alteration, while
+the black assumes an orange tint or becomes "rusty."
+
+9. No one colour can be viewed by the eye without another being
+created. Thus, if red is viewed, the eye creates for itself green, and
+this green is cast upon whatever is near. If it views green, red is
+in like manner created and cast upon adjacent objects; thus, if red
+and green are juxtaposed, each creates the other in the eye, and the
+red created by the green is cast upon the red, and the green created
+by the red is cast upon the green; and the red and the green become
+improved by being juxtaposed. The eye also demands the presence of the
+three primary colours, either in their purity or in combination and if
+these are not present, whatever is deficient will be created in the
+eye, and this induced colour will be cast upon whatever is near. Thus,
+when we view blue, orange, which is a mixture of red and yellow, is
+created in the eye, and this colour is cast upon whatever is near; if
+black is in juxtaposition with the blue, this orange is cast upon it,
+and gives to it an orange tint, thus causing it to look "rusty."
+
+10. In like manner, if we look upon red, green is formed in the eye,
+and is cast upon adjacent colours; or, if we look upon yellow, purple
+is formed.
+
+
+HARMONY.
+
+11. Harmony results from an agreeable contrast.
+
+12. Colours which perfectly harmonise improve one another to the
+utmost.
+
+13. In order to perfect harmony, the three colours are necessary,
+either in their purity or in combination.
+
+14. Red and green combine to yield a harmony. Red is a primary colour,
+and green, which is a secondary colour, consists of blue and
+yellow--the other two primary colours. Blue and orange also produce a
+harmony, and yellow and purple, for in each ease the three primary
+colours are present.
+
+15. It has been found that the primary colours in perfect purity
+produce exact harmonies in the proportions of eight parts of blue, 5
+of red, and 3 of yellow; that the secondary colours harmonise in the
+proportions of 13 of purple, 11 of green, and 8 of orange; and that
+the tertiary colours harmonise in the proportions of olive 24, russet
+21, and citrine 19.
+
+16. There are, however, subtleties of harmony which it is difficult to
+understand.
+
+17. The rarest harmonies frequently lie close on the verge of discord.
+
+18. Harmony of colour is, in many respects, analogous to harmony of
+musical sounds.
+
+
+QUALITIES OF COLOURS.
+
+19. Blue is a cold colour, and appears to recede from the eye.
+
+20. Red is a warm colour, and is exciting; it remains stationary as to
+distance.
+
+21. Yellow is the colour most nearly allied to light; it appears to
+advance towards the spectator.
+
+22. At twilight blue appears much lighter than it is, red much darker,
+and yellow slightly darker. By ordinary gaslight blue becomes darker,
+red brighter, and yellow lighter. By this artificial light a pure
+yellow appears lighter than white itself, when viewed in contrast with
+certain other colours.
+
+23. By certain combinations colour may make glad or depress, convey
+the idea of purity, richness, or poverty, or may affect the mind in
+any desired manner, as does music.
+
+
+TEACHINGS OF EXPERIENCE.
+
+24. When a colour is placed on a gold ground, it should be outlined
+with a darker shade of its own colour.
+
+25. When a gold ornament falls on a coloured ground, it should be
+outlined with black.
+
+26. When an ornament falls on a ground which is in direct harmony with
+it, it must be outlined with a lighter tint of its own colour. Thus,
+when a red ornament falls on a green ground, the ornament must be
+outlined with a lighter red.
+
+27. When the ornament and the ground are in two tints of the same
+colour, if the ornament is darker than the ground, it will require
+outlining with a still darker tint of the same colour; but if lighter
+than the ground no outline will be required.
+
+
+ANALYTICAL TABLES OF COLOUR.
+
+When commencing my studies both in science and art, I found great
+advantage from reducing all facts to a tabular form so far as
+possible, and this mode of study I would recommend to others. To me
+this method appears to have great advantages, for by it we see at a
+glance what otherwise is difficult to understand; if carefully done,
+it becomes an analysis of work; and by preparing these tabular
+arrangements of facts the subject becomes impressed on the mind, and
+the relation of one fact to another, or of one part of a scheme to
+another, is seen.
+
+The following analytical tables will illustrate many of the facts
+stated in our propositions. The figures which follow the colours
+represent the proportions in which they harmonise:--
+
+    _Primary Colours._    _Secondary Colours._    _Tertiary Colours._
+     Blue           8      Purple          13      Olive          24
+     Red            5      Green           11      Russet         21
+     Yellow         3      Orange           8      Citrine        19
+
+    _Primary Colours._  _Secondary Colours._    _Tertiary Colours._
+     Red        5 }
+                  }   Orange       8 }
+     Yellow     3 }                  }
+                                     }   Citrine, or Yellow Tertiary  19
+     Blue       8 }                  }
+                  }   Green       11 }
+     Yellow     3 }
+
+     Blue       8 }
+                  }   Purple      13 }
+     Red        5 }                  }
+                                     }   Russet, or Red Tertiary      21
+     Red        5 }                  }
+                  }   Orange       8 }
+     Yellow     3 }
+
+     Blue       8 }
+                  }   Green       11 }
+     Yellow     3 }                  }
+                                     }   Olive, or Blue Tertiary      24
+     Blue       8 }                  }
+                  }   Purple      13 }
+     Red        5 }
+
+This latter table shows at a glance how each of the secondary and
+tertiary colours is formed, and the proportions in which they
+harmonise. It also shows why the three tertiary colours are called
+respectively the yellow tertiary, the red tertiary, and the blue
+tertiary, for into each tertiary two equivalents[11] of one primary
+enter, and one equivalent of each of the other primaries. Thus, in
+citrine we find two equivalents of yellow, and one each of red and
+blue; hence it is the yellow tertiary. In russet we find two
+equivalents of red, and one each of blue and of yellow; and in olive
+two of blue, and one each of red and yellow. Hence they are
+respectively the red and blue tertiaries.
+
+[11] An equivalent of blue is 8, of red 5, of yellow 3.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+Figs 24 and 25 are diagrams of harmony. I have connected in the
+centre, by three similar lines, the colours which form a harmony;
+thus, blue, red, and yellow harmonise when placed together. Purple,
+green, and orange also harmonise (I have connected them by dotted
+lines in the first of the two diagrams). But when two colours are to
+produce a harmony, the one will be a primary colour, and the other a
+secondary formed of the other two primary colours (for the presence of
+the three primary colours is necessary to a harmony), or the one will
+be a secondary, and the other a tertiary colour formed of the two
+remaining secondary colours. Such harmonies I have placed opposite to
+each other; thus blue, a primary, harmonises with orange, a secondary;
+yellow with purple; and red with green; and the secondary colour is
+placed between the two primary colours of which it is formed; thus,
+orange is formed of red and yellow, between which it stands; green, of
+blue and yellow; and purple, of blue and red. In the second of the two
+diagrams we see that purple, green, and orange produce a harmony, so
+do olive, russet, and citrine. We also see that purple and citrine
+harmonise, and green and russet, and orange and olive.
+
+Continuing this diagrammatic form of illustration, we may set forth
+the quantities in which the various colours harmonise: thus:--
+
+    _Blue._        _Red._        _Yellow._
+    O O O O       O O O O         O O O
+    O O O O       O
+
+    _Blue._                      _Orange._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+
+    _Red._                       _Green._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O                             O O O O
+                                  O O O
+
+    _Yellow._                    _Purple._
+    O O O      harmonises with    O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O
+
+    _Purple._                    _Citrine._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+    O                             O O O O
+                                  O O O
+
+    _Green._                     _Russet._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+    O O O                         O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O
+
+    _Orange._                    _Olive._
+    O O O O    harmonises with    O O O O
+    O O O O                       O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+                                  O O O O
+
+To those who are about to practise ornamentation, it is very important
+that they have in the mind's eye a tolerably accurate idea of the
+relative quantities of the various colours necessary to harmony, even
+where the colours are considered as existing in a state of absolute
+purity. We have rarely, however, to use the brightest blues, reds, and
+yellows which pigments furnish, and even these are but poor
+representatives of the potent colours of light as seen in the rainbow,
+and with the agency of the prism; nevertheless, a knowledge of the
+quantities in which these pure colours harmonise is very desirable.
+The proportions in which we have stated that colours perfectly
+harmonise, and in which the primary colours combine to form the
+secondaries, and the secondaries the tertiaries, are given in respect
+to the colours of light, and not of pigments or paints, which, as we
+have just said, are more or less base representatives of the pure
+colours of light. Yet certain pigments may, for our purpose, be
+regarded as representing pure colours. Thus, the purest real
+ultramarine we will regard as blue (cobalt is rather green, that is,
+it has a little yellow in it, and the French and German ultramarines
+are generally rather purple, or have a little red in them, yet the
+best of these latter is a tolerably pure colour), the purest French
+carmine as red (common carmine is frequently rather crimson, that is,
+has blue in it; vermilion is much too yellow), and lemon-chrome as
+yellow (the chrome selected must be without any green shade, and
+without any orange shade, however slight); and these pigments will be
+found to represent the colours of the prism as nearly as any that can
+be found. I would recommend the learner to get a small quantity of
+these colours in their powder form, substituting the best pale German
+ultramarine for real ultramarine, as the latter is of high price,[12]
+and to fill the various circles of our diagrams, which represent the
+primary colours, with these pigments, mixing them with a little
+dissolved gum arabic and water--just ufficient to prevent the colours
+from rubbing off the paper. The secondary colours will be fairly
+represented by pale-green lake, often called drop-green, by
+orange-chrome--that of about the colour of a ripe, rather
+deep-coloured, orange-rind--and the purple by the admixture of pale
+German ultramarine and crimson-lake, in about equal proportions, with
+a little white to bring it to the same depth as the green. I cannot
+name any pigments which would well represent the tertiary colours.
+Citrine is about the colour of candied _lemon_-peel; olive about the
+colour of candied citron-peel, and russet is often seen on the skin of
+certain apples called "russet apples," in the form of a slight
+roughness; but this russet is in many cases not quite sufficiently red
+to represent the colour bearing the same name. Iron rust is rather too
+yellow. This colour should bear the same relation to red that the
+candied lemon-peel does to yellow.
+
+[12] Real ultramarine is sold at L8 per ounce. The best imitation, or
+German ultramarine, is procurable at any oil-shop at about 3s. to 4s.
+per pound. The best carmine should be procurable at 6s. per ounce, but
+artists' colourmen often charge L1 1s., owing to the small demand for
+this pigment. The best chrome yellow (chrome yellow is kept in many
+shades) is about 1s. 6d. per pound.
+
+If the student will try carefully to realise these colours, and will
+fill up the circles in our diagrams with them, he will thereby be much
+assisted in his studies; but it will be still better if he prepare
+fresh diagrams on a larger scale, and use squares instead of circles.
+I should recommend, and that I do strongly, that the student work out
+all the diagrams which I have suggested on a tolerably large scale,
+using the colours where I have used words. I should also advise him to
+do an ornament, say in red on a gold ground, and outline this red
+ornament with a deeper red; to do a gold ornament on a coloured
+ground, and outline it with black; and indeed to carefully work out an
+ornamental illustration of our propositions, Nos. 24, 25, 26, and 27,
+and to keep these before him till he is so impressed by them as to
+_feel_ the principle which they set forth. This should be done on a
+large scale in all our designing-rooms and art-workshops.
+
+As we shall have to refer to colours by naming pigments, and as I am
+constantly asked what pigments I employ, I shall enumerate the paints
+in my colour-box; but I shall place a dagger against those which I
+have in my private box, and which I do not supply in my offices; but
+these I seldom use. Of yellows I have [14]king's yellow (not a permanent
+colour), [14]very pale chrome, lemon-chrome (about the colour of a ripe
+lemon), middle-chrome (half-way between the lemon and orange-chrome),
+orange-chrome (about the colour of the rind of a ripe orange),
+[14]yellow-lake, [14]Indian yellow. Of reds--vermilion, carmine,
+crimson-lake. Of blues--[14]cobalt, German ultramarine, both deep and
+pale, Antwerp blue, indigo. Of greens--emerald, green-lake, pale and
+deep. Of browns--raw Turkey umber, vandyke, Venetian red,
+purple-brown, brown-lake. Besides these I have what is called
+celestial blue, which is a very pure and intense turquoise, vegetable
+black, flake white, and gold bronze.[13]
+
+[13] Some of these colours are not of a permanent character and could
+not be used in work intended to be lasting. I use them for patterns
+for our manufactures, where when the drawing is once copied in a
+fabric it is destroyed. Some of the brightest colours are
+unfortunately the most fleeting.
+
+There are certain facts connected with the mixing of colours which
+must never be lost sight of; thus, while the colours of light
+co-mingle without any deterioration, or loss of brilliancy, pigments
+or paints will not do so, but by admixture tend to destroy one
+another. This takes place only to a small extent when but two primary
+colours are combined; but if any of the third primary enters into the
+composition of a tint, a decided deterioration, or loss of intensity,
+occurs.
+
+For this reason we employ many pigments, so as to avoid as far as
+possible the mixing of colours. But there is another reason why the
+great admixture of colours is undesirable. Colours are chemical
+agents, and in some cases the various pigments act chemically on one
+another. Of all colours yellows suffer most by admixture with other
+colours: but this is accounted for by their delicacy and purity. For
+this reason I use a greater variety of yellow pigments than of red or
+blue.[14]
+
+[14] Of all mediums in which colours can be mixed, paraffine is the
+safest; it is without chemical affinities, and is therefore well
+calculated to preserve pigments in their original condition.
+
+Were it possible to procure three pigments devoid of chemical
+affinities, and each of the same physical constitution, as of equal
+degrees of transparency or opacity, one truly representing the blue of
+light, another the red, and another the yellow, we should need no
+others, for of these we could form all other colours; but as no
+pigments come even near to the fulfilment of these conditions, we have
+to employ roundabout and clumsy methods of arriving at desired
+results.
+
+There is one statement which I have made that, perhaps, needs a little
+elucidation, although the careful student may have seen the reason of
+my assertion. I said that purple harmonised with citrine, green with
+russet, and orange with olive. I might have expressed it (and many
+would have done so) thus:--The complement of citrine is purple, the
+complement of russet is green, and the complement of olive is orange.
+A colour which is complementary to any other is that which, with it,
+completes the presence of the three primary colours: thus green is the
+complement of red, and red of green, for each, together with the
+colour to which it is the complement, completes the presence of the
+three colours. But in order to a harmony, the complement must be made
+up in certain proportions. Let us now refer to our second diagrammatic
+table, and we there see that citrine is formed of two equivalents of
+yellow and only one equivalent of red and of blue. Now, in order to a
+harmony, each primary should be present in two equivalents, as one is
+present in this quantity--_i.e._, the yellow. One equivalent of blue
+and one of red (both of which are wanting in the citrine) form purple;
+hence purple is the complement of citrine, or the colour that with it
+produces a harmony. In russet one equivalent of blue and one of yellow
+are wanting, and these in combination are green--green, then, is the
+complement of russet. And in olive one equivalent of red and one of
+yellow are wanting--red and yellow form orange, hence orange is the
+complement of olive.
+
+I have spoken of all colours as of full intensity and purity, but we
+have to deal also with other conditions. All colours may be darkened
+by black, when _shades_ are produced; or reduced by white, when
+_tints_ are produced. Besides these alterations in intensity, a
+portion of one colour may be added to another. Thus, if a small
+portion of blue be mingled with red, the red becomes a crimson or
+blue-red; or if a small portion of yellow be added to the red, the
+latter becomes a scarlet or yellow-red. In like manner, when yellow is
+in excess in a green, we have a yellow-green; or when blue is in
+excess, a blue-green; and so with the other colours. Such alterations
+produce _hues_ of colour.
+
+We now come to the subtleties of harmony. Thus, if we have a
+yellow-red or scarlet--a red with yellow in it--the green that will
+harmonise with it will be a blue-green; or if we have a blue-red or
+crimson--a red with blue in it--the green that will harmonise with it
+will be a yellow-green. This is obvious, for the following
+reasons:--Let us suppose a red represented by the equivalent number,
+five, with one part of blue added to it, thus causing it to be a
+blue-red or crimson. Were the red pure, there should be eleven parts
+of green as a complement to the five of red, of which green eight
+parts would be blue and three yellow; but the blue-red occurs in six
+parts, one of which is blue--there are, then, but seven parts of blue
+remaining in the equivalent quantity to combine with the three of
+yellow, one being already used; hence the green formed is a
+yellow-green, one of the equivalents of blue necessary to the
+formation of a true green being already in combination with the red,
+and thus absent from the green.
+
+The same reasoning will apply to the scarlet-red and blue-green, and,
+indeed, to all similar cases; but to take the case of the crimson-red
+and yellow-green, as just given, and carry it a stage further, we
+might add two parts (out of the eight) of blue to the red, and make it
+more blue, and then form the complementary green of six parts of blue
+and three of yellow, and thus make it more yellow. Or we may go
+further still, and add to the red six of the eight parts of blue, when
+the admixture would appear as a red-purple rather than as a blue-red,
+in which case the complementary green--or, rather, green-yellow--would
+consist of two parts of blue and three of yellow. These facts are
+diagrammatically expressed in the following:--
+
+  Red     O O O O O }                 Yellow  {         O O O Yellow
+                    } Crimson harmonises with {
+  Blue            O }                  Green  { O O O O O O O Blue
+
+                                      Or,
+
+  Red     O O O O O }  Blue            Very   {        O O O Yellow
+                    }  harmonises with Yellow {
+  Blue          O O }  Crimson         Green  {  O O O O O O Blue
+
+                                      Or,
+
+  Red.    O O O O O }  Red             Green  {        O O O Yellow
+                    }  harmonises with        {
+  Blue. O O O O O O }  Purple    Yellow       {          O O Blue
+
+In all these cases it will be seen that we have eight parts of blue,
+five of red, and three of yellow, only the mode of combination varies.
+This variation may occur to any extent, provided the totals of each be
+always the equivalent proportions.
+
+These remarks will apply equally to hues of colour, shades, and tints,
+and to shades and tints of hues.
+
+Care, and a little practice, will enable the learner to arrange
+colours into a number of degrees of depth, or shades, as they are
+generally called. (We do not here use the term as signifying pure
+colours darkened with black.) Ten shades of each colour differing
+obviously in degree of depth can readily be arranged by the
+experienced, the ten shades being equidistant from each other as
+regards depth--that is, shade 3 will be as much darker than shade 2 as
+shade 2 is darker than shade 1, and so on throughout the whole. Purple
+is a colour intermediate between blue and red. Imagine ten hues
+between the purple and the red, and ten more between the purple and
+the blue: thus we should have purple, then a slightly red purple, then
+a rather redder purple, then a purple still redder, and so on till we
+get purple-reds, and finally the pure red; and the same variations of
+hue at the blue side also. Imagine, further, the green having ten hues
+extending towards the blue, and ten more stretching towards the
+yellow; and the orange having ten hues towards the red, and ten
+towards the yellow--in all cases I count the colour from which we
+start as one of the ten, thus:--
+
+    Blue                     Purple                     Red
+    0  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  0
+
+--and we shall have 54 colours and hues of colour. Of each of these 54
+colours and hues imagine 10 degrees of depth, and we get 540 colours,
+hues, tints, and shades, all differing from one another to an obvious
+degree.
+
+Mark this fact, that any colour, tint, hue, or shade of such a diagram
+has its complement in one other of the colours, tints, hues, or shades
+of the diagram, and that only two of this series of 540 are
+complementary to each other; thus, if you fix on any one colour of the
+540, there is but one colour in the whole that is complementary to it,
+and it is complementary to but this one other colour.
+
+The student will do well to try and make a colour-diagram of this
+kind, of a simple character, say such as the following, only using
+pigments for my numbers; but in doing so he must exercise the utmost
+care, in order that he secure some degree of accuracy of tint or
+shade, and if he can call to his aid an experienced colourist it will
+be of great assistance to him.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This table is highly valuable, as it gives ninety harmonies, if
+carefully prepared in colour; and the preparation of such a table is
+the very best practice that a student can possibly have.
+
+Let us for a moment consider this table, and suppose that we want to
+find the complement to some particular colour, as the third shade of
+red. We find the complement of this in the third shade of green
+opposite. If we want the complement of the second shade of
+orange-yellow, we find it in the second shade of blue-purple opposite,
+and so on. Thus we have a means of at once judging of the harmony of
+colours.
+
+It must ever be borne in mind that pigments mixed in the proportions
+given will not yield results such as would occur when the coloured
+rays of light are combined; thus three parts, either by weight or
+measure, of chrome yellow when combined with eight parts of
+ultramarine would not form a colour representing the secondary green,
+nor would the result be more satisfactory were other pigments combined
+in the proportions given. What we have said in respect to the
+proportions in which colours combine to form new colours applies only
+to the coloured rays of light.
+
+It must now be noticed that while colours harmonise in the proportions
+stated, the areas occupied by the different colours may vary if there
+be a corresponding alteration in intensity. Thus eight of blue and
+eight of orange form a perfect harmony when both colours are of
+prismatic intensity; but we shall still have a perfect harmony if the
+orange is diluted to one-half its strength with white, and thus formed
+into a tint, provided there be sixteen parts of this orange of half
+strength to the eight parts of blue of full strength.
+
+The orange might be further diluted to one-third of its full power,
+but then twenty-four parts would be necessary to a perfect harmony
+with eight parts of prismatic blue; or to one-fourth of its strength,
+when thirty-two parts would be necessary to the harmony.
+
+It is not desirable that I occupy space with diagrams of these
+quantities, but the industrious student will prepare them for himself,
+and will strive to realise a true half-tint, quarter-tint, etc., which
+is not a very easy thing to do. By practice, however, it will readily
+be accomplished, and anything achieved is a new power gained.
+
+What I have said respecting the harmony of blue with tints of orange
+will apply in all similar cases. Thus red will harmonise with tints of
+green, provided the area of the tint be increased as the intensity is
+decreased; and so will yellow harmonise with tints of purple under
+similar conditions.
+
+But we may reverse the conditions, and lower the primary to a tint
+retaining the secondary in its intensity. Thus blue, if reduced to a
+half-tint, will harmonise with orange of prismatic intensity in the
+proportion of sixteen of blue to eight of orange; or, if reduced to a
+quarter-tint, in the proportion oL thirty-two of blue to eight of
+orange. Red, if reduced to a half-tint, will harmonise in the
+proportion of ten red to eleven of green; and yellow as a half-tint in
+the proportion of six yellow to thirteen of purple.
+
+The same remarks might be made respecting the harmony of shades of
+colour with colours of prismatic intensity. Thus, if orange is diluted
+to a shade of half intensity with black, it will harmonise with pure
+blue in the proportion of sixteen of orange to eight of blue, and so
+on, just as in the case of tints; and this principle applies to the
+harmony of all hues of colour also.
+
+To go one step further: we scarcely ever deal with pure colours or
+their shades or tints, or even come as near them as we can. With great
+intensity of colour we seem to require an ethereal character, such as
+we have in those of light; but our pigments are coarse and
+earthy--they are too real-looking, and are not ethereal--they may be
+said to be corporeal rather than spiritual in character. For this
+reason we have to avoid the use of our purest pigments in such
+quantities as render their poverty of nature manifest, and to use for
+large surfaces such tints as, through their subtlety of composition,
+interest and please. A tint the composition of which is not apparent
+is always preferable to one of more obvious formation. Thus we are led
+to use tints which are subtly formed, and such as please by their
+newness and bewilder by the intricacy of formation.
+
+To do what I here mean it is not necessary that many pigments be mixed
+together in order to the formation of a tint. The effect of which I
+speak can frequently be got by two well-chosen pigments. Thus a fine
+series of low-toned shades can be produced by mixing together
+middle-chrome and brown-lake in various proportions, and in all of the
+shades thus formed the three primary colours will be represented, but
+in some yellow will predominate, and in others red; while in many it
+will not be easy to discover to what proportionate extent the three
+primary colours are present.
+
+Let us suppose that we make a tint by adding white to cobalt blue.
+This blue contains a small amount of yellow, and is a slightly green
+blue. But to this tint we add a small amount of raw umber with the
+view of imparting a greyness[15] or atmospheric character. Raw umber
+is a neutral colour, leaning slightly to yellow--that is, it consists
+of red, blue, and yellow, with a slight excess of the latter. In order
+that an orange harmonise with this grey-blue of a slightly yellow
+tone, the orange must be slightly inclined to red, so as to form the
+complement of the little green formed by the yellow in the blue. It
+may harmonise with the grey-blue as a pure tint if the area of the
+diluted and neutralised primary is sufficiently extended, or may
+itself be likewise reduced to a tint of the same depth, when both
+tints would have the same area.
+
+[15] Cobalt, raw umber, and white make a magnificent grey, both in
+oil-colours, in tempera (powder-colours mixed with gum-water), and in
+distemper (powder-colours mixed with size).
+
+I might go on multiplying cases of this character to almost any
+extent, but these I leave the student to work out for himself, and
+pass to notice that while it is desirable to use subtle tints (often
+called "broken tints") it is rarely expedient to make up the full
+harmony by a large area of a tertiary tone and a single positive
+colour. Thus, we might have a shade or a tint of citrine spreading
+over a large surface as a ground on which we wished to place a figure.
+This figure would harmonise in pure purple were it of a certain size,
+and yet if thus coloured it would give a somewhat common-place effect
+when finished, for the harmony would be too simple and obvious. It
+would be much better to have the nineteen parts of citrine reduced,
+say, to half intensity, when the area would be increased to
+thirty-eight, with the figure of eight parts of blue and five of red,
+than of thirteen parts of purple.
+
+But it would be better still if there were the thirty-eight parts of
+reduced citrine, three parts of pure yellow, thirteen of purple, five
+of red, and eight of blue, together with white, black, or gold, or all
+three (these may be added without altering the conditions, as all act
+as neutrals), for here the harmony is of a more subtle character.
+
+If we count up the equivalents of the colours employed in this scheme
+of harmony, we shall see that we have, in the citrine--
+
+    Yellow  6 (two equivalents).
+    Blue    8 (one equivalent).
+    Red     5 (one equivalent).
+
+In the purple--
+
+    Blue    8 (one equivalent).
+    Red     5 (one equivalent).
+
+Of the pure colours--
+
+    Yellow  3 (one equivalent).
+    Red     5 (one equivalent).
+    Blue    8 (one equivalent).
+
+Thus we have three equivalents of each primary, which give a perfect
+harmony.
+
+I must not say more respecting the laws of harmony, for in the space
+of a small work it is impossible to do so, but proceed to notice
+certain effects or properties of colours, which I have as yet only
+alluded to, or have passed altogether unnoticed.
+
+I have said that black, white, and gold are neutral as regards colour.
+This is the case, although many would suppose that gold was a yellow.
+Gold will act as a yellow, but it is generally employed as a neutral
+in decorative work, and it is more of a neutral than a yellow, for
+both red and blue exist largely in it. The pictorial artist frames his
+picture with gold because it, being a neutral, does not interfere with
+the tints of his work. It has the further advantage of being rich and
+costly in appearance, and thus of giving an impression of worth where
+it exists.
+
+Black, white, and gold, being neutral, may be advantageously employed
+to separate colours where separation is necessary or desirable.
+
+Yellow and purple harmonise, but yellow is a light colour and purple
+is dark. These colours not only harmonise, but also contrast as to
+depth, the one being light and the other dark. The limit of each
+colour, wherever these are used in juxtaposition, is therefore
+obvious.
+
+It is not so with red and green, for these harmonise when of the same
+depth. This being the case, and red being a glowing colour, if a red
+object is placed on a green ground, or a green object on a red ground,
+the "figure" and ground will appear to "swim" together, and will
+produce a dazzling effect. Colour must assist form, and not confuse
+it. It will do this in the instance just named if the figure is
+outlined with black, white, or gold, and there will be no loss of
+harmony. But experience has shown that this effect can also be averted
+by outlining the figure with a lighter tint of its own colour. Thus,
+if the figure is red and the ground green, an outline of lighter red
+(pink) may be employed. (See Proposition 26, page 34.)
+
+A blue figure on a red ground (as ultramarine on carmine), or a red
+figure on a blue ground, will also produce this swimming and
+unsatisfactory effect, but this is again obviated by an outline of
+black, white, or gold.
+
+Employing the outline thus must not be regarded as a means of merely
+rendering what was actually unpleasant endurable, for it does much
+more--it affords one of the richest means of effect. A carmine ground
+well covered with bold green ornament having a gold outline is, if
+well managed, truly gorgeous; and were the figure blue on the red
+ground, the lavish use of gold would render the employment of yellow
+unnecessary as the yellow formed in the eye and cast upon the gold
+would satisfy all requirements.
+
+It is a curious fact that the eye will create any colour of which
+there is a deficiency. This it will do, but the colour so created is
+of little use to the composition unless white or gold is present; if,
+however, there be white or gold in the composition, the colour which
+is absent, or is insufficiently represented, will be formed in the eye
+and cast upon these neutrals, and the white or the gold, as the case
+may be, will assume the tint of the deficient or absent colour. (See
+Propositions 8 and 9, page 32.)
+
+While this occurs (and sometimes it occurs to a marked degree, as can
+be shown by experiment), it must not be supposed that a composition in
+which any element is wanting is as perfect as one which reveals no
+want. It is far otherwise; only Nature here comes to our assistance,
+and is content to help herself rather than endure our short-comings;
+but in the one case we give Nature the labour of completing the
+harmony; while in the other, all being prepared, we receive a sense of
+satisfaction and repose.
+
+In Proposition 8 we showed that when blue and black are juxtaposed,
+the black becomes "rusty," or assumes an orange tint; and in
+Proposition 9 we gave the cause of this effect. Let a blue spot be
+placed on a black silk necktie, and however black the silk, it will
+yet appear rusty. This is a fact; but we sometimes desire to employ
+blue on black, and wish the black to look black, and not an
+orange-black. How can we do this? Obviously by substituting for the
+black a very dark blue, as indigo. The bright blue spot induces orange
+(the complement of blue) in the eye. This orange, when cast upon
+black, causes the latter to look "rusty;" but if we place in the black
+an amount of blue sufficient to neutralise the orange cast upon it,
+the effect will be that of a jet-black.
+
+We have now considered those qualities of colour, and those laws of
+contrast and harmony, which may be said to be of the grosser sort; but
+we have scarcely touched on those considerations which pertain to
+special refinement or tenderness of effect. But let me close the part
+of my subject of which I have treated, by repeating a statement
+already made--a statement, let me say, which first led me to perceive
+really harmony of colour--that _those colours, and those particular
+hues of colour, which improve each other to the utmost, are those
+which perfectly harmonise_. (Consider this statement in connection
+with Propositions 8, 9, 10, and 14, pages 32 and 33.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We come now to consider delicacies and refinements in colour effects,
+which, although dependent upon the skilful exercise of the laws
+enunciated, are yet of a character, the power to produce which only
+results from the consideration of the works of the masters of great
+art-nations; but of these effects I can say little beyond pointing out
+what should be studied.
+
+This principle however I cannot pass without notice--namely, that the
+finest colour effects are those of a rich, mingled, bloomy character.
+
+Imagine a luxuriant garden, the beds in which are filled with a
+thousand flowers, having all the colours of the rainbow, and imagine
+these arranged as closely together as will permit of their growth.
+When viewed from a distance the effect is soft and rich, and full and
+varied, and is all that is pleasant. This is Nature's colouring. It is
+our work humbly to strive at producing like beauty with her.
+
+This leads me to notice that primary colours (and secondary colours,
+also, when of great intensity) should be used chiefly in small masses,
+together with gold, white, or black.
+
+Visit the Indian Museum at Whitehall,[16] and consider the beautiful
+Indian shawls and scarves and table-covers; or, if unable to do so,
+look in the windows of our large drapers in the chief towns, and see
+the true Indian fabrics,[17] and observe the manner in which small
+portions of intense reds, blues, yellows, greens, and a score of
+tertiary tints, are combined with white and black and gold to produce
+a very miracle of bloom. I know of nothing in the way of colour
+combination so rich, so beautiful, so gorgeous, and yet so soft, as
+some of these Indian shawls.
+
+[16] This museum is open free to the public.
+
+[17] These will only be seen in very first-class shops.
+
+It is curious that we never find a purely Indian work otherwise than
+in good taste as regards colour harmony. Indian works, in this
+respect--whether carpets, or shawls, or dress materials, or lacquered
+boxes, or enamelled weapons--are almost perfect--perfect in harmony,
+perfect in richness, perfect in the softness of their general effect.
+How strangely these works contrast with ours, where an harmonious work
+in colours is scarcely ever seen.
+
+By the co-mingling (not co-mixing) of colours in the manner just
+described, a rich and bloomy effect can be got, having the general
+tone of a tertiary colour of any desired hue. Thus, if a wall be
+covered with little ornamental flowerets, by colouring all alike, and
+letting each contain two parts of yellow and one part of blue and one
+of red, as separate and pure colours, the distant hue will be that of
+citrine: the same effect will result if the flowers are coloured
+variously, while the same proportions of the primaries are preserved
+throughout. I can conceive of no decorative effects more subtle, rich,
+and lovely than those of which I now speak.
+
+Imagine three rooms, all connected by open archways, and all decorated
+with a thousand flower-like ornaments, and these so coloured, in this
+mingled manner, that in one room blue predominates, in another red,
+and in another yellow; we should then have a beautiful tertiary bloom
+in each--a subtle mingling of colour, an exquisite delicacy and
+refinement of treatment, a fulness such as always results from a rich
+mingling of hues, and an amount of detail which would interest when
+closely inspected; besides which, we should have the harmony of the
+general effect of the three rooms, the one appearing as olive, another
+as citrine, and the other as russet.
+
+This mode of decoration has this advantage, that it not only gives
+richness and beauty, but it also gives purity. If pigments are mixed
+together they are thereby reduced in intensity, as we have already
+seen; but if placed side by side, when viewed from a distance the eye
+will mix them, but they will suffer no diminution of brilliancy.
+
+With the view of cultivating the eye, Eastern works cannot be too
+carefully studied. The Indian Museum should be the home of all who can
+avail themselves of the opportunity of study which it affords; and the
+small Indian department of the South Kensington Museum should not be
+neglected, small though it is.[18] Chinese works must also be
+considered, for they likewise supply most valuable examples of colour
+harmony; and although they do not present such a perfect colour bloom
+as do the works of India, yet they are never inharmonious, and give
+clearness and sharpness, together with great brilliancy, in a manner
+not attempted by the Indians.
+
+[18] It may not be generally known, but nearly all our large
+manufacturing towns have, in connection with the Chamber of Commerce,
+a collection of Indian fabrics, filling several large volumes, which
+were prepared, at the expense of Government, under the superintendence
+of Dr. Forbes Watson, and which were given to the various towns on the
+condition that they be accessible to all persons who are trustworthy.
+Although these collections do not embrace the costly decorated
+fabrics, yet much can be learned from them, and the combinations of
+colour are always harmonious. A much larger collection is now in
+course of formation.
+
+The best works of Chinese embroidery are rarely seen in this country;
+but these are unsurpassed by the productions of any other people. For
+richness, splendour, and purity of colour, together with a delicious
+coolness, I know of nothing to equal them.
+
+The works of the Japanese are not to be overlooked, for in certain
+branches of art they are inimitable, and as colourists they are almost
+perfect. On the commonest of their lacquer trays we generally have a
+bit of good colouring, and their coloured pictures are sometimes
+marvels of harmony.
+
+As to the styles of colouring adopted by the nations referred to, I
+should say that the Indians produce rich, mingled, bloomy, _warm_
+effects--that is, effects in which red and yellow prevail; that the
+Chinese achieve clearness, repose, and _coolness_--a form of colouring
+in which blue and white prevail; and that the Japanese effects are
+_warm_, simple, and quiet.
+
+Besides studying the works of India, China, and Japan, study those
+also of Turkey and Morocco, and even those of Algeria, for here the
+colouring is much better than with us, although not so good as in the
+countries first named. No aid to progress must be neglected, and no
+help must be despised.[19]
+
+[19] The South Kensington Museum has a very interesting collection of
+art-works from China and Japan; but the latter are chiefly lent. It is
+a strange thing that the perfect works of the East are so poorly
+illustrated in this national collection, while costly, yea, very
+costly works of inferior character, illustrative of Renaissance art,
+swarm as thickly as flies in August. This can only be accounted for by
+the fact that the heads of the institution have a feeling for
+pictorial rather than decorative art, and the Renaissance ornament is
+that which has most of the pictorial element. To me, the style appears
+to owe its very weakness to this fact, for decorative art should be
+wholly ideal. Pictorial art is of necessity more or less imitative.
+
+With the view of refining the judgment further in respect to colour,
+get a good colour-top,[20] and study its beautiful effects. See also
+the "gas tubes" illuminated by electricity, as sold by opticians, and
+let the prism yield you daily instruction. Soap-bubbles may also be
+blown, and the beautiful colours seen in them carefully noted. These
+and any other available means of cultivating the eye should constantly
+be resorted to, as by such means only can we become great colourists.
+
+[20] Not the so-called colour or "chameleon" top sold in the
+toy-shops, but the more scientific toy procurable of opticians,
+together with the perforated discs of Mr. John Graham, M.R.C.S., of
+Tunbridge, Kent.
+
+As to works on colour, we have the writings of Field, to whom we are
+indebted for valuable discoveries; of Hay, the decorator, and friend
+of the late David Roberts, but some of his ideas are wild and Utopian;
+of Chevreul, whose work will be most useful to the student; and the
+small catechism of colour by Mr. Redgrave, of the South Kensington
+Museum, which is excellent. The student will also do well to carefully
+study the excellent manual of "Colour" by Professor Church, of
+Cirencester College.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+FURNITURE.
+
+
+Having considered those principles which are of primary importance to
+the ornamentist, we may commence our notice of the various
+manufactures, and try to discover what particular form of art should
+be applied to each, and the special manner in which decorative
+principles should be considered as applicable to various materials and
+modes of working.
+
+We shall first consider furniture, or cabinet-work, because articles
+of furniture occupy a place of greater importance in a room than
+carpets, wall-papers, or, perhaps, any other decorative works; and,
+also, because we shall learn from a consideration of furniture those
+structural principles which will be of value to us in considering the
+manner in which all art-objects should be formed if they have solid,
+and not simply superficial, dimensions.
+
+In the present chapter, I shall strive to impress the fact that design
+and ornamentation may be essentially different things, and that in
+considering the formation of works of furniture these should be
+regarded as separate and distinct. "Design," says Redgrave, "has
+reference to the construction of any work both for use and beauty, and
+therefore includes its ornamentation also. Ornament is merely the
+decoration of a thing constructed."
+
+The construction of furniture will form the chief theme of this
+chapter, for unless such works are properly constructed they cannot
+possibly be useful, and if not useful they would fail to answer the
+end for which they were contrived.
+
+But before commencing a consideration of the principles involved in
+the construction of works of furniture, let me summarise what is
+required in such works if they are to assume the character of
+art-objects.
+
+1. The general form, or mass form, of all constructed works must be
+carefully considered. The aspect of the "sky-blotch" of an
+architectural edifice is very important, for as the day wanes the
+detail fades and parts become blended, till the members compose but
+one whole, which, when seen from the east, appears as a solid mass
+drawn in darkness on the glowing sky; this is the sky-blotch. If the
+edifice _en masse_ is pleasing, a great point is gained. Indeed, the
+general contour should have primary consideration. In like manner, the
+general form of all works of furniture should first be cared for, and
+every effort should be made at securing to the general mass beauty of
+shape.
+
+2. After having cared for the general form, the manner in which the
+work shall be divided into primary and secondary parts must be
+considered with reference to the laws of proportion, as stated in a
+former chapter.
+
+3. Detail and enrichment may now be considered; but while these cannot
+be too excellent, they must still be subordinate in obtrusiveness to
+the general mass, or to the aspect of the work as a whole.
+
+4. The material of which the object is formed must always be worked in
+the most natural and appropriate manner.
+
+5. The most convenient or appropriate form for an object should always
+be chosen, for unless this has been done, no reasonable hope can be
+entertained that the work will be satisfactory; for the consideration
+of utility must in all cases precede the consideration of beauty, as
+we saw in our first chapter.
+
+Having made these few general remarks, we must consider the structure
+of works of furniture. The material of which we form our furniture is
+wood. Wood has a "grain," and the strength of any particular piece
+largely depends upon the direction of its grain. It may be strong if
+its grain runs parallel with its length, or weak if the grain crosses
+diagonally, or very weak if the grain crosses transversely. However
+strong the wood, it becomes comparatively much weaker if the grain
+crosses the piece; and however weak the wood, it becomes yet weaker if
+the grain is transverse or diagonal. These considerations lead us to
+see that _the grain of the wood must always be parallel with its
+length whenever strength is required_.
+
+For our guidance in the formation of works of furniture, I give the
+following short table of woods arranged as to their strength:--
+
+_Iron-wood_, from Jamaica--very strong, bearing great lateral
+pressure.
+
+_Box_ of Illawarry, New South Wales--very strong, but not so strong as
+iron-wood.
+
+_Mountain ash_, New South Wales--about two-thirds the strength of
+iron-wood.
+
+_Beech_--nearly as strong as mountain ash.
+
+_Mahogany_, from New South Wales--not quite so strong as last.
+
+_Black dog-wood_ of Jamaica--three-fourths as strong as the mahogany
+just named.
+
+_Box-wood_, Jamaica--not half as strong as the box of New South Wales.
+
+_Cedar_ of Jamaica--half as strong as the mahogany of New South
+Wales.[21]
+
+[21] For full particulars on this subject see "Catalogue of the
+Collection illustrating Construction and Building Material," in the
+South Kensington Museum, and the manual of "Technical Drawing for
+Cabinetmakers," by E. A. Davidson.
+
+Wood can be got of sufficient length to meet all the requirements of
+furniture-making, yet we not unfrequently find the arch structurally
+introduced into furniture, while it is absurd to employ it in wooden
+construction of any kind. The arch is a most ingenious invention, as
+it affords a means of spanning a large space with small portions of
+material, as with small stones, and at the same time gives great
+strength. It is, therefore, of the utmost utility in constructing
+stone buildings; but in works of furniture, where we have no large
+spaces to span, and where wood is of the utmost length required, and
+is stronger than our requirements demand, the use of the arch becomes
+structurally foolish and absurd. The folly of this mode of structure
+becomes more apparent when we notice that a wooden arch is always
+formed of one or two pieces, and not of very small portions, and when
+we further consider that, in order to the formation of an arch, the
+wood must be cut across its grain throughout the greater portion of
+its length, whereby its strength is materially decreased; while if the
+arch were formed of small pieces of stone great strength would be
+secured. Nothing can be more absurd than the practice of imitating in
+one material a mode of construction which is only legitimate in the
+case of another, and of failing to avail ourselves of the particular
+mode of utilising a material which secures a maximum of desirable
+results.
+
+While I protest against the arch when structurally used in furniture,
+I see no objection to it if used only as a source of beauty, and when
+so situated as to be free from strain or pressure.
+
+One of the objects which we are frequently called upon to construct is
+a chair. The chair is, throughout Europe and America, considered as a
+necessity of every house. So largely used are chairs, that one firm at
+High Wycombe employs 5,000 hands in making common cane-bottomed chairs
+alone; and yet we see but few chairs in the market which are well
+constructed. All chairs having curved frames--whether the curve is in
+the wood of the back, in the sides of the seat, or in the legs--are
+constructed on false principles. They are of necessity weak, and being
+weak are not useful. As they are formed by using wood in a manner
+which fails to utilise its qualities of strength, these chairs are
+offensive and absurd. It is true that, through being surrounded by
+such ill-formed objects from our earliest infancy, the eye often fails
+to be offended with such works as would offend it were they new to it;
+but this does not show that they are the less offensive, nor that they
+are not constructively wrong. Besides, whenever wood is cut across the
+grain, in order that we get anything approaching the requisite
+strength, it has to be much thicker and more bulky than would be
+required were the wood cut with the grain; hence such furniture is
+unnecessarily heavy and clumsy.
+
+Fig. 26 represents a chair which I have taken the liberty of borrowing
+from Mr. Eastlake's work on household art.[22] This chair Mr. Eastlake
+gives as an illustration of good taste in the construction of
+furniture; but I give it as an illustration of that which is
+essentially bad and wrong. The legs are weak, being cross-grained
+throughout, and the mode of uniting the upper and lower portions of
+the legs (the two semicircles) by a circular boss is defective in the
+highest degree. Were I sitting in such a chair, I should be afraid to
+lean to the right or the left, for fear of the chair giving way. Give
+me a Yorkshire rocking-chair, in preference to one of these, where I
+know of my insecurity, much as I hate such.
+
+[22] The title of the work is "Hints on Household Taste." It is well
+worth reading, as much may be learned from it. I think Mr. Eastlake
+right in many views, yet wrong in others, but I cannot help regarding
+him somewhat as an apostle of ugliness, as he appears to me to despise
+finish and refinement.
+
+A chair is a stool with a back-rest, and a stool is a board elevated
+from the ground or floor by supports, the degree of elevation being
+determined by the length of the legs of the person for whom the seat
+is made, or by the degree of obliquity which the body and legs are
+desired to take when the seat is in use. If the seat is to support the
+body when in an erect sitting posture, about seventeen to eighteen
+inches will be found a convenient height for the average of persons;
+but if the legs of the sitter are to take an oblique forward
+direction, then the seat may be lower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+A stool may consist of a thick piece of wood and of three legs
+inserted into holes bored in this thick top. If these legs pass to the
+upper surface of the seat, and are properly wedged in, a useful yet
+clumsy seat results. In order that the top of the stool be thin and
+light, it will be necessary that the legs be connected by frames, and
+it will be well that they be connected twice, once at the top of each
+leg, so that the seat may rest upon this frame, and once at least
+two-thirds of the distance from the top. The frame would now stand
+alone, and although the seat is formed of thin wood it will not crack,
+as it is supported all round on the upper frame.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+A chair, I have said, is a stool with a back. There is not one chair
+out of fifty that we find with the back so attached to the seat as to
+give a maximum of strength. It is usual to make a back leg and one
+side of the chair-back out of one piece of wood--that is, to continue
+the back legs up above the seat, and cause them to become the sides of
+the chair-back. When this is done the wood is almost invariably curved
+so that the back legs and the chair-back both incline outwards from
+the seat. There is no objection whatever to the sides of the back and
+the legs being formed of the one piece, but there is a great objection
+to either the supports of the back or the legs being formed of
+cross-grained wood, as much of their strength is thereby sacrificed.
+Our illustrations (Figs. 27 to 32) will give several modes of
+constructing chairs such as I think legitimate; but I will ask the
+reader to think for himself upon the construction of a chair, and
+especially upon the proper means of giving due support to the back.
+
+I have given, in an axiomatic form, those principles which should
+guide us in the construction of works of furniture, and endeavoured to
+impress the necessity of using wood in that manner which is most
+natural--that is, "working" it with the grain (the manner in which
+we can most easily work it), and in that way which shall secure
+the greatest amount of strength with the least expenditure of
+material. I wish to impress my readers with the importance of these
+considerations, for they lie at the very root of the successful
+construction of furniture. If the legs of chairs, or their
+seat-frames, or the ends or backs of couches, are formed of wood cut
+across the grain, they must either be thick and clumsy, or weak; but,
+besides this, the rightly constituted mind can only receive pleasure
+from the contemplation of works which are wisely formed. Daily
+contact, as we have before said, with ill-shaped objects may have
+more or less deadened our senses, so that we are not so readily
+offended by deformity and error as we might be; yet, happily for us,
+directly we seek to separate truth from error, the beautiful from the
+deformed, reason assists the judgment, and we learn to feel when we
+are in the presence of the beautiful or in contact with the degraded.
+
+My illustrations will show how I think chairs should be constructed.
+Fig. 26 is essentially bad, although it has traditional sanction,
+hence I pass it over without further comment. Fig. 27 is in the manner
+of an Egyptian chair. It serves to show the careful way in which the
+Egyptians constructed their works. The curved rails against which the
+back would rest are the only parts which are not thoroughly correct
+and satisfactory in a wood structure. Were the curved back members
+metal, the curvature would be desirable and legitimate. The back of
+this chair, if the side members were connected by a straight rail,
+would have immense strength (the backs of some of _our_ chairs are of
+the very weakest), and if well made it is a seat which would endure
+for centuries. Fig. 28 is a chair of my own designing, in which I have
+sought to give strength to the back by connecting its upper portion
+with a strong cross-rail of the frame.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+Fig. 29 is a chair slightly altered from one in Mr. Eastlake's work on
+"Household Taste;" as shown in our illustration, it is a correctly
+formed work. Fig. 30 is an arm-chair in the Greek style, which I have
+designed. Fig. 31 is a Lady's chair in the Gothic style; Fig. 32, a
+lady's chair in early Greek. These I have prepared to show different
+modes of structure; if the legs are fitted to a frame (the
+seat-frame), as in the early Greek chair just alluded to, they should
+be very short, as in this instance, or they must be connected by a
+frame below the seat, as in Figs. 33 and 34. The best general
+structure is that in which the front legs pass to the level of the
+upper surface of the seat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+Fig. 33 is a copy of a chair shown by Messrs. Gillow and Co., of
+Oxford Street, in the last Paris International Exhibition. In many
+respects it is admirably constructed. The skeleton brackets holding
+the back to the seat are very desirable adjuncts to light chairs; so
+are the brackets connecting the legs with the seat-frame, as these
+strengthen the entire chair. The manner in which the upper rail of the
+back passes through the side uprights and is "pinned" is good. The
+chief, and only important, fault in this chair is the bending of the
+back legs, involving their being cut against the grain of the wood.
+
+Fig. 31 is a chair from Mr. Talbert's very excellent work on "Gothic
+Furniture." It shows an admirable method of supporting the back. Fig.
+35 I have designed as a high-backed lounging chair. With the view of
+giving strength to the back, I have extended the seat, and arranged a
+support from this extension to the upper back-rail, and this extension
+of the seat I have supported by a fifth leg. There is no reason
+whatever why a chair should have four legs. If three would be better,
+or five, or any other number, let us use what would be best.[23]
+
+[23] In my drawing, the stuffing of the back has been accidentally
+shown too much rounded.
+
+I have now given several illustrations of modes of forming chairs. I
+might have given many more, but it is not my duty to try and exhaust a
+subject. What I have to do is simply point out principles, and call
+attention to facts. It is the reader who must think for
+himself--first, of the principles and facts which I adduce; secondly,
+of the illustrations which I give; thirdly, of other works which he
+may meet with; and fourthly, of further means of producing desirable
+and satisfactory results than those set forth in my illustrations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+As it cannot be doubted that a well-constructed work, however plain or
+simple it may be, gives satisfaction to those who behold it--while a
+work of the most elaborate character fails to satisfy if badly
+constructed--we shall give a few further illustrations of structure
+for other articles of furniture, besides chairs, which have become
+necessary to our mode of life.
+
+Fig. 36 is one of my sketches for Greek furniture, designed for a
+wealthy client. It was formed of black wood. Here the frame of the
+seat is first formed, and the legs are inserted beneath it, and let
+into it, while the wood-work of the end of the couch stands upon it,
+being inserted into it. This appears to have been the general method
+with the Greeks of forming their furniture, yet it is not so correct
+structurally as Fig. 37, another of my sketches, where the end and the
+leg are formed of one piece of wood. The first formation (that of Fig.
+36) would bear any amount of pressure from above, but it is not well
+calculated for resisting lateral pressure; while the latter would
+resist this lateral pressure, but would not bear quite the same amount
+of pressure from above. The latter, however, could bear more weight
+than would ever be required of it, and would be the more durable piece
+of furniture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+Fig. 38 gives a legitimate formation for a settee; the cutting-out, or
+hollowing, of the sides of the legs is not carried to an extreme, but
+leaves a sufficiency of strong wood with an upright grain to resist
+all the pressure that would be placed on the seat, and the lower and
+upper thickened portions of the legs act as the brackets beneath the
+seat in Fig. 33. The arch here introduced is not used structurally,
+but for the sake of a curved line, and acts simply as a pair of
+brackets. This illustration is also from Mr. Talbert's work. Fig. 39
+is a table such as we occasionally meet with. I see no objection to
+the legs leaning inwards at the top; indeed, we have here a
+picturesque and useful table of legitimate formation. Fig. 40 is the
+end elevation of a sideboard from Mr. Talbert's work. Mark the
+simplicity of the structure. The leading or structural lines are
+straight and obvious. Although Mr. Talbert is not always right, yet
+his book is well worthy of the most careful consideration and study;
+and this I can truly say, that it compares favourably with all other
+works on furniture with which I am acquainted.
+
+The general want which we perceive in modern furniture is simplicity
+of structure and truthfulness of construction. If persons would but
+think out the easiest mode of constructing a work before they commence
+to design it, and would be content with this simplicity of structure,
+we should have very different furniture from what we have. Think first
+of what is wanted, then of the material at command.
+
+I fear that I have very feebly enforced and very inefficiently
+illustrated the true principles on which works of furniture should be
+constructed; and yet I feel that the structure of such works is of
+importance beyond all other considerations. Space is limited, however,
+and I must pass on; hence I only hope that I have induced the reader
+to think for himself, and if I have done so I shall have fulfilled my
+desire, for his progress will then be sure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+Respecting structure I have but a few general remarks further to make,
+and all these are fairly embraced in the one expression, "Be
+truthful." An obvious and true structure is always pleasant. Let,
+then, the "tenon" and the "mortise" pass through the various members,
+and let the parts be "pinned" together by obvious wooden pins. Thus,
+if the frame of a chair-seat is tenoned into the legs, let the tenon
+pass through the leg and be visible on the outer side, and let it be
+held in its place by glue and wooden pins--the pins being visible. Yet
+they need not protrude beyond the surface; but why hide them? In this
+way that old furniture was made which has endured while piece after
+piece of modern furniture, made with invisible joints and concealed
+nails and screws, has perished. This is a true structural treatment,
+and is honest in expression also.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+I do not give this as a principle applicable to one class of furniture
+only, but to all. When we have "pinned" furniture with an open
+structure (see the back of chair, Fig. 33), the mode of putting
+together must of necessity be manifest; but in all other cases the
+tenons should also go through, and the pins by which they are held in
+their place be driven from one surface to the other side right through
+the member.
+
+In the commencement of this chapter on furniture, I said that after
+the most convenient form has been chosen for an object, and after it
+has been arranged that the material of which it is to be formed shall
+be worked in the most natural or befitting way, that then the
+block-form must be looked to, after which comes the division of the
+mass into primary parts, and lastly, the consideration of detail.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+As to the block-form, let it be simple, and have the appearance of
+appropriateness and consistency. Its character must be regulated, to
+an extent, by the nature of the house for which the furniture is
+intended, and by the character of the room in which it is to be
+placed. All I can say to the student on this part of the subject is
+this: Carefully consider good works of furniture whenever opportunity
+occurs, and note their general conformation. A fine work will never
+have strong architectural qualities--that is, it will not look like
+part of a building formed of wood instead of stone. There is but
+small danger of committing any great error in the block-form, if it be
+kept simple, and to look like a work in wood, provided that the
+proportions of height to width and of width and height to thickness
+are duly cared for (see page 23).
+
+After the general form has been considered, the mass may be broken
+into primary and secondary parts. Thus, if we have to construct a
+cabinet, the upper part of which consists of a cupboard, and the lower
+portion of drawers, we should have to determine the proportion which
+the one part should bear to the other. This is an invariable
+rule--that the work must not consist of equal parts; thus, if the
+whole cabinet be six feet in height, the cupboards could not be three
+feet while the drawers occupied three feet also. The division would
+have to be of a subtle character--of a character which could not be
+readily detected. Thus the cupboard might be three feet five inches,
+and the drawers collectively two feet seven inches. If the drawers are
+not all to be of the same depth, then the relation of one drawer, as
+regards its size, to that of another must be considered, and of each
+to the cupboard above. In like manner the proportion of the panels of
+the doors to the styles must be thought out; and until all this has
+been done no work should ever be constructed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+Next comes the enrichment of parts. Carving should be sparingly used,
+and is best confined to mouldings, or projecting or terminal ends. If
+employed in mouldings, those members should be enriched which are more
+or less completely guarded from dust and injury by some overhanging
+member. If more carving is used, it should certainly be a mere
+enrichment of necessary structure--as we see on the legs and other
+uprights of Mr. Crace's sideboard, by Pugin (Fig. 41). I am not fond
+of carved panels, but should these be employed the carving should
+never project beyond the styles surrounding them, and in all cases of
+carving no pointed members must protrude so as to injure the person or
+destroy the dress of those who use the piece of furniture. If carving
+is used sparingly, it gives us the impression that it is valuable;
+if it is lavishly employed, it appears to be comparatively worthless.
+The aim of art is the production of repose. A large work of furniture
+which is carved all over cannot produce the necessary sense of repose,
+and is therefore objectionable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+There may be an excess of finish in works of carving connected with
+cabinet-work; for if the finish is too delicate there is a lack of
+effect in the result. A piece of furniture is not a miniature work,
+which is to be investigated in every detail. It is an object of
+utility, which is to appear beautiful in a room, and is not to command
+undivided attention; it is a work which is to combine with other works
+in rendering an apartment beautiful. The South Kensington Museum
+purchased in the last Paris International Exhibition, at great cost, a
+cabinet from Fourdonois; but it is a very unsatisfactory specimen, as
+it is too delicate, too tender, and too fine for a work of utility--it
+is an example of what should be avoided rather than of what should be
+followed. The delicately carved and beautiful panels of the doors, if
+cut in marble and used as mere pieces of sculpture, would have been
+worthy of the highest commendation; but works of this kind wrought in
+a material that has a "grain," however little the grain may show, are
+absurd. Besides, the subjects are of too pictorial a character for
+"applied work"--that is, they are treated in too pictorial or
+naturalistic a manner. A broad, simple, idealised treatment of the
+figure is that which is alone legitimate in cabinet work.
+
+Supports or columns carved into the form of human figures are always
+objectionable.
+
+Besides carving, as a means of enrichment, we have inlaying, painting,
+and the applying of plaques of stone or earthenware, and of brass or
+ormolu enrichments, and we have the inserting of brass into the
+material when buhl-work is formed.
+
+Inlaying is a very natural and beautiful means of enriching works of
+furniture, for it leaves the flatness of the surface undisturbed. A
+great deal may be done in this way by the employment of simple means.
+A mere row of circular dots of black wood inlaid in oak will often
+give a remarkably good effect; and the dots can be "worked" with the
+utmost ease. Three dots form a trefoil, four dots a quatrefoil, six
+dots a hexafoil, and so on, and desirable effects can often be
+produced by such simple inlays.
+
+Panels of cabinets may be painted, and enriched with ornament or
+flatly-treated figure subjects. This is a beautiful mode of decoration
+very much neglected. The couch (Fig. 37) I intended for enrichment of
+this kind. If this form is employed, care should be exercised in order
+that the painted work be in all cases so situated that it cannot be
+rubbed. It should fill sunk panels and hollows and never appear on
+advancing members.
+
+I am not fond of the application of plaques of stone or earthenware to
+works of furniture. Anything that is brittle is not suitable as an
+enrichment of wood-work, unless it can be so placed as to be out of
+danger.
+
+Ormolu ornaments, when applied to cabinets and other works in wood,
+are also never satisfactory. They look too separate from the wood of
+which the work is formed--too obviously applied; and whatever is
+obviously _applied_ to the work, and is not a portion of its general
+fabric, whether a mass of flowers even if carved in wood or an ormolu
+ornament, is not pleasant.
+
+Buhl-work is often very clever in character and skilfully wrought, but
+I do not care for it. It is of too laborious a nature, and thus
+intrudes upon us the sense of labour as well as that of skill. As a
+means of enrichment, I approve of carving, sparingly used, of inlays,
+and of painted ornament in certain cases; and by the just employment
+of these means the utmost beauty in cabinet-work can be achieved.
+Ebony inlaid with ivory is very beautiful.
+
+In order to illustrate my remarks respecting cabinets, sideboards, and
+similar pieces of furniture, I give an engraving of a sideboard
+executed by Mr. Crace, from the design of Mr. A. Welby Pugin (the
+father), to which I have before alluded (Fig. 41), and a painted
+cabinet by Mr. Burgess (Fig. 42), the well-known Gothic architect,
+whose architecture must be admired. Both of these works are worthy of
+study of a very careful kind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+In the sideboard, notice first the general structure or construction
+of the work, then the manner in which it is broken into parts, and
+lastly, that it is the structural members which are carved. If this
+work has faults, they are these: first, the carving is in
+excess--thus, the panels would have been better plain; and, second, in
+some parts there is a slight indication of a stone structure, as in
+the buttress character of the ends of the sideboard.
+
+To the cabinet much more serious objections may be taken.
+
+1st. A roof is a means whereby the weather is kept out of a dwelling,
+and tiles afford a means whereby small pieces of material enable us to
+form a perfect covering to our houses of a weather-proof character. It
+is very absurd, then, to treat the roof of a cabinet, which is to
+stand in a room, as if it were an entire house, or an object which
+were to stand in a garden.
+
+2nd. The windows in the roof, which in the case of a house let light
+into those rooms which are placed in this part of the building, and
+are formed in a particular manner so as the more perfectly to exclude
+rain, become simply stupid when placed in the roof of a cabinet.
+These, together with the imitation tiled roof, degrade the work to a
+mere doll's house in appearance.
+
+3rd. A panelled structure, which is the strongest and best structure,
+is ignored; hence strong metal bindings are necessary.
+
+The painting of the work is highly interesting, and had it been more
+flatly treated, would then have been truthful, and would yet have lent
+the same interest to the cabinet that it now does, even if we consider
+the matter from a purely pictorial point of view.
+
+Before we pass from a consideration of furniture and cabinet-work
+generally, we must notice a few points to which we have as yet merely
+referred, or which we have left altogether unnoticed. Thus we have to
+consider upholstery as applied to works of furniture, the materials
+employed as coverings for seats, and the nature of picture-frames and
+curtain-poles; we must also notice general errors in furniture,
+strictly so called.
+
+When examining certain wardrobes and cabinets in the International
+Exhibition of 1862, I was forcibly impressed with the structural truth
+of one or two of these works. One especially commended itself to me as
+a fine structural work of classic character. Just as I was expressing
+my admiration, the exhibitor threw open the doors of this well-formed
+wardrobe to show me its internal fittings, when, fancy my feelings at
+beholding the first door bearing with it, as it opened, the two
+pilasters that I conceived to be the supports of the somewhat heavy
+cornice above, and the other door bearing away the third support, and
+thus leaving the superincumbent mass resting on the thin sides of the
+structure only, while they appeared altogether unable to perform the
+duty imposed upon them. "Horrible! horrible!" was all I could exclaim.
+
+Some of the most costly works of furniture shown by the French in the
+last Paris International Exhibition were not free from this defect;
+and this is strange, for to the rightly constituted mind this one
+defect is of such a grave character as to neutralise whatever pleasure
+might otherwise be derived from contemplating the work. We see a man,
+a genius perhaps--a man having qualities that all must admire; but he
+has one great vice--one sin which easily besets him. While the man
+has excellent and estimable qualities, we yet avoid him, for we see
+not the excellences but the vice. It is so with such works of
+furniture as those of which we have been speaking, for their defects
+are such as impress us more powerfully than their excellences.
+
+Respecting these works of furniture, this should be said: they are
+more or less imitative of works of a debased art-period--of a period
+in which structural truth was utterly disregarded--yet this is no
+reason why we should copy the defects of our ancestors.
+
+Infinitely worse than the works just spoken of, is falsely constructed
+Gothic furniture, where the very truthfulness of structure is openly
+set before us. Not long since I was staying with a client whose house
+is of Gothic style. Being about to furnish drawings for the
+decorations of this mansion, I was carefully noting the character of
+the architecture and of the furniture, which latter had been designed
+and manufactured expressly for the house by a large Yorkshire firm of
+cabinet-makers. The structure of the furniture appeared just, the
+proportions tolerably good, the wood honest, and the inlays judicious;
+but, can it be imagined, the whole was a mere series of frauds and
+shams--the cross-grain ends of what should be supports were attached
+to the fronts of drawers, pillars came away, and such falsity became
+apparent as I never before saw. How any person could possibly produce
+such furniture, be he ever so degraded, I cannot think. I have seen
+works that are bad, I have seen falsities in art, but I never before
+saw such falsity of structure and such uncalled-for deception as these
+works presented. The untrue is always offensive; but when a special
+effort is made at causing a lie to appear as truth, a double sense of
+disappointment is experienced when the untruthfulness is discovered.
+
+In his work on "Household Taste," to which I have before alluded, Mr.
+Eastlake objects, and I think very justly, to the character of an
+ordinary telescopic dining-table. He says: "Among the dining-room
+appointments, the table is an article of furniture which stands
+greatly in need of reform. It is generally made of planks of polished
+oak or mahogany laid upon an insecure framework of the same material,
+and supported by four gouty legs, ornamented by the turner with
+mouldings which look like inverted cups and saucers piled upon an
+attic baluster. I call the framework insecure, because I am describing
+what is commonly called a 'telescope' table, or one which can be
+pulled out to twice its usual length, and, by the addition of extra
+leaves in its middle, accommodate twice the usual number of diners.
+Such a table cannot be soundly made in the same sense that ordinary
+furniture is sound; it must depend for its support on some contrivance
+which is not consistent with the material of which it is made. Few
+people would like to sit on a chair the legs of which slid in and out,
+and were fastened at the required height by a pin; there would be a
+sense of insecurity in the notion eminently unpleasant. You might put
+up with such an invention in camp, or on a sketching expedition, but
+to have it and use it under your own roof, instead of a strong and
+serviceable chair, would be absurd. Yet this is very much what we do
+in the case of the modern dining-room table. When it is extended it
+looks weak and untidy at the sides; when it is reduced to its shortest
+length the legs appear heavy and ill-proportioned. It is always liable
+to get out of order, and from the very nature of its construction must
+be an inartistic object. Why should such a table be made at all? A
+dining-room is a room to dine in. Whether there are few or many people
+seated for that purpose, the table might well be kept of a uniform
+length, and if space is an object it is always possible to use in its
+stead two small tables, each on four legs. These might be placed end
+to end when dinner parties are given, and one of them would suffice
+for family use. A table of this kind might be solidly and stoutly
+framed, so as to last for ages, and become, as all furniture ought to
+become, an heirloom in the family. When a man builds himself a house
+on freehold land, he does not intend that it shall only last his
+lifetime; he bequeaths it in sound condition to posterity. We ought to
+be ashamed of furniture which is continually being replaced; at all
+events, we cannot possibly take any interest in such furniture. In
+former days, when the principles of good joinery were really
+understood, the legs of such a large table as that of the dining-room
+would have been made of a very different form from the lumpy,
+pear-shaped things of modern use."
+
+In nearly all these remarks I agree with Mr. Eastlake, and especially
+in his remark that, owing to the very nature of its construction, a
+modern dining-table must be an inartistic object. No work can be
+satisfactory in which any portions of the true supporting structure or
+frame are drawn apart; and this occurs to a marked degree in this
+table, as is shown in Mr. Eastlake's illustration, which we here copy
+(Fig. 43).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+Falsities of structure, although not so glaring as that of the
+telescopic dining-table, are everywhere met with in our shops, and,
+curious as it may appear, the great majority of the works offered to
+the public are not only false in structure, but are utterly offensive
+to good taste in every way, and are formed almost exclusively of wood
+cut across the grain, which secures to the article the maximum amount
+of weakness. Figs. 44, 45, 46, and 47 are examples of utterly bad
+furniture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+Another falsity in furniture is veneering--a practice which should be
+wholly abandoned. Simple honesty is preferable to false show in all
+cases; truthfulness in utterance is always to be desired. It was
+customary at one time to veneer almost every work of furniture, and
+even to place the grain of the veneer in a manner totally at variance
+with the true structure of the framework which it covered. This was a
+method of making works, which might in their unfinished state be
+satisfactory, appear when finished as most unsatisfactory objects.
+Since this time much progress has been made in a knowledge of truthful
+structure and of truthful expression, yet this method of giving a
+false surface by means of veneer is not wholly abandoned as despicable
+and false.
+
+A few months back I had occasion to visit a cabinet warehouse in
+Lancashire, and the owner called my attention to the fine grain of
+some old English oak, and remarked that certain pieces of furniture
+were of solid wood. Upon investigation, however, I discovered that
+while the furniture in question was made throughout of oak, the bulk
+of the structure was of common wainscoting, and the surface was
+veneered with English oak. I confess that I would much rather have had
+the furniture without its false exterior, and daily my love for fine
+grain in wood gets less. I think that this arises from the fact that
+strong grain in wood takes from the "unity" of the work into which it
+is formed, and tends to break it up into parts, by rendering every
+member conspicuous. What is wanted in a work of furniture, before all
+other considerations, is a fine general form--a harmony of all
+parts--so that no one member usurps a primary place--and this it is
+almost impossible to achieve if a wood is employed having a strongly
+marked grain.
+
+With us a room is considered as almost unfurnished if the windows are
+not hung with some kind of drapery. The original object of this
+drapery was that of keeping out a draught of air, which found its way
+through the imperfectly fitting windows; and the antitype of our
+window-hangings was a simple curtain, formed of a material suitable to
+achieve the purpose sought. Such a curtain was legitimate and
+desirable, and would contrast strangely with the elaborate festooning
+and quadrupled curtains of our present windows. We daily see yards of
+valuable material, arranged in massive and absurd folds, shutting out
+that light which is necessary to our health and well-being; a pair of
+heavy stuff curtains and a pair of lace curtains being hung at each
+window, each curtain consisting of a sufficient amount of material to
+more than cover the window of itself. An excess of drapery is always
+vulgar, while a little drapery usefully and judiciously employed is
+pleasant.
+
+Many windows that are well made, and thus keep out all currents of
+air, need no curtains. If the window mouldings are of an architectural
+character, and are coloured much darker than the wall, so as to become
+an obvious frame to the window, and thus do for the window what a
+picture-frame does for a picture, no curtains will be required. I have
+recently had a wonderfully striking illustration of this. Two
+adjoining rooms are alike in their architecture; one is decorated, and
+has the window casement of such colours as strongly contrast, while
+they are yet harmonious, with the wall. Before the room was
+decorated, and the windows were thus treated, a general light colour
+prevailed, both on the wood-work and on the walls of the room, and
+curtains were hung at the windows in the usual way. With the altered
+decorations, the windows became so effective that I at once saw the
+undesirability of re-hanging the curtains, and yet not one of all my
+friends has observed that there are no curtains to the windows; while
+if the curtains are removed from the adjoining room, where the
+window-frames are as light as the walls, the first question asked is,
+"Where are your curtains?"
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+Curtains should be hung on a simple and obvious pole (Fig. 48). All
+means of hiding this pole are foolish and useless. This pole need not
+be very thick, and is better formed of wood than of metal, for then
+the rings to which the curtains are attached pass along almost
+noiselessly. The ends of the pole may be of metal, but I prefer simple
+balls of wood. The pole may be grooved, and any little enrichments may
+be introduced into these grooves, providing the carving does not come
+to the surface, and thus touch the rings, which by their motion would
+injure it. Whatever is used in the way of enrichment should be of
+simple character, for the height at which the curtain pole is placed
+would render fine work altogether ineffective.
+
+As to upholstery, I would say, never indulge in an excess. A wood
+frame should appear in every work of furniture, as in the examples we
+have given. Sofas are now made as though they were feather beds; they
+are so soft that you sink into them, and become uncomfortably warm by
+merely resting upon them, and their gouty forms are relieved only by a
+few inches of wood, which appear as legs. Stuffing should be employed
+only as a means of rendering a properly constructed seat comfortably
+soft. If it goes beyond this it is vulgar and objectionable. Spring
+stuffing is not to be altogether commended; a good old-fashioned
+hair-stuffed seat is more desirable, as it will endure when springs
+have perished. As to the materials with which seats may be covered I
+can say little, for they are many. Hair cloth, although very durable,
+is altogether inartistic in its effect. Nothing is better than leather
+for dining-room chairs; Utrecht velvet, either plain or embossed,
+looks well on library chairs; silk and satin damasks, rep, plain
+cloth, and many other fabrics are appropriate to drawing-room
+furniture. Chintz I am not fond of as a chair covering, and in a
+bed-room I would rather have chairs with plain wooden seats than with
+cushions covered with this glazed material.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+With a mere remark upon picture-frames I will finish this chapter.
+Picture-frames are generally elaborately carved mouldings, or are
+simple mouldings covered with ornaments, which, whether carved or
+formed of putty, are overlaid with gold leaf; they are, indeed, highly
+ornamented gilt mouldings. I much prefer a well-formed, yet somewhat
+simple, black polished moulding, on the interior of which runs a gold
+bead (Fig. 49). A fanciful yet good picture-frame was figured in the
+_Building News_ of September 7th, 1866, which we now repeat (Fig.
+50).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+DECORATION OF BUILDINGS.
+
+
+DIVISION I.--GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS--CEILINGS.
+
+Having considered furniture, the formation of which requires a
+knowledge of construction, or of what we may term structural art, we
+pass on to notice principles involved in the decoration of surfaces,
+or in "surface decoration," as it is usually called. We commence by
+considering how rooms should be decorated; yet, in so doing, we are
+met at the very outset with a great difficulty, as the nature of the
+decoration of a room should be determined by the character of its
+architecture. My difficulty rests here. How am I to tell you what is
+the just decoration for a room, when the suitability of the decoration
+is often dependent upon even structural and ornamental details; and
+when, in all cases, the character of the decoration should be in
+harmony with the character of the architecture? Broadly, if a building
+is in the Gothic style, all that it contains in the way of decoration,
+and of furniture also, should be Gothic. If the building is Greek, the
+decorations and furniture should be Greek. If the building is Italian,
+all its decorations and furniture should be Italian, and so on.
+
+But there are further requirements. Each term that I have now
+employed, as expressive of a style of architecture, is more or less
+generic in character, and is therefore too broad for general use. What
+is usually termed Gothic architecture, is a group of styles having
+common origin and resemblances, known to the architect as the
+Semi-Norman or Transition style, which occurred in the twelfth century
+under Henry II. (it was at this time that the pointed arch was first
+employed). The Early English, which was developed in the end of the
+twelfth and early part of the thirteenth century, under Richard I.,
+John, and Henry III.; the Decorated, which occurred at the end of the
+thirteenth, and early portion of the fourteenth century, under Edward
+I., Edward II., and Edward III.; the Perpendicular, which occurred at
+the latter part of the fourteenth, and through the greater portion of
+the fifteenth century, under Richard II., Henry IV., V., and VI.,
+Edward IV. and V., and Richard III.; and, lastly, the Tudor, which
+occurred at the end of the fifteenth, and the beginning of the
+sixteenth century, under Henry VII. and Henry VIII. All these styles
+are popularly spoken of as one, and are expressed by the one
+term--Gothic. It is so also, to an extent, with the Greek, Roman, and
+Italian styles, for each of these appears in various modifications of
+character, but into such details we will not enter: it must suffice
+to notice that the character of the decoration must be not only
+broadly in the style of the architecture of the building which it is
+intended to beautify, but it must be similar in nature to the ornament
+produced at precisely the same date as the architecture which has been
+employed for the building.
+
+It must not be supposed that I am an advocate of reproducing works, or
+even styles of architecture, such as were created in times gone by,
+for I am not. The peoples of past ages carefully sought to ascertain
+their wants--the wants resulting from climate--the wants resulting
+from the nature of their religion--the wants resulting from social
+arrangements--the wants imposed by the building material at command.
+We, on the contrary, look at a hundred old buildings, and without
+considering our wants, as differing from those of our forefathers,
+take a bit from one and a bit from another, or we reproduce one almost
+as it stands, and thus we bungle on, instead of seeking to raise such
+buildings as are in all respects suited to our modern requirements.
+
+Things are, however, much better in this respect than they were. Bold
+men are dealing with the Gothic style in its various forms. Scott,
+Burgess, Street, and many others are venturing to alter it; and thus,
+while it is losing old characteristics, and is acquiring new elements,
+it is already assuming a character which has nobility of expression,
+truthfulness of structure, and suitability to our special
+requirements. In time to come, further changes will doubtless be made;
+and thus the style which arose as an imitation of the past will have
+become new, through constantly departing from the original type, and
+as constantly adopting new elements.
+
+I have said that the decoration of a building should be brought about
+by the employment of such ornament as was, in time past, associated
+with the particular form of architecture employed in the building to
+be decorated, if a precisely similar form of architecture previously
+existed. Let not the ornament, however, be a mere servile imitation of
+what has gone before, but let the designer study the ornament of
+bygone ages till he understands and _feels_ its spirit, and then let
+him strive to produce new forms and new combinations in the spirit of
+the ornament of the past.
+
+This must also be carefully noted--that the ornament of a particular
+period does not consist merely of the forms employed in the
+architecture, drawn in colour on the wall, or the ceiling, as the case
+may be. The particular form of ornament used in association with some
+forms of Gothic architecture was very different in character from what
+we might expect from the nature of the architecture itself, and did
+not to any extent consist of flatly-treated crockets, gable ends,
+trefoils, cinque-foils, etc. The ornament of the past must be studied
+in its purity, and not from those wretched attempts at the production
+of Gothic decoration which we often see.
+
+In what we may call the typical English house of the present day there
+is really no architecture, and if such a building is to be decorated
+it is almost legitimate to employ any style of ornamentation. In such
+a case I should choose a style which has no very marked
+features--which is not strongly Greek, or strongly Gothic, or strongly
+Italian; and if there is the necessary ability, I should say try and
+produce ornaments having novelty of character, and yet showing your
+knowledge of the good qualities of all styles that are past. If this
+is attempted, care must be exercised in order to avoid getting a mere
+combination of elements from various styles as one ornament. Nothing
+can be worse than to see a bit of Greek, a fragment of Egyptian, an
+Alhambraic scroll, a Gothic flower, and an Italian husk associated
+together as one ornament; unless this were done advisedly and in order
+to meet a very special want, such an ornamental composition would be
+detestable. What I recommend is the production of new forms; but the
+new composition may have the vigour of the best Gothic ornament, the
+severity of Egyptian, the intricacy of the Persian, the gorgeousness
+of the Alhambra, and so on, only it must not imitate in detail the
+various styles of the past.
+
+Now as to the decoration of a room. If one part only can be decorated,
+let that one part be the ceiling. Nothing appears to me more strange
+than that our ceilings, which can be properly seen, are usually white
+in middle-class houses, while the walls, which are always in part
+hidden, and even the floor, on which we tread, should have colour and
+pattern applied to them; and of this I am certain, that, considered
+from a decorative point of view, our ordinary treatment is wrong.
+
+We glory in a clear blue sky overhead, and we speak of the sky as
+increasing in beauty as it becomes deeper and deeper in tint. Thus the
+depth of the tint of the Italian sky is familiar to us all. Why, then,
+make our ceilings white? I often ask this question, and am told that
+the whiteness renders the ceiling almost invisible; hence it is
+preferred. This idea is very absurd; first, because blue is the most
+ethereal and most distant of all colours (see Chap. II., page 33);
+and, second, do we not build a house with the view of procuring
+shelter? hence why do we seek to realise the feeling that we are
+without a covering over our heads? We only like a white ceiling
+because we have been accustomed to such from infancy, and because we
+have been taught to regard a clean white ceiling as all that is to be
+desired. I knew a Yorkshire lady who, upon being asked by her husband
+whether she would like the drawing-room ceiling decorated, replied
+that she thought not, as she could not then have it re-whitewashed
+every year. The idea was clean certainly. Blue, I have said, is
+ethereal in character; it is so, and may become exceedingly so if of
+medium depth and of a grey hue; hence, if a mere atmospheric effect
+was sought, it would be desirable that this colour be used on the
+ceiling rather than white. But, as we have just said, invisibility of
+the ceiling is absurd, as it is our protection from the weather.
+Further, the ceiling may become an object of great beauty, and it can
+be seen as a whole. Why then neglect the opportunity of arranging a
+beautiful object when there is no reason to the contrary? We like a
+beautiful coloured vase, or, if we do not, we can have it whitewashed,
+or even dispense with it altogether. We like beautiful walls, or we
+would have them whitewashed also; indeed, we like our surroundings
+generally beautiful. Why not, then, have beautiful ceilings,
+especially as they can be seen complete, while the wall is in part
+hidden by furniture and pictures?
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
+
+I will suppose that we have an ordinary room to deal with. First, take
+away the wretched plaster ornament in the centre of the ceiling, for
+it is sure to be bad. There is not one such ornament out of a thousand
+that can be so treated as to make the ceiling look as well as it would
+do without it. Now place all over the ceiling a flat painted or
+stencilled pattern, a pattern which repeats equally in all directions
+(as Fig. 51), and let this pattern be in blue (of any depth) and
+white, or in blue (of any depth) and cream-colour, and it is sure to
+look well (the blue being the ground, and the cream-colour or white
+the ornament).
+
+Simple patterns in cream-colour on blue ground, but having a black
+outline, also look well (Fig. 52); and these might be prepared in
+paper, and hung on the ceiling as common paper-hangings, if cheapness
+is essential. Gold ornaments on a deep blue ground, with black
+outline, also look rich and effective. These are all, however, simple
+treatments, for any amount of colour may be used on a ceiling,
+provided the colours are employed in very small masses, and perfectly
+mingled, so that the effect produced is that of a rich coloured bloom
+(see Chap. II., page 46). A ceiling should be beautiful, and should
+also be manifest; but if it must be somewhat indistinct, in order that
+the caprices of the ignorant be humoured, let the pattern be in
+middle-tint or pale blue and white only.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
+
+I like to see the ceiling of a room covered all over with a suitable
+pattern, but I do not at all object to a large central ornament only,
+or to a centre ornament and corners; especially if the cornice is
+heavy, so as to give compensating weight to the margin. I have
+recently designed and seen carried out one or two centre ornaments for
+drawing-rooms, which ornaments were twenty-one feet in diameter. A
+centre ornament, if properly treated, may be very large without
+looking heavy; it may, indeed, extend at least two-thirds of the way
+from the centre to the margin of the ceiling. I do not speak of
+plaster ornaments, but of flat decorations.
+
+If the ceiling is flat all ornament placed upon it must not only be
+flat also, but must not fictitiously represent relief, for no shaded
+ornament can be pleasant when placed as the decoration of a flat
+architectural surface.
+
+I have already noticed that the decoration of a room should be in
+character with its architecture, but that while this should be so, the
+ornament applied by way of enrichment should not be a servile copy of
+the decorative forms employed in ages gone by, but should be such as
+is new in character, while yet of the spirit of the past.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
+
+Many circumstances tend to determine the nature of the decoration
+which should be applied to a ceiling: thus, if a ceiling is
+structurally divided into square panels, the character of the ornament
+is thereby restricted, and should these panels be large it will
+probably be desirable that each be fitted with the same ornament;
+while if they are small three or four different patterns may be
+employed, if arranged in some orderly or methodical manner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
+
+A ceiling may also have the joists or beams visible upon it: in this
+case the decoration would have to be of a very special character. The
+bottoms of the joists might have a string pattern upon them (a running
+pattern), as the "Greek key," or guilloche; whilst the sides might
+have either a running pattern, or a pattern with an upward tendency,
+as the "Greek honeysuckle;" and the ceiling intervening between the
+joists might have a running pattern, or better, a star, or diaper
+pattern, or it might have bands running in the opposite direction to
+the joists, so as, with them, to form squares, which squares might be
+filled with ornament.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.]
+
+If, however, the ceiling is flat, and is not divided into sections
+structurally, almost any "setting out" of the surface may be employed,
+as Fig. 53; or a large centre ornament, as Figs. 54 and 55; or a
+rosette distributed over the entire surface, as Fig. 56. In any case
+it is not necessary or even desirable that the ornament be in relief
+upon the ceiling. Flatly treated ornaments may be employed with
+advantage, and all fictitious appearance of relief, as we have already
+said, must be avoided.
+
+There are so many different ways of setting out ceilings, that I
+cannot attempt even to make any suggestions. I would simply say,
+however, Avoid an architectural setting out, if there are no
+structural members; for ornament which is flat may spread in any
+manner over a surface without even appearing to need structural
+supports. As to the colour of a ceiling if there is to be no ornament
+upon it, let it be a cream-colour (formed of white with a little
+middle-chrome) rather than white. Cream-colour always looks well upon
+a ceiling, and gives the idea of purity. A grey-blue is also a very
+desirable colour for a ceiling, such as is formed of pale ultramarine,
+white, and a little raw umber, just sufficient to make the blue
+slightly grey (or atmospheric). In depth this blue should be about
+half-way between the ultramarine and white. Another effect which I
+like is produced by the full colour of pure (or almost pure)
+ultramarine. In this case the cornice should be carefully coloured,
+and pale blue and white should prevail in it, but a little pure red
+must be present.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
+
+A further and very desirable effect is produced by placing pale
+cream-coloured stars irregularly over the pale blue, or even the deep
+blue ceiling, or by placing pale blue stars upon the cream-coloured
+ceiling. The stars should vary for an ordinary room ceiling (say a
+room sixteen feet square by ten feet high) from about three inches
+from point to point down to one inch; the larger stars having six
+points; others being smaller and with five points; and the small ones
+having, some four points, and some three. If such stars are
+irregularly (without order) intermixed over the ceiling, and yet are
+somewhat equally dispersed, a very pleasing and interesting effect
+will thereby be produced. This effect is in much favour with the
+Japanese. The stars, however, should be smaller if placed on a deep,
+than on a pale, blue ground.
+
+Another good effect is produced by giving the ceiling the colour of
+Bath, or Portland, stone, and starring it with a deeper tint of the
+same colour. This effect is improved by each star having a very fine
+outline of a yet darker tint of the same colour.
+
+I should recommend those interested in the decoration of ceilings to
+study carefully the Egyptian, Alhambra, and Greek Courts at the
+Crystal Palace, Sydenham, especially the two last named; also to
+notice the ceiling in St. James's Great Hall, Piccadilly, London, and
+the ceiling of Ushaw College chapel near Durham. The ceilings in the
+Oriental Courts, by Mr. Owen Jones, at the South Kensington Museum are
+worthy of careful notice; but the Renaissance ceilings in other parts
+of the Museum are both wrong in principle and are bad examples of
+their style. The structurally formed glass ceiling of the Crystal
+Palace Bazaar in Oxford Street, London, and still better, the ceiling
+of Mr. Osler's glass warehouse in Oxford Street, are well worthy of
+note.
+
+On the Continent we very frequently meet with ceilings on which large
+pictures have been painted, as in the Louvre and the Luxembourg in
+Paris; and the authorities of the South Kensington Museum are making
+efforts to introduce this style into England, but such pictorial
+ceilings are in every way wrong.
+
+1st. A ceiling is a flat surface, hence all decoration placed upon it
+should be flat also.
+
+2nd. A picture can only be correctly seen from one point, whereas the
+decoration of a ceiling should be of such a character that it can be
+properly seen from any part of the room.
+
+3rd. Pictures have almost invariably a right and wrong way upwards. A
+picture placed on a ceiling is thus wrong way upwards to almost all
+the guests in the room.
+
+4th. In order to the proper understanding of a picture, you must see
+the whole of its surface at one time; this is very difficult to do
+without almost breaking your neck, or being on your back on the floor,
+if the picture is on the ceiling; whereas an ornament which consists
+of repeated parts may render a ceiling beautiful without requiring
+that the whole ceiling be seen at the one glance.
+
+Most of the French pictorial ceilings are so painted that they are
+properly seen when the spectator stands with his back close to the
+fire. This is very awkward, as the rules of society do not allow us to
+stand in this position before company. Pictorial works are altogether
+out of place on a ceiling; they ought to be framed and hung right way
+upwards upon walls where they can be seen. We have a well-known
+painted ceiling at the Greenwich Hospital.
+
+Arabesque ceilings, such as that of the Roman Court at the Crystal
+Palace, are also very objectionable.
+
+What can be worse than festoons of leafage, like so many sausages,
+painted upon a ceiling, with griffins, small framed pictures,
+impossible flowers, and feeble ornament, all with fictitious light and
+shade? But not content with such absurdities and incongruities, the
+festoons often hang upwards on vaulted or domed ceilings, rather than
+downwards. Such ornaments arose when Rome, intoxicated with its
+conquests, yielded itself up to luxury and vice rather than to a
+consideration of beauty and truth.
+
+Decorations like these were to an extent again revived by the great
+painter Raphael; but it must ever be remembered that Raphael, while
+one of the greatest of painters, was no ornamentist. It requires all
+the energy of a life to become a great painter; and it requires all
+the energy of a life to become a great ornamentist; hence it is not
+expected that the one man should be great at the two arts.
+
+In all ages when decorative art has flourished, ceilings have been
+decorated. The Egyptians decorated their ceilings, so did the Greeks,
+the Byzantines, the Moors, and the people of our Middle Ages, and a
+light ceiling appears not to have been esteemed as essential, or as in
+many cases desirable. It is strange that so few of our houses and
+public buildings contain rooms with decorated ceilings; but the want
+is already felt, the fashion has set in, and many are at this present
+moment being prepared. We must get simple modes of enrichment for
+general rooms--modes of treatment which shall be effective, and yet
+not expensive--and then we may hope that they will become general.
+
+
+DIVISION II.--DECORATIONS OF WALLS.
+
+We must now devote ourselves to the consideration of wall decoration,
+or to the manner in which ornament should be applied to walls with the
+view of rendering them decorative.
+
+It will appear absurd to say that all ornament that is applied to a
+wall should be such as will render the wall more beautiful than it
+would be without it; but this statement is needed, for I have seen
+many walls ornamented in such a manner, that they would have looked
+much better if they had been perfectly plain, and simply washed over
+with a tint of colour.
+
+To ornament is to beautify. To decorate is to ornament. But a surface
+cannot be beautified unless the forms which are drawn upon it are
+graceful, or bold, or vigorous, or true, and unless the colours
+applied to it are harmonious. Yet how many walls do we meet with even
+in good houses--walls of corridors, walls of staircases, walls of
+dining-rooms, walls of libraries, and, indeed, walls of every kind of
+room--which are rendered offensive, rather than pleasing, by the
+decorations they bear.
+
+A wall may look well without decoration strictly so called, and this
+statement leads me to notice the various ways in which walls may be
+treated with the view of rendering them beautiful.
+
+A wall may be simply tinted either with "distemper" colour, or oil
+colour "flatted." Distemper colour gives the best effect, and is much
+the cheapest, but it is not durable, and cannot be washed. Oil colour
+when flatted makes a nice wall, whether "stippled" or plain, and is
+both durable and washable. An entire wall should never be varnished.
+
+I say that a wall can look well even if not decorated. Let me give one
+or two instances; but, perhaps, I had better give treatments for the
+entire room, including the ceiling, and not for the wall simply.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.]
+
+A good effect of a very plain and inexpensive character would be
+produced by having a black skirting, a cream-colour wall (this colour
+to be made of the colour called middle-chrome and white, and to
+resemble in depth the best pure cream), a cornice coloured with pale
+blue of greyish tint, with deep blue, white, and a slight line of red,
+and a ceiling of blue of almost any depth. The ceiling colour to be
+pure French ultramarine, or this ultramarine mixed with white and a
+touch of raw umber (the cornice blues to be made in the same way). The
+red in the cornice to be deep vermilion if very narrow (one-sixteenth
+of an inch), or carmine if broad.[24]
+
+[24] In some parts of the country it is customary to wash the cornice
+over with quick-lime. If this has been done the lime must be carefully
+removed, for lime will turn carmine black.
+
+[Illustration: DECORATIVE DESIGN.
+
+_Illustrating Cornice, Ceiling & Wall Colouring._]
+
+A room of a slightly more decorative character would be produced by
+making the lower three feet of the wall of a different colour (by
+forming a dado) from the upper part of the wall: thus, if the other
+parts of the room were coloured as in the example just given, the
+lower three feet might be red (vermilion toned to a rich Indian red
+with ultramarine blue) or chocolate (purple-brown and white, with a
+little orange-chrome); this lower portion of the wall being separated
+from the upper cream-coloured portion by a line of black an inch
+broad, or better by a double line, the upper line being an inch broad,
+and the lower line three-eighths of an inch, the lines being separated
+from each other by five-eighths of the red or chocolate.
+
+I like the formation of a dado, for it affords an opportunity of
+giving apparent stability to the wall by making its lower portion
+dark; and furniture is invariably much improved by being seen against
+a dark background. The occupants of a room always look better when
+viewed in conjunction with a dark background, and ladies' dresses
+certainly do. The dark dado gives the desired background without
+rendering it necessary that the entire wall be dark. If the furniture
+be mahogany, it will be wonderfully improved by being placed against a
+chocolate wall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
+
+The dado of a room need not be plain; indeed, it may be enriched to
+any extent. It may be plain with a bordering separating it from the
+wall, such as Figs. 57, 58, and 59, or the coloured border on Plate I.
+(frontispiece); or it may have a simple flower regularly dispersed
+over it; or it may be covered with a geometrical repeating pattern, in
+either of which cases it would have a border; or it may be enriched
+with a specially designed piece of ornament, as Fig. 60. This
+particular pattern should not, however, be enlarged to a height of
+more than twenty to twenty-four inches; but if of this width, and
+above a skirting of twelve or fifteen inches, it would look well.
+
+I have designed two or three narrow dado papers for Messrs. Wylie and
+Lockhead, of Glasgow, which are about eighteen inches broad, and are
+printed in the direction of the length of the paper, so as to save
+unnecessary joins; and Messrs. Jeffrey and Co., of Essex Road,
+Islington, are issuing a complete series of my decorations for walls,
+dados, and ceilings.
+
+If the dado is enriched with ornament, and the cornice is coloured,
+and a pattern spreads all over the ceiling, the walls can well be
+plain, but they may be covered with a simple "powdering" as the
+patterns in Fig. 6l, if these are in soft colours, or with patterns
+such as those set forth in colours on Plate I.; but these, especially
+that on the blue ground, would only be used where a very rich effect
+is desired.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.]
+
+A good room would be produced by pattern Fig. 52 being on the ceiling
+in dark blue and cream-colour, by the cornice being coloured with a
+prevalence of dark blue, the walls being cream-colour down to the
+dado; the border separating the dado from the wall being black
+ornament on a dull orange-colour; and by the dado being chocolate with
+a black rosette upon it; the skirting boards being bright black. The
+dado may or may not be varnished; the upper part of the wall can only
+be "dead" (not varnished--dull). If the room is high a bordering may
+run round the upper portion of the wall, about three to four inches
+below the cornice; such a border as Fig. 62 may he employed in dull
+orange and chocolate.
+
+A citrine wall comes well with a deep blue, or blue and white ceiling,
+if blue prevails in the cornice, and this wall may have a dark blue
+(ultramarine and black with a little white) dado, or a rich maroon
+dado (brown-lake). If the blue dado is employed the skirting should be
+indigo, which, when varnished and seen in conjunction with the blue,
+will appear as black as jet. (See the coloured examples on Plate II.,
+and remarks on colour on pages 45 and 46.)
+
+Walls are usually papered in middle-class houses. I must not object to
+this universal custom; but I do say, try to avoid showing the joinings
+of the various strips. In all cases where possible cut the paper to
+the pattern, and not in straight lines, for straight joinings are very
+objectionable. If you use paper for walls, use it artistically, and
+not as so much paper. Let a dado be formed of one paper, the dado
+bordering (dado rail) of a suitable paper bordering; the upper part of
+the wall being covered by another paper of simple and just design, and
+of such colour as shall harmonise with the dado. Proceed as an artist,
+and not as a mere workman. Think out an ornamental scheme, and then
+try to realise the desired effect. Avoid all papers in which huge
+bunches of flowers and animals or the human figure are depicted. The
+best for all purposes are those of a simple geometrical character, or
+in which designs similar to those in Fig. 6l are "powdered" or placed
+at regular intervals over a plain ground.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
+
+Just as the ceiling ornament must accord in character with the
+architecture of the room in which it is placed, so must the wall
+decoration be of the same style as the architecture of the room.
+Indeed, whatever we have said respecting the harmony of the ceiling
+decoration with the architecture of the building, applies equally to
+the ornamentation of the wall.
+
+It has been customary to arrange walls into panels when decorating
+them, and of this mode of treatment we give one illustration (Fig.
+63); yet nothing can be more absurd than such a treatment, unless the
+wall is architecturally (structurally) arched. A wall may be so formed
+that some parts are thick, so as to give the required strength, while
+other portions are thin. In such a case the wall would be formed of
+arched recesses and thickened piers alternately. This being the case,
+the decoration should be so applied as to emphasise, or render
+apparent, this arched structure; but if the wall is of one thickness
+throughout, its division into arches is absurd and foolish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+We sometimes see great follies, and even gross untruths, perpetrated
+with the view of bringing about the so-called decoration of a room.
+Thus it is not unfrequently that we meet with imitation pillars,
+recesses, and arches as the so-called ornamentation of a room.
+
+In low music halls we are not surprised by such decorations, for we do
+not look for truth or any manifestation of delicacy of feeling in such
+places. Falsity and the untrue appear in natural juxtaposition with
+the debased and the vulgar. Sham marble pillars, a fictitious and
+merely imitative architecture, an assumed and unreal, yet coarse and
+vulgar, gorgeousness, are the natural adjuncts of immorality and vice;
+but such falsities cannot be tolerated in the abodes of those who
+pretend to purity and truth, nor in the buildings which they frequent;
+yet even the new Albert Hall has sham marble pillars (I say this to
+our shame), and but recently I visited a church near Edgware, in which
+there is a display of false decoration such as I never before saw.
+Here we find sham pillars, giving a false architecture; sham niches,
+containing sham statues; sham clouds, forming an absurd ceiling; and
+almost every falsity which a falsely constituted mind could
+perpetrate.
+
+How strange it is that in a church, where purity and truth are taught,
+the whole of the decorations should be a sham! It is said that if you
+want to hear a fierce quarrel, and to see true hatred, you must seek
+it in religious sects and among theological discussionists. On the
+same principle, I suppose, we must prepare ourselves for a display of
+the worst art-falsity in the sacred edifice. Perhaps the idea is that
+of contrast. As the teetotal lecturer had a drunken man by him as a
+frightful example of what was to be avoided, so the decorations of
+this church may be intended as a warning, rather than as an example of
+what should be followed. Happily such churches as this are rare, and
+it can be truly said that ecclesiastical architecture and decoration
+has made great strides with us in recent years, and that in very many
+instances it is rigidly truthful as well as beautiful.
+
+Before leaving the consideration of wall decorations, I must object to
+all imitations, as sham marbles, granites, etc., for no wall can be
+satisfactory which is to any extent a display of false grandeur; and
+this is curious, that in many cases it costs more to produce an
+imitation marble staircase than it would to line the same walls with
+the marbles imitated. I have known a case in which the imitation has
+cost double what the genuine stone would have cost, and such a case is
+not exceptional, for hand-polished work is always expensive. To
+imitations of marbles and granites, as I have already said, I strongly
+object, and of the genuine stone I am not fond, unless sparingly and
+judiciously used. My objections to its free use are these:--1st.
+Harmony of colour depends upon great exactness of tint. This exactness
+is rarely attainable in the case of two marbles. One stone may,
+however, be brought into direct and perfect harmony with a coloured
+wall, by the tint of the wall being carefully suited to the marble.
+2nd. The true artist thinks less of the costliness of the material of
+which he forms his works than of the art-effect produced. Thus the old
+Greeks, who were full of art-feeling and refinement, coloured the
+buildings which they constructed of white marble, and they certainly
+thereby improved them; for colour, if harmoniously employed, lends to
+objects a new charm--a charm which they would not without it possess.
+I must further say, before leaving our present subject, that all
+walls, however decorated, should serve as a background to whatever
+stands in front of them. Thus they must retire even behind the
+furniture by their unobtrusiveness.
+
+The order of arrangement in furnishing must be this. The living beings
+in a room should be most attractive and conspicuous, and the dress of
+man should be of such a character as to secure this. Ladies can now
+employ any amount of colour in their attire; but poor man, however
+noble, cannot by his dress be distinguished from his butler; and,
+worst of all, both are dressed in an unbecoming and inartistic manner.
+Next come the furniture and draperies--the one or the other having
+prominence according to circumstances; then come the wall and floor,
+both of which are to serve as backgrounds to all that stands in front
+of them. In decorating walls, or in judging of the merit or
+suitability of wall decorations, this must always be taken into
+consideration, that they are but enriched backgrounds; and it should
+also be remembered that the nature of the enrichment applied is
+determined, to a great extent, by the character of the architecture of
+the building of which the wall forms a part.
+
+We come now to consider wall-papers, which are hangings prepared with
+the view of enabling us to decorate our walls at comparatively small
+cost. I may confess that I am not very fond of wall-papers under any
+circumstances. I prefer a tinted or painted wall. Yet they are largely
+used, and will be for a long time to come. I have already said that if
+wall-papers are used they should not be joined together with straight
+lines, and that we ought to consider them as so much art-material
+which should be used artistically.
+
+As to the nature of the pattern which a wall-paper should have, it is
+almost impossible to speak, as there are endless varieties; but as a
+rule it may be said that those consisting of small, simple, repeated
+parts, which are low-toned or neutral in colour, are the best. Most
+wall-paper patterns are larger than is desirable. The pattern can
+scarcely be too simple, and it should in all cases consist of flat
+ornament.
+
+If the ornament is very good, and the pattern is the work of a true
+artist, it may be larger, for then the parts will be balanced and
+harmonised in a manner that could not be expected from a less skilful
+hand; but even if by the most talented designer, it must ever be
+remembered that he has designed it at random, and not as a suitable
+decoration for any particular room. The man who selects the pattern
+for a particular wall must choose that which is suitable to the
+special case.
+
+The effect of a wall-paper is materially affected by many
+circumstances. Thus, by the quantity of light admitted to the
+room--whether the room is dark or light; by the aspect, whether it
+receives the sun's rays direct or does not; by the character of the
+light, as whether direct from the sky, or reflected from a green lawn,
+or red-brick wall. All these things must be considered, and what looks
+well in the pattern-book may look bad on a wall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
+
+As to colour, the best wall-paper patterns are those which consist of
+somewhat strong colours in very small masses--masses so small that the
+general effect of the paper is rich, low-toned, and neutral, and yet
+has a glowing colour-bloom; but these are rarely to be met with.
+
+It was a fashion some time since to make wall-papers in imitation of
+woven fabrics, and this fashion has not wholly disappeared yet, absurd
+though it be. It arose through the accident of a designer of
+wall-paper patterns having been a shawl pattern designer, and having a
+number of small shawl patterns on hand, which he disposed of as
+wall-paper patterns. A pattern which is suitable for a woven fabric is
+rarely suitable to a printed fabric, and especially when the one
+pattern is to be seen in folds on a moving object, and the other flat
+on a fixed surface. And at all times imitation by one material of
+another is untruthful, and it becomes specially absurd when we think
+that almost every material is capable of producing some good
+art-effect which no other material can. We should always seek to make
+each material as distinctive in its art-character as we can, and to
+cause each to appear as beautiful as possible in that particular
+manner in which it can most naturally be worked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
+
+A word should be said about the particular character which a
+wall-paper pattern should have, but the remarks which I am now about
+to make will apply equally to all patterns employed as wall
+decorations. If we view trees or plants, as we see them against the
+sky as a background, they are objects which point upwards and have a
+bilateral symmetry--their halves are alike (Figs. 64 and 65)--or are
+more or less irregular in form, and when seen in this view we may
+regard them as natural wall decorations. Our wall patterns, then, may
+point upwards, as in Fig. 61, and be bilateral or otherwise; but it
+must be remembered that when the flowers of a primrose protrude from a
+bank they are regular radiating, or star, ornaments. I think that it
+is legitimate for us to use on a wall star, or regular radiating
+ornaments, as well as those having an upward tendency.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
+
+I have said that when seen from the side plants are bilateral, or are
+more or less irregular. As I have referred to plants as furnishing us
+with types of ornament, I should not be doing rightly were I to leave
+this statement in its present form; for the tendency of the vital
+force of all plants is to produce structures of rigidly symmetrical
+character; but insects, which eat buds and leaves, and blights, winds,
+and frosts, so act upon plants as to destroy their normal symmetry,
+hence we find an apparent want of symmetry in the arrangement of the
+parts of plants.
+
+Respecting the colouring of cornices, a few words should be said. 1st.
+Bright colours may here be employed. 2nd. As a rule, get red in shadow
+or in shade, blue on flat or hollow surfaces, especially those that
+recede from the eye, and yellow on rounded advancing members. 3rd. Use
+for red either vermilion or carmine; for blue, ultramarine either pure
+or with white; for yellow, middle chrome much diluted with white. 4th.
+Use red very sparingly, blue abundantly, the pale yellow in medium
+quantity.
+
+Besides primary colours, none others need be used on the cornice. It
+is a mistake to use many, or dull, colours, here, but gold may be used
+instead of yellow. With the view of explaining the principles which we
+have just enunciated by diagrams, we give four illustrations (Figs.
+66, 67, 68, 69), which I advise the student to try and colour in
+accordance with the principles just set forth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+CARPETS.
+
+
+It is not my intention in this chapter to consider in detail the
+various kinds of carpet which are common in our market, nor even to
+review the history of their manufacture, interesting as it would be to
+do so; for we must confine ourselves more particularly to an
+examination of the art-qualities which they present, and to the
+particular form of pattern which may be applied to them with
+advantage.
+
+Although we cannot here enter into a consideration of the manufacture
+of carpets, I cannot too strongly recommend all who intend preparing
+designs for them to consider minutely the powers of the carpet loom;
+for the nature of the effect produced will depend to a large extent
+upon the knowledge which the designer possesses of the capabilities of
+the manufacture for which he designs patterns. In the case of any
+manufacture it is highly desirable, if not absolutely essential, that
+the designer of the patterns to be wrought should be acquainted with
+the process by which his design is to be converted into the particular
+material for which the pattern has been prepared; for this knowledge,
+even when not absolutely essential, gives an amount of freedom and
+power which nothing else can supply.
+
+The carpets most extensively in use are "Brussels;" but there are many
+other kinds both of better and inferior qualities. "Kidderminster
+carpet" (a carpet not now made by even one Kidderminster manufacturer)
+is a common fabric suited to the bedrooms of middle-class houses; but
+the art-capabilities of this material are very small, as it can only
+have two colours in any line running throughout its length. This
+carpet consists of two thicknesses, which are imperfectly united, and
+is not durable. "Brussels carpeting," now made chiefly in Great
+Britain, is a good carpet for general purposes. Its surface consists
+of loops, and it may have five, or, if made of extra quality, six
+colours in any line running throughout its length. If with five
+colours in the same line the carpet will, in a sense, consist of five
+thicknesses of worsted; yet these are united into one fabric. In some
+cases a "Brussels carpet" is woven of very close texture, with the
+loops cut through; thus we have a "velvet pile" or "Wilton carpet"--a
+fabric which is very rich-looking, and durable.
+
+Those called real "Axminster" carpets are, perhaps, the best made.
+They are formed by the knotting together of threads by hand,
+consequently any number of colours may be used in their formation; but
+such are necessarily most costly. A "patent Axminster" carpet is made
+by a double process of hand-weaving, by which fine results are
+achieved, and any number of colours used. In the first weaving a rough
+"cloth" is formed, which is cut into strips called "chenille threads,"
+and these are again woven into the carpet. This process is most
+ingenious, and the carpets produced by it are very good; but they are
+costly.
+
+Some few years since a most ingenious process of manufacturing what
+are known as "tapestry" carpets was patented--a process resembling in
+its nature that of the patent Axminster manufacture, but differing in
+this particular, that the "warp" threads are coloured by printing, and
+thus the first process of weaving is dispensed with. These carpets
+are, like Brussels, made with a looped surface, and also with a pile.
+They cannot be said to compare in any way with the patent Axminster
+carpets, which are of a pretentious and costly character, nor even
+with a good "Brussels;" but they are low in price, and meet a want, as
+is proved by their enormous sale.
+
+Besides these varieties of carpet there are a number of kinds of
+foreign production, most of which are hand-made, and are very
+beautiful. By far the greater number of these have a "pile," although
+this is sometimes rough and uneven, yet rarely, if ever, inartistic;
+but a few are without pile; still these are not without that
+indescribable something which renders them estimable in the eye of an
+artist.
+
+Having hastily noticed the chief kinds of carpet in use in this
+country, and we might say in almost all countries, we come to the
+question--what form of pattern, or what character of ornament, should
+form the "enrichment" of such a fabric?
+
+When speaking in a previous chapter (see page 92) of wall decorations,
+we noticed that a wall-paper pattern, or, indeed, a wall pattern of
+any kind, might desirably have an upward direction and a bilateral
+symmetry. This can never be the case, however, with a carpet pattern,
+which must be equally extended all over the surface, or have a simple
+radiating symmetry, as Fig. 56; and this rule will apply whether the
+pattern be simple or complicated. It is not wrong, as we have said
+before, to have a radiating pattern on a wall, but it is wrong to have
+a bilateral pattern on a floor.
+
+The reason of this is obvious. If such an object as we have indicated
+is placed on a wall, from whatever point the occupants of the room may
+view it, it is yet right way upwards to them; but if such an object
+were placed on a floor it would be wrong way upwards, or sideways, or
+oblique to most of those who viewed it; and to employ a pattern of
+this character in such a position is highly absurd, when a pattern can
+as readily be formed which will avoid this unpleasantness. What would
+we think were we asked to view a picture, or even to visit an
+apartment containing such, were this work of art presented to our view
+in an inverted manner? We should feel astonished at the absurdity; yet
+this would be no worse than expecting us to view a carpet while the
+pattern is to us in an inverted position.
+
+And the principle which we have just set forth is one taught by a
+consideration of plants. If we wander over the moor, where we tread
+on Nature's carpet, we find that all the little plants which nestle in
+the short mossy grass are "radiating ornaments"--that is, they are
+pretty objects which consist of parts spreading regularly from a
+centre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
+
+I cannot too strongly advise the young ornamentist to study the
+principles on which Nature works. Knowledge of the laws which govern
+the development of plant-growth is very desirable; but it is not our
+place to _imitate_ even the most beautiful of plant-forms--this being
+the work of the pictorial artists. Yet it is ours to study Nature's
+laws, and to observe all her beauty, even to her most subtle effects,
+and then we may safely pillage from her all that we can _consistently_
+adapt to our own purposes. But in order that we produce ornament, we
+must infuse mind or soul into whatever we borrow from her. (See page
+2.)
+
+With the view of more fully impressing the manner in which Nature
+teaches us principles which we may apply in art, and of aiding the
+student in his inquiries, we will give one or two illustrations. Thus
+Fig. 64 is a drawing of a spray of the guelder rose (_Viburnum
+opulus_) when seen from the side, or, as I might express it, when
+viewed as a wall decoration; and Fig. 70 is the same spray as seen
+from above, or, to use the same manner of expression, when seen as a
+floor pattern. Further, Fig. 71 represents a young plant of a species
+of speedwell (_Veronica_) as a wall ornament, and Fig. 72, the same
+plant when seen as a floor ornament; and Figs. 65 and 73 represent a
+portion of the goosegrass (_Galium Aparine_) as seen in the same two
+views.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
+
+From these illustrations we see that plants furnish us with types of
+two essentially different ornaments, which are adapted to the
+decoration of the two positions of wall and floor, and may be
+introduced with truthful expression and effect into wall-paper or
+carpet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.]
+
+Even when the leaves appear somewhat dispersed upon the stem, a
+principle of order can yet be distinctly traced in the manner of their
+arrangement, as is diagrammatically expressed in Figs. 74, 75, 76; and
+here, also, the top view gives us a regular radiating ornament.[25]
+
+[25] The spray here represented is that of the oak, and the diagram
+(Fig. 74) shows the orderly spiral manner in which the leaves spring
+from the stem.
+
+The same law prevails in the flower that we have traced as existing in
+the arrangement of leaves upon the stem: thus Fig. 77, which
+represents the London pride (_Saxifraga umbrosa_), affords an example
+of a regular radiating flower, which we find so placed, in different
+examples, as to appear as a floor or wall ornament; and Figs. 78 and
+79, the former being the flower of the speedwell (Veronica), and the
+latter that of the common pansy (_Viola tricolor_), furnish us with
+illustrations of bilateral flowers intended only as wall ornaments. In
+order to secure our seeing the pansy only laterally, it is furnished
+with a bent stalk; hence it never rests horizontally upon the summit
+of its stem, but always hangs so that it is perfectly seen only from
+the side.
+
+There are cases, however, in which bilateral flowers are placed
+horizontally; but it is very interesting to notice that when this
+occurs the disposition or arrangement of the flowers is such as to
+restore the radiating symmetry. Thus, if we take the candytuft
+(_Iberis_) or the common hemlock (_Conium_), we find that while each
+flower is bilateral in character, the flowers are yet arranged around
+a centre in such a manner that the smaller portion of each flower
+points to the centre of the flower-head, while the larger parts point
+outwards from the centre of the group. These, then, are the teachings
+of plants, to which we are called upon to hearken.
+
+The above illustrations are not only useful examples of the
+suggestions of plant-forms to the ornamentist, but form excellent
+material to the art-student for the conventional treatment of leaves
+and sprays, buds and blossoms. They will also serve to indicate the
+kind of plant-forms that should be chosen for decorative purposes.
+Students of this branch of art would find it a useful practice to make
+a collection of flowers and plants or parts of plants that appear to
+offer features similar to those of which we have been writing, and
+test their capabilities for decorative purposes, by endeavouring to
+arrange them for the ornamentation of wall and floor, as we have
+treated the plant-forms indicated in this chapter.
+
+We have now seen the principle on which all carpet patterns should be
+constructed as distinctive from wall patterns, and in order to impress
+the necessity of giving a radiating basis to the ornaments placed upon
+carpets, and not a bilateral structure, we have referred to the
+principle of plant growth, where we noticed that all plants, when
+viewed as floor ornaments (when viewed from above), are of a radiating
+character; whereas if they are seen as wall or vertical ornaments,
+they are either radiating or bilateral. This is a necessity of a
+carpet pattern, that it have a radiating structure, or, in other
+words, that it point in more than two directions.
+
+Man naturally accustomed to tread on grass, when brought into a state
+of civilisation, seeks some covering for his floor which shall be
+softer to the tread and richer in colour than stone or brick. And in
+our northern climate he seeks also warmth; hence he chooses not a mere
+matting, or lattice of reeds, but a covering such as shall satisfy his
+requirements.
+
+In early times our floors appear to have been strewn with sand--a
+custom still lingering in some country districts; then came the habit
+of strewing reeds over the floor, and on the part of the opulent,
+sweet-scented reeds (_Acorus calamus_). And it is curious to notice,
+in connection with this subject, that one of the charges brought by
+Henry VIII. against Cardinal Wolsey was that of extravagance in the
+use of sweet reeds. This use of reeds was succeeded by the employment
+of mats of simple appearance, formed of a kind of grass, and these by
+the introduction of wool mats, which, at first, were chiefly imported,
+but afterwards manufactured in our own country. The wool mats were in
+their turn replaced by carpets, which gradually increased in size till
+their proportions became such as to cover the entire floor on which
+they were placed.
+
+This brief history brings us to notice what is required of a
+carpet:--it should be soft in texture, rich in appearance, and of
+"bloomy" effect.
+
+We may add to these requirements by saying that a carpet should also
+be a suitable background to all works of furniture or other objects
+placed upon it, and that in character it should accord with the
+objects with which it is associated in any particular apartment.
+
+Considering more fully these requirements, we notice that a carpet
+should be soft. This is very desirable, for softness gives a sense of
+comfort, and with softness is generally combined durability of the
+fabric; but softness can scarcely be regarded as an art-quality. Yet
+as the art which an object bears is more leniently viewed when the
+fitness of the object to the purpose for which it is intended is
+apparent, we may safely regard softness as a very desirable quality of
+a carpet.
+
+The Eastern carpets are pre-eminent in this quality of softness, and
+of English-made carpets "Brussels" and tapestry are the least
+satisfactory in this way; as usually made, they have a hard "backing."
+A kind of Brussels carpeting with a soft back has recently been
+brought out, but at present it is not general in the trade. If the
+carpet employed in any apartment as a floor covering is harsh in
+character, it is desirable to place soft felt under it (felt for this
+purpose can be got at carpet warehouses), or evenly spread soft hay,
+for by so doing the wear of the fabric will be greatly increased, and
+the pleasure of walking on it will also be correspondingly greater.
+
+The next quality of a carpet is richness. No carpet is satisfactory
+which is "washy" or faded in appearance. There must be "depth" of
+effect, a "fulness" of art-quality. Hangings may be delicate,
+wall-decorations soft in tint, but a carpet must be rich and "full" in
+effect, yet a general softness of tone is desirable.
+
+But this richness must be of singular character, for the most
+desirable effect which a carpet can present is that of a glowing
+neutral bloom.
+
+I hope that my language does not appear mystical to the general reader
+or young student. To the ornamentist I think it will be intelligible.
+What I wish to say is that the effect should be glowing, or radiant,
+or bright, as opposed to dull, quiet, or heavy; that it should be such
+as results from the use of a predominance of bright and warm colours,
+rather than of cold and neutral hues; that it should be neutral,
+inasmuch as it should not present large masses of positive colour, hut
+should have an equality of rich harmonious colours throughout; that it
+should be "bloomy," or have the effect of a garden full of flowers, or
+better, of the slope of a Swiss alp, where the flowers combine to form
+one vast harmonious "glow" of colour. This is the effect which a
+carpet should present, yet it should never present flowers,
+imitatively rendered, as its ornamentation. Such imitative renderings
+are not to be produced by the ornamentist; they must come from the
+pictorial artist, for they are pictures. They cannot form suitable
+backgrounds to furniture and living objects, for they are positive,
+and not neutral, in their general effect. A picture, also, will not
+bear repetition: whoever heard of one person having two copies of the
+same picture in one room? Yet a pictorial group of flowers may be
+seen repeated many times over a floor, which is very objectionable.
+The effect to be produced is that of a rich "colour-bloom;" but the
+skilled ornamentist will achieve this without violating any laws of
+fitness, and will gently and delicately hint at the beauty of a
+profusion of blossom through his tenderly formed pattern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
+
+Yet a carpet must be neutral in its general effect, as it is the
+background on which objects rest. Neutrality of effect is of two
+kinds. Large masses of tertiary or neutral colours will achieve its
+production, so also will the juxtaposition of the primary colours in
+small quantities, either alone or with the secondary colours, and
+black or white; but there will be this difference between the two
+effects--that produced by low-toned colours will be simply neutral,
+while that produced by the primary colours will be "bloomy" as well as
+neutral, and if yellows and reds slightly predominate in the
+intermingling of colours, the effect will be glowing or radiant.
+
+The radiant, or glowing, bloomy neutrality of effect is that which it
+is most desirable that a carpet should present.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
+
+This effect is rarely produced in English carpets, owing either to the
+want of skill on the part of the ornamentist, who is unable to produce
+such works; the want of judgment on the part of the manufacturer,
+whereby he fails to produce such patterns; or the want of taste on the
+part of the consumer, owing to which he buys works of a more vulgar
+character. I have designed carpets in which I have sought to realise
+as much of this effect as I could with six colours--the number to
+which I have been limited by the conditions of manufacture, and
+fortunately these appear to be commanding a large sale, and to be
+setting a fashion in carpets; but those who wish to study these bloomy
+effects in their more perfect forms, must do so in the carpets of
+India, Persia, Smyrna, and Morocco, but especially in the Indian rugs.
+
+Some of the carpets from India are perfect marvels of colour-harmony,
+and of radiant bloom. They appear to glow as a bed of flowers in the
+sunshine, and yet they are neutral in their general effect, and when
+placed in an apartment do not usurp a primary place, as does any
+pictorially treated pattern.
+
+This "bloom" was seen to perfection in one or two silk rugs which were
+shown at the International Exhibition of 1862 in London, and it was
+not much less apparent in some of the carpets from India shown in the
+Paris Exhibition of 1867. Most Indian carpets have this colour-bloom
+to some extent, and few are unworthy of careful study.
+
+Persian carpets (Fig. 80) are also models of what carpets should be;
+they are less radiant than many of the Indian works, but are almost
+more mingled in colour-effect. In pattern many of the Indian and
+Persian carpets are identical, being traditional, yet in colour they
+differ, and both are worthy of much consideration.
+
+The Morocco carpets (Fig. 81) differ again from both those of India
+and Persia, and even to a greater degree than the Persian carpet
+differs from the Indian. In these there is often a prevalence of soft
+yellows and juicy yellow-greens, intermingled with reds, blues, and
+grey-whites, in such a manner as to produce a most harmonious and
+artistic effect. To the young student, and to any who may desire to
+cultivate his taste in respect to such matters, I say, Study the
+carpets of the East most carefully, especially those of India, Persia,
+and Morocco.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.]
+
+Indian carpets, such as we have just referred to, may be seen at the
+museum in the building of the new India Office at Whitehall, which
+museum is open free to the public (for examples, see Figs. 82, 83,
+84).
+
+As to the nature of the pattern which may be applied to a carpet, we
+have "all-over" patterns, or patterns spreading regularly all over the
+surface; "geometrical" patterns, or those which have an apparent
+regularity of structure; and panel patterns, or those in which
+particular parts are, as it were, framed off from other parts.
+
+First, as to "all-over" patterns. These are what we almost always find
+in both Indian and Persian carpets, and are, undoubtedly, the true
+form of decoration for a woven floor covering. What is desirable is an
+evenly spread pattern, such as will give richness without destroying
+the unity of the entire effect. The pattern may have parts slightly
+accentuated or emphasised beyond other parts, but not strongly so, and
+this emphasising of parts must be arranged with the view of securing
+to the pattern special interest. Thus, if a carpet is viewed at a
+distance it should not appear as devoid of all pattern, but through
+the slight predominance of certain leading features (in Indian
+carpets, generally of ornamental flowers) the plan of the design
+should be indicated. More detail should be apparent when the work is
+seen from a nearer point of view, and still more upon close
+inspection; but in no case should any parts appear strongly
+pronounced, or otherwise than refined and beautiful, and in no case
+should there be a want of interest manifested by the pattern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.]
+
+Carpet patterns are generally better if founded on a geometrical plan.
+In this way most of the Indian and Persian patterns are constructed. A
+geometrical plan secures to the design a manifestation of order and
+thought in its formation. Panel patterns, unless very carefully
+managed, become coarse. In some Indian carpets we find a sort of panel
+in which the colour of the ground is changed from that of the general
+ground of the carpet, but here the panel has usually a truly
+ornamental form, and is, indeed, rather a large ornament than a sort
+of frame enclosing a distinct space. Whenever a panel occurs in an
+Indian, Persian, or Moorish carpet, it is so managed, and its
+surroundings are such, as to cause it to appear as a part natural to
+the general design; but it is far otherwise with the panel patterns
+which we occasionally see in our shop-windows as the produce of native
+industry, and it is far otherwise with those which are used in vast
+quantities by the Americans. Judging from the carpets which they
+order, I imagine that nowhere on earth is taste in matters of
+decorative art so depraved as it is in America. It is true that the
+great floral patterns have ceased to be demanded by them, but they are
+only replaced by coarse, raw-looking panel patterns, coloured in the
+most vulgar manner, and without even a hint at refinement or harmony
+of colour. Let the pattern be "loud" and inharmoniously coloured, and
+the chances of its sale in the American market are great.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.]
+
+But we must not forget that even in our own country bad patterns sell
+equally as well as good, inartistic patterns as well as those which
+are of a more refined character, and that even here in Great Britain
+more of the indifferent, if not of the very bad, sells than of the
+good. Let us cast the beam, then, from our own eye, before we try to
+extract it from that of another.
+
+The ground colour of a carpet may vary much, as we all know; it may be
+black, blue, red, green, or white, or any other colour. If the ground
+of a carpet is pure white, it is almost impossible that it look well.
+When I make this assertion I am often told that some of the Indian
+carpets which I so much admire have white grounds. This is a mistake.
+Some of them have light grounds, but not pure white. They have light
+cream-grey, or green-white grounds, but not pure white, and this
+variety of tone altogether alters the case. Yet even with a
+light-toned ground it is not an easy matter to make a carpet which
+shall appear as a suitable background to the furniture of a room; it
+can be done, but it is a thing difficult to achieve. The safest and
+best ground for a carpet is black or indigo blue. If on this a closely
+fitting, well-studied pattern be arranged, drawn in small masses of
+bright colour, a beautiful bloomy effect may be achieved, and a glance
+at our best shop-windows will show that the most satisfactory carpets
+are coloured in this way.
+
+As to the size of the pattern we can say but little, as this will be
+determined by the coarseness or fineness of the fabric. In a Brussels
+carpet each stitch is about the one-tenth of an inch square. In some
+Turkey carpets each stitch is a quarter of an inch square. It is
+obvious that a much smaller and finer pattern can be produced in
+Brussels than in Turkey carpet.
+
+A carpet pattern is best small, or at least small in detail if not in
+the extent of the design. A pattern may repeat three or four times in
+the width of the fabric (twenty-seven inches if Brussels), or but one
+figure may be shown, yet in this latter case the detail of the pattern
+may be as great as in the former. That degree of smallness which is
+compatible with tolerable distinctness of detail is desirable. For
+this reason Turkey carpets are not altogether satisfactory; no fine
+pattern can be worked in them, and besides this they have no
+colour-bloom and little colour-harmony. In some respects they are
+good, but altogether they are not satisfying.
+
+Before I close these remarks upon carpets, let me say that, as
+designers, manufacturers, and consumers, we are one and all timid of
+new things. We want daring--the energy to produce new things, to
+manufacture them, to use them. What if the pattern is "extreme," if it
+is better than others? what if Mrs. Grundy should think us
+eccentric?--better be eccentric than ever harping on one monotony. If
+we could but bear calmly the derisive smiles of the ignorant,
+art-progress would be easy.
+
+With us carpets cover the entire floor. In London these carpets are
+nailed to the boards, and but seldom taken up. In some parts of
+England we find rings sewn around the under edge of the carpet, which
+rings are looped to the heads of nails. Carpets so furnished can be
+more readily removed for cleaning than those which are nailed to the
+floor. Square carpets, such as the Turkey, Indian, and Persian, are
+spread loosely on the boards, and can be taken up and shaken without
+difficulty. This is unquestionably the most healthy plan of using a
+carpet, and it is also an artistic plan. If the outer portion of the
+room floor is formed of inlaid wood of simple and suitable pattern,
+and a loose square carpet is spread in the centre, we have an artistic
+effect, and the desirable knowledge that cleanliness is also
+attainable with a reasonable expenditure of labour.
+
+Before we leave the consideration of carpets we will state in
+axiomatic form the conditions which govern the application of ornament
+to them, as reference can more easily be made to short concise
+sentences than to more extended remarks.
+
+1st. Carpet patterns may with advantage have a geometrical formation,
+for this gives to the mind an idea of order or arrangement.
+
+2nd. When the pattern has not a geometrical basis, a general evenness
+of surface should be preserved.
+
+3rd. Carpets are better not formed into "panels," as though they were
+works of wood or stone; on the contrary, they should have a general
+"all-over" effect without any great accentuation of particular parts.
+The Indian and Persian carpets meet this requirement.
+
+4th. While a carpet should present a general appearance of evenness,
+parts may yet be slightly "pronounced" or emphasised, so as to give to
+the mind the idea of centres from which the pattern radiates.
+
+5th. A carpet should, in some respects, resemble a bank richly covered
+with flowers; thus, when seen from a distance the effect should be
+that of a general "bloom" of colour; when viewed from a nearer point
+it should present certain features of somewhat special interest; and
+when looked at closely new beauties should make their appearance.
+
+6th. As a floor is a flat surface, no ornamental covering placed on it
+should make it appear otherwise.
+
+7th. A carpet, having to serve as a background to furniture, should be
+of a somewhat neutral character.
+
+8th. Every carpet, however small, should have a border, which is as
+necessary to it as a frame is to a picture.
+
+Having thus summarised the principles that govern the application of
+ornament to carpets, we may proceed to notice the conditions governing
+the decoration of other woven fabrics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+CURTAIN MATERIALS, HANGINGS, AND WOVEN FABRICS GENERALLY.
+
+
+In the consideration of hangings of various kinds, we have first to
+notice the nature of the cloth on which the pattern is to be
+worked--whether it is of open or close texture. Fabrics of an open
+character should bear upon them a larger pattern than those which are
+thicker or closer. The openness or closeness of the fabric will thus
+determine, to an extent, the nature of the ornament which is to be
+placed upon it. Muslins, being open in character, should have larger
+patterns than calicoes, which are closer in texture, or the pattern
+will be indistinct in the one case or coarse in the other.
+
+But not only does texture influence the pattern when considered as to
+coarseness or fineness, but also the nature of the cloth as regards
+material. Thus silk will bear greater fulness of colour than muslins
+or calico-prints, owing to the fact that the lustre of the material,
+by reflecting light to the eye of the observer, destroys a certain
+portion of the intensity of the effect of colour which a less
+reflective material would exhibit. Silk, as a material, also conveys
+to the mind an idea of costliness or worth, and wherever the material
+does so the pattern may be richer in colour than it should be in
+cheaper and commoner fabrics. If a pattern is in two tints of the same
+colour only, as in the case of those woven silks where the pattern is
+formed by the contrast of "tabby" and satin, it may be considerably
+larger than in those cases where it is rendered conspicuous by
+colours.
+
+This latter remark will apply also to damask table-linen, and to all
+similar materials, as well as to dress fabrics, and draperies such as
+window hangings; but of these we shall say a word shortly.
+
+The closeness or openness of a fabric should, then, be considered when
+we design patterns for its enrichment, and so should the nature of the
+material, as this will influence its deadness or lustre. But there are
+also other considerations which must not be lost sight of. If the
+pattern is to be wrought by printing, then one class of conditions
+must be complied with; if by weaving, then another class of
+requirements call for consideration.
+
+The requirements of manufacture are much more numerous than might be
+supposed, and are in some cases very restrictive. The size of the
+repeat, the manner in which colour can be applied, the character of
+surface attainable, and many other considerations have to be carefully
+complied with before a pattern can appear as a manufactured article.
+
+The chief fault of patterns, as applied to fabrics generally, is their
+want of simplicity--want of simple structure, want of simple
+treatment, want of simplicity of effect; and together with this we
+generally find largeness and coarseness of parts.
+
+These errors arise chiefly out of a want of consideration of the
+capabilities of the material. What can be done with this or that
+particular fabric, is a question that we should carefully ask
+ourselves before we think of preparing a design. Have we colour at our
+disposal, or texture merely? and if colour, can it be employed freely
+or only sparingly? and can any desired colours be placed in
+juxtaposition or only certain tints? These are questions of great
+importance, and they should be asked and carefully considered before
+the first step is taken towards the formation of a pattern. Having
+ascertained what can be done with the material at command, let us ever
+remember that we should always endeavour to so employ the capabilities
+of a material as to conceal its weakness and emphasise its more
+desirable effects. If this consideration were always given by
+designers to the power which the material has of yielding effects, we
+should see, in very many instances, effects strangely different from
+those which we often encounter; and this remark applies to no class of
+fabrics more fully than to damask table-linen and coloured damask
+window hangings.
+
+No satisfactory effect can be got in light and shade upon any woven or
+printed fabric; besides, to attempt such a mode of treatment is
+absurd. Light and shade belong only to pictorial art. The ornamentist
+when enriching a fabric deals only with a surface, and has no thought
+of placing pictures thereon; he has simply to enrich or beautify that
+which without his art would be plain and unornamental. A picture will
+never bear repetition. Who ever heard of a man having two copies of
+one picture in a room? Yet how much more absurd is it to repeat a
+little picture--perhaps a pictorially rendered flower--a hundred times
+over one surface! Besides this, a surface must always be treated, for
+decorative purposes, as a surface, and not in a manner calculated to
+deceive by giving apparent relief, or thickness, to that which is
+essentially without thickness. Take a common damask table-cover. This
+is by custom almost always white, although it would be better if of a
+deep cream-colour, or soft buff; and the pattern which it bears
+results from a change of surface only (why a margin of "ingrain"
+colour is not added, I could never see); yet in nine cases out of ten
+the pattern which is presented by such a fabric is a miserable shaded
+attempt at a pictorial treatment, and is also a thorough failure.
+
+Simplicity of pattern naturally accords with a simple mode of
+production, and the means of producing pattern in damasks is certainly
+most simple. That there is a natural harmony between simplicity of
+pattern and simple means of producing an art-effect is obvious, for of
+all patterns that I have ever seen upon damask table-linen the simple
+spot, or dot, is the most satisfactory. If, combined with this spot,
+we have a border formed of a simple Greek "key-pattern," or of mere
+lines (a very usual border to good cloths), the effect is perfectly
+satisfying, and, as far as it goes, is highly to be commended.
+
+It is curious that this spot is only sold in the better quality of
+table-linen (at least so they tell me in the City), and this shows
+that the wealthy, or, in other words, the educated, buy such patterns,
+as they prefer the true to the meretricious, while the false and showy
+devices which we see on the common cloths please only the common
+people of vulgar taste. I am not sure, however, that many persons,
+whose means are limited, would not buy spots and other simple, but
+correctly treated, patterns, if such were to be got in common
+qualities of damask; but when the pocket must govern the purchase, it
+is hard to say that the false is preferred to the true, if the true is
+not procurable with the means at command.
+
+While I cannot withhold praise from this little spot, it must not be
+thought that I thereby give to it a high place as an art-work. Little
+is here attempted, and that little is done well. But let us analyse
+this pattern. First, the spots are of one tint throughout, if I may
+thus express myself--a tint, shall we say, which is the reverse of
+that of the ground. It is not shaded so that it may appear as a ball
+or globe, and is not graduated in "colour" in any way (were it
+graduated or shaded, feebleness of effect must inevitably accrue), but
+is a simple, honest spot, treated as a surface ornament. Secondly,
+this spot is geometrically arranged, or, in other words, has an
+orderly arrangement.
+
+If an attempt is made at rendering a pictorial, or light-and-shade
+effect, in damask, an absurd failure can alone result, for depth of
+shade is not obtainable in the material; and, besides this, what
+appears as shade, when the cloth is seen from one point of view,
+appears as light if seen from another point of view. Nothing could be
+more absurd, then, than seeking to produce shaded effects with such
+means as are here at our disposal. But were the fabric capable of
+rendering such effects, it would still be wrong to employ them, as we
+deal only with the surface, and are seeking to enhance the value of,
+or beautify, a fabric, and not to cover it with pictures. In our
+simple spot we have those elements which may be extended into the
+richest and most artistic damask patterns. We have order--as indicated
+by the geometrical plan of the pattern--and an honest and simple
+expression, or application, of the capabilities of the material.
+
+All table-covers should certainly have a border. Any object which is
+to be used as a whole looks unsatisfactory if it appears as though it
+were part of a whole. If a cloth is without border it is impossible to
+avoid the impression that it is a part of a larger cloth, and in every
+respect the general effect is decidedly unsatisfactory.
+
+It is perhaps well that we notice one peculiarity of a table-cover
+before we dismiss the consideration of such fabrics, which is this,
+that while the central portion is seen flat, the border portion is
+viewed in folds; and here we come to one of the great peculiarities of
+most draperies, that of their being viewed not as flat surfaces, but
+in waves or folds. One portion of a table-cloth is, however, seen
+flat, but this is almost an exception in the case of draperies.
+Another exception to this rule of hangings appearing in folds, and
+that of a very complete character, occurs in silk damasks which are
+used as a rich lining to the walls of palaces and some mansions; but
+of table-cloths we will speak for the present.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.]
+
+The central part of a table-cloth, that portion which is always to be
+viewed as a flat surface, may be enriched with any diaper pattern
+that is simply treated, and this diaper pattern may be full of design,
+provided the parts are not too large or too small. It may also be
+formed of gracefully curved parts, or of straight lines or circles, or
+of any combination of these elements; but, preferably, not wholly of
+straight lines.
+
+Were it not for the fact that much of this central portion of the
+cloth is to be covered by articles of the dinner-table, it might well
+be furnished with a central ornament, repeating only in quarters; but
+as such an ornament, in order that it be satisfying, requires to be
+seen as a whole, it is not desirable that such be here employed. A
+diaper pattern that repeats many times in the centre is preferable, as
+the pattern can then be seen in a satisfactory manner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.]
+
+The border of a table-cloth, like all fabrics that are to be seen in
+folds, requires special treatment, for what looks well when seen as a
+flat surface may not look well when seen on a waved surface. Tender
+and graceful curves are lost when viewed upon folds, for they here
+appear as mere wormy lines. On the contrary, right lines, whether
+horizontal or diagonal, and circles, all look well when seen upon
+waved grounds. These lines become, owing to the folds of the fabric,
+curves of a subtle character. The manner in which lines become
+influenced by falling on a curved surface can be readily illustrated
+by forming semicircles of paper, and folding them into cones, after
+having drawn upon them a series of circles (Fig. 85) or straight lines
+(Fig. 86). If these cones (Figs. 87 and 88) are now viewed from above,
+or in such a manner that the eye rests over the apices, it will be
+seen that the circles have now become richly varied curves, each
+having somewhat the form of a blunt heart or cardioid (Fig. 89), and
+that the straight lines become horse-shoe-shaped (Fig. 90). These
+illustrations will be sufficient to show that what is plain when seen
+upon a flat surface may be delicate and satisfying if seen upon a
+curved surface; and will also lead us to understand that what may be
+delicate and refined when seen upon a flat surface may become feeble
+and unsatisfactory if falling upon a waved ground. I have said that
+stripes or straight lines, if _crossing_ a folded fabric, are
+satisfactory. This is so in almost all cases, the only exception being
+in ladies' dresses. Here lines crossing the fabric are not
+satisfactory, as they become rings around the body, which appear to
+divide it into hoop-like strata. The patterns of dresses _may_ consist
+of narrow, vertical stripes, as these are collected together at the
+waist of the figure, and fall into graceful curves with any motion of
+the body, but the very opposite is the case with window-hangings. All
+vertical stripes are here highly offensive, while horizontal stripes
+are thoroughly satisfactory.
+
+A consideration of the window-hanging materials made in Spain,
+Algeria, and on the Morocco coast, will show us the beauty of
+horizontal stripes; and in some of the little Algerian warehouses,
+such as we have in Regent Street, London, and in the Rue de Rivoli in
+Paris, we see some of these fabrics of a most interesting character.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.]
+
+To state in a concise form the laws which should govern the
+application of ornament to certain fabrics which are to be seen in
+folds, I should say--
+
+1st. Great simplicity of pattern is necessary.
+
+2nd. Circles, straight lines crossing the fabric, and diagonal lines
+are all correct in such a case, and are improved by the folds, which
+form them into subtle and beautiful curves (Fig. 91).
+
+3rd. If curves are tender and graceful, they become commonplace on a
+waved or folded ground.
+
+4th. The size of the pattern should be considered in relation to the
+size of the folds of the material.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93.]
+
+In Germany a kind of ornament is applied to rich stiff fabrics which
+is almost peculiar to the country. This ornament is rich, bold, hard
+or stiff in its lines, and in every way adapted for the decoration of
+a costly fabric which falls in large folds, the folds changing the
+hard and stiff lines into graceful curves. This should also be noted
+respecting these curious yet beautiful patterns, that they are always
+simple in plan, however rich in detail, and are invariably founded on
+a geometrical basis. "German Gothic" is a name by which such ornament
+may be distinguished (flat Gothic ornament has always been quite
+distinct from the stone and metal ornaments of Gothic buildings, which
+have solid and not merely superficial form), see Figs. 92 and 93. This
+particular class of ornament forms the background to many old
+pictures, a most interesting collection of which exists in the museum
+of Cologne, and is certainly worthy of the most careful study.
+
+As to flat silk wall-damasks, which are used in some of the
+upper-class houses as wall-papers are used in the middle-class houses,
+all that need be said is that they should be treated as wall
+decorations, and not as fabrics which are to be seen folded. Were I
+asked whether I approve of these damasks as wall coverings, I should
+say, "Certainly not." A wall is better treated as a wall, and not so
+covered with drapery as to leave space for vermin between the wall and
+its enrichment. There is also the further objection that the lines
+where the fabric is joined are visible, and these are most certainly
+objectionable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.]
+
+Besides the illustrations of German ornament just given, we figure
+also a specimen of Indian embroidery on cotton (Fig. 94). I cannot too
+strongly recommend the designer of patterns for woven goods to study
+the native fabrics of India, exhibited at the Indian Museum,
+Whitehall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.]
+
+Besides the collection here brought together, there is also in most of
+our manufacturing towns a large series of specimens of these cloths
+deposited with the Chamber of Commerce, and these can be consulted by
+all respectable members of the community. Speaking of these Indian
+fabrics, Mr. Redgrave says, in his Report on Design prepared for the
+Commissioners of the International Exhibition of 1851:--"These are
+almost wholly designed on the principles here presumed to be just
+ones--the ornament is always flat, and without shadow; natural
+flowers are never used imitatively or perspectively, but are
+conventionalised by being displayed flat and according to a
+symmetrical arrangement; and all other objects, even animals and
+birds, when used as ornament, are reduced to their simplest flat form.
+When colour is added, it is usually rendered by the simplest local
+hue, often bordered with a darker shade of the colour, to give it a
+clearer expression; but the shades of the flowers are rarely
+introduced. The cloth of gold figured in the loom (Fig. 95), and part
+of an Indian scarf (Fig. 96), illustrate fully these remarks. The
+ornament is geometrically and symmetrically arranged, flat, in simple
+tints, and bordered, as above described, with darker shades of the
+local colour. The principle of colour adopted is a balance of the
+complementaries red and green, in both cases with white introduced to
+give points of expression, and to lead the eye to the symmetrical
+arrangement of the ornament. In Fig. 95 purple is introduced to
+harmonise with the gold ground, a harmony very frequently used in the
+rich tissues of India. In Fig. 96 variety has been obtained by
+introducing two reds, giving an interchange of a lighter tint in every
+other flower in the border. The borders of these scarves are
+beautifully illustrative of the simple and graceful flowing lines
+which characterise Indian ornament; and in Fig. 96 we can observe the
+difference between the Eastern and the mediaeval patterns--while the
+same principles are acknowledged in both, the latter are often stiffer
+and more angular than the graceful sprigs of this border. Both these
+works show how much beauty may be obtained by simple means, when
+regulated by just principles, and how perfectly unnecessary are the
+multiplied tints by which modern designers think to give value to
+their works, but which increase the difficulties of production out of
+all proportion to any effect resulting from them--nay, often even to
+the absolute disadvantage of the fabric. If we look at the details of
+the Indian patterns, we shall be surprised at their extreme
+simplicity, and be led to wonder at their rich and satisfactory
+effect; it will soon be evident, however, that their beauty results
+entirely from adherence to the principles above described. The parts
+themselves are often poor, ill-drawn, and common-place; yet, from the
+knowledge of the designer, due attention to the just ornamentation of
+the fabric, and the refined delicacy evident in the selection of
+_quantity_ and the choice of tints, both for the ground, where gold is
+not used as a ground, and for the ornamental forms, the fabrics,
+individually and as a whole, are a lesson to our designers and
+manufacturers, given by those from whom we least expected it."
+
+Much that Mr. Redgrave here says is worthy of careful consideration,
+and I can do no more than recommend the student to study these
+beautiful Indian fabrics, and consider them in conjunction with the
+remarks which we have made respecting them and fabrics in general.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+
+DIVISION I.
+
+In this chapter I have to commence our consideration of pottery, and
+of hollow vessels especially; and this I do with considerable
+pleasure, as works in pottery enjoy a longer existence, though through
+the character of the material of which they are made they are more
+fragile, than those formed of almost any other substance. Many works
+of Greek pottery are known to us, and not a few such works by the
+ancient Egyptians, and these are preserved not as fragments merely,
+but as works in their entirety, and with the same beauty that they
+possessed when first they left the hands of the workman.
+
+Clay is a most desirable material with which to form works of utility
+and of beauty, and this for many reasons. First, it is so inexpensive
+as to be almost valueless; secondly, it is easily formed into vessels
+of almost any required shape; thirdly, it is capable of being "worked"
+into shapes of great beauty by a momentary exercise of skill;
+fourthly, clay is naturally of many beautiful colours; fifthly, it is
+capable of receiving by application to its surface any amount of
+colour, and of preserving such colours as are applied to it in an
+unimpaired state for ages; and sixthly, it is susceptible of the
+highest art-finish, or the bold sketchy touch of the modeller's hand.
+I say that clay is a very desirable material for formation into
+vessels of various kinds, because of its inexpensive character. This
+quality of cheapness gives to the material an advantage over many
+other substances of a much more costly character, such as should not
+be overlooked, for the long existence which so many works of
+earthenware have had is mainly due to the worthlessness of the
+material of which they are composed. In my first chapter I gave an
+extract from the writings of Professor George Wilson, showing that
+gold and silver, while beautiful in themselves, and worthy to be
+fashioned into exquisite devices, are yet too tempting to the thief,
+and to all who are pressed for means, to remain long in the form of
+art-works. Families who have been reduced in circumstances, and have
+thereby been constrained to part with their old plate, have melted it,
+so as to hide their shame. To illustrate this, let me quote from the
+"Handbook of the Arts of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, as applied
+to the Decoration of Furniture, Arms, Jewels, etc., translated from
+the French of M. Jules Labarte, 1856." After giving the names of many
+workers in the precious metals, the author says:--"We may form some
+idea of what artists these Italian goldsmiths were of the fourteenth,
+fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, and what admirable works they must
+have produced. But, alas! these noble works have almost all perished;
+their artistic worth proving no safeguard against cupidity or
+necessity, the fear of pillage, or the love of change. But a very few
+names even of those skilled artists have descended to us, and in
+making known those preserved to us in the writings of Vasari,
+Benvenuto, Cellini, and others, we can rarely point out any of their
+works as being still in existence.
+
+"Cellini tells us that while Pope Clement VII. was besieged in the
+castle of St. Angelo, he received orders to unset all the precious
+stones that were upon the tiaras, the sacred vessels, and the jewels
+of the sovereign pontiff; and to melt down the gold, of which he
+obtained 200 pounds. How many artistic treasures must have perished in
+the crucible of Cellini." We now see clearly that while clay is a much
+more fragile material than either silver or gold, its very
+worthlessness, despite its fragility, gives to it length of years.
+
+We have said that clay is easily formed into vessels of almost any
+required shape. This is so within certain limits. Throughout these
+chapters I have lost no opportunity of insisting upon the importance
+of working every material in a befitting manner, and in the most
+simple and easy way in which the material can be wrought. Almost every
+material can be simply "worked" in some way, or while in some
+particular condition.
+
+Glass has a molten state in which it can be "blown" into the most
+beautiful of shapes, and this process of blowing is the work of but a
+few seconds. Glass has also a solid condition, yet as it can be formed
+into works of great beauty by the exercise of momentary skill, it
+would be extremely foolish to take a mass of the solid glass, and by
+laborious grinding form it into a bottle or a bowl. It fortunately
+happens that if a material is worked in its most simple and befitting
+manner, the results obtained are more beautiful and satisfying than
+those which are arrived at by any roundabout method of production.
+Glass should be formed into hollow vessels only when in its plastic
+condition, for it cannot be shaped into the form of such vessels as we
+require when in its solid state without the expenditure of much
+unnecessary, therefore wasteful, labour. But if a mass of crystal or
+marble is required to assume the form of a bowl or font, then the
+laborious process of grinding must be resorted to, for these
+substances have no plastic state.
+
+The potter's wheel has been known from the earliest historic time, and
+this has at all times been the instrument with which the best earthen
+vessels have been formed. A mass of clay of suitable size is placed on
+a horizontal disc of wood, to which a rotary motion is imparted. The
+operator presses his thumbs into the centre of the clay, and then, by
+causing his fingers to approach his thumbs, manipulates the clay into
+a cup, a bowl, a vase, an earthen bottle, or whatever form he may
+please; and if skilful, the operator can form objects of marvellous
+beauty with a rapidity that astonishes all who see for the first time
+his mode of working.
+
+If potters would but content themselves, in order to the production of
+such articles as we require in common life, with the "potter's
+wheel," we should be almost sure of a certain amount of beauty in
+domestic earthenware, but such is not the case. They make fancy moulds
+of plaster of Paris and of wire gauze, and roll out clay as the
+pastrycook does dough, and manipulate it as so much pie-crust, instead
+of applying to it simple skill. Neither a bowl nor a plate need have a
+scalloped edge, indeed they are much better without it; and if
+unnecessary, and even undesirable, absurdities were avoided, and a
+simple and natural method of working each material alone employed, a
+great improvement in art would speedily take place.
+
+It is strange but true, that the worker in one material seems rarely
+to be satisfied with making his works look as well and as consistent
+as possible; he desires rather to form poor imitations of something
+else. We have all seen earthen jugs made in imitation of wicker-work,
+although to do so is obviously foolish, as no wicker vessel could hold
+water, and the thing imitated is much less beautiful than a thousand
+forms which clay is capable of assuming. Men's heads without brains
+are, or were at least, favourite jugs. Well, that there are many
+models for this idea in Nature, I doubt not; yet why we should copy
+them by making a jug in the form of a hollow head, I know not. I have
+in my possession a milk-jug, such as is common in the district of
+Swansea in South Wales, in the likeness of a cow. The tail is twisted
+into a handle; by a hole in the back the milk is admitted, and through
+the mouth it is ejected. A more wretched and coarse idea it is
+scarcely possible to conceive of, yet the vulgar admire this jug. Let
+us work the material in a simple and befitting manner, and
+satisfactory results are almost sure to accrue.
+
+I have said that clay, as such, has many beautiful colours. Naturally
+clay is black, grey-white, red, brown, and yellow, and it is capable
+of assuming many desirable tints by the agency of chemical means. We
+do not use coloured clays as we should do. We want so much
+white--everything to look so clean. All ornamental ware, at least,
+should be artistic, and the art-effect should supersede that cold
+whiteness which the Dutch and the English mistake for cleanliness. A
+clay of good natural colour is not a thing to be hidden, or ashamed
+of.
+
+Clay is capable, when glazed, of receiving any amount of colour, and
+of preserving these colours in their beauty for almost any length of
+time. These qualities are invaluable to the ornamentist. Colour is not
+always at his disposal. The goldsmith has difficulty in getting it,
+but to the potter it is very accessible. Colour is capable of giving
+to objects a charm which they could not possibly have without it. Let
+us use the power thus placed at our disposal rightly and well, and
+then the enduring character of the colour-harmonies which we produce
+may gladden posterity in ages yet to come.
+
+Clay is susceptible of the highest art-finish, or of a bold sketchy
+treatment. Finish is very desirable in some cases. The cup which my
+lady uses in her boudoir should be delicate and fine, for what is
+worthy to approach the sacred lips of the occupant of a fair apartment
+but such a work as is tender and refined?
+
+As a rule, however, we over-estimate the value of finish, and
+under-value bold art-effects. Excessive finish often (but by no means
+always) destroys art-effect. I have before me some specimens of
+Japanese earthenware, which are formed of a coarse dark brown clay,
+and are to a great extent without that finish which most Europeans
+appear so much to value, yet these are artistic and beautiful. In the
+case of cheap goods we spend time in getting smoothness of surface,
+while the Japanese devote it to the production of an art-effect. We
+get finish without art, they prefer art without finish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
+
+We must now devote ourselves to a special consideration of the shapes
+of earthen vessels, and to the manner in which ornament should be
+applied to them.
+
+In his primitive condition man appears to have used the shells of
+certain fruits as drinking vessels and bottles; and to this day we
+find many tribes of uncivilised or half-civilised men using the same
+class of vessels. "Monkey-pots" (the hard shells of the _Lecythis
+allaria_), the coverings of the Brazil nut (_Bertholetia excelsa_),
+and especially the rinds of the calabash and many species of gourd
+(Figs. 97 and 98), have been used in this way.[26] The first efforts
+made at the production of earthen vessels were mere attempts at
+copying in clay the forms of the fruit-shells which were in use as
+drinking vessels. After a power of forming earthen vessels, having a
+certain amount of perfection of manufacture, was gained, we still find
+the origin of the potter's art manifested by certain works. Thus in
+China, where the potter's art has so long been understood, we still
+find vessels made in the form of the bottle-gourd, just as was their
+custom in the days of their first manufacturing efforts (Fig. 99).
+Before considering the shapes of vessels from a utilitarian point of
+view, I should tell the student that certain shapes are characteristic
+of different nations and of different periods of time.
+
+[26] All who are interested in this subject are referred to a paper
+published in the "Transactions of the Edinburgh Botanical Society,"
+for 1859, by Professor George Wilson, on the "Fruits of the
+Cucurbitaceae."
+
+The Greek shapes, as we may call them--that is, the forms of those
+vessels which the Greeks produced--are of a particular class, and the
+vessels produced by the Egyptians are of a different type; while those
+of the Chinese, Indians, Japanese, and Mexicans again differ from each
+other, and from those of both the Greeks and the Egyptians. For grace
+of form the vessels of the old Greeks stand pre-eminent (Figs. 101 and
+102); for simple dignified severity, those of the Egyptians (Fig.
+100); for quaintness, those of the Mexicans (Fig. 103); for a
+combination of grace with dignity, those of the Chinese (Figs. 104 and
+105); and for a combination of beauty with quaintness, those of the
+Japanese (Fig. 106); while in many respects the Indian shapes (Figs.
+107 and 108) resemble those of the Japanese. Fig. 109 is a water
+vessel from Ha, and Figs. 110 and 111 are jugs from Morocco.
+
+I cannot enter into any details respecting the characteristic forms of
+vessels produced by these various nations, but must content myself by
+giving a few illustrations of the various shapes, and leaving the
+matter with the learner for study. The British Museum, the South
+Kensington Museum, and the Indian Museum will aid him in his
+researches.
+
+It has been said that the character of a people can be told by their
+water-vessels. As the consideration of this statement will lead us to
+see how perfectly a domestic utensil may answer the end which it
+should serve, I will extract from my "Art of Decorative Design" a few
+remarks on this subject.
+
+This statement can well "be illustrated by the Egyptian and Greek
+water-vessels, the former of which has sides tapering to the top and
+slanting inwards, a small orifice, and a rounded base, and the mouth
+of the vessel bridged by an arched handle, the whole being constructed
+of bronze (Fig. 112); the latter consists of an egg-shaped body (the
+broad end being above) resting upon a secure foot, which is surmounted
+by a large, divergent, funnel-shaped member (Fig. 113). It has no
+handle over the orifice, but has one at either side.
+
+"Not only do these vessels differ in form, but associated
+circumstances differ also; and it is this variation in circumstances
+which brought about the difference in form of the two water-vessels.
+
+"The peculiarities of the Egyptian water-vessel are its formation of
+bronze, the roundness of its base, which renders it unfitted for
+standing, the narrowness of its mouth, and the handle arching the
+orifice; and of the Greek, its being wrought in clay, the secure base,
+the wide mouth, the contraction in the centre, and the handle at
+either side. We should judge from these vessels that the Egyptians
+drew water from a river, or some position which required that the
+vessel be attached to a cord and cast into the source of supply, for
+the roundness of the base at once points to this, it being a provision
+for enabling the vessel to fill by turning upon its side (were its
+base flat it would float on the water); it is also formed out of metal
+so as to facilitate this end. The arched handle not only points to
+the attachment of the vessel to a string in order that it be cast into
+the water, but also to the carrying the vessel pendent from the hand
+in the manner that pails are at present carried, and the contracted
+mouth restrains the splashing over of the water: and what this simple
+water-vessel points to we find to have been the case, for the
+Egyptians derived water from the Nile in the very manner that the
+vessel would indicate; but with the Greeks circumstances were
+different, and the shape of the vessel varies accordingly. The base is
+here flat, in order that the vessel may stand; the mouth is large, in
+order to collect the water which fell from above,--from the
+dripping-rocks and water-spouts. This being the manner in which water
+was gathered, a vessel formed of heavy metal was unnecessary; the
+contraction prevented the water from splashing over when carried, and
+up to this point the vessel was filled, and no higher; and the handles
+at the side show that it was carried on the head. But, in conjunction
+with this mode of carrying, there is another consideration of
+interest, which is, the centre of gravity is high. If we attempt to
+balance a stick, having one enlarged end, on the finger, it will be
+found necessary that the weight be at the top; and in balancing
+anything, it will be found that the object, in order that it ride
+steadily, have its point of greatest weight considerably elevated
+above its base. In the Greek water-vessel, which was carried balanced
+on the head, we find this condition fully complied with, the centre of
+gravity occupying a high position, while in the Egyptian vessel the
+centre of gravity was low; but where the vessel is to be carried
+underhand, it is as great an advantage to have the centre of gravity
+low as it is in the case of a coach, where security is thus gained
+just as the centre of gravity is lowered. The Greek water-vessel,
+then, consists of a cavity for holding water, a funnel to collect and
+guide the water, a base for the vessel to rest upon, and handles to
+enable it to be raised to the head, and the centre of gravity is high
+in order that it be readily balanced; and we should judge from this
+vessel that the Greeks procured water from dripping-rocks and
+water-spouts, and this is exactly what did occur. These are the direct
+teachings of the Egyptian and Greek water-vessels; yet how many
+circumstances and incidents of common life can be conceived as
+associated with these different forms of vessel. There is the gossip
+round the well, and the lingering by the river-side where the image of
+the date-palm is mirrored by the glassy surface of the waters. The
+effect of the noise of the splashing water upon the mind in the one
+case, combined with the comparatively loud and energetic speaking
+which would be necessary in order that the voice be not drowned by the
+noise, and of the calm tranquillity of the river-bank in the other,
+where the limpid water is ever flowing on in silent majesty, must be
+considerable. Then we have the potter's art essential to the
+production of the vessel in the one case, and the metal-worker's in
+the other--the digging of clay, the mining of metal, the kilns and
+smelting furnaces. We will not continue this portion of the subject
+further, and have brought forward this illustration in order to show
+how well-considered objects reveal to us the habits and customs of the
+peoples and nations in which they originated."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.]
+
+It will now be apparent that even a common object may result from such
+careful consideration that its form will at once suggest its use; but
+the object will only reveal the purpose for which it was created with
+definiteness of expression when it perfectly answers the end proposed
+by its formation. The advice which I must give to every designer is to
+study carefully exactly what is required, before he proceeds to form
+his ideas of what the object proposed to be created should be like,
+and then to diligently strive to arrange such a form for it as shall
+cause it to be perfectly suited to the want which it is intended to
+meet.
+
+More will be said upon the subject of form when speaking of glass
+vessels and of silversmiths' work; and when considering these subjects
+we shall also give the law which governs the application of handles
+and spouts to vessels; and it is of the utmost importance that they be
+correctly placed in order that the vessel may be used with convenience
+(see page 140). A word must now be said respecting the decoration of
+earthen vessels, but on this subject our remarks must be brief.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.]
+
+The object to which the decoration is applied must determine the
+nature of the ornament to be employed. In the case of a vessel which
+is to be in part hidden when in use, great simplicity of treatment
+should be adopted, and the ornament may with advantage consist of
+repeated parts. In the case of a plate, little or no ornament should
+be placed in the centre; but if there is a central ornament it should
+be a small, regular, radiating figure, consisting of like parts (Figs.
+114 and 115). The border should also consist of simple members
+repeated, for it will then look well if portions are covered; and
+these remarks will apply equally to all kinds of plates, whether
+intended for use at dinner or dessert.
+
+No plate should have a landscape painted upon it, nor a figure, nor a
+group of flowers. Whatever has a right and wrong way upwards is
+inappropriate in such a position, as whatever ornament a plate bears
+should be in all positions as fully right way upwards to the beholder
+as it can be. Besides, landscapes, groups of flowers, and figures are
+spoiled if in part hidden, provided they are satisfactory when the
+whole is seen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.]
+
+Plates may have a white ground, for it is desirable that those
+articles on which food is presented should manifest the utmost
+cleanliness, yet to a cream tint there can be no objection. I should,
+however, prefer white plates, with a rather deep blue, Indian red,
+maroon, or brown pattern upon them, and a pale buff table-cloth for
+them to rest upon.
+
+In the case of cups and saucers the treatment should be similar to
+that of the plate. The saucer may have a simple border ornament,
+consisting of parts repeated, and little or no ornament in the central
+portion on which the cup rests. The cup may have an external border
+ornament, and a double narrow line of colour around the upper portion
+of the interior, but no other ornament is here required.
+
+Whatever ornament is placed around a cup, or vase, or any tall object
+must be such as will not suffer by perspective, for there is scarcely
+any portion of the ornament that can be seen otherwise than
+foreshortened (Figs. 103 and 111). Let simplicity be the ruling
+principle in the decoration of all rounded objects, and ever remember
+that a line which is straight on a flat surface becomes a curve on a
+round surface (see page 110).
+
+I have given what is a correct decoration for a plate and cup and
+saucer, but there are other methods of treatment than those just
+named. The Japanese are very fond of placing little circular groups of
+flowers on plates, saucers, and bowls (Figs. 116 and 117). The Greeks
+had various methods of enriching their tazzas and vases with
+ornament, and the Egyptians were partial to the plan of rendering a
+cup as a lotus-flower (Fig. 100). But when they formed a cup thus,
+they were careful to draw the flower conventionally and ornamentally,
+and never produced an imitative work (see page 24). The Chinese treat
+the flower of the sacred bean in the same way (Fig. 118).
+
+What I have said has been addressed to the student. The remarks,
+however, made respecting the form chosen being that which is most
+suitable to the end proposed, and the conditions to which I shall make
+reference as governing the application of handle and spout to any
+object, are binding upon all who would produce satisfactory works; but
+to the genius who has power to produce beautiful and vigorous
+ornament, and whose taste has, by years of study and cultivation,
+become refined and judicious, I can give no rules, his own taste being
+his best guide.
+
+
+DIVISION II.
+
+When speaking of earthenware, I insisted upon the desirability of
+using every material in the easiest and most natural manner, and I
+illustrated my meaning by saying that glass has a molten condition as
+well as a solid state, and that while in the molten condition it can
+be "blown" into forms of exquisite beauty. Glass-blowing is an
+operation of skill, and an operation in which natural laws come to our
+aid, and I cannot too strongly repeat my statement that every material
+should be "worked" in the most simple and befitting manner; and I
+think that our consideration of the formation of glass vessels will
+render the reasonableness of my demand apparent.
+
+Let a portion of molten glass be gathered upon the end of a metal
+pipe, and blown into a bubble while the pipe drops vertically from the
+mouth of the operator, and a flask is formed such as is used for the
+conveyance of olive oil (Fig. 119); and what vessel could be more
+beautiful than such a flask? Its grace of form is obvious; the
+delicate curvature of its sides, the gentle swelling of the bulb, and
+the exquisitely rounded base, all manifest beauty.
+
+Here we get a vessel formed for us almost wholly by Nature. It is the
+attraction of gravitation which converts what would be a mere bubble,
+or hollow sphere of glass, into a gracefully elongated and
+delicately-shaped flask. This may be taken as a principle, that
+whenever a material is capable of being "worked" in a manner which
+will so secure the operation of natural laws as to modify the shapes
+of the objects into which it is formed, it is very desirable that we
+avail ourselves of such a means of formation, for the operation of
+gravitation and similar forces upon plastic matter is calculated to
+give beauty of form.
+
+When clay is worked upon the potter's wheel, it is shaped by the
+operator's skill, and is sufficiently stiff to retain the shape given
+to it to a very considerable extent; yet the operation of gravitation
+upon it, so long as it has any plasticity whatever, is calculated to
+secure delicacy of form. This rule should ever be remembered by the
+art-student--that a curve is beautiful just as its origin is difficult
+to detect (see Chap. I., page 23). In the formation of vases, bottles,
+etc., knowledge of this law is very important, and the operation of
+gravity upon hollow plastic vessels is calculated to give to their
+curves subtlety (intricate beauty) of character. Having arranged that
+the material shall be worked in the manner most befitting its nature,
+we must next consider what purpose the object to be formed is intended
+to serve.
+
+Take a common hock-bottle (Fig. 120) and consider it. What is wanted
+is a vessel such as will stand, in which wine can be stored. It must
+have a strong neck, so that a cork may be driven in without splitting
+it, and must be formed of a material that is not absorbent. Glass, as
+a material, admirably answers the want, and this bottle is capable of
+storing wine; it will stand, and has a rim around the neck such as
+gives to it strength. But, besides serving the requirements named, it
+is both easily formed and is beautiful. The designer must be a
+utilitarian, but he must be an artist also. We must have useful
+vessels, but the objects with which we are to surround ourselves must
+likewise be beautiful; and unless they are beautiful, our delicacy of
+feeling and power to appreciate Nature, which is full of beauties,
+will be impaired. A hock-bottle is a mere elongated bubble, with the
+bottom portion pressed in so that it may stand, and the neck thickened
+by a rim of glass being placed around it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.]
+
+Here we have a bottle shaped by natural agency; it is formed of heavy
+glass, and the bubble was thick at its lower part, hence its elongated
+form; but if length is required in any bubble, and the glass is even
+light, it can always be given by swinging the bubble round from the
+centre, so that centrifugal force may be brought into play in the
+direction of its length; or if it has to be widened, this can as
+easily be done by giving to it a rotatory motion, whereby the
+centrifugal force is caused to act from the axis of the vessel
+outwards, and not from the apex to the base, as in the former
+instance. In either case a certain amount of beauty would appear in
+the shape produced, for Nature here works for us. (Compare the short,
+dumpy, yet beautiful bottle, in which we receive curacao, with the
+hock-bottle, when the two natural modes of forming bottles will be
+illustrated.) Our wine-bottles are moulded, hence their ugliness. We
+work without Nature's assistance, and we reap ugliness as the reward.
+
+Let us now consider what a decanter should be. In many respects, the
+wants which a decanter is intended to meet are similar to those which
+are met by the bottle, as just enumerated, but here is a great
+difference--a bottle is only _intended_ to be filled once, whereas a
+decanter will have to be filled many times; and a bottle is made so
+that it can travel, while a decanter is not meant to be the subject of
+long journeys. It is true that a bottle may be refilled many times,
+but it is not intended that it should, as the fact that we use a
+funnel when we wish to fill it clearly shows, and without a funnel the
+vessel is not complete. All objects which are meant to be refilled
+many times should have a funnel-shaped mouth (see my remarks on the
+Greek water-vessel, page 121), but if a bottle had a distended orifice
+it would not be well adapted for transport. A decanter should have
+capacity for containing liquid; it should stand securely, and have a
+double funnel--a funnel to collect the fluid and conduct it into the
+bottle, and a funnel to collect it and conduct it out of the bottle.
+It must also be convenient to use and hold, and the upper funnel
+should be of such a character that it will guide the liquid in a
+proper direction when poured from the decanter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.]
+
+If we take a flask and flatten its base, and extend the upper portion
+of the neck slightly into the form of a funnel, we have all that is
+required of a decanter, with the exception of a permanent cork, which
+is a stopper (Fig. 121).
+
+But as most decanters are intended to hold wine, the brilliancy of
+which is not readily apparent when that portion of the vessel which
+contains the liquid rests immediately upon the table, it is desirable
+to give to the vessel a foot, or, in other words, raise the body of
+the decanter so that light may surround it as fully as possible (Figs.
+122 and 123).
+
+In Figs. 124 to 135 I give a number of shapes of decanters and jugs,
+such as may be seen in our best shop-windows, and such as I consider
+desirable forms for such vessels; and in considering-the shape of such
+vessels, the character of the upper portion of the neck (the lip) must
+be regarded, as well as that of the body and base. Notice also whether
+the centre of gravity is high or low, and the position and character
+of the handle; but respecting the application of handles to vessels I
+will speak when considering silversmiths' work (see page 140).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.]
+
+Besides decanters and bottles, glass is formed into tumblers,
+wine-glasses, flower-holders, and many other things; but the
+principles which we have already laid down will apply equally to all,
+for if the objects formed result from the easiest mode of working the
+material, and are such as perfectly answer the end proposed by their
+formation, and are beautiful, nothing more can be expected of them.
+
+Many objects of fancy shape have been produced as mere feats of
+glass-blowing, and with some of these efforts I sympathise. Wherever
+the work produced is truly adapted to use, or where an artistic effect
+is achieved, the glass-blower has my warm sympathy; but if the effort
+is made at the production of novelty merely, the result gained is sure
+to be unsatisfactory. Much of the Venetian glass will illustrate these
+last remarks.
+
+Fig. 136 is a very excellent and picturesque spirit-bottle; it is easy
+to hold, and quaint in appearance.[27] Figs. 137, 138, and 139 are
+Venetian glass vessels, wrought entirely at the furnace-mouth, and
+neither cut nor engraved--they are artistic, and of interesting
+appearance; while Fig. 140 is a work of Roman glass, in which the
+upper distension is useful if the liquid contains a sediment which it
+is not desirable to pour out with the liquid.
+
+[27] In order that the nature of this bottle be better understood, I
+give a section of it at A as seen when cut through the central part.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.]
+
+[Illustration: Section of Fig. 136 at A.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.]
+
+There is one thing pertaining to table-glass that we do not now
+sufficiently consider, which is its capacity for colour. Our one idea
+in the formation of glass vessels is the imitation of crystal, unless
+we happen to produce a vessel of the strongest tint. With the
+exception of hock-glasses, which are generally either ruby-colour,
+dark green, or intense yellow-green, we rarely employ tinted glass on
+our tables. These three colours, which we usually employ in
+hock-glasses, are all too strong in tint for ordinary purposes, and
+they are coarse and vulgar. It is curious that we should confine
+ourselves to these colours when glass is capable of assuming the most
+delicate of shades, of appearing as a soft, subtle, golden hue of the
+most beautiful light tertiary green, lilac, and blue, and, indeed, of
+almost any colour.
+
+Why, then, should we employ only two or three colours, and those of
+the most crude character? If the Roman and Greek glass of the British
+Museum be inspected, it will be seen that the Romans employed various
+soft and delicate tints, and why we should not do so I cannot see. For
+many reasons the colours of our hock-glasses are highly objectionable,
+but especially for two. First, as already stated, the colour is so
+strong that they appear as mere dark spots on the cloth, and
+altogether fail in imparting to the table a pleasant colour-effect;
+and, secondly, they utterly destroy the beauty of appearance which the
+wine would otherwise present.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.]
+
+No glass which is to contain a liquid of pleasant colour should be so
+strong in tint as to mar the beauty of the contained fluid, and
+especially is this true when the colour of the glass is of an opposite
+character to that of the liquid: thus a red liquid placed in a
+strongly-coloured green glass becomes highly offensive in appearance,
+and yet we often see claret served in green hock-glasses. A
+dinner-table requires colour. Let the cloth be pale buff, or
+cream-colour, instead of white; and the glass water-vessels of very
+pale, but refined and various, tints; and the salt-cellars, if of
+glass, also coloured, in a tender and befitting manner, and a most
+harmonious effect will be produced. The flowers with which the table
+is adorned would then harmonise with the other things, and much beauty
+might be produced.
+
+Respecting the ornamentation of glass, two methods of treatment are
+resorted to, which are "cutting" and "engraving." Both modes deal with
+glass as a hard, crystal-like substance; and consist in grinding the
+surface, and either leaving it "dead" or repolishing it. In the case
+of "cutting" a considerable portion of the substance of the glass is
+generally removed, and the surface is repolished; but in the case of
+"engraving" little more than the surface is generally acted upon, and
+the engraved portion remains dead.
+
+Cutting may be employed in bringing about ornamental effects in glass,
+but it is rarely to be commended when so lavishly used as to be the
+chief means of giving form to the vessel; indeed, cutting should be
+sparingly and judiciously used. A vessel formed of glass should never
+be wholly shaped by cutting, as though it were a work of stone. If the
+neck of a decanter can be made more convenient by being slightly
+cut--if it can be so treated that it can be held more securely--then
+let it be cut; but in all cases avoid falling into the error of too
+much cutting which causes the work to appear laboured, for any work
+which presents the appearance of having been the result of much labour
+is as unpleasant to look upon as that work is pleasing which results
+from the exercise of momentary skill. There is a great art-principle
+manifested in the expression "Let there be light, and there was
+light."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.]
+
+Engraving is also laborious, and while it is capable of yielding most
+delicate and beautiful effects, it should yet be somewhat sparingly
+used, for extravagance in labour is never desirable, and there is such
+a thing as extravagance of beauty.
+
+However delicate ornament may be, and however well composed, yet if it
+covers the whole of the walls of an apartment and of the objects which
+it contains, it fails to please. There must be the contrast of plain
+surfaces with ornamented--plain for the eye to rest upon, ornament for
+the mind to enjoy. In the enrichment of glass these remarks fully
+apply. Let there be plain surfaces as well as ornamented parts, and
+the effect will be more satisfying than if all be covered with
+ornament.
+
+All that I said respecting the decoration of damask table-linen will
+apply equally to glass, considering only the different way in which
+the effect is produced (see Chap. VI., page 108). Thus we have
+ornament produced only by a variation of surface. Such simple means of
+producing an art-effect are capable of rendering in a satisfactory
+manner simple treatments only, but simple patterns are capable of
+yielding the highest pleasure, and such patterns can be almost
+perfectly rendered by engraving, as shown in Figs. 141, 142, 143.[28]
+
+[28] Fig. 143 represents a decanter made for the Prince of Wales by
+Messrs. Pellatt and Co., which is in good taste. Fig. 141 is a goblet
+from Austria: it was shown in the International Exhibition of Paris in
+1867.
+
+Somewhat elaborate effects can be rendered in glass by very laborious
+engraving, whereby different depths of cutting are attained; but such
+work is the result of great labour, and rarely produces an effect
+proportionate to the toil expended upon it; and if a bottle so
+engraved is filled with a coloured wine, the entire beauty of its
+engraving is destroyed. Fig. 144 is a drawing of a most elaborately
+engraved bottle, which was shown in the Exhibition of 1862. It
+represents, to a great extent, wasted labour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.]
+
+It must be borne in mind that any ornament placed on a decanter,
+wine-glass, or tumbler, is to be seen almost wholly in perspective;
+and the remarks made respecting the effects of folded or waved
+surfaces on ornament (Chap. VI., page 110), and those made in
+reference to the application of ornament to earthen vases (Chap. VII.,
+page 126), apply equally here.
+
+It is not my province to enter into the various methods of
+manipulating glass, nor into all the classes of art-effect which glass
+is capable of yielding: I can only call attention to general
+principles, and leave the art-student to think for himself what should
+be the treatment of any particular object. There is a sort of crackle
+glass which has come into use during the last few years, and is an
+imitation of old Venetian work; this is in some respects pleasant in
+appearance, but it is somewhat uncomfortable to handle, and difficult
+to keep clean; its use must therefore be limited. The Romans were in
+the habit of forming glass which was opaque, dark, and of many
+colours. Fig. 145 is an illustration of this kind of glass, the
+pattern being formed by portions of various coloured glass being
+imbedded in the substance of the vessel.
+
+In another chapter I shall have a few remarks to make upon stained
+glass; but as our present remarks pertain to hollow vessels chiefly,
+and as general principles regulate the formation of all such, whether
+they are formed of earthenware, glass, or metal, I think it better to
+proceed to the consideration of silversmiths' ware, and thus continue
+a notice of hollow vessels, than to pass to glass windows, although
+they are formed of the material now under review. What we are
+specially considering at present are vessels of capacity, or hollow
+wares.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.]
+
+
+DIVISION III.
+
+Continuing our remarks upon hollow vessels, we have now to notice
+silversmiths' work, and here we may observe that while the material
+with which we have now to deal differs in character widely from that
+of which those vessels already noticed have been formed, yet that many
+principles which have been enunciated are equally applicable to the
+objects now under consideration. Silver objects, like those formed of
+clay or glass, should perfectly serve the end for which they have been
+formed; also, the fact that ornament applied to rounded surfaces
+should be adapted for being viewed in perspective remains as binding
+on us as before; but herein the works of the silversmith differ from
+those already discussed--they are formed of a material of intrinsic
+value, which is not the case with articles of earthenware or glass.
+Silver and gold being materials of considerable worth, it is necessary
+that the utmost economy be observed in using them, and in order to
+effect this a special mode of construction must be resorted to. If we
+propose to ourselves the formation of a sugar-basin of semi-circular
+shape, of what thickness must the metal be in order that it may not
+bend when lifted? It is obvious that the vessel must not yield its
+shape to ordinary pressure, nor be subject to alterations of form when
+in ordinary use; but if it is to be formed throughout of metal of such
+thickness as will secure its retaining its shape, it will be costly
+and heavy, and an amount of metal will be used in its formation
+sufficient for the manufacture of two or three such articles.
+
+Instead of forming the vessel throughout of thick metal, we may
+construct it from a thin sheet of silver; but in order that it possess
+sufficient strength we must indent one or more beads in its side (see
+Fig. 146); or we can form an angle by having a rim projecting into the
+basin (Fig. 147), or extending from it, and thus give strength; but
+the two beads are the more desirable, as the one gives strength at the
+top and the other at a lower portion of the vessel.
+
+Modes of economising material, when we are forming vessels of costly
+substances, are of the utmost importance, and should be carefully
+thought out. If the designer forms works which are expensive, he
+places them beyond the reach of those who might otherwise enjoy them,
+and if heavy they appear clumsy in the hands of those accustomed to
+delicate and light objects.
+
+Besides this, works in silver and in gold are always in danger of
+being destroyed, owing to the intrinsic value of these metals; for if
+stolen, the theft is promptly hidden in the melting-pot. Now if we
+form the vessels of thin metal, we render the money value of the
+material less, and thus our works are to a smaller degree tempting to
+the avaricious, and their chance of long existence is greater. The
+precious metals are at all times perilous materials for the formation
+of works of art; but while we use them, let us take care so to employ
+them as to give to our works every possible opportunity for long
+existence. If a work is to be so formed that it may exist for many
+years, it becomes of the highest importance that those objects which
+we create be well considered as to their utility, and at the same time
+be beautiful in form. Long existence is an evil in the case of an ugly
+object, or an ill-considered vessel; that which is not refining in its
+influence is better blotted out. Let that man who will not seek to
+embody beauty in his works make them heavy with metal, so that they
+may tempt the thief, and thus sooner blot out his works from
+existence, as they tend only to debase and degrade; but he who loves
+refinement, and seeks to give chasteness of character to the objects
+which he creates, may well strive to secure to them length of
+duration.
+
+There are various modes of working metal. It may be cast, hammered,
+cut, engraved, and manipulated in various ways.
+
+Little that is satisfactory can result from casting. Casting is a
+rough means of producing a result, and at best achieves the formation
+of a mass which may be less troublesome to cut into shape than a more
+solid piece of metal; but casting without the application of other
+means of working-metal achieves little of an art nature.
+
+Some of the fine iron castings of Berlin are wonderfully good in their
+way, and are to an extent artistic; and certainly they contrast
+strangely with the cast handles and knobs which we often see applied
+to vegetable-dishes, and similar silver objects here in England; yet
+even these will not compare with works wrought by the hammer and the
+chisel. Thin metal hammered into form, and touched where necessary
+with the chisel, the graver, and the chasing-tool, is capable of the
+very finest effects which can be achieved in metal-work. Let the
+reader consider the beautiful vessels with which Arabian metal-work
+presents us: these are all formed by the hammer and chisel, with the
+assistance of the graver and chasing-tool, and how marvellously
+delicate and beautiful are the results! We have in these vessels
+beauty and dignity of form, richness of design, great intricacy and
+delicacy of detail, and altogether a refinement of effect which may
+long be considered and repeatedly enjoyed (Fig. 148).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.]
+
+Several, I may almost say many, of these beautiful objects are to be
+found in the South Kensington Museum, and it should be generally known
+that fac-similes of these lovely works, in the form of electrotype
+copies, have been prepared by Messrs. Elkington and Co., under the
+sanction of the authorities of the Department of Science and Art, and
+that these are procurable at small cost. For purposes of study these
+copies are of almost equal value with the originals, and for the
+adornment of a sideboard they are hardly inferior. I strongly advise
+those who can afford to purchase these beautiful copies to garnish
+their sideboards with plate of this description, rather than with the
+meretricious electro-plate which we often see in our shop-windows.
+
+Having determined on the best mode of working the material, consider
+carefully the requirements which the work to be produced is intended
+to meet, and then strive to form the object so that it may perfectly
+answer the end proposed by its creation.
+
+Let us take a sugar-basin. What form should it have? After much
+consideration, I have arrived at the conclusion that the two shapes
+engraved in Figs. 149 and 150 are those which best fulfil the
+requirements of such a vessel, for in them the sugar is always
+collected together, and the dust sugar separates itself from the
+lumps.
+
+The handles of a sugar-basin are often so small as to be partially or
+wholly useless. It not unfrequently happens that only one or two
+fingers can rest on the handle, owing to its smallness, while the
+thumb has to be placed within the orifice of the basin when it is
+desired to move it. This should not be so; if a handle is to exist at
+all, it should be so formed as to be useful, and afford a means of
+moving the object with ease and comfort.
+
+To form a handle as a mere ornament is an absurdity, for the handle is
+part of the vessel structurally, while the ornamentation is an after
+and separate consideration. In order to its existence a vessel must be
+constructed, but when formed it need not of necessity be ornamented;
+ornamentation must ever be regarded as separate from construction.
+
+Such a sugar-basin as I have suggested would not stand without legs:
+it must therefore have them; but I see no reason why the legs and
+handles should not be combined; hence I propose three feet so formed
+as to serve as handles throughout their upper parts (Figs. 149, 150),
+they being convenient to hold.
+
+Modern European silversmiths have fallen into the error (an error now
+prevailing wherever art can be applied to any object) of making their
+works of a pictorial, rather than an ornamental, character--an error
+which the Arabians, Indians, and Japanese never perpetrate, whose
+works in metal are unsurpassed by any, and equalled by indeed few. It
+is a mistake to cover an entire vase with figures in high relief; but
+wherever anything of the kind is attempted, care must be exercised in
+causing the groups to follow the line of the vase, and not to appear
+as irregular projections from it. As to the modes of decorating works
+in silver and in gold, they are many; of ornamentation by _repousse_
+work we have already spoken, and of chasing and engraving. But besides
+these there are other methods, and some of great interest, for there
+is damascene work, or inlaying; and applying colour, or enamelling;
+and niello work; jewels may also be added.
+
+Damascene work is of great interest. Metal of one colour is inlaid
+into metal of another colour. India produces, perhaps, the rarest
+examples of this kind of work, the Indians being experts at this
+manufacture; but the Indian work consists chiefly of silver inlaid in
+iron. This mode of work seems to be capable of producing many
+beautiful effects, as all who have examined the large inlaid hookahs
+of India will admit.
+
+Having chosen a form for a vessel, the next question with which we
+have to deal is, will it require a handle and spout? It is curious
+that while the position of a spout and handle in relation to a vessel
+is governed by a simple natural law, we yet rarely find them placed as
+they should be. This is the more curious, as a vessel may become
+practically of great weight, owing to the handle being misplaced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.]
+
+A pound weight is easily lifted, but when applied to the shorter end
+of the steel-yard it will balance a hundredweight. If this principle
+is applied to a tea-pot which actually weighs but little, it may yet
+be very heavy to lift. In nineteen cases out of twenty, handles are so
+placed on tea-pots and similar vessels that they are in use lifted
+only by a force capable of raising two or three such vessels, if the
+principle of the steel-yard was not acting against the person who uses
+the vessel. Take our ordinary forms of tea-pot, and see how far the
+centre of the weight (the centre of gravity) is from the handle in a
+horizontal direction, and you will be able to judge of the leverage
+acting disadvantageously to the person who may pour tea from such
+pots. Now if the part which is grasped is to the right or left of a
+right line passing through the centre of gravity of any vessel, there
+is leverage acting to the disadvantage of the person desiring to pour
+from that vessel, and this leverage increases just as the point held
+is removed from the central line spoken of.
+
+Fig. 151 would pour when in the position shown in Fig. 152, but see
+how far the hand that holds it would be to the right of the centre of
+gravity (_a_), which distance is of great disadvantage, as it causes
+the vessel to appear much heavier than it actually is, and requires a
+much greater expenditure of force in order that the tea-pot be put to
+its use than is necessary were it properly formed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155.]
+
+The law governing the application of handle and spout to vessels is
+this, and the same principle applies whether the vessel be formed of
+metal, glass, or earthenware:--Find the centre of gravity of the
+vessel, which can easily be done by letting a vertical line drop over
+it when placed in two different positions, as in Figs. 153, 154, and
+where the two vertical lines intersect, as in _a_ in Fig. 155, is the
+centre of gravity. The position of the handle being fixed on, draw a
+line through the centre of the handle, and continue it through the
+centre of gravity of the vessel. The spout must now be at right angles
+to this line. If this be the case the vessel will pour freely while
+the handle is just hung upon the thumb or finger of the person
+desiring to pour from it, as may be seen from Figs. 156, 157, in which
+the straight line A, passing through the centre of gravity _a_, is at
+right angles, as it should be, with the straight line passing through
+the spout.
+
+This law, if obeyed, will always enable liquid to be poured from a
+vessel without its appearing heavier than it actually is, but it will
+be seen that the shape of the vessel must be considered so that the
+spout and handle can bear this relation to each other, as in Figs.
+156, 157, 158, 159, and 160. Some shapes will not admit of it, so they
+must be avoided, as may be seen by examining Figs. 151 and 152, which
+show a tea-pot of faulty shape in this respect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 157.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 158.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159.]
+
+A consideration of this law shows that the handles of jugs--those
+formed of silver, of glass, and of earthenware alike--are usually
+placed too high; but in this respect things are much better than they
+were a few years back. Now we somewhat frequently see a jug with the
+handle in the right place, while some years back we never did. Silver
+jugs are now the most generally faulty in this respect, and such
+mistakes as the wrong placing of the handle or spout of a vessel
+result only from ignorance, for no man knowing the law would violate
+it. Fig. 161 shows a common form of jug with its handle, but the
+handle is too high; the position which it should occupy is shown by
+the dotted line. A very excellent handle is applied to many of the
+French water-pots, as shown in Fig. 162.
+
+It is unnecessary that I say more respecting the shape and general
+construction of silver and gold vessels, except to remark that if
+figures or other ornaments are beaten up on their surfaces, they must
+not destroy or mar their general contour.
+
+Iron is not used with us as it should be. Not only is the effect
+produced when it is inlaid with silver and other metals excellent, but
+by this mode of work our art-creations are greatly preserved, for the
+iron is valueless, and the labour of removing the small quantity of
+precious metal inlaid would be so great as to render the gain
+inadequate remuneration for the time consumed in collecting it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.]
+
+M. Christophle, of Paris, and also M. Barbedien in a lesser degree,
+have commenced to inlay copper vessels with silver, and some of their
+works are very beautiful. The Japanese have from an early time inlaid
+silver in bronze. This inlaying of silver into copper is a step in the
+right direction, and should be encouraged by all lovers of art. The
+Indians not only inlay silver in iron, but also gold in silver and in
+iron; and the Italians and other peoples have inlaid metals in a
+similar way; and the firmness and intricacy of some specimens of this
+inlaying are truly marvellous.
+
+By the process of enamelling, colour can be applied to metal, and of
+all arts this art of enamelling produces works which are most lovely;
+at least, if the best works of enamel do not surpass those produced by
+any other manufacture, they are equal in beauty to the works of the
+highest excellence. Transparent enamels are in some cases very
+beautiful, but they do not generally compare with the opaque enamels,
+such as were largely used by the Chinese about a hundred and fifty
+years back, and by the Japanese, or those now so skilfully produced by
+Barbedien, the Algerian Onyx Company, and Christophle, all of Paris.
+
+Chinese _cloisonne_ enamel vases may be seen at the South Kensington
+Museum, and here you may also find one or two small pieces of Japanese
+enamel, as well as one or two grand specimens by Barbedien, of Paris.
+
+The Chinese enamels have most frequently a light blue (sort of
+turquoise) ground, but they occur with both red, white, green, and
+yellow grounds; while the ornament is of mixed colours, but generally
+with light yellow-green, deeper blue-green, or dark blue prevailing in
+it.
+
+The Japanese enamels have a lower tone of colour-effect than the
+Chinese, and the work is finer and the colours more mingled, while the
+modern French enamels are full in colour, and are yet rich and subdued
+in general effect--some of them, indeed, are most beautiful works.
+
+The Elkingtons, of Birmingham and London, have also produced some
+beautiful things in this way, but not in the quantities that Barbedien
+has. I most strongly advise the art-student to study these works in
+enamel.
+
+Niello-work is a form of enrichment applied to metal, but is not in
+general use; it is a difficult process. Silver snuff-boxes and
+pendants for watch-chains with a niello pattern upon them are not
+uncommon, however, in Belgium and Russia, the niello pattern appearing
+as dark lead-pencil work upon the silver. Some niello-work is very
+quiet and beautiful, but much need not be said respecting it.
+
+Jewels may be inserted in metal, but if this is done they should be
+somewhat sparingly used, even in the most costly of works, for if they
+are abundant they produce mere glitter, and the aim of the ornamentist
+must in all cases be the production of repose.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+HARDWARE.
+
+
+Having considered metal-work in its more costly branches, we come to
+the consideration of hardware, and I am glad that we have now to deal
+with such metal-work as results from the use of inexpensive materials,
+for it is such that must be generally employed, while works formed of
+the precious metals can be used only by comparatively few persons. The
+object of art is the giving of pleasure; the mission of the artist is
+that of giving ennobling pleasure. If as an artist I give pleasure, I
+to an extent fulfil my mission; but I do so, perfectly, only when I
+give the greatest amount of the most refined pleasure by my art that
+it is possible for me to give. If by producing works which can be
+procured by many I give pleasure, it is well that I do so; but if the
+many fail to derive pleasure from my works, then I must address myself
+to the few, and be content with my lesser mission. Education appears
+to be necessary to the appreciation of all art; the artist, then, is a
+man who appeals to the educated. If some persons, by their superior
+education, are enabled to appreciate art more fully than those who are
+ignorant, and can consequently derive more pleasure from it than the
+less cultured person, it might then be desirable that the artist
+should address himself, through costly materials, to the few, for
+thereby he might be giving the greatest amount of pleasure. I always,
+however, like to produce works in cheap materials, for then I know
+that I form what is capable of giving pleasure to the poor man--if
+appreciative--who may possess it, as well as the rich.
+
+In hardware we find two classes of work in the market which appear to
+have little in common--the one class being characterised by a
+preponderance of excellence, and the other by the dominance of what is
+coarse and inartistic. The first class of work is that which is
+produced by what are termed ecclesiastical metal-workers; the second
+consists of what is generally known as Birmingham ware.
+
+It is an error to suppose that these so-called ecclesiastical--or
+mediaeval, as they are sometimes called--metal-workers produce only
+ecclesiastical and mediaeval work. On the contrary, some of these
+men--and they are now many in number--devote themselves almost
+exclusively to domestic work, and most of them fabricate articles in
+all styles of art. If I wanted an artistic set of fire-irons, I should
+go to one of the ecclesiastical warehouses, for there I have seen many
+sets that my reason commends and my judgment approves; but I never saw
+a set produced for the general market that I liked; and the most
+artistic fenders, grates, and gas-fittings, in almost any style, are
+to be got at these shops. I do not mean to convey the impression that
+all things made at these ecclesiastical warehouses are good, and that
+all things of Birmingham (or Sheffield) manufacture are bad, for I
+have seen indifferent works in these mediaeval shops, and I have seen
+excellent things from Birmingham--especially I might mention as good
+certain gaseliers produced by two of the smaller Birmingham
+houses--but as a rule the works found in the mediaeval warehouses are
+good, and as a rule the works in hardware produced by Birmingham and
+Sheffield are bad, in point of art.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.]
+
+It will appear a mere repetition if I insist that the materials of
+which works of hardware are formed be used in the easiest manner in
+which they can be worked, and that every article be so formed as
+perfectly to answer the end of its formation. Yet I must do so. Let us
+look for a common set of fire-irons, and we shall find that nine
+pokers out of ten have a handle terminating in a pointed knob. Now, as
+the object of this knob is that of enabling us to exercise force
+wherewith to break large pieces of coal, the folly of terminating this
+knob with a point is obvious. A poker is, essentially, an object of
+utility; it should therefore be useful. It is ridiculous to talk
+of a poker as an ornament; yet we find it fashionable now to have a
+bright poker as an ornament, which is obtrusively displayed to the
+visitor, and a little black poker, which is carefully concealed from
+view, reserved for use. I cannot imagine what people will not do for
+show and fashion, but to the thinking mind such littleness as that
+which induces women to keep a poker as an ornament must be
+distressing; and until persons who desire to be regarded as educated
+learn to discriminate between an ornament and an article of utility,
+little progress in art can be made. If a poker is simply a thing to be
+looked at, then it may be as inconvenient as you please, for if it
+has no purpose to fulfil by its creation it cannot be unfitted to its
+purpose. The same remarks will apply to shovel and tongs. If they are
+intended as works of utility, then their form must be carefully
+considered; but if they are to be mere ornaments I have nothing to say
+respecting them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166.]
+
+Utility and beauty are not inseparable; but if an article of any kind
+is intended to answer any particular end, it should be fitted to
+answer the end proposed by its formation; but after it is created as a
+work of utility, care must be exercised in order that it be also a
+work of beauty. With due consideration, almost every work may be
+rendered both useful and beautiful, and it must ever be the aim of the
+intelligent ornamentist to render them so.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.]
+
+Iron is capable of being wrought in various ways; it maybe cast, or
+hammered, or cut, or filed. Casting is the least artistic mode of
+treating iron; but if iron is to be cast, the patterns formed should
+be so fully adapted to this method of manufacture that the mode of
+working may be readily apparent. It is foolish to seek to make
+cast-iron appear as wrought-iron: cast-iron should appear as
+cast-iron, and wrought-iron as wrought-iron. Cast-iron is brittle,
+and must not be relied upon as of great strength; while wrought-iron
+is tough, and will bend under great pressure rather than break.
+Wrought-iron can be readily bent into scrolls, or the end of a rod of
+metal can be hammered flat and shaped into the form of a leaf, and
+parts can either be welded together or fastened by small collars,
+pins, or screws. One or two illustrations of good wrought-iron work by
+Skidmore, Benham, and Hart, are given in the engravings.
+
+As an illustration of a simple railing, is figured one shown in the
+International Exhibition of 1862 (Fig. 163), which is in every respect
+excellent. Its strength is very great, yet it is quaint and beautiful.
+As it was shown it was coloured, and the colours were so applied as to
+increase its effect and beauty. If the student will carefully devote
+himself to the consideration of excellent works in metal, he will
+learn more than by much reading. Let him procure, if possible, the
+illustrated catalogues of such men as Hart of London, Hardman of
+Birmingham, and Dovey of Manchester, and study the sketches which he
+will there see, and he will certainly discover the principles of a
+true art, such as he must seek to apply in a manner concordant with
+his own original feelings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169.]
+
+Of our illustrations, the example by Skidmore (Fig. 161) furnishes us
+with an excellent mode of treatment. Iron bands are readily bent into
+volutes, or curves of various descriptions, and the parts so formed
+can be united by welding, screws, or bolts. Hardman's gate (Fig. 165)
+is in every respect excellent; it is quaint, vigorous, and
+illustrative of a true mode of working metal. The two foliated
+railings (Figs. 166, 167) are also very meritorious. They are simple
+in design, and their parts are well fastened together. I advise very
+strongly that the student carefully consider the illustrations which
+accompany this chapter.
+
+In iron-work the manifestation of a true constructive principle is
+beyond all things desirable. Iron, being a strong material, should not
+be formed into heavy masses unless immense weight has to be
+sustained, or very great strength is required. If we form lamps,
+candelabra, and such works of iron, it is obvious that the portions of
+metal employed in their construction may be thin, as the material is
+of great strength. Were we to form such works of wood, then a greatly
+increased thickness of material would be necessary, in order that the
+same strength be secured, as wood is not nearly so strong as iron.
+
+My remarks will have special reference to wrought-iron, as cast-iron
+cannot so fully be said to have a constructive character. The small
+railing (Fig. 163) is an admirable illustration of a true constructive
+formation, as the parts are all held together, and strengthened to a
+wonderful degree, by the introduction of a horseshoe-shaped member.
+This railing is worthy of the most careful study, for its strength is
+great. Besides strength we have also beauty. The horseshoe form,
+especially when judiciously applied, is far from being offensive.
+Utility must come first, and then beauty, and so it does in this
+particular railing; but here we have great simplicity, and a correct
+structural character has been arrived at in its production rather than
+any elaboration of the principles of beauty.
+
+From the catalogue of J. W. Dovey, of Manchester, I select an
+illustration of structure in the form of a candelabrum which is highly
+satisfactory in character as a simple work (Fig. 168). There is a
+solidly-formed heavy base, an upright stem terminating in a
+candle-holder. There is an arrangement for catching waste grease, and
+extra strength is given to the stem by four slender buttress-like
+brackets, which are securely and well attached to the base and to the
+stem above; and these are strengthened by two hoops, which prevent
+their bending under pressure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.]
+
+Figs. 169 and 170, the former being a ridge or wall cresting, and the
+latter a stair railing, are each illustrations of a correct treatment,
+inasmuch as strength (a structural quality) and beauty (an art
+quality) are secured at the same time. Fig. 169 is admirably
+constructed, only it is a little slender above the middle horizontal
+line. These two illustrations are also from Mr. Dovey's catalogue.
+
+In the catalogue just named, and in those previously named also, many
+good examples may be found illustrative of the successful combination
+of true structural qualities with a considerable amount of beauty, and
+also acknowledging the strength of the material by the lightness of
+the parts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.]
+
+Those who reside in, or visit, London, will do well to go to the South
+Kensington Museum, and study a large and splendid, candelabrum of
+Messrs. Hurt, Son, and Peard, which is well worthy of consideration.
+It is rather heavy, and is of enormous strength, but in most other
+respects it is highly commendable. It, is beautiful, well
+proportioned, and illustrative of a correct treatment of metal.
+Besides this, it exemplifies the manner in which stones or jewels may
+be applied to works in hardware with advantage. As a further
+illustration of a correct and very beautiful treatment of metal, we
+give one segment of the Hereford Cathedral Screen (Fig. 171), the work
+of that most intelligent of metal-workers, Mr. Skidmore of Coventry.
+This screen was shown in the International Exhibition of 1862, in
+London, and was from there removed to its place in the cathedral. All
+who can will do well to view this beautiful work, which is one of the
+finest examples of artistic metal-work with which we are acquainted.
+Notice the ease with which iron may be treated if a correct mode of
+working be employed. Let a bar of iron be taken which is about half an
+inch in thickness, by 1-1/4 broad. This can be rolled into a volute
+(the filigree mode of treatment), or its end can be hammered out into
+stems and leaves, and to it can be attached other leaves by rivets,
+screws, or ties, or it can be bent into any structural form. To the
+student I say, study the shapes into which simple bars of iron can be
+beaten, both mentally and by observing well-formed works.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.]
+
+Brass, copper, and other metals may be associated with iron in the
+formation of any works. If well managed, brass and other bright metals
+may act as gems--that is, they may give bright spots; but where the
+bright metals are used with this view, care must be exercised in order
+that the bright spots be formed by beautiful parts, and that their
+distribution be just, for that which is bright will attract first
+attention.
+
+Before leaving this part of our subject, I must call attention to a
+hinge by Hardman, of Birmingham, which was shown in the International
+Exhibition of 1862, as it is both quaint and beautiful (Fig. 172). The
+door to which this hinge was applied opened twice; the first half
+opened and folded back on the second half, and then the two halves
+opened as one door, as will be seen from the illustration. It is very
+desirable that we have a little novelty of arrangement in our works.
+We are too apt to repeat ourselves, hence it is a sort of relief to
+meet with a new idea.
+
+It is impossible that I take up each article of hardware and consider
+it separately. All I can do is to point out principles, and leave the
+learner to consider and apply them for himself--principles which, once
+understood, may result in the construction of many excellent works,
+and may lead to the formation of a correct judgment respecting such
+objects as may be brought forward for criticism. I will, however, just
+call attention to gas-branches, as they are often wrongly constructed.
+A gas-branch is a duct through which gas is to be conveyed. It must be
+strong if it is to be exposed to pressure, or if it runs the chance of
+coming in collision with the person, as do standard lights in public
+buildings. The main part of a gas-branch is the tube or pipe which is
+to convey the gas, but this may be supported in many ways, as by such
+buttress-like brackets as in the candelabrum shown in Fig. 168; and if
+there are branch tubes for several lights, these may well be connected
+with the central tube, not only by their own attachment, but by
+brackets of some sort, or with one another by some connecting parts.
+Whether the gas-branch be pendent or standard, this mode of
+strengthening the tube-work should be employed, for the tubes
+themselves are but slightly held together, and by pressure being
+brought to bear upon them, a dangerous and expensive escape of gas may
+result.
+
+In the manufacture of gaseliers one or two of the smaller Birmingham
+houses have certainly distinguished themselves by the production of
+works both beautiful and true; and these lead me to think that a
+better day is dawning for Birmingham, in which its art shall be
+exalted rather than degraded, and shall be such as will win to it the
+esteem of the world rather than call forth the execrations of
+art-loving people.
+
+As to the colouring of iron I can say little. In my judgment the best
+modes of colouring metals were originated by Mr. Skidmore of Coventry,
+of whom I have before spoken. His theory is this, that metals are best
+coloured by the tints of their oxides. When a metal, especially brass,
+is seen in a furnace in a molten condition, the flames, where the
+oxygen of the atmosphere is uniting with the vapour of the metal,
+present the most resplendent tints. The same thing in a lesser degree
+occurs in the case of iron, but here the colours are less brilliant,
+and are more tertiary in character. Mr. Skidmore applies to a metal
+the colours seen in the flames of the furnace where it melts. Without
+attempting to limit the colourist to any theory whereby his ideas
+might be restricted, I must say that Skidmore's colouring of the
+metals is very good.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+STAINED GLASS.
+
+
+From early times it has been customary to colour glass. To the ancient
+Egyptians a method of forming glass of various tints was known, and by
+producing a mass of glass consisting of variously coloured pieces
+vitreously united, and cutting this into slices, they, in a costly and
+laborious manner, produced a sort of stained glass which might have
+been employed for the sides of lanterns or other purposes. The Greeks
+were acquainted with a similar process, and bowls formed in this
+manner by them are common in our museums.
+
+Soon after the re-discovery of glass in our own country, methods of
+colouring it were sought, and cathedral windows were formed, which
+were of such beauty, and were so thoroughly fitted to answer the end
+of their creation, that little or no improvement upon these early
+works has even yet been made, and much of the decorative glass which
+we now produce is far inferior to them as regards design, colour, and
+mode of treatment.
+
+A window must fulfil two purposes--it must keep out rain, wind, and
+cold, and must admit light; having fulfilled these ends, it may be
+beautiful.
+
+If a window commands a lovely view let it, if possible, be formed of
+but few sheets (if not very large, of one sheet) of plate-glass; for
+the works of God are more worthy of contemplation, with their
+ever-changing beauty, than the works of man; but if the window
+commands only a mass of bricks and mortar inartistically arranged, let
+it, if possible, be formed of coloured glass having beauty of design
+manifested by the arrangement of its parts. A window should never
+appear as a picture with parts treated in light and shade. The
+foreshortening of the parts, and all perspective treatments, are best
+avoided, as far as possible. I do not say that the human figure, the
+lower animals, and plants must not be delineated upon window glass,
+for, on the contrary, they may be so treated as not only to be
+beautiful, but also to be a consistent decoration of glass; but this I
+do say, that many stained windows are utterly spoiled through the
+window being treated as a picture, and not as a protection from the
+weather and as a source of light.
+
+If pictorially treated subjects are employed upon window glass, they
+should be treated very simply, and drawn in bold outline without
+shading, and the parts should be separated from each other by varying
+their colours. Thus, the flesh of a figure may be formed of glass
+having a pink tone; the robe of the figure of glass which is green,
+purple, or any other colour; a flower may be formed of white glass, or
+of glass of any colour; the leaves of green glass; and the sky
+background of blue glass. All the parts will thus be distinguished
+from each other by colour, and the distinction of part from part will
+be further enhanced by the strong black outline which bounds the parts
+and furnishes the drawing of the picture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.]
+
+Strong colours should rarely be used in windows, as they retard the
+admission of light. Light is essential to our well-being; our health
+of body depends in a large measure upon the amount of light which
+falls upon the skin. Those wonderful chemical changes, in the absence
+of which there can be no life, in part, at least, depend upon the
+exposure of our bodies to light; let our windows, then, admit these
+life-giving rays. It must also be remembered that if light is not
+freely admitted to an apartment the colours of all the objects which
+it contains, and of its own decorations if it has any, are sacrificed,
+for in the absence of light there is no colour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 178.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 180.]
+
+It is not necessary, in order to the production of a beautiful window,
+that much strong colour be used; tints of creamy yellow, pale amber,
+light tints of tertiary blue, blue-grey, olive, russet, and other
+sombre or delicate hues, if enlivened with small portions of ruby or
+other full colours, produce the most charming effects, and by their
+use we have consistent windows.
+
+A good domestic window is often produced by armorial bearings in
+colour being placed on geometrically arranged tesserae of slightly
+tinted glass. In some cases such an arrangement as this is highly
+desirable, for the room may thus get the benefit which a bit of colour
+will sometimes afford, and at the same time a pleasant view may be had
+through the uncoloured portion of the window. As an illustration of
+this class of window, we extract one from the catalogue of those
+excellent artists in stained glass, Messrs. Heaton, Butler, and Bayne,
+of Garrick Street (Fig. 173). A good window may also be formed by
+bordering a plain window with colour, (Fig. 174), or in place of the
+plain centre squares of glass may be used, each bearing a diaper
+pattern, as Figs. 175 to 182.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182.]
+
+No architectural constructive feature should be introduced into a
+window--thus, an elaborate architectural canopy overshadowing a figure
+is not at all desirable. If a figure is formed of a perishable
+material, and stands on the outside of a building, it is well that it
+be protected from the rain by a canopy; but such a contrivance when
+introduced over a figure drawn on a flat window is absurd, being
+useless. Let us always consider what we have to do before we commence
+the formation of any ornamental article, and then seek to do it in the
+most simple, consistent, and beautiful manner. Figs. 183 and 184
+represent my views of what stained glass may advantageously be.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183.]
+
+More than once in the course of these chapters I have protested in
+strong terms against pretence in art and art-decoration--the desire to
+make things appear to be made of better material or more costly
+substances than what they have in reality been wrought from--that
+leads men to paint and varnish a plain freestone mantelpiece in
+imitation of some expensive marble, or to make doors and
+window-shutters, skirting and panelling that the carpenter has
+fashioned out of red or yellow deal, assume the appearance of oak, or
+maple, or satinwood, by the deceptive skill of the grainer. In no
+case can the imitation ever approach a fair resemblance to the reality
+it is proposed to imitate. The coarse, rough grain of the soft
+freestone, which is incapable of receiving a polish, or rather of
+being polished until it becomes as smooth, and even, and lustrous as
+good glass, can never be made by successive coatings of paint and
+varnish to afford a satisfactory resemblance to the marble that it is
+supposed to represent, however carefully the cunning hand of the
+painter may have imitated the veins, and spots, and curious
+diversities of colour with which Nature has variegated the surface of
+the substance that he is endeavouring to copy. Nor, again, can a
+coarse-grained, soft wood, however skilled may be the hand that
+manipulates it, be treated so as to resemble the texture and
+smoothness of hard, close-grained wood, which from its very nature is
+capable of receiving the high polish that the softer material can
+never take if treated by the same process--that is, unless the expense
+of producing the imitation greatly exceeds the cost of the thing
+imitated. And what is applicable to the treatment of wood and stone is
+applicable also to the treatment of glass: for as a freestone
+mantelpiece, or deal door, however suitable and pleasing to the eye
+either may be when simply painted in the one case and varnished in the
+other to preserve the surface from the deteriorating influences of
+dirt of any kind, can never be made by the exercise of reasonable time
+and skill to present the appearance of marble or oak; so glass, by the
+application of colour rendered transparent by varnish, can never be
+brought to resemble glass stained or painted by the legitimate method,
+either in delicacy of tint, or depth, and richness, and brilliancy of
+colour. The greater part of the imitative stained glass, or
+"diaphanie" as it is styled, fails not only in colour, but in design;
+and in this indeed it may perhaps be said to be especially faulty. The
+designs, which are printed on paper, with the view of imitating glass
+patterns, err principally in being too elaborate, and in representing
+figures and scenery which are not in character or keeping with the
+designs that are usually represented in painted glass. If confined to
+simple diaper work, or borderings and heraldic emblems, as shown in
+Figs. 173 and 174, or patterns similar to that shown in Fig. 183, the
+artistic effect produced would be more satisfactory, although it can
+never equal genuine stained glass in depth of colour or purity of
+tone.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+I have now treated of art as applied to our industrial manufactures,
+and have pointed out principles which must be recognisable in all
+art-works which pretend to merit. We have seen that material must in
+all cases be used in the simplest and most natural manner; that,
+wherever possible, we must avail ourselves of the friendly aid of
+natural forces;[29] that the most convenient shape must always be
+selected for a vessel or art-object of any kind; and that beauty must
+then be added to that which is useful. All art-objects must be useful
+and then beautiful; they must be utilitarian, and yet so graceful, so
+comely, that they shall be loved for their beauty as well as valued
+for their usefulness. While I have set forth those principles which
+must ever govern the application of ornament to useful articles, I
+cannot show the student any royal road to the attainment of
+art-knowledge. There is something in a true art-work which is too
+subtle for expression by words; there is a "quality" about an
+art-work, or the expression of an amount of "feeling," which cannot be
+described, yet which is so obvious as to be at once apparent to the
+trained eye.
+
+[29] See chapters on glass and earthenware.
+
+The only way in which the power of appreciating art-qualities can be
+gained, especially if these qualities are of a subtle nature, is by
+the careful study of works of known excellence. Could the student
+visit our museums in company with a trained ornamentist, who would
+point out what was good and what was bad in art, he would soon learn,
+by studying the beautiful works, to perceive art-qualities; but as
+this is not possible to most, the learner must be content to consider
+each art-work with which he comes in contact in conjunction with the
+principles I have set forward.
+
+Let him take a work--say a tea-pot. He will now ask himself--has the
+material of which it is formed been judiciously and simply used?--is
+the shape convenient?--is the handle properly applied, and does the
+spout bear a proper relation to the handle?--is the form graceful or
+vigorous?--is the curve which bounds the form of a subtle nature?--is
+the engraving applied in judicious quantities and in just
+proportions?--are the engraved forms beautiful, and such as do not
+suffer by being seen in perspective on a rounded surface? By such
+questions the student will inquire into the nature of whatever is
+presented to his consideration, and only by constantly making such
+inquiries, and seeking to answer them correctly, can he gain the
+knowledge which will enable him rightly to judge of the nature of
+art-works.
+
+Some of these inquiries the young student will readily answer, with
+others he will have difficulty; for, his taste being yet uncultivated,
+he will not know whether a form is beautiful or not. Nevertheless, I
+say to the learner, try to answer these various inquiries as well as
+you can, and then note the shape of the object in a memorandum-book,
+and write your opinion respecting it in brief terms, and your reasons
+for your opinion. By thus noting your studies you gain many
+advantages; thus, you must frame your ideas with some degree of
+exactness when you have to put them into words, and exactness of idea
+is essential to your success. You can also refer to previous thoughts,
+and thus impress them upon the memory; and you can observe your
+progress, which is important, and should be encouraging. In order that
+you acquire the power of perceiving art-merit as quickly as possible,
+you must study those works in which examples of bad taste are rarely
+met with, you must at first consider art-objects from India, Persia,
+China, and Japan, as well as examples of ancient art from Egypt and
+Greece. But in selecting modern works from the East, choose those
+which are not altogether new if possible.
+
+During the last ten years the art-works of Japan have deteriorated to
+a lamentable extent. Contact with Europeans unfortunately brings about
+the deterioration of Eastern art: in order that the European demand be
+met, quantity is produced and quality disregarded, for we cavil
+respecting price, and yet by thus creating a demand for inferior work
+we raise the price even of that which is comparatively bad, and soon
+have to pay for the coarser wares a price for which superior articles
+could at first be procured.
+
+But this should be noted: that the commonest wares which we receive
+from Japan and India are never utterly bad in art. Inharmonious
+colouring does not appear to be produced by these nations, and the
+same may be said of Persia and China, and, to an extent, of Morocco
+and Algeria, the only exceptions being where European influence has
+been long continued. In selecting examples for study you may almost
+rely upon the beauty of all works from China, Japan, Persia, and
+India, which have not been produced under European influence.
+
+A notable example of the deteriorating influence of European taste
+(perhaps chiefly English taste) upon Eastern art is apparent if we
+examine old carved sandalwood boxes from India, and those which are
+now sent to us from the same country; the quiet, unobtrusive
+consistency of the ornament by which it was sought only to enrich a
+properly constructed box was not sufficiently attractive to suit
+European (or English?) taste. The ornament must be more pronounced and
+in higher relief, and the entire work must be more attractive--more
+vulgarly attractive I might say, and thus the exquisite refinement of
+the older works is sacrificed to the wants of a rich but vulgar
+people, whose taste for art is infinitely below that of their
+conquered brethren, from whom they learn the principles of a beautiful
+art but slowly, while they do much to destroy the refinement of
+art-taste which the workmen of our Eastern empire appear to inherit.
+Study the works of the Eastern nations in conjunction with the remarks
+which I made in my first chapter (see pages 6, 9, and 48), and then
+consider the numerous objects left to us by the early Egyptians and
+Greeks, and bear in mind while viewing them what we have said on
+Egyptian and Greek art (see pages 6, 8, and 10), and after having
+learned to understand the merits of Persian, Japanese, Indian, and
+Chinese art, and of that of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, you may
+commence to consider other styles, taking up the study of Italian and
+Renaissance art in its various forms last of all; for in these styles,
+or dialects of a style if I may thus speak, there is so much that is
+false in structure, false in representation, untruthful in expression,
+and pictorial rather than ornamental in effect, that a very complete
+acquaintance with ornamental art is necessary in order that all the
+defects of these styles be apparent, and in order that the student
+avoid falling into the error of regarding a pictorial effect as the
+result of a true style of ornamental art.
+
+Study, when accompanied by individual thought, is the means whereby
+art-knowledge will be gained. No mere looking at works which are
+beautiful and true will make a great ornamentist. He who would attain
+to great knowledge must _study_ whatever commends itself to him as
+worthy of his attention, and, above all, must think much upon the
+works which he contemplates; it is the evidence of mind--not of
+degraded but of noble mind, of refined mind, of cultivated mind, of
+well-informed mind, of mind which has knowledge, of mind which has
+vigour, of mind which is fresh and new--that we find impressed upon a
+work and giving to it value. While we, as art-students, have, above
+all things, to attain to cultivation of the mind, we cannot give
+expression to refined feelings manifested in form unless we can draw,
+and draw almost faultlessly; and the ability to draw with accuracy,
+power, and feeling can only result from much practice.
+
+Let every spare moment, then, find the sketch-book in your hand, and
+be constantly trying to draw both carefully, neatly, and with
+exactness and finish, such objects as you see around you, even if
+examples of good art-works are not at hand; for by constant and
+careful practice you can alone acquire the necessary power of
+expressing refined thought in refined form. Avoid making hasty
+sketches. When a finished artist, you can afford to make sketch
+memoranda; but till you can draw with great power, energy,
+truthfulness, and refinement, let your every drawing be as careful and
+as finished in character, however simple the object portrayed, as
+though your welfare in life depended upon its character, for upon
+every sketch your future position does, to a great extent, depend. The
+habit of careful painstaking should sedulously be cultivated; and with
+every drawing thus made an amount of power is gained which the making
+of a hundred careless sketches would not afford. Let painstaking,
+then, be characteristic of your working.
+
+Ornament of some kind is applied to almost every article that we see
+around us. The papers on our walls, the carpets on our floors, the
+hangings at our windows, the plates from which we eat, are all covered
+by patterns of some kind; yet it is rare, even now when ornamentation
+has become general, to find anything original in ornament; and if we
+do meet with something new in kind it is often feeble or
+timid-looking, if it does not altogether fail to impress us with the
+idea that the producer was a man of knowledge. Let the reader be
+assured that if the designer is a man of knowledge, his ornamental
+compositions will never fail to reveal his learning; that if he is a
+man of power, his works will reveal his strength of character; if he
+is a man of refined feelings, that his designs will manifest his
+tenderness of perception. In like manner, if a man is ignorant he
+cannot withhold from his patterns the manifestation of his ignorance.
+Did not the Egyptians express their power of character in their
+ornaments? did not the Greeks manifest their refinement in the forms
+which they drew? do we not even find an expression of religious
+feeling strongly, yea, impressively, set forth by some art-works, as
+by the illuminated manuscripts of the early Middle Ages? and do we not
+every day see the impress of the ignorant upon certain wall-papers,
+carpets, and other things? It is a fact, and it is necessary that we
+fully recognise it, that the knowledge of the producer is manifested
+by his works; and that the ignorance of the ignorant is also
+manifested in his works.
+
+If ornament is produced having new characters, it is often feeble, and
+is generally without grace; while power is the expression of
+manliness, and grace of refinement. Without claiming to have made a
+successful effort, I put forth, in the frontispiece to this volume
+(Plate I.), four of my studies in original ornament, all of which are
+to me more or less satisfactory as studies in composition. I have
+endeavoured to secure in each an amount of energy, vigour--the power
+of life, yet at the same time to avoid coarseness, or any glaring want
+of refinement. I have sought to combine right lines, which are
+expressive of power, with such curved shapes as shall, with them,
+produce a pleasing contrast of form, and express a certain amount of
+grace. In the light ornament on the citrine ground (that at the lower
+left-hand corner of our plate) I have endeavoured especially to secure
+an expression of grace in combination with that amount of energy which
+avoids any expression of feebleness.
+
+In the border ornament I have introduced the arch form, as it hints at
+a structural "setting out" which is pleasant; and I have endeavoured
+to cause the composition to appear as though it rested on the lower
+dotted band, as this gives a feeling of security. I do not say that it
+is necessary that this be so: all I assert is that in some cases it
+gives a feeling of satisfaction.
+
+So far as I know, the colouring is also original. The colours employed
+are chiefly of a tertiary character, but small masses of primary or
+secondary colours are employed in order to impart "life" to the
+composition.
+
+I do not set these studies before my readers with the idea of showing
+them what original ornament should be: I only set them forth as
+examples of new compositions, and must leave each to clothe his own
+thoughts with a befitting expression of his individual original ideas.
+
+As I am writing for the working man, as well as for others, will he
+pardon me reminding him that we are called to exercise an art, yet at
+the same time our art is associated with the scientific professions--a
+knowledge of natural sciences, of botany, zoology, natural philosophy,
+and chemistry can be very fully utilised in our art--and that we
+should, therefore, act as professional men and as artists of the
+highest rank; for thereby only can we hope to place our calling in
+that position of esteem in which it should be held, and must be held,
+by the people at large, if we are to administer to their pleasure as
+we ought.
+
+In taking leave of my reader, let me say that if I personally can aid
+him in any way, I shall be glad to do so. If any who really seek
+knowledge of decorative design, and are hard workers, choose to send
+me designs for criticism or comment, or desire any other aid that I
+can give them, I shall be happy to do what little I can for them. My
+address will be found at the end of the Preface.
+
+
+
+
+    INDEX.
+
+
+    Alternation in Ornament, 24.
+
+    America, Depraved Artistic Taste in, 104.
+
+    Anthemion; a Greek Decorative Device, 9.
+
+    Arabian Metal-work, 137.
+
+    Arch used in Furniture, 51, 52.
+
+    Art may be Degrading, 2;
+      aims at producing Repose, 63;
+      the Object of, 144.
+
+    Art-knowledge, The Value of, 2.
+
+
+    Baptism, Symbol of, in Gothic Art, 12.
+
+    Beauty in Decoration, 16, 17.
+
+    Bed-room, Decoration for a, 15.
+
+    Birmingham Ware, 144, 145, 152.
+
+    Black, a Neutral in Decorative Work, 45.
+
+    Buhl-work, 64.
+
+    Buildings, Decoration of, 73, _et seq._
+
+    Byzantine Ornament, 11.
+
+
+    Cabinet, Construction of a, 61.
+
+    Calico, Patterns on, 107.
+
+    Carpets, Art-qualities and Patterns of, 94, _et seq._;
+      Different Sorts of, 94, 95;
+      Foreign-made, 102, 103;
+      how they should be laid down, 105;
+      the Conditions which Govern the Application of Ornament to, 106.
+
+    Carving, when to be used, 61, 62.
+
+    Casting in Metal, 136.
+
+    Casting, the least Artistic Mode of Treating Iron, 147.
+
+    Ceilings, Decoration of, 75, _et seq._;
+      Various, worthy of Study, 82;
+      with Painted Pictures Objectionable, 82.
+
+    Celtic Ornament, 25.
+
+    Chair-coverings, 72.
+
+    Chairs, Construction of, 52-57.
+
+    Character of the Designer shown by his Work, 163.
+
+    Chinese Enamels, 143.
+
+    Chinese Harmony of Colour, 48.
+
+    Chinese Ornament, 11.
+
+    Christian Art, 11, 12.
+
+    Clay as a Material for Art-purposes, 117, _et seq._
+
+    Colour--in Decoration, 30, _et seq._;
+      Contrast in, 32, 33;
+      Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary, 32;
+      Harmony in, 33, 39, _et seq._;
+      Qualities of, 33, 34;
+      Analytical Tables of, 34;
+      Teachings of Experience in regard to, 34, 45;
+      Proportions in which Colours Harmonise, 34, 35, 36;
+      Pure, and Pigments, 37, 38;
+      Permanence of, 38, _note_;
+      Shades, Tints, and Hues, 39;
+      Works on, referred to, 49;
+      for Stained Windows, 154, _et seq._
+
+    Colouring Metals. _See_ Skidmore, Mr.
+
+    Colour-top, the, 48, and _note_.
+
+    Copper Vessels Inlaid with Silver, 142.
+
+    Cornices, Colouring of, 93.
+
+    Couches, 57, _et seq._
+
+    Curtain Materials, 107, _et seq._
+
+    Curves, most Beautiful when most Subtle, 23.
+
+
+    Damascene Work, 139.
+
+    Damask Table-linen, Patterns on, 107, 108, 109.
+
+    Damask Wall-coverings. _See_ Silk Wall Damasks.
+
+    Decanters, what they should be, 129.
+
+    Decoration should be in keeping with Architecture, 73, 74, 75.
+
+    Design and Ornament, Redgrave on, 50.
+
+    Dining-room, Decoration for a, 14.
+
+    Dining-tables, Mr. Eastlake on Telescopic, 66, 67.
+
+    Distemper Colours for Wall Decoration, 83.
+
+    Doric Column, The, 9.
+
+    Drawing-room, Decoration for a, 15.
+
+    Dress, Ladies' and Gentlemen's, 90.
+      Patterns for Ladies', 112.
+
+
+    Earthen Vessels, Decoration of, 125, 126, 127.
+
+    Eastlake, Mr., on Household Art, referred to, 52, and _note_.
+
+    Ecclesiastical Metal-workers, 144, 145.
+
+    Egyptian Architecture, 8.
+
+    Egyptian Coloured Glass, 153.
+
+    Egyptian Drawing, Peculiarity of, 5.
+
+    Egyptian Ornament, 4-8.
+
+    Embroidery on Cotton, Indian, 114.
+
+    Enamelling in Metal-work, 143.
+
+    England, Architectural Buildings in, 11;
+      House Decoration in, 30, 31.
+
+    European Influence Injurious to Eastern Art, 161.
+
+    Excess in Upholstery, 70.
+
+
+    Fabrics, Patterns Suitable for Woven, 107, _et seq._
+
+    Finish, its Value Over-estimated, 120.
+
+    Folds, Ornamentation of Fabrics to be seen in, 112, _et seq._
+
+    French Errors of Taste in Furniture, 65.
+
+    Furniture, Decorative Principles applied to, 50, _et seq._;
+      What is Required to make it an Object of Art, 50;
+      Material used for, 51;
+      Truthful Construction of, 59, 65, _et seq._;
+      Proportion and Enrichment of, 61, 63.
+
+
+    Glass, as a Material for Art-purposes, 118, 127, _et seq._;
+      Vessels, Various, 130, _et seq._;
+      Vessels, Coloured, 131, 132;
+      Cutting of, 132;
+      Engraving of, 133; Ornamentation of, 133;
+      Stained, 153, _et seq._
+
+    Gold, a Neutral in Decorative Work, 44, 45.
+
+    Gold and Silver, Works in, 136.
+
+    Gothic Architecture, Modern, 74.
+
+    Gothic Furniture, Falsely Constructed, 66.
+
+    Gothic Ornament, 12.
+
+    Granite Imitated, Objected to, 89.
+
+    Greek Coloured Glass, 153.
+
+    Greek Ornament, 9, 10, 11.
+
+    Greek Vessels, 121.
+
+    Grotesque. _See_ Humour.
+
+
+    Handles of Vessels, 138, 139, 140.
+
+    Hardware, Art in Connection with, 144, _et seq._
+
+    Harmony of Colour. _See_ Colour.
+
+    Historical Inquiry Necessary to the Understanding of Decoration, 4,
+
+    Humour in Ornament, 24-29;
+      Chinese and Japanese, 25, 27, 28.
+
+
+    Imitations of Marbles and Granites, 89.
+
+    Indian Art Injured by European Influence, 161.
+
+    Indian Fabrics, 48, _note_.
+
+    Indian Fabrics, Mr. Redgrave on, 115, 116.
+
+    Indian Metal-work, 142.
+
+    Indian Work in regard to Colouring, 47.
+
+    Inlaying as a means of Enriching Works of Furniture, 63.
+
+    Irish Crosses, Numerous Ornaments on, 25.
+
+    Iron, as an Art-material, 142.
+
+    Iron, how Wrought, 147.
+
+    Iron, Metals that may be Associated with, 151.
+
+    Iron-castings of Berlin, 136.
+
+    Iron-work, Ornamental, 147, _et seq._;
+      must Manifest a True Constructive Principle, 148;
+      Colouring of, 152.
+
+    Italian Metal-work, 142.
+
+
+    Japan, Deterioration in the Art-works of, 161.
+
+    Japanese Art, 11.
+
+    Japanese Colouring, 48.
+
+    Japanese Earthenware, 120.
+
+    Japanese Enamels, 142, 143.
+
+    Japanese Metal-work, 142.
+
+    Jewels in Metal-work, 143.
+
+    Joists in Ceilings, how they should be Treated, 79.
+
+
+    Labour Necessary to Success in Art, 4, 31.
+
+    Library, Decoration for a, 15.
+
+    Lotus in Egyptian Design, 5, 6.
+
+
+    Marble Imitated, Objected to, 89.
+
+    Mediaeval Metal-workers, 144, 145.
+
+    Mental Effects produced by Decorative Forms, 14.
+
+    Moorish Ornament, 11.
+
+    Muslin, Patterns on, 107.
+
+
+    Natural Forms in Carpet Patterns, 96, 97, 98.
+
+    Niello-work applied to Metals, 143.
+
+    Norman Architecture, 11.
+
+    Novelty Wanted in Carpet Patterns, 105.
+
+
+    Oil-colour "Flatted" for Wall Decoration, 83.
+
+    Order, a Principle in Ornament, 23.
+
+    Ormolu Ornaments, 64.
+
+    Ornament and Architecture Inseparable, 13.
+
+
+    Papered Walls. _See_ Wall Papers.
+
+    Papyrus in Egyptian Architecture, 8.
+
+    Persian Ornament, 11.
+
+    Picture Frames, 72.
+
+    Pigments. _See_ Colour.
+
+    Plants as Ornaments, How to Treat, 24.
+
+    Plaques of Stone or Earthenware applied to Works of Furniture, 63,
+      64.
+
+    Pottery, Art in, 117, _et seq._
+
+    Power an Art-principle, 17.
+
+    Precious Materials in the Form of Art-works, 117, 118.
+
+    Preface, v., vi.
+
+    Pretence in Art-decoration, 157-159.
+
+    Proportion must be Subtle, 23.
+
+    Purpose, Adaptation to, Taught by Plants, 21.
+
+
+    Renaissance Ornament, 13.
+
+    Repetition of Parts in Ornament, 23.
+
+    Roman Ornament, 11.
+
+
+    Shams in Decoration, 89.
+
+    Silk, Patterns on, 107.
+
+    Silk Wall Damasks, 114.
+
+    Silversmiths' Work, 135, _et seq._
+
+    Skidmore, Mr., and his Theory of Colouring Metals, 152.
+
+    Sofa-coverings, 70, 72.
+
+    South Kensington Museum, 48, _note_.
+
+    Spouts of Vessels, 139, _et seq._
+
+    Stools, 53.
+
+    Study of Art-decoration, how it should be carried on, 14, 160, 161,
+      162.
+
+    Styles of Architecture, 73.
+
+    Sugar-basin, its Form, 138.
+
+    Surface Decoration, 73, _et seq._
+
+    Symbols in Christian Art, 12.
+
+
+    Table-covers, The Borders of, 109, 111.
+
+    Taste of the Uneducated, 15.
+
+    Trinity, Symbols of the, in Gothic Art, 12.
+
+    Truth an Art-principle, 15, 16, 89, 158, 159.
+
+
+    Utility must Govern the Production and Application of Ornament,
+        17-22, 145.
+
+    Utility in Architecture, 20.
+
+    Utility Professor George Wilson on, 19, 20.
+
+    Utility Various Writers on, 20.
+
+
+    Vehicles for Art, The Best, the least Costly, 3.
+
+    Veneering, 69.
+
+    Venetian Glass, 130, 131.
+
+    Vessels, Primitive, 120.
+
+
+    Wall Decorations, 83, _et seq._
+
+    Wall Papers, 87, 90, _et seq._
+
+    Walls should be Unobtrusive, 90.
+
+    Water-vessels, Egyptian and Greek, 121-124.
+
+    White a Neutral in Decorative Work, 45.
+
+    Window-hangings, 69, 70, 108.
+
+    Windows, 69, 70;
+      the Object of, 153;
+      how they should be Treated, 153.
+
+    Wine-bottles, Forms of, 128.
+
+    "Winged Globe," in Egyptian Design, 7.
+
+    Woods and their Relative Strength, 51.
+
+    Workmen; their Study of Decorative Laws, 1.
+
+    " Advice to, 164.
+
+    Wrought-iron, its Qualities, 147, 148.
+
+
+CASSELL, PETTER, & GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, LONDON, E.C.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MANUALS OF TECHNOLOGY.
+
+EDITED BY
+
+PROFESSOR AYRTON, F.R.S.
+
+(_Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute_),
+
+AND RICHARD WORMELL, D.Sc., M.A.
+
+
+During the last two years a very great impetus has been given to the
+advancement of Technical Education, so that at the present time there
+is a widespread demand on the part of technical students for
+text-books. The object of this series is to meet this demand by
+furnishing books which describe _the application of science to
+industry_, which translate the language and results of science into
+the language of the workshop, and will thus bring to the benefit of
+the English Industries the workman's acquaintance with the scientific
+principles which underlie his daily work.
+
+These manuals of Technology are not intended to teach _pure_ science.
+Nor are they intended to enable the reader to dispense with learning,
+by actual practice in the workshop, the handicraft of the various
+trades. They will form a link between these two designs. They will
+give the reader an intelligent grasp of the complicated machinery of
+the factory. They are designed to make workmen thinkers, and not
+merely human tools.
+
+No special knowledge of mathematics or of science is necessary to the
+student of this series, but it is expected that he will have been
+observant of the processes carried on in his workshop, which will be
+here scientifically explained. The subjects will be treated
+analytically rather than synthetically; that is to say, the machine,
+as the workman knows it, will be taken as a whole and analysed, and
+special care will be taken to avoid the method too common in
+scientific books, according to which a number of abstract principles
+are first developed, while their practical application is deferred to
+the end of the book, which, probably, the practical man never reaches.
+
+As text-books for the large and increasing number of candidates at the
+Technological Examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute,
+with which many of the authors are connected, these Manuals of
+Technology will be especially valuable. An author in each case has
+been selected who was able to comprise a well-grounded scientific
+knowledge with a practical familiarity with the minute details of the
+trade treated of in his book. Consequently, while the latest and most
+approved processes of manufacture will be found described, the exact
+scientific reasons for the superiority of these modern methods over
+the older ones will be given in full, as well as such indications as
+science would suggest for improving the present processes.
+
+The following books are already in preparation, and others will be
+added:--
+
+    ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND TRANSMISSION OF POWER Professor Ayrton, F.R.S.
+    APPLIED MECHANICS                           Professor Perry, M.E.
+    CUTTING TOOLS WORKED BY HAND AND MACHINE    Professor Smith.
+    IRON AND STEEL                              W. H. Greenwood, Esq.
+    FLUID MOTORS                                Professor Perry, M.E.
+    CHEMISTRY                                   Dr. Armstrong, F.R.S.
+    FLAX SPINNING                               D. S. Thomson, Esq.
+    WATCH AND CLOCK MAKING                      D. Glasgow, Esq.
+
+_The numerous Illustrations_ to these books will be pictures of the
+actual machines as they exist in the best factories, and will not be
+merely conventional representations conveying but little intelligence
+to the practical man.
+
+The aim throughout has been to prepare books that shall appeal at once
+to the workman. Their preparation has been entrusted to writers who
+know what the workman's difficulties are, what information he needs to
+help him in his trade, and this is presented in such a form that the
+reader may be attracted by a desire to learn the Why and Wherefore,
+instead of being repelled by the supposed difficulties of science.
+
+    P.T.O.
+
+    _CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO., LUDGATE HILL, LONDON._
+
+
+MANUALS OF TECHNOLOGY, NOW READY.
+
+
+     =Applied Mechanics.=--By Prof. JOHN PERRY, M.E. With numerous
+     Illustrations. _Extra fcap. 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+     =Cutting Tools Worked by Hand and Machine.=--By ROBERT H. SMITH,
+     M.I.M.E.; Assoc. M.I.C.E.; Professor of Engineering in the
+     Mason Science College, Birmingham; formerly Professor of
+     Engineering in the Imperial University, Japan. With numerous
+     Practical Drawings. _Extra fcap. 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+    (_For full particulars of this Series, see preceding Page._)
+
+=Intermediate Text-Book of Physical Science.=--By F. H. BOWMAN, D.Sc.,
+F.R.A.S., F.L.S.; Fellow of the Geological, Chemical, and Royal
+Microscopical Societies; Straton Prizeman and Gold Medallist in
+Technology, University of Edinburgh. Illustrated. _Extra fcap. 8vo,
+cloth, 3s. 6d._
+
+This work is the outcome of a speech delivered at Liverpool by
+Professor Huxley, who represented the serious want felt by students at
+night-classes for a general introduction to science suited to their
+needs. It will occupy, as Professor Huxley suggested, an intermediate
+position between the elementary text-books for use in schools, and
+those which are suited for colleges and universities. Not only will it
+be specially suitable for the science classes connected with
+Mechanics' Institutes, Young Men's Associations, Intermediate Schools
+and Colleges, and other educational institutions, but for all
+non-mathematical students who desire a complete _introduction to
+science_. It embodies the latest scientific researches, and contains
+an accurate and philosophical account of the present condition of the
+physical sciences in all branches, enabling its readers to follow the
+advance continually being made in the application of science to the
+arts and uses of every-day life.
+
+=Handrailing and Staircasing.=--A Complete Set of Lines for Handrails
+by "Square-cut System," and Full Practical Instructions for making and
+fixing Geometrical Staircases. By FRANK O. CRESWELL, of the Liverpool
+School of Science; Medallist for Geometry. With upwards of One Hundred
+Working Drawings. _Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d._
+
+The high prices at which works on this subject have been hitherto
+published have placed them quite beyond the reach of ordinary workmen.
+By means of this book, however, mechanics will now have within their
+reach the best practical teaching at a cost that will allow all to
+possess themselves of it.
+
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+
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+    European Butterflies and Moths. By W. F. KIRBY. With upwards of
+    60 Coloured Plates. Demy 4to, cloth gilt, 35s.
+
+    Animal Life Described and Illustrated. By Prof. E. PERCEVAL
+    WRIGHT, M.D. _Cheap Edition_, 7s. 5d.
+
+    New Natural History, Cassell's. Edited by Prof. P. MARTIN
+    DUNCAN, M.B., F.R.S. Complete in 6 Vols. Illustrated throughout.
+    Cloth, 9s. each.
+
+    Field Naturalist's Handbook. By the Rev. J. G. WOOD and THEODORE
+    WOOD. Demy 8vo, cloth, price 5s.
+
+    Mammalia. Adapted from the French of LOUIS FIGUIER, by Professor
+    E. PERCEVAL WRIGHT, M.D., F.L.S. With upwards of 260
+    illustrations. Extra crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d.
+
+    Transformations of Insects, The. By Prof. P. MARTIN DUNCAN,
+    F.R.S. With 240 Illustrations. 6s.
+
+    The World of the Sea. By the Rev. H. MARTYN HATT, M.A.
+    Illustrated. Cloth, 6s.
+
+    Dairy Farming. By Prof. J. P. SHELDON. With Coloured Plates and
+    numerous Wood Engravings. 31s. 6d.
+
+    Illustrated Book of the Dog. By VERO SHAW, B.A. With 28
+    Fac-simile Coloured Plates, and numerous Wood Engravings. Demy
+    4to, cloth, 35s.
+
+    The Book of the Horse. By SAMUEL SIDNEY. With 25 fac-simile
+    Coloured Plates, and numerous Wood Engravings. Demy 4to, cloth,
+    31s. 6d.
+
+    Canaries and Cage Birds, The Illustrated Book of. With 56
+    _fac-simile_ Coloured Plates and numerous Illustrations. Demy
+    4to, cloth, 35s.
+
+    The Illustrated Book of Poultry. By L. WRIGHT. With 50 Coloured
+    Plates, and numerous Engravings. Demy 4to, cloth, 31s. 6d.
+
+    The Illustrated Book of Pigeons. By R. FELTON. Edited by L.
+    WRIGHT. With 50 Coloured Plates, and numerous Wood Engravings.
+    Demy 4to, cloth, 31s. 6d.
+
+
+_CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.: LONDON, PARIS & NEW YORK._
+
+
+    _SELECTIONS FROM CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS._
+
+    BIBLES, RELIGIOUS WORKS, &c.
+
+    The Early Days of Christianity. By the Rev. CANON FARRAR, D.D.,
+    F.R.S. Two Vols., demy 8vo, 24s.
+
+    The Life of Christ. By the Rev. CANON FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S.
+
+    _Popular Edition_, in One Vol., cloth, 6s.; cloth gilt, gilt
+    edges, 7s. 6d.; Persian morocco, gilt edges, 10s. 6d.; tree
+    calf, 15s.
+
+    _Library Edition._ Two Vols., cloth, 24s.; morocco, L2 2s.
+
+    _Illustrated Edition_, extra crown 4to, cloth gilt, 21s.;
+    morocco, L2 2s.
+
+    The Life and Work of St. Paul. By the Rev. CANON FARRAR, D.D.,
+    F.R.S. Two Vols., 24s.; morocco, L2 2s.
+
+    The Child's Life of Christ. Complete in One Volume, with several
+    hundred Original Wood Engravings, extra crown 4to, elegantly
+    bound, price 21s.
+
+    An Old Testament Commentary for English Readers. By various
+    Writers. Edited by the Right Rev. C. J. ELLICOTT, D.D., Lord
+    Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. Vol. I., price 21s., contains
+    the PENTATEUCH.
+
+    New Testament Commentary for English Readers. Edited by C. J.
+    ELLICOTT, D.D., Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. In Three
+    Volumes, 21s. each.
+
+    Vol. I. contains the Four Gospels. Vol. II. contains the Acts,
+    Romans, Corinthians, Galatians. Vol. III. contains the Remaining
+    Books of the New Testament.
+
+    Roberts's Holy Land. DIVISIONS I. and II., containing 42 Tinted
+    Plates in each. Gilt edges, 18s. each.
+
+    A Commentary on the Revised Version of the New Testament for
+    English Readers. By PREBENDARY HUMPHRY, B.D., Member of the
+    Company of Revisers of the New Testament. 7s. 6d.
+
+    The Half-Guinea Illustrated Bible. Containing 900 Original
+    Illustrations. Crown 4to, cloth, 10s. 6d.
+
+    Cassell's Illustrated Bible. With 900 Illustrations. Royal 4to,
+    Persian morocco, with Coloured Maps, 21s.
+
+    The Child's Bible. With 220 Illustrations. Demy 4to, cloth gilt,
+    L1 1s.; leather, 30s.
+
+    The Dore Bible. With 220 Illustrations by GUSTAVE DORE. Two
+    Vols., morocco, L4 4s.; best morocco, L6 6s.
+
+    The History of the English Bible. By the Rev. W. F. MOULTON,
+    D.D. _New and Cheaper Edition_, 2s. 6d.
+
+    St. George for England. Sermons for Children, by the Rev. T.
+    TEIGNMOUTH SHORE, M.A. Gilt edges, 5s.
+
+    Some Difficulties of Belief. By the Rev. T. TEIGNMOUTH SHORE,
+    M.A. _Cheap Edition._ Price 2s. 6d.
+
+    Sunday Musings. A Selection of Readings--Biblical, Devotional,
+    and Descriptive. Illustrated, 832 pp., 21s.
+
+    Quiver, The. Illustrated Religious Magazine. Published in Yearly
+    Volumes, 7s. 6d.; also in Monthly Parts, 6d.
+
+    The Church at Home. By the Right Rev. ROWLEY HILL, D.D., Bishop
+    of Sodor and Man. Roan gilt, 5s.
+
+    New Testament, Companion to the Revised Version of the English.
+    By ALEXANDER ROBERTS, D.D. Price 2s. 6d.
+
+    The History of the Waldenses. By the Rev. J. A. WYLIE, LL.D.
+    With Illustrations. 2s. 6d.
+
+    Keble's Christian Year. Profusely Illustrated. Extra crown 4to,
+    7s. 6d.; gilt edges, 10s. 6d.
+
+    The Bible Educator. Edited by the Very Rev. E. H. PLUMPTRE,
+    D.D., Dean of Wells. With upwards of 400 Illustrations and Maps.
+    Four Vols., 4to, cloth, 6s. each; or Two Vols., cloth, L1 1s.
+
+    The Music of the Bible. By JOHN STANIER, M.A. Cloth, 2s. 6d.
+
+    The Life of the World to Come, and Other Subjects. By Rev. T.
+    TEIGNMOUTH SHORE, M.A. 5s.
+
+    Sacred Poems, The Book of. Edited by the Rev. CANON BAYNES, M.A.
+    With about 200 Illustrations. Cloth, 5s.
+
+    Shortened Church Services, and Hymns. Compiled by the Rev. T.
+    TEIGNMOUTH SHORE. Price 1s.
+
+    The Patriarchs. By the Rev. W. HANNA, D.D., and the Rev. CANON
+    NORRIS, B.D. 2s. 6d.
+
+    Mission Life in Greece and Palestine. By Mrs. EMMA RAYMOND
+    PITMAN. Illustrated. 5s.
+
+    Heroines of the Mission Field. By Mrs. EMMA RAYMOND PITMAN.
+    Illustrated throughout. 5s.
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS WORKS.
+
+    Cassell's Family Magazine. A High-class Illustrated Family
+    Magazine. Published in Yearly Vols., 9s.
+
+    Civil Service, Guide to Employment in the. _New Edition, Revised
+    and greatly Enlarged._ 3s. 6d.
+
+    Dingy House at Kensington, The. With Four Full-page
+    Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, 5s.
+
+    Decorative Design, Principles of. By CHRISTOPHER DRESSER, Ph.D.,
+    F.L.S., &c. With Two Coloured Plates and numerous Designs and
+    Diagrams. 5s.
+
+    English Literature, The Story of. By ANNA BUCKLAND. 384 pages.
+    Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt top, 5s.
+
+    Etiquette of Good Society. _Cheap Edition._ Boards, 1s.; cloth,
+    1s. 6d.
+
+    Figuier's Popular Scientific Works. The Text revised and
+    corrected by eminent English authorities, with several hundred
+    Illustrations in each. _New and Cheaper Edition_, price 3s. 6d.
+    each.
+
+    The Human Race. The World Before the Deluge. The Ocean World.
+    The Vegetable World. Reptiles and Birds. The Insect World.
+
+    Handrailing and Staircasing. By FRANK O. CRESWELL. With upwards
+    of 100 Working Drawings. 3s. 6d.
+
+    In-door Amusements, Card Games, and Fireside Fun, Cassell's Book
+    of. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.
+
+    Jane Austen and her Works. By SARAH TYTLER. With Steel Portrait
+    and Steel Title. 5s.
+
+    Kennel Guide, The Practical. By Dr. GORDON STABLES. With
+    Illustrations. 192 pages, crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d.
+
+    Landed Interest and the Supply of Food. By Sir JAMES CAIRD,
+    K.C.B., F.R.S. _Enlarged Edition_, 5s.
+
+    The Microscope, and some of the Wonders it Reveals. By the Rev.
+    W. HOUGHTON, M.A. 1s.
+
+    Nursing for the Home and for the Hospital. By CATHERINE J. WOOD.
+    3s. 6d.
+
+    Pigeon Keeper, The Practical. By L. WRIGHT. With numerous
+    Illustrations, &c. Cloth gilt, 3s. 6d.
+
+    Police Code and Manual of the Criminal Law. By C. E. HOWARD
+    VINCENT, Director of Criminal Investigations. Cloth, price 6s.
+    _Abridged Edition._ With an Address to Constables, by Mr.
+    JUSTICE HAWKINS. 2s.
+
+    Poultry Keeper, The Practical. By L. WRIGHT. With Plain
+    Illustrations. Cloth, 3s. 6d.; or with Coloured Plates, 5s.
+
+    Rabbit Keeper, The Practical. By CUNICULUS. With Illustrations.
+    Cloth, 3s. 6d.
+
+    Sports and Pastimes, Cassell's Book of. With more than 800
+    Illustrations, and Coloured Frontispiece. 768 pages, large crown
+    8vo, cloth, gilt edges, 7s. 6d.
+
+    Peggy, and other Tales. By FLORENCE MONTGOMERY. _Cheap Edition._
+    Price 2s.
+
+    The Magic Flower-Pot, and other Stories. By EDWARD GARRETT.
+    Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 2s.
+
+    The Steam-Engine, The Theory and Action of. By W. H. NORTHCOTT,
+    C.E. 3s. 6d.
+
+    _"THE QUIVER" LIBRARY._
+
+    _All Illustrated and bound in cloth gilt. Crown 8vo, each, 3s.
+    6d._
+
+    My Guardian. School Girls. By ANNIE CAREY. Deepdale Vicarage.
+    The Family Honour. In Duty Bound. The Half Sisters. Peggy
+    Oglivie's Inheritance. Working to Win. Esther West.
+
+_CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.: LONDON, PARIS & NEW YORK._
+
+
+EDUCATIONAL WORKS.
+
+    Intermediate Text-Book of Physical Science. By F. H. BOWMAN,
+    D.Sc., F.R.A.S., F.L.S. Illustrated. Cloth, 3s. 6d.
+
+    English Literature, A First Sketch of. By Professor HENRY
+    MORLEY. _New and Cheap Edition_, 7s. 6d.
+
+    Spelling, A Complete Manual of. By J. D. MORELL, LL.D., H.M.
+    Inspector of Schools. Cloth, 1s.
+
+    Decisive Events in History. By THOMAS ARCHER. With Sixteen
+    Original Illustrations. _Fifth Edition._ Extra fcap. 4to,
+    boards, 3s. 6d.; cloth gilt, 5s.
+
+    The Commentary for Schools. Being some separate Books of the NEW
+    TESTAMENT COMMENTARY FOR ENGLISH READERS (Edited by the Lord
+    Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol), for School and general
+    Educational purposes.
+
+    ST. MATTHEW, 3s. 6d. ST. MARK, 2s. 6d. ST. LUKE, 3s. 6d. ST.
+    JOHN, 3s. 6d. THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, 3s. 6d. 1 CORINTHIANS,
+    2s.
+
+    Shakspere Reading Book, The. By H. COURTHOPE BOWEN. M.A.
+    Illustrated. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d.
+
+    Historical Readers, Cassell's. _For particulars see Cassell,
+    Petter, Galpin & Co.'s Educational Catalogue._
+
+    Geographical Readers, New Series of. _See particulars in
+    Cassell's Educational Catalogue._
+
+    Modern School Readers, Cassell's. An Entirely New Series of
+    Readers for Elementary Schools. _For particulars see Cassell,
+    Petter, Galpin & Co.'s Educational Catalogue._
+
+    Little Folks' History of England. By ISA CRAIG-KNOX. With Thirty
+    Illustrations. Cloth, 1s. 6d.
+
+    Applied Mechanics, Elementary Lessons in. By Prof. R. S. BALL,
+    LL.D. With numerous Diagrams. Cloth, 2s.
+
+    Euclid, Cassell's. Edited by Professor WALLACE, A.M. 8vo, 216
+    pp., limp cloth, 1s.
+
+    Popular Educator, Cassell's. _New and thoroughly Revised
+    Edition._ Vols. I., II., and III. now ready, price 5s. each. (To
+    be completed in Six Vols.)
+
+    Technical Educator, Cassell's. Illustrated. Four Vols., cloth.
+    6s. each; or Two Vols., half-calf, 31s. 6d.
+
+    Algebra (Elements of), Cassell's. Cloth, 1s.
+
+    Arithmetic, Elements of. By Prof. WALLACE, A.M. Limp cloth,
+    price 1s. Key, 4d.
+
+    Neutral Tint, A Course of Painting in. With 24 Plates from
+    Designs by R. P. LEITCH. 4to, cloth, 5s.
+
+    Water-Colour Painting, A Course of. With 24 Coloured Plates,
+    from Designs by R. P. LEITCH. 5s.
+
+    Sepia Painting, A Course of. With 24 Plates from Designs by R.
+    P. LEITCH. 4to, cloth, 5s.
+
+    Cassell's Graduated Copy-Books. On superior writing paper.
+    Complete in 18 Books, price 2d. each.
+
+    The Marlborough French Grammar. _New and Revised Edition._
+    Cloth, 2s. 6d.
+
+    The Marlborough French Exercises. _New and Revised Edition._
+    Cloth, 3s. 6d.
+
+    French, Cassell's Lessons in. _New and Revised Edition._
+    Considerably Enlarged. Parts I. and II., cloth, each 2s. 6d.;
+    complete, 4s. 6d. KEY, 1s. 6d.
+
+    French-English and English-French Dictionary, Cassell's.
+    _Entirely New and Revised Edition._ 3s. 6d.; or in superior
+    binding, with leather back, 4s. 6d.
+
+    The Marlborough German Grammar. Arranged and Compiled by the
+    Rev. J. F. BRIGHT, M.A. 3s. 6d.
+
+    German-English and English-German Pronouncing Dictionary,
+    Cassell's. 864 pages, 3s. 6d.
+
+    Latin-English and English-Latin Dictionary, Cassell's. 914
+    pages, 3s. 6d.
+
+
+_A Complete List of_ CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.'S _Educational
+Works will be forwarded post free on application_.
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+BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE.
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+
+    Modern Explorers. By THOMAS FROST. Illustrated. Crown 4to, 176
+    pages, cloth, 5s.
+
+    A Parcel of Children. By OLIVE PATCH. With numerous
+    Illustrations. Crown 4to, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 5s.
+
+    A Cruise in Chinese Waters. Being the Log of the "Fortuna." By
+    Capt. A. F. LINDLEY. Illustrated. 5s.
+
+    Cassell's Robinson Crusoe. With numerous Illustrations. _New and
+    Cheaper Edition._ Price 3s. 6d.
+
+    "My Diary." Twelve Coloured Plates and 366 Small Woodcuts, with
+    blank space for every day in the year. 2s. 6d.
+
+    Old Proverbs with New Pictures. With 64 fac-simile Coloured
+    Plates. 6s.
+
+    Peter Parley's Annual. Illustrated with Coloured Plates, printed
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+
+    Little Folks. Half-yearly Volumes, each containing nearly 500
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+
+    The Picture Teaching Series. Fcap. 4to, cloth, gilt edges, 2s.
+    6d. each. Each book profusely illustrated and handsomely bound.
+
+    Through Picture Land. Picture Teaching for Young and Old.
+    Picture Natural History. Scraps of Knowledge for the Little
+    Ones. Great Lessons from Little Things. Woodland Romances; or,
+    Fables and Fancies. The Children of Holy Scripture. The Boy
+    Joiner and Model Maker. Pussy Tip-Toes' Family. Frisk and His
+    Flock.
+
+    The Little People's Album. Stories and Verses for the Little
+    Ones. With Illustrations by LIZZIE LAWSON, M. E. EDWARDS, &c.
+    Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, 3s. 6d.
+
+    "Little Folks" Painting Books, of which a quarter of a million
+    copies have been sold. Illustrated throughout. 1s. each; or
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+
+    "Little Folks" Crayon Book. "Little Folks" Illuminating Book.
+    Pictures to Paint. "Little Folks" Painting Book. Nature Painting
+    Book.
+
+    The World in Pictures. A Series of Gift Books specially suitable
+    for Sunday-School Prizes. Illustrated throughout, and handsomely
+    bound in cloth. 2s. 6d. each.
+
+    The Eastern Wonderland. Peeps into China. Glimpses of South
+    America. Round Africa. The Land of Temples. The Isles of the
+    Pacific.
+
+    Cassell's Sixpenny Story Books. All Illustrated, and containing
+    interesting Stories by well-known writers. Bound in attractive
+    Coloured Boards, price 6d. each.
+
+    The Boat Club. The Delft Jug. Helpful Nelly. The Elchester
+    College Boys. My First Cruise. Lottie's White Frock. The Little
+    Peacemaker.
+
+    The Library of Wonders. A Series of Gift-books for Boys. In
+    Volumes. Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. each. All
+    Illustrated throughout.
+
+    Wonderful Adventures. Wonders of Animal Instinct. Wonders of
+    Architecture. Wonderful Escapes. Wonders of Bodily Strength and
+    Skill. Wonderful Balloon Ascents.
+
+    Books for Boys. Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, 3s. 6d. each.
+
+    The Story of Captain Cook. With numerous Illustrations.
+
+    At the South Pole. By the late W. H. G. KINGSTON. With numerous
+    Illustrations.
+
+    Soldier and Patriot. The Story of George Washington. By F. M.
+    OWEN. With Map and Illustrations.
+
+    Pictures of School Life and Boyhood. From the best Authors.
+    Edited by PERCY FITZGERALD, M.A.
+
+    The Three Homes. A Tale for Fathers and Sons. By F. T. L. HOPE.
+
+    The Romance of Trade. By H. R. FOX BOURNE. Illustrated.
+
+_A Complete List of_ CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.'S _Children's Books
+will be forwarded post free on application_.
+
+     CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.'S COMPLETE CATALOGUE, containing
+     a List of SEVERAL HUNDRED VOLUMES, including _Bibles_ and
+     _Religious Works_, _Fine-Art Volumes_, _Children's Books_,
+     _Dictionaries_, _Educational Works_, _History_, _Natural
+     History_, _Household_ and _Domestic Treatises_, _Handbooks_ and
+     _Guides_, _Science_, _Travels_, &c. &c., together with a
+     Synopsis of their numerous Illustrated Serial Publications,
+     sent post free on application to CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.,
+     Ludgate Hill, London.
+
+_CASSELL, PETTER, GALPIN & CO.: LONDON, PARIS & NEW YORK._
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Archaic syntax and punctuation and inconsistent spelling were retained.
+
+Footnote [7]: "in order to this" modified to "in order to do this" to
+fit context.
+
+
+
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