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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The World Before the Deluge, by Louis Figuier
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The World Before the Deluge
+
+Author: Louis Figuier
+
+Editor: H. W. Bristow
+
+Release Date: May 18, 2012 [EBook #39723]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD BEFORE THE DELUGE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
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+  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                        TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:                       |
+  |                                                                   |
+  | * Transcription used:                                             |
+  |   - italic texts in the original work are represented here between|
+  |     underscores, as in _text_;                                    |
+  |   - boldface texts in the original work are represented here      |
+  |     between equal signs, as in =text=;                            |
+  |   - text printed in small capitals in the original work are       |
+  |     transcribed in ALL CAPITALS.                                  |
+  |                                                                   |
+  | * Footnotes have been moved to directly under the paragraph they  |
+  |   belong to.                                                      |
+  |                                                                   |
+  | * Where a line of text was missing from the original work, this is|
+  |   indicated by [...].                                             |
+  |                                                                   |
+  | More Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of this text.    |
+  |                                                                   |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST MAN.]
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  WORLD BEFORE THE DELUGE.
+
+  BY
+  _LOUIS FIGUIER_.
+
+
+  NEWLY EDITED AND REVISED
+  BY
+  H. W. BRISTOW, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
+
+  _Of the Geological Survey of Great Britain; Hon. Fellow of King’s
+  College, London._
+
+
+  With 235 Illustrations.
+
+
+  CASSELL, PETTER, & GALPIN,
+  LONDON, PARIS, AND NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                              PAGE
+
+  GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS                                         1
+    CONSIDERATION OF FOSSILS                                     4
+    CHEMICAL AND NEBULAR HYPOTHESES OF THE GLOBE                15
+    MODIFICATIONS OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE                        26
+    ERUPTIVE ROCKS                                              30
+    PLUTONIC ERUPTIONS                                          31
+        Granite                                                 31
+        Syenite                                                 34
+        Protogine                                               35
+        Porphyry                                                37
+        Serpentine                                              38
+    VOLCANIC ROCKS                                              39
+        Trachytic Formations                                    39
+        Basaltic Formations                                     44
+        Volcanic or Lava Formations                             51
+    METAMORPHIC ROCKS                                           71
+        General Metamorphism                                    74
+  THE BEGINNING                                                 80
+  PRIMARY EPOCH                                                 99
+    CAMBRIAN PERIOD                                            101
+    SILURIAN PERIOD                                            102
+        Lower Silurian Period                                  104
+        Upper Silurian Period                                  110
+    OLD RED SANDSTONE AND DEVONIAN PERIOD                      119
+    CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD                                       130
+        Carboniferous Limestone                                140
+        Coal Measures                                          150
+        Formation of Coal                                      159
+    PERMIAN PERIOD                                             170
+        Permian Rocks                                          177
+  SECONDARY EPOCH                                              185
+    TRIASSIC, OR NEW RED PERIOD                                185
+        New Red Sandstone                                      187
+        Muschelkalk                                            188
+        Keuper Period                                          199
+    RHÆTIC (PENARTH) PERIOD                                    207
+      JURASSIC PERIOD                                          211
+        Liassic Period                                         211
+        Oolitic Sub-Period                                     243
+        Lower Oolite Fauna                                     244
+        ----   ----  Rocks                                     249
+       Middle Oolite                                           255
+       Upper Oolite                                            265
+    CRETACEOUS PERIOD                                          275
+        Lower Cretaceous Period                                286
+        Upper Cretaceous Period                                300
+  TERTIARY EPOCH                                               312
+        Eocene Period                                          315
+        Miocene Period                                         336
+        Pliocene Period                                        357
+  QUATERNARY EPOCH                                             378
+    POST-PLIOCENE                                              378
+    EUROPEAN DELUGES                                           422
+    GLACIAL PERIOD                                             435
+    CREATION OF MAN                                            464
+    ASIATIC DELUGE                                             480
+  EPILOGUE                                                     489
+  TABLE AND DIAGRAM OF BRITISH SEDIMENTARY AND FOSSILIFEROUS
+  STRATA                                                       493
+
+
+
+
+FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+  FRONTISPIECE--THE FIRST MAN.
+                                                              PAGE
+       I. De Sancy Peak, Mont Dore                              42
+      II. Basaltic Mountain of La Coupe d’Ayzac                 46
+     III. Extinct Volcanoes of Le Puy                           52
+      IV. Mud Volcano of Turbaco                                62
+       V. Great Geyser of Iceland                               66
+      VI. The Earth in a gaseous state circulating in space     82
+     VII. Condensation and rainfall                             94
+    VIII. Ideal Landscape of the Silurian Period               104
+      IX. Ideal Landscape of the Devonian Period               121
+       X. Ideal view of marine life in the Carboniferous
+          Period                                               147
+      XI. Ideal view of a marshy forest in the Coal Period     156
+     XII. Ideal Landscape of the Permian Period                172
+    XIII. Ideal Landscape of the Muschelkalk Period            191
+     XIV. Ideal Landscape of the Saliferous or Keuper Period   198
+      XV. Ideal Scene of the Lias Period with Ichthyosaurus
+          and Plesiosaurus                                     231
+     XVI. Ideal Landscape of the Liassic Period                241
+    XVII. Ideal Landscape of the Lower Oolite Period           254
+   XVIII. Ideal Landscape of the Middle Oolite Period          258
+     XIX. Apiocrinites rotundus and Encrinus liliiformis       261
+      XX. Ideal Landscape of the Upper Oolite Period           267
+     XXI. Ideal Scene of the Lower Cretaceous Period           296
+    XXII. Ideal Landscape of the Cretaceous Period             307
+   XXIII. Ideal Landscape of the Eocene Period                 328
+    XXIV. Ideal Landscape of the Miocene Period                352
+     XXV. Ideal Landscape of the Pliocene Period               375
+    XXVI. Skeleton of the Mammoth in the St. Petersburg
+          Museum                                               394
+   XXVII. Skeleton of Megatherium                              403
+  XXVIII. Ideal View of the Quaternary Epoch--Europe           416
+    XXIX. Ideal Landscape of the Quaternary Epoch--America     419
+     XXX. Deluge of the North of Europe                        425
+    XXXI. Glaciers of Switzerland                              445
+   XXXII. Appearance of Man                                    468
+  XXXIII. Asiatic Deluge                                       483
+  DIAGRAM AT END--Ideal Section of the Earth’s Crust, showing the
+          order of superposition or chronological succession of
+          the principal groups of strata.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The object of “The World before the Deluge” is to trace the progressive
+steps by which the earth has reached its present state, from that
+condition of chaos when it “was without form and void, and darkness was
+upon the face of the deep,” and to describe the various convulsions and
+transformations through which it has successively passed. In the words
+of the poet--
+
+    “Where rolls the deep, there grew the tree;
+       O Earth, what changes hast thou seen!
+       There, where the long street roars, hath been
+     The silence of the central sea.”
+
+It has been thought desirable that the present edition of the work
+should undergo a thorough revision by a practical geologist, a task
+which Mr. H. W. Bristow has performed. Mr. Bristow has however confined
+himself to such alterations as were necessary to secure accuracy in the
+statement of facts, and such additions as were necessary to represent
+more precisely the existing state of scientific opinion. Many points
+which are more or less inferential and therefore matters of individual
+opinion, and especially those on which M. Figuier bases his
+speculations, have been left in their original form, in preference to
+making modifications which would wholly change the character of the
+book. In a work whose purpose is to give the general reader a summarised
+account of the results at which science has arrived, and of the method
+of reasoning regarding the facts on which these generalisations rest, it
+would be out of place, as well as ineffective, to obscure general
+statements with those limitations which caution imposes on the
+scientific investigator.
+
+In the original work the Author had naturally enough drawn most of his
+facts from French localities; in the translation these are mostly
+preserved, but others drawn from British Geology have been added, either
+from the translator’s own knowledge, or from the works of well-known
+British writers. It was considered desirable, for similar reasons, to
+enlarge upon the opinions of British geologists, to whom the French work
+scarcely does justice, considering the extent to which the science is
+indebted to them for its elucidation.
+
+In the original work the chapter on Eruptive Rocks comes at the end of
+the work, but, as the work proceeded, so many unexplained allusions to
+that chapter were found that it seemed more logical, and more in
+accordance with chronological order, if the expression may be used, to
+place that chapter at the beginning.
+
+A new edition of the French work having appeared in the early part of
+1866, to which the Author contributed a chapter on Metamorphic Rocks, a
+translation of it is appended to the chapter on Eruptive Rocks.
+
+A chapter on the Rhætic (or Penarth) beds has been inserted (amongst
+much other original matter), the stratigraphical importance of that
+series having been recognised since the publication of the First
+Edition.
+
+In the present Edition the text has been again thoroughly revised by Mr.
+Bristow, and many important additions made, the result of the recent
+investigations of himself and his colleagues of the Geological Survey.
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  WORLD BEFORE THE DELUGE.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
+
+
+The observer who glances over a rich and fertile plain, watered by
+rivers and streams which have, during a long series of ages, pursued the
+same uniform and tranquil course; the traveller who contemplates the
+walls and monuments of a great city, the first founding of which is lost
+in the night of ages, testifying, apparently, to the unchangeableness of
+things and places; the naturalist who examines a mountain or other
+locality, and finds the hills and valleys and other accidents of the
+soil in the very spot and condition in which they are described by
+history and tradition--none of these observers would at first suspect
+that any serious change had ever occurred to disturb the surface of the
+globe. Nevertheless, the earth has not always presented the calm aspect
+of stability which it now exhibits; it has had its convulsions, and its
+physical revolutions, whose story we are about to trace. The earth, like
+the body of an animal, is wasted, as the philosophical Hutton tells us,
+at the same time that it is repaired. It has a state of growth and
+augmentation; it has another state, which is that of diminution and
+decay: it is destroyed in one part to be renewed in another; and the
+operations by which the renewal is accomplished are as evident to the
+scientific eye as those by which it is destroyed. A thousand causes,
+aqueous, igneous, and atmospheric, are continually at work modifying the
+external form of the earth, wearing down the older portions of its
+surface, and reconstructing newer out of the older; so that in many
+parts of the world denudation has taken place to the extent of many
+thousand feet. Buried in the depths of the soil, for example, in one of
+those vast excavations which the intrepidity of the miner has dug in
+search of coal or other minerals, there are numerous phenomena which
+strike the mind of the inquirer, and carry their own conclusions with
+them. A striking increase of temperature in these subterranean places
+is one of the most remarkable of these. It is found that the temperature
+of the earth rises one degree for every sixty or seventy feet of descent
+from its surface. Again: if the mine be examined vertically, it is found
+to consist of a series of layers or beds, sometimes horizontal, but more
+frequently inclined, upright, or contorted and undulating--even folded
+back upon themselves. Then, instances are numerous where horizontal and
+parallel beds have been penetrated, and traversed vertically or
+obliquely by veins of ores or minerals totally different in their
+appearance and nature from the surrounding rocks. All these undulations
+and varying inclinations of strata are indications that some powerful
+cause, some violent mechanical action, has intervened to produce them.
+Finally, if the interior of the beds be examined more minutely--if,
+armed with the miner’s pick and hammer, the rock is carefully broken
+up--it is not impossible that the very first efforts at mining may be
+rewarded by the discovery of some fossilised organic form no longer
+found in the living state. The remains of plants and animals belonging
+to the earlier ages of the world, are, in fact, very common; entire
+strata are sometimes formed of them; and in some localities the rocks
+can scarcely be disturbed without yielding fragments of bones and
+shells, or the impressions of fossilised animals and vegetables--the
+buried remains of extinct creations.
+
+These bones--these remains of animals or vegetables which the hammer of
+the geologist has torn from the rock--belong possibly to some organism
+which no longer any where exists: it may not be identical with any
+animal or plant living in our times: but it is evident that these
+beings, whose remains are now so deeply buried, have not always been so
+covered; they once lived on the surface of the earth as plants and
+animals do in our days, for their organisation is essentially the same.
+The beds in which they now repose must, then, in older times have formed
+the surface of the earth; and the presence of these fossils proves that
+the earth has suffered great mutations at some former period of its
+history.
+
+Geology explains to us the various transformations which the earth has
+passed through before it arrived at its present condition. We can
+determine, with its help, the comparative epoch to which any beds
+belong, as well as the order in which others have been superimposed upon
+them. Considering that the stratigraphical crust of the earth with which
+the geologist has to deal may be some ten miles thick, and that it has
+been deposited in distinct layers in a definite order of succession, the
+dates or epochs of each formation may well be approached with hesitation
+and caution.
+
+Dr. Hutton, the earliest of our philosophical geologists, eloquently
+observes, in his “Theory of the Earth,” that the solid earth is
+everywhere wasted at the surface. The summits of the mountains are
+necessarily degraded. The solid and weighty materials of these mountains
+have everywhere been carried through the valleys by the force of running
+water. The soil which is produced in the destruction of the solid earth
+is gradually transported by the moving waters, and is as constantly
+supplying vegetation with its necessary aid. This drifted soil is at
+last deposited upon some coast, where it forms a fertile country. But
+the billows of the ocean again agitate the loose material upon the
+shore, wearing away the coast with endless repetitions of this act of
+power and imparted force; the solid portion of our earth, thus sapped to
+its foundations, is carried away into the deep and sunk again at the
+bottom of the sea whence it had originated, and from which sooner or
+later it will again make its appearance. We are thus led to see a
+circulation of destruction and renewal in the matter of which the globe
+is formed, and a system of beautiful economy in the works of Nature.
+Again, discriminating between the ordinary and scientific observer, the
+same writer remarks, that it is not given to common observation to see
+the operation of physical causes. The shepherd thinks the mountain on
+which he feeds his flock has always been there. The inhabitant of the
+valley cultivates the soil as his fathers did before him, and thinks the
+soil coeval with the valley or the mountain. But the scientific observer
+looks into the chain of physical events, sees the great changes that
+have been made, and foresees others that must follow from the continued
+operation of like natural causes. For, as Pythagoras taught 2,350 years
+ago, “the minerals and the rocks, the islands and the continents, the
+rivers and the seas, and all organic Nature, are perpetually changing;
+there is nothing stationary on earth.” To note these changes--to
+decipher the records of this system of waste and reconstruction, to
+trace the physical history of the earth--is the province of GEOLOGY,
+which, the latest of all modern sciences, is that which has been
+modified most profoundly and most rapidly. In short, resting as it does
+on observation, it has been modified and transformed according to every
+series of facts recorded; but while many of the facts of geology admit
+of easy and obvious demonstration, it is far otherwise with the
+inferences which have been based upon them, which are mostly
+hypothetical, and in many instances from their very nature incapable of
+proof. Its applications are numerous and varied, projecting new and
+useful lights upon many other sciences. Here we ask of it the teachings
+which serve to explain the origin of the globe--the evidence it
+furnishes of the progressive formation of the different rocks and
+mineral masses of which the earth is composed--the description and
+restoration of the several species of animals and vegetables which have
+existed, have died and become extinct, and which form, in the language
+of naturalists, the _Fauna_ and _Flora_ of the ancient world.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In order to explain the origin of the earth, and the cause of its
+various revolutions, modern geologists invoke three orders of facts, or
+fundamental considerations:
+
+    I. The hypothesis of the original incandescence of the globe.
+
+    II. The consideration of fossils.
+
+    III. The successive deposition of the sedimentary rocks.
+
+As a corollary to these, the hypothesis of the upheaval of the earth’s
+crust follows--upheavals having produced local revolutions. The result
+of these upheavals has been to superimpose new materials upon the older
+rocks, introducing extraneous rocks called _Eruptive_, beneath, upon,
+and amongst preceding deposits, in such a manner as to change their
+nature in divers ways. Whence is derived a third class of rocks called
+_Metamorphic_ or altered _rocks_, our knowledge of which is of
+comparatively recent date.
+
+
+FOSSILS.
+
+The name of _Fossil_ (from _fossilis_, dug up) is given to all organised
+bodies, animal or vegetable, buried naturally in the terrestrial strata,
+and more or less petrified, that is, converted into stone. Fossils of
+the older formations are remains of organisms which, so far as species
+is concerned, are quite extinct; and only those of recent formations
+belong to genera living in our days. These fossil remains have neither
+the beauty nor the elegance of most living species, being mutilated,
+discoloured, and often almost shapeless; they are, therefore,
+interesting only in the eyes of the observer who would interrogate them,
+and who seeks to reconstruct, with their assistance, the Fauna and Flora
+of past ages. Nevertheless, the light they throw upon the past history
+of the earth is of the most satisfactory description, and the science of
+fossils, or palæontology, is now an important branch of geological
+inquiry. Fossil shells, in the more recent deposits, are found scarcely
+altered; in some cases only an impression of the external form is
+left--sometimes an entire cast of the shell, exterior and interior. In
+other cases the shell has left a perfect impression of its form in the
+surrounding mud, and has then been dissolved and washed away, leaving
+only its mould. This mould, again, has sometimes been filled up by
+calcareous spar, silica, or pyrites, and an exact cast of the original
+shell has thus been obtained. Petrified wood is also of very common
+occurrence.
+
+These remains of an earlier creation had long been known to the curious,
+and classed as _freaks of Nature_, for so we find them described in the
+works of the ancient philosophers who wrote on natural history, and in
+the few treatises on the subject which the Middle Ages have bequeathed
+to us. Fossil bones, especially those of elephants, were known to the
+ancients, giving rise to all sorts of legends and fabulous histories:
+the tradition which attributed to Achilles, to Ajax, and to other heroes
+of the Trojan war, a height of twenty feet, is attributable, no doubt,
+to the discovery of the bones of elephants near their tombs. In the time
+of Pericles we are assured that in the tomb of Ajax a _patella_, or
+knee-bone of that hero, was found, which was as large as a dinner-plate.
+This was probably only the patella of a fossil elephant.
+
+The uses to which fossils are applied by the geologist are--First, to
+ascertain the relative age of the formations in which they occur;
+secondly, the conditions under which these were deposited. The age of
+the formation is determined by a comparison of the fossils it contains
+with others of ascertained date; the conditions under which the rocks
+were deposited, whether marine, lacustrine, or terrestrial, are readily
+inferred from the nature of the fossils. The great artist, Leonardo da
+Vinci, was the first to comprehend the real meaning of fossils, and
+Bernard Palissy had the glory of being the first modern writer to
+proclaim the true character of the fossilised remains which are met
+with, in such numbers, in certain formations, both in France and Italy,
+particularly in those of Touraine, where they had come more especially
+under his notice. In his work on “Waters and Fountains,” published in
+1580, he maintains that the _figured stones_, as fossils were then
+called, were the remains of organised beings preserved at the bottom of
+the sea. But the existence of marine shells upon the summits of
+mountains had already arrested the attention of ancient authors. Witness
+Ovid, who in Book XV. of the “Metamorphoses” tells us he had seen land
+formed at the expense of the sea, and marine shells lying dead far from
+the ocean; and more than that, an ancient anchor had been found on the
+very summit of a mountain.
+
+            “Vidi factas ex æquore terras,
+    Et procul a pelago conchæ jacuere marinæ,
+    Et vetus inventa est in montibus anchora summis.”
+
+Ov., _Met._, Book xv.
+
+The Danish geologist Steno, who published his principal works in Italy
+about the middle of the seventeenth century, had deeply studied the
+fossil shells discovered in that country. The Italian painter Scilla
+produced in 1670 a Latin treatise on the fossils of Calabria, in which
+he established the organic nature of fossil shells.
+
+The eighteenth century gave birth to two very opposite theories as to
+the origin of our globe--namely, the _Plutonian_ or igneous, and the
+_Neptunian_ or aqueous theory. The Italian geologists gave a marked
+impulse to the study of fossils, and the name of Vallisneri[1] may be
+cited as the author to whom science is indebted for the earliest account
+of the marine deposits of Italy, and of the most characteristic organic
+remains which they contain. Lazzaro Moro[2] continued the studies of
+Vallisneri, and the monk Gemerelli reduced to a complete system the
+ideas of these two geologists, endeavouring to explain all the phenomena
+as Vallisneri had wished, “without violence, without fiction, without
+miracles.” Marselli and Donati both studied in a very scientific manner
+the fossil shells of Italy, and in particular those of the Adriatic,
+recognising the fact that they affected in their beds a regular and
+constant order of superposition.[3]
+
+  [1] Dei corpi marini, &c., 1721.
+
+  [2] Sui crostaccei ed altri corpi marini che sè trovano sui monti,
+      1740.
+
+  [3] Consult Lyell’s “Principles of Geology” and the sixth edition of
+      the “Elements,” with much new matter, for further information
+      relative to the study of fossils during the last two centuries.
+
+In France the celebrated Buffon gave, by his eloquent writings, great
+popularity to the notions of the Italian naturalists concerning the
+origin of fossil remains. In his admirable “Époques de la Nature” he
+sought to prove that the shells found in great quantities buried in the
+soil, and even on the tops of mountains, belonged, in reality, to
+species not living in our days. But this idea was too novel not to find
+objectors: it counted among its adversaries the bold philosopher who
+might have been expected to adopt it with most ardour. Voltaire
+attacked, with his jesting and biting criticism, the doctrines of the
+illustrious innovator. Buffon insisted, reasonably enough, that the
+presence of shells on the summit of the Alps was a proof that the sea
+had at one time occupied that position. But Voltaire asserted that the
+shells found on the Alps and Apennines had been thrown there by pilgrims
+returning from Rome. Buffon might have replied to his opponent, by
+pointing out whole mountains formed by the accumulation of these shells.
+He might have sent him to the Pyrenees, where shells of marine origin
+cover immense areas to a height of 6,600 feet above the present
+sea-level. But his genius was averse to controversy; and the philosopher
+of Ferney himself put an end to a discussion in which, perhaps, he would
+not have had the best of the argument. “I have no wish,” he wrote, “to
+embroil myself with Monsieur Buffon about shells.”
+
+It was reserved for the genius of George Cuvier to draw from the study
+of fossils the most wonderful results: it is the study of these remains,
+in short, which, in conjunction with mineralogy, constitutes in these
+days positive geology. “It is to fossils,” says the great Cuvier, “that
+we owe the discovery of the true theory of the earth; without them we
+should not have dreamed, perhaps, that the globe was formed at
+successive epochs, and by a series of different operations. They alone,
+in short, tell us with certainty that the globe has not always had the
+same envelope; we cannot resist the conviction that they must have lived
+on the surface of the earth before being buried in its depths. It is
+only by analogy that we have extended to the primary formations the
+direct conclusions which fossils furnish us with in respect to the
+secondary formations; and if we had only unfossiliferous rocks to
+examine, no one could maintain that the earth was not formed all at
+once.”[4]
+
+  [4] “Ossements Fossiles” (4to), vol. i., p. 29.
+
+The method adopted by Cuvier for the reconstruction and restoration of
+the fossil animals found in the plaster-quarries of Montmartre, at the
+gates of Paris, has served as a model for all succeeding naturalists;
+let us listen, then, to his exposition of the vast problem whose
+solution he proposed to himself. “In my work on fossil bones,” he says,
+“I propose to ascertain to what animals the osseous fragments belong; it
+is seeking to traverse a road on which we have as yet only ventured a
+few steps. An antiquary of a new kind, it seemed to me necessary to
+learn both to restore these monuments of past revolutions, and to
+decipher their meaning. I had to gather and bring together in their
+primitive order the fragments of which they are composed; to reconstruct
+the ancient beings to which these fragments belonged; to reproduce them
+in their proportions and with their characteristics; to compare them,
+finally, with others now living on the surface of the globe: an art at
+present little known, and which supposes a science scarcely touched upon
+as yet, namely, that of the laws which preside over the co-existence of
+the forms of the several parts in organised beings. I must, then,
+prepare myself for these researches by others, still more extended, upon
+existing animals. A general review of actual creation could alone give a
+character of demonstration to my account of these ancient inhabitants
+of the world; but it ought, at the same time, to give me a great
+collection of laws, and of relations not less demonstrable, thus forming
+a body of new laws to which the whole animal kingdom could not fail to
+find itself subject.”[5]
+
+  [5] “Ossements Fossiles” (4to), vol. i., pp. 1, 2.
+
+“When the sight of a few bones inspired me, more than twenty years ago,
+with the idea of applying the general laws of comparative anatomy to the
+reconstruction and determination of fossil species; when I began to
+perceive that these species were not quite perfectly represented by
+those of our days, which resembled them the most--I no longer doubted
+that I trod upon a soil filled with spoils more extraordinary than any I
+had yet seen, and that I was destined to bring to light entire races
+unknown to the present world, and which had been buried for incalculable
+ages at great depths in the earth.
+
+“I had not yet given any attention to the published notices of these
+bones, by naturalists who made no pretension to the recognition of their
+species. To M. Vaurin, however, I owe the first intimation of the
+existence of these bones, with which the gypsum-quarries swarm. Some
+specimens which he brought me one day struck me with astonishment; I
+learned, with all the interest the discovery could inspire me with, that
+this industrious and zealous collector had already furnished some of
+them to other collectors. Received by these amateurs with politeness, I
+found in their collections much to confirm my hopes and heighten my
+curiosity. From that time I searched in all the quarries with great care
+for other bones, offering such rewards to the workmen as might awaken
+their attention. I soon got together more than had ever been previously
+collected, and after a few years I had nothing to desire in the shape of
+materials. But it was otherwise with their arrangement, and with the
+reconstruction of the skeleton, which could alone lead to any just idea
+of the species.
+
+“From the first moment of discovery I perceived that, in these remains,
+the species were numerous. Soon afterwards I saw that they belonged to
+many genera, and that the species of the different genera were nearly
+the same size, so that size was likely rather to hinder than aid me.
+Mine was the case of a man to whom had been given at random the
+mutilated and imperfect remains of some hundreds of skeletons belonging
+to twenty sorts of animals; it was necessary that each bone should find
+itself alongside that to which it ought to be connected: it was almost
+like a small resurrection, and I had not at my disposal the
+all-powerful trumpet; but I had the immutable laws prescribed to living
+beings as my guide; and at the voice of the anatomist each bone and each
+part of a bone took its place. I have not expressions with which to
+describe the pleasure I experienced in finding that, as soon as I
+discovered the character of a bone, all the consequences of the
+character, more or less foreseen, developed themselves in succession:
+the feet were found conformable to what the teeth announced; the teeth
+to that announced by the feet; the bones of the legs, of the thighs, all
+those which ought to reunite these two extreme parts, were found to
+agree as I expected; in a word, each species was reproduced, so to
+speak, from only one of its elements.”[6]
+
+  [6] “Ossements Fossiles,” vol. iv. (4to), p. 32.
+
+While the Baron Cuvier was thus zealously prosecuting his inquiries in
+France, assisted by many eminent fellow-labourers, what was the state of
+geological science in the British Islands? About that same time, Dr.
+William Smith, better known as “the father of English geology,” was
+preparing, unaided, the first geological map of this country. Dr. Smith
+was a native of Wiltshire, and a canal engineer in Somersetshire; his
+pursuits, therefore, brought him in the midst of these hieroglyphics of
+Nature. It was his practice, when travelling professionally, during many
+years to consult masons, miners, wagoners, and agriculturists. He
+examined the soil; and in the course of his inquiries he came to the
+conclusion that the earth was not all of the same age; that the rocks
+were arranged in layers, or strata, superimposed on each other in a
+certain definite order, and that the strata, when of the same age, could
+be identified by means of their organic remains. In 1794 he formed the
+plan of his geological map, showing the superposition of the various
+beds; for a quarter of a century did he pursue his self-allotted task,
+which was at last completed, and in 1801 was published, being the first
+attempt to construct a stratigraphical map.
+
+Taking the men in the order of the objects of their investigation,
+rather than in chronological order, brings before us the patient and
+sagacious investigator to whom we are indebted for our knowledge of the
+Silurian system. For many years a vast assemblage of broken and
+contorted beds had been observed on the borders of North Wales,
+stretching away to the east as far as Worcestershire, and to the south
+into Gloucester, now rising into mountains, now sinking into valleys.
+The ablest geologists considered them as a mere labyrinth of ruins,
+whose order of succession and distinctive organic remains were entirely
+unknown, “But a man came,” as M. Esquiros eloquently writes, “who threw
+light upon this sublime confusion of elements.” Sir Roderick Impey
+Murchison, then a young President of the Geological Society, had his
+attention directed, as he himself informs us, to some of these beds on
+the banks of the Wye. After seven years of unremitting labour, he was
+rewarded by success. He established the fact that these sedimentary
+rocks, penetrated here and there by eruptive masses of igneous origin,
+formed a unique system, to which he gave the name of _Silurian_, because
+the rocks which he considered the most typical of the whole were most
+fully developed, charged with peculiar organic remains, in the land of
+the ancient Silures, who so bravely opposed the Roman invaders of their
+country. Many investigators have followed in Sir Roderick’s steps, but
+few men have so nobly earned the honours and fame with which his name is
+associated.
+
+The success which attended Sir R. Murchison’s investigations soon
+attracted the attention of other geologists. Professor Sedgwick examined
+the older slaty strata, and succeeded in proving the position of the
+Cambrian rocks to be at the base of the Silurian. Still it was reserved
+for Sir William Logan, the Director of the Canadian Geological Survey,
+to establish the fact that immense masses of gneissic formation lay at
+the base of the Cambrian; and, by subsequent investigations, Sir
+Roderick Murchison satisfied himself that this formation was not
+confined to Canada, but was identical with the rocks termed by him
+Fundamental Gneiss, which exist in enormous masses on the west coast of
+Scotland, and which he proved to be the oldest stratified rocks in the
+British Isles. Subsequently he demonstrated the existence of these same
+Laurentian rocks in Bohemia and Bavaria, far beneath the Silurian rocks
+of Barrande.
+
+While Murchison and Sedgwick were prosecuting their inquiries into the
+Silurian rocks, Hugh Miller and many others had their attention occupied
+with the Old Red Sandstone--the Devonian of Sedgwick and
+Murchison--which immediately overlies them. After a youth passed in
+wandering among the woods and rocks of his native Cromarty, the day came
+when Miller found himself twenty years of age, and, for the time, a
+workman in a quarry. A hard fate he thought it at the time, but to him
+it was the road to fame and success in life. The quarry in which he
+laboured was at the bottom of a bay formed by the mouth of a river
+opening to the south, a clear current of water on one side, as he
+vividly described it, and a thick wood on the other. In this silent
+spot, in the remote Highlands, a curious fossil fish of the Old Red
+Sandstone was revealed to him; its appearance struck him with
+astonishment; a fellow-workman named a spot where many such monuments of
+a former world were scattered about; he visited the place, and became a
+geologist and the historian of the “Old Red.” And what strange fantastic
+forms did it afterwards fall to his lot to describe! “The figures on a
+China vase or Egyptian obelisk,” he says, “differ less from the real
+representation of the objects than the fossil fishes of the ‘Old Red’
+differ from the living forms which now swim in our seas.”
+
+The _Carboniferous Limestone_, which underlies the coal, the
+_Coal-measures_ themselves, the _New Red Sandstone_, the _Lias_, and the
+_Chalk_, have in their turn found their historians; but it would be
+foreign to our object to dwell further here on these particular branches
+of the subject.
+
+Some few of the fossilised beings referred to resemble species still
+found living, but the greater part belong to species which have become
+altogether extinct. These fossil remains may constitute natural
+families, none of the genera of which have survived. Such is the
+_Pterodactyle_ among Pterosaurian reptiles; the _Ammonite_ among
+Mollusca; the _Ichthyosaurus_ and the _Plesiosaurus_ among the
+Enaliosaurian reptiles. At other times there are only extinct genera,
+belonging to families of which there are still some genera now living,
+as the genus _Palæoniscus_ among fishes. Finally, in Tertiary deposits,
+we meet with some extinct species belonging to genera of our existing
+fauna: the _Mammoth_, for example, of the youngest Tertiary deposits, is
+an extinct species of the genus elephant.
+
+Some fossils are terrestrial, like the gigantic Irish stag, _Cervus
+Megaceros_, the snail or _Helix_; fluviatile or lacustrine, like the
+_Planorbis_, the _Lymnæa_, the _Physa_, and the _Unio_; marine, or
+inhabiting the sea exclusively, as the Cowry (_Cypræa_), and the Oyster,
+(_Ostrea_).
+
+Fossils are sometimes preserved in their natural state, or are but very
+slightly changed. Such is the state of some of the bones extracted from
+the more recent caves; such, also, is the condition of the insects found
+enclosed in the fossil resins in which they have been preserved from
+decomposition; and certain shells, found in recent and even in old
+formations, such as the Jurassic and Cretaceous strata--in some of which
+the shells retain their colours, as well as their brilliant pearly
+lustre or nacre. At Trouville, in Normandy, in the Kimeridge strata,
+magnificent _Ammonites_ are found in the clay and marl, all brilliant
+with the colours of mother-of-pearl. In the Cretaceous beds at
+Machéroménil, some species of _Ancyloceras_ and _Hamites_ are found
+still covered with a nacre, displaying brilliant reflections of blue,
+green, and red, and retaining an admirable lustre. At Glos, near
+Liseaux, in the Coral Rag, not only the _Ammonites_, but the _Trigoniæ_
+and _Aviculæ_ have preserved all their brilliant nacre. Sometimes these
+remains are much changed, the organic matter having entirely
+disappeared; it sometimes happens also, though rarely, that they become
+petrified, that is to say, the external form is preserved, but the
+original organic elements have wholly disappeared, and have been
+replaced by foreign mineral substances--generally by silica or by
+carbonate of lime.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Labyrinthodon pachygnathus and footmarks.]
+
+Geology also enables us to draw very important conclusions from certain
+fossil remains whose true nature was long misunderstood, and which,
+under the name of _coprolites_, had given rise to much controversial
+discussion. Coprolites are the petrified excrements of extinct fossil
+animals. The study of these singular remains has thrown unexpected light
+on the habits and physiological organisation of some of the great
+antediluvian animals. Their examination has revealed the scales and
+teeth of fishes, thus enabling us to determine the kind of food in which
+the animals of the ancient world indulged: for example, the coprolites
+of the great marine reptile which bears the name of _Ichthyosaurus_
+contain the bones of other animals, together with the remains of the
+vertebræ, or of the phalanges (paddle-bones) of other Ichthyosauri;
+showing that this animal habitually fed on the flesh of its own species,
+as many fishes, especially the more voracious ones, do in our days.
+
+The imprints left upon mud or sand, which time has hardened and
+transformed into sandstone, furnish to the geologist another series of
+valuable indications. The reptiles of the ancient world, the turtles in
+particular, have left upon the sands, which time has transformed into
+blocks of stone, impressions which evidently represent the exact moulds
+of the feet of those animals. These impressions have, sometimes, been
+sufficient for naturalists to determine to what species the animal
+belonged which thus left its impress on the wet ground. Some of these
+exhibit tracks to which we shall have occasion to refer; others present
+traces of the footprints of the great reptile known as the
+_Labyrinthodon_ or _Cheirotherium_, whose footmarks slightly resemble
+the impression made by the human hand (Fig. 1). Another well-known
+impression, which has been left upon the sandstone of Corncockle Moor,
+in Dumfriesshire, is supposed to be the impress of the foot of some
+great fossil Turtle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Impressions of rain-drops.]
+
+We may be permitted to offer a short remark on this subject. The
+historian and antiquary may traverse the battle-fields of the Greeks and
+Romans, and search in vain for traces of those conquerors, whose armies
+ravaged the world. Time, which has overthrown the monuments of their
+victories, has also effaced the marks of their footsteps; and of the
+many millions of men whose invasions have spread desolation throughout
+Europe, not even a trace of a footprint is left. Those reptiles, on the
+other hand, which crawled thousands of ages ago on the surface of our
+planet when it was still in its infancy, have impressed on the soil
+indelible proofs of their existence. Hannibal and his legions, the
+barbarians and their savage hordes, have passed over the land without
+leaving a material mark of their passage; while the poor turtle, which
+dragged itself along the silent shores of the primitive seas, has
+bequeathed to learned posterity the image and impression of a part of
+its body. These imprints may be perceived as distinctly on the rocks, as
+the traces left on moist sand or in newly-fallen snow by some animal
+walking under our own eyes. What grave reflections should be awakened
+within us at the sight of these blocks of hardened earth, which thus
+carry back our thoughts to the early ages of the world! and how
+insignificant seem the discoveries of the archæologist who throws
+himself into ecstacies before some piece of Greek or Etruscan pottery,
+when compared with these veritable antiquities of the earth!
+
+The palæontologist (from παλαιος “ancient,” οντος “being,” λογος
+“discourse”), who occupies himself with the study of animated beings
+which have lived on the earth, takes careful account also of the sort of
+moulds left by organised bodies in the fine sediment which has enveloped
+them after death. Many organic beings have left no trace of their
+existence in Nature, except their impressions, which we find perfectly
+preserved in the sandstone and limestone, in marl or clay, and in the
+coal-measures; and these moulds are sufficient to tell us the kind to
+which the living animals belonged. We shall, no doubt, astonish our
+readers when we tell them that there are blocks of sandstone with
+distinct impressions of drops of rain which had fallen upon sea-shores
+of the ancient world. The impressions of these rain-drops, made upon the
+sands, were preserved by desiccation; and these same sands, being
+transformed by subsequent hardening into solid and coherent sandstones,
+their impressions have been thus preserved to the present day. Fig. 2
+represents impressions of this kind upon the sandstone of Connecticut
+river in America, which have been reproduced from the block itself by
+photography. In a depression of the granitic rocks of Massachusetts and
+Connecticut, the red sandstone occupies an area of a hundred and fifty
+miles in length from north to south, and from five to ten miles in
+breadth. “On some shales of the finest texture,” says Sir Charles Lyell,
+“impressions of rain-drops may be seen, and casts of them in the
+argillaceous sandstones.” The same impressions occur in the recent red
+mud of the Bay of Fundy. In addition to these, the undulations left by
+the passage of the waters of the sea, over the sands of the primitive
+world, are preserved by the same physical agency. Traces of undulations
+of this kind have been found in the neighbourhood of Boulogne-sur-Mer,
+and elsewhere. Similar phenomena occur in a still more striking manner
+in some sandstone-quarries worked at Chalindrey (Haute-Marne). The
+strata there present traces of the same kind over a large area, and
+along with them impressions of the excrements of marine worms. One may
+almost imagine oneself to be standing on the sea-shore while the tide is
+ebbing.
+
+
+CHEMICAL AND NEBULAR HYPOTHESES OF THE GLOBE.
+
+Among the innumerable hypotheses which human ingenuity has framed to
+explain the phenomena which surround the globe, the two which have found
+most ready acceptance have been termed respectively the CHEMICAL, and
+the NEBULAR or mechanical hypothesis. By the first the solid crust is
+supposed to have contained abundance of potassium, sodium, calcium,
+magnesium, and other metallic elements. The percolating waters, coming
+in contact with these substances, produce combinations resulting in the
+conversion of the metals into their oxides--potash, soda, lime, and
+magnesia--all of which enter largely into the composition of volcanic
+rocks. The second hypothesis involves the idea of an original
+incandescent mass of vapour, succeeded by a great and still existing
+central fire.
+
+This idea of a great central fire is a very ancient hypothesis: admitted
+by Descartes, developed by Leibnitz, and advocated by Buffon, it is
+supposed to account for many phenomena otherwise inexplicable; and it is
+confirmed by a crowd of facts, and adopted, or at least not opposed, by
+the leading authorities of the age. Dr. Buckland makes it the basis of
+his Bridgewater treatise. Herschel, Hind, Murchison, Lyell, Phillips,
+and other leading English astronomers and geologists give a cautious
+adhesion to the doctrine. The following are some of the principal
+arguments adduced in support of the hypothesis, for, in the nature of
+the proofs it admits of, it can be no more.
+
+When we descend into the interior of a mine, it is found that the
+temperature rises in an appreciable manner, and that it increases with
+the depth below the surface.
+
+The high temperature of the waters in Artesian wells when these are very
+deep, testifies to a great heat of the interior of the earth.
+
+The thermal waters which issue from the earth--of which the temperature
+sometimes rises to 100° Centigrade and upwards--as, for instance, the
+Geysers of Iceland--furnish another proof in support of the hypothesis.
+
+Modern volcanoes are said to be a visible demonstration of the existence
+of central heat. The heated gases, the liquid lava, the flames which
+escape from their craters, all tend to prove sufficiently that the
+interior of the globe has a temperature prodigiously elevated as
+compared with that at its surface.
+
+The disengagement of gases and burning vapours through the accidental
+fissures in the crust, which accompany earthquakes, still further tends
+to establish the existence of a great heat in the interior of the globe.
+
+We have already said that the temperature of the globe increases about
+one degree for every sixty or seventy feet of depth beneath its surface.
+The correctness of this observation has been verified in a great number
+of instances--indeed, to the greatest depth to which man has penetrated,
+and been able to make use of the thermometer. Now, as we know exactly
+the length of the radius of the terrestrial sphere, it has been
+calculated from this progression of temperature, supposing it to be
+regular and uniform, that the centre of the globe ought to have at the
+present time a mean temperature of 195,000° Centigrade. No matter could
+preserve its solid state at this excessive temperature; it follows,
+then, that the centre of the globe, and all parts near the centre, must
+be in a permanent state of fluidity.
+
+The works of Werner, of Hutton, of Leopold von Buch, of Humboldt, of
+Cordier, W. Hopkins, Buckland, and some other English philosophers, have
+reduced this hypothesis to a theory, on which has been based, to a
+considerable extent, the whole science of modern geology; although,
+properly speaking, and in the popular acceptation of the term, that
+science only deals with the solid crust of the earth.
+
+The nebular theory thus embraces the whole solar system, and, by
+analogy, the universe. It assumes that the SUN was originally a mass of
+incandescent matter, that vast body being brought into a state of
+evolution by the action of laws to which the Creator, in His divine
+wisdom, has subjected all matter. In consequence of its immense
+expansion and attenuation, the exterior zone of vapour, expanding beyond
+the sphere of attraction, is supposed to have been thrown off by
+centrifugal force. This zone of vapour, which may be supposed at one
+time to have resembled the rings of Saturn, would in time break up into
+several masses, and these masses coalescing into globes, would (by the
+greater power of attraction which they would assume as consolidated
+bodies) revolve round the sun, and, from mechanical considerations,
+would also revolve with a rotary motion on their own axes.
+
+This doctrine is applied to all the planets, and assumes each to have
+been in a state of incandescent vapour, with a central incandescent
+nucleus. As the cooling went on, each of these bodies may be supposed to
+have thrown off similar masses of vapour, which, by the operation of the
+same laws, would assume the rotary state, and, as satellites, revolve
+round the parent planet. Such, in brief, was the grand conception of
+Laplace; and surely it detracts nothing from our notions of the
+omnipotence of the Creator that it initiates the creation step by step,
+and under the laws to which matter is subjected, rather than by the
+direct fiat of the Almighty. The hypothesis assumes that as the vaporous
+mass cooled by the radiation of heat into space, the particles of matter
+would approximate and solidify.
+
+That the figure of the earth is such as a very large mass of matter in a
+state of fluidity would assume from a state of rotation, seems to be
+admitted, thus corroborating the speculations of Leibnitz, that the
+earth is to be looked on as a heated fluid globe, cooled, and still
+cooling at the surface, by radiation of its superfluous heat into space.
+Mr. W. Hopkins[7] has put forth some strong but simple reasons in
+support of a different theory; although he does not attempt to solve the
+problem, but leaves the reader to form his own conclusions. As far as we
+have been able to follow his reasoning we gather from it that:--
+
+  [7] See _Phil. Transactions_, 1839-40-42; also, _Quarterly Journal of
+      the Geological Society_, vol. viii., p. 56.
+
+If the earth were a fluid mass cooled by radiation, the cooled parts
+would, by the laws of circulating fluids, descend towards the centre,
+and be replaced on the surface by matter at a higher temperature.
+
+The consolidation of such a mass would, therefore, be accompanied by a
+struggle for superiority between pressure and temperature, both of which
+would be at their maximum at the centre of the mass.
+
+At the surface, it would be a question of rapidity of cooling, by
+radiation, as compared with the internal condition--for comparing which
+relations we are without data; but on the result of which depends
+whether such a body would most rapidly solidify at the surface by
+radiation, or at the centre by pressure.
+
+The effect of the first would be solidification at the surface, followed
+by condensation at the centre through pressure. There would thus be two
+masses, a spherical fluid nucleus, and a spherical shell or envelope,
+with a large zone of semi-fluid, pasty matter between, continually
+changing its temperature as its outer or inner surface became converted
+to the solid state.
+
+If pressure, on the other hand, gained the victory, the centre would
+solidify before the circulation of the heated matter had ceased; and the
+solidifying process would proceed through a large portion of the globe,
+and even approach the surface before that would become solid. In other
+words, solidification would proceed from the centre until the
+diminishing power of pressure was balanced by radiation, when the
+gradual abstraction of heat would allow the particles to approximate and
+become solid.
+
+The terrestrial sphere may thus be a solid indurated mass at the centre,
+with a solid stony crust at the surface, and a shifting viscous, but
+daily-decreasing, mass between the two; a supposition which the
+diminished and diminishing frequency and magnitude of volcanic and other
+eruptive convulsions seem to render not improbable.
+
+It is not to be supposed that amongst the various hypotheses of which
+the cosmogony of the world has been the object, a literal acceptation of
+the scriptural account finds no defenders among men of science. “Why,”
+asks one of these writers,[8] after some scornful remarks upon the
+geologists and their science--“why an omnipotent Creator should have
+called into being a gaseous-granite nebulous world, only to have to cool
+it down again, consisting as it does of an endless variety of
+substances, should even have been supposed to be originally constituted
+of the matter of granite alone, for nothing else was provided by the
+theory, nobody can rationally explain. How the earth’s centre now could
+be liquid fire with its surface solid and cold and its seas not boiling
+caldrons, has never been attempted to be accounted for. How educated
+gentlemen, engaged in scientific investigations, ever came to accept
+such a monstrously stupid mass of absurdities as deductions of
+‘science,’ and put them in comparison with the rational account of the
+creation given by Moses, is more difficult to understand than even this
+vague theory itself, which it is impossible to describe.
+
+  [8] “Fresh Springs of Truth.” R. Griffin and Co.
+
+“Of the first creation of the chaotic world,” the same writer goes on to
+say, “or the material elements, before they were shaped into their
+present forms, we can scarce have the most vague conception. All our
+experience relates to their existing conditions. But knowing somewhat of
+the variety of the constituent elements and their distinct properties,
+by which they manifest their existence to us, we cannot conceive of
+their creation without presupposing a Divine wisdom, and--if I may say
+so, with all reverence, and only to suit our human notions--a Divine
+ingenuity,” and he follows for six days the operations as described by
+Moses, with a running comment. When light is created, the conception of
+the work becomes simpler to our minds. Its least manifestation would
+suffice at once to dispel darkness, and yet how marvellous is the light!
+In the second day’s work the firmament of heaven is opened; the expanse
+of the air between the heavens and the earth, dividing the waters above
+from the waters below, is the work recorded as performed. Not till the
+third day commence the first geological operations. The waters of the
+earth are gathered together into seas, and the dry land is made to
+appear. It is now that we can imagine that the formation of the primary
+strata commenced, while by some of the internal forces of matter the
+earth was elevated and stood above the waters.
+
+Immediately the dry land is raised above and separated from the waters
+the fiat goes forth, “Let the earth _bring forth_ grass, and herb and
+tree;” vegetable life begins to exist, and the world is first decorated
+with its beauteous flora, with all its exquisite variety of forms and
+brilliancy of colouring, with which not even Solomon in all his glory
+can compare. In like manner, on the sixth day the earth is commanded to
+bring forth land-animals--the living creature “after his kind,” cattle
+and creeping thing, and beast of the earth, “after his kind;” and last
+of all, but on the same day, man is created, and made the chief and
+monarch of God’s other living creatures--for that is “man’s place in
+Nature.” “Let us now see,” he continues, “how this history came to be
+discredited by the opposition of a falsely so-called ‘science’ of
+geology, that, while spared by our theologians, has since pulled itself
+to pieces. The first step in the false inductions geology made arose
+from the rash deduction, that the order in which the fossil remains of
+organic being were found deposited in the various strata necessarily
+determined the order of their creation; and the next error arose from
+blindly rushing to rash conclusions, and hasty generalisation from a
+very limited number of facts, and the most imperfect investigations.
+There were also (and, indeed, are still) some wild dogmatisms as to the
+time necessary to produce certain geologic formations; but the
+absurdities of science culminated when it adopted from Laplace the
+irrational and unintelligible theory of a _natural_ origin for the world
+from a nebula of gaseous granite, intensely hot, and supposed to be
+gradually cooled while gyrating senselessly in space.”
+
+In this paper the writer does not attempt to deal with the various
+phenomena of volcanoes, earthquakes, hot springs, and other matters
+which are usually considered as proofs of great internal heat. Mr. Evan
+Hopkins, C.E., F.G.S., is more precise if less eloquent. He shows that,
+in tropical countries, plains of gravel may in a day be converted into
+lagoons and marshes; that by the fall of an avalanche rivers have been
+blocked up, which, bursting their banks, have covered many square miles
+of fertile country with several feet of mud, sand, and gravel. “Two
+thousand four hundred years ago,” he says, “Nineveh flourished in all
+its grandeur, yet it is now buried in oblivion, and its site overwhelmed
+with sand. Look at old Tyre, once the queen of cities and mistress of
+the sea. She was in all her pride two thousand four hundred and forty
+years ago. We now see but a bare rock in the sea, on which fishermen
+spread their nets! A thousand years ago, according to Icelandic
+histories, Greenland was a fertile land in the south, and supported a
+large population. Iceland at that period was covered with forests of
+birch and fir, and the inhabitants cultivated barley and other grain. We
+may, therefore, conclude, with these facts before us, that there is no
+necessity to assign myriads of ages to terrestrial changes, as assumed
+by geologists, as they can be accounted for by means of alterations
+effected during a few thousand years, for the surface of the earth is
+ever changing.
+
+“Grant geological speculators,” Mr. Hopkins continues, “a few millions
+of centuries, with a command over the agencies of Nature to be brought
+into operation when and how they please, and they think they can form a
+world with every variety of rock and vegetation, and even transform a
+worm into a man! Yet the wisest of our philosophers would be puzzled if
+called upon to explain why fluids become spheres, as dew-drops; why
+carbonate of lime acquires in solidifying from a liquid the figure of an
+obtuse rhomboihedron, silica of a six-sided prism; and why oxygen and
+hydrogen gases produce both _fire_ and _water_. And what do they gain,”
+he proceeds to ask, “by carrying back the history of the world to these
+myriads of centuries? Do they, by the extension of the period to
+infinity, explain how the ‘_Original_’ materials were created? But,” he
+adds, “geologists are by no means agreed in their assumed geological
+periods! The so-called glacial period has been computed by some to be
+equal to about eighty-three thousand years, and by others at even as
+much as twelve hundred and eighty millions of years! Were we to ask for
+a _demonstrative proof_ of any given deposit being more than four or
+five thousand years old, they could not give it. Where is Babylon, the
+glory of the kingdoms? Look at Thebes, and behold its colossal columns,
+statues, temples, obelisks, and palaces desolated; and yet those great
+cities flourished within the last three thousand years. Even Pompeii and
+Herculaneum were all but lost to history! What,” he asks after these
+brief allusions to the past--“what, as a matter of fact, have geologists
+discovered, as regards the great terrestrial changes, more than was
+known to Pythagoras and the ancient philosophers who taught, two
+thousand three hundred and fifty years ago, ‘that the surface of the
+earth was ever changing--solid land converted into sea, sea changed into
+dry land, marine shells lying far distant from the deep, valleys
+excavated by running water, and floods washing down hills into the
+sea?’”
+
+In reference to the argument of the vast antiquity of the earth, founded
+on elevation of coasts at a given rate of upheaval, he adduces many
+facts to show that upheavals of equal extent have occurred almost within
+the memory of man. Two hundred and fifty years ago Sir Francis Drake,
+with his fleet, sailed into Albemarle Sound through Roanoke Outlet,
+which is now a sand-bank above the reach of the highest tides. Only
+seventy years ago it was navigable by vessels drawing twelve feet of
+water. The whole American coast, both on the Atlantic and Pacific, have
+undergone great changes within the last hundred years. The coast of
+South America has, in some places, been upheaved twenty feet in the last
+century; in others, a few hundred miles distant, it has been depressed
+to an equal extent. A transverse section from Rio Santa Cruz to the base
+of the Cordilleras, and another in the Rio Negro, in Patagonia, showed
+that the whole sedimentary series is of recent origin. Scattered over
+the whole at various heights above the sea, from thirteen hundred feet
+downwards, are found recent shells of _littoral_ species of the
+neighbouring coast--denoting upheavals which might have been effected
+during the last three thousand years.
+
+Coming nearer home, he shows that in 1538 the whole coast of Pozzuoli,
+near Naples, was raised twenty feet in a single night. Then, with regard
+to more compact crystalline or semi-crystalline rocks, no reliable
+opinion can be formed on mere inspection. Two blocks of marble may
+appear precisely alike, though formed at different periods. A crystal of
+carbonate of lime, formed in a few years, would be found quite perfect,
+and as compact as a crystal formed during many centuries. Nothing can be
+deduced from the process of petrifaction and crystallisation, unless
+they enclose relics of a known period. At San Filippo, a solid mass of
+limestone thirty feet thick has been formed in about twenty years. A
+hard stratum of travertine a foot thick is obtained, from these thermal
+springs, in the course of four months. Nor can geologists demonstrate
+that the Amiens deposits, in which the flint-implements occur, are more
+than three or four thousand years old.
+
+The causes of these changes and mutations are referred by some persons
+to floods, or to pre-Adamite convulsions, whereas the cause is in
+constant operation; they are due to an invisible and subtle power which
+pervades the air, the ocean, and the rocks below--in which all are
+wrapped and permeated--which is universally present, namely,
+magnetism--a power always in operation, always in a state of activity
+and tension. It has an attractive power towards the surface of the
+earth, as well as a directive action from pole to pole. “It is, indeed,”
+he adds, emphatically, “the _terrestrial gravitation_. Magnetic needles
+freely suspended show its meridional or directive polar force, and that
+the force converges at two opposite parts, which are bounded by the
+Antarctic and Arctic circles.”
+
+This polar force, like a stream, is constantly moving from pole to pole;
+and experiment proves that this movement is from the South Pole to the
+North. “Hence the various terrestrial substances, solids and fluids,
+through which this subtle and universal power permeates, are controlled,
+propelled, and modified over the entire surface of our globe, commencing
+at the south and dissolving at the north. Thus, all terrestrial matter
+moves towards the Arctic region, and finally disappears by dissolution
+and absorption, to be renewed again and again in the Antarctic Sea to
+the end of time.”
+
+In order to prove that the north polar basin is the receptacle of the
+final dissolution of all terrestrial substances, Mr. Hopkins quotes the
+Gulf Stream. Bottles, tropical plants, and wrecks cast into the sea in
+the South Atlantic, are carried to Greenland in a comparatively short
+time. The great _tidal_ waves commence at the fountain-head in the
+Antarctic circle, impinge against the south coast of Tierra del Fuego,
+New Zealand, and Tasmania, and are then propelled northward in a series
+of undulations. The South Atlantic stream, after doubling the Cape of
+Good Hope, moves towards the Guinea coast, bends towards the Caribbean
+Sea, producing the trade winds; again leaves Florida as the Gulf Stream,
+and washes the coasts of Greenland and Norway, and finally reaches the
+north polar basin.
+
+Again the great polar force shows itself in the arrangement of the
+mineral structure below. In all the primary rocks in every quarter of
+the globe where they have been examined, its action is recognised in
+giving to the crystalline masses--granites and their laminated
+elongations--a polar grain and vertical cleavage. “Had it been possible
+to see our globe stripped of its sedimentary deposits and its oceanic
+covering, we should see it like a gigantic melon, with a uniform grain
+extending from pole to pole.” This structure appears to give polarity to
+earthquakes--thermal waters and earthquakes--which are all traceable in
+the direction of the polar grain or cleavage from north to south.
+
+In England, for instance, thermal and saline springs are traceable from
+Bath, through Cheltenham, to Dudley. In Central France, mineral springs
+occur in lines, more or less, north and south. All the known
+salt-springs in South America occur in meridional bands. Springs of
+chloride of sodium in the Eastern Cordilleras stretch from Pinceima to
+the Llanoes de Meta, a distance of 200 miles. The most productive
+metalliferous deposits are found in meridional bands. The watery
+volcanoes in South America are generally situated along the lines of the
+meridional splits and the secondary eruptive pores on the transverse
+fractures. The sudden ruptures arising locally from increasing tension
+of the polar force, and the rapid expansion of the generated gases,
+produce a vibratory jar in the rocky structure below, which being
+propagated along the planes of the polar cleavage, gives rise to great
+superficial oscillations, and thus causes earthquakes and subterranean
+thunder for thousands of miles, from south to north.
+
+In 1797, the district round the volcano of Tunguraqua in Quito, during
+one of the great meridional shocks, experienced an undulating movement,
+which lasted upwards of four minutes, and this was propagated to the
+shores of the Caribbean Sea.
+
+All these movements demonstrated, according to Mr. Hopkins, that the
+land as well as the ocean moves from the south pole and north pole, and
+that the magnetic power has a tendency to proceed from pole to pole in a
+_spiral_ path from south-east to north-west, a movement which produces
+an apparent change in the equinoxes, or the outer section of the plane
+of the ecliptic with the equator, a phenomenon known to astronomers as
+the precession of the equinoxes.
+
+Such is a very brief summary of the arguments by which Mr. Evan Hopkins
+maintains the literal correctness of the Mosaic account of the creation,
+and attempts to show that all the facts discovered by geologists may
+have occurred in the ages included in the Mosaic chronology.
+
+That the mysterious power of terrestrial magnetism can perform all that
+he claims for it, we can perhaps admit. But how does this explain the
+succession of Silurian, Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous and other
+strata, up to the Tertiary deposits, with their fossils, each differing
+in character from those of the preceding series? That these were
+successive creations admits of no doubt, and while it is undeniable that
+the fiat of the Creator could readily produce all these phenomena, it
+may reasonably be asked if it is probable that all these myriads of
+organic beings, whose remains serve as records of their existence, were
+created only to be immediately destroyed.
+
+Again, does not the author of the “Principles of Terrestrial Physics”
+prove too much? He admits that 3,000 years ago the climate of England
+was tropical: he does not deny that a subsequent period of intense cold
+intervened, 2,550 years ago. He admits historical records, and 2,350
+years ago Pythagoras constructed his cosmography of the world, which has
+never been seriously impugned; and yet he has no suspicion that
+countries so near to his own had changed their climates first from
+tropical to glacial, and back again to a temperate zone. It is not
+reasonable to believe this parable.
+
+The school of philosophy generally considered to be the most advanced in
+modern science has yet another view of cosmogony, of which we venture to
+give a brief outline. Space is infinite, says the exponent of this
+system,[9] for wherever in imagination we erect a boundary, we are
+compelled to think of space as existing beyond it. The starry heavens
+proclaim that it is not entirely void; but the question remains, are the
+vast regions which surround the stars, and across which light is
+propagated, absolutely empty? No. Modern science, while it rejects the
+notion of the luminiferous particles of the old philosophy, has cogent
+proofs of the existence of a luminiferous ether with definite mechanical
+properties. It is infinitely more attenuated, but more solid than gas.
+It resembles jelly rather than air, and if not co-extensive with space,
+it extends as far as the most distant star the telescope reveals to us;
+it is the vehicle of their light in fact; it takes up their molecular
+tremors and conveys them with inconceivable rapidity to our organs of
+vision. The splendour of the firmament at night is due to this
+vibration. If this ether has a boundary, masses of ponderable matter may
+exist beyond it, but they could emit no light. Dark suns may burn there,
+metals may be heated to fusion in invisible furnaces, planets may be
+molten amid intense darkness; for the loss of heat being simply the
+abstraction of molecular motion by the ether, where this medium is
+absent no cooling could take place.
+
+  [9] Professor Tyndall in _Fortnightly Review_.
+
+This, however, does not concern us; as far as our knowledge of space
+extends, we are to conceive of it as the holder of this luminiferous
+ether, through which the fixed stars are interspersed at enormous
+distances apart. Associated with our planet we have a group of dark
+planetary masses revolving at various distances around it, each rotating
+on its axis; and, connected with them, their moons. Was space furnished
+at once, by the fiat of Omnipotence, with these burning orbs? The man of
+science should give no answer to this question: but he has better
+materials to guide him than anybody else, and can clearly show that the
+present state of things _may_ be derivative. He can perhaps assign
+reasons which render it probable that it _is derivative_. The law of
+gravitation enunciated by Newton is, that every particle of matter in
+the universe attracts every other particle with a force which diminishes
+as the square of the distance increases. Under this law a stone falls to
+the ground, and heat is produced by the shock; meteors plunge into the
+atmosphere and become incandescent; showers of such doubtless fall
+incessantly upon the sun, and were it stopped in its orbit, the earth
+would rush towards the sun, developing heat in the collision (according
+to the calculations of MM. Joule, Mayer, Helmholtz, and Thomson), equal
+to the combustion of five thousand worlds of solid coal. In the
+attraction of gravity, therefore, acting upon this luminous matter, we
+have a source of heat more powerful than could be derived from any
+terrestrial combustion.
+
+To the above conception of space we must add that of its being in a
+continual state of tremor. The sources of vibration are the ponderable
+masses of the universe. Our own planet is an aggregate of solids,
+liquids, and gases. On closer examination, these are found to be
+composed of still more elementary parts: the water of our rivers is
+formed by the union, in definite proportions, of two gases, oxygen and
+hydrogen. So, likewise, our chalk hills are formed by a combination of
+carbon, oxygen, and calcium; elements which in definite proportions form
+chalk. The flint found within that chalk is compounded of oxygen and
+silicon, and our ordinary clay is for the most part formed by a union
+of silicon, oxygen, and aluminum. By far the greater part of the earthy
+crust is thus compounded of a few elementary substances.
+
+Such is Professor Tyndall’s view of the universe, rising incidentally
+out of his theory of heat, his main object being to elucidate his theory
+of heat and light.
+
+
+MODIFICATIONS OF THE SURFACE OF THE GLOBE.
+
+As a consequence of the hypothesis of central heat, it is admitted that
+our planet has been agitated by a series of local disturbances; that is
+to say, by ruptures of its solid crust occurring at more or less distant
+intervals. These partial revolutions at the surface are supposed to have
+been produced, as we shall have occasion to explain, by upheavals or
+depressions of the solid crust, resulting from the fluidity of the
+central parts, and by the cooling down of the external crust of the
+globe.
+
+Almost all bodies, in passing from a liquid to a solid state, are
+diminished in size in the process. In molten metals which resume the
+solid state by cooling, this diminution amounts to about a tenth of
+their volume; but the decrease in size is not equal throughout the whole
+mass. Hence, as a result of the solidification of the internal parts of
+the globe, the outer envelope would be too large; and would no longer
+fit the inner sphere, which had contracted in cooling. Cracks and
+hollows occur under such circumstances, even in small masses, and the
+effect of converting such a vast body as the earth from a liquid, or
+rather molten condition, to a solid state, may be imagined. As the
+interior became solid and concrete by cooling, furrows, corrugations,
+and depressions in the external crust of the globe would occur, causing
+great inequalities in its surface; producing, in short, what are now
+called _chains of mountains_.
+
+At other times, in lieu of furrows and irregularities, the solid crust
+has become ruptured, producing fissures and fractures in the outer
+envelope, sometimes of immense extent. The liquid substances contained
+in the interior of the globe, with or without the action of the gases
+they enclose, escape through these openings; and, accumulating on the
+surface, become, on cooling and consolidating, _mountains_ of various
+heights.
+
+It would also happen, and always from the same cause, namely, from the
+internal contraction caused by the unequal cooling of the globe, that
+minor fissures would be formed in the earth’s crust; incandescent liquid
+matter would be afterwards injected into these fissures, filling them
+up, and forming in the rocky crust those long narrow lines of foreign
+substances which we call _dykes_.
+
+Finally, it would occasionally happen, that in place of molten matter,
+such as granite or metalliferous compounds, escaping through these
+fractures and fissures in the globe, actual rivers of boiling water,
+abundantly charged with various mineral salts (that is to say, with
+silicates, and with calcareous and magnesian compounds), would also
+escape, since the elements of water would be abundant in the
+incandescent mass. Added to these the chemical and mechanical action of
+the atmosphere, of rain, rivers, and the sea, have all a tendency to
+destroy the hardest rocks. The mineral salts and other foreign
+substances, entering into combination with those already present in the
+waters of the sea, and separating at a subsequent period from these
+waters, would be thrown down, and thus constitute extensive
+deposits--that is to say, _sedimentary formations_. These became, on
+consolidation, the _sedimentary rocks_.
+
+The furrows, corrugations, and fractures in the terrestrial crust, which
+so changed the aspect of the surface, and for the time displaced the
+sea-basins, would be followed by periods of calm. During these periods,
+the débris, torn by the movement of the waters from certain points of
+the land, would be transported to other parts of the globe by the
+oceanic currents. These accumulated heterogeneous materials, when
+deposited at a later period, would ultimately constitute
+formations--that is, _transported or drifted rocks_.
+
+We have ventured to explain some of the theories by which it is sought
+to explain the cosmography of the world. But our readers must understand
+that all such speculations are, of necessity, purely hypothetical.
+
+In conformity with the preceding considerations we shall divide the
+mineral substances of which the earth is composed into three general
+groups, under the following heads:--
+
+1. _Eruptive Rocks._--Crystalline, like the second, but formed at all
+geological periods by the irruption or intrusion of the liquid matter
+occupying the interior of our globe through all the pre-existing rocks.
+
+2. _Crystalline Rocks._--That portion of the terrestrial crust which was
+primarily liquid, owing to the heat of the globe, but which solidified
+at the period of its first cooling down; forming the masses known as
+Fundamental Gneiss, and Laurentian, &c.
+
+3. _Sedimentary Rocks._--Consisting of various mineral substances
+deposited by the water of the sea, such as silica, the carbonates of
+lime and magnesia, &c.
+
+The mineral masses which constitute the _sedimentary rocks_ form beds,
+or _strata_, having among themselves a constant order of superposition
+which indicates their relative age. The mineral structure of these beds,
+and the remains of the organised beings they contain, impress on them
+characters which enable us to distinguish each bed from that which
+precedes and follows it.
+
+It does not follow, however, that all these beds are met with, regularly
+superimposed, over the whole surface of the globe; under such
+circumstances geology would be a very simple science, only requiring the
+use of the eyes. In consequence of the frequent eruptions of granite,
+porphyry, serpentine, trachyte, basalt, and lava, these beds are often
+broken, cut off, and replaced by others.
+
+_Denudation_ has been another fruitful source of change. Professor
+Ramsay[10] shows, in the “Memoirs of the Geological Survey,” that beds
+once existed above a great part of the Mendip Hills to the extent of at
+least 6,000 feet, which have been removed by the denuding agency of the
+sea; while in South Wales and the adjacent country, a series of
+Palaeozoic rocks, eleven thousand feet in thickness, has been removed by
+the action of water. In fact, every foot of the earth now forming the
+dry land is supposed to have been at one time under water--to have
+emerged, and to have been again submerged, and subjected to the
+destructive action of the ocean. At certain points a whole series of
+sedimentary deposits, and often several of them, have been removed by
+this cause, known by geologists as _Denudation_. The regular series of
+rock formations are, in fact, rarely found in unbroken order. It is only
+by combining the collected observations of the geologists of all
+countries, that we are enabled to arrange, according to their relative
+ages, the several beds composing the solid terrestrial crust as they
+occur in the following Table, which proceeds from the surface towards
+the centre, in descending order:--
+
+  [10] “Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain,” vol. i., p.
+       297.
+
+ORDER OF STRATIFICATION.
+
+  Quaternary Epoch        Modern Period.
+
+                        { Pliocene Period.
+  Tertiary Epoch        { Miocene Period.
+                        { Eocene Period.
+
+                        { Cretaceous Rocks.
+  Secondary Epoch       { Jurassic Rocks.
+                        { Triassic Rocks.
+
+                        { Permian Rocks.
+  Primary Epoch         { Carboniferous Rocks.
+                        { Devonian Rocks.
+                        { Silurian Rocks.
+
+  Metamorphic Series    { Cambrian Rocks.
+                        { Fundamental Gneiss, or Laurentian.
+
+Under these heads we propose to examine the successive transformations
+to which the earth has been subjected in reaching its present condition;
+in other words, we propose, both from an historical and descriptive
+point of view, to take a survey of the several _epochs_ which can be
+distinguished in the gradual formation of the earth, corresponding with
+the formation of the great groups of rocks enumerated in the preceding
+table. We shall describe the living creatures which have peopled the
+earth at each of these epochs, and which have disappeared, from causes
+which we shall also endeavour to trace. We shall describe the plants
+belonging to each great phase in the history of the globe. At the same
+time, we shall not pass over entirely in silence the rocks deposited by
+the waters, or thrown up by eruption during these periods; we propose,
+also, to give a summary of the mineralogical characters and of the
+fossils characteristic of, or peculiar to each formation. What we
+propose, in short, is to give a history of the formation of the globe,
+and a description of the principal rocks which actually compose it; and
+to take also a rapid glance at the several generations of animals and
+plants which have succeeded and replaced each other on the earth, from
+the very beginning of organic life up to the time of man’s appearance.
+
+
+
+
+ERUPTIVE ROCKS.
+
+
+Nothing is more difficult than to write a chronological history of the
+revolutions and changes to which the earth has been subjected during the
+ages which preceded the historic times. The phenomena which have
+concurred to fashion its enormous mass, and to give to it its present
+form and structure, are so numerous, so varied, and sometimes so nearly
+simultaneous in their action, that the records defy the powers of
+observation to separate them. The deposition of the sedimentary rocks
+has been subject to interruption during all ages of the world. Violent
+igneous eruptions have penetrated the sedimentary beds, elevating them
+in some places, depressing them in others, and in all cases disturbing
+their order of superposition, and ejecting masses of crystalline rocks
+from the incandescent centre to the surface. Amidst these perturbations,
+sometimes stretching over a vast extent of country, anything like a
+rigorous chronological record becomes impossible, for the phenomena are
+so continuous and complex that it is no longer possible to distinguish
+the fundamental from the accidental and secondary causes.
+
+In order to render the subject somewhat clearer, the great facts
+relative to the progressive formation of the terrestrial globe are
+divided into epochs, during which the sedimentary rocks were formed in
+due order in the seas of the ancient world, the mud and sand in which
+were deposited day by day. Again, even where the line of demarcation is
+clearest between one formation and another, it must not be supposed
+there is any sharply defined line of separation between them. On the
+contrary, one system gradually merges into that which succeeds it. The
+rocks and fossils of the one gradually disappear, to be succeeded by
+those of the overlying series in the regular order of succession. The
+newly-made strata became the cemetery of the myriads of beings which
+lived and died in the bosom of the ocean. The rocks thus deposited were
+called _Neptunian_ by the older geologists.
+
+But while the seas of each epoch were thus building up, grain by grain,
+and bed by bed, the new formation out of the ruins of the older, other
+influences were at work, sometimes, to all appearance, impeding
+sometimes advancing, the great work. The _Plutonic rocks_--the _igneous
+or eruptive rocks_ of modern geology, as we have seen above, were the
+great disturbing agents, and these disturbances occur in every age of
+the earth’s history. We shall have occasion to speak of these eruptive
+formations while describing the phenomena of the several epochs. But it
+is thought that the narrative will be made clearer and more instructive
+by grouping this class of phenomena into one chapter, which we place at
+the commencement, inasmuch as the constant reference to the eruptive
+rocks will thus be rendered more intelligible. To these are now added
+the section “Metamorphic Rocks,” from the fifth edition of the French
+work.
+
+The rocks which issued from the centre of the earth in a state of fusion
+are found associated or interstratified with masses of every epoch, more
+especially with those of the more ancient strata. The formations which
+these rocks have originated possess great interest; first, because they
+enter into the composition of the terrestrial crust; secondly, because
+they have impressed on its surface, in the course of their eruption,
+some of the characteristics of its configuration and structure; finally,
+because, by their means, the metals which are the objects of human
+industry have been brought nearer to the surface. According to the order
+of their appearance, or as nearly so as can be ascertained, we shall
+class the eruptive rocks in two groups:--
+
+I. The _Volcanic Rocks_, of comparatively recent origin, which have
+given rise to a succession of trachytes, basalts, and modern lavas.
+These, being of looser texture, are presumed to have cooled more rapidly
+than the Plutonic rocks, and at or near the surface.
+
+II. The _Plutonic Rocks_, of older date, which are exemplified in the
+various kinds of granites, the syenites, the protogines, porphyries, &c.
+These differ from the volcanic rocks in their more compact crystalline
+structure, in the absence of tufa, as well as of pores and cavities;
+from which it is inferred that they were formed at considerable depths
+in the earth, and that they have cooled and crystallised slowly under
+great pressure.
+
+
+PLUTONIC ERUPTIONS.
+
+The great eruptions of _ancient granite_ are supposed to have occurred
+during the primary epoch, and chiefly in the carboniferous period. They
+present themselves sometimes in considerable masses, for the earth’s
+crust being still thin and permeable, it was prepared as it were for
+absorbing the granite masses. In consequence of its weak cohesion, the
+primitive crust of the globe would be rent and penetrated in all
+directions, as represented in the following section of Cape Wrath, in
+Sutherlandshire, in which the veins of granite ramify in a very
+irregular manner across the gneiss and hornblende-schist, there
+associated with it. (Fig. 3.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Veins of granite traversing the gneiss of Cape
+Wrath.]
+
+Granite, when it is sound, furnishes a fine building-stone, but we must
+not suppose that it deserves that character of extreme hardness with
+which the poets have gratuitously gifted it. Its granular texture
+renders it unfit for road-stone, where it gets crushed too quickly to
+dust. With his hammer the geologist easily shapes his specimens; and in
+the Russian War, at the bombardment of Bomarsund, the shot from our
+ships demonstrated that ramparts of granite could be as easily
+demolished as those constructed of limestone.
+
+The component minerals of granite are felspar, quartz, and mica, in
+varying proportions; felspar being generally the predominant ingredient,
+and quartz more plentiful than mica--the whole being united into a
+confusedly granular or crystalline mass. Occasionally it passes
+insensibly from fine to coarse-grained granite, and the finer grained is
+even sometimes found embedded in the more coarsely granular variety:
+sometimes it assumes a porphyritic texture. Porphyritic granite is a
+variety of granite, the components of which--quartz, felspar, and
+mica--are set in a non-crystallised paste, uniting the mass in a manner
+which will be familiar to many of our readers who may have seen the
+granite of the Land’s End, in Cornwall. Alongside these orthoclase
+crystals, quartz is implanted, usually in grains of irregular shape,
+more rarely crystallised, and seldom in the form of perfect crystals. To
+these ingredients are added thin scales or small hexagonal plates and
+crystals of white, brown, black, or greenish-coloured mica. Finally, the
+name of _quartziferous porphyry_ is reserved for those varieties which
+present crystals of quartz; the other varieties are simply called
+_porphyritic granite_. _True_ porphyry presents a paste essentially
+composed of compact felspar, in which the crystals of orthoclase--that
+is, felspar with a potash base--are abundantly disseminated, and
+sometimes with great regularity.
+
+Granite is supposed to have been “formed at considerable depths in the
+earth, where it has cooled and crystallised slowly under great pressure,
+where the contained gases could not expand.”[11] “The influence,” says
+Lyell, “of subterranean heat may extend downwards from the crater of
+every active volcano to a great depth below, perhaps several miles or
+leagues, and the effects which are produced deep in the bowels of the
+earth may, or rather must, be distinct; so that volcanic and plutonic
+rocks, each different in texture, and sometimes even in composition, may
+originate simultaneously, the one at the surface, the other far beneath
+it.” Other views, however, of its origin are not unknown to science:
+Professor Ramsay and some other geologists consider granite to be
+metamorphic. “For my own part,” says the Professor, “I believe that in
+one sense it is an igneous rock; that is to say, that it has been
+completely fused. But in another sense it is a metamorphic rock, partly
+because it is impossible in many cases to draw any definite line between
+gneiss and granite, for they pass into each other by insensible
+gradations; and granite frequently _occupies the space that ought to be
+filled with gneiss_, were it not that the gneiss has been entirely
+fused. I believe therefore that granite and its allies are simply the
+effect of the extreme of metamorphism, brought about by great heat with
+presence of water. In other words, when the metamorphism has been so
+great that all traces of the semi-crystalline laminated structure have
+disappeared, a more perfect crystallisation has taken place.”[12] It is
+obvious that the very result on which the Professor founds his theory,
+namely, the difficulty “in many cases,” of drawing a line between the
+granite and the gneiss, would be produced by the sudden injection of the
+fluid minerals into gneiss, composed of the same materials. Moreover, it
+is only in some cases that the difficulty exists; in many others the
+line of separation is definable enough.[13]
+
+  [11] Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” p. 694.
+
+  [12] “Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain,” by A. C.
+       Ramsay, p. 38, 2nd ed.
+
+  [13] At the same time it may be safely assumed (as Professor Ramsay
+       believes to be the case) that granite in most cases is a
+       metamorphic rock; yet are there many instances in which it may
+       with greater truth be considered as a true plutonic rock.
+
+The granitic rock called _Syenite_, in which a part of the mica is
+replaced by hornblende or amphibole, has to all appearance been erupted
+to the surface subsequently to the granite, and very often alongside of
+it. Thus the two extremities of the Vosges, towards Belfort and
+Strasburg, are eminently syenitic, while the intermediate part, towards
+Colmar, is as markedly granitic. In the Lyonnais, the southern region is
+granitic; the northern region, from Arbresle, is in great part syenitic.
+Syenite also makes its appearance in the Limousin.
+
+Syenite, into which rose-coloured felspar often enters, forms a
+beautiful rock, because the green or nearly black hornblende heightens,
+by contrast, the effect of its colour. This rock is a valuable adjunct
+for architectural ornament; it is that out of which the ancient
+Egyptians shaped many of their monumental columns, sphinxes, and
+sarcophagi; the most perfect type of it is found in Egypt, not far from
+the city of Syene, from which it derives its name. The obelisk of Luxor
+now in Paris, several of the Egyptian obelisks in Rome, and the
+celebrated sphinxes, of which copies may be seen in front of the
+Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace, the pedestal of the statue of
+Peter the Great at St. Petersburg, and the facing of the sub-basement of
+the column in the Place Vendôme in Paris, are of this stone, of which
+there are quarries in the neighbourhood of Plancher-les-Mines in the
+Vosges.
+
+Syenite disintegrates more readily than granite, and it contains
+indurated nodular concretions, which often remain in the form of large
+spherical balls, in the midst of the débris resulting from
+disintegration of the mass. It remains to be added that syenitic masses
+are often very variable as regards their composition; the hornblende is
+sometimes wanting, in which case we can only recognise an ancient
+granite. In other instances the hornblende predominates to such a
+degree, that a large or small-grained _diorite_, or greenstone, results.
+The geologist should be prepared to observe these transitions, which are
+apt to lead him into error if passed over without being noticed.
+
+_Protogine_ is a talcose granite, composed of felspar, quartz, and talc
+or _chlorite_, or decomposed mica, which take the place of the usual
+mica. Excessively variable in its texture, protogine passes from the
+most perfect granitic aspect to that of a porphyry, in such a manner as
+to present continual subjects of uncertainty, rendering it very
+difficult to determine its geological age. Nevertheless, it is supposed
+to have come to the surface before and during the coal-period; in short,
+at Creusot, protogine covers the coal-fields so completely, that it is
+necessary to sink the pits through the protogine, in order to penetrate
+to the coal, and the rock has so manifestly acted on the coal-measure
+strata, as to have contorted and metamorphosed them. Something analogous
+to this manifests itself near Mont Blanc, where the colossal mass which
+predominates in that chain, and the peaks which belong to it, consist of
+protogine. But as no such action can be perceived in the overlying rocks
+of the Triassic period, it may be assumed that at the time of the
+deposition of the New Red Sandstone the protoginous eruptions had
+ceased.
+
+It is necessary to add, however, that if the protogine rises in such
+bold pinnacles round Mont Blanc, the circumstance only applies to the
+more elevated parts of the mountain, and is influenced by the excessive
+rigour of the seasons, which demolishes and continually wears away all
+the parts of the rock which have been decomposed by atmospheric agency.
+Where protogine occurs in milder climates--around Creusot, and at
+Pierre-sur-Autre, in the Forez chain, for instance--the mountains show
+none of the scarped and bristling peaks exhibited in the chain of Mont
+Blanc. Only single isolated masses occasionally form _rocking-stones_,
+so called because, resting with a convex base upon a pedestal also
+convex, but in a contrary way, it is easy to move these naturally
+balanced blocks, although from their vast size it would require very
+considerable force to displace them. This tendency to fashion themselves
+into rounded or ellipsoidal forms belongs, also, to other granitic
+rocks, and even to some of the variegated sandstones. The rocking-stones
+have often given rise to legends and popular myths.
+
+The great eruptions of granite, protogine, and porphyry took place,
+according to M. Fournet, during the carboniferous period, for
+porphyritic pebbles are found in the conglomerates of the Coal-measure
+period. “The granite of Dartmoor, in Devonshire,” says Lyell,[14] “was
+formerly supposed to be one of the most ancient of the plutonic rocks,
+but it is now ascertained to be posterior in date to the culm-measures
+of that county, which from their position, and as containing true
+coal-plants, are regarded by Professor Sedgwick and Sir R. Murchison as
+members of the true Carboniferous series. This granite, like the
+syenitic granite of Christiana, has broken through the stratified
+formations without much changing their strike. Hence, on the north-west
+side of Dartmoor, the successive members of the Culm-measures abut
+against the granite, and become metamorphic as they approach. The
+granite of Cornwall is probably of the same date, and therefore as
+modern as the Carboniferous strata, if not newer.”
+
+  [14] “Elements of Geology,” p. 716, 6th edition.
+
+The _ancient granites_ show themselves in France in the Vosges, in
+Auvergne, at Espinouse in Languedoc, at Plan-de-la-Tour in Provence, in
+the chain of the Cévennes, at Mont Pilat near Lyons, and in the southern
+part of the Lyonnaise chain. They rarely impart boldness or grandeur to
+the landscape, as might be expected from their crystallised texture and
+hardness; for having been exposed to the effects of atmospheric changes
+from the earliest times of the earth’s consolidation, the rocks have
+become greatly worn away and rounded in the outlines of their masses. It
+is only when recent dislocations have broken them up that they assume a
+picturesque character.
+
+The Christiania granite alluded to above was at one time thought to have
+belonged to the Silurian period. But, in 1813, Von Buch announced that
+the strata in question consisted of limestones containing orthoceratites
+and trilobites; the shales and limestone being only penetrated by
+granite-veins, and altered for a considerable distance from the point of
+contact.[15] The same granite is found to penetrate the ancient gneiss
+of the country on which the fossiliferous beds rest--unconformably, as
+the geologists say; that is, they rest on the edges of the gneiss, from
+which other stratified deposits had been washed away, leaving the gneiss
+denuded before the sedimentary beds were deposited. “Between the origin,
+therefore, of the gneiss and the granite,”[16] says Lyell, “there
+intervened, first, the period when the strata of gneiss were denuded;
+secondly, the period of the deposition of the Silurian deposits. Yet
+the granite produced after this long interval is often so intimately
+blended with the ancient gneiss at the point of the junction, that it is
+impossible to draw any other than an arbitrary line of separation
+between them; and where this is not the case, tortuous veins of granite
+pass freely through gneiss, ending sometimes in threads, as if the older
+rock had offered no resistance to their passage.” From this example Sir
+Charles concludes that it is impossible to conjecture whether certain
+granites, which send veins into gneiss and other metamorphic rocks, have
+been so injected while the gneiss was scarcely solidified, or at some
+time during the Secondary or Tertiary period. As it is, no single mass
+of granite can be pointed out more ancient than the oldest known
+fossiliferous deposits; no Lower Cambrian stratum is known to rest
+immediately on granite; no pebbles of granite are found in the
+conglomerates of the Lower Cambrian. On the contrary, granite is usually
+found, as in the case of Dartmoor, in immediate contact with primary
+formations, with every sign of elevation subsequent to their deposition.
+Porphyritic pebbles are found in the Coal-measures; porpyhries continue
+during the Triassic period; since, in some parts of Germany, veins of
+porphyry are found traversing the New Red Sandstone, or _grès bigarré_
+of French geologists. Syenites have especially reacted upon the Silurian
+deposits and other old sedimentary rocks, up to those of the Lower
+Carboniferous period.
+
+  [15] “Elements of Geology,” p. 717.
+
+  [16] Ibid, p. 718.
+
+The term porphyry is usually applied to a rock with a paste or base of
+compact felspar, in which felspathic crystals of various sizes assume
+their natural form. The variety of their mineralogical characters, the
+admirable polish which can be given to them, and which renders them
+eminently useful for ornamentation, give to the porphyries an artistic
+and industrial importance, which would be greatly enhanced if the
+difficulty of working such a hard material did not render the price so
+high.
+
+The porphyries possess various degrees of hardness and compactness. When
+a fine dark-red colour--which contrasts well with the white of the
+felspar--is combined with hardness, a magnificent stone is the result,
+susceptible of taking a polish, and fit for any kind of ornamental work;
+for the decoration of buildings, for the construction of vases, columns,
+&c. The red Egyptian porphyry, called _Rosso antico_, was particularly
+sought after by the ancients, who made sepulchres, baths, and obelisks
+of it. The grandest known mass of this kind of porphyry is the Obelisk
+of Sextus V. at Rome. In the Museum of the Louvre, in Paris, some
+magnificent basins and statues, made of the same stone, may also be
+seen.
+
+In spite of its compact texture porphyry disintegrates, like other
+rocks, when exposed to air and water. One of the sphinxes transported
+from Egypt to Paris, being accidentally placed under a gutter of the
+Louvre, soon began to exhibit signs of exfoliation, notwithstanding it
+had remained sound for ages under the climate of Egypt. In this country,
+and even in France, where the climate is much drier, the porphyries
+frequently decompose so as to become scarcely recognisable. They crop
+out in various parts of France, but are only abundant in the
+north-eastern part of the central plateau, and in some parts of the
+south. They form mountains of a conical form, presenting, nearly always,
+considerable depressions on their flanks. In the Vosges they attain a
+height of from three to four thousand feet.
+
+The _Serpentine_ rocks are a sort of compact _talc_, which owe their
+soapy texture and greasy feel to silicate of magnesia. Their softness
+permits of their being turned in a lathe and fashioned into vessels of
+various forms. Even stoves are constructed of this substance, which
+bears heat well. The serpentine quarried on the banks of Lake Como,
+which bears the name of pierre ollaire, or pot-stone, is excellently
+adapted for this purpose. Serpentine shows itself in the Vosges, in the
+Limousin, in the Lyonnais, and in the Var; it occupies an immense tract
+in the Alps, as well as in the Apennines. Mona marble is an example of
+serpentine; and the Lizard Point, Cornwall, is a mass of it. A portion
+of the stratified rocks of Tuscany, and also those of the Island of
+Elba, have been upheaved and overturned by eruptions of it.
+
+As for the British Islands, plutonic rocks are extensively developed in
+Scotland, where the Cambrian and Silurian rocks, often of gneissic
+character--associated here and there with great bosses of granite and
+syenite--form by far the greater part of the region known as the
+Highlands. In the Isle of Arran a circular mass of coarse-grained
+granite protrudes through the schists of the northern part of the
+island; while, in the southern part, a finer-grained granite and veins
+of porphyry and coarse-grained granite have broken through the
+stratified rocks.[17] In Devonshire and Cornwall there are four great
+bosses of granite; in the southern parts of Cornwall the mineral axis is
+defined by a line drawn through the centre of the several bosses from
+south-west to north-east; but in the north of Cornwall, and extending
+into Devonshire, it strikes nearly east and west. The great granite
+mass in Cornwall lies on the moors north of St. Austell, and indicates
+the existence of more than one disturbing force. “There was an elevating
+force,” says Professor Sedgwick,[18] “protruding from the St. Austell
+granite; and, if I interpret the phenomena correctly, there was a
+contemporaneous elevating force acting from the south; and between these
+two forces, the beds, now spread over the surface from the St. Austell
+granite to the Dodman and Narehead, were broken, contorted, and placed
+in their present disturbed position. Some great disturbing forces,” he
+observes, “have modified the symmetry of this part of Cornwall,
+affecting,” he believes, “the whole transverse section of the country
+from the headlands near Fowey to those south of Padstow.” This great
+granite-axis was upheaved in a line commencing at the west end of
+Cornwall, rising through the slate-rocks of the older Devonian group,
+continuing in association with them as far as the boss north of St.
+Austell, producing much confusion in the stratified masses; the
+granite-mass between St. Clear and Camelford rose between the deposition
+of the Petherwin and that of the Plymouth group; lastly, the Dartmoor
+granite rose, partially moving the adjacent slates in such a manner that
+its north end abuts against and tilts up the base of the Culm-trough,
+mineralising the great Culm-limestone, while on the south it does the
+same to the base of the Plymouth slates. These facts prove that the
+granite of Dartmoor, which was formerly thought to be the most ancient
+of the Plutonic rocks, is of a date subsequent to the Culm-measures of
+Devonshire, which are now regarded as forming part of the true
+carboniferous series.
+
+  [17] “Geology of the Island of Arran,” by Andrew C. Ramsay. “Geology
+       of Arran and Clydesdale,” by James Bryce.
+
+  [18] See _Quarterly Journal of Geological Society_, vol. viii., pp. 9
+       and 10.
+
+
+VOLCANIC ROCKS.
+
+Considered as a whole, the volcanic rocks may be grouped into three
+distinct formations, which we shall notice in the following order, which
+is that of their relative antiquity, namely:--1. _Trachytic_; 2.
+_Basaltic_; 3. _Volcanic or Lava formations_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--A peak of the Cantal chain.]
+
+
+TRACHYTIC FORMATIONS.
+
+_Trachyte_ (derived from τραχυς, rough), having a coarse, cellular
+appearance, and a rough and gritty feel, belongs to the class of
+volcanic rocks. The eruptions of trachyte seem to have commenced towards
+the middle of the Tertiary period, and to have continued up to its
+close. The trachytes present considerable analogy in their composition
+to the felspathic porphyries, but their mineralogical characters are
+different. Their texture is porous; they form a white, grey, black,
+sometimes yellowish matrix, in which, as a rule, felspar predominates,
+together with disseminated crystals of felspar, some hornblende or
+augite, and dark-coloured mica. In its external appearance trachyte is
+very variable. It forms the three most elevated mountain ranges of
+Central France; the groups of Cantal and Mont Dore, and the chain of the
+Velay (Puy-de-Dôme).[19]
+
+  [19] For full information in reference to the rocks and geology of
+       this part of France, the reader is referred to the masterly work
+       on “The Geology and Extinct Volcanoes of Central France,” by G.
+       Poulett Scrope, 2nd edition, 1858.
+
+[Illustration: I.--Peak of Sancy in the Mont Dore group, Auvergne.]
+
+The igneous group of Cantal may be described as a series of lofty
+summits, ranged around a large cavity, which was at one period probably
+a volcanic crater, the circular base of which occupies an area of nearly
+fifteen leagues in diameter. The strictly trachytic portion of the group
+rises in the centre, and is composed of high mountains, throwing off
+spurs, which gradually decrease in height, and terminate in plateaux
+more or less inclined. These central mountains attain a height varying
+between 4,500 and 5,500 feet above the level of the sea. A scaly or
+schistose variety of trachyte, called _phonolite_, or clinkstone (from
+the ringing metallic sound it emits when struck with the hammer), with
+an unusual proportion of felspar, or, according to Gmelin, composed of
+felspar and zeolite, forms the steep trachytic escarpments at the
+centre, which enclose the principal valleys; their abrupt peaks giving a
+remarkably picturesque appearance to the landscape. In the engraving on
+p. 40 (Fig. 4) the slaty, laminated character of the clinkstone is well
+represented in one of the phonolitic peaks of the Cantal group. The
+group at Mont Dore consists of seven or eight rocky summits, occupying a
+circuit of about five leagues in diameter. The massive trachytic rock,
+of which this mountainous mass is chiefly formed, has an average
+thickness of 1,200 to 2,600 feet; comprehending over that range
+prodigious layers of scoriæ, pumiceous conglomerates, and detritus,
+interstratified with beds of trachyte and basalt, bearing the signs of
+an igneous origin, tufa forming the base; and between them occur layers
+of lignite, or imperfectly mineralised woody fibre, the whole being
+superimposed on a primitive plateau of about 3,250 feet in height.
+Scored and furrowed out by deep valleys, the viscous mass was gradually
+upheaved, until in the needle-like Pic de Sancy (PLATE I.), a pyramidal
+rock of porphyritic trachyte, which is the loftiest point of Mont Dore,
+it attains the height of 6,258 feet. The Pic de Sancy, represented on
+page 40 (Fig. 4), gives an excellent idea of the general appearance of
+the trachytic mountains of Mont Dore.
+
+Upon the same plateau with Mont Dore, and about seven miles north of its
+last slopes, the trachytic formation is repeated in four rounded
+domes--those of Puy-de-Dôme, Sarcouï, Clierzou, and Le Grand Suchet. The
+Puy-de-Dôme, one of the most remarkable volcanic domes in Auvergne,
+presents another fine and very striking example of an eruptive trachytic
+rock. The rock here assumes a peculiar mineral character, which has
+caused the name of _domite_ to be given to it.
+
+The chain of the Velay forms a zone, composed of independent plateaux
+and peaks, which forms upon the horizon a long and strangely
+intersected ridge. The bareness of the mountains, their forms--pointed
+or rounded, sometimes terminating in scarped plateaux--give to the whole
+landscape an appearance at once picturesque and characteristic. The peak
+of Le Mezen, which rises 5,820 feet above the sea, forms the culminating
+point of the chain. The phonolites of which it consists have been
+erupted from fissures which present themselves at a great number of
+points, ranging from north-north-west to south-south-east.
+
+On the banks of the Rhine and in Hungary the trachytic formation
+presents itself in features identical with those which indicate it in
+France. In America it is principally represented by some immense cones,
+superposed in the chain of the Andes; the colossal Chimborazo being one
+of those trachytic cones.
+
+[Illustration: II.--Mountain and basaltic crater of La Coupe d’Ayzac, in
+the Vivarais.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Theoretical view of a basaltic plateau.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Basalt in prismatic columns.]
+
+
+BASALTIC FORMATIONS.
+
+Basaltic eruptions seem to have occurred during the Secondary and
+Tertiary periods. Basalt, according to Dr. Daubeny,[20] in its more
+strict sense, “is composed of an intimate mixture of augite with a
+zeolitic mineral, which appears to have been formed out of labradorite
+(felspar of Labrador), by the addition of water--the presence of water
+being in all _zeolites_ the cause of that bubbling-up under the
+blow-pipe to which they owe their appellation.” M. Delesse and other
+mineralogists are of opinion that the idea of augite being the
+prevailing mineral in basalt, must be abandoned; and that although its
+presence gives the rock its distinctive character, as compared with
+trachytic and most other trap rocks, still the principal element in
+their composition is felspar. Basalt, a lava consisting essentially of
+augite, labradorite (or nepheline) and magnetic iron-ore is the rock
+which predominates in this formation. It contains a smaller quantity of
+silica than the trachyte, and a larger proportion of lime and magnesia.
+Hence, independent of the iron in its composition, it is heavier in
+proportion, as it contains more or less silica. Some varieties of basalt
+contain very large quantities of olivine, a mineral of an olive-green
+colour, with a chemical composition differing but slightly from
+serpentine. Both basalts and trachyte contain more soda and less silica
+in their composition than granites; some of the basalts are highly
+fusible, the alkaline matter and lime in their composition acting as a
+flux to the silica. There are examples of basalt existing in
+well-defined flows, which still adhere to craters visible at the present
+day, and with regard to the igneous origin of which there can be no
+doubt. One of the most striking examples of a basaltic cone is furnished
+by the mountain or crater of La Coupe d’Ayzac, in the Vivarais, in the
+south of France. PLATE II., on the opposite page, gives an accurate
+representation of this curious basaltic flow. The remnants of the stream
+of liquefied basalt which once flowed down the flank of the hill may
+still be seen adhering in vast masses to the granite rocks on both sides
+of a narrow valley where the river Volant has cut across the lava and
+left a pavement or causeway, forming an assemblage of upright prismatic
+columns, fitted together with geometrical symmetry; the whole resting on
+a base of gneiss. Basaltic eruptions sometimes form a plateau, as
+represented in Fig. 5, where the process of formation is shown
+theoretically and in a manner which renders further explanation
+unnecessary. Many of these basaltic table-lands form plateaux of very
+considerable extent and thickness; others form fragments of the same,
+more or less dislocated; others, again, present themselves in isolated
+knolls, far removed from similar formations. In short, basaltic rocks
+present themselves in veins or dykes, more or less, in most countries,
+of which Central France and the banks of the Rhine offer many striking
+examples. These veins present very evident proofs that the matter has
+been introduced from below, and in a manner which could only result from
+injection from the interior to the exterior of the earth. Such are the
+proofs presented by the basaltic veins of Villeneuve-de-Berg, which
+terminate in slender filaments, sometimes bifurcated, which gradually
+lose themselves in the rock which they traverse. In several parts of the
+north of Ireland, chalk-formations with flints are traversed by basaltic
+dykes, the chalk being converted into granular marble near the basalt,
+the change sometimes extending eight or ten feet from the wall of the
+dyke, and being greatest near the surface of contact. In the Island of
+Rathlin, the walls of basalt traverse the chalk in three veins or dykes;
+the central one a foot thick, that on the right twenty feet, and on the
+left thirty-three feet thick, and all, according to Buckland and
+Conybeare, within the breadth of ninety feet.
+
+  [20] “Volcanoes,” 2nd ed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Basaltic Causeway, on the banks of the river
+Volant, in the Ardèche.]
+
+One of the most striking characteristics of basalt is the prismatic and
+columnar structure which it often assumes; the lava being homogeneous
+and of very fine grain, the laws which determine the direction of the
+fissures or divisional planes consolidated from a molten to a solid
+state, become here very manifest--these are always at right angles to
+the surfaces of the rock through which the heat of the fused mass
+escaped. The basaltic rocks have been at all times remarkable for this
+picturesque arrangement of their parts. They usually present columns of
+regular prisms, having generally six, often five, and sometimes four,
+seven, or even three sides, whose disposition is always perpendicular to
+the cooling surfaces. These are often divided transversely, as in Fig.
+6, at nearly equal distances, like the joints of a wall, composed of
+regularly arranged, equal-sided pieces adhering together, and frequently
+extending over a more or less considerable space. The name of Giant’s
+Causeway has been given, from time immemorial, to these curious columnar
+structures of basalt. In France, in the Vivarais and in the Velay, there
+are many such basaltic causeways. That of which Fig. 7 is a sketch lies
+on the banks of the river Volant, where it flows into the Ardèche.
+Ireland has always been celebrated for its Giant’s Causeway, which
+extends over the whole of the northern part of Antrim, covering all the
+pre-existing strata of Chalk, Greensand, and Permian formations; the
+prismatic columns extend for miles along the cliffs, projecting into the
+sea at the point specially designated the Giant’s Causeway.
+
+These columnar formations vary considerably in length and diameter.
+McCulloch mentions some in Skye, which “are about four hundred feet
+high; others in Morven not exceeding an inch (vol. ii. p. 137). In
+diameter those of Ailsa Craig measure nine feet, and those of Morven an
+inch or less.” Fingal’s Cave, in the Isle of Staffa, is renowned among
+basaltic rocks, although it was scarcely known on the mainland a century
+ago, when Sir Joseph Banks heard of it accidentally, and was the first
+to visit and describe it. Fingal’s Cave has been hollowed out, by the
+sea, through a gallery of immense prismatic columns of trap, which are
+continually beaten by the waves. The columns are usually upright, but
+sometimes they are curved and slightly inclined. Fig. 8 is a view of the
+basaltic grotto of Staffa.
+
+Grottoes are sometimes formed by basaltic eruptions on land, followed by
+their separation into regular columns. The Grotto of Cheeses, at
+Bertrich-Baden, between Trèves and Coblentz, is a remarkable example of
+this kind, being so called because its columns are formed of round, and
+usually flattened, stones placed one above the other in such a manner as
+to resemble a pile of cheeses.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Basaltic cavern of Staffa--exterior.]
+
+If we consider that in basalt-flows the lower part is compact, and often
+divided into prismatic columns, while the upper part is porous,
+cellular, scoriaceous, and irregularly divided--that the points of
+separation on which they rest are small beds presenting fragments of the
+porous stony concretions known under the name of _Lapilli_--that the
+lower portions of these masses present a multitude of points which
+penetrate the rocks on which they repose, thereby denoting that some
+fluid matter had moulded itself into its crevices--that the neighbouring
+rocks are often calcined to a considerable thickness, and the included
+vegetable remains carbonised--no doubt can exist as to the igneous
+origin of basaltic rocks. When it reached the surface through certain
+openings, the fluid basalt spread itself, flowing, as it were, over the
+horizontal surface of the ground; for if it had flowed upon inclined
+surfaces it could not have preserved the uniform surface and constant
+thickness which it generally exhibits.
+
+[Illustration: III.--Extinct volcanoes forming the Puy-de-Dôme Chain.]
+
+
+VOLCANIC OR LAVA FORMATIONS.
+
+The _lava_ formations comprehend both extinct and active volcanoes. “The
+term,” says Lyell, “has a somewhat vague signification, having been
+applied to all melted matter observed to flow in streams from volcanic
+vents. When this matter consolidates in the open air, the upper part is
+usually scoriaceous, and the mass becomes more and more stony as we
+descend, or in proportion as it has consolidated more slowly and under
+greater pressure.”[21]
+
+  [21] “Elements of Geology,” p. 596.
+
+The formation of extinct volcanoes is represented in France by the
+volcanoes situated in the ancient provinces of Auvergne, Velay, and the
+Vivarais, but principally by nearly seventy volcanic cones of various
+sizes and of the height of from 500 to 1,000 feet, composed of loose
+scoriæ, lava, and pozzuolana, arranged upon a granitic table-land, about
+twelve miles wide, which overlooks the town of Clermont-Ferrand, and
+which seem to have been produced along a longitudinal fracture in the
+earth’s crust, running in a direction from north to south. It is a range
+of volcanic hills, the “chain of _Puys_” nearly twenty miles in length,
+by two in breadth. By its cellular and porous structure, which is also
+granular and crystalline, the felspathic or pyroxenic lava which flowed
+from these volcanoes is readily distinguishable from the analogous lavas
+which belong to the basaltic or trachytic formations. Their surface is
+irregular, and bristles with asperities, formed by heaped-up angular
+blocks.
+
+The volcanoes of the chain of _Puys_, represented on opposite page (PL.
+III.) are so perfectly preserved, their lava is so frequently superposed
+on sheets of basalt, and presents a composition and texture so distinct,
+that there is no difficulty in establishing the fact that they are
+posterior to the basaltic formation, and of very recent age.
+Nevertheless, they do not appear to belong to the historic ages, for no
+tradition attests their eruption. Lyell places these eruptions in the
+Lower Miocene period, and their greatest activity in the Upper Miocene
+and Pliocene eras. “Extinct quadrupeds of those eras,” he says,
+“belonging to the genera mastodon, rhinoceros, and others, were buried
+in ashes and beds of alluvial sand and gravel, which owe their
+preservation to overspreading sheets of lava.”[22]
+
+  [22] Ibid, p. 677.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Section of a volcano in action.]
+
+All volcanic phenomena can be explained by the theory we have already
+indicated, of fractures in the solid crust of the globe resulting from
+its cooling. The various phenomena which existing volcanoes present to
+us are, as Humboldt has said, “the result of every action exercised by
+the interior of a planet on its external crust.”[23] We designate as
+volcanoes all conduits which establish a permanent communication between
+the interior of the earth and its surface--a conduit which gives passage
+at intervals to eruptions of _lava_, and in Fig. 9 we have represented,
+in an ideal section, the geological mode of action of volcanic
+eruptions. The volcanoes on the surface of the globe, known to be in an
+occasional state of activity, number about three hundred, and these may
+be divided into two classes: the _isolated_ or _central_, and the
+_linear_ or those volcanoes which belong to a _series_.[24]
+
+  [23] “Cosmos,” vol. i., p. 25. Bohn.
+
+  [24] “Cosmos,” vol. i., p. 237.
+
+The first are active volcanoes, around which there may be established
+many secondary active mouths of eruption, always in connection with some
+principal crater. The second are disposed like the chimneys of furnaces,
+along fissures extending over considerable distances. Twenty, thirty,
+and even a greater number of volcanic cones may rise above one such rent
+in the earth’s crust, the direction of which will be indicated by their
+linear course. The Peak of Teneriffe is an instance of a central
+volcano; the long rampart-like chain of the Andes, presents, from the
+south of Chili to the north-west coast of America, one of the grandest
+instances of a continental volcanic chain; the remarkable range of
+volcanoes in the province of Quito belong to the latter class. Darwin
+relates that on the 19th of March, 1835, the attention of a sentry was
+called to something like a large star which gradually increased in size
+till about three o’clock, when it presented a very magnificent
+spectacle. “By the aid of a glass, dark objects, in constant succession,
+were seen in the midst of a great glare of red light, to be thrown up
+and to fall down. The light was sufficient to cast on the water a long
+bright reflection--it was the volcano of Osorno in action.” Mr. Darwin
+was afterwards assured that Aconcagua, in Chili, 480 miles to the north,
+was in action on the same night, and that the great eruption of
+Coseguina (2,700 miles north of Aconcagua), accompanied by an earthquake
+felt over 1,000 miles, also occurred within six hours of this same time;
+and yet Coseguina had been dormant for six-and-twenty years, and
+Aconcagua most rarely shows any signs of action.[25] It is also stated
+by Professor Dove that in the year 1835 the ashes discharged from the
+mountain of Coseguina were carried 700 miles, and that the roaring noise
+of the eruption was heard at San Salvador, a distance of 1,000 miles.
+
+  [25] Darwin’s “Journal,” p. 291, 2nd edition.
+
+In the sea the _series_ of volcanoes show themselves in groups of
+islands disposed in longitudinal series.
+
+Among these may be ranged the volcanic series of Sunda, which, according
+to the accounts of the matter ejected and the violence of the eruptions,
+seem to be among the most remarkable on the globe; the series of the
+Moluccas and of the Philippines; those of Japan; of the Marianne
+Islands; of Chili; of the double series of volcanic summits near Quito,
+those of the Antilles, Guatemala, and Mexico.
+
+Among the central, or isolated volcanoes, we may class those of the
+Lipari Islands, which have _Stromboli_, in permanent activity, for
+their centre; _Etna_, _Vesuvius_, the volcanoes of the _Azores_, of the
+_Canaries_, of the _Cape de Verde_, of the _Galapagos_ Islands, the
+_Sandwich_ Islands, the _Marquesas_, the _Society_ Islands, the
+_Friendly_ Islands, _Bourbon_, and, finally, _Ararat_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Existing crater of Vesuvius.]
+
+The mouths of volcanic chimneys are, almost always, situated near the
+summit of a more or less isolated conical mountain; they usually consist
+of an opening in the form of a funnel, which is called the _crater_, and
+which descends into the interior of the volcanic chimney. But in the
+course of ages the crater becomes extended and enlarged, until, in some
+of the older volcanoes, it has attained almost incredible dimensions. In
+1822 the crater of Vesuvius was 2,000 feet deep, and of a very
+considerable circumference. The crater of Kilauea, in the Sandwich
+Islands group, is an immense chasm 1,000 feet deep, with an outer
+circle no less than from two to three miles in diameter, in which lava
+is usually seen, Mr. Dana tells us, to boil up at the bottom of a lake,
+the level of which varies continually according to the active or
+quiescent state of the volcano. The cone which supports these craters,
+and which is designated the _cone of ejection_, is composed for the most
+part of lava or _scoriæ_, the products of eruption. Many volcanoes
+consist only of a _cone of scoriæ_. Such is that of Barren Isle, in the
+Bay of Bengal. Others, on the contrary, present a very small cone,
+notwithstanding the considerable height of the volcanic chain. As an
+example we may mention the new crater of Vesuvius, which was produced in
+1829 within the former crater (Fig. 10).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Fissures near Locarno.]
+
+The frequency and intensity of the eruptions bear no relation to the
+dimensions of the volcanic mountain. The eruption of a volcano is
+usually announced by a subterranean noise, accompanied by shocks,
+quivering of the ground, and sometimes by actual earthquakes. The noise,
+which usually proceeds from a great depth, makes itself heard, sometimes
+over a great extent of country, and resembles a well-sustained fire of
+artillery, accompanied by the rattle of musketry. Sometimes it is like
+the heavy rolling of subterranean thunder. Fissures are frequently
+produced during the eruptions, extending over a considerable radius, as
+represented in the woodcut on page 57 of the fissures of Locarno (Fig.
+11), where they present a singular appearance; the clefts radiating from
+a centre in all directions, not unlike the starred fracture in a cracked
+pane of glass. The eruption begins with a strong shock, which shakes the
+whole interior of the mountain; masses of heated vapour and fluids begin
+to ascend, revealing themselves in some cases by the melting of the snow
+upon the flanks of the cone of ejection; while simultaneously with the
+final shock, which overcomes the last resistance opposed by the solid
+crust of the ground, a considerable body of gas, and more especially of
+steam, escapes from the mouth of the crater.
+
+The steam, it is important to remark, is essentially the cause of the
+terrible mechanical effects which accompany volcanic eruptions.
+Granitic, porphyritic, trachytic, and sometimes even basaltic matters,
+have reached the surface without producing any of those violent
+explosions or ejections of rocks and stones which accompany modern
+volcanic eruptions; the older granites, porphyries, trachytes, and
+basalts were discharged without violence, because steam did not
+accompany those melted rocks--a sufficient proof of the comparative calm
+which attended the ancient as compared with modern eruptions. Well
+established by scientific observations, this is a fact which enables us
+to explain the cause of the tremendous mechanical effects attending
+modern volcanic eruptions, contrasted with the more tranquil eruptions
+of earlier times.
+
+During the first moments of a volcanic eruption, the accumulated masses
+of stones and ashes, which fill the crater, are shot up into the sky by
+the suddenly and powerfully developed elasticity of the steam. This
+steam, which has been disengaged by the heat of the fluid lava, assumes
+the form of great rounded bubbles, which are evolved into the air to a
+great height above the crater, where they expand as they rise, in clouds
+of dazzling whiteness, assuming that appearance which Pliny the Younger
+compared to a stone pine rising over Vesuvius. The masses of clouds
+finally condense and follow the direction of the wind.
+
+These volcanic clouds are grey or black, according to the quantity of
+_ashes_, that is, of pulverulent matter or dust, mixed with watery
+vapour, which they convey. In some eruptions it has been observed that
+these clouds, on descending to the surface of the soil, spread around an
+odour of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, and traces of both these acids
+are found in the rain which proceeds from the condensation of these
+clouds.
+
+The fleecy clouds of vapour which issue from the volcanoes are streaked
+with lightning, followed by continuous peals of thunder; in condensing,
+they discharge disastrous showers, which sweep the sides of the
+mountain. Many eruptions, known as _mud volcanoes_, and _watery
+volcanoes_, are nothing more than these heavy rains, carrying down with
+them showers of ashes, stones, and scoriæ, more or less mixed with
+water.
+
+Passing on to the phenomena of which the crater is the scene at the time
+of an eruption, it is stated that at first there is an incessant rise
+and fall of the lava which fills the interior of the crater. This double
+movement is often interrupted by violent explosions of gas. The crater
+of Kilauea, in the Island of Hawaii, contains a lake of molten matter
+1,600 feet broad, which is subject to such a double movement of
+elevation and depression. Each of the vaporous bubbles as it issues from
+the crater presses the molten lava upwards, till it rises and bursts
+with great force at the surface. A portion of the lava, half-cooled and
+reduced to scoriæ, is thus projected upwards, and the several fragments
+are hurled violently in all directions, like those of a shell at the
+moment when it bursts.
+
+The greater number of the fragments being thrown vertically into the
+air, fall back into the crater again. Many accumulating on the edge of
+the opening add more and more to the height of the cone of eruption. The
+lighter and smaller fragments, as well as the fine ashes, are drawn
+upwards by the spiral vapours, and sometimes transported by the winds
+over almost incredible distances.
+
+In 1794 the ashes from Vesuvius were carried as far as the extremity of
+Calabria. In 1812 the volcanic ashes of Saint Vincent, in the Antilles,
+were carried eastward as far as Barbadoes, spreading such obscurity over
+the island, that, in open day, passengers could not see their way.
+Finally, some of the masses of molten lava are shot singly into the air
+during an eruption with a rapid rotatory motion, which causes them to
+assume the rounded shape in which they are known by the name of
+_volcanic bombs_.
+
+We have already remarked that the lava, which in a fluid state fills the
+crater and the internal vent or chimney of the volcano, is forced
+upwards by gaseous fluids, and by the steam which has been generated
+from the water, entangled with the lava. In some cases the mechanical
+force of this vapour is so great as to drive the lava over the edge of
+the crater, when it forms a fiery torrent, spreading over the sides of
+the mountain. This only happens in the case of volcanoes of
+inconsiderable height; in lofty volcanoes it is not unusual for the lava
+thus to force an outlet for itself near the base of the mountain,
+through which the fiery stream discharges itself over the surrounding
+country. In such circumstances the lava cools somewhat rapidly; it
+becomes hard and presents a scoriaceous crust on the surface, while the
+vapour escapes in jets of steam through the interstices. But under this
+superficial crust the lava retains its fluid state, cooling slowly in
+the interior of the mass, while the thickening stream moves sluggishly
+along, impeded in its progress by the fragments of rock which this
+burning river drives before it.
+
+The rate at which a current of lava moves along depends upon its mass,
+upon its degree of fluidity, and upon the inclination of the ground. It
+has been stated that certain streams of lava have traversed more than
+3,000 yards in an hour; but the rate at which they travel is usually
+much less, a man on foot being often able to outstrip them. These
+streams, also, vary greatly in dimensions. The most considerable stream
+of lava from Etna had, in some parts, a thickness of nearly 120 feet,
+with a breadth of a geographical mile and a half. The largest
+lava-stream which has been recorded issued from the Skaptár Jokul, in
+Iceland, in 1783. It formed two currents, whose extremities were twenty
+leagues apart, and which from time to time presented a breadth of from
+seven to fifteen miles and a thickness of 650 feet.
+
+A peculiar effect, and which only simulates volcanic activity, is
+observable in localities where _mud volcanoes_ exist. Volcanoes of this
+class are for the most part conical hills of low elevation, with a
+hollow or depression at the centre, from which they discharge the mud
+which is forced upwards by gas and steam. The temperature of the ejected
+matter is only slightly elevated. The mud, generally of a greyish
+colour, with the odour of petroleum, is subject to the same alternating
+movements which have been already ascribed to the fluid lava of
+volcanoes, properly so called. The gases which force out this liquid
+mud, mixed with salts, gypsum, naphtha, sulphur, sometimes even of
+ammonia, are usually carburetted hydrogen and carbonic acid. Everything
+leads to the conclusion that these compounds proceed, at least in great
+part, from the reaction produced between the various elements of the
+subsoil under the influence of infiltrating water between bituminous
+marls, complex carbonates, and probably carbonic acid, derived from
+acidulated springs. M. Fournet saw in Languedoc, near Roujan, traces of
+some of these formations; and not far from that neighbourhood is the
+bituminous spring of Gabian.
+
+[Illustration: IV.--Mud volcano at Turbaco, South America.]
+
+Mud volcanoes, or _salses_, exist in rather numerous localities. Several
+are found in the neighbourhood of Modena. There are some in Sicily,
+between Aragona and Girgenti. Pallas observed them in the Crimea--in the
+peninsula of Kertch, and in the Isle of Tamàn. Von Humboldt has
+described and figured a group of them in the province of Cartagena, in
+South America. Finally, they have been observed in the Island of
+Trinidad and in Hindostan. In 1797 an eruption of mud ejected from
+Tunguragua, in Quito, filled a valley 1,000 feet wide to a depth of 600
+feet. On the opposite page is represented the mud volcano of Turbaco, in
+the province of Cartagena (PLATE IV.), which is described and figured by
+Von Humboldt in his “Voyage to the Equatorial Regions of America.”
+
+In certain countries we find small hillocks of argillaceous formation,
+resulting from ancient discharges of mud volcanoes, from which all
+disengagement of gas, water, and mud has long ceased. Sometimes,
+however, the phenomenon returns and resumes its interrupted course with
+great violence. Slight shocks of earthquakes are then felt; blocks of
+dried earth are projected from the ancient crater, and new waves of mud
+flow over its edge, and spread over the neighbouring ground.
+
+To return to ordinary volcanoes, that is to say, those which eject lava.
+At the end of a lava-flow, when the violence of the volcanic action
+begins to subside, the discharge from the crater is confined to the
+disengagement of vaporous gases, mixed with steam, which make their
+escape in more or less abundance through a multitude of fissures in the
+ground.
+
+The great number of volcanoes which have thus become extinct form what
+are called _solfataras_. The sulphuretted hydrogen, which is given out
+through the fissures in the ground, is decomposed by contact with the
+air, water being formed by the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere,
+and sulphur deposited in considerable quantities on the walls of the
+crater, and in the cracks of the ground. Such is the geological source
+of the sulphur which is collected at Pozzuoli, near Naples, and in many
+other similar regions--a substance which plays a most important part in
+the industrial occupations of the world. It is, in fact, from sulphur
+extracted from the ground about the mouths of extinct volcanoes, that is
+to say from the products of _solfataras_, that sulphuric acid is
+frequently made--sulphuric acid being the fundamental agent, one of the
+most powerful elements, of the manufacturing productions of both worlds.
+
+The last phase of volcanic activity is the disengagement of carbonic
+acid gas without any increase of temperature. In places where these
+continued emanations of carbonic acid gas manifest themselves, the
+existence of ancient volcanoes may be recognised, of which these
+discharges are the closing phenomenon. This is seen in a most remarkable
+manner in Auvergne, where there are a multitude of acidulated springs,
+that is to say, springs charged with carbonic acid. During the time when
+he was opening the mines of Pontgibaud, M. Fournet had to contend with
+emanations which sometimes exhibited themselves with explosive power.
+Jets of water were thrown to great heights in the galleries, roaring
+with the noise of steam when escaping from the boiler of a locomotive
+engine. The water which filled an abandoned mine-shaft was, on two
+separate occasions, upheaved with great violence--half emptying the
+pit--while vast volumes of the gas overspread the whole valley,
+suffocating a horse and a flock of geese. The miners were compelled to
+fly in all haste at the moment when the gas burst forth, holding
+themselves as upright as possible, to avoid plunging their heads into
+the carbonic acid gas, which, from its low specific gravity, was now
+filling the lower parts of the galleries. It represented on a small
+scale the effect of the _Grotto del Cane_, which excites such surprise
+among the ignorant near Naples; passing, also, for one of the marvels of
+Nature all over the world. M. Fournet states that all the minute
+fissures of the metalliferous gneiss near Clermont are quite saturated
+with free carbonic acid gas, which rises plentifully from the soil
+there, as well as in many parts of the surrounding country. The
+components of the gneiss, with the exception of the quartz, are softened
+by it; and fresh combinations of the acid with lime, iron, and manganese
+are continually taking place. In short, long after volcanoes have become
+extinct, hot springs, charged with mineral ingredients, continue to flow
+in the same area.
+
+The same facts as those of the _Grotto del Cane_ manifest themselves
+with even greater intensity in Java, in the so-called Valley of Poison,
+which is an object of terror to the natives. In this celebrated valley
+the ground is said to be covered with skeletons and carcases of tigers,
+goats, stags, birds, and even of human beings; for asphyxia or
+suffocation, it seems, strikes all living things which venture into this
+desolate place. In the same island a stream of sulphurous water, as
+white as milk, issues from the crater of Mount Idienne, on the east
+coast; and on one occasion, as cited by Nozet in the _Journal de
+Géologie_, a great body of hot water, charged with sulphuric acid, was
+discharged from the same volcano, inundating and destroying all the
+vegetation of a large tract of country by its noxious fumes and
+poisonous properties.
+
+[Illustration: V.--Great Geyser of Iceland.]
+
+It is known that the alkaline waters of Plombières, in the Vosges, have
+a temperature of 160° Fahr. For 2,000 years, according to Daubrée,
+through beds of concrete, of lime, brick, and sandstone, these hot
+waters have percolated until they have originated calcareous spar,
+aragonite, and fluor spar, together with siliceous minerals, such as
+opal, which are found filling the interstices of the bricks and mortar.
+From these and other similar statements, “we are led,” says Sir Charles
+Lyell,[26] “to infer that when in the bowels of the earth there are
+large volumes of molten matter, containing heated water and various
+acids, under enormous pressure, these subterraneous fluid masses will
+gradually part with their heat by the escape of steam and various gases
+through fissures producing hot springs, or by the passage of the same
+through the pores of the overlying and injected rocks.” “Although,” he
+adds,[27] “we can only study the phenomena as exhibited at the surface,
+it is clear that the gaseous fluids must have made their way through the
+whole thickness of the porous or fissured rocks, which intervene between
+the subterraneous reservoirs of gas and the external air. The extent,
+therefore, of the earth’s crust which the vapours have permeated, and
+are now permeating, may be thousands of fathoms in thickness, and their
+heating and modifying influence may be spread throughout the whole of
+this solid mass.”
+
+  [26] “Elements of Geology,” p. 732.
+
+  [27] Ibid, p. 733.
+
+The fountains of boiling water, known under the name of _Geysers_, are
+another emanation connected with ancient craters. They are either
+continuous or intermittent. In Iceland we find great numbers of these
+gushing springs--in fact, the island is one entire mass of eruptive
+rock. Nearly all the volcanoes are situated upon a broad band of
+trachyte, which traverses the island from south-west to north-east. It
+is traversed by immense fissures, and covered with masses of lava, such
+as no other country presents. The volcanic action, in short, goes on
+with such energy that certain paroxysms of Mount Hecla have lasted for
+six years without interruption. But the Great Geyser, represented on the
+opposite page (PLATE V.), is, perhaps, even more an object of curiosity.
+This water-volcano projects a column of boiling water, eight yards in
+diameter, charged with silica, to the height, it has been said, of about
+150 feet, depositing vast quantities of silica as it cools after
+reaching the earth.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The volcanoes in actual activity are, as we have said, very numerous,
+being more than 200 in number, scattered over the whole surface of the
+globe, but mostly occurring in tropical regions. The island of Java
+alone contains about fifty, which have been mapped and described by Dr.
+Junghahn. Those best known are Vesuvius, near Naples; Etna, in Sicily;
+and Stromboli, in the Lipari Islands. A rapid sketch of a few of these
+may interest the reader.
+
+Vesuvius is of all volcanoes that which has been most closely studied;
+it is, so to speak, the classical volcano. Few persons are ignorant of
+the fact that it opened--after a period of quiescence extending beyond
+the memory of living man--in the year 79 of our era. This eruption cost
+the elder Pliny his life, who fell a sacrifice to his desire to witness
+one of the most imposing of natural phenomena. After many mutations the
+present crater of Vesuvius consists of a cone, surrounded on the side
+opposite the sea by a semicircular crest, composed of pumiceous matter,
+foreign to Vesuvius properly speaking, for we believe that Mount
+Vesuvius was originally the mountain to which the name of _Somma_ is now
+given. The cone which now bears the name of Vesuvius was probably formed
+during the celebrated eruption of 79, which buried under its showers of
+pumiceous ashes the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. This cone
+terminates in a crater, the shape of which has undergone many changes,
+and which has, since its origin, thrown out eruptions of a varied
+character, together with streams of lava. In our days the eruptions of
+Vesuvius have only been separated by intervals of a few years.
+
+The Lipari Isles contain the volcano of Stromboli, which is continually
+in a state of ignition, and forms the natural lighthouse of the
+Tyrrhenian Sea; such it was when Homer mentioned it, such it was before
+old Homer’s time, and such it still appears in our days. Its eruptions
+are incessant. The crater whence they issue is not situated on the
+summit of the cone, but upon one of its sides, at nearly two-thirds of
+its height. It is in part filled with fluid lava, which is continually
+subjected to alternate elevation and depression--a movement provoked by
+the ebullition and ascension of bubbles of steam which rise to the
+surface, projecting upwards a tall column of ashes. During the night
+these clouds of vapour shine with a magnificent red reflection, which
+lights up the whole isle and the surrounding sea with a lurid glow.
+
+Situated on the eastern coast of Sicily, Etna appears, at the first
+glance, to have a much more simple structure than Vesuvius. Its slopes
+are less steep, more uniform on all sides; its vast base nearly
+represents the form of a buckler. The lower portion of Etna, or the
+cultivated region of the mountain, has an inclination of about three
+degrees. The middle, or forest region, is steeper, and has an
+inclination of about eight degrees. The mountain terminates in a cone
+of an elliptical form of thirty-two degrees of inclination, which bears
+in the middle, above a nearly horizontal terrace, the cone of eruption
+with its circular crater. The crater is 10,874 feet high. It gives out
+no lava, but only vomits forth gas and vapour, the streams of lava
+issuing from sixteen smaller cones which have been formed on the slopes
+of the mountain. The observer may, by looking at the summit, convince
+himself that these cones are disposed in rays, and are based upon clefts
+or fissures which converge towards the crater as towards a centre.
+
+But the most extraordinary display of volcanic phenomena occurs in the
+Pacific Ocean, in the Sandwich Islands, and in Java. Mauna Loa and Mauna
+Kea, in Hawaii, are huge flattened cones, 14,000 feet high. According to
+Mr. Dana, these lofty, featureless hills sometimes throw out successive
+streams of lava, not very far below their summits, often two miles in
+breadth and six-and-twenty in length; and that not from one vent, but in
+every direction, from the apex of the cone down slopes varying from four
+to eight degrees of inclination. The lateral crater of Kilauea, on the
+flank of Mauna Loa, is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level of the
+sea--an immense chasm 1,000 feet deep, with an outer circuit two to
+three miles in diameter. At the bottom lava is seen to boil up in a
+molten lake, the level of which rises or falls according to the active
+or quiescent state of the volcano; but in place of overflowing, the
+column of melted rock, when the pressure becomes excessive, forces a
+passage through subterranean communications leading to the sea. One of
+these outbursts, which took place at an ancient wooded crater six miles
+east of Kilauea, was observed by Mr. Coan, a missionary, in June, 1840.
+Another indication of the subterranean progress of the lava took place a
+mile or two beyond this, in which the fiery flood spread itself over
+fifty acres of land, and then found its way underground for several
+miles further, to reappear at the bottom of a second ancient wooded
+crater which it partly filled up.[28]
+
+  [28] Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” p. 617.
+
+The volcanic mountains of Java constitute the highest peaks of a
+mountain-range running through the island from east to west, on which
+Dr. Junghahn described and mapped forty-six conical eminences, ranging
+from 4,000 to 11,000 feet high. At the top of many of the loftiest of
+these Dr. Junghahn found the active cones and craters of small size, and
+surrounded by a plain of ashes and sand, which he calls the “old crater
+wall,” sometimes exceeding 1,000 feet in vertical height, and many of
+the semicircular walls enclosing large cavities or _calderas_, four
+geographical miles in diameter. From the highest parts of many of these
+hollows rivers flow, which, in the course of ages, have cut out deep
+valleys in the mountain’s side.[29]
+
+  [29] Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” p. 620.
+
+To this rapid sketch of actually existing volcanic phenomena we may add
+a brief notice of submarine volcanoes. If these are known to us only in
+small numbers, the circumstance is explained by the fact that their
+appearance above the bosom of the sea is almost invariably followed by a
+more or less complete disappearance; at the same time such very striking
+and visible phenomena afford a sufficient proof of the continued
+persistence of volcanic action beneath the bed of the sea-basin. At
+various times islands have suddenly appeared, amid the ocean, at points
+where the navigator had not before noticed them. In this manner we have
+witnessed the island called Graham’s, Ferdinanda, or Julia, which
+suddenly appeared off the south-west coast Sicily in 1831, and was swept
+away by the waves two months afterwards.[30] At several periods also,
+and notably in 1811, new islands were formed in the Azores, which raised
+themselves above the waves by repeated efforts all round the islands,
+and at many other points.
+
+  [30] Ibid, p. 620.
+
+The island which appeared in 1796 ten leagues from the northern point of
+Unalaska, one of the Aleutian group of islands, is specially remarkable.
+We first see a column of smoke issuing from the bosom of the ocean,
+afterwards a black point appears, from which bundles of fiery sparks
+seem to rise over the surface of the sea. During the many months that
+these phenomena continue, the island increases in breadth and in height.
+Finally smoke only is seen; at the end of four years, even this last
+trace of volcanic convulsion altogether ceases. The island continued,
+nevertheless, to enlarge and to increase in height, and in 1806 it
+formed a cone, surmounted by four other smaller ones.
+
+In the space comprised between the isles of Santorin, Tharasia, and
+Aspronisi, in the Mediterranean, there arose, 160 years before our era,
+the island of _Hyera_, which was enlarged by the upheaval of islets on
+its margin during the years 19, 726, and 1427. Again, in 1773,
+Micra-Kameni, and in 1707, Nea-Kameni, made their appearance. These
+islands increased in size successively in 1709, in 1711, in 1712.
+According to ancient writers, Santorin, Tharasia, and Aspronisi, made
+their appearance many ages before the Christian era, at the termination
+of earthquakes of great violence.
+
+
+METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
+
+The rocks composing the terrestrial crust have not always remained in
+their original state. They have frequently undergone changes which have
+altogether modified their properties, physical and chemical.
+
+When they present these characteristics, we term them _Metamorphic
+Rocks_. The phenomena which belong to this subject are at once important
+and new, and have lately much attracted the attention of geologists. We
+shall best enlighten our readers on the metamorphism of rocks, if we
+treat of it under the heads of _special_ and _general_ metamorphism.
+
+When a mass of eruptive rock penetrates the terrestrial crust it
+subjects the rocks through which it passes to a special metamorphism--to
+the effects of _heat_ produced by _contact_. Such effects may almost
+always be observed near the margin of masses of eruptive rock, and they
+are attributable either to the communicated heat of the eruptive rock
+itself, or to the disengagement of gases, of steam, or of mineral and
+thermal waters, which have accompanied its eruption. The effects vary
+not only with the rock ejected, but even with the nature of the rock
+surrounding it.
+
+In the case of volcanic lava ejected in a molten state, for instance,
+the modifications it effects on the surrounding rock are very
+characteristic. Its structure becomes prismatic, full of cracks, often
+cellular and scoriaceous. Wood and other combustibles touched by the
+lava are consumed or partially carbonised. Limestone assumes a granular
+and crystalline texture. Siliceous rocks are transformed, not only into
+quartz like glass, but they also combine with various bases, and yield
+vitreous and cellular silicates. It is nearly the same with argillaceous
+rocks, which adhere together, and frequently take the colour of red
+bricks.
+
+The surrounding rock is frequently impregnated with specular iron-ore,
+and penetrated with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, and by divers salts
+formed from these acids.
+
+At a certain distance from the place of contact with the lava, the
+action of water aided by heat produces silica, carbonate of lime,
+aragonite, zeolite, and various other minerals.
+
+From immediate contact with the lava, then, the metamorphic rocks denote
+the action of a very strong heat. They bear evident traces of
+calcination, of softening, and even of fusion. When they present
+themselves as hydrosilicates and carbonates, the silica and associated
+minerals are most frequently at some distance from the points of
+contact; and the formation of these minerals is probably due to the
+combination of water and heat, although this last ceases to be the
+principal agent.
+
+The hydrated volcanic rocks, such as the basalts and trappean rocks in
+general, continue to produce effects of metamorphism, in which heat
+operates, although its influence is inconsiderable, water being much the
+more powerful agent. The metamorphosis which is observable in the
+structure and mineralogical composition of neighbouring rocks is as
+follows:--The structure of separation becomes fragmentary, columnar, or
+many-sided, and even prismatic. It becomes especially prismatic in
+combustibles, in sandstones, in argillaceous formations, in felspathic
+rocks, and even in limestones. Prisms are formed perpendicular to the
+surface of contact, their length sometimes exceeding six feet. Most
+commonly they still contain water or volatile matter. These characters
+may be observed at the junction of the basalts which has been ejected
+upon the argillaceous strata near Clermont in Auvergne, at Polignac, and
+in the neighbourhood of Le Puy-en-Velay.
+
+If the vein of Basalt or Trap has traversed a bed of coal or of lignite,
+we find the combustible strongly _metamorphosed_ at the point of
+contact. Sometimes it becomes cellular and is changed into _coke_. This
+is especially the case in the coal-basin of Brassac. But more frequently
+the coal has lost all, or part of, its bituminous and volatile
+matter--it has been metamorphosed into anthracite--as an example we may
+quote the lignite of Mont Meisner.
+
+Again, in some exceptional cases, the combustible may even be changed
+into graphite near to its junction with Trap. This is observed at the
+coal-mine of New Cumnock in Ayrshire.
+
+When near its junction with a _trappean_ rock, a combustible has been
+metamorphosed into _coke_ or anthracite, it is also frequently
+impregnated by hydrated oxide of iron, by clay, foliated carbonate of
+lime, iron pyrites, and by various mineral veins. It may happen that the
+combustible has been reduced to a pulverulent state, in which case it is
+unfit for use. Such is the case in a coal-mine at Newcastle, where the
+coal lies within thirty yards of a dyke of Trap.
+
+When Basalt and Trap have been ejected through limestone rock, the
+latter becomes more or less altered. Near the points of contact, the
+metamorphism which they have undergone is revealed by the change of
+colour and aspect, which is exhibited all around the vein, often also by
+the development of a crystalline structure. Limestone becomes granular
+and saccharoid--it is changed into marble. The most remarkable instance
+of this metamorphism is the Carrara marble, a non-fossiliferous
+limestone of the Oolite series, which has been altered and the fossils
+destroyed; so that the marble of these celebrated quarries, once
+supposed to have been formed before the creation of organic beings, is
+now shown to be an altered limestone of the Oolitic period, and the
+underlying crystalline schists are sandstones and shales of secondary
+age modified by plutonic action.
+
+The action of basalt upon limestone is observable at Villeneuve de Berg,
+in Auvergne; but still more in the neighbourhood of Belfast, where we
+may see the Chalk changed into saccharoid limestone near to its contact
+with the Trap. Sometimes the metamorphism extends many feet from the
+point of contact; nay, more than that, some zeolites and other minerals
+seem to be developed in the crystallised limestone.
+
+When sandstone is found in contact with trappean rock, it presents
+unequivocal traces of metamorphism; it loses its reddish colour and
+becomes white, grey, green, or black; parallel veins may be detected
+which give it a jaspideous structure; it separates into prisms
+perpendicular to the walls of the injected veins, when it assumes a
+brilliant and vitreous lustre. Sometimes it is even also found
+penetrated by zeolites, a family of minerals which melt before the
+blowpipe with considerable ebullition. The mottled sandstones of
+Germany, which are traversed by veins of basalt, often exhibit
+metamorphism, particularly at Wildenstern, in Würtemberg.
+
+Argillaceous rocks, like all others, are subject to metamorphism when
+they come in contact with eruptive trappean rocks. In these
+circumstances they change colour and assume a varied or prismatic
+structure; at the same time their hardness increases, and they become
+lithoidal or stony in structure. They may also become cellular--form
+zeolites in their cavities with foliated carbonate of lime, as well as
+minerals which commonly occur in amygdaloid. Sometimes even the fissures
+are coated by the metallic minerals, and the other minerals which
+accompany them in their metalliferous beds. Generally they lose a part
+of their water and of their carbonic acid. In other circumstances they
+combine with oxide of iron and the alkalies. This has been asserted, for
+example, at Essey, in the department of the Meurthe, where a very
+argillaceous sandstone is found, charged with jasper porcellanite, near
+to the junction of the rock with a vein of basalt.
+
+Hitherto we have spoken only of the metamorphosis the result of volcanic
+action. A few words will suffice to acquaint the reader with the
+metamorphism exercised by the porphyries and granites. By contact with
+granite, we find coal changed into anthracite or graphite. It is
+important to note, however, that coal has seldom been metamorphosed into
+coke. As to the limestone, it is sometimes, as we have seen, transformed
+into marble; we even find in its interior divers minerals, notably
+silicates with a calcareous base, such as garnets, pyroxene, hornblende,
+&c. The sandstones and clay-slates have alike been altered.
+
+The surrounding deposit and the eruptive rock are both frequently
+impregnated with quartz, carbonate of lime, sulphate of baryta,
+fluorides, and, in a word, with the whole tribe of metalliferous
+minerals, which present themselves, besides, with the characteristics
+which are common to them in the veins.
+
+
+GENERAL METAMORPHISM.
+
+Sedimentary rocks sometimes exhibit all the symptoms of metamorphism
+where there is no evidence of direct eruptive action, and that upon a
+scale much grander than in the case of special metamorphism. It is
+observable over whole regions, in which it has modified and altered
+simultaneously all the surrounding rocks. This state of things is called
+general, or normal, metamorphism. The fundamental gneiss, which covers
+such a vast extent of country, is the most striking instance known of
+general metamorphism. It was first described by Sir W. E. Logan,
+Director of the Canadian Geological Survey, who estimates its thickness
+at 30,000 feet. The Laurentian Gneiss is a term which is used by
+geologists to designate those metamorphic rocks which are known to be
+older than the Cambrian system. They are parts of the old pre-Cambrian
+continents which lie at the base of the great American continent,
+Scandinavia, the Hebrides, &c.; and which are largely developed on the
+west coast of Scotland. In order to give the reader some idea of this
+metamorphism, we shall endeavour to trace its effects in rocks of the
+same nature, indicating the characters successively presented by the
+rocks according to the intensity of the metamorphism to which they have
+been subjected.
+
+Combustibles, which have a special composition, totally different from
+all other rocks, are obviously the first objects of examination. When we
+descend in the series of sedimentary deposits, the combustibles are
+observed completely to change their characters. From the _peat_ which is
+the product of our own epoch, we pass to _lignite_, to _coal_, to
+_anthracite_, and even to _graphite_; and find that their density
+increases, varying up to at least double. Hydrogen, nitrogen, and,
+above all, oxygen, diminish rapidly. Volatile and bituminous matters
+decrease, while carbon undergoes a proportionate increase.
+
+This metamorphism of the combustible minerals, which takes place in
+deposits of different ages, may also be observed even in the same bed.
+For instance, in the coal formations of America, which extend to the
+west of the Alleghany mountains, the Coal-measures contain a certain
+proportion of volatile matter, which goes on diminishing in proportion
+as we approach the granite rocks; this proportion rises to fifty per
+cent. upon the Ohio, but it falls to forty upon the Manon-Gahela, and
+even to sixteen in the Alleghanies. Finally, in the regions where the
+strata have been most disturbed, in Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, the
+coal has been metamorphosed into anthracite and even into graphite or
+plumbago.
+
+Limestone is one of the rocks upon which we can most easily follow the
+effects of general metamorphism. When it has not been modified, it is
+usually found in sedimentary rocks in the state of compact limestone, of
+coarse limestone, or of earthy limestone such as chalk. But let us
+consider it in the mountains, especially in mountains which are at the
+same time granitic, such as the Pyrenees, the Vosges, and the Alps. We
+shall then see its characters completely modified. In the long and deep
+valleys of the Alps, for example, we can follow the alterations of the
+limestone for many leagues, the beds losing more and more their
+regularity in proportion as we approach the central chain, until they
+lose themselves in solitary pinnacles and projections enclosed in
+crystalline schists or granitic rocks. Towards the upper regions of the
+Alps the limestone divides itself into pseudo-regular fragments, it is
+more strongly cemented, more compact, more sonorous; its colour becomes
+paler, and it passes from black to grey by the gradual disappearance of
+organic and bituminous matter with which it has been impregnated, at the
+same time its crystalline structure increases in a manner scarcely
+perceptible. It may even be observed to be metamorphosed into an
+aggregate of microscopic crystals, and finally to pass into a white
+saccharoid limestone.
+
+This metamorphism is produced without any decomposition of the
+limestone; it has rather been softened and half melted by the heat, that
+is, rendered plastic, so to speak, for we find in it fossils still
+recognisable, and among these, notably, some Ammonites and Belemnites,
+the presence of which enables us to state that it is the greyish-black
+Jurassic limestone, which has been transformed into white saccharoid or
+granular limestone. If the limestone subjected to this transformation
+were perfectly pure, it would simply take a crystalline structure; but
+it is generally mixed with sand and various argillaceous matters, which
+have been deposited along with it, matters which go to form new
+minerals. These new minerals, however, are not disseminated by chance;
+they develop themselves in the direction of the lamination, so to speak,
+of the limestone, and in its fissures, in such a manner that they
+present themselves in nodules, seams, and sometimes in veins.
+
+Among the principal minerals of the saccharoid limestone we may mention
+graphite, quartz, some very varied silicates, such as andalusite,
+disthene, serpentine, talc, garnet, augite, hornblende, epidote,
+chlorite, the micas, the felspars; finally, spinel, corundum, phosphate
+of lime, oxide of iron and oligiste, iron pyrites, &c. Besides these,
+various minerals in veins figure among those which exist more commonly
+in the saccharoid limestone.
+
+When metamorphic limestone is sufficiently pure, it is employed as
+statuary marble. Such is the geological origin of Carrara marble, which
+is quarried in the Apuan Alps on a great scale; such, also, was the
+marble of Paros and Antiparos, still so celebrated for its purity. On
+examination, however, with the lens the Carrara marble exhibits blackish
+veins and spangles of graphite; the finest blocks, also, frequently
+contain nodules of ironstone, which are lined with perfectly limpid
+crystals of quartz. These accidental defects are very annoying to the
+sculptor, for they are very minute, and nothing on the exterior of the
+block betrays their existence. In the marble of Paros, even when it is
+strongly translucent, specks of mica are often found. In the ancient
+quarries the nodules are so numerous as to have hindered their being
+worked, up even to the present time.
+
+When the mica which occurs in granular limestone takes a green colour
+and forms veins, it constitutes the Cipoline marble, which is found in
+Corsica, and in the Val Godemar in the Alps. Some white marbles are
+quarried in France, chiefly at Loubie, at Sost, at Saint-Béat in the
+Pyrenees, and at Chippal in the Vosges. In our country, and especially
+in Ireland, there are numerous quarries of marble, veined and coloured
+of every hue, but none of a purity suitable for the finest statuary
+purposes. All these marbles are only metamorphosed limestones.
+
+The white marbles employed almost all over the world are those of
+Carrara. They result from the metamorphism of limestone of the Lias.
+They have not been penetrated by the eruptive rocks, but they have been
+subjected upon a great scale to a general metamorphism, to which their
+crystalline structure may be attributed.
+
+It is easily understood that the calcareous strata have not undergone
+such an energetic metamorphism without the beds of sandstone and clay,
+associated with them, having also undergone some modification of the
+same kind. The siliceous beds accompanying the saccharoid limestone
+have, in short, a character of their own. They are formed of small
+grains of transparent quartz more or less cemented one to the other in a
+manner strongly resembling those of the saccharoid limestone. Between
+these grains are usually developed some lamellæ of mica of brilliant and
+silky lustre, of which the colour is white, red, or green; in a word, it
+has produced a _quartzite_. Some veins of quartz frequently traverse
+this quartzite in all directions. Independent of the mica, it may
+contain, besides, the different minerals already mentioned as occurring
+in the limestone, and particularly silicates--such as disthene,
+andalusite, staurotide, garnet, and hornblende.
+
+The argillaceous beds present a series of metamorphisms analogous to the
+preceding. We can follow them readily through all their gradations when
+we direct our attention towards such granitic masses as those which
+constitute the Alps, Pyrenees, the Bretagne Mountains, or our own
+Grampians. The schists may perhaps be considered the first step towards
+the metamorphism of certain argillaceous rocks; in fact, the schists are
+not susceptible of mixing with water like clay; they become stony, and
+acquire a much greater density, but their chief characteristic is a
+foliated structure.
+
+Experiment proves that when we subject a substance to a great pressure a
+foliated structure is produced in a direction perpendicular to that in
+which the pressure is exercised. Everything leads us, therefore, to
+believe that pressure is the principal cause of the schistous texture,
+and of the foliation of clay-slates, the most characteristic variety of
+which is the roofing-slate which is quarried so extensively in North
+Wales, in Cumberland, and various parts of Scotland in the British
+Islands; in the Ardennes; and in the neighbourhood of Angers, in France.
+
+In some localities the slate becomes siliceous and is charged with
+crystals of felspar. Nevertheless, it still presents itself in parallel
+beds, and contains the same fossil remains still in a recognisable
+state. For example, in the neighbourhood of Thann, in the Vosges,
+certain vegetable imprints are perfectly preserved in the metamorphic
+schist, and in their midst are developed some crystals of felspar.
+
+Mica-schist, which is formed of layers of quartz and mica, is found
+habitually associated with rocks which have taken a crystalline
+structure, proceeding evidently from an energetic metamorphism of beds
+originally argillaceous. Chiastolite, disthene, staurotide, hornblende,
+and other minerals are found in it. Mica-schists occur extensively in
+Brittany, in the Vosges, in the Pyrenees. In all cases, as we approach
+the masses of granite, in these regions, the crystalline structure
+becomes more and more marked.
+
+In describing the various facts relating to the metamorphism of rocks,
+we have said little of the causes which have produced it. The causes
+are, indeed, in the region of hypothesis, and somewhat mysterious.
+
+In what concerns special metamorphism, the cause is supposed to admit of
+easy explanation--it is heat. When a rock is ejected from the interior
+of the earth in a state of igneous fusion, we comprehend readily enough
+that the strata, which it traverses, should sustain alterations due to
+the influence of heat, and varying with its intensity. This is clear
+enough in the case of _lava_. On the other hand, as water always exists
+in the interior of the earth’s crust, and as this water must be at a
+very high temperature in the neighbourhood of volcanic fires, it
+contributes, no doubt, largely to the metamorphism. If the rocks have
+not been ejected in a state of fusion, it is evidently water, with the
+different mineral substances it holds in solution, which is the chief
+actor in the special metamorphism which is produced.
+
+In general metamorphism, water appears still to be the principal agent.
+As it is infiltered through the various beds it will modify their
+composition, either by dissolving certain substances, or by introducing
+into the metalliferous deposits certain new substances, such as may be
+seen forming, even under our eyes, in mineral springs. This has tended
+to render the sedimentary deposits plastic, and has permitted the
+development of that crystalline structure, which is one of the principal
+characteristics of metamorphic rocks. This action has been seconded by
+other causes, notably by heat and pressure, which would have an immense
+increase of power and energy when metamorphism takes place at a great
+depth beneath the surface. Dr. Holl, in an able paper descriptive of the
+geology of the Malvern Hills, read before the Geological Society in
+February, 1865, adopts this hypothesis as explanatory of the vast
+phenomena which are there displayed. After describing the position of
+this interesting and strangely-mingled range of rocks, he adds: “These
+metamorphic rocks are for the most part highly inclined, and often in a
+position nearly vertical. Their disturbance and metamorphism, their
+being traversed by granitic veins, and still later their invasion by
+trap-dykes and their subsequent elevation above the sea-level, were all
+events which must have occupied no inconsiderable period, even of
+geological time. I presume,” he adds, “that it will not be maintained
+in the present day that the metamorphism of rocks over areas of any but
+very moderate extent is due to the intrusion of veins and erupted
+masses. The insufficiency of such agency becomes the more obvious when
+we consider the slight effects produced by even tolerably extensive
+outbursts, such as the Dartmoor granite; while in the case of the
+Malverns there is an absence of any local cause whatever. The more
+probable explanation in the case of these larger areas is, that they
+were faulted down, or otherwise depressed, so as to be brought within
+the influence of the earth’s internal heat, and this is the more likely
+as they belong to an epoch when the crust is believed to have been
+thinner.” When it is considered that, according to the doctrine of
+modern geology, the Laurentian rocks, or their equivalents, lie at the
+base of all the sedimentary deposits; that this, like other systems of
+stratified rocks, was deposited in the form of sand, mud, and clay, to
+the thickness of 30,000 feet; and that over an area embracing
+Scandinavia, the Hebrides, great part of Scotland, and England as far
+south as the Malverns, besides a large proportion of the American
+continent, with certain forms of animal life, as recent investigations
+demonstrate--can the mind of man realise any other cause by which this
+vast extent of metamorphism could have been produced?
+
+Electric and galvanic currents, circulating in the stratified crust, are
+not to be overlooked. The experiments of Mr. R. W. Fox and Mr. Robert
+Hunt suggest that, in passing long-continued galvanic currents through
+masses of moistened clay, there is a tendency to produce cleavage and a
+semi-crystalline arrangement of the particles of matter.[31]
+
+  [31] Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society for 1837. Robert
+       Hunt, in “Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain,”
+       vol. i., p. 433.
+
+
+
+
+THE BEGINNING.
+
+
+The theory which has been developed, and which considers the earth as an
+extinct sun, as a star cooled down from its original heated condition,
+as a nebula, or luminous cloud, which has passed from the gaseous to the
+solid state--this fine conception, which unites so brilliantly the
+kindred sciences of astronomy and geology, belongs to the French
+mathematician, Laplace, the immortal author of the “Mécanique Céleste.”
+
+The hypothesis of Laplace assigns to the sun, and to all bodies which
+gravitate in what Descartes calls his _tourbillon_, a common origin. “In
+the primitive state in which we must suppose the sun to be,” he says,
+“it resembles one of those nebulæ which the telescope reveals to us,
+consisting of a more or less brilliant central _nucleus_, surrounded by
+luminous clouds, which clouds, condensing at the surface, become
+transformed into a star.”
+
+It has been calculated that the centre of the earth has a temperature of
+about 195,000° Cent., a degree of heat which surpasses all that the
+imagination can conceive. We can have no difficulty in admitting that,
+at a heat so excessive, all the substances which now enter into the
+composition of the globe would be reduced to the state of gas or vapour.
+Our planet, then, must have been originally an aggregation of aëriform
+fluids--a mass of matter entirely gaseous; and if we reflect that
+substances in their gaseous state occupy a volume eighteen hundred times
+larger than when solid, we shall have some conception of the enormous
+volume of this gaseous mass. It would be as large as the sun, which is
+fourteen hundred thousand times larger than the terrestrial sphere. In
+Fig. 12 we have attempted to give an idea of the vast difference of
+volume between the earth in its present solid state and in its primitive
+gaseous condition. One of the globes, A, represents the former, B the
+latter. It is simply a comparison of size, which is made the more
+strikingly apparent by means of these geometrical figures--one the
+twentieth part of an inch in diameter, the other two inches and three
+quarters.
+
+[Illustration: VI.--The Earth circulating in space in the state of a
+gaseous star.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Comparative volume of the earth in the gaseous
+and solid state.]
+
+At this excessive temperature the gaseous mass, which we have described,
+would shine in space as the sun does at the present day; and with the
+same brilliancy as that with which, to our eyes, the fixed stars and
+planets shine in the serenity of night, as represented on the opposite
+page (PLATE VI.). Circulating round the sun in obedience to the laws of
+universal gravitation, this incandescent gaseous mass was necessarily
+regulated by the laws which govern other material substances. As it got
+cooler it gradually transferred part of its warmth to the glacial
+regions of the inter-planetary spaces, in the midst of which it traced
+the line of its flaming orbit. Consequent on its continual cooling (but
+at the end of a period of time of which it would be impossible, even
+approximately, to fix the duration), the star, originally gaseous, would
+attain a liquid state. It would then be considerably diminished in
+volume.
+
+The laws of mechanics teach us that liquid bodies, when in a state of
+rotation, assume a spherical form; it is one of the laws of their being,
+emanating from the Creator, and is due to the force of attraction. Thus
+the Earth takes the spheroidal form, belonging to it, in common with the
+greater number of the celestial bodies.
+
+The Earth is subject to two distinct movements; namely, a movement of
+translation round the sun, and a movement of rotation on its own
+axis--the latter a uniform movement, which produces the regular
+alternations of days and nights. Mechanics have also established the
+fact, which is confirmed by experiment, that a fluid mass in motion
+produces (as the result of the variation of the centrifugal force on its
+different diameters), a swelling towards the equatorial diameter of the
+sphere, and a flattening at the poles or extremities of its axis. It is
+in consequence of this law, that the Earth, when it was in a liquid
+state, became swollen at the equator, and depressed at its two poles;
+and that it has passed from its primitive spherical form to the
+spheroidal--that is, has become flattened at each of its polar
+extremities, and has assumed its present shape of an oblate spheroid.
+
+This bulging at the equator and flattening towards the poles afford the
+most direct proofs, that can be adduced, of the original liquid state of
+our planet. A solid and non-elastic sphere--a stone ball, for
+example--might turn for ages upon its axis, and its form would sustain
+no change; but a fluid ball, or one of a pasty consistence, would swell
+out towards the middle, and, in the same proportion, become flattened at
+the extremities of its axis. It was upon this principle, namely, by
+admitting the primitive fluidity of the globe, that Newton announced _à
+priori_ the bulging of the globe at the equator and its flattening at
+the poles; and he even calculated the amount of this depression. The
+actual measurement, both of this expansion and flattening, by
+Maupertuis, Clairaut, Camus, and Lemonnier, in 1736, proved how exact
+the calculations of the great geometrican were. Those gentlemen,
+together with the Abbé Outhier, were sent into Lapland by the Academy of
+Sciences; the Swedish astronomer, Celsius, accompanied them, and
+furnished them with the best instruments for measuring and surveying. At
+the same time the Academy sent Bouguer and Condamine to the equatorial
+regions of South America. The measurements taken in both these regions
+established the existence of the equatorial expansion and the polar
+depression, as Newton had estimated it to be in his calculations.
+
+It does not follow, as a consequence of the partial cooling down of the
+terrestrial mass, that all the gaseous substances composing it should
+pass into a liquid state; some of these might remain in the state of gas
+or vapour, and form round the terrestrial spheroid an outer envelope or
+_atmosphere_ (from the Greek words ατμος, _vapour_, and σφαιρα,
+_sphere_). But we should form a very inexact idea of the atmosphere
+which surrounded the globe, at this remote period, if we compared it
+with that which surrounds it now. The extent of the gaseous matter which
+enveloped the primitive earth must have been immense; it doubtless
+extended to the moon. It included, in short, in the state of vapour, the
+enormous body of water which, as such, now constitutes our existing
+seas, added to all the other substances which preserve their gaseous
+state at the temperature then exhibited by the incandescent earth; and
+it is certainly no exaggeration to place this temperature at 2,000°
+Centigrade. The atmosphere would participate in this temperature; and
+acted on by such excessive heat, the pressure that it would exert on the
+Earth would be infinitely greater than that which it exercises at the
+present time. To the gases which form the component parts of the present
+atmospheric air--namely, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic acid--to
+enormous masses of watery vapour, must be added vast quantities of
+mineral substances, metallic or earthy, reduced to a gaseous state, and
+maintained in that state by the temperature of this gigantic furnace.
+The metals, the chlorides--metallic, alkaline, and earthy--sulphur, the
+sulphides, and even the silicates of alumina and lime; all, at this
+temperature, would exist in a vaporous form in the atmosphere
+surrounding the primitive globe.
+
+It is to be inferred that, under these circumstances, the different
+substances composing this atmosphere would be ranged round the globe in
+the order of their respective densities; the first layer--that nearest
+to the surface of the globe--being formed of the heavier vapours, such
+as those of the metals, of iron, platinum, and copper, mixed doubtless
+with clouds of fine metallic dust produced by the partial condensation
+of their vapours. This first and heaviest zone, and the thickest also,
+would be quite opaque, although the surface of the earth was still at a
+red heat. Above it would come the more vaporisable substances, such as
+the metallic and alkaline chlorides, particularly the chloride of sodium
+or common salt, sulphur and phosphorus, with all the volatile
+combinations of these substances. The upper zone would contain matter
+still more easily converted into vapour, such as water (steam), together
+with others naturally gaseous, as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid.
+This order of superposition, however, would not always be preserved. In
+spite of their differences of density, these three atmospheric layers
+would often become mixed, producing formidable storms and violent
+ebullitions; frequently throwing down, rending, upheaving, and
+confounding these incandescent zones.
+
+As to the globe itself, without being so much agitated as its hot and
+shifting atmosphere, it would be no less subject to perpetual tempests,
+occasioned by the thousand chemical actions which took place in its
+molten mass. On the other hand, the electricity resulting from these
+powerful chemical actions, operating on such a vast scale, would induce
+frightful electric detonations, thunder adding to the horror of this
+primitive scene, which no imagination, no human pencil could trace, and
+which constitutes that gloomy and disastrous chaos of which the
+legendary history of every ancient race has transmitted the tradition.
+In this manner would our globe circulate in space, carrying in its train
+the flaming streaks of its multiple atmosphere, unfitted, as yet, for
+living beings, and impenetrable to the rays of the sun, around which it
+described its vast orbit.
+
+The temperature of the planetary regions is infinitely low; according to
+Laplace it cannot be estimated at less than 100° below zero. The glacial
+regions traversed in its course by the incandescent globe would
+necessarily cool it, at first superficially, when it would assume a
+pasty consistence. It must not be forgotten that the earth, on account
+of its liquid state, would be obedient in all its mass to the action of
+flux and reflux, which proceeds from the attraction of the sun and moon,
+but to which the sea alone is now subject. This action, to which all its
+liquid and movable particles were subject, would singularly accelerate
+the commencement of the solidification of the terrestrial mass. It would
+thus gradually assume that sort of consistence which iron attains, when
+it is first withdrawn from the furnace, in the process of puddling.
+
+As the earth cooled, beds of concrete substances would necessarily be
+formed, which, floating at first in isolated masses on the surface of
+the semi-fluid matter, would in course of time come together,
+consolidate, and form continuous banks; just as we see with the ice of
+the present Polar Seas, which, when brought in contact by the agitation
+of the waves, coalesces and forms icebergs, more or less movable. By
+extending this phenomenon to the whole surface of the globe, the
+solidification of its entire surface would be produced. A solid, but
+still thin and fragile crust, would thus envelop the whole earth,
+enclosing entirely its still fluid interior. The entire consolidation
+would necessarily be a much slower process--one which, according to the
+received hypothesis, is very far from being completed at the present
+time; for it is estimated that the actual thickness of the earth’s crust
+does not exceed thirty miles, while the mean radius or distance from the
+centre of the terrestrial sphere, approaches 4,000 miles, the mean
+diameter being 7,912·409 miles; so that the portion of our planet,
+supposed to be solidified, represents only a very small fraction of its
+total mass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Relative volumes of the solid crust and liquid
+mass of the globe.]
+
+We say thirty miles, for such is the ordinary estimated thickness of the
+earth’s crust, usually admitted by savants; and the following is the
+process by which this result has been obtained.
+
+We know that the temperature of the earth increases one degree
+Centigrade for every hundred feet of descent. This result has been
+borne out by a great number of measurements, made in many of the mines
+of France, in the tin mines of Cornwall, in the mines of the Erzgeberge,
+of the Ural, of Scotland, and, above all, in the soundings effected in
+the Artesian wells of Grenelle and Passy, near Paris, of St. André de
+Iregny, and at a great number of other points.
+
+The greatest depth to which miners have hitherto penetrated is about 973
+yards, which has been reached in a boring executed in Monderf, in the
+Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. At Neusalzwerk, near Minden, in Prussia,
+another boring has been carried to the depth of 760 yards. In the
+coal-mines of Monkwearmouth the pits have been sunk 525 yards, and at
+Dukinfield 717 yards. The mean of the thermometic observations made, at
+all these points, leads to the conclusion that the temperature increases
+about one degree Fahrenheit for every sixty feet (English) of descent
+after the first hundred.
+
+In admitting that this law of temperature exists for all depths of the
+earth’s crust, we arrive at the conclusion that, at a depth of from
+twenty-five to thirty-five miles--which is only about five times the
+height of the highest mountains--the most refractory matter would be in
+a state of fusion. According to M. Mitscherlich, the flame of hydrogen,
+burning in free air, acquires a temperature of 1,560° Centigrade. In
+this flame platinum would be in a state of fusion. Granite melts at a
+lower temperature than soft iron, that is at about 1,300°; while silver
+melts at 1,023°. In imagining an increase of temperature equal to one
+degree for every hundred feet of descent, the temperature at twenty-five
+miles will be 1,420° C. or 2,925° F.; thirty miles below the surface
+there will be a probable temperature of 1,584° C. or 3,630° F.; it
+follows, if these arguments be admitted, and the calculation correct,
+that the thickness of the solid crust of the globe does not much exceed
+thirty miles.
+
+This result, which gives to the terrestrial crust a thickness equal to
+1/190 of the earth’s diameter, has nothing, it is true, of absolute
+certainty.
+
+Prof. W. Hopkins, F.R.S., an eminent mathematician, has much insisted
+upon the fact, that the conductibility of granite rocks, for heat, is
+much greater than that of sedimentary rocks; and he argues that in the
+lower stratum of the earth the temperature increases much more slowly
+than it does nearer the surface. This consideration has led Mr. Hopkins
+to estimate the probable thickness of the earth’s solid crust at a
+minimum of 200 miles.
+
+In support of this estimate Mr. Hopkins puts forward another argument,
+based upon the precession of the equinoxes. We know that the terrestrial
+axis, instead of always preserving the same direction in space,
+revolves in a cone round the pole of the ecliptic. Our globe, it is
+calculated, will accomplish its revolution in about 25,000 years. In
+about this period it will return to its original position. This
+balancing, which has been compared to that of a top when about to cease
+spinning, produces the movement known as the _precession of the
+equinoxes_. It is due to the attraction which the sun and moon exercise
+upon the swelling equatorial of the globe. This attraction would act
+very differently upon a globe entirely solid, and upon one with a liquid
+interior, covered by a comparatively thin crust. Mr. Hopkins subjected
+this curious problem to mathematical analysis, and he calculated that
+the precession of the equinoxes, observed by astronomers, could only be
+explained by admitting that the solid shell of the earth could not be
+less than from about 800 to 1,000 miles in thickness.
+
+In his researches on the _rigidity of the earth_, Sir William Thomson
+finds that the phenomena of precession and nutation require that the
+earth, if not solid to the core, must be nearly so; and that no
+continuous liquid vesicle at all approaching 6,000 miles in diameter can
+possibly exist in the earth’s interior, without rendering the phenomena
+in question very sensibly different from what they are.
+
+The calculations of Mr. Hennessey are in direct opposition to those of
+Sir William Thomson, and show that the earth’s crust cannot be less than
+eighteen miles, or more than 600 miles in thickness.
+
+Admitting, for the present, that the terrestrial crust is only thirty
+miles in thickness, we can express in a familiar, but very intelligible
+fashion, the actual relation between the dimensions of the liquid
+nucleus and the solid crust of the earth. If we imagine the earth to be
+an orange, a tolerably thick sheet of paper applied to its surface will
+then represent, approximately, the thickness of the solid crust which
+now envelopes the globe. Fig. 13 will enable us to appreciate this fact
+still more correctly. The terrestrial sphere having a mean diameter of
+7,912 miles, or a mean radius of 3,956 miles, and a solid crust about
+thirty miles thick, which is 1/260 of the diameter, or 1/130 of the
+radius, the engraving may be presumed to represent these proportions
+with sufficient accuracy.
+
+To determine, even approximately, the time such a vast body would take
+in cooling, so as to permit of the formation of a solid crust, or to fix
+the duration of the transformations which we are describing, would be an
+impossible task.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Formation of primitive granitic mountains.]
+
+The first terrestrial crust formed, as indicated, would be incapable of
+resisting the waves of the ocean of internal fire, which would be
+depressed and raised up at its daily flux and reflux in obedience to
+the attraction of the sun and moon. Who can trace, even in imagination,
+the fearful rendings, the gigantic inundations, which would result from
+these movements! Who would dare to paint the sublime horrors of these
+first mysterious convulsions of the globe! Amid torrents of molten
+matter, mixed with gases, upheaving and piercing the scarcely
+consolidated crust, large crevices would be opened, and through these
+gaping cracks waves of liquid granite would be ejected, and then left to
+cool and consolidate on the surface. Fig. 14 represents the formation of
+a primitive granitic mountain, by the eruption of the internal granitic
+matter which forces its way to the surface through a fracture in the
+crust. In some of these mountains, Ben Nevis for example, three
+different stages of the eruption can be traced. “Ben Nevis, now the
+undoubted monarch of the Scottish mountains,” says Nicol, “shows well
+the diverse age and relations of igneous rocks. The Great Moor from
+Inverlochy and Fort William to the foot of the hill is gneiss. Breaking
+through, and partly resting on the gneiss is granite, forming the lower
+two-thirds of the mountain up to the small tarn on the shoulder of the
+hill. Higher still is the huge prism of porphyry, rising steep and
+rugged all around.” In this manner would the first mountains be formed.
+In this way, also, might some metallic veins be ejected through the
+smaller openings, true injections of eruptive matter produced from the
+interior of the globe, traversing the primitive rocks and constituting
+the precious depository of metals, such as copper, zinc, antimony, and
+lead. Fig. 15 represents the internal structure of some of these
+metallic veins. In this case the fracture is only a fissure in the rock,
+which soon became filled with injected matter, often of different kinds,
+which in crystallising would completely fill the hollow of this cleft,
+or crack; but sometimes forming cavities or geodes as a result of the
+contraction of the mass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Metallic veins.]
+
+But some eruptions of granitic and other substances, ejected from the
+interior, never reach the surface at all. In such cases the clefts and
+crevices--longitudinal or oblique--are filled, but the fissures in the
+crust do not themselves extend to the surface. Fig. 16 represents an
+eruption of granite through a mass of sedimentary rock--the granite
+ejected from the centre fills all the clefts and fractures, but it has
+not been sufficiently powerful to force its way to the surface.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Eruption of granite.]
+
+On the surface of the earth, then, which would be at first smooth and
+unbroken, there were formed, from the very beginning, swelling
+eminences, hollows, foldings, corrugations, and crevices, which would
+materially alter its original aspect; its arid and burning surface
+bristled with rugged protuberances, or was traversed by enormous
+fissures and cracks. Nevertheless, as the globe continued to cool, a
+time arrived when its temperature became insufficient to maintain, in a
+state of vapour, the vast masses of water which floated in the
+atmosphere. These vapours would pass into the liquid state, and then the
+first rain fell upon the earth. Let us here remark that these were
+veritable rains of boiling water; for in consequence of the very
+considerable pressure of the atmosphere, water would be condensed and
+become liquid at a temperature much above 100° Centigrade (212° Fahr.)
+
+[Illustration: VII.--Condensation and rainfall on the primitive globe.]
+
+The first drop of water, which fell upon the still heated terrestrial
+sphere, marked a new period in its evolution--a period the mechanical
+and chemical effects of which it is important to analyse. The contact of
+the condensed water with the consolidated surface of the globe opens up
+a series of modifications of which science may undertake the examination
+with a degree of confidence, or at least with more positive elements of
+appreciation than any we possess for the period of chaos; some of the
+features of which we have attempted to represent, leaving of necessity
+much to the imagination, and for the reader to interpret after his own
+fashion.
+
+The first water which fell, in the liquid state, upon the slightly
+cooled surface of the earth would be rapidly converted into steam by the
+elevation of its temperature. Thus, rendered much lighter than the
+surrounding atmosphere, these vapours would rise to the utmost limits of
+the atmosphere, where they would become condensed afresh, in consequence
+of their radiation towards the glacial regions of space; condensing
+again, they would re-descend to the earth in a liquid state, to
+re-ascend as vapour and fall in a state of condensation. But all these
+changes, in the physical condition of the water, could only be
+maintained by withdrawing a very considerable amount of heat from the
+surface of the globe, whose cooling would be greatly hastened by these
+continual alternations of heat and cold; its heat would thus become
+gradually dissipated and lost in the regions of celestial space.
+
+This phenomenon extending itself by degrees to the whole mass of watery
+vapour existing in the atmosphere, the waters covered the earth in
+increasing quantities; and as the conversion of all liquids into vapour
+is provocative of a notable disengagement of electricity, a vast
+quantity of electric fluid necessarily resulted from the conversion of
+such large masses of water into vapour. Bursts of thunder, and bright
+flashes of lightning were the necessary accompaniments of this
+extraordinary struggle of the elements--a state of things which M.
+Maurando has attempted to represent on the opposite page (PLATE VII.).
+
+How long did this struggle for supremacy between fire and water, with
+the incessant noise of thunder, continue? All that can be said in reply
+is, that a time came when water was triumphant. After having covered
+vast areas on the surface of the earth, it finally occupied and entirely
+covered the whole surface; for there is good reason to believe that at a
+certain epoch, at the commencement, so to speak, of its evolution; the
+earth was covered by water over its whole extent. The ocean was
+universal. From this moment our globe entered on a regular series of
+revolutions, interrupted only by the outbreaks of the internal fires
+which were concealed beneath its still imperfectly consolidated crust.
+
+“At the early periods in which the materials of the ancient crystalline
+schists were accumulated, it cannot be doubted that the chemical
+processes which generated silicates were much more active than in more
+recent times. The heat of the earth’s crust was probably then far
+greater than at present, while a high temperature prevailed at
+comparatively small depths, and thermal waters abounded. A denser
+atmosphere, charged with carbonic acid gas, must also have contributed
+to maintain, at the earth’s surface, a greater degree of heat, though
+one not incompatible with the existence of organic life.
+
+“These conditions must have favoured many chemical processes, which in
+later times have nearly ceased to operate. Hence we find that
+subsequently to the eozoic times, silicated rocks of clearly marked
+chemical origin are comparatively rare.”[32]
+
+  [32] “Address to the American Association for the Advancement of
+       Science,” by Thomas Sterry Hunt, LL.D., p. 56. 1871.
+
+In order to comprehend the complex action, now mechanical, now chemical,
+which the waters, still in a heated state, exercised on the solid crust,
+let us consider what were the components of this crust. The rocks which
+formed its first _stratum_--the framework of the earth, the foundation
+upon which all others repose--may be presumed to have been a compound
+which, in varying proportions, forms granite and gneiss, and has
+latterly been designated by geologists Laurentian.
+
+What is this gneiss, this granite, speaking of it with reference to its
+mineralogical character? It is a combination of silicates, with a base
+of alumina, potash, soda, and sometimes lime--_quartz_, _felspar_, and
+_mica_ form, by their simple aggregation, _granite_--it is thus a
+ternary combination, or composed of three minerals.
+
+_Quartz_, the most abundant of all minerals, is silica more or less pure
+and often crystallised. _Felspar_ is a crystalline or crystallised
+mineral, composed of _silicate_ of alumina, potash, soda, or lime;
+potash-felspar is called _orthoclase_, soda-felspar _albite_,
+lime-felspar _anorthite_. _Mica_ is a silicate of alumina and potash,
+containing magnesia and oxide of iron; it takes its name from the Latin
+_micare_, to shine or glitter.
+
+_Granite_ (from the Italian _grano_, being granular in its structure)
+is, then, a compound rock, formed of felspar, quartz, and mica, and the
+three constituent minerals are more or less crystalline. _Gneiss_ is a
+schistose variety of granite, and composed of the same minerals; the
+only difference between the two rocks (whatever may be their difference
+of origin) being that the constituent minerals, instead of being
+confusedly aggregated, as in granite, assume a foliated texture in
+gneiss. This foliated structure leads sometimes to gneiss being called
+_stratified granite_. “The term gneiss originated with the Freiberg
+miners, who from ancient times have used it to designate the rock in
+which their veins of silver-ore were found.”[33]
+
+  [33] Cotta’s “Rocks Classified and Described,” by P. H. Lawrence, p.
+       232.
+
+The felspar, which enters into the composition of granite, is a mineral
+that is easily decomposed by water, either cold or boiling, or by the
+water of springs rich in carbonic acid. The chemical action of carbonic
+acid and water, and the action (at once chemical and mechanical) of the
+hot water in the primitive seas, powerfully modified the granitic rocks
+which lay beneath them. The warm rains which fell upon the
+mountain-peaks and granitic pinnacles, the torrents of rain which fell
+upon the slopes or in the valleys, dissolved the several alkaline
+silicates which constitute felspar and mica, and swept them away to form
+elsewhere strata of clay and sand; thus were the first modifications in
+the primitive rocks produced by the united action of air and water, and
+thus were the first sedimentary rocks deposited from the oceanic waters.
+
+The argillaceous deposits produced by this decomposition of the
+felspathic and micaceous rocks would participate in the still heated
+temperature of the globe--would be again subjected to long continued
+heat; and when they became cool again, they would assume, by a kind of
+semi-crystallisation, that parallel structure which is called foliation.
+All foliated rocks, then, are metamorphic, and the result of a
+metamorphic action to which sedimentary strata (and even some eruptive
+rocks) have been subjected subsequently to their deposition and
+consolidation, and which has produced a re-arrangement of their
+component mineral particles, and frequently, if not always, of their
+chemical elements also.
+
+In this manner would the first beds of crystalline _schist_, such as
+mica-schist, be formed, probably out of sandy and clayey muds, or
+arenaceous and argillaceous shales.
+
+At the end of this first phase of its existence, the terrestrial globe
+was, then, covered, over nearly its whole surface, with hot and muddy
+water, forming extensive but shallow seas. A few islands, raising their
+granitic peaks here and there, would form a sort of archipelago,
+surrounded by seas filled with earthy matter in suspension. During a
+long series of ages the solid crust of the globe went on increasing in
+thickness, as the process of solidification of the underlying liquid
+matter nearest to the surface proceeded. This state of tranquillity
+could not last long. The solid portion of the globe had not yet attained
+sufficient consistency to resist the pressure of the gases and boiling
+liquids which it covered and compressed with its elastic crust. The
+waves of this internal sea triumphed, more than once, over the feeble
+resistances which were opposed to it, making enormous dislocations and
+breaches in the ground--immense upheavals of the solid crust raising the
+beds of the seas far above their previous levels--and thus mountains
+arose out of the ocean, not now exclusively granitic, but composed,
+besides, of those schistose rocks which have been deposited under water,
+after long suspension in the muddy seas.
+
+On the other hand the Earth, as it continued to cool, would also
+contract; and this process of contraction, as we have already explained,
+was another cause of dislocation at the surface, producing either
+considerable ruptures or simple fissures in the continuity of the crust.
+These fissures would be filled, at a subsequent period, by jets of the
+molten matter occupying the interior of the globe--by _eruptive
+granite_, that is to say--or by various mineral compounds; they also
+opened a passage to those torrents of heated water charged with mineral
+salts, with silica, the bicarbonates of lime and magnesia, which,
+mingling with the waters of the vast primitive ocean, were deposited at
+the bottom of the seas, thus helping to increase the mass of the mineral
+substances composing the solid portion of the globe.
+
+These eruptions of granitic or metallic matter--these vast discharges of
+mineral waters through the fractured surface--would be of frequent
+occurrence during the primitive epoch we are contemplating. It should
+not, therefore, be a matter for surprise to find the more ancient rocks
+almost always fractured, reduced in dimensions by faults and
+contortions, and often traversed by veins containing metals or their
+oxides, such as the oxides of copper and tin; or their sulphides, such
+as those of lead, of antimony, or of iron--which are now the object of
+the miner’s art.
+
+
+
+
+PRIMARY EPOCH.
+
+
+After the terrible tempests of the primitive period--after these great
+disturbances of the mineral kingdom--Nature would seem to have gathered
+herself together, in sublime silence, in order to proceed to the grand
+mystery of the creation of living beings.
+
+During the primitive epoch the temperature of the earth was too high to
+admit the appearance of life on its surface. The darkness of thickest
+night shrouded this cradle of the world; the atmosphere probably was so
+charged with vapours of various kinds, that the sun’s rays were
+powerless to pierce its opacity. Upon this heated surface, and in this
+perpetual night, organic life could not manifest itself. No plant, no
+animal, then, could exist upon the silent earth. In the seas of this
+epoch, therefore, only unfossiliferous strata were deposited.
+
+Nevertheless, our planet continued to be subjected to a gradual
+refrigeration on the one hand, and, on the other, continuous rains were
+purifying its atmosphere. From this time, then, the sun’s rays, being
+less obscured, could reach its surface, and, under their beneficent
+influence, life was not slow in disclosing itself. “Without light,” said
+the illustrious Lavoisier, “Nature was without life; it was dead and
+inanimate. A benevolent God, in bestowing light, has spread on the
+surface of the earth organisation, sentiment, and thought.” We begin,
+accordingly, to see upon the earth--the temperature of which was nearly
+that of our equatorial zone--a few plants and a few animals make their
+appearance. These first generations of life will be replaced by others
+of a higher organisation, until at the last stage of the creation, man,
+endowed with the supreme attribute which we call intelligence, will
+appear upon the earth. “The word _progress_, which we think peculiar to
+humanity, and even to modern times,” said Albert Gaudry, in a lecture on
+the animals of the ancient world, delivered in 1863, “was pronounced by
+the Deity on the day when he created the first living organism.”
+
+Did plants precede animals? We know not; but such would appear to have
+been the order of creation. It is certain that in the sediment of the
+oldest seas, and in the vestiges which remain to us of the earliest ages
+of organic life on the globe, that is to say, in the argillaceous
+schists, we find both plants and animals of advanced organisation. But,
+on the other hand, during the greater part of the primary
+epoch--especially during the Carboniferous age--the plants are
+particularly numerous, and terrestrial animals scarcely show themselves;
+this would lead us to the conclusion that plants preceded animals. It
+may be remarked, besides, that from their cellular nature, and their
+looser tissues composed of elements readily affected by the air, the
+first plants could be easily destroyed without leaving any material
+vestiges; from which it may be concluded, that, in those primitive
+times, an immense number of plants existed, no traces of which now
+remain to us.
+
+We have stated that, during the earlier ages of our globe, the waters
+covered a great part of its surface; and it is in them that we find the
+first appearance of life. When the waters had become sufficiently cool
+to allow of the existence of organised beings, creation was developed,
+and advanced with great energy; for it manifested itself by the
+appearance of numerous and very different species of animals and plants.
+
+One of the most ancient groups of organic remains are the Brachiopoda, a
+group of Mollusca, particularly typified by the genus Lingula, a species
+of which still exist in the present seas; the Trilobites (Fig. 17), a
+family of Crustaceans, especially characteristic of this period; then
+come Productas, Terebratulæ, and Orthoceratites--other genera of
+Mollusca. The Corals, which appeared at an early period, seem to have
+lived in all ages, and survive to the present day.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Paradoxides Bohemicus--Bohemia.]
+
+Contemporaneously with these animals, plants of inferior organisation
+have left their impressions upon the schists; these are Algæ (aquatic
+plants, Fig. 28). As the continents enlarged, plants of a higher type
+made their appearance--the Equisetaceæ, herbaceous Ferns, and other
+plants. These we shall have occasion to specify when noticing the
+periods which constitute the Primary Epoch, and which consists of the
+following periods: the Carboniferous, the Old Red Sandstone, and
+Devonian, the Silurian, and the Cambrian.
+
+
+CAMBRIAN PERIOD.
+
+The researches of geologists have discovered but scanty traces of
+organic remains in the rocks which form the base of this system in
+England. _Arenicolites_, or worm-tracks and burrows, have been found in
+Shropshire, by Mr. Salter, to occur in countless numbers through a mile
+of thickness in the Longmynd rocks; and others were discovered by the
+late Dr. Kinahan in Wicklow. In Ireland, in the picturesque tract of
+Bray Head, on the south and east coasts of Dublin, we find, in slaty
+beds of the same age as the Longmynd rocks, a peculiar zoophyte, which
+has been named by Edward Forbes _Oldhamia_, after its discoverer, Dr.
+Oldham, Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India. This fossil
+represents one of the earliest inhabitants of the ocean, which then
+covered the greater part of the British Isles. “In the hard, purplish,
+and schistose rocks of Bray Head,” says Dr. Kinahan,[34] “as well as
+other parts of Ireland which are recognised as Cambrian rocks, markings
+of a very peculiar character are found. They occur in masses, and are
+recognised as hydrozoic animal assemblages. They have regularity of
+form, abundant, but not universal, occurrence in beds, and permanence of
+character even when the beds are at a distance from each other, and
+dissimilar in chemical and physical character.” In the course of his
+investigations, Dr. Kinahan discovered at least four species of
+Oldhamia, which he has described and figured.
+
+  [34] Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. xxiii., p. 556.
+
+The Cambrian rocks consist of the Llanberis slates of Llanberis and
+Penrhyn in North Wales, which, with their associated sandy strata,
+attain a thickness of about 3,000 feet, and the Barmouth and Harlech
+Sandstones. In the Longmynd hills of Shropshire these last beds attain a
+thickness of 6,000 feet; and in some parts of Merionethshire they are of
+still greater thickness.
+
+Neither in North Wales, nor in the Longmynd, do the Cambrian rocks
+afford any indications of life, except annelide-tracks and burrows. From
+this circumstance, together with general absence of Mollusca in these
+strata, and the sudden appearance of numerous shells and trilobites in
+the succeeding Lingula Flags, a change of conditions seems to have
+ensued at the close of the Cambrian period.
+
+Believing that the red colour of rocks is frequently connected with
+their deposition in inland waters, Professor Ramsay conceives it to be
+possible, that the absence of marine mollusca in the Cambrian rocks may
+be due to the same cause that produced their absence in the Old Red
+Sandstone, and that the presence of sun-cracks and rain-pittings in the
+Longmynd beds is a corroboration of this suggestion.[35]
+
+  [35] “On the Red Rocks of England,” by A. C. Ramsay. _Quart. Jour.
+       Geol. Soc._, vol. xxvii., p. 250.
+
+
+THE SILURIAN PERIOD.
+
+The next period of the Primary Epoch is the _Silurian_, a system of
+rocks universal in extent, overspreading the whole earth more or less
+completely, and covering up the rocks of older age. The term “Silurian”
+was given by the illustrious Murchison to the epoch which now occupies
+our attention, because the system of rocks formed by the marine
+sediments, during the period in question, form large tracts of country
+in Shropshire and Wales, a region formerly peopled by the _Silures_, a
+Celtic race who fought gloriously against the Romans, under Caractacus
+or Caradoc, the British king of those tracts. The reader may find the
+nomenclature strange, as applied to the vast range of rocks which it
+represents in all parts of the Old and New World, but it indicates, with
+sufficient exactness, the particular region in our own country in which
+the system typically prevails--reasons which led to the term being
+adopted, even at a time when its vast geographical extent was not
+suspected.
+
+On this subject, and on the principles which have guided geologists in
+their classification of rocks, Professor Sedgwick remarks in one of his
+papers in the _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_: “In every
+country,” he says,[36] “which is not made out by reference to a
+pre-existing type, our first labour is that of determining the physical
+groups, and establishing their relations by natural sections. The labour
+next in order is the determination of the fossils found in the
+successive physical groups; and, as a matter of fact, the natural groups
+of fossils are generally found to be nearly co-ordinate with the
+physical groups--each successive group resulting from certain conditions
+which have modified the distribution of organic types. In the third
+place comes the collective arrangement of the groups into systems, or
+groups of a higher order. The establishment of the Silurian system is an
+admirable example of this whole process. The groups called Caradoc,
+Wenlock, Ludlow, &c., were physical groups determined by good natural
+sections. The successive groups of fossils were determined by the
+sections; and the sections, as the representatives of physical groups,
+were hardly at all modified by any consideration of the fossils, for
+these two distinct views of the natural history of such groups led to
+co-ordinate results. Then followed the collective view of the whole
+series, and the establishment of a nomenclature. Not only the whole
+series (considered as a distinct system), but every subordinate group
+was defined by a geographical name, referring us to a local type within
+the limits of Siluria; in this respect adopting the principle of
+grouping and nomenclature applied by W. Smith to our secondary rocks. At
+the same time, the older slate rocks of Wales (inferior to the system of
+Siluria), were called _Cambrian_, and soon afterwards the next great
+collective group of rocks (superior to the system of Siluria) was called
+_Devonian_. In this way was established a perfect congruity of language.
+It was geographical in principle, and it represented the actual
+development of all our older rocks, which gave to it its true value and
+meaning.” The period, then, for the purposes of scientific description,
+may be divided into three sub-periods--the Upper and Lower Silurian, and
+the Cambrian.
+
+  [36] _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc_., vol. iii., p. 159.
+
+[Illustration: VIII.--Ideal Landscape of the Silurian Period.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Back of Asaphus caudatus (Dudley, Mus. Stokes),
+with the eyes well preserved. (Buckland.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--_a_, Side view of the left eye of the above,
+magnified, (Buckland.) _b_, Magnified view of a portion of the eye of
+Calymene macrophthalmus. (Hœninghaus.)]
+
+The characteristics of the Silurian period, of which we give an ideal
+view opposite (PLATE VIII.), are supposed to have been shallow seas of
+great extent, with barren submarine reefs and isolated rocks rising here
+and there out of the water, covered with Algæ, and frequented by various
+Mollusca and articulated animals. The earliest traces of vegetation
+belong to the _Thallogens_, flowerless plants of the class Algæ (Fig.
+28), without leaves or stems, which are found among the Lower Silurian
+rocks. To these succeed other plants, according to Dr. Hooker, belonging
+to the Lycopodiaceæ (Fig. 28), the seeds of which are found sparingly in
+the Upper Ludlow beds. Among animals, the _Orthoceratites_ led a
+predacious life in the Silurian seas. Their organisation indicates that
+they preyed upon other animals, pursuing them into the deepest abysses,
+and strangling them in the embrace of their long arms. The _Trilobites_,
+a remarkable group of Crustacea, possessing simple and reticulated
+compound eyes, also highly characterise this period (Figs. 17 to 20);
+presenting at one period or other of their existence 1,677 species, 224
+of which are met with in Great Britain and Ireland, as we are taught by
+the “Thesaurus Siluricus.”[37] Add to this a sun, struggling to
+penetrate the dense atmosphere of the primitive world, and yielding a
+dim and imperfect light to the first created beings as they left the
+hand of the Creator, organisms often rudimentary, but at other times
+sufficiently advanced to indicate a progress towards more perfect
+creations. Such is the picture which the artist has attempted to
+portray.
+
+  [37] “The Flora and Fauna of the Silurian Period,” by John T. Bigsby,
+       M.A., F.G.S. 4to, 1868.
+
+The elaborate and highly valuable “Thesaurus Siluricus” contains the
+names of 8,997 species of fossil remains, but it probably does not tell
+us of one-tenth part of the Silurian life still lying buried in rocks of
+that age in various parts of the world. A rich field is here offered to
+the geological explorer.[38]
+
+  [38] Ibid, p. vi.
+
+
+LOWER SILURIAN.
+
+The Silurian rocks have been estimated by Sir Roderick Murchison to
+occupy, altogether, an area of about 7,600 square miles in England and
+Wales, 18,420 square miles in Scotland, and nearly 7,000 square miles in
+Ireland. Thus, as regards the British Isles, the Silurian rocks rise to
+the surface over nearly 33,000 square miles.
+
+The Silurian rocks have been traced from Cumberland to the Land’s End,
+at the southern extremity of England. They lie at the base of the
+southern Highlands of Scotland, from the North Channel to the North Sea,
+and they range along the entire western coast of that country. In a
+westerly direction they extended to the sea, where the mountains of
+Wales--the Alps of the great chain--would stand out in bold relief, some
+of them facing the sea, others in detached groups; some clothed with a
+stunted vegetation, others naked and desolate; all of them wild and
+picturesque. But an interest surpassing all others belongs to these
+mountains. They are amongst the most ancient sedimentary rocks which
+exist on our globe, a page of the book in which is written the history
+of the antiquities of Great Britain--in fine, of the world.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Ogygia Guettardi. Natural size.]
+
+In Shropshire and Wales three zones of Silurian life have been
+established. In rocks of three different ages _Graptolites_ have left
+the trace of their existence. Another fossil characteristic of these
+ancient rocks is the _Lingula_. This shell is horny or slightly
+calcareous, which has probably been one cause of its preservation. The
+family to which the Lingula belongs is so abundant in the rocks of the
+Welsh mountains, that Sir R. Murchison has used it to designate a
+geological era. These Lingula-flags mark the beginning of the first
+Silurian strata.
+
+In the Lower Llandovery beds, which mark the close of the period, other
+fossils present themselves, thus greatly augmenting the forms of life in
+the Lower Silurian rocks. These are cœlenterata, articulata, and
+mollusca. They mark, however, only a very ephemeral passage over the
+globe, and soon disappear altogether.
+
+The vertebrated animals are only represented by rare Fishes, and it is
+only on reaching the Upper Ludlow rocks, and specially in those beds
+which pass upward into the Old Red Sandstone, that the remains have been
+found of fishes--the most ancient beings of their class.
+
+The class of Crustaceans, of which the lobster, shrimp, and the crab of
+our days are the representatives, was that which predominated in this
+epoch of animal life. Their forms were most singular, and different from
+those of all existing Crustaceans. They consisted mainly of the
+_Trilobites_, a family which became entirely extinct at the close of the
+Carboniferous epoch, but in whose nicely-jointed shell the armourer of
+the middle ages might have found all his contrivances anticipated, with
+not a few besides which he has failed to discover. The head presents, in
+general, the form of an oval buckler; the body is composed of a series
+of articulations, or rings, as represented in Fig. 20; the anterior
+portion carrying the eyes, which in some are reticulated, like those of
+many insects (Figs. 18 and 19); the mouth was placed forward and beneath
+the head. Many of these Crustaceans could roll themselves into balls,
+like the wood-louse (Figs. 23 and 25). They swam on their backs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Lituites cornu-arietis. One-third natural
+size.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Hemicosmites pyriformis. One-third natural
+size.]
+
+During the middle and later Silurian ages, whole rocks were formed
+almost exclusively of their remains; during the Devonian period they
+seem to have gradually died out, almost disappearing in the
+Carboniferous age, and being only represented by one doubtful species in
+the Permian rocks of North America. The Trilobites are unique as a
+family, marking with certainty the rocks in which they occur; “and yet,”
+says Hugh Miller, “how admirably do they exhibit the articulated type of
+being, and illustrate that unity of design which pervades all Nature,
+amid its endless diversity!” Among other beings which have left their
+traces in the Silurian strata is _Nereites Cambriensis_, a species of
+annelide, whose articulations are very distinctly marked in the ancient
+rocks.
+
+Besides the Trilobites, many orders of Mollusca were numerously
+represented in the Silurian seas. As Sir R. Murchison has observed, no
+zoological feature in the Upper Silurian rocks is more striking than the
+great increase and profusion of Cephalopods, many of them of great size,
+which appear in strata of the age immediately antecedent to the dawn of
+vertebrated life. Among the Cephalopods we have _Gyroceras_ and
+_Lituites cornu-arietis_ (Fig. 21), whose living representatives are the
+Nautilus and Cuttlefish of every sea. The genus _Bellerophon_ (Figs. 54
+and 56), with many others, represented the Gasteropods, and like the
+living carinaria sailed freely over the sea by means of its fleshy
+parts. The Gasteropods, with the Lamellibranchs, of which the Oyster is
+a living type, and the Brachiopods, whose congeners may still be
+detected in the _Terebratula_ of our Highland lochs and bays, and the
+_Lingulæ_ of the southern hemisphere, were all then represented. The
+Lamellibranchiata are without a head, and almost entirely destitute of
+power of locomotion. Among the Echinodermata we may cite the
+_Hemiscosmites_, of which _H. pyriformis_ (Fig. 22) may be considered an
+example.
+
+The rocks of the Lower Silurian age in France are found in Languedoc, in
+the environs of Neffiez and of Bédarrieux. They occupy, also, great part
+of Brittany. They occur in Bohemia, also in Spain, Russia, and in the
+New World. Limestones, sandstones, and schists (slates of Angers) form
+the chief part of this series. The Cambrian slates are largely
+represented in Canada and the United States.
+
+                          LOWER SILURIAN GROUP.
+
+  Formation.          Prevailing Rocks.           Thickness.    Fossils.
+
+  Lower      { Hard sandstones, conglomerates,    { 600 to } Pentamerus lens.
+  Llandovery { and flaggy shaly beds              { 1,000  }
+
+             { Shelly sandstones, shales, and     }         { Brachiopods;
+             { slaty beds, with grits, con-       }         { Lamellibranchs;
+  Caradoc or { glomerates, and occasional         } 12,000  { Pteropods;
+  Bala       { calcareous bands (Bala lime-       }         { Cystideans;
+             { stone)                             }         { Graptolites;
+             {                                    }         { Trilobites.
+
+             { Dark-grey flagstones, occasionally }
+  Llandeilo  { calcareous sandstones,             }
+  Flags      { with black slates, containing      }         { Trilobites
+             { Graptolites                        }  1,000  { (Fig. 36);
+             {                                    }    to   { Graptolites;
+                                                  }  1,500  { Heteropods;
+  Lower      { Dark-grey and ferruginous          }         { large
+  Llandeilo  { slates, sandy shales, and bluish   }         { Cephalopods.
+  Tremadoc   { flags, with occasional beds        }
+  Slates     { of pisolitic iron-ore              }
+
+                                                            { Trilobites
+             { Black and dark shaly, grey         }         { (Olenus,
+             { and brown slaty flagstones         }         { Conocoryphe,
+  Lingula    { and sandstones, with siliceous     }  6,000  { Paradoxides,
+  Flags      { grits and quartzites               }         { Fig. 17);
+             {                                    }         { Brachiopods;
+             {                                    }         { Cystideans.
+
+                          CAMBRIAN GROUP.
+
+             { Llanberis slates, with sandy       }  3,000    Annelides.
+  Cambrian   { strata                             }
+             { Harlech grits                         6,000    Oldhamia.
+
+                          LAURENTIAN GROUP.
+
+  Upper      { Stratified, highly-crystalline,    } 12,060    Eozoon.
+  Laurentian { and felspathic rocks               }
+
+  Lower      { Gneiss, quartzite, hornblende      } 18,000    None.
+  Laurentian { and mica-schists                   }
+
+                          UPPER SILURIAN PERIOD.
+
+                          UPPER SILURIAN GROUP.
+                   Lithological Characters.       Thickness.  Fossils.
+
+             { Passage Beds, Tile-stones, and     }         { Sea-weeds,
+             { Downton sandstones, at the         }    80   { Lingulæ,
+             { base of the bone-bed               }         { Mollusca.
+             {                                              {
+             { Micaceous, yellowish and           }   700   { Crustacea and
+  Ludlow     { grey, sandy mudstone               }         { Fish-remains.
+  Rocks      {                                              {
+             { Argillaceous (Aymestry) limestone  }    50   { Crinoids.
+             {                                              {
+             { Argillaceous Shale with impure     }  1000   { Mollusca of
+             { limestones                         }         { many genera.
+
+             { Argillaceous or semi-crystalline   }         { Mollusca of
+             { limestone                          }         { many genera.
+             {                                    }         {
+             { Argillaceous shales, in places     }         { Echinodermata;
+  Wenlock    { slaty                              }  3000   { Actinozoa;
+  Rocks      {                                    }         { Trilobites.
+             { Woolhope Limestone and             }         {
+             { occasional bands of argillaceous   }         { Graptolites.
+             { nodules                            }         {
+
+  Upper      { Grey and yellowish sandstones      }         { Pentamerus
+  Llandovery { (occasionally conglomerates)       }   800   { oblongus,
+  Rocks      { with bands of                      }         { Rhynchonella,
+             { limestone                          }         { Orthides, &c.
+
+Among the fossils of this period may be remarked a number of Trilobites,
+which then attained their greatest development. Among others, _Calymene
+Blumenbachii_ (Fig. 23), some _Cephalopoda_, and _Brachiopoda_, among
+which last may be named _Pentamerus Knightii_, _Orthis_, &c., and some
+Corals, as _Halysites catenularius_ (Fig. 26), or the chain coral.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Calymene Blumenbachii partially rolled up.]
+
+The Trilobites, we have already said, were able to coil themselves into
+a ball, like the wood-louse, doubtless as a means of defence. In Fig.
+23, one of these creatures, _Calymene Blumenbachii_, is represented in
+that form, coiled upon itself. (See also _Illænus Barriensis_, Fig. 25.)
+
+Crustaceans of a very strange form, and in no respects resembling the
+Trilobites, have been met with in the Silurian rocks of England and
+America--the _Pterygotus_ (Fig. 27) and the _Eurypterus_, (Fig. 24).
+They are supposed to have been the inhabitants of fresh water. They were
+called “Seraphim” by the Scotch quarrymen, from the winged form and
+feather-like ornamentation upon the thoracic appendage, the part most
+usually met with. Agassiz figured them in his work on the ‘Fossil
+Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone,’ but, subsequently recognising their
+crustacean character, removed them from the Class of Fishes, and placed
+them with the _Pœcilipod Crustacea_. The _Eurypteridæ_ and _Pterygoti_
+in England almost exclusively belong to the passage beds--the Downton
+sandstone and the Upper Ludlow rocks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Eurypterus remipes. Natural size.]
+
+Among the marine plants which have been found in the rocks corresponding
+with this sub-period are some species of Algæ, and others belonging to
+the Lycopodiaceæ, which become still more abundant in the Old Red
+Sandstone and Carboniferous Periods. Fig. 28 represents some examples of
+the impressions they have left.
+
+The seas were, evidently, abundantly inhabited at the end of the Upper
+Silurian period, for naturalists have examined nearly 1,500 species
+belonging to these beds, and the number of British species, classified
+and arranged for public inspection in our museums cannot be much short
+of that number.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Illænus Barriensis.--Dudley, Walsall.]
+
+Towards the close of the Upper Silurian sub-period, the argillaceous
+beds pass upwards into more sandy and shore-like deposits, in which the
+most ancient known fossil Fishes occur, and then usher us into the first
+great ichthyic period of the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian, so well
+marked by its fossil fishes in Britain, Russia, and North America. The
+so-called fish-bones have been the subject of considerable doubt.
+Between the Upper Ludlow rocks opposite Downton Castle and the next
+overlying stratum, there occurs a thin bed of soft earthy shale, and
+fine, soft, yellowish greenstone, immediately overlying the Ludlow rock:
+just below this a remarkable fish-deposit occurs, called the Ludlow
+bone-bed, because the bones of animals are found in this stratum in
+great quantities. Old Drayton treats these bones as a great marvel:--
+
+                    “With strange and sundry tales
+    Of all their wondrous things; and not the least in Wales,
+    Of that prodigious spring (him neighbouring as he past),
+    That little fishes’ bones continually doth cast.”
+
+
+POLYOLBION.
+
+Above the yellow beds, or Downton sandstone, as they are called, organic
+remains are extensively diffused through the argillaceous strata, which
+have yielded fragments of fishes’ bones (being the earliest trace yet
+found of vertebrate life), with seeds and land-plants, the latter
+clearly indicating the neighbourhood of land, and the poverty of
+numbers and the small size of the shells, a change of condition in the
+nature of the waters in which they lived. “It was the central part
+only,” says Sir R. Murchison, “of this band, or a ginger-bread-coloured
+layer of a thickness of three or four inches, and dwindling away to a
+quarter of an inch, exhibiting, when my attention was first directed to
+it, a matted mass of bony fragments, for the most part of small size and
+of very peculiar character. Some of the fragments of fish are of a
+mahogany hue, but others of so brilliant a black that when first
+discovered they conveyed the impression that the bed was a heap of
+broken beetles.”[39]
+
+  [39] “Siluria,” p. 148.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Halysites catenularius.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Pterygotus bilobatus.]
+
+The fragments thus discovered were, after examination on the spot,
+supposed to be those of fishes, but, upon further investigation, many of
+them were found to belong to Crustaceans. The ichthyic nature of some of
+them is, however, now well established.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Plants of the Palæozoic Epoch.--1 and 2, Algæ;
+3 and 4, Lycopods.]
+
+Silurian Rocks are found in France in the departments of La Manche,
+Calvados, and of the Sarthe, and in Languedoc the Silurian formation has
+occupied the attention of Messrs. Graff and Fournet, who have traced
+along the base of the Espinouse, the green, primordial chlorite-schists,
+surmounted by clay-slates, which become more and more pure as the
+distance from the masses of granite and gneiss increases, and the valley
+of the Jour is approached. Upon these last the Silurian system rests,
+sinking towards the plain under Secondary and Tertiary formations. In
+Great Britain, Silurian strata are found enormously developed in the
+West and South Highlands of Scotland, on the western slopes of the
+Pennine chain and the mountains of Wales, and in the adjoining counties
+of Shropshire--their most typical region--and Worcestershire. In Spain;
+in Germany (on the banks of the Rhine); in Bohemia--where, also, they
+are largely developed, especially in the neighbourhood of Prague--in
+Sweden, where they compose the entire island of Gothland; in Norway; in
+Russia, especially in the Ural Mountains; and in America, in the
+neighbourhood of New York, and half way across the continent--in all
+these countries they are more or less developed.
+
+We may add, as a general characteristic of the Silurian system as a
+whole, that of all formations it is the most disturbed. In the countries
+where it prevails, it only appears as fragments which have escaped
+destruction amid the numerous changes that have affected it during the
+earlier ages of the world. The beds, originally horizontal, are turned
+up, contorted, folded over, and sometimes become even vertical, as in
+the slates of Angers, Llanberis, and Ireleth. D’Orbigny found the
+Silurian beds with their fossils in the American Andes, at the height of
+16,000 feet above the level of the sea. What vast upheavals must have
+been necessary to elevate these fossils to such a height!
+
+In the Silurian period the sea still occupied the earth almost entirely;
+it covered the greater part of Europe: all the area comprised between
+Spain and the Ural was under water. In France only two islands had
+emerged from the primordial ocean. One of them was formed of the
+granitic rocks of what are now Brittany and La Vendée; the other
+constituted the great central plateau, and consisted of the same rocks.
+The northern parts of Norway, Sweden, and of Russian Lapland formed a
+vast continental surface. In America the emerged lands were more
+extensive. In North America an island extended over eighteen degrees of
+latitude, in the part now called New Britain. In South America, in the
+Pacific, Chili formed one elongated island. Upon the Atlantic, a portion
+of Brazil, to the extent of twenty degrees of latitude, was raised above
+water. Finally, in the equatorial regions, Guiana formed a later island
+in the vast ocean which still covered most other parts of the New World.
+
+There is, perhaps, no scene of greater geological confusion than that
+presented by the western flanks of the Pennine chain. A line drawn
+longitudinally from about three degrees west of Greenwich, would include
+on its western side Cross Fell, in Cumberland, and the greater part of
+the Silurian rocks belonging to the Cambrian system, in which the
+Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks are now well determined; while the
+upper series are so metamorphosed by eruptive granite and the effects of
+denudation, as to be scarcely recognisable. “With the rare exception of
+a seaweed and a zoophyte,” says the author of ‘Siluria,’ “not a trace of
+a fossil has been detected in the thousands of feet of strata, with
+interpolated igneous matter, which intervene between the slates of
+Skiddaw and the Coniston limestone, with its overlying flags; at that
+zone only do we begin to find anything like a fauna: here, judging from
+its fossils, we find representations of the Caradoc and Bala rocks.”
+This much-disturbed district Professor Sedgwick, after several years
+devoted to its study, has attempted to reconstruct, the following being
+a brief summary of his arguments. The region consists of:--
+
+I. Beds of mudstone and sandstone, deposited in an ancient sea,
+apparently without the calcareous matter necessary to the existence of
+shells and corals, and with numerous traces of organic forms of Silurian
+age--these were the elements of the Skiddaw slates.
+
+II. Plutonic rocks were, for many ages, poured out among the aqueous
+sedimentary deposits; the beds were broken up and re-cemented--plutonic
+silt and other finely comminuted matter were deposited along with the
+igneous rocks: the process was again and again repeated, till a deep sea
+was filled up with a formation many thousands of feet thick by the
+materials forming the middle Cambrian rocks.
+
+III. A period of comparative repose followed. Beds of shells and bands
+of coral were formed upon the more ancient rocks, interrupted with beds
+of sand and mud; processes many times repeated: and thus, in a long
+succession of ages, were the deposits of the upper series completed.
+
+IV. Towards the end of the period, mountain-masses and eruptive rocks
+were pushed up through the older deposits. After many revolutions, all
+the divisions of the slate-series were upheaved and contorted by
+movements which did not affect the newer formations.
+
+V. The conglomerates of the Old Red Sandstone were now spread out by the
+beating of an ancient surf, continued through many ages, against the
+upheaved and broken slates.
+
+VI. Another period of comparative repose followed: the coral-reefs of
+the mountain limestone, and the whole carboniferous series, were formed,
+but not without any oscillations between the land and sea-levels.
+
+VII. An age of disruption and violence succeeded, marked by the
+discordant position of the rocks, and by the conglomerate of the New Red
+Sandstone. At the beginning of this period the great north and south
+“Craven fault,” which rent off the eastern calcareous mountains from the
+old slates, was formed. Soon afterwards the disruption of the great
+“Pennine fault,” which ranges from the foot of Stanmore to the coast of
+North Cumberland, occurred, lifting up the terrace of Cross Fell above
+the plain of the Eden. About the same time some of the north and south
+fissures, which now form the valleys leading into Morecambe Bay, may
+have been formed.
+
+VIII. The more tranquil period of the New Red Sandstone now dawns, but
+here our facts fail us on the skirts of the Lake Mountains.
+
+IX. Thousands of ages rolled away during the Secondary and Tertiary
+periods, in which we can trace no movement. But the powers of Nature are
+never still: during this age of apparent repose many a fissure may have
+started into an open chasm, many a valley been scooped out upon the
+lines of “fault.”
+
+X. Close to the historic times we have evidence of new disruptions and
+violence, and of vast changes of level between land and sea. Ancient
+valleys probably opened out anew or extended, and fresh ones formed in
+the changes of the oceanic level. Cracks among the strata may now have
+become open fissures, vertical escarpments formed by unequal elevations
+along the lines of fault; and subsidence may have given rise to many of
+the tarns and lakes of the district.
+
+Such is the picture which one of our most eminent geologists gives as
+the probable process by which this region has attained its present
+appearance, after he had devoted years of study and observation to its
+peculiarities; and his description of one spot applies in its general
+scope to the whole district. At the close of the Silurian period our
+island was probably an archipelago, ranging over ten degrees of
+latitude, like many of the island groups now found in the great Pacific
+Ocean; the old gneissic hills of the western coast of Scotland,
+culminating in the granite range of Ben Nevis, and stretching to the
+southern Grampians, forming the nucleus of one island group; the south
+Highlands of Scotland, ranging from the Lammermoor hills, another; the
+Pennine chain and the Malvern hills, the third, and most easterly group;
+the Shropshire and Welsh mountains, a fourth; and Devon and Cornwall
+stretching far to the south and west. The basis of the calculation
+being, that every spot of this island lying now at a lower elevation
+than 800 feet above the sea, was under water at the close of the
+Silurian period, except in those instances where depression by
+subsidence has since occurred.
+
+There is, however, another element to be considered, which cannot be
+better stated than in the picturesque language of M. Esquiros, an
+eminent French writer, who has given much attention to British geology.
+“The Silurian mountains,” he says, “ruins in themselves, contain other
+ruins. In the bosom of the Longmynd rocks, geologists discover
+conglomerates of rounded stones which bear no resemblance to any rocks
+now near them. These stones consequently prove the existence of rocks
+more ancient still; they are fragments of other mountains, of other
+shores, perhaps even of continents, broken up, destroyed, and crumbled
+by earlier seas. There is, then, little hope of one discovering the
+origin of life on the globe, since this page of the Genesis of the facts
+has been torn. For some years geologists loved to rest their eyes, in
+this long night of ages, upon an ideal limit beyond which plants and
+animals would begin to appear. Now, this line of demarcation between the
+rocks which are without vestiges of organised beings, and those which
+contain fossils, is nearly effaced among the surrounding ruins. On the
+horizon of the primitive world we see vaguely indicated a series of
+other worlds which have altogether disappeared; perhaps it is necessary
+to resign ourselves to the fact that the dawn of life is lost in this
+silent epoch, where age succeeds age, till they are clothed in the garb
+of eternity. The river of creation is like the Nile, which, as Bossuet
+says, hides its head--a figure of speech which time has falsified--but
+the endless speculations opened up by these and similar considerations
+led Lyell to say, ‘Here I am almost prepared to believe in the ancient
+existence of the Atlantis of Plato.’”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Ischadites Kœnigii. Upper Ludlow Rocks.]
+
+    NOTE.--For accurate representations of the typical fossils of
+    the Palæozoic strata of Britain, the reader may consult, with
+    advantage, the carefully executed “Figures of Characteristic
+    British Fossils,” by W. H. Baily, F.G.S. (Van Voorst).
+
+
+OLD RED SANDSTONE AND DEVONIAN PERIOD.
+
+Another great period in the Earth’s history opens on us--the Devonian or
+“Old Red Sandstone,” so called, because the formation is very clearly
+displayed over a great extent of country in the county of Devon. The
+name was first proposed by Murchison and Sedgwick, in 1837, for these
+strata, which had previously been referred to the “transition” or
+Silurian series.
+
+The circumstances which marked the passage of the uppermost Silurian
+rocks into Old Red Sandstone seem to have been:--First, a shallowing of
+the sea, followed by a gradual alteration in the physical geography of
+the district, so that the area became changed into a series of mingled
+fresh and brackish lagoons, which, finally, by continued terrestrial
+changes, were converted into a great fresh-water lake; or, if we take
+the whole of Britain and lands beyond, into a series of lakes.[40]
+
+  [40] “On the Red Rocks of England,” by A. C. Ramsay. _Quart. Jour.
+       Geol. Soc._, vol. xxvii., p. 243.
+
+Mr. Godwin Austen has, also, stated his opinion that the Old Red
+Sandstone, as distinct from the Devonian rocks, was of lacustrine
+origin.
+
+The absence of marine shells helps to this conclusion, and the nearest
+living analogues of some of the fishes are found in the fresh water of
+Africa and North America. Even the occurrence in the Devonian rocks of
+Devonshire and Russia of some Old Red Sandstone fishes along with marine
+shells, merely proves that some of them were fitted to live in either
+fresh or salt water, like various existing fishes. At the present day
+animals that are commonly supposed to be essentially marine, are
+occasionally found inhabiting fresh water, as is the case in some of the
+lakes of Sweden, where it is said marine crustacea are found. Mr.
+Alexander Murray also states that in the inland fresh-water lakes of
+Newfoundland seals are common, living there without even visiting the
+sea. And the same is the case in Lake Baikal, in Central Asia.
+
+The red colour of the Old Red Sandstone of England and Scotland, and the
+total absence of fossils, except in the very uppermost beds, are
+considered by Professor Ramsay to indicate that the strata were
+deposited in inland waters. These fossils are terrestrial ferns,
+_Adiantites_ (Pecopteris) _Hibernicus_, and a fresh-water shell, _Anodon
+Jukesii_, together with the fish _Glyptolepis_.[41]
+
+  [41] “On the Red Rocks of England,” by A. C. Ramsay. _Quart. Jour.
+       Geol. Soc._, vol. xxvii., p. 247.
+
+The rocks deposited during the Devonian period exhibit some species of
+animals and plants of a much more complex organisation than those which
+had previously made their appearance. We have seen, during the Silurian
+epoch, organisms appearing of very simple type; namely, zoophytes,
+articulated and molluscous animals, with algæ and lycopods, among
+plants. We shall see, as the globe grows older, that organisation
+becomes more complex. Vertebrated animals, represented by numerous
+Fishes, succeed Zoophytes, Trilobites, and Molluscs. Soon afterwards
+Reptiles appear, then Birds and Mammals; until the time comes when man,
+His supreme and last work, issues from the hands of the Creator, to be
+king of all the earth--man, who has for the sign of his superiority,
+intelligence--that celestial gift, the emanation from God.
+
+Vast inland seas, or lakes covered with a few islets, form the ideal of
+the Old Red Sandstone period. Upon the rocks of these islets the
+mollusca and articulata of the period exhibit themselves, as represented
+on the opposite page (PLATE IX.). Stranded on the shore we see
+armour-coated Fishes of strange forms. A group of plants
+(_Asterophyllites_) covers one of the islets, associated with plants
+nearly herbaceous, resembling mosses, though the true mosses did not
+appear till a much later period. _Encrinites_ and _Lituites_ occupy the
+rocks in the foreground of the left hand.
+
+The vegetation is still simple in its development, for forest-trees seem
+altogether wanting. The Asterophyllites, with tall and slender stems,
+rise singly to a considerable height. Cryptogams, of which our mushrooms
+convey some idea, would form the chief part of this primitive
+vegetation; but in consequence of the softness of their tissues, their
+want of consistence, and the absence of much woody fibre, these earlier
+plants have come down to us only in a fragmentary state.
+
+[Illustration: IX.--Ideal Landscape of the Devonian Period.]
+
+The plants belonging to the Devonian period differ much from the
+vegetation of the present day. They resembled both mosses and lycopods,
+which are flowerless cryptogamic plants of a low organisation. The
+Lycopods are herbaceous plants, playing only a secondary part in the
+vegetation of the globe; but in the earlier ages of organic creation
+they were the predominant forms in the vegetable kingdom, both as to
+individual size and the number and variety of their species.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Plants of the Devonian Epoch. 1. Algæ. 2.
+Zostera. 3. Psilophyton, natural size.]
+
+In the woodcut (Fig. 30) we have represented three species of aquatic
+plants belonging to the Devonian period; they are--1, _Fucoids_ (or
+_Algæ_); 2, _Zostera_; 3, _Psilophyton_. The Fucoid closely resembles
+its modern ally; but with the first indications of terrestrial
+vegetation we pass from the _Thallogens_, to which the _Algæ_ belong
+(plants of simple organisation, without flower or stem), to the
+_Acrogens_, which throw out their leaves and branches at the extremity,
+and bear in the axils of their leaves minute circular cases, which form
+the receptacles of their spore-like seeds. “If we stand,” says Hugh
+Miller, “on the outer edge of one of those iron-bound shores of the
+Western Highlands, where rock and skerries are crowned with sea-weeds;
+the long cylindrical lines of _chorda-filum_, many feet in length, lying
+aslant in the tideway; long shaggy bunches of _Fucus serratus_ and _F.
+nodosus_ drooping from the sides of the rock; the flat ledges bristling
+with the stiff cartilaginous many-cleft fronds of at least two species
+of _Chondrus_; now, in the thickly-spread Fucoids of this Highland scene
+we have a not very improbable representation of the Thallogenous
+vegetation. If we add to this rocky tract, so rich in Fucoids, a
+submarine meadow of pale shelly sand, covered by a deep-green swathe of
+_Zosteræ_, with jointed root and slim flowers, unfurnished with petals,
+it would be more representative still.”
+
+Let us now take a glance at the animals belonging to this period.
+
+The class of Fishes seem to have held the first rank and importance in
+the Old Red Sandstone _fauna_; but their structure was very different
+from that of existing fishes: they were provided with a sort of cuirass,
+and from the nature of the scales were called _Ganoid_ fishes. Numerous
+fragments of these curious fishes are now found in geological
+collections; they are of strange forms, some being completely covered
+with a cuirass of many pieces, and others furnished with wing-like
+pectoral fins, as in _Pterichthys_.
+
+Let any one picture to himself the surprise he would feel should he, on
+taking his first lesson in geology, and on first breaking a stone--a
+pebble, for instance, exhibiting every external sign of a water-worn
+surface--find, to appropriate Archdeacon Paley’s illustration, a watch,
+or any other delicate piece of mechanism, in its centre. Now, this,
+thirty years ago, is exactly the kind of surprise that Hugh Miller
+experienced in the sandstone quarry opened in a lofty wall of cliff
+overhanging the northern shore of the Moray Frith. He had picked up a
+nodular mass of blue Lias-limestone, which he laid open by a stroke of
+the hammer, when, behold! an exquisitely shaped Ammonite was displayed
+before him. It is not surprising that henceforth the half-mason,
+half-sailor, and poet, became a geologist. He sought for information,
+and found it; he found that the rocks among which he laboured swarmed
+with the relics of a former age. He pursued his investigations, and
+found, while working in this zone of strata all around the coast, that a
+certain class of fossils abounded; but that in a higher zone these
+familiar forms disappeared, and others made their appearance.
+
+He read and learned that in other lands--lands of more recent
+formation--strange forms of animal life had been discovered; forms which
+in their turn had disappeared, to be succeeded by others, more in
+accordance with beings now living. He came to know that he was
+surrounded, in his native mountains, by the sedimentary deposits of
+other ages; he became alive to the fact that these grand mountain ranges
+had been built up grain by grain in the bed of the ocean, and the
+mountains had been subsequently raised to their present level by the
+upheaval of one part of its bed, or by the subsidence of another. The
+young geologist now ceased to wonder that each bed, or series of beds,
+should contain in its bosom records of its own epoch; it seemed to him
+as if it had been the object of the Creator to furnish the inquirer with
+records of His wisdom and power, which could not be misinterpreted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Fishes of the Devonian Epoch. 1. Coccosteus,
+one-third natural size. 2. Pterichthys, one-fourth natural size. 3.
+Cephalaspis, one-fourth natural size.]
+
+Among the Fishes of Old Red Sandstone, the _Coccosteus_ (Fig. 31, No. 1)
+was only partially cased in a defensive armour; the upper part of the
+body down to the fins was defended by scales. _Pterichthys_ (No. 2), a
+strange form, with a very small head, furnished with two powerful
+paddles, or arms, like wings, and a mouth placed far behind the nose,
+was entirely covered with scales. The _Cephalaspis_ (No. 3), which has a
+considerable outward resemblance to some fishes of the present time, was
+nevertheless mail-clad, only on the anterior part of the body.
+
+Other fishes were provided with no such cuirass, properly so called, but
+were protected by strong resisting scales, enveloping the whole body.
+Such were the _Acanthodes_ (1), the _Climatius_ (2), and the
+_Diplacanthus_ (3), represented in Fig. 32.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Fishes of the Devonian epoch. 1. Acanthodes. 2.
+Climatius. 3. Diplacanthus.]
+
+Among the organic beings of the Devonian rocks we find worm-like
+animals, such as the _Annelides_, protected by an external shell, and
+which at the present day are probably represented by the _Serpulæ_.
+Among Crustaceans the _Trilobites_ are still somewhat numerous,
+especially in the middle rocks of the period. We also find there many
+different groups of Mollusca, of which the _Brachiopoda_ form more than
+one-half. We may say of this period that it is the reign of
+Brachiopoda; in it they assumed extraordinary forms, and the number of
+their species was very great. Among the most curious we may instance the
+enormous _Stringocephalus Burtini_, _Davidsonia Verneuilli_, _Uncites
+gryphus_, and _Calceola Sandalina_, shells of singular and fantastic
+shape, differing entirely from all known forms. Amongst the most
+characteristic of these Mollusca, _Atrypa reticularis_ (Fig. 33) holds
+the first rank, with _Spirifera concentrica_, _Leptæna Murchisoni_, and
+_Productus subaculeatus_. Among the Cephalopoda we have _Clymenia
+Sedgwickii_ (Fig. 34), including the _Goniatites_, illustrating the
+Ammonites, which so distinctly characterise the Secondary epoch, but
+which were only foreshadowed in the Devonian period.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Atrypa reticularis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Clymenia Sedgwickii.]
+
+Among the Radiata of this epoch, the order Crinoidea are abundantly
+represented. We give as an example _Cupressocrinus crassus_ (Fig. 35).
+The Encrinites, under which name the whole of these animals are
+sometimes included, lived attached to rocky places and in deep water, as
+they now do in the Caribbean sea.
+
+The Encrinites, as we have seen, were represented during the Silurian
+period in a simple genus, _Hemicosmites_, but they greatly increased in
+numbers in the seas of the Devonian period. They diminish in numbers, as
+we retire from that geological age; until those forms, which were so
+numerous and varied in the earliest seas, are now only represented by
+two genera.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Cupressocrinus crassus.]
+
+The Old Red Sandstone rocks are composed of schists, sandstone, and
+limestones. The line of demarcation between the Silurian rocks and those
+which succeed them may be followed, in many places, by the eye; but, on
+a closer examination, the exact limits of the two systems become more
+difficult to fix. The beds of the one system pass into the other by a
+gradual passage, for Nature rarely admits of violent contrasts, and
+shows few sudden transitions. By-and-by, however, the change becomes
+very decided, and the contrast between the dark grey masses at the base
+and the superincumbent yellow and red rocks become sufficiently
+striking. In fact, the uppermost beds of the Silurian rocks are the
+passage-beds of the overlying system, consisting of flagstones,
+occasionally reddish, and called in some districts “tile-stones.” Over
+these lie the Old Red Sandstone conglomerate, the Caithness flags, and
+the great superincumbent mass which forms the upper portion of the
+system. Though less abrupt than the eruptive and Silurian mountains, the
+Old Red Sandstone scenery is, nevertheless, distinguished by its
+imposing outline, assuming bold and lofty escarpments in the Vans of
+Brecon, in Grongar Hill, near Caermarthen, and in the Black Mountain of
+Monmouthshire, in the centre of a landscape which, wood, rock, and river
+combine to render perfect. But it is in the north of Scotland where this
+rock assumes its grandest aspect, wrapping its mantle round the loftiest
+mountains, and rising out of the sea in rugged and fantastic masses, as
+far north as the Orkneys. In Devon and Cornwall, where the rocks are of
+a calcareous, and sometimes schistose or slaty character, they are
+sufficiently extensive to have given a name to the series, which is
+recognised all over the world.
+
+In Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Shropshire, Gloucestershire, and South
+Wales, the Old Red Sandstone is largely developed, and sometimes attains
+the thickness of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet, divided into: 1.
+Conglomerate; 2. Brown stone, with _Eurypterus_; 3. Marl and cornstones,
+with irregular courses of concrete limestone, in which are spines of
+Fishes and remains of _Cephalaspis_ and _Pteraspis_; 4. Thin
+olive-coloured shales and sandstone, intercalated with beds of red marl,
+containing _Cephalaspis_ and _Auchenaspis_. In Scotland, south of the
+Grampians, a yellow sandstone occupies the base of the system;
+conglomerate, red shales, sandstone and cornstones, containing
+_Holoptychius_ and _Cephalaspis_, and the Arbroath paving-stone,
+containing what Agassiz recognised as a huge Crustacean.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Trinucleus Lloydii. (Llandeilo Flags.)]
+
+Some of the phenomena connected with the older rocks of Devonshire are
+difficult to unravel. The Devonian, it is now understood, is the
+equivalent, in another area, of the Old Red Sandstone, and in Cornwall
+and Devonshire lie directly on the Silurian strata, while elsewhere the
+fossils of the Upper Silurian are almost identical with those in the
+Devonian beds. The late Professor Jukes, with some other geologists, was
+of opinion that the Devonian rocks of Devonshire only represented the
+Old Red Sandstone of Scotland and South Wales in part; the Upper
+Devonian rocks lying between the acknowledged Old Red Sandstone and the
+Culm-measures being the representatives of the lower carboniferous rocks
+of Ireland.
+
+Mr. Etheridge, on the other hand, in an elaborate memoir upon the same
+subject, has endeavoured to prove that the Devonian and Old Red
+Sandstone, though contemporaneous in point of time, were deposited in
+different areas and under widely different conditions--the one strictly
+marine, the other altogether fresh-water--or, perhaps, partly
+fresh-water and partly estuarine. This supposition is strongly supported
+by his researches into the mollusca of the Devonian system, and also by
+the fish-remains of the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone of Scotland and
+the West of England and Wales.[42] The difficulty of drawing a
+sharply-defined line of demarcation between different systems is
+sufficient to dispel the idea which has sometimes been entertained that
+special _faunæ_ were created and annihilated in the mass at the close of
+each epoch. There was no close: each epoch disappears or merges into
+that which succeeds it, and with it the animals belonging to it, much as
+we have seen them disappear from our own fauna almost within recent
+times.
+
+  [42] For fuller details on this subject, see J. B. Jukes’ “Manual of
+       Geology,” 3rd ed., p. 762. Also, R. Etheridge, _Quart. Journ.
+       Geol. Soc._, vol. 23, p. 251.
+
+
+CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD.
+
+In the history of our globe the Carboniferous period succeeds to the
+Devonian. It is in the formations of this latter epoch that we find the
+fossil fuel which has done so much to enrich and civilise the world in
+our own age. This period divides itself into two great sub-periods: 1.
+The _Coal-measures_; and 2. The _Carboniferous Limestone_. The first, a
+period which gave rise to the great deposits of coal; the second, to
+most important marine deposits, most frequently underlying the
+coal-fields in England, Belgium, France, and America.
+
+The limestone-mountains which form the base of the whole system, attain
+in places, according to Professor Phillips, a thickness of 2,500 feet.
+They are of marine origin, as is apparent by the multitude of fossils
+they contain of Zoophytes, Radiata, Cephalopoda, and Fishes. But the
+chief characteristic of this epoch is its strictly terrestrial
+flora--remains of plants now become as common as they were rare in all
+previous formations, announcing a great increase of dry land. In older
+geological times the present site of our island was covered by a sea of
+unlimited extent; we now approach a time when it was a forest, or,
+rather, an innumerable group of islands, and marshes covered with
+forests, which spread over the surface of the clusters of islands which
+thickly studded the sea of the period.
+
+The monuments of this era of profuse vegetation reveal themselves in the
+precious Coal-measures of England and Scotland. These give us some idea
+of the rich verdure which covered the surface of the earth, newly risen
+from the bosom of its parent waves. It was the paradise of terrestrial
+vegetation. The grand _Sigillaria_, the _Stigmaria_, and other fern-like
+plants, were especially typical of this age, and formed the woods, which
+were left to grow undisturbed; for as yet no living Mammals seem to have
+appeared; everything indicates a uniformly warm, humid temperature, the
+only climate in which the gigantic ferns of the Coal-measures could have
+attained their magnitude. In Fig. 37 the reader has a restoration of the
+arborescent and herbaceous Ferns of the period. Conifers have been
+found of this period with concentric rings, but these rings are more
+slightly marked than in existing trees of the same family, from which
+it is reasonable to assume that the seasonal changes were less marked
+than they are with us.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Ferns restored. 1 and 2. Arborescent Ferns. 3
+and 4. Herbaceous Ferns.]
+
+Everything announces that the time occupied in the deposition of the
+Carboniferous Limestone was one of vast duration. Professor Phillips
+calculates that, at the ordinary rate of progress, it would require
+122,400 years to produce only sixty feet of coal. Geologists believe,
+moreover, that the upper coal-measures, where bed has been deposited
+upon bed, for ages upon ages, were accumulated under conditions of
+comparative tranquillity, but that the end of this period was marked by
+violent convulsions--by ruptures of the terrestrial crust, when the
+carboniferous rocks were upturned, contorted, dislocated by faults, and
+subsequently partially denuded, and thus appear now in depressions or
+basin-shaped concavities; and that upon this deranged and disturbed
+foundation a fourth geological system, called Permian, was constructed.
+
+The fundamental character of the period we are about to study is the
+immense development of a vegetation which then covered much of the
+globe. The great thickness of the rocks which now represent the period
+in question, the variety of changes which are observed in these rocks
+wherever they are met with, lead to the conclusion that this phase in
+the Earth’s history involved a long succession of time.
+
+Coal, as we shall find, is composed of the mineralised remains of the
+vegetation which flourished in remote ages of the world. Buried under an
+enormous thickness of rocks, it has been preserved to our days, after
+being modified in its inward nature and external aspect. Having lost a
+portion of its elementary constituents, it has become transformed into a
+species of carbon, impregnated with those bituminous substances which
+are the ordinary products of the slow decomposition of vegetable matter.
+
+Thus, coal, which supplies our manufactures and our furnaces, which is
+the fundamental agent of our productive and economic industry--the coal
+which warms our houses and furnishes the gas which lights our streets
+and dwellings--is the substance of the plants which formed the forests,
+the vegetation, and the marshes of the ancient world, at a period too
+distant for human chronology to calculate with anything like precision.
+We shall not say--with some persons, who believe that all in Nature was
+made with reference to man, and who thus form a very imperfect idea of
+the vast immensity of creation--that the vegetables of the ancient world
+have lived and multiplied only, some day, to prepare for man the agents
+of his economic and industrial occupations. We shall rather direct the
+attention of our young readers to the powers of modern science, which
+can thus, after such a prodigious interval of time, trace the precise
+origin, and state with the utmost exactness, the genera and species of
+plants, of which there are now no identical representatives existing on
+the face of the earth.
+
+Let us pause for a moment, and consider the general characters which
+belonged to our planet during the Carboniferous period. Heat--though not
+necessarily excessive heat--and extreme humidity were then the
+attributes of its atmosphere. The modern allies of the species which
+formed its vegetation are now only found under the burning latitudes of
+the tropics; and the enormous dimensions in which we find them in the
+fossil state prove, on the other hand, that the atmosphere was saturated
+with moisture. Dr. Livingstone tells us that continual rains, added to
+intense heat, are the climatic characteristic of Equatorial Africa,
+where the vigorous and tufted vegetation flourishes which is so
+delightful to the eye.
+
+It is a remarkable circumstance that conditions of equable and warm
+climate, combined with humidity, do not seem to have been limited to any
+one part of the globe, but the temperature of the whole globe seems to
+have been nearly the same in very different latitudes. From the
+Equatorial regions up to Melville Island, in the Arctic Ocean, where in
+our days eternal frost prevails--from Spitzbergen to the centre of
+Africa, the carboniferous flora is identically the same. When nearly the
+same plants are found in Greenland and Guinea; when the same species,
+now extinct, are met with of equal development at the equator as at the
+pole, we cannot but admit that at this epoch the temperature of the
+globe was nearly alike everywhere. What we now call _climate_ was
+unknown in these geological times. There seems to have been then only
+one climate over the whole globe. It was at a subsequent period, that
+is, in later Tertiary times, that the cold began to make itself felt at
+the terrestrial poles. Whence, then, proceeded this general superficial
+warmth, which we now regard with so much surprise? It was a consequence
+of the greater or nearer influence of the interior heat of the globe.
+The earth was still so hot in itself, that the heat which reached it
+from the sun may have been inappreciable.
+
+Another hypothesis, which has been advanced with much less certainty
+than the preceding, relates to the chemical composition of the air
+during the Carboniferous period. Seeing the enormous mass of vegetation
+which then covered the globe, and extended from one pole to the other;
+considering, also, the great proportion of carbon and hydrogen which
+exists in the bituminous matter of coal, it has been thought, and not
+without reason, that the atmosphere of the period might be richer in
+carbonic acid than the atmosphere of the present day. It has even been
+thought that the small number of (especially air-breathing) animals,
+which then lived, might be accounted for by the presence of a greater
+proportion of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere than is the case in
+our own times. This, however, is pure assumption, totally deficient in
+proof. Nothing proves that the atmosphere of the period in question was
+richer in carbonic acid than is the case now. Since we are only able,
+then, to offer vague conjectures on this subject, we cannot profess with
+any confidence to entertain the opinion that the atmospheric air of the
+Carboniferous period contained more carbonic acid gas than that which we
+now breathe. What we can remark, with certainty, as a striking
+characteristic of the vegetation of the globe during this phase of its
+history, was the prodigious development which it assumed. The Ferns,
+which in our days and in our climate, are most commonly only small
+perennial plants, in the Carboniferous age sometimes presented
+themselves under lofty and even magnificent forms.
+
+Every one knows those marsh-plants with hollow, channelled, and
+articulated cylindrical stems; whose joints are furnished with a
+membranous, denticulated sheath, and which bear the vulgar name of
+“mare’s-tail;” their fructification forming a sort of catkin composed of
+many rings of scales, carrying on their lower surface sacs full of
+_spores_ or seeds. These humble _Equiseta_ were represented during the
+Coal-period by herbaceous trees from twenty to thirty feet high and four
+to six inches in diameter. Their trunks, channelled longitudinally, and
+divided transversely by lines of articulation, have been preserved to
+us: they bear the name of _Calamites_. The engraving (Fig. 38)
+represents one of these gigantic mare’s-tails, or Calamites, of the
+Coal-period, restored under the directions of M. Eugene Deslongchamps.
+It is represented with its fronds of leaves, and its organs of
+fructification. They seem to have grown by means of an underground stem,
+while new buds issued from the ground at intervals, as represented in
+the engraving.
+
+The _Lycopods_ of our age are humble plants, scarcely a yard in height,
+and most commonly creepers; but the Lycopodiaceæ of the ancient world
+were trees of eighty or ninety feet in height. It was the
+_Lepidodendrons_ which filled the forests. Their leaves were sometimes
+twenty inches long, and their trunks a yard in diameter. Such are the
+dimensions of some specimens of _Lepidodendron carinatum_ which have
+been found. Another Lycopod of this period, the _Lomatophloyos
+crassicaule_, attained dimensions still more colossal. The _Sigillarias_
+sometimes exceeded 100 feet in height. Herbaceous Ferns were also
+exceedingly abundant, and grew beneath the shade of these gigantic
+trees. It was the combination of these lofty trees with such shrubs (if
+we may so call them), which formed the forests of the Carboniferous
+period. The trunks of two of the gigantic trees, which flourished in the
+forests of the Carboniferous period, are represented in Figs. 39 and 40,
+reduced respectively to one-fifth and one-tenth the natural size.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Calamite restored. Thirty to forty feet high.]
+
+What could be more surprising than the aspect of this exuberant
+vegetation!--these immense Sigillarias, which reigned over the forest!
+these Lepidodendrons, with flexible and slender stems! these
+Lomatophloyos, which present themselves as _herbaceous_ trees of
+gigantic height, furnished with verdant leaflets! these Calamites, forty
+feet high! these elegant arborescent Ferns, with airy foliage, as
+finely cut as the most delicate lace! Nothing at the present day can
+convey to us an idea of the prodigious and immense extent of
+never-changing verdure which clothed the earth, from pole to pole, under
+the high temperature which everywhere prevailed over the whole
+terrestrial globe. In the depths of these inextricable forests parasitic
+plants were suspended from the trunks of the great trees, in tufts or
+garlands, like the wild vines of our tropical forests. They were nearly
+all pretty, fern-like plants--_Sphenopteris_, _Hymenophyllites_, &c.;
+they attached themselves to the stems of the great trees, like the
+orchids and _Bromeliaceæ_ of our times.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Trunk of Calamites. One-fifth natural size.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Trunk of Sigillaria. One-tenth natural size.]
+
+The margin of the waters would also be covered with various plants with
+light and whorled leaves, belonging, perhaps, to the Dicotyledons;
+_Annularia fertilis_, _Sphenophyllites_, and _Asterophyllites_.
+
+How this vegetation, so imposing, both on account of the dimensions of
+the individual trees and the immense space which they occupied, so
+splendid in its aspect, and yet so simple in its organisation, must have
+differed from that which now embellishes the earth and charms our eyes!
+It certainly possessed the advantage of size and rapid growth; but how
+poor it was in species--how uniform in appearance! No flowers yet
+adorned the foliage or varied the tints of the forests. Eternal verdure
+clothed the branches of the Ferns, the Lycopods, and Equiseta, which
+composed to a great extent the vegetation of the age. The forests
+presented an innumerable collection of individuals, but very few
+species, and all belonging to the lower types of vegetation. No fruit
+appeared fit for nourishment; none would seem to have been on the
+branches. Suffice it to say that few terrestrial animals seem to have
+existed yet; animal life was apparently almost wholly confined to the
+sea, while the vegetable kingdom occupied the land, which at a later
+period was more thickly inhabited by air-breathing animals. Probably a
+few winged insects (some coleoptera, orthoptera, and neuroptera) gave
+animation to the air while exhibiting their variegated colours; and it
+was not impossible but that many pulmoniferous mollusca (such as
+land-snails) lived at the same time.
+
+But, we might ask, for what eyes, for whose thoughts, for whose wants,
+did the solitary forests grow? For whom these majestic and extensive
+shades? For whom these sublime sights? What mysterious beings
+contemplated these marvels? A question which cannot be solved, and one
+before which we are overwhelmed, and our powerless reason is silent; its
+solution rests with Him who said, “Before the world was, I am!”
+
+The vegetation which covered the numerous islands of the Carboniferous
+sea consisted, then, of Ferns, of Equisetaceæ, of Lycopodiaceæ, and
+dicotyledonous Gymnosperms. The Annularia and Sigillariæ belong to
+families of the last-named class, which are now completely extinct.
+
+The _Annulariæ_ were small plants which floated on the surface of
+fresh-water lakes and ponds; their leaves were verticillate, that is,
+arranged in a great number of whorls, at each articulation of the stem
+with the branches. The _Sigillariæ_ were, on the contrary, great trees,
+consisting of a simple trunk, surmounted with a bunch or panicle of
+slender drooping leaves, with the bark often channelled, and displaying
+impressions or scars of the old leaves, which, from their resemblance to
+a seal, _sigillum_, gave origin to their name. Fig. 41 represents the
+bark of one of these Sigillariæ, which is often met with in coal-mines.
+
+The _Stigmariæ_ (Fig. 42), according to palæontologists, were roots of
+Sigillariæ, with a subterranean fructification; all that is known of
+them is the long roots which carry the reproductive organs, and in some
+cases are as much as sixteen feet long. These were suspected by
+Brongniart, on botanical grounds, to be the roots of Sigillaria, and
+recent discoveries have confirmed this impression. Sir Charles Lyell, in
+company with Dr. Dawson, examined several erect _Sigillariæ_ in the
+sea-cliffs of the South Joggins in Nova Scotia, and found that from the
+lower extremities of the trunk they sent out _Stigmariæ_ as roots, which
+divided into four parts, and these again threw out eight continuations,
+each of which again divided into pairs. Twenty-one specimens of
+Sigillaria have been described by Dr. Dawson from the Coal-measures of
+Nova Scotia; but the differences in the markings in different parts of
+the same tree are so great, that Dr. Dawson regards the greater part of
+the recognised species of _Sigillariæ_ as merely provisional.[43]
+
+  [43] _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, vol. xxii., p. 129.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Sigillaria lævigata. One-third natural size.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Stigmaria. One-tenth natural size.]
+
+Two other gigantic trees grew in the forests of this period: these were
+_Lepidodendron carinatum_ and _Lomatophloyos crassicaule_, both
+belonging to the family of Lycopodiaceæ, which now includes only very
+small species. The trunk of the Lomatophloyos threw out numerous
+branches, which terminated in thick tufts of linear and fleshy leaves.
+
+The _Lepidodendrons_, of which there are about forty known species, have
+cylindrical bifurcated branches; that is, the branches were evolved in
+pairs, or were _dichotomous_ to the top. The extremities of the branches
+were terminated by a fructification in the form of a cone, formed of
+linear scales, to which the name of _Lepidostrobus_ (Fig. 45) has been
+given. Nevertheless, many of these branches were sterile, and terminated
+simply in fronds (elongated leaves). In many of the coal-fields fossil
+cones have been found, to which this name has been given by earlier
+palæontologists. They sometimes form the nucleus of nodular,
+concretionary balls of clay-ironstone, and are well preserved, having a
+conical axis, surrounded by scales compactly imbricated. The opinion of
+Brongniart is now generally adopted, that they are the fruit of the
+Lepidodendron. At Coalbrookdale, and elsewhere, these have been found as
+terminal tips of a branch of a well-characterised Lepidodendron. Both
+Hooker and Brongniart place them with the Lycopods, having cones with
+similar spores and sporangia, like that family. Most of them were large
+trees. One tree of _L. Sternbergii_, nearly fifty feet long, was found
+in the Jarrow Colliery, near Newcastle, lying in the shale parallel to
+the plane of stratification. Fragments of others found in the same shale
+indicated, by the size of the rhomboidal scars which covered them, a
+still greater size. Lepidodendron Sternbergii (Fig. 43) is represented
+as it is found beneath the shales in the collieries of Swina, in
+Bohemia. Fig. 46 represents a portion of a branch of _L. elegans_
+furnished with leaves. M. Eugene Deslongchamps has drawn the restoration
+of the Lepidodendron Sternbergii, represented in Fig. 47, which is shown
+entire in Fig. 44, with its stem, its branches, fronds, and organs of
+fructification. The Ferns composed a great part of the vegetation of the
+Coal-measure period.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Lepidodendron Sternbergii.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Lepidodendron Sternbergii restored. Forty feet
+high.]
+
+The Ferns differ chiefly in some of the details of the leaf.
+_Pecopteris_, for instance (Fig. 48), have the leaves once, twice, or
+thrice pinnatifid with the leaflets adhering either by their whole base
+or by the centre only; the midrib running through to the point.
+_Neuropteris_ (Fig. 49) has leaves divided like Pecopteris, but the
+midrib does not reach the apex of the leaflets, but divides right and
+left into veins. _Odontopteris_ (Fig. 51) has pinnatifid leaves, like
+the last, but its leaflets adhere by their whole base to the stalk.
+_Lonchopteris_ (Fig. 50) has the leaves several times pinnatifid, the
+leaflets more or less united to one another, and the veins reticulated.
+Among the most numerous species of forms of the Coal-measure period was
+_Sphenopteris artemisiæfolia_ (Fig. 52), of which a magnified leaf is
+represented. Sphenopteris has twice or thrice pinnatifid leaves, the
+leaflets narrow at the base, and the veins generally arranged as if they
+radiated from the base; the leaflets are frequently wedge-shaped.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Lepidostrobus variabilis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Lepidodendron elegans.]
+
+
+CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. (SUB-PERIOD.)
+
+The seas of this epoch included an immense number of Zoophytes, nearly
+400 species of Mollusca, and a few Crustaceans and Fishes. Among the
+Fishes, _Psammodus_ and _Coccosteus_, whose massive teeth inserted in
+the palate were suitable for grinding; and the _Holoptychius_ and
+_Megalichthys_, are the most important. The Mollusca are chiefly
+Brachiopods of great size. The Productæ attained here exceptional
+development, _Producta Martini_ (Fig. 53), _P. semi-reticulata_ and _P.
+gigantea_, being the most remarkable. Spirifers, also, were equally
+abundant, as _Spirifera trigonalis_ and _S. glabra_. In _Terebratula
+hastata_ the coloured bands, which adorned the shell of the living
+animal, have been preserved to us. The _Bellerophon_, whose convoluted
+shell in some respects resembles the Nautilus of our present seas, but
+without its chambered shell, were then represented by many species,
+among others by _Bellerophon costatus_ (Fig. 54), and _B. hiulcus_ (Fig.
+56). Again, among the Cephalopods, we find the _Orthoceras_ (Fig. 57),
+which resembled a straight Nautilus; and Goniatites (_Goniatites
+evolutus_, Fig. 55), a chambered shell allied to the Ammonite, which
+appeared in great numbers during the Secondary epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Lepidodendron Sternbergii.]
+
+Crustaceans are rare in the Carboniferous Limestone strata; the genus
+Phillipsia is the last of the Trilobites, all of which became extinct at
+the close of this period. As to the Zoophytes, they consist chiefly of
+Crinoids and Corals. The Crinoids were represented by the genera
+_Platycrinus_ and _Cyathocrinus_. We also have in these rocks many
+Polyzoa.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Pecopteris lonchitica, a little magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Neuropteris gigantea.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Lonchopteris Bricii.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Odontopteris Brardii.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Sphenopteris artemisiæfolia, magnified.]
+
+Among the corals of the period, we may include the genera
+_Lithostrotion_ and _Lonsdalea_, of which _Lithostrotion basaltiforme_
+(Fig. 58), and _Lonsdalea floriformis_ (Fig. 59), are respectively the
+representatives, with _Amplexus coralloïdes_. Among the Polyzoa are the
+genera _Fenestrella_ and _Polypora_. Lastly, to these we may add a group
+of animals which will play a very important part and become abundantly
+represented in the beds of later geological periods, but which already
+abounded in the seas of the Carboniferous period. We speak of the
+_Foraminifera_ (Fig. 60), microscopic animals, which clustered either in
+one body, or divided into segments, and covered with a calcareous,
+many-chambered shell, as in Fig. 60, _Fusulina cylindrica_. These little
+creatures, which, during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, formed
+enormous banks and entire masses of rock, began to make their
+appearance in the period which now engages our attention.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Producta Martini. One-third nat. size.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Bellerophon costatus. Half nat. size.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Goniatites evolutus. Nat. size.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Bellerophon hiulcus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Orthoceras laterale.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Lithostrotion basaltiforme.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Lonsdalea floriformis.]
+
+The plate opposite (PLATE X.) is a representation of an ideal aquarium,
+in which some of the more prominent species, which inhabited the seas
+during the period of the Carboniferous Limestone, are represented. On
+the right is a tribe of corals, with reflections of dazzling white: the
+species represented are, nearest the edge, the _Lasmocyathus_, the
+_Chætetes_, and the _Ptylopora_. The Mollusc which occupies the
+extremity of the elongated and conical tube in the shape of a sabre is
+an _Aploceras_. It seems to prepare the way for the Ammonite; for if
+this elongated shell were coiled round itself it would resemble the
+Ammonite and Nautilus. In the centre of the foreground we have
+_Bellerophon hiulcus_ (Fig. 56), the _Nautilus Koninckii_, and a
+_Producta_, with the numerous spines which surround the shell. (See Fig.
+62.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Foraminifera of the Mountain Limestone, forming
+the centre of an oolitic grain. Power 120.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Foraminifera of the Chalk, obtained by brushing
+it in water. Power 120.]
+
+On the left are other corals: the _Cyathophyllum_ with straight
+cylindrical stems; some Encrinites (_Cyathocrinus_ and _Platycrinus_)
+wound round the trunk of a tree, or with their flexible stem floating in
+the water. Some Fishes, _Amblypterus_, move about amongst these
+creatures, the greater number of which are immovably attached, like
+plants, to the rock on which they grow.
+
+[Illustration: X.--Ideal view of marine life in the Carboniferous
+Period.]
+
+In addition, this engraving shows us a series of islets, rising out
+of a tranquil sea. One of these is occupied by a forest, in which a
+distant view is presented of the general forms of the grand vegetation
+of the period.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is of importance to know the rocks formed by marine deposits during
+the era of the Carboniferous Limestone, inasmuch as they include coal,
+though in much smaller quantities than in the succeeding sub-period of
+the true coal-deposit. They consist essentially of a compact limestone,
+of a greyish-blue, and even black colour. The blow of the hammer causes
+them to exhale a somewhat fetid odour, which is owing to decomposed
+organic matter--the modified substance of the molluscs and zoophytes--of
+which it is to so great an extent composed, and whose remains are still
+easily recognised.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Producta horrida. Half natural size.]
+
+In the north of England, and many other parts of the British Islands,
+the Carboniferous Limestone forms, as we have seen, lofty
+mountain-masses, to which the term _Mountain Limestone_ is sometimes
+applied.
+
+In Derbyshire the formation constitutes rugged, lofty, and
+fantastically-shaped mountains, whose summits mingle with the clouds,
+while its picturesque character appears here, as well as farther north,
+in the _dales_ or valleys, where rich meadows, through which the
+mountain streams force their way, seem to be closed abruptly by masses
+of rock, rising above them like the grey ruins of some ancient tower;
+while the mountain bases are pierced with caverns, and their sides
+covered with mosses and ferns, for the growth of which the limestone is
+particularly favourable.
+
+The formation is _metalliferous_, and yields rich veins of lead-ore in
+Derbyshire, Cumberland, and other counties of Great Britain. The rock is
+found in Russia, in the north of France, and in Belgium, where it
+furnishes the common marbles, known as Flanders marble (_Marbre de
+Flandres_ and _M. de petit granit_). These marbles are also quarried in
+other localities, such as Regneville (La Manche), either for the
+manufacture of lime or for ornamental stonework; one of the varieties
+quarried at Regneville, being black, with large yellow veins, is very
+pretty.
+
+In France, the _Carboniferous Limestone_, with its sandstones and
+conglomerates, schists and limestones, is largely developed in the
+Vosges, in the Lyonnais, and in Languedoc, often in contact with
+syenites and porphyries, and other igneous rocks, by which it has been
+penetrated and disturbed, and even _metamorphosed_ in many ways, by
+reason of the various kinds of rocks of which it is composed. In the
+United States the Carboniferous Limestone formation occupies a somewhat
+grand position in the rear of the Alleghanies. It is also found forming
+considerable ranges in our Australian colonies.
+
+In consequence of their age, as compared with the Secondary and Tertiary
+limestones, the Carboniferous rocks are generally more marked and varied
+in character. The valley of the Meuse, from Namur to Chockier, above
+Liège, is cut out of this formation; and many of our readers will
+remember with delight the picturesque character of the scenery,
+especially that of the left bank of the celebrated river in question.
+
+
+COAL MEASURES. (SUB-PERIOD.)
+
+This terrestrial period is characterised, in a remarkable manner, by the
+abundance and strangeness of the vegetation which then covered the
+islands and continents of the whole globe. Upon all points of the earth,
+as we have said, this flora presented a striking uniformity. In
+comparing it with the vegetation of the present day, the learned French
+botanist, M. Brongniart, who has given particular attention to the flora
+of the Coal-measures, has arrived at the conclusion that it presented
+considerable analogy with that of the islands of the equatorial and
+torrid zone, in which a maritime climate and elevated temperature exist
+in the highest degree. It is believed that islands were very numerous at
+this period; that, in short, the dry land formed a sort of vast
+archipelago upon the general ocean, of no great depth, the islands being
+connected together and formed into continents as they gradually emerged
+from the ocean.
+
+This flora, then, consists of great trees, and also of many smaller
+plants, which would form a close, thick turf, or sod, when partially
+buried in marshes of almost unlimited extent. M. Brongniart indicates,
+as characterising the period, 500 species of plants belonging to
+families which we have already seen making their first appearance in the
+Devonian period, but which now attain a prodigious development. The
+ordinary dicotyledons and monocotyledons--that is, plants having seeds
+with two lobes in germinating, and plants having one seed-lobe--are
+almost entirely absent; the cryptogamic, or flowerless plants,
+predominate; especially Ferns, Lycopodiaceæ and Equisetaceæ--but of
+forms insulated and actually extinct in these same families. A few
+dicotyledonous gymnosperms, or naked-seed plants forming genera of
+Conifers, have completely disappeared, not only from the present flora,
+but since the close of the period under consideration, there being no
+trace of them in the succeeding Permian flora. Such is a general view of
+the features most characteristic of the Coal period, and of the Primary
+epoch in general. It differs, altogether and absolutely, from that of
+the present day; the climatic condition of these remote ages of the
+globe, however, enables us to comprehend the characteristics which
+distinguish its vegetation. A damp atmosphere, of an equable rather than
+an intense heat like that of the tropics, a soft light veiled by
+permanent fogs, were favourable to the growth of this peculiar
+vegetation, of which we search in vain for anything strictly analogous
+in our own days. The nearest approach to the climate and vegetation
+proper to the geological period which now occupies our attention, would
+probably be found in certain islands, or on the littoral of the Pacific
+Ocean--the island of Chloë, for example, where it rains during 300 days
+in the year, and where the light of the sun is shut out by perpetual
+fogs; where arborescent Ferns form forests, beneath whose shade grow
+herbaceous Ferns, which rise three feet and upwards above a marshy soil;
+which gives shelter also to a mass of cryptogamic plants, greatly
+resembling, in its main features, the flora of the Coal-measures. This
+flora was, as we have said, uniform and poor in its botanic genera,
+compared to the abundance and variety of the flora of the present time;
+but the few families of plants, which existed then, included many more
+species than are now produced in the same countries. The fossil Ferns of
+the coal-series in Europe, for instance, comprehend about 300 species,
+while all Europe now only produces fifty. The gymnosperms, which now
+muster only twenty-five species in Europe, then numbered more than 120.
+
+It will simplify the classification of the flora of the Carboniferous
+epoch if we give a tabular arrangement adopted by the best
+authorities:--
+
+      Dr. Lindley.        Brongniart.
+
+    I. Thallogens { Cryptogamous Amphigens,  }   Lichens, Sea-weeds, Fungi.
+                  {   or Cellular Cryptogams }
+
+   II. Acrogens     Cryptogamous Acrogens      { Club-mosses, Equiseta, Ferns,
+                                               { Lycopods, Lepidodendra.
+
+  III. Gymnogens    Dicotyledonous Gymnosperms   Conifers and Cycads.
+
+                                               { Compositæ, Leguminosæ, Umbel-
+   IV. Exogens      Dicotyledonous Angiosperms { liferæ, Cruciferæ, Heaths.
+                                               { All European except Conifers.
+
+    V. Endogens     Monocotyledons             { Palms, Lilies, Aloes, Rushes,
+                                               { Grasses.
+
+Calamites are among the most abundant fossil plants of the Carboniferous
+period, and occur also in the Devonian. They are preserved as striated,
+jointed, cylindrical, or compressed stems, with fluted channels or
+furrows at their sides, and sometimes surrounded by a bituminous
+coating, the remains of a cortical integument. They were originally
+hollow, but the cavity is usually filled up with a substance into which
+they themselves have been converted. They were divided into joints or
+segments, and when broken across at their articulations they show a
+number of striæ, originating in the furrows of the sides, and turning
+inwards towards the centre of the stem. It is not known whether this
+structure was connected with an imperfect diaphragm stretched across the
+hollow of the stem at each joint, or merely represented the ends of
+woody plates of which the solid part of the stem is composed. Their
+extremities have been discovered to taper gradually to a point, as
+represented in _C. cannæformis_ (Fig. 64), or to end abruptly, the
+intervals becoming shorter and smaller. The obtuse point is now found to
+be the root. Calamites are regarded as Equisetaceous plants; later
+botanists consider that they belong to an extinct family of plants.
+_Sigillariæ_ are the most abundant of all plants in the coal formation,
+and were those principally concerned in the accumulation of the mineral
+fuel of the Coal-measures. Not a mine is opened, nor a heap of shale
+thrown out, but there occur fragments of its stem, marked externally
+with small rounded impressions, and in the centre slight tubercles, with
+a quincuncial arrangement. From the tubercles arise long ribbon-shaped
+bodies, which have been traced in some instances to the length of twenty
+feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Sphenophyllum restored.]
+
+In the family of the Sigillarias we have already presented the bark of
+_S. lævigata_, at page 138; on page 157 we give a drawing of the bark of
+_S. reniformis_, one-third the natural size (Fig. 65).
+
+In the family of the Asterophyllites, the leaf of _A. foliosa_ (Fig.
+66); and the foliage of _Annularia orifolia_ (Fig. 67) are remarkable.
+In addition to these, we present, in Fig. 63, a restoration of one of
+these Asterophyllites, the _Sphenophyllum_, after M. Eugene
+Deslongchamps. This herbaceous tree, like the Calamites, would present
+the appearance of an immense asparagus, twenty-five to thirty feet high.
+It is represented here with its branches and _fronds_, which bear some
+resemblance to the leaves of the ginkgo. The bud, as represented in the
+figure, is terminal, and not axillary, as in some of the Calamites.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Calamites cannæformis. One-third natural size.]
+
+If, during the Coal-period, the vegetable kingdom had reached its
+maximum, the animal kingdom, on the contrary, was poorly represented.
+Some remains have been found, both in America and Germany, consisting of
+portions of the skeleton and the impressions of the footsteps of a
+Reptile, which has received the name of Archegosaurus. In Fig. 68 is
+represented the head and neck of _Archegosaurus minor_, found in 1847 in
+the coal-basin of Saarbruck between Strasbourg and Trèves. Among the
+animals of this period we find a few Fishes, analogous to those of the
+Devonian formation. These are the _Holoptychius_ and _Megalichthys_,
+having jaw-bones armed with enormous teeth. Scales of _Pygopterus_
+have been found in the Northumberland Coal-shale at Newsham Colliery,
+and also in the Staffordshire Coal-shale. Some winged insects would
+probably join this slender group of living beings. It may then be said
+with truth that the immense forests and marshy plains, crowded with
+trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, which formed on the innumerable
+isles of the period a thick and tufted sward, were almost destitute of
+animals.
+
+[Illustration: XI.--Ideal view of a marshy forest of the Coal Period.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Sigillaria reniformis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Asterophyllites foliosa.]
+
+On the opposite page (PL. XI.) M. Riou has attempted, under the
+directions of M. Deslongchamps, to reproduce the aspect of Nature during
+the period. A marsh and forest of the Coal-period are here represented,
+with a short and thick vegetation, a sort of grass composed of
+herbaceous Fern and mare’s-tail. Several trees of forest-height raise
+their heads above this lacustrine vegetation.
+
+On the left are seen the naked trunk of a _Lepidodendron_ and a
+_Sigillaria_, an arborescent Fern rising between the two trunks. At the
+foot of these great trees an herbaceous Fern and a _Stigmaria_ appear,
+whose long ramification of roots, provided with reproductive spores,
+extend to the water. On the right is the naked trunk of another
+_Sigillaria_, a tree whose foliage is altogether unknown, a
+_Sphenophyllum_, and a _Conifer_. It is difficult to describe with
+precision the species of this last family, the impressions of which are,
+nevertheless, very abundant in the Coal-measures.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Annularia orifolia.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Head and neck of Archegosaurus minor.]
+
+In front of this group we see two trunks broken and overthrown. These
+are a _Lepidodendron_ and _Sigillaria_, mingling with a heap of
+vegetable débris in course of decomposition, from which a rich humus
+will be formed, upon which new generations of plants will soon develop
+themselves. Some herbaceous Ferns and buds of _Calamites_ rise out of
+the waters of the marsh.
+
+A few Fishes belonging to the period swim on the surface of the water,
+and the aquatic reptile _Archegosaurus_ shows its long and pointed
+head--the only part of the animal which has hitherto been discovered
+(Fig. 68). A _Stigmaria_ extends its roots into the water, and the
+pretty _Asterophyllites_, with its finely-cut stems, rises above it in
+the foreground.
+
+A forest, composed of _Lepidodendra_ and _Calamites_, forms the
+background to the picture.
+
+
+FORMATION OF BEDS OF COAL.
+
+Coal, as we have said, is only the result of a partial decomposition of
+the plants which covered the earth during a geological period of immense
+duration. No one, now, has any doubt that this is its origin. In
+coal-mines it is not unusual to find fragments of the very plants whose
+trunks and leaves characterise the Coal-measures, or Carboniferous era.
+Immense trunks of trees have also been met with in the middle of a seam
+of coal. In the coal-mines of Treuil,[44] at St. Etienne, for instance,
+vertical trunks of fossil trees, resembling bamboos or large Equiseta,
+are not only mixed with the coal, but stand erect, traversing the
+overlying beds of micaceous sandstone in the manner represented in the
+engraving, which has been reproduced from a drawing by M. Ad. Brongniart
+(Fig. 69).
+
+  [44] “Elements of Geology,” p. 480.
+
+In England it is the same; entire trees are found lying across the
+coal-beds. Sir Charles Lyell tells us[45] that in Parkfield Colliery,
+South Staffordshire, there was discovered in 1854, upon a surface of
+about a quarter of an acre, a bed of coal which has furnished as many as
+seventy-three stumps of trees with their roots attached, some of the
+former measuring more than eight feet in circumference; their roots
+formed part of a seam of coal ten inches thick, resting on a layer of
+clay two inches thick, under which was a second forest resting on a band
+of coal from two to five feet thick. Underneath this, again, was a third
+forest, with large stumps of _Lepidodendra_, _Calamites_, and other
+trees.[46]
+
+  [45] Ibid, p. 479.
+
+  [46] Ibid, p. 479.
+
+In the lofty cliffs of the South Joggins, in the Bay of Fundy, in Nova
+Scotia, Sir Charles Lyell found in one portion of the coal-field 1,500
+feet thick, as many as sixty-eight different surfaces, presenting
+evident traces of as many old soils of forests, where the trunks of the
+trees were still furnished with roots.[47]
+
+  [47] Ibid, p. 483.
+
+We will endeavour to establish here the true geological origin of coal,
+in order that no doubt may exist in the minds of our readers on a
+subject of such importance. In order to explain the presence of coal in
+the depths of the earth, there are only two possible hypotheses. This
+vegetable débris may either result from the burying of plants brought
+from afar and transported by river or maritime currents, forming immense
+rafts, which may have grounded in different places and been covered
+subsequently by sedimentary deposits; or the trees may have grown on the
+spot where they perished, and where they are now found. Let us examine
+each of these theories.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Treuil coal-mine, at St. Etienne.]
+
+Can the coal-beds result from the transport by water, and burial
+underground, of immense rafts formed of the trunks of trees? The
+hypothesis has against it the enormous height which must be conceded to
+the raft, in order to form coal-seams as thick as some of those which
+are worked in our collieries. If we take into consideration the specific
+gravity of wood, and the amount of carbon it contains, we find that the
+coal-deposits can only be about seven-hundredths of the volume of the
+original wood and other vegetable materials from which they are formed.
+If we take into account, besides, the numerous voids necessarily arising
+from the loose packing of the materials forming the supposed raft, as
+compared with the compactness of coal, this may fairly be reduced to
+five-hundredths. A bed of coal, for instance, sixteen feet thick, would
+have required a raft 310 feet high for its formation. These
+accumulations of wood could never have arranged themselves with
+sufficient regularity to form those well-stratified coal-beds,
+maintaining a uniform thickness over many miles, and that are seen in
+most coal-fields to lie one above another in succession, separated by
+beds of sandstone or shale. And even admitting the possibility of a slow
+and gradual accumulation of vegetable débris, like that which reaches
+the mouth of a river, would not the plants in that case be buried in
+great quantities of mud and earth? Now, in most of our coal-beds the
+proportion of earthy matter does not exceed fifteen per cent. of the
+entire mass. If we bear in mind, finally, the remarkable parallelism
+existing in the stratification of the coal-formation, and the state of
+preservation in which the impressions of the most delicate vegetable
+forms are discovered, it will, we think, be proved to demonstration,
+that those coal-seams have been formed in perfect tranquillity. We are,
+then, forced to the conclusion that coal results from the mineralisation
+of plants which has taken place on the spot; that is to say, in the very
+place where the plants lived and died.
+
+It was suggested long ago by Bakewell, from the occurrence of the same
+peculiar kind of fireclay under each bed of coal, that it was the soil
+proper for the production of those plants from which coal has been
+formed.[48]
+
+  [48] “Introduction to Geology,” by Robert Bakewell, 5th ed., p. 179.
+       1838.
+
+It has, also, been pointed out by Sir William Logan, as the result of
+his observations in the South Wales coal-field, and afterwards by Sir
+Henry De la Beche, and subsequently confirmed by the observations of Sir
+Charles Lyell in America, that not only in this country, but in the
+coal-fields of Nova Scotia, the United States, &c., every layer of true
+coal is co-extensive with and invariably underlaid by a marked stratum
+of arenaceous clay of greater or less thickness, which, from its
+position relatively to the coal has been long known to coal-miners,
+among other terms, by the name of _under-clay_.
+
+The clay-beds, “which vary in thickness from a few inches to more than
+ten feet, are penetrated in all directions by a confused and tangled
+collection of the roots and leaves, as they may be, of the _Stigmaria
+ficoides_, these being frequently traceable to the main stem
+(_Sigillaria_), which varies in diameter from about two inches to half a
+foot. The main stems are noticed as occurring nearer the top than the
+bottom of the bed, as usually of considerable length, the leaves or
+roots radiating from them in a tortuous irregular course to considerable
+distances, and as so mingled with the under-clay that it is not possible
+to cut out a cubic foot of it which does not contain portions of the
+plant.” (Logan “On the Characters of the Beds of Clay immediately below
+the Coal-seams of South Wales,” Geol. Transactions, Second Series, vol.
+vi., pp. 491-2. An account of these beds had previously been published
+by Mr. Logan in the Annual Report of the Royal Institution of South
+Wales for 1839.)
+
+From the circumstance of the main stem of the Sigillaria, of which the
+_Stigmaria ficoides_ have been traced to be merely a continuation, it
+was inferred by the above-mentioned authors, and has subsequently been
+generally recognised as probably the truth, that the roots found in the
+underclay are merely those of the plant (_Sigillaria_), the stem of
+which is met with in the overlying coal-beds--in fact, that the
+_Stigmaria ficoides_ is only the root of the _Sigillaria_, and not a
+distinct plant, as was once supposed to be the case.
+
+This being granted, it is a natural inference to suppose that the
+present indurated under-clay is only another condition of that soft,
+silty soil, or of that finely levigated muddy sediment--most likely of
+still and shallow water--in which the vegetation grew, the remains of
+which were afterwards carbonised and converted into coal.[49]
+
+  [49] For the opinions respecting the _Stigmaria ficoides_, see a
+       Memoir on “The Formation of the Rocks in South Wales and
+       South-Western England,” by Sir Henry T. De la Beche, F.R.S., in
+       the “Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain,” vol. i.,
+       p. 149.
+
+In order thoroughly to comprehend the phenomena of the transformation
+into coal of the forests and of the herbaceous plants which filled the
+marshes and swamps of the ancient world, there is another consideration
+to be presented. During the coal-period, the terrestrial crust was
+subjected to alternate movements of elevation and depression of the
+internal liquid mass, under the impulse of the solar and lunar
+attractions to which they would be subject, as our seas are now, giving
+rise to a sort of subterranean tide, operating at intervals, more or
+less widely apart, upon the weaker parts of the crust, and producing
+considerable subsidences of the ground. It might, perhaps, happen that,
+in consequence of a subsidence produced in such a manner, the vegetation
+of the coal-period would be submerged, and the shrubs and plants which
+covered the surface of the earth would finally become buried under
+water. After this submergence new forests sprung up in the same place.
+Owing to another submergence, the second forests were depressed in their
+turn, and again covered by water. It is probably by a series of
+repetitions of this double phenomenon--this submergence of whole regions
+of forest, and the development upon the same site of new growths of
+vegetation--that the enormous accumulations of semi-decomposed plants,
+which constitute the Coal-measures, have been formed in a long series of
+ages.
+
+But, has coal been produced from the larger plants only--for example,
+from the great forest-trees of the period, such as the Lepidodendra,
+Sigillariæ, Calamites, and Sphenophylla? That is scarcely probable, for
+many coal-deposits contain no vestiges of the great trees of the period,
+but only of Ferns and other herbaceous plants of small size. It is,
+therefore, presumable that the larger vegetation has been almost
+unconnected with the formation of coal, or, at least, that it has played
+a minor part in its production. In all probability there existed in the
+coal-period, as at the present time, two distinct kinds of vegetation:
+one formed of lofty forest-trees, growing on the higher grounds; the
+other, herbaceous and aquatic plants, growing on marshy plains. It is
+the latter kind of vegetation, probably, which has mostly furnished the
+material for the coal; in the same way that marsh-plants have, during
+historic times and up to the present day, supplied our existing peat,
+which may be regarded as a sort of contemporaneous incipient coal.
+
+To what modification has the vegetation of the ancient world been
+subjected to attain that carbonised state, which constitutes coal? The
+submerged plants would, at first, be a light, spongy mass, in all
+respects resembling the peat-moss of our moors and marshes. While under
+water, and afterwards, when covered with sediment, these vegetable
+masses underwent a partial decomposition--a moist, putrefactive
+fermentation, accompanied by the production of much carburetted hydrogen
+and carbonic acid gas. In this way, the hydrogen escaping in the form of
+carburetted hydrogen, and the oxygen in the form of carbonic acid gas,
+the carbon became more concentrated, and coal was ultimately formed.
+This emission of carburetted hydrogen gas would, probably, continue
+after the peat-beds were buried beneath the strata which were deposited
+and accumulated upon them. The mere weight and pressure of the
+superincumbent mass, continued at an increasing ratio during a long
+series of ages, have given to the coal its density and compact state.
+
+The heat emanating from the interior of the globe would, also, exercise
+a great influence upon the final result. It is to these two causes--that
+is to say, to pressure and to the central heat--that we may attribute
+the differences which exist in the mineral characters of various kinds
+of coal. The inferior beds are _drier_ and more compact than the upper
+ones; or less bituminous, because their mineralisation has been
+completed under the influence of a higher temperature, and at the same
+time under a greater pressure.
+
+An experiment, attempted for the first time in 1833, at Sain-Bel,
+afterwards repeated by M. Cagniard de la Tour, and completed at
+Saint-Etienne by M. Baroulier in 1858, fully demonstrates the process by
+which coal was formed. These gentlemen succeeded in producing a very
+compact coal artificially, by subjecting wood and other vegetable
+substances to the double influence of heat and pressure combined.
+
+The apparatus employed for this experiment by M. Baroulier, at
+Saint-Etienne, allowed the exposure of the strongly compressed vegetable
+matter enveloped in moist clay, to the influence of a long-continued
+temperature of from 200° to 300° Centigrade. This apparatus, without
+being absolutely closed, offered obstacles to the escape of gases or
+vapours in such a manner that the decomposition of the organic matters
+took place in the medium saturated with moisture, and under a pressure
+which prevented the escape of the elements of which it was composed. By
+placing in these conditions the sawdust of various kinds of wood,
+products were obtained which resembled in many respects, sometimes
+brilliant shining coal, and at others a dull coal. These differences,
+moreover, varied with the conditions of the experiment and the nature of
+the wood employed; thus explaining the striped appearance of coal when
+composed alternately of shining and dull veins.
+
+When the stems and leaves of ferns are compressed between beds of clay
+or pozzuolana, they are decomposed by the pressure only, and form on
+these blocks a carbonaceous layer, and impressions bearing a close
+resemblance to those which blocks of coal frequently exhibit. These
+last-mentioned experiments, which were first made by Dr. Tyndall, leave
+no room for doubt that coal has been formed from the plants of the
+ancient world.
+
+Passing from these speculations to the Coal-measures:--
+
+This formation is composed of a succession of beds, of various
+thicknesses, consisting of sandstones or gritstones, of clays and
+shales, sometimes so bituminous as to be inflammable--and passing, in
+short, into an imperfect kind of _coal_. These rocks are interstratified
+with each other in such a manner that they may consist of many
+alterations. Carbonate of protoxide of iron (clay-ironstone) may also
+be considered a constituent of this formation; its extensive
+dissemination in connection with coal in some parts of Great Britain has
+been of immense advantage to the ironworks of this country, in many
+parts of which blast-furnaces for the manufacture of iron rise by
+hundreds alongside of the coal-pits from which they are fed. In France,
+as is frequently the case in England, this argillaceous iron-ore only
+occurs in nodules or lenticular masses, much interrupted; so that it
+becomes necessary in that country, as in this, to find other ores of
+iron to supply the wants of the foundries. Fig. 70 gives an idea of the
+ordinary arrangement of the coal-beds, one of which is seen
+interstratified between two parallel and nearly horizontal beds of
+argillaceous shale, containing nodules of clay iron-ore--a disposition
+very common in English collieries. The coal-basin of Aveyron, in France,
+presents an analogous mode of occurrence.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Stratification of coal-beds.]
+
+The frequent presence of carbonate of iron in the coal-measures is a
+most fortunate circumstance for mining industry. When the miner finds,
+in the same spot, the ore of iron and the fuel required for smelting it,
+arrangements for working them can be established under the most
+favourable conditions. Such is the case in the coal-fields of Great
+Britain, and also in France to a less extent--that is to say, only at
+Saint-Etienne and Alais.
+
+The extent of the Coal-measures, in various parts of the world, may be
+briefly and approximately stated as follows:--
+
+ESTIMATED AREA OF THE COAL-MEASURES OF THE WORLD.
+
+                                                         Square Miles.
+
+  United States                                220,166 }    420,166
+        „       Lignites and inferior Coals    200,000 }
+  British Possessions in North America                        2,200
+  Great Britain                                               3,000
+  France                                                      2,000
+  Belgium                                                       468
+  Rhenish Prussia and Saarbrück                               1,550
+  Westphalia                                                    400
+  Bohemia                                                       620
+  Saxony                                                         66
+  The Asturias, in Spain                                        310
+  Russia                                                     11,000
+  Islands of the Pacific and Indian Ocean                   Unknown.
+
+The American continent, then, contains much more extensive coal-fields
+than Europe; it possesses very nearly two square miles of coal-fields
+for every five miles of its surface; but it must be added that these
+immense fields of coal have not, hitherto, been productive in proportion
+to their extent. The following Table represents the annual produce of
+the collieries of America and Europe:--
+
+                                           Tons.
+
+  British Islands        (in 1870)      110,431,192
+  United States                          14,593,659
+  Belgium                (in 1870)       13,697,118
+  France                 (in 1864)       10,000,000
+    „                    (in 1866)       11,807,142
+  Prussia                (in 1864)       21,197,266
+  Nassau                 (in 1864)        2,345,459
+  Netherlands            (in 1864)           24,815
+  Austria                (in 1864)        4,589,014
+  Spain                                     500,000
+
+We thus see that the United States holds a secondary place as a
+coal-producing country; raising one-eleventh part of the out-put of the
+whole of Europe, and about one-eighth part of the quantity produced by
+Great Britain.
+
+The Coal-measures of England and Scotland cover a large area; and
+attempts have been made to estimate the quantity of fuel they contain.
+The estimate made by the Royal Commission on the coal in the United
+Kingdom may be considered as the nearest; and, in this Report, lately
+published, it is stated that in the ascertained coal-fields of the
+United Kingdom there is an aggregate quantity of 146,480,000,000 tons of
+coal, which may be reasonably expected to be available for use. In the
+coal-field of South Wales, ascertained by actual measurement to attain
+the extraordinary thickness of 11,000 feet of Coal-measures, there are
+100 different seams of coal, affording an aggregate thickness of 120
+feet, mostly in thin beds, but varying from six inches to more than ten
+feet. Professor J. Phillips estimates the thickness of the coal-bearing
+strata of the north of England at 3,000 feet; but these, in common with
+all other coal-fields, contain, along with many beds of the mineral in a
+more or less pure state, interstratified beds of sandstones, shales, and
+limestone; the real coal-seams, to the number of twenty or thirty, not
+exceeding sixty feet in thickness in the aggregate. The Scottish
+Coal-measures have a thickness of 3,000 feet, with similar
+intercalations of other carboniferous rocks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Contortions of Coal-beds.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Cycas circinalis (living form).]
+
+The coal-basin of Belgium and of the north of France forms a nearly
+continuous zone from Liége, Namur, Charleroi, and Mons, to Valenciennes,
+Douai, and Béthune. The beds of coal there are from fifty to one hundred
+and ten in number, and their thickness varies from ten inches to six
+feet. Some coal-fields which are situated beneath the Secondary
+formations of the centre and south of France possess beds fewer in
+number, but individually thicker and less regularly stratified. The two
+basins of the Saône-et-Loire, the principal mines of which are at
+Creuzot, Blanzy, Montchanin, and Epinac, only contain ten beds; but some
+of these (as at Montchanin) attain 30, 100, and even 130 feet in
+thickness. The coal-basin of the Loire is that which contains the
+greatest total thickness of coal-beds: the seams there are twenty-five
+in number. After those of the North--of the Saône-et-Loire and of the
+Loire--the principal basins in France are those of the Allier, where
+very important beds are worked at Commentry and Bezenet; the basin of
+Brassac, which commences at the confluence of the Allier and the
+Alagnon; the basin of the Aveyron, known by the collieries of
+Decazeville and Aubin; the basin of the Gard, and of Grand’-Combe.
+Besides these principal basins, there are a great many others of
+scarcely less importance, which yield annually to France from six to
+seven million tons of coal.
+
+The seams of coal are rarely found in the horizontal position in which
+their original formation took place. They have been since much crumpled
+and distorted, forced into basin-shaped cavities, with minor
+undulations, and affected by numerous flexures and other disturbances.
+They are frequently found broken up and distorted by faults, and even
+folded back on themselves into zigzag forms, as represented in the
+engraving (Fig. 71, p. 167), which is a mode of occurrence common in all
+the Coal-measures of Somersetshire and in the basins of Belgium and the
+north of France. Vertical pits, sunk on coal which has been subjected to
+this kind of contortion and disturbance, sometimes traverse the same
+beds many times.
+
+
+PERMIAN PERIOD.
+
+The name “Permian” was proposed by Sir Roderick I. Murchison, in the
+year 1841, for certain deposits which are now known to terminate upwards
+the great primeval or Palæozoic Series.[50]
+
+  [50] See “Siluria,” p. 14. _Philosophical Mag._, 3rd series, vol.
+       xix., p. 419.
+
+This natural group consists, in descending order, in Germany, of the
+Zechstein, the Kupfer-schiefer, Roth-liegende, &c. In England it is
+usually divided into Magnesian Limestone or Zechstein, with subordinate
+Marl-slate or Kupfer-schiefer, and Rothliegende. The chief calcareous
+member of this group of strata is termed in Germany the “Zechstein,” in
+England the “Magnesian Limestone;” but, as magnesian limestones have
+been produced at many geological periods, and as the German Zechstein is
+only a part of a group, the other members of which are known as
+“Kupfer-schiefer” (“copper-slate”), “Roth-todt-liegende” (the “Lower New
+Red” of English geologists), &c., it was manifest that a single name for
+the whole was much needed. Finding, in his examination of Russia in
+Europe, that this group was a great and united physical series of marls,
+limestones, sandstones, and conglomerates, occupying a region much
+larger than France, and of which the Government of Perm formed a central
+part, Sir Roderick proposed that the name of Permian, now in general
+use, should be thereto applied.
+
+Extended researches have shown, from the character of its embedded
+organic remains, that it is closely allied to, but distinct from, the
+carboniferous strata below it, and is entirely distinct from the
+overlying Trias, or New Red Sandstone, which forms the base of the great
+series of the Secondary rocks.
+
+Geology is, however, not only indebted to Sir Roderick Murchison for
+this classification and nomenclature, but also to him, in conjunction
+with Professor Sedgwick, for the name “_Devonian_,” as an equivalent to
+“Old Red Sandstone;” whilst every geologist knows that Sir R. Murchison
+is the sole author of the SILURIAN SYSTEM.
+
+[Illustration: XII.--Ideal landscape of the Permian Period.]
+
+The Permian rocks have of late years assumed great interest,
+particularly in England, in consequence of the evidence their correct
+determination affords with regard to the probable extent, beneath them,
+of the coal-bearing strata which they overlie and conceal; thus tending
+to throw a light upon the duration of our coal-fields, one of the most
+important questions of the day in connection with our industrial
+resources and national prosperity.
+
+On the opposite page an ideal view of the earth during the Permian
+period is represented (PL. XII.). In the background, on the right, is
+seen a series of syenitic and porphyritic domes, recently thrown up;
+while a mass of steam and vapour rises in columns from the midst of the
+sea, resulting from the heat given out by the porphyries and syenites.
+Having attained a certain height in the cooler atmosphere, the columns
+of steam become condensed and fall in torrents of rain. The evaporation
+of water in such vast masses being necessarily accompanied by an
+enormous disengagement of electricity, this imposing scene of the
+primitive world is illuminated by brilliant flashes of lightning,
+accompanied by reverberating peals of thunder. In the foreground, on the
+right, rise groups of Tree-ferns, Lepidodendra, and Walchias, of the
+preceding period. On the sea-shore, and left exposed by the retiring
+tide, are Molluscs and Zoophytes peculiar to the period, such as
+_Producta_, _Spirifera_, and _Encrinites_; pretty plants--the
+_Asterophyllites_--which we have noticed in our description of the
+Carboniferous age, are growing at the water’s edge, not far from the
+shore.
+
+During the Permian period the species of plants and animals were nearly
+the same as those already described as belonging to the Carboniferous
+period. Footprints of reptilian animals have been found in the Permian
+beds near Kenilworth, in the red sandstones of that age in the Vale of
+Eden, and in the sandstones of Corncockle Moor, and other parts of
+Dumfriesshire. These footprints, together with the occurrence of
+current-markings or ripplings, sun-cracks, and the pittings of
+rain-drops impressed on the surfaces of the beds, indicate that they
+were made upon damp surfaces, which afterwards became dried by the sun
+before the flooded waters covered them with fresh deposits of sediment,
+in the way that now happens during variations of the seasons in many
+salt lakes.[51] M. Ad. Brongniart has described the forms of the Permian
+flora as being intermediate between those of the Carboniferous period
+and of that which succeeds it.
+
+  [51] A. C. Ramsay, “On the Red Rocks of England.” _Quart. Jour. Geol.
+       Soc._, vol. xxvii., p. 246.
+
+Although the Permian flora indicates a climate similar to that which
+prevailed during the Carboniferous period, it has been pointed out by
+Professor Ramsay, as long ago as 1855, that the Permian breccia of
+Shropshire, Worcestershire, &c., affords strong proofs of being the
+result of direct glacial action, and of the consequent existence at the
+period of glaciers and icebergs.
+
+That such a state of things is not inconsistent with the prevalence of a
+moist, equable, and temperate climate, necessary for the preservation of
+a luxuriant flora like that of the period in question, is shown in New
+Zealand; where, with a climate and vegetation approximating to those of
+the Carboniferous period, there are also glaciers at the present day in
+the southern island.
+
+Professor King has published a valuable memoir on the Permian fossils of
+England, in the Proceedings of the Palæontographical Society, in which
+the following Table is given (in descending order) of the Permian system
+of the North of England, as compared with that of Thuringia:--
+
+    NORTH OF ENGLAND.           THURINGIA.             MINERAL CHARACTER.
+
+  1. Crystalline, earthy,   }
+  compact, and oolitic      } 1. Stinkstein            1. Oolitic limestones.
+  limestones                }
+
+  2. Brecciated and pseudo- } 2. Rauchwacke            2. Conglomerates.
+  brecciated limestones     }
+
+  3. Fossiliferous          { 3. Upper Zechstein, or } 3. Marlstones.
+  limestone                 { Dolomit-Zechstein      }
+
+  4. Compact limestone        4. Lower Zechstein       4. Magnesian limestones.
+
+  5. Marl-slate             { 5. Mergel-Schiefer or  } 5. Red and green grits
+                            { Kupferschiefer         } with copper-ore.
+
+                                                     { 6. White limestone with
+  6. Lower sandstones, and }  6. Todteliegende       { gypsum and white
+  sands of various colours }                         { salt.
+
+At the base of the system lies a band of _lower sandstone_ (No. 6) of
+various colours, separating the Magnesian Limestone from the coal in
+Yorkshire and Durham; sometimes associated with red marl and gypsum, but
+with the same obscure relations in all these beds which usually attend
+the close of one series and the commencement of another; the imbedded
+plants being, in some cases, stated to be identical with those of the
+Carboniferous series. In Thuringia the _Rothliegende_, or _red-lyer_, a
+great deposit of red sandstone and conglomerate, associated with
+porphyry, basaltic trap, and amygdaloid, lies at the base of the system.
+Among the fossils of this age are the silicified trunks of Tree-ferns
+(_Psaronius_), the bark of which is surrounded by dense masses of
+air-roots, which often double or quadruple the diameter of the original
+stem; in this respect bearing a strong resemblance to the living
+arborescent ferns of New Zealand.
+
+The marl-slate (No. 5) consists of hard calcareous shales,
+marl-slates, and thin-bedded limestone, the whole nearly thirty
+feet thick in Durham, and yielding many fine specimens of Ganoid and
+Placoid fishes--_Palæoniscus_, _Pygopterus_, _Cœlacanthus_, and
+_Platysomus_--genera which all belong to the Carboniferous system, and
+which Professor King thinks probably lived at no great distance from the
+shore; but the Permian species of the marl-slate of England are
+identical with those of the copper-slate of Thuringia. Agassiz was the
+first to point out a remarkable peculiarity in the forms of the fishes
+which lived before and after this period. In most living fishes the
+trunk seems to terminate in the middle of the root of the tail, whose
+free margin is “homocercal” (even-tail), that is, either rounded, or, if
+forked, divided into two equal lobes. In Palæoniscus, and most Palæozoic
+fishes, the axis of the body is continued into the upper lobe of the
+tail, which is thus rendered unsymmetrical, as in the living sharks and
+sturgeons. The latter form, which Agassiz termed “heterocercal”
+(unequal-tail) is only in a very general way distinctive of Palæozoic
+fishes, since this asymmetry exists, though in a minor degree, in many
+living genera besides those just mentioned. The compact limestone (No.
+4) is rich in Polyzoa. The fossiliferous limestone (No. 3), Mr. King
+considers, is a deep-water formation, from the numerous Polyzoa which it
+contains. One of these, _Fenestella retiformis_, found in the Permian
+rocks of England and Germany, sometimes measures eight inches in width.
+
+Many species of Mollusca, and especially Brachiopoda, appear in the
+Permian seas of this age, _Spirifera_ and _Producta_ being the most
+characteristic.
+
+Other shells now occur, which have not been observed in strata newer
+than the Permian. _Strophalosia_ (Fig. 73) is abundantly represented in
+the Permian rocks of Germany, Russia, and England, and much more
+sparingly in the yellow magnesian limestone, accompanied by _Spirifera
+undulata_, &c. _S. Schlotheimii_ is widely disseminated both in England,
+Germany, and Russia, with _Lingula Credneri_, and other Palæozoic
+Brachiopoda. Here also we note the first appearance of the Oyster, but
+still in small numbers. _Fenestella_ represents the Polyzoa. _Schizodus_
+has been found by Mr. Binney in the Upper Red Permian Marls of
+Manchester; but no shells of any kind have hitherto been met with in the
+Rothliegende of Lancashire, or in the Vale of Eden.
+
+The brecciated limestone (No. 2) and the concretionary masses (No. 1)
+overlying it (although Professor King has attempted to separate them)
+are considered by Professor Sedgwick as different forms of the same
+rock. They contain no foreign elements, but seem to be composed of
+fragments of the underlying limestone, No. 3. Some of the angular masses
+at Tynemouth cliff are two feet in diameter, and none of them are
+water-worn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Strophalosia Morrisiana.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Cyrtoceras depressum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Walchia Schlotheimii.]
+
+The crystalline or concretionary limestone (No. 1) formation is seen
+upon the coast of Durham and Yorkshire, between the Wear and the Tees;
+and Mr. King thinks that the character of the shells and the absence of
+corals indicate a deposit formed in shallow water.
+
+The plants also found in some of the Permian strata indicate the
+neighbourhood of land. These are land species, and chiefly of genera
+common in the Coal-measures. Fragments of supposed coniferous wood
+(generally silicified) are occasionally met with in the Permian red beds
+of many parts of England.
+
+Among the Ferns characteristic of the period may be mentioned
+_Sphenopteris dichotoma_ and _S. Artemisiæfolia_; _Pecopteris
+lonchitica_ and _Neuropteris gigantea_, figured on pp. 143, 144. “If we
+are,” says Lyell, “to draw a line between the Secondary and Primary
+fossiliferous strata, it must be run through the middle of what was once
+called the ‘New Red.’ The inferior half of this group will rank as
+Primary or Palæozoic, while its upper member will form the base of the
+Secondary or Mesozoic series.”[52] Among the _Equiseta_ of the Permian
+formation of Saxony, Colonel Von Gutbier found _Calamites gigas_ and
+sixty species of fossil plants, most of them Ferns, forty of which have
+not been found elsewhere. Among these are several species of _Walchia_,
+a genus of Conifers, of which an example is given in Fig. 75.
+
+  [52] “Elements of Geology,” p. 456.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Trigonocarpum Nöggerathii.]
+
+In their stems, leaves, and cones, they bear some resemblance to the
+_Araucarias_, which have been introduced from North America into our
+pleasure-grounds during the last half-century.
+
+Among the genera enumerated by Colonel Von Gutbier are some fruits
+called _Cardiocarpon_, and _Asterophyllites_ and _Annularia_, so
+characteristic of the Carboniferous age. The Lepidodendron is also
+common to the Permian rocks of Saxony, Russia, and Thuringia; also the
+_Nöggerathia_, a family of large trees, intermediate between Cycads
+(Fig. 72) and the Conifers. The fruit of one of these is represented in
+Fig 76.
+
+PERMIAN ROCKS.--We now give a sketch of the physiognomy of the earth in
+Permian times. Of what do the beds consist? What is the extent, and what
+is the mineralogical constitution of the rocks deposited in the seas of
+the period? The Permian formation consists of three members, which are
+in descending order--
+
+1. Upper Permian sandstone, or Grès des Vosges; 2. Magnesian Limestone,
+or Zechstein; 3. Lower Red Sandstone, Marl-slate or Kupferschiefer, and
+Rothliegende.
+
+The _grès des Vosges_, usually of a red colour, and from 300 to 450 feet
+thick, composes all the southern part of the Vosges Mountains, where it
+forms frequent level summits, which are evidences of an ancient plain
+that has been acted on by running water. It only contains a few
+vegetable remains.
+
+The _Magnesian Limestone_, Pierre de mine, or Zechstein, so called in
+consequence of the numerous metalliferous deposits met with in its
+diverse beds, presents in France only a few insignificant fragments; but
+in Germany and England it attains the thickness of 450 feet. It is
+composed of a diversified mass of Magnesian Limestone, generally of a
+yellow colour, but sometimes red and brown, and bituminous clay, the
+last black and fetid. The subordinate rocks consist of marl, gypsum, and
+inflammable bituminous schists. The beds of marl slate are remarkable
+for the numbers of peculiar fossil fishes which they contain; and from
+the occurrence of small proportions of argentiferous grey copper-ore,
+met with in the bituminous shales which are worked in the district of
+Mansfeld, in Thuringia--the latter are called _Kupferschiefer_ in
+Germany.
+
+The _Lower Red Sandstone_, which attains a thickness of from 300 to 600
+feet, is found over great part of Germany, in the Vosges, and in
+England. Its fossil remains are few and rare; they include silicified
+trunks of Conifers, some impressions of Ferns, and Calamites.
+
+In England the Permian strata, to a great extent, consist of red
+sandstones and marls; and the Magnesian Limestone of the northern
+counties is also, though to a less degree, associated with red marls.
+
+In Lancashire thin beds of Magnesian Limestone are interstratified with
+red marls in the upper Permian strata, beneath which there are soft Red
+Sandstones, estimated by Mr. Hull to be about 1,500 feet thick. These
+are supposed to represent the Rothliegende, and no shells of any kind
+have been found in them. The upper Permian beds, however, contain a few
+Magnesian Limestone species, such as _Gervillia antiqua_, _Pleurophorus
+costatus_, _Schizodus obscurus_, and some others, but all small and
+dwarfed.
+
+The coal-fields of North and South Staffordshire, Tamworth, Coalbrook
+Dale, and of the Forest of Wyre, are partly bordered by Permian rocks,
+which lie unconformably on the Coal-measures; as is the case, also, in
+the immediate neighbourhood of Manchester, where they skirt the borders
+of the main coal-field, and consist of the Lower Red Sandstone, resting
+unconformably on different parts of the Coal-measures, and overlaid by
+the pebble-beds of the Trias.
+
+At Stockport the Permian strata are stated by Mr. Hull to be more than
+1,500 feet thick.
+
+In Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire, the Permian strata are
+stated by Mr. Aveline to be divided into two chief groups: the
+Roth-liegende, of no great thickness, and the Magnesian Limestone
+series; the latter being the largest and most important member of the
+Permian series in the northern counties of England. The Magnesian
+Limestone consists there of two great bands, separated by marls and
+sandstone, and quarried for building and for lime. In Derbyshire and
+Yorkshire the magnesian limestone, under the name of Dolomite, forms an
+excellent building-stone, which has been used in the construction of the
+Houses of Parliament.
+
+In the midland counties and on the borders of Wales, the Permian section
+is different from that of Nottinghamshire and the North of England. The
+Magnesian Limestones are absent, and the rocks consist principally of
+dark-red marl, brown and red sandstones, and calcareous conglomerates
+and breccias, which are almost entirely unfossiliferous. In
+Warwickshire, where they rest conformably on the Coal-measures, they
+occupy a very considerable tract of country, and are of very great
+thickness, being estimated by Mr. Howell to be 2,000 feet thick.
+
+In the east of England the Magnesian Limestone contains a numerous
+marine fauna, but much restricted when compared with that of the
+Carboniferous period. The shells of the former are all small and dwarfed
+in size when compared with their congeners of Carboniferous times, when
+such there are, and in this respect, and the small number of genera,
+they resemble the living mollusca of the still less numerous fauna of
+the Caspian Sea.
+
+Besides the poverty and small size of the mollusca, the later strata of
+the true Magnesian Limestone seem to afford strong indications that they
+may have been deposited in a great inland salt-lake subject to
+evaporation.
+
+The absence of fossils in much of the formation may be partly accounted
+for by its deposition in great measure from solution, and the
+uncongenial nature of the waters of a salt-lake may account for the
+poverty-stricken character of the whole molluscan fauna.
+
+The red colouring-matter of the Permian sandstones and marls is
+considered, by Professor Ramsay, to be due to carbonate of iron
+introduced into the waters, and afterwards precipitated as peroxide
+through the oxidising action of the air and the escape of the carbonic
+acid which held it in solution. This circumstance of the red colour of
+the Permian beds affords an indication that the red Permian strata were
+deposited in inland waters unconnected with the main ocean, which waters
+may have been salt or fresh as the case may be.
+
+“The Magnesian Limestone series of the east of England may, possibly,
+have been connected directly with an open sea at the commencement of the
+deposition of these strata, whatever its subsequent history may have
+been; for the fish of the marl strata have generically strong affinities
+with those of Carboniferous age, some of which were truly marine, while
+others certainly penetrated shallow lagoons bordered by peaty
+flats.”[53]
+
+  [53] “On the Red Rocks of England,” by A. C. Ramsay. _Quart. Jour.
+       Geol. Soc._, vol. xxvii., p. 246.
+
+There is indisputable evidence that the Permian ocean covered an immense
+area of the globe. In the Permian period this ocean extended from
+Ireland to the Ural mountains, and probably to Spitzbergen, with its
+northern boundary defined by the Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian, and
+Igneous regions of Scotland, Scandinavia, and Northern Russia; and its
+southern boundaries apparently stretching far into the south of Europe
+(King). The chain of the Vosges, stretching across Rhenish Bavaria, the
+Grand Duchy of Baden, as far as Saxony and Silesia, would be under
+water. They would communicate with the ocean, which covered all the
+midland and western counties of England and part of Russia. In other
+parts of Europe the continent has varied very little since the preceding
+Devonian and Carboniferous ages. In France the central plateaux would
+form a great island, which extended towards the south, probably as far
+as the foot of the Pyrenees; another island would consist of the mass of
+Brittany. In Russia the continent would have extended itself
+considerably towards the east; finally, it is probable that, at the end
+of the Carboniferous period, the Belgian continent would stretch from
+the Departments of the Pas-de-Calais and Du Nord, in France, and would
+extend up to and beyond the Rhine.
+
+In England, the Silurian archipelago, now filled up and occupied by
+deposits of the Devonian and Carboniferous systems, would be covered
+with carboniferous vegetation; dry land would now extend, almost without
+interruption, from Cape Wrath to the Land’s End; but, on its eastern
+shore, the great mass of the region now lying less than three degrees
+west of Greenwich would, in a general sense, be under water, or form
+islands rising out of the sea. Alphonse Esquiros thus eloquently closes
+the chapter of his work in which he treats of this formation in England:
+“We have seen seas, vast watery deserts, become populated; we have seen
+the birth of the first land and its increase; ages succeeding each
+other, and Nature in its progress advancing among ruins; the ancient
+inhabitants of the sea, or at least their spoils, have been raised to
+the summit of lofty mountains. In the midst of these vast cemeteries of
+the primitive world we have met with the remains of millions of beings;
+entire species sacrificed to the development of life. Here terminates
+the first mass of facts constituting the infancy of the British Islands.
+But great changes are still to produce themselves on this portion of the
+earth’s surface.”
+
+Having thus described the _Primary Epoch_, it may be useful, before
+entering on what is termed by geologists the _Secondary Epoch_, to
+glance backwards at the facts which we have had under consideration.
+
+In this Primary period plants and animals appear for the first time
+upon the surface of the cooling globe. We have said that the seas of the
+epoch were then dominated by the fishes known as _Ganoids_ (from γανος,
+_glitter_), from the brilliant polish of the enamelled scales which
+covered their bodies, sometimes in a very complicated and fantastic
+manner; the _Trilobites_ are curious Crustaceans, which appear and
+altogether disappear in the Primary epoch; an immense quantity of
+Mollusca, Cephalopoda, and Brachiopoda; the _Encrinites_, animals of
+curious organisation, which form some of the most graceful ornaments of
+our Palæontological collections.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Lithostrotion. (Fossil Coral.)]
+
+But, among all these beings, those which prevailed--those which were
+truly the kings of the organic world--were the Fishes, and, above all,
+the _Ganoids_, which have left no animated being behind them of similar
+organisation. Furnished with a sort of defensive armour, they seem to
+have received from Nature this means of protection to ensure their
+existence, and permit them to triumph over all the influences which
+threatened them with destruction in the seas of the ancient world.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Rhyncholites, upper, side, and internal views.
+1, Side view (Muschelkalk of Luneville); 2, Upper view (same locality);
+3, Upper view (Lias of Lyme Regis); 4, Calcareous point of an under
+mandible, internal view, from Luneville. (Buckland.)]
+
+In the Primary epoch the living creation was in its infancy. No Mammals
+then roamed the forests; no bird had yet displayed its wings. Without
+Mammals, therefore, there was no maternal instinct; none of the soft
+affections which are, with animals, as it were, the precursors of
+intelligence. Without birds, also, there could be no songs in the air.
+Fishes, Mollusca, and Crustacea silently ploughed their way in the
+depths of the sea, and the immovable Crinoid lived there. On the land we
+only find a few marsh-frequenting Reptiles, of small size--forerunners
+of those monstrous Saurians which make their appearance in the Secondary
+epoch.
+
+The vegetation of the Primary epoch is chiefly of inferior organisation.
+With a few plants of a higher order, that is to say, Dicotyledons,
+Calamites, Sigillarias, it was the Cryptogamia (also several species of
+Ferns, the Lepidodendra, Lycopodiaceæ, and the Equisetaceæ, and some
+doubtfully allied forms, termed Nöggerathia), then at their maximum of
+development, which formed the great mass of the vegetation.
+
+Let us also consider, in this short analysis, that during the epoch
+under consideration, what we call _climate_ may not have existed. The
+same animals and the same plants then lived in the polar regions as at
+the equator. Since we find, in the Primary formations of the icy regions
+of Spitzbergen and Melville Islands, nearly the same fossils which we
+meet with in these same rocks in the torrid zone, we must conclude that
+the temperature at this epoch was uniform all over the globe, and that
+the heat of the earth itself was sufficiently high to render
+inappreciable the calorific influence of the sun.
+
+During this same period the progressive cooling of the earth occasioned
+frequent ruptures and dislocations of the ground; the terrestrial crust,
+in opening, afforded a passage for the rocks called _igneous_, such as
+granite, afterwards to the porphyries and syenites, which poured slowly
+through these immense fissures, and formed mountains of granite and
+porphyry, or simple clefts, which subsequently became filled with oxides
+and metallic sulphides, forming what are now designated metallic veins.
+The great mountain-range of Ben Nevis offers a striking example of the
+first of these phenomena; through the granite base a distinct natural
+section can be traced of porphyry ejected through the granite, and of
+syenite through the porphyry. These geological commotions (which
+occasioned, not over the whole extent of the earth, but only in certain
+places, great movements of the surface) would appear to have been more
+frequent at the close of the Primary epoch; during the interval which
+forms the passage between the Primary and Secondary epochs; that is to
+say, between the Permian and the Triassic periods. The phenomena of
+eruptions, and the character of the rocks called eruptive, are treated
+of in a former chapter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. _a_, Pentacrinites Briareus, reduced; _b_, the
+same from the Lias of Lyme Regis; natural size.]
+
+The convulsions and disturbances by which the surface of the earth was
+agitated did not extend, let it be noted, over the whole of its
+circumference; the effects were partial and local. It would, then, be
+wrong to affirm, as is asserted by many modern geologists, that the
+dislocations of the crust and the agitations of the surface of the
+globe extended to both hemispheres, resulting in the destruction of all
+living creatures. The Fauna and Flora of the Permian period did not
+differ essentially from the Fauna and Flora of the Coal-measures, which
+shows that no general revolution occurred to disturb the entire globe
+between these two epochs. Here, then, as in all analogous cases, it is
+unnecessary to recur to any general cataclysm to explain the passage
+from one epoch to another. Have we not, almost in our our own day, seen
+certain species of animals die out and disappear, without the least
+geological revolution? Without speaking of the Beaver, which abounded
+two centuries ago on the banks of the Rhône, and in the Cévennes, which
+still lived at Paris in the little river Bièvre in the middle ages, its
+existence being now unknown in these latitudes, although it is still
+found in America and other countries, we could cite many examples of
+animals which have become extinct in times by no means remote from our
+own. Such are the _Dinornis_ and the _Epyornis_, colossal birds of New
+Zealand and Madagascar, and the _Dodo_, which lived in the Isle of
+France in 1626. _Ursus spelæus_, _Cervus Megaceros_, _Bos primigenius_,
+are species of Bear, Deer, and Ox which were contemporary with man, but
+have now become extinct. In France we no longer know the gigantic
+wood-stag, figured by the Romans on their monuments, and which they had
+brought from England for the fine quality of its flesh. The Erymanthean
+boar, so widely dispersed during the ancient historical period, no
+longer exists among our living races, any more than the Crocodiles
+_lacunosus_ and _laciniatus_ found by Geoffroy St.-Hilaire in the
+catacombs of ancient Egypt. Many races of animals figured in the mosaics
+of Palestrina, engraved and painted along with species now actually
+existing, are no longer found living in our days any more than are the
+Lions with curly manes, which formerly existed in Syria, and perhaps
+even in Thessaly and the northern parts of Greece. From what happens in
+our own time, we may infer what has taken place in times antecedent to
+the appearance of man; and the idea of successive cataclysms of the
+globe, must be restrained within bounds. Must we imagine a series of
+geological revolutions to account for the disappearance of animals which
+have evidently become extinct in a natural way? What has come to pass in
+our days, it is reasonable to conclude, may have taken place in the
+times anterior to the appearance of man.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Terebellaria ramosissima. (Recent Coral.)]
+
+
+
+
+SECONDARY EPOCH.
+
+
+During the _Primary Epoch_ our globe would appear to have been chiefly
+appropriated to beings which lived in the waters--above all, to the
+Crustaceans and Fishes; during the _Secondary Epoch_ Reptiles seem to
+have been its prevailing inhabitants. Animals of this class assumed
+astonishing dimensions, and would seem to have multiplied in a most
+singular manner; they were, apparently, the kings of the earth. At the
+same time, however, that the animal kingdom thus developed itself, the
+vegetation lost much of its importance.
+
+Geologists have agreed among themselves to divide the Secondary epoch
+into three periods: 1, the _Cretaceous_; 2, the _Jurassic_; 3, the
+_Triassic_--a division which it is convenient to adopt.
+
+
+THE TRIASSIC, OR NEW RED PERIOD.
+
+This period has received the name of Triassic because the rocks of which
+it is composed, which are more fully developed in Germany than either in
+England or France, were called the Trias (or Triple Group), by German
+writers, from its division into three groups, as follows, in descending
+order:--
+
+        ENGLAND.                  FRANCE.                 GERMANY.
+
+  Saliferous and gypseous } Marnes irisées            Keuper. 1,000 feet.
+  shales and sandstone    }
+
+  Wanting                 { Muschelkalk or Calcaire } Muschelkalk. 600 feet.
+                          { coquillier              }
+
+  Sandstone and quartzose } Grès bigarré              Bunter-Sandstein.
+  conglomerate            }                           1,500 ft.
+
+The following has been shown by Mr. Ed. Hull to be the general
+succession of the Triassic formation in the midland and north-western
+counties of England, where it attains its greatest vertical development,
+thinning away in the direction of the mouth of the Thames:--
+
+                                                  Foreign Equivalents.
+                                                  --------------------
+    / NEW RED MARL.   Red and grey shales and     Keuper.      Marnes
+    |                 marls, sometimes micaceous,              irisées.
+    |                 with beds of rock-salt
+    |                 and gypsum, containing
+    |                 _Estheria_ and _Fora-
+    |                 minifera_ (Chellaston).
+    |
+    | LOWER KEUPER    Thinly-laminated mica-      Letten
+    | SANDSTONE.      ceous sandstones and        Kohle (?)       „
+  T |                 marls (waterstones);
+  R |                 passing downwards into
+  I |                 white, brown, or reddish
+  A |                 sandstone, with a
+  S |                 base of calcareous con-
+  S |                 glomerate or breccia.
+  I |
+  C<  Wanting in      ...                         Muschelkalk. Calcaire
+    | England.                                                 coquillier.
+  S |
+  E | UPPER MOTTLED   Soft, bright-red and     \
+  R | SANDSTONE.      variegated sandstone     |
+  I |                 (without pebbles).       |
+  E |                                          |
+  S | PEBBLE BEDS.    Harder reddish-brown     |  Bunter       Grès bigarré,
+  . |                 sandstones with quartz-  |  Sandstein.   or Grès des
+    |                 ose pebbles, passing      >              Vosges (in
+    |                 into conglomerate;       |               part).
+    |                 with a base of calca-    |
+    |                 reous breccia.           |
+    |                                          |
+    | LOWER MOTTLED   Soft bright-red and      |
+    | SANDSTONE.      variegated sandstone     |
+    \                 (without pebbles).       /
+
+  P / UPPER PERMIAN.  Red marls, with thin-       Zechstein.
+  E |                 bedded fossiliferous
+  R |                 limestones (Manchester).
+  M |
+  I |               / Red and variegated sand- \
+  A |               | stone (Collyhurst, Man-  |
+  N |               | chester) represented by  |
+   <                | [...].                   |
+  S |               |                          |
+  E | LOWER        <  Reddish-brown and purple  > Rothe-todte- Grès des
+  R |               | sandstones and           |  liegende.    Vosges (in
+  I |               | marls, with calcareous   |               part).
+  E |               | conglomerates and        |
+  S |               | trappoid breccia.        |
+  . \               \ (Central counties).      /
+
+
+NEW RED SANDSTONE.
+
+In this new phase of the revolutions of the globe, the animated beings
+on its surface differ much from those which belonged to the Primary
+epoch. The curious Crustaceans which we have described under the name of
+_Trilobites_ have disappeared; the molluscous Cephalopods and
+Brachiopods are here few in number, as are the Ganoid and Placoid
+Fishes, whose existence also seems to have terminated during this
+period, and vegetation has undergone analogous changes. The cryptogamic
+plants, which reached their maximum in the Primary epoch, become now
+less numerous, while the Conifers experienced a certain extension. Some
+kinds of terrestrial animals have disappeared, but they are replaced by
+genera as numerous as new. For the first time the Turtle appears in the
+bosom of the sea, and on the borders of lakes. The Saurian reptiles
+acquire a great development; they prepare the way for those enormous
+Saurians, which appear in the following period, whose skeletons present
+such vast proportions, and such a strange aspect, as to strike with
+astonishment all who contemplate their gigantic, and, so to speak,
+awe-inspiring remains.
+
+The _Variegated Sandstone_, or Bunter, contains many vegetable, but few
+animal, remains, although we constantly find imprints of the footsteps
+of the Labyrinthodon.
+
+The lowest Bunter formation shows itself in France, in the Pyrenees,
+around the central plateau in the Var, and upon both flanks of the
+Vosges mountains. It is represented in south-western and central
+Germany, in Belgium, in Switzerland, in Sardinia, in Spain, in Poland,
+in the Tyrol, in Bohemia, in Moravia, and in Russia. M. D’Orbigny
+states, from his own observation, that it covers vast surfaces in the
+mountainous regions of Bolivia, in South America. It is recognised in
+the United States, in Columbia, in the Great Antilles, and in Mexico.
+
+The Bunter in France is reduced to the variegated sandstone, except
+around the Vosges, in the Var, and the Black Forest, where it is
+accompanied by the Muschelkalk. In Germany it furnishes building-stone
+of excellent quality; many great edifices, in particular the cathedrals,
+so much admired on the Rhine--such, for example, as those of Strasbourg
+and Fribourg--are constructed of this stone, the sombre tints of which
+singularly relieve the grandeur and majesty of the Gothic architecture.
+Whole cities in Germany are built of the brownish-red stones drawn from
+its mottled sandstone quarries. In England, in Scotland, and in Ireland
+this formation extends from north to south through the whole length of
+the country. “This old land,” says Professor Ramsay,[54] “consisted in
+great part of what we now know as Wales, and the adjacent counties of
+Hereford, Monmouth, and Shropshire; of part of Devon and Cornwall,
+Cumberland, the Pennine chain, and all the mountainous parts of
+Scotland. Around old Wales, and part of Cumberland, and probably all
+round and over great part of Devon and Cornwall, the New Red Sandstone
+was deposited. Part, at least, of this oldest of the Secondary rocks was
+formed of the material of the older Palæozoic strata, that had then
+risen above the surface of the water. The New Red Sandstone series
+consists in its lower members of beds of red sandstone and conglomerate,
+more than 1,000 feet thick, and above them are placed red and green
+marls, chiefly red, which in Germany are called the Keuper strata, and
+in England the New Red Marl. These formations range from the mouth of
+the Mersey, round the borders of Wales, to the estuary of the Severn,
+eastwards into Warwickshire, and thence northwards into Yorkshire and
+Northumberland, along the eastern border of the Magnesian Limestone.
+They also form the bottom of the valley of the Eden, and skirt
+Cumberland on the west; in the centre of England the unequal hardness of
+its sub-divisions sometimes giving rise to minor escarpments,
+overlooking plains and undulating grounds of softer strata.”
+
+  [54] “The Physical Geography and Geology of Great Britain,” 2nd ed.,
+       p. 60.
+
+“Different members of the group rest in England, in some region or
+other,” says Lyell, “on almost every principal member of the Palæozoic
+series, on Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian
+rocks; and there is evidence everywhere of disturbance, contortion,
+partial upheaval into land, and vast denudations which the older rocks
+underwent before and during the deposition of the successive strata of
+the New Red Sandstone group.” (“Elements of Geology,” p. 439.)
+
+The _Muschelkalk_ consists of beds of compact limestone, often greyish,
+sometimes black, alternating with marl and clay, and commonly containing
+such numbers of shells that the name of shelly limestone (_Muschelkalk_)
+has been given to the formation by the Germans. The beds are sometimes
+magnesian, especially in the lower strata, which contain deposits of
+gypsum and rock-salt.
+
+The seas of this sub-period, which is named after the innumerable masses
+of shells inclosed in the rocks which it represents, included, besides
+great numbers of Mollusca, Saurian Reptiles of twelve different genera,
+some Turtles, and six new genera of Fishes clothed with a cuirass. Let
+us pause at the Mollusca which peopled the Triassic seas.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Ceratites nodosus. (Muschelkalk.)]
+
+Among the shells characteristic of the Muschelkalk period, we mention
+_Natica Gaillardoti_, _Rostellaria antiqua_, _Lima striata_, _Avicula
+socialis_, _Terebratula vulgaris_, _Turbonilla dubia_, _Myophoria
+vulgaris_, _Nautilus hexagonalis_, and _Ceratites nodosus_. The
+_Ceratites_, of which a species is here represented (Fig. 81), form a
+genus closely allied to the _Ammonites_, which seem to have played such
+an important part in the ancient seas, but which have no existence in
+those of our era, either in species or even in genus. This Ceratite is
+found in the Muschelkalk of Germany, a formation which has no equivalent
+in England, but which is a compact greyish limestone underlying the
+saliferous rocks in Germany, and including beds of dolomite with gypsum
+and rock-salt.
+
+The _Mytilus_ or _Mussel_, which properly belonged to this age, are
+acephalous (or headless) Molluscs with elongated triangular shells, of
+which there are many species found in our existing seas. _Lima_,
+_Myophoria_, _Posidonia_, and _Avicula_, are acephalous Molluscs of the
+same period. The two genera _Natica_ and _Rostellaria_ belong to the
+Gasteropoda, and are abundant in the Muschelkalk in France, Germany, and
+Poland.
+
+Among the Echinoderms belonging to this period may be mentioned
+_Encrinus moniliformis_ and _E. liliiformis_, or _lily encrinite_ (Fig.
+82), whose remains, constituting in some localities whole beds of rock,
+show the slow progress with which this zoophyte formed beds of limestone
+in the clear seas of the period. To these may be added, among the
+Mollusca, _Avicula subcostata_ and _Myophoria vulgaris_.
+
+In the Muschelkalk are found the skull and teeth of _Placodus gigas_, a
+reptile which was originally placed by Agassiz among the class of
+Fishes; but more perfect specimens have satisfied Professor Owen that it
+was a Saurian Reptile.
+
+It may be added, that the presence of a few genera, peculiar to the
+Primary epoch, which entirely disappeared during the sub-period, and
+the appearance for the first time of some other animals peculiar to the
+Jurassic period, give to the Muschelkalk fauna the appearance of being
+one of passage from one period to the other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Encrinus liliiformis.]
+
+The seas, then, contained a few Reptiles, probably inhabitants of the
+banks of rivers, as _Phytosaurus_, _Capitosaurus_, &c., and sundry
+Fishes, as _Sphœrodus_ and _Pycnodus_. In this sub-period we shall say
+nothing of the Land-Turtles, which for the first time now appear; but,
+we should note, that at the Bunter period a gigantic Reptile appears, on
+which the opinions of geologists were for a long while at variance. In
+the argillaceous rocks of the Muschelkalk period imprints of the foot of
+some animal were discovered in the sandstones of Storeton Hill, in
+Cheshire, and in the New Red Sandstone of parts of Warwickshire, as well
+as in Thuringia, and Hesseburg in Saxony, which very much resembled the
+impression that might be made in soft clay by the outstretched fingers
+and thumb of a human hand. These traces were made by a species of
+Reptile furnished with four feet, the two fore-feet being much broader
+than the hinder two. The head, pelvis, and scapula only of this
+strange-looking animal have been found, but these are considered to have
+belonged to a gigantic air-breathing reptile closely connected with the
+Batrachians. It is thought that the head was not naked, but protected by
+a bony cushion; that its jaws were armed with conical teeth, of great
+strength and of a complicated structure. This curious and
+uncouth-looking creature, of which the woodcut Fig. 83 is a restoration,
+has been named the _Cheirotherium_, or _Labyrinthodon_, from the
+complicated arrangement of the cementing layer of the teeth. (See also
+Fig. 1, p. 12.)
+
+Another Reptile of great dimensions--which would seem to have been
+intended to prepare the way for the appearance of the enormous Saurians
+which present themselves in the Jurassic period--was the _Nothosaurus_,
+a species of marine Crocodile, of which a restoration has been attempted
+in PLATE XIII. opposite.
+
+[Illustration: XIII.--Ideal Landscape of the Muschelkalk Sub-period.]
+
+It has been supposed, from certain impressions which appear in the
+Keuper sandstones of the Connecticut river in North America, that
+Birds made their appearance in the period which now occupies us; the
+flags on which these occur by thousands show the tracks of an animal of
+great size (some 20 inches long and 4½ feet apart), presenting the
+impression of three toes, like some of the Struthionidæ or Ostriches,
+accompanied by raindrops. No remains of the skeletons of birds have been
+met with in rocks of this period, and the footprints in question are all
+that can be alleged in support of the hypothesis.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Labyrinthodon restored. One-twentieth natural
+size.]
+
+M. Ad. Brongniart places the commencement of dicotyledonous gymnosperm
+plants in this age. The characteristics of this Flora consist in
+numerous Ferns, constituting genera now extinct, such as _Anomopteris_
+and _Crematopteris_. The true _Equiseta_ are rare in it. The Calamites,
+or, rather, the _Calamodendra_, abound. The gymnosperms are represented
+by the genera _Conifer_, _Voltzia_, and _Haidingera_, of which both
+species and individuals are very numerous in the formation of this
+period.
+
+Among the species of plants which characterise this formation, we may
+mention _Neuropteris elegans_, _Calamites arenaceus_, _Voltzia
+heterophylla_, _Haidingera speciosa_. The _Haidingera_, belonging to the
+tribe of _Abietinæ_, were plants with large leaves, analogous to those
+of our _Damara_, growing close together, and nearly imbricated, as in
+the _Araucaria_. Their fruit, which are cones with rounded scales, are
+imbricated, and have only a single seed, thus bearing out the strong
+resemblance which has been traced between these fossil plants, and the
+Damara.
+
+The _Voltzias_ (Fig. 84), which seem to have formed the greater part of
+the forests were a genus of Cupressinaceæ, now extinct, which are well
+characterised among the fossil Conifers of the period. The alternate
+spiral leaves, forming five to eight rows sessile, that is, sitting
+close to the branch and drooping, have much in them analogous to the
+_Cryptomerias_. Their fruit was an oblong cone with scales, loosely
+imbricated, cuneiform or wedge-shaped, and, commonly, composed of from
+three to five obtuse lobes. In Fig. 84 we have a part of the stem, a
+branch with leaves and cone. In his “Botanic Geography,” M. Lecoq thus
+describes the vegetation of the ancient world in the first period of the
+Triassic age: “While the variegated sandstone and mottled clays were
+being slowly deposited in regular beds by the waters, magnificent Ferns
+still exhibited their light and elegantly-carved leaves. Divers
+_Protopteris_ and majestic _Neuropteris_ associated themselves in
+extensive forests, where vegetated also the _Crematopteris typica_ of
+Schimper, the _Anomopteris Mongeotii_ of Brongniart, and the pretty
+_Trichomanites myriophyllum_ (Göppert). The Conifers of this epoch
+attain a very considerable development, and would form graceful forests
+of green trees. Elegant monocotyledons, representing the forms of
+tropical countries, seem to show themselves for the first time, the
+_Yuccites Vogesiacus_ of Schimper constituted groups at once thickly
+serried and of great extent.
+
+“A family, hitherto doubtful, appears under the elegant form of
+_Nilssonia Hogardi_, Schimp.; _Ctenis Hogardi_, Brongn. It is still seen
+in the _Zamites Vogesiacus_, Schimp.; and the group of the Cycads
+sharing at once in the organisation of the Conifers and the elegance of
+the Palms, now decorate the earth, which reveals in these new forms its
+vast fecundity. (See Fig. 72, p. 168.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Branch and cone of Voltzia restored.]
+
+“Of the herbaceous plants which formed the undergrowth of the forests,
+or which luxuriated in its cool marshes, the most remarkable is the
+_Ætheophyllum speciosum_, Schimp. Their organisation approximates to
+the Lycopodiaceæ and Thyphaceæ, the _Ætheophyllum stipulare_, Brongn.,
+and the curious _Schizoneura paradoxa_, Schimp. Thus we can trace the
+commencement of the reign of the Dicotyledons with naked seeds, which
+afterwards become so widely disseminated, in a few Angiosperms, composed
+principally of two families, the Conifers and Cycadeaceæ, still
+represented in the existing vegetation. The former, very abundant at
+first, associated themselves with the cellular Cryptogams, which still
+abound, although they are decreasing, then with the Cycadeaceæ, which
+present themselves slowly, but will soon be observed to take a large
+part in the brilliant harmonies of the vegetable kingdom.”
+
+The engraving at page 191 (PLATE XIII.) gives an idealised picture of
+the plants and animals of the period. The reader must imagine himself
+transported to the shores of the Muschelkalk sea at a moment when its
+waves are agitated by a violent but passing storm. The reflux of the
+tide exposes some of the aquatic animals of the period. Some fine
+Encrinites are seen, with their long flexible stems, and a few Mytili
+and Terebratulæ. The Reptile which occupies the rocks, and prepares to
+throw itself on its prey, is the _Nothosaurus_. Not far from it are
+other reptiles, its congeners, but of a smaller species. Upon the dune
+on the shore is a fine group of the trees of the period, that is, of
+_Haidingeras_, with large trunks, with drooping branches and foliage, of
+which the cedars of our own age give some idea. The elegant _Voltzias_
+are seen in the second plane of this curtain of verdure. The Reptiles
+which lived in these primitive forests, and which would give to it so
+strange a character, are represented by the _Labyrinthodon_, which
+descends towards the sea on the right, leaving upon the sandy shore
+those curious tracks which have been so wonderfully preserved to our
+days.
+
+The footprints of the reptilian animals of this period prove that they
+walked over moist surfaces; and, if these surfaces had been simply left
+by a retiring tide, they would generally have been obliterated by the
+returning flood, in the same manner that is seen every day on our own
+sandy shores. It seems more likely that the surfaces, on which fossil
+footprints are now found, were left bare by the summer evaporation of a
+lake; that these surfaces were afterwards dried by the sun, and the
+footprints hardened, so as to ensure their preservation, before the
+rising waters brought by flooded muddy rivers again submerged the low
+flat shores and deposited new layers of salt, just as they do at the
+present day round the Dead Sea and the Salt Lake of Utah.
+
+[Illustration: XIV.--Ideal Landscape of the Keuper Sub-period.]
+
+
+KEUPER SUB-PERIOD.
+
+The formation which characterises the Keuper, or saliferous period, is
+of moderate extent, and derives the latter name from the salt deposits
+it contains.
+
+These rocks consist of a vast number of argillaceous and marly beds,
+variously coloured, but chiefly red, with tints of yellow and green.
+These are the colours which gave the name of _variegatea_ (Poikilitic)
+to the series. The beds of red marl often alternate with sandstones,
+which are also variegated in colour. As subordinate rocks, we find in
+this formation some deposits of a poor pyritic coal and of gypsum. But
+what especially characterises the formation are the important deposits
+of rock-salt which are included in it. The saliferous beds, often
+twenty-five to forty feet thick, alternate with beds of clay, the whole
+attaining a thickness of 160 yards. In Germany in Würtemberg, in France
+at Vic, at Dieuze, and at Château-Salins, the rock-salt of the
+saliferous formation has become an important branch of industry. In the
+Jura, salt is extracted from the water charged with chlorides, which
+issues from this formation.
+
+Some of these deposits are situated at great depths, and cannot be
+reached without very considerable labour. The salt-mines of Wieliczka,
+in Poland, for example, can be procured on the surface, or by galleries
+of little depth, because the deposit belongs to the Tertiary period; but
+the deposits of salt, in the Triassic age, lie so much deeper, as to be
+only approachable by a regular process of mining by galleries, and the
+ordinary mode of reaching the salt is by digging pits, which are
+afterwards filled with water. This water, charged with the salt, is then
+pumped up into troughs, where it is evaporated, and the crystallised
+mineral obtained.
+
+What is the origin of the great deposits of marine salt which occur in
+this formation, and which always alternate with thin beds of clay or
+marl? We can only attribute them to the evaporation of vast quantities
+of sea-water introduced into depressions, cavities, or gulfs, which the
+sandy dunes afterwards separated from the great open sea. In PLATE XIV.
+an attempt is made to represent the natural fact, which must have been
+of frequent recurrence during the saliferous period, to form the
+considerable masses of rock-salt which are now found in the rocks of the
+period. On the right is the sea, with a dune of considerable extent,
+separating it from a tranquil basin of smooth water. At intervals, and
+from various causes, the sea, clearing the dune, enters and fills the
+basin. We may even suppose that a gulf exists here which, at one time,
+communicated with the sea; the winds having raised this sandy dune, the
+gulf becomes transformed, by degrees, into a basin or back-water, closed
+on all sides. However that may be, it is pretty certain that if the
+waters of the sea were once shut up in this basin, with an argillaceous
+bottom and without any opening, evaporation from the effects of solar
+heat would take place, and a bed of salt would be the result of this
+evaporation, mixed with other mineral salts which accompany chloride of
+sodium in sea-water, such as sulphate of magnesia, chloride of
+potassium, &c. This bed of salt, left by the evaporation of the water,
+would soon receive an argillaceous covering from the clay and silt
+suspended in the muddy water of the basin, thus forming a first
+alternation of salt and of clay or marl. The sea making fresh breaches
+across the barriers, the same process took place with a similar result,
+until the basin was filled up. By the regular and tranquil repetition of
+this phenomenon, continued during a long succession of ages, this
+abundant deposit of rock-salt has been formed, which occupies so
+important a position in the Secondary rocks.
+
+There is in the delta of the Indus a singular region, called the Runn of
+Cutch, which extends over an area of 7,000 square miles, which is
+neither land nor sea, but is under water during the monsoons, and in the
+dry season is incrusted, here and there, with salt about an inch thick,
+the result of evaporation. Dry land has been largely increased here,
+during the present century, by subsidence of the waters and upheavals by
+earthquakes. “That successive layers of salt may have been thrown down
+one upon the other on many thousand square miles, in such a region, is
+undeniable,” says Lyell. “The supply of brine from the ocean is as
+inexhaustible as the supply of heat from the sun. The only assumption
+required to enable us to explain the great thickness of salt in such an
+area, is the continuance for an indefinite period of a subsidence, the
+country preserving all the time a general approach to horizontally.” The
+observations of Mr. Darwin on the atolls of the Pacific, prove that such
+a continuous subsidence is probable. Hugh Miller, after ably discussing
+various spots of earth where, as in the Runn of Cutch, evaporation and
+deposit take place, adds: “If we suppose that, instead of a barrier of
+lava, sand-bars were raised by the surf on a flat arenaceous coast,
+during a slow and equable sinking of the surface, the waters of the
+outer gulf might occasionally topple over the bar and supply a fresh
+brine when the first stock had been exhausted by evaporation.”
+
+Professor Ramsay has pointed out that both the sandstones and marls of
+the Triassic epoch were formed in lakes. In the latter part of this
+epoch, he is of opinion, that the Keuper marls of the British Isles were
+deposited in a large lake, or lakes, which were fresh or brackish at
+first, but afterwards salt and without outlets to the sea; and that the
+same was occasionally the case with regard to other portions of northern
+Europe and its adjoining seas.
+
+By the silting up of such lakes with sediment, and the gradual
+evaporation of their waters under favourable conditions, such as
+increased heat and diminished rainfall--where the lakes might cease to
+have an outflow into the sea and the loss of water by evaporation would
+exceed the amount flowing into them--the salt or salts contained in
+solution would, by degrees, become concentrated and finally
+precipitated. In this way the great deposits of rock-salt and gypsum,
+common in the Keuper formation, may be accounted for.
+
+Subsequently, by increase of rainfall or decrease of heat, and sinking
+of the district, the waters became comparatively less salt again; and a
+recurrence of such conditions lasted until the close of the Keuper
+period, when a partial influx of the sea took place, and the Rhætic beds
+of England were deposited.
+
+The red colour of the New Red Sandstones and marls is caused by peroxide
+of iron, which may also have been carried into the lakes in solution, as
+a carbonate, and afterwards converted into peroxide by contact with air,
+and precipitated as a thin pellicle upon the sedimentary grains of sandy
+mud, of which the Triassic beds more or less consist. Professor Ramsay
+further considers that all the red-coloured strata of England, including
+the Permian, Old Red Sandstone, and even the Old Cambrian formation,
+were deposited in lakes or inland waters.[55]
+
+  [55] A. C. Ramsay, _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, vol. 27, p. 191.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There is little to be said of the animals which belong to the Saliferous
+period. They are nearly the same as those of the Muschelkalk, &c.
+
+Among the most abundant of the shells belonging to the upper Trias, in
+all the countries where it has been examined, are the _Avicula,
+Cardium_, and _Pecten_, one of which is given in Fig. 85. Foraminifera
+are numerous in the Keuper marls. The remains of land-plants, and the
+peculiarities of some of the reptiles of the Keuper period, tend to
+confirm the opinion of Professor Ramsay, that the strata were deposited
+in inland salt-lakes.
+
+In the Keuper period the islands and continents presented few
+mountains; they were intersected here and there by large lakes, with
+flat and uniform banks. The vegetation on their shores was very
+abundant, and we possess its remains in great numbers. The Keuper Flora
+was very analogous to those of the Lias and Oolite, and consisted of
+Ferns, Equisetaceæ, Cycads, Conifers, and a few plants, which M. Ad.
+Brongniart classes among the dubious monocotyledons. Among the Ferns may
+be quoted many species of _Sphenopteris_ or _Pecopteris_. Among them,
+_Pecopteris Stuttgartiensis_, a tree with channelled trunk, which rises
+to a considerable height without throwing out branches, and terminates
+in a crown of leaves finely cut and with long petioles; the _Equisetites
+columnaris_, a great Equisetum analogous to the horse-tails of our age,
+but of infinitely larger dimensions, its long fluted trunk, surmounted
+by an elongated fructification, towering over all the other trees of the
+marshy soil.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Pecten orbicularis.]
+
+The _Pterophyllum Jägeri_ and _P. Münsteri_ represented the Cycads, the
+_Taxodites Münsterianus_ represented the Conifers, and, finally, the
+trunk of the Calamites was covered with a creeping plant, having
+elliptical leaves, with a re-curving nervature borne upon its long
+petioles, and the fruit disposed in bunches; this is the _Preissleria
+antiqua_, a doubtful monocotyledon, according to Brongniart, but M.
+Unger places it in the family of _Smilax_, of which it will thus be the
+earliest representative. The same botanist classes with the canes a
+marsh-plant very common in this period, the _Palæoxyris Münsteri_, which
+Brongniart classes with the _Preissleria_ among his doubtful
+Monocotyledons.
+
+The vegetation of the latter part of the Triassic period is thus
+characterised by Lecoq, in his “Botanical Geography”: “The cellular
+_Cryptogameæ_ predominate in this as they do in the Carboniferous epoch,
+but the species have changed, and many of the genera also are different;
+the _Cladephlebis_, the _Sphenopteris_, the _Coniopteris_, and
+_Pecopteris_ predominate over the others in the number of species. The
+Equisetaceæ are more developed than in any other formation. One of the
+finest species, the _Calamites arenaceus_ of Brongniart, must have
+formed great forests. The fluted trunks resemble immense columns,
+terminating at the summit in leafy branches, disposed in graceful
+verticillated tufts, foreshadowing the elegant forms of _Equisetum
+sylvaticum_. Growing alongside of these were a curious Equisetum and
+singular Equisetites, a species of which last, _E. columnaris_, raised
+its herbaceous stem, with its sterile articulations, to a great height.
+
+“What a singular aspect these ancient rocks would present, if we add to
+them the forest-trees _Pterophyllum_ and the _Zamites_ of the fine
+family of Cycadeaceæ, and the Conifers, which seem to have made their
+appearance in the humid soil at the same time!
+
+“It is during this epoch, while yet under the reign of the
+dicotyledonous angiosperms, that we discover the first true
+monocotyledons. The _Preissleria antiqua_, with its long petals,
+drooping and creeping round the old trunks, its bunches of
+bright-coloured berries like the _Smilax_ of our own age, to which
+family it appears to have belonged. Besides, the Triassic marshes gave
+birth to tufts of _Palæoxyris Münsteri_, a cane-like species of the
+Gramineæ, which, in all probability, cheered the otherwise gloomy shore.
+
+“During this long period the earth preserved its primitive vegetation;
+new forms are slowly introduced, and they multiply slowly. But if our
+present types of vegetation are deficient in these distant epochs, we
+ought to recognise also that the plants which in our days represent the
+vegetation of the primitive world are often shorn of their grandeur. Our
+Equisetaceæ and Lycopodiaceæ are but poor representatives of the
+Lepidodendrons; the Calamites and Asterophyllites had already run their
+race before the epoch of which we write.”
+
+The principal features of Triassic vegetation are represented in PLATE
+XIV., page 198. On the cliff, on the left of the ideal landscape, the
+graceful stems and lofty trees are groups of _Calamites arenaceus_;
+below are the great “horse-tails” of the epoch, _Equisetum columnare_, a
+slender tapering species, of soft and pulpy consistence, which, rising
+erect, would give a peculiar physiognomy to the solitary shore.
+
+The Keuper formation presents itself in Europe at many points, and it
+is not difficult to trace its course. In France it appears in the
+department of the Indre, of the Cher, of the Allier, of the Nièvre, of
+the Saône-et-Loire; upon the western slopes of the Jura its outliers
+crop out near Poligny and Salins, upon the western slopes of the Vosges;
+in the Doubs it shows itself; then it skirts the Muschelkalk area in the
+Haute-Marne; in the Vosges it assumes large proportions in the Meurthe
+at Luneville and Dieuze; in the Moselle it extends northward to
+Bouzonville; and on the Rhine to the east of Luxembourg as far as
+Dockendorf. Some traces of it show themselves upon the eastern slopes of
+the Vosges, on the lower Rhine.
+
+It appears again in Switzerland and in Germany, in the canton of Basle,
+in Argovia, in the Grand Duchy of Würtemberg, in the Tyrol, and in
+Austria, where it gives its name to the city of Salzburg.
+
+In the British Islands the Keuper formation commences in the eastern
+parts of Devonshire, and a band, more or less regular, extends into
+Somersetshire, through Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, Warwick,
+Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, to the banks of the Tees, in Yorkshire,
+with a bed, independent of all the others in Cheshire, which extends
+into Lancashire. “At Nantwich, in the upper Trias of Cheshire,” Sir
+Charles Lyell states, “two beds of salt, in great part unmixed with
+earthy matter, attain the thickness of 90 or 100 feet. The upper surface
+of the highest bed is very uneven, forming cones and irregular figures.
+Between the two masses there intervenes a bed of indurated clay
+traversed by veins of salt. The highest bed thins off towards the
+south-west, losing fifteen feet of its thickness in the course of a
+mile, according to Mr. Ormerod. The horizontal extent of these beds is
+not exactly known, but the area containing saliferous clay and
+sandstones is supposed to exceed 150 miles in diameter, while the total
+thickness of the Trias in the same region is estimated by Mr. Ormerod at
+1,700 feet. Ripple-marked sandstones and the footprints of animals are
+observed at so many levels, that we may safely assume the whole area to
+have undergone a slow and gradual depression during the formation of the
+New Red Sandstone.”
+
+Not to mention the importance of salt as a source of health, it is in
+Great Britain, and, indeed, all over the world where the saliferous
+rocks exist, a most important branch of industry. The quantity of the
+mineral produced in England, from all sources, is between 5,000 and
+6,000 tons annually, and the population engaged in producing the
+mineral, from sources supposed to be inexhaustible, is upwards of
+12,000.
+
+The lower Keuper sandstones, which lie at the base of the series of red
+marls, frequently give rise to springs, and are in consequence called
+“water-stones,” in Lancashire and Cheshire.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Productus Martini.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Patella vulgata.
+
+(Living.)]
+
+If the Keuper formation is poor in organic remains in France, it is by
+no means so on the other side of the Alps. In the Tyrol, and in the
+remarkable beds of Saint Cassian, Aussec, and Hallstadt, the rocks are
+made up of an immense number of marine fossils, among them Cephalopods,
+Ceratites, and Ammonites of peculiar form. The Orthoceras, which we have
+seen abounding in the Silurian period, and continued during the deposit
+of the Devonian and Carboniferous periods, appears here for the last
+time. We still find here a great number of Gasteropods and of
+Lamellibranchs of the most varied form. Sea Urchins--corals of elegant
+form--appear to have occupied, on the other side of the Alps, the same
+seas which in France and Germany seem to have been nearly destitute of
+animals. Some beds are literally formed of accumulated shells belonging
+to the genus _Avicula_; but these last-mentioned deposits are to be
+considered as more properly belonging to the Rhætic or Penarth strata,
+into which the New Red or Keuper Marl gradually passes upwards, and
+which are more fully described at page 207.
+
+In following the grand mountainous slopes of the Alps and Carpathians we
+discover the saliferous rocks by this remarkable accumulation of
+Aviculæ. The same facies presents itself under identical conditions in
+Syria, in India, in New Caledonia, in New Zealand, and in Australia. It
+is not the least curious part of this period, that it presents, on one
+side of the site of the Alps, which were not yet raised, an immense
+accumulation of sediment, charged with gypsum, rock-salt, &c., without
+organic remains; while beyond, a region presents itself equally
+remarkable for the extraordinary accumulation of the remains of marine
+Mollusca. Among these were _Myophoria lineata_, which is often
+confounded with Trigonia, and _Stellispongia variabilis_.
+
+France at this period was still the skeleton of what it has since
+become. A map of that country represents the metamorphic rocks occupying
+the site of the Alps, the Cévennes, and the Puy-de-Dôme, the country
+round Nantes, and the Islands of Brittany. The Primary rocks reach the
+foot of the Pyrenees, the Cotentin, the Vosges, and the Eifel Mountains.
+Some bands of coal stretch away from Valenciennes to the Rhine, and on
+the north of the Vosges, these mountains themselves being chiefly
+composed of Triassic rocks.
+
+
+RHÆTIC, OR PENARTH SUB-PERIOD.
+
+The attention of geologists has been directed within the last few years,
+more especially, to a series of deposits which intervene between the New
+Red Marl of the Trias, and the blue argillaceous limestones and shales
+of the Lower Lias. The first-mentioned beds, although they attain no
+great thickness in this country, nevertheless form a well-defined and
+persistent zone of strata between the unfossiliferous Triassic marls and
+the lower Liassic limestone with _Ostrea Liassica_ and _Ammonites
+planorbis_, _A. angulatus_ and _A. Bucklandi_; being everywhere
+characterised by the presence of the same groups of organic remains, and
+the same general lithological character of the beds. These last may be
+described as consisting of three sub-divisions, the lowermost composed
+of alternations of marls, clays, and marly limestones in the lower part,
+forming a gradual passage downwards into the New Red Marls upon which
+they repose. 2. A middle group of black, thinly laminated or paper-like
+shales, with thin layers of indurated limestone, and crowded in places
+with _Pecten Valoniensis_, _Cardium Rhæticum_, _Avicula contorta_, and
+other characteristic shells, as well as by the presence, nearly always,
+of a remarkable bed, which is commonly known as the “Bone-bed.” This
+thin band of stone, which is so well known at Aust, Axmouth,
+Westbury-on-Severn, and elsewhere, is a brecciated or conglomerated band
+of variable thickness which, sometimes a sandstone and sometimes a
+limestone, is always more or less composed of the teeth, scales, and
+bones of numerous genera of Fishes and Saurians, together with their
+fossilised excrement, which will be more fully and subsequently
+described under the name of Coprolites, under the Liassic period.
+
+The molar tooth of a small predaceous fossil mammal of the Microlestes
+family (μικρος, _little_; ληστης, _beast_), whose nearest living
+representative appears to be some of the Hypsiprymnidæ or Kangaroo Rats,
+has been found by Mr. Dawkins in some grey marls underlying the bone-bed
+on the sea-shore at Watchett, in Somersetshire; affording the earliest
+known trace of a fossil mammal in the Secondary rocks. Several small
+teeth belonging to the genus Microlestes have also been discovered by
+Mr. Charles Moore in a breccia of Rhætic age, filling a fissure
+traversing Carboniferous Limestone near Frome; and in addition to the
+discovery of the remains of Microlestes, those of a mammal more closely
+allied to the Marsupials than any other order, have been met with at
+Diegerloch, south-east of Stuttgart, in a remarkable bone-breccia, which
+also yielded coprolites and numerous traces of fishes and reptiles.
+
+The uppermost sub-division includes certain beds of white and
+cream-coloured limestone, resembling in appearance the smooth fracture
+and closeness of texture of the lithographic limestone of Solenhofen,
+and which, known to geologists and quarrymen under the name “white
+lias,” given to it by Dr. William Smith, was formerly always considered
+to belong to, and was included in, the Lias proper. The most remarkable
+bed in this zone is one of only a few inches in thickness, but it has
+long been known to collectors, and sought after under the name of Cotham
+Marble or Landscape Stone, the latter name having reference to the
+curious dendritic markings which make their appearance on breaking the
+stone at right angles to its bedding, bearing a singular resemblance to
+a landscape with trees, water, &c.; while the first name is that derived
+from its occurrence abundantly at Cotham, in the suburbs of Bristol,
+where the stone was originally found and noticed.
+
+This band of stone is interesting in another respect, because it
+sometimes shows by its uneven, eroded, and water-worn upper surface,
+that an interval took place soon after it had been deposited, when the
+newly-formed stone became partially dissolved, eroded, or worn away by
+water, before the stratum next in succession was deposited upon it. The
+same phenomenon is displayed, in a more marked degree, in the uppermost
+limestone or “white lias” bed of the series, which not only shows an
+eroded surface, but the holes made by boring Molluscs, exactly as is
+produced at the present day by the same class of animals, which excavate
+holes in the rocks between high and low-water marks, to serve for their
+dwelling-places, and as a protection from the waves to their somewhat
+delicate shells.
+
+The “White Lias” of Smith is the equivalent of the Koessen beds which
+immediately underlie the Lower Lias of the Swabian Jura, and have been
+traced for a hundred miles, from Geneva to the environs of Vienna; and,
+also, of the Upper St. Cassian beds, which are so called from their
+occurrence at St. Cassian in the Austrian Alps.
+
+The general character of the series of strata just described, is that
+of a deposit formed in tolerably shallow water. In the Alps of Lombardy
+and the Tyrol, in Luxembourg, in France, and, in fact, throughout nearly
+the whole of Europe, they form a sort of fringe in the margin of the
+Triassic sea; and, although of comparatively inconsiderable thickness in
+England, they become highly developed in Lombardy, &c., to an enormous
+thickness, and constitute the great mass of the Rhætian Alps and a
+considerable part of the well-known beds of St. Cassian, and Hallstadt
+in the Austrian Alps. (See page 205.)
+
+The Rhætic beds of Europe were, as a whole, formed under very different
+conditions in different areas. The thickness of the strata and the large
+and well-developed fauna (chiefly Mollusca) indicate that the Rhætic
+strata of Lombardy, and other parts of the south and east of Europe,
+were deposited in a broad open ocean. On the other hand, the
+comparatively thin beds of this age in England and north-western Europe,
+the fauna of which, besides being poor in genera and species, consists
+of small and dwarfed forms, point to the conclusion that they were in
+great part deposited in shallow seas and in estuaries, or in lagoons, or
+in occasional salt lakes, under conditions which lasted for a long
+period.[56]
+
+  [56] See A. C. Ramsay, “On the Physical Relations of the New Red Marl,
+       Rhætic Beds, and Lower Lias,” _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, vol. 27,
+       p. 189.
+
+In consequence of the importance they assume in Lombardy (the ancient
+Rhætia), the name “Rhætic Beds” has been given to these strata by Mr.
+Charles Moore; Dr. Thomas Wright has proposed the designation “Avicula
+Contorta Zone,” from the plentiful occurrence of that shell in the black
+shales forming the well-marked middle zone, and which is everywhere
+present where this group of beds is found; Jules Martin and others have
+proposed the term “Infra-lias,” or “Infra-liassic strata;” while the
+name “Penarth Beds” has been assigned to these deposits in this country
+by Mr. H. W. Bristow, at the suggestion of Sir Roderick Murchison, in
+consequence of their conspicuous appearance and well-exposed sections in
+the bold headlands and cliffs of that locality, in the British Channel,
+west of Cardiff.
+
+A fuller description of these beds will be found in the Reports of the
+Bath Meeting of the British Association (1864), by Mr. Bristow; also in
+communications to the _Geological Magazine_, for 1864, by MM. Bristow
+and Dawkins;[57] in papers read before the Geological Society by Dr.
+Thomas Wright,[58] Mr. Charles Moore,[59] and Mr. Ralph Tate,[60] as
+printed in their _Quarterly Journal_; and by Mr. Etheridge, in the
+Transactions of the Cotteswold Natural History Club for 1865-66. The
+limits of the Penarth Beds have also been lately accurately laid down by
+Mr. Bristow in the map of the Geological Survey over the district
+comprised between Bath, Bristol, and the Severn; and elaborately
+detailed typical sections of most of the localities in England, where
+these beds occur, have been constructed by MM. Bristow, Etheridge, and
+Woodward, of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, which, when
+published, will greatly add to our knowledge of this remarkable and
+interesting series of deposits.
+
+  [57] _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, vol. xx., p. 396.
+
+  [58] Ibid, vol. xvii., p. 483.
+
+  [59] Ibid, vol. xvi., p. 374.
+
+  [60] Ibid, vol. xx., p. 103.
+
+
+JURASSIC PERIOD.
+
+This period, one of the most important in the physical history of the
+globe, has received its name from the Jura mountains in France, the Jura
+range being composed of the rocks deposited in the seas of the period.
+In the term Jurassic, the formations designated as the “Oolite” and
+“Lias” are included, both being found in the Jura mountains. The
+Jurassic period presents a very striking assemblage of characteristics,
+both in its vegetation and in the animal remains which belong to it;
+many genera of animals existing in the preceding age have disappeared,
+new genera have replaced them, comprising a very specially organised
+group, containing not less than 4,000 species.
+
+The Jurassic period is sub-divided into two sub-periods: those of the
+_Lias_ and the _Oolite_.
+
+
+THE LIAS
+
+is an English provincial name given to an argillaceous limestone, which,
+with marl and clay, forms the base of the Jurassic formation, and passes
+almost imperceptibly into the Lower Oolite in some places, where the
+Marlstone of the Lias partakes of the mineral character, as well as the
+fossil remains of the Lower Oolite; and it is sometimes treated of as
+belonging to that formation. “Nevertheless, the Lias may be traced
+throughout a great part of Europe as a separate and independent group,
+of considerable thickness, varying from 500 to 1,000 feet, containing
+many peculiar fossils, and having a very uniform lithological
+aspect.”[61] The rocks which represent the Liassic period form the base
+of the Jurassic system, and have a mean thickness of about 1,200 feet.
+In the inferior part we find argillaceous sandstones, which are called
+the sandstones of the Lias, and comprehend the greater part of the
+_Quadersandstein_, or building-stone of the Germans, above which comes
+compact limestone, argillaceous, bluish, and yellowish; finally, the
+formation terminates in the marlstones which are sometimes sandy, and
+occasionally bituminous.
+
+  [61] Lyell, “Elements of Geology,” p. 413.
+
+The Lias, in England, is generally in three groups: 1, the upper, clays
+and shales, underlying sands; 2, the middle, lias or marlstone; and 3,
+the lower, clays and limestone; but these have been again
+sub-divided--the last into six zones, each marked by its own peculiar
+species of Ammonites; the second into three zones; the third consists of
+clay, shale, and argillaceous limestone. For the purposes of description
+we shall, therefore, divide the Lias into these three groups:--
+
+1. _Upper Lias Clay_, consists of blue clay, or shale, containing
+nodular bands of claystones at the base, crowded with _Ammonites
+serpentinus_, _A. bifrons_, _Belemnites_, &c.
+
+2. The _Middle Lias_, commonly known as the Marlstone, is surmounted by
+a bed of oolitic ironstone, largely worked in Leicestershire and in the
+north of England as a valuable ore of iron. The underlying marls and
+sands, the latter of which become somewhat argillaceous below, form beds
+from 200 to 300 feet thick in Dorsetshire and Gloucestershire; the
+fossils are _Ammonites margaritaceus_, _A. spinatus_, _Belemnites
+tripartitus_. The upper rock-beds, especially the bed of ironstone on
+the top, is generally remarkably rich in fossils.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Gryphæa incurva.]
+
+3. _Lower Lias_ (averaging from 600 to 900 feet in thickness) consists,
+in the lower part, of thin layers of bluish argillaceous limestone,
+alternating with shales and clays; the whole overlaid by the blue clay
+of which the lower member of the Liassic group usually consists. This
+member of the series is well developed in Yorkshire, at Lyme Regis and
+Charmouth in Dorsetshire, and generally over the South-West and Midland
+Counties of England. _Gryphæa incurva_ (Fig. 88), with sandy bands,
+occurs at the base, in addition to which we find _Ammonites planorbis
+Bucklandi_, _A. Ostrea liassica_, _Lima gigantea_, _Ammonites
+Bucklandi_, &c., in the lower limestones and shales.
+
+Above the clay are yellow sands from 100 to 200 feet thick, underlying
+the limestone of the Inferior Oolite. These sands were, until lately,
+considered to belong to the latter formation--as they undoubtedly do
+physically--until they were shown, by Dr. Thomas Wright, of Cheltenham,
+to be more nearly allied, by their fossils, to the Lias below than to
+the Inferior Oolite above, into which they form the passage-beds.
+
+In France the Lias abounds in the Calvados, in Burgundy, Lorraine,
+Normandy, and the Lyonnais. In the Vosges and Luxembourg, M. Elie de
+Beaumont states that the Lias containing _Gryphæa incurva_ and _Lima
+gigantea_, and some other marine fossils, becomes arenaceous; and around
+the Harz mountains, in Westphalia and Bavaria, in its lower parts the
+formation is sandy, and is sometimes a good building-stone.
+
+“In England the Lias constitutes,” says Professor Ramsay, “a
+well-defined belt of strata, running continuously from Lyme Regis, on
+the south-west, through the whole of England, to Yorkshire on the
+north-east, and is an extensive series of alternating beds of clay,
+shale, and limestone, with occasional layers of jet in the upper part.
+The unequal hardness of the clays and limestones of the Liassic strata
+causes some of its members to stand out in the distinct minor
+escarpments, often facing the west and north-west. The Marlstone forms
+the most prominent of these, and overlooks the broad meadows of the
+lower Lias-clay, that form much of the centre of England.” In Scotland
+there are few traces of the Lias. Zoophytes, Mollusca, and Fishes of a
+peculiar organisation, but, above all, Reptiles of extraordinary size
+and structure gave to the sea of the Liassic period an interest and
+features quite peculiar. Well might Cuvier exclaim, when the drawings of
+the Plesiosaurus were sent to him: “Truly this is altogether the most
+monstrous animal that has yet been dug out of the ruins of a former
+world!” In the whole of the English Lias there are about 243 genera, and
+467 species of fossils. The whole series has been divided into zones
+characterised by particular Ammonites, which are found to be limited to
+them, at least locally.
+
+Among the Echinodermata belonging to the Lias we may cite _Asterias
+lumbricalis_ and _Palæocoma Furstembergii_, which constitutes a genus
+not dissimilar to the star-fishes, of which its radiated form reminds
+us. The Pentacrinites, of which _Pentacrinites Briareus_ is a type,
+ornaments many collections by its elegant form, and is represented in
+Figs. 79 and 89. It belongs to the order of Crinoidea, which is
+represented at the present time by a single living species, _Pentacrinus
+caput-Medusæ_, one of the rare and delicate Zoophytes of the Caribbean
+sea.
+
+Oysters (_Ostrea_) made their appearance in the Muschelkalk of the last
+period, but only in a small number of species; they increased greatly in
+importance in the Liassic seas.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Pentacrinites Briareus. Half natural size.]
+
+The _Ammonites_, a curious genus of Cephalopoda, which made their first
+appearance in small numbers towards the close of the preceding Triassic
+period, become quite special in the Secondary epoch, with the close of
+which they disappear altogether. They were very abundant in the Jurassic
+period, and, as we have already said, each zone is characterised by its
+peculiar species. The name is taken from the resemblance of the shell to
+the ram’s-horn ornaments which decorated the front of the temple of
+Jupiter Ammon and the bas-reliefs and statues of that pagan deity. They
+were Cephalopodous Mollusca with circular shells, rolled upon themselves
+symmetrically in the same plane, and divided into a series of chambers.
+The animal only occupied the outer chamber of the shell; all the others
+were empty. A siphon or tube issuing from the first chamber traversed
+all the others in succession, as is seen in all the Ammonites and
+Nautili. This tube enabled the animal to rise to the surface, or to sink
+to the bottom, for the Ammonite could fill the chambers with water at
+pleasure, or empty them, thus rendering itself lighter or heavier as
+occasion required. The Nautilus of our seas is provided with the same
+curious organisation, and reminds us forcibly of the Ammonites of
+geological times.
+
+Shells are the only traces which remain of the Ammonites. We have no
+exact knowledge of the animal which occupied and built them. The attempt
+at restoration, as exhibited in Fig. 91, will probably convey a fair
+idea of the Ammonite when living. We assume that it resembled the
+Nautilus of modern times. What a curious aspect these early seas must
+have presented, covered by myriads of these Molluscs of all sizes,
+swimming about in eager pursuit of their prey!
+
+The Ammonites of the Jurassic age present themselves in a great variety
+of forms and sizes; some of them of great beauty. _Ammonites bifrons_,
+_A. Noditianus_, _A. bisulcatus_, _A. Turneri_ (Fig. 90), and _A.
+margaritatus_, are forms characteristic of the Lias.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Ammonites Turneri, from the Lower Lias.]
+
+The _Belemnites_, molluscous Cephalopods of a very curious organisation,
+appeared in great numbers, and for the first time, in the Jurassic seas.
+Of this Mollusc we only possess the fossilised internal “bone,”
+analogous to that of the modern cuttle-fish and the calamary of the
+present seas. This simple relic is very far from giving us an exact idea
+of what the animal was to which the name of Belemnite has been given
+(from Βελεμνον, _a dart_) from their supposed resemblance to the head of
+a javelin. The slender cylindrical bone, the only vestige remaining to
+us, was merely the internal skeleton of the animal. When first
+discovered they were called, by the vulgar, “Thunder-stones” and
+“Ladies’ fingers.” They were, at last, inferred to be the shelly
+processes of some sort of ancient cuttle-fish. Unlike the Ammonite,
+which floated on the surface and sunk to the bottom at pleasure, the
+Belemnite, it has been thought, swam nearer the bottom of the sea, and
+seized its prey from below.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Ammonite restored.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Belemnite restored.]
+
+In Fig. 92 is given a restoration of the living Belemnite, by Dr.
+Buckland and Professor Owen, in which the terminal part of the animal is
+marked in a slightly darker tint, to indicate the place of the bone
+which alone represents in our days this fossilised being. A sufficiently
+exact idea of this Mollusc may be arrived at from the existing
+cuttle-fish. Like the cuttle-fish, the Belemnite secreted a black
+liquid, a sort of ink or sepia; and the bag containing the ink has
+frequently been found in a fossilised state, with the ink dried up, and
+elaborate drawings have been made with this fossil pigment.
+
+The beaks, or horny mandibles of the mouth, which the Belemnite
+possessed in common with the other naked Cephalopoda, are represented in
+Fig. 78, p. 181.
+
+As Sir H. De la Beche has pointed out, the destruction of the animals
+whose remains are known to us by the name of Belemnites was exceedingly
+great when the upper part of the Lias of Lyme Regis was deposited.
+Multitudes seem to have perished almost simultaneously, and millions are
+entombed in a bed beneath Golden Cap, a lofty cliff between Lyme Regis
+and Bridport Harbour, as well as in the upper Lias generally.[62]
+
+  [62] De la Beche’s “Geological Manual,” 3rd ed., p. 447.
+
+Among the Belemnites characteristic of the Liassic period may be cited
+_B. acutus_ (Fig. 93), _B. pistiliformis_, and _B. sulcatus_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Belemnites acutus.]
+
+The seas of the period contained a great number of the fishes called
+_Ganoids_; which are so called from the splendour of the hard and
+enamelled scales, which formed a sort of defensive armour to protect
+their bodies. _Lepidotus gigas_ was a fish of great size belonging to
+this age. A smaller fish was the _Tetragonolepis_, or _Æchmodus Buchii_.
+The _Acrodus nobilis_, of which the teeth are still preserved, and
+popularly known by the name of _fossil leeches_, was a fish of which an
+entire skeleton has never been met with. Neither are we better informed
+as to the _Hybodus reticulatus_. The bony spines, which form the
+anterior part of the dorsal fin of this fish, had long been an object of
+curiosity to geologists, under the general name of _Ichthyodorulites_,
+before they were known to be fragments of the fin of the _Hybodus_. The
+Ichthyodorulites were supposed by some naturalists to be the jaw of some
+animal--by others, weapons like those of the living _Balistes_ or
+_Silurus_; but Agassiz has shown them to be neither the one nor the
+other, but bony spines on the fin, like those of the living genera of
+_Cestracions_ and _Chimæras_, in both of which the concave face is armed
+with small spines like those of the _Hybodus_. The spines were simply
+imbedded in the flesh, and attached to it by strong muscles. “They
+served,” says Dr. Buckland, “as in the _Chimæra_, to raise and depress
+the fin, their action resembling that of a movable mast lowering
+backward.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Ichthyosaurus communis.]
+
+Let us hasten to say, however, that these are not the beings that
+characterised the age, and were the salient features of the generation
+of animals which existed during the Jurassic period. These
+distinguishing features are found in the enormous reptiles with lizard’s
+head, crocodile’s conical teeth, the trunk and tail of a quadruped,
+whale-like paddles, and the double-concave vertebræ of fishes; and this
+strange form, on such a gigantic scale that even their inanimate remains
+are examined with a curiosity not unmixed with awe. The country round
+Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire, has long been celebrated for the curious
+fossils discovered in its quarries, and preserved in the muddy
+accumulations of the sea of the Liassic period. The country is
+hilly--“up one hill and down another,” is a pretty correct provincial
+description of the walk from Bridport to Lyme Regis--where some of the
+most frightful creatures the living world has probably ever beheld,
+sleep the sleep of stones. The quarries of Lyme Regis form the cemetery
+of the Ichthyosauri; the sepulchre where lie interred these dragons of
+the ancient seas.
+
+In 1811 a country girl, who made her precarious living by picking up
+fossils for which the neighbourhood was famous, was pursuing her
+avocation, hammer in hand, when she perceived some bones projecting a
+little out of the cliff. Finding, on examination, that it was part of a
+large skeleton, she cleared away the rubbish, and laid bare the whole
+creature imbedded in the block of stone. She hired workmen to dig out
+the block of Lias in which it was buried. In this manner was the first
+of these monsters brought to light: “a monster some thirty feet long,
+with jaws nearly a fathom in length, and huge saucer-eyes; which have
+since been found so perfect, that the petrified lenses have been split
+off and used as magnifiers,” as a writer in _All the Year Round_ assures
+us.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Head of Ichthyosaurus platydon.]
+
+In Fig. 95 the head of _I. platydon_ is represented. As in the Saurians,
+the openings of the nostrils are situated near the anterior angle of the
+orbits of the eyes, while those of the Crocodile are near the snout;
+but, on the other hand, in its osteology and its mode of dentition it
+nearly resembles the Crocodile; the teeth are pointed and conical--not,
+however, set in deep or separate sockets, but only implanted in a long
+and deep continuous groove hollowed in the bones of the jaw. These
+strong jaws have an enormous opening; for, in some instances, they have
+been found eight feet in length and armed with 160 teeth. Let us add
+that teeth lost through the voracity of the animal, or in contests with
+other animals, could be renewed many times; for, at the inner side of
+the base of every old tooth, there is always the bony germ of a new one.
+
+The eyes of this marine monster were much larger than those of any
+animal now living; in volume they frequently exceed the human head, and
+their structure was one of their most remarkable peculiarities. In front
+of the sclerotic coat or capsule of the eye there is an annular series
+of thin bony plates, surrounding the pupil. This structure, which is now
+only met with in the eyes of certain turtles, tortoises, and lizards,
+and in those of many birds, could be used so as to increase or diminish
+the curvature of the transparent cornea, and thus increase or diminish
+the magnifying power, according to the requirements of the
+animal--performing the office, in short, of a telescope or microscope at
+pleasure. The eyes of the Ichthyosaurus were, then, an optical apparatus
+of wonderful power and of singular perfection, enabling the animal, by
+their power of adaptation and intensity of vision, to see its prey far
+and near, and to pursue it in the darkness and in the depths of the sea.
+The curious arrangement of bony plates we have described furnished,
+besides, to its globular eye, the power necessary to bear the pressure
+of a considerable weight of water, as well as the violence of the waves,
+when the animal came to the surface to breathe, and raised its head
+above the waves. This magnificent specimen of the fish-lizard, or
+Ichthyosaurus, as it was named by Dr. Ure, now forms part of the
+treasures of the British Museum.
+
+At no period in the earth’s history have Reptiles occupied so important
+a place as they did in the Jurassic period. Nature seems to have wished
+to bring this class of animals to the highest state of development. The
+great Reptiles of the Lias are as complicated in their structure as the
+Mammals which appeared at a later period. They probably lived, for the
+most part, by fishing in shallow creeks and bays defended from heavy
+breakers, or in the open sea; but they seem to have sought the shore
+from time to time; they crawled along the beach, covered with a soft
+skin, perhaps not unlike some of our Cetaceæ. The Ichthyosaurus, from
+its form and strength, may have braved the waves of the sea as the
+porpoise does now. Its destructiveness and voracity must have been
+prodigious, for Dr. Buckland describes a specimen which had between its
+ribs, in the place where the stomach might be supposed to have been
+placed, the skeleton of a smaller one--a proof that this monster, not
+content with preying on its weaker neighbours, was in the habit of
+devouring its own kind. In the same waters lived the Plesiosaurus, with
+long neck and form more strange than that of the Ichthyosaurus; and
+these potentates of the seas were warmed by the same sun and tenanted
+the same banks, in the midst of a vegetation not unlike that which the
+climate of Africa now produces.
+
+The great Saurians in the Lias of Lyme Regis seem to have suffered a
+somewhat sudden death, partly in consequence of a series of small
+catastrophes suddenly destroying the animals then existing in particular
+spots. “In general the bones are not scattered about, and in a detached
+state, as would happen if the dead animal had descended to the bottom of
+the sea, to be decomposed, or devoured piecemeal, as, indeed, might also
+happen if the creature floated for a time on the surface, one animal
+devouring one part, and another carrying off a different portion; on the
+contrary, the bones of the skeleton, though frequently compressed, as
+must arise from the enormous pressure to which they have so long been
+subjected, are tolerably connected, frequently in perfect, or nearly
+perfect, order, as if prepared by the anatomist. The skin, moreover, may
+sometimes be traced, and the compressed contents of the intestines may
+at times be also observed--all tending to show that the animals were
+suddenly destroyed, and as suddenly preserved.”[63]
+
+  [63] “Geological Manual,” by H. T. De la Beche, 3rd ed., p. 346.
+
+These strange and gigantic Saurians seem almost to disappear during the
+succeeding geological periods; for, although they have been discovered
+as low down as the Trias in Germany, and as high up as the Chalk in
+England, they only appear as stragglers in these epochs; so, too, the
+Reptiles, the existing Saurians are, as it were, only the shadowy,
+feeble representatives of these powerful races of the ancient world.
+
+Confining ourselves to well-established facts, we shall consider in some
+detail the best known of these fossil reptiles--the _Ichthyosaurus_,
+_Plesiosaurus_, and _Pterodactyle_.
+
+The extraordinary creature which bears the name of _Ichthyosaurus_ (from
+the Greek words Ιχθυς σαυρος, signifying fish-lizard), presents certain
+dispositions and organic arrangements which are met with dispersed in
+certain classes of animals now living, but they never seem to be again
+reunited in any single individual. It possesses, as Cuvier says, the
+snout of a dolphin, the head of a lizard, the jaws and teeth of a
+crocodile, the vertebræ of a fish, the head and sternum of a lizard, the
+paddles like those of a whale, and the trunk and tail of a quadruped.
+
+Bayle appears to have furnished the best idea of the Ichthyosaurus by
+describing it as the Whale of the Saurians--the Cetacean of the
+primitive seas. It was, in fact, an animal exclusively marine; which, on
+shore, would rest motionless like an inert mass. Its whale-like paddles,
+and fish-like vertebræ, the length of the tail and other parts of its
+structure, prove that its habits were aquatic; as the remains of fishes
+and reptiles, and the form of its teeth, show that it was carnivorous.
+Like the Whale, also, the Ichthyosaurus breathed atmospheric air; so
+that it was under the necessity of coming frequently to the surface of
+the water, like that inhabitant of the deep. We can even believe, with
+Bayle, that it was provided, like the Whale, with vents or blowers,
+through which it ejected, in columns into the air, the water it had
+swallowed.
+
+The dimensions of the Ichthyosaurus varied with the species, of which
+five are known and described. These are _Ichthyosaurus communis_, _I.
+platydon_, _I. intermedius_, _I. tenuirostris_, and _I. Cuvierii_, the
+largest being more than thirty feet in length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Ichthyosaurus platydon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Lower jaw of Ichthyosaurus. (Dr. Buckland.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus.
+
+Containing teeth and bones of Fishes in a coprolitic form. One-fifteenth
+natural size.]
+
+The short, thick neck of the Ichthyosaurus supported a capacious head,
+and was continued backwards, from behind the eyes, in a column composed
+of more than a hundred vertebræ. The animal being adapted, like the
+whale, for rapid movement through the water, its vertebræ had none of
+the invariable solidity of those of the Lizard or Crocodile, but rather
+the structure and lightness of those of Fishes. The section of these
+vertebræ presents two hollow cones, connected only by their summits to
+the centre of the vertebræ, which would permit of the utmost flexibility
+of movement. The ribs extended along the entire length of the vertebral
+column, from the head to the pelvis. The bones of the sternum, or that
+part of the frame which supported the paddles, present the same
+combinations with those of the sternum in the Ornithorhynchus, or
+Duck-billed Platypus, of New Holland, an animal which presents the
+singular combination of a mammalian furred quadruped having the bill of
+a duck and webbed feet; which dived to the bottom of the water in search
+of its food, and returned to the surface to breathe the air. In this
+phenomenon of living Nature the Creator seems to have repeated, in our
+days, the organic arrangements which he had originally provided for the
+Ichthyosaurus.
+
+In order that the animal should be able to move with rapidity in the
+water, both its anterior and posterior members were converted into fins
+or paddles. The anterior fins were half as large again as the posterior.
+In some species each paddle was made up of nearly a hundred bones, of
+polygonal form, and disposed in series representing the phalanges of the
+fingers. This hand, jointed at the arm, bears resemblance, in
+osteological construction, to the paddles, without distinct fingers, of
+the Porpoise and the Whale. A specimen of the posterior fin of _I.
+communis_, discovered at Barrow-on-Soar, in Leicestershire, in 1840, by
+Sir Philip Egerton, exhibited on its posterior margin the remains of
+cartilaginous rays, which bifurcated as they approached the edge, like
+those in the fins of a fish. “It had previously been supposed,” says
+Professor Owen, “that the locomotive organs were enveloped, while
+living, in a smooth integument, like that of the turtle and porpoise,
+which has no other support than is afforded by the bones and ligaments
+within; but it now appears that the fin was much larger, expanding far
+beyond the osseous frame-work, and deviating widely in its fish-like
+rays from the ordinary reptilian type.” The Professor believes that,
+besides the fore-paddles, these stiff-necked Saurians were furnished at
+the end of the tail with a fin to assist them in turning, not placed
+horizontally, as in the whale, but vertically, forming a powerful
+instrument of progression and motion. It is obvious that the
+Ichthyosaurus was an animal powerfully armed for offence and defence. We
+cannot say, with certainty, whether the skin was smooth, like that of
+the whale or lizard, or covered with scales, like the great reptiles of
+our own age. Nevertheless, as the scales of the Fishes and the cuirass
+and horny armour of other Reptiles of the Lias are preserved, and as no
+such defensive scales have been found belonging to the Ichthyosaurus, it
+is probable that the skin was naked and smooth. The tail, composed of
+from eighty to eighty-five vertebræ, was provided with large and long
+paddles, arranged vertically as in the Whale.
+
+It is curious to see to what a degree of perfection has been carried, in
+our days, the knowledge of the antediluvian animals, their habits, and
+their economy. Fig. 98 represents the skeleton of an Ichthyosaurus found
+in the Lias of Lyme Regis, which still retains in its abdominal cavity
+coprolites, that is to say, the residue of digestion. The soft parts of
+the intestinal canal have disappeared, but the _fæces_ themselves are
+preserved, and their examination informs us as to the alimentary
+regimen of this animal which has perished from the earth many thousands,
+perhaps millions, of years. Mary Anning, to whom we owe many of the
+discoveries made in the neighbourhood of Lyme Regis, her native place,
+had in her collection an enormous coprolite of the Ichthyosaurus. This
+coprolite (Fig. 99) contained some bones and scales of Fishes, and of
+divers Reptiles, well enough preserved to have their species identified.
+It only remains to be added that, among the bones, those of the
+Ichthyosaurus were often found, especially those of young individuals.
+The presence of the undigested remains of vertebræ and other bones of
+animals of its own species in the coprolites of the Ichthyosaurus
+proves, as we have already had occasion to remark, that this great
+Saurian must have been a most voracious monster, since it habitually
+devoured not only fish, but individuals of its own race--the smaller
+becoming the prey of the larger. The structure of the jaw of the
+Ichthyosaurus leads us to believe that the animal swallowed its prey
+without dividing it. Its stomach and intestines must, then, have formed
+a sort of pouch of great volume, filling entirely the abdominal cavity,
+and corresponding in extent to the great development of the teeth and
+jaws.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Coprolite, enclosing bones of small
+Ichthyosaurus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Coprolite of Ichthyosaurus.]
+
+The perfection with which its contents have been preserved in the
+fossilised coprolites, furnishes indirect proofs that the intestinal
+canal of the Ichthyosaurus resembled closely that of the shark and the
+dog-fish--fishes essentially voracious and destructive, which have the
+intestinal canal spirally convoluted, an arrangement which is exactly
+that indicated in some of the coprolites of the Ichthyosaurus, as is
+evident from the impressions which the folds of the intestine have left
+on the coprolite, of which Fig. 100 is a representation. In the cliffs
+near Lyme Regis coprolites are abundant in the Liassic formation, and
+have been found disseminated through the shales and limestones along
+many miles of that coast.
+
+What an admirable privilege of science, which is able, by an examination
+of the simplest parts in the organisation of beings which lived ages
+ago, to give to our minds such solid teachings and such true enjoyments!
+“When we discover,” says Dr. Buckland, “in the body of an Ichthyosaurus
+the food which it has engulfed an instant before its death, when the
+intervals between its sides present themselves still filled with the
+remains of fishes which it had swallowed some ten thousand years ago, or
+a time even twice as great, all these immense intervals vanish, time
+disappears, and we find ourselves, so to speak, thrown into immediate
+contact with events which took place in epochs immeasurably distant, as
+if we occupied ourselves with the affairs of the previous day.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.--Skull of Plesiosaurus restored. (Conybeare.)
+
+_a_, profile; _b_, seen from above.]
+
+The name of _Plesiosaurus_ (from the Greek words πλησιος, _near_, and
+σαυρος, _lizard_) reminds us that this animal, though presenting many
+peculiarities of general structure, is allied by its organisation to the
+Saurian or Lizard family, and, consequently, to the Ichthyosaurus.
+
+The Plesiosaurus presents, in its organic structure, the most curious
+assemblage we have met with among the organic vestiges of the ancient
+world. The Plesiosaurus was a marine, air-breathing, carnivorous
+reptile, combining the characters of the head of a Lizard, the teeth of
+a Crocodile, a neck of excessive length resembling that of a Swan, the
+ribs of a Chameleon, a body of moderate size, and a very short tail,
+and, finally, four paddles resembling those of a Whale. Let us bestow a
+glance upon the remains of this strange animal which the earth has
+revealed, and which science has restored to us.
+
+The head of the Plesiosaurus presents a combination of the characters
+belonging to the Ichthyosaurus, the Crocodile, and the Lizard. Its
+enormously long neck comprises a greater number of vertebræ than the
+neck of either the Camel, the Giraffe, or even the Swan, which of all
+the feathered race has the longest neck in comparison to the rest of the
+body. And it is to be remarked, that, contrary to what obtains in the
+Mammals, where the vertebræ of the neck are always seven, the vertebræ
+in birds increase in number with the length of the neck.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Skeleton of Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus
+restored. (Conybeare principally.)]
+
+The body is cylindrical and rounded, like that of the great marine
+Turtles. It was, doubtless, naked, _i.e._, not protected with the scales
+or carapace with which some authors have invested it; for no traces of
+such coverings have been found near any of the skeletons which have been
+hitherto discovered. The dorsal vertebræ are attached to each other by
+nearly plane surfaces like those of terrestrial quadrupeds, a mode of
+arrangement which must have deprived the whole of its vertebral column
+of much of its flexibility. Each pair of ribs surrounded the body with a
+complete girdle, formed of five pieces, as in the Chameleon and Iguana;
+whence, no doubt, as with the Chameleon, great facilities existed for
+the contraction and dilatation of the lungs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Sternum and pelvis of Plesiosaurus. Pub.,
+pubis; Isch., ischium; Il., ilium.]
+
+The breast, the pelvis, and the bones of the anterior and posterior
+extremities furnished an apparatus which permitted the Plesiosaurus,
+like the Ichthyosaurus and existing Cetaceans, to sink in the water and
+return to the surface at pleasure (Fig. 103). Prof. Owen, in his “Report
+on British Reptiles,” characterises them as air-breathing and
+cold-blooded animals; the proof that they respired atmospheric air
+immediately, being found in the position and structure of the nasal
+passages, and the bony mechanism of the thoracic duct and abdominal
+cavity. In the first, the size and position of the external nostrils
+(Fig. 102), combined with the structure of the paddles, indicate a
+striking analogy between the extinct Saurians and the Cetaceans,
+offering, as the Professor observes, “a beautiful example of the
+adaptation of structure to the peculiar exigencies of species.” While
+the evidence that they were cold-blooded animals is found in the
+flexible or unanchylosed condition of the osseous pieces of the occiput
+and other cranial bones of the lower jaw, and of the vertebral column;
+from which the Professor draws the conclusion that the heart was adapted
+for transmitting a part only of the blood through the respiratory
+organs; the absence of the ball-and-socket articulations of the bones of
+the vertebræ, the position of the nostrils near the summit of the head,
+the numerous short and flat digital bones, which must have been
+enveloped in a simple undivided integumentary sheath, forming in both
+fore and hind extremities a paddle closely resembling that of the living
+Cetacea. The paddles are larger and more powerful than those of the
+Ichthyosaurus, to compensate for the slight assistance the animal
+derived from the tail. The latter--shorter, as compared with the length
+of the rest of the body, than in the Ichthyosaurus--was more calculated
+to act the part of a rudder, in directing the course of the animal
+through the water, than as a powerful organ of propulsion.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Remains of Plesiosaurus macrocephalus.
+One-twelfth natural size.]
+
+Such were the strange combinations of form and structure in the
+Plesiosaurus and Ichthyosaurus--genera of animals whose remains have,
+after an interment extending to unknown thousands of years, been
+revealed to light and submitted to examination; nay, rebuilt, bone by
+bone, until we have the complete skeletons before us, and the habits of
+the animals described, as if they had been observed in life. Conybeare
+thus speaks of the supposed habits of these extinct forms, which he had
+built up from scanty materials: “That the Plesiosaurus was aquatic is
+evident from the form of its paddles; that it was marine is equally so,
+from the remains with which it is universally associated; that it may
+have occasionally visited the shore, the resemblance of its extremities
+to the turtle may lead us to conjecture; its motion, however, must have
+been very awkward on land; its long neck must have impeded its progress
+through the water, presenting a striking contrast to the organisation
+which so admirably fits the Ichthyosaurus for cutting through the waves.
+May it not, therefore, be concluded that it swam on or near the surface,
+arching back its long neck like the swan, and occasionally darting it
+down at the fish which happened to float within its reach? It may,
+perhaps, have lurked in shallow water along the coasts, concealed among
+the sea-weeds, and, raising its nostrils to the surface from a
+considerable depth, may have found a secure retreat from the assaults of
+dangerous enemies, while the length and flexibility of its neck may have
+compensated for the want of strength in its jaws, and incapacity for
+swift motion through the water, by the suddenness and agility of the
+attack they enabled it to make on every animal fitted to become its
+prey.”
+
+The Plesiosaurus was first described by the Rev. W. D. Conybeare and Sir
+Henry De la Beche, in the “Geological Society’s Transactions” for 1821,
+and a restoration of _P. dolichodeirus_, the most common of these
+fossils, appeared in the same work for 1824. The first specimen was
+discovered, as the Ichthyosaurus had been previously, in the Lias of
+Lyme Regis; since then other individuals and species have been found in
+the same geological formation in various parts of England, Ireland,
+France, and Germany, and with such variations of structure that
+Professor Owen has felt himself justified in recording sixteen distinct
+species, of which we have represented _P. dolichodeirus_ (Fig. 102), as
+restored by Conybeare, and _P. macrocephalus_ (Fig. 104), with its
+skeleton, as moulded from the limestone of Lyme Regis, which has been
+placed in the Palæontological Gallery of the British Museum.
+
+[Illustration: XV.--Ideal scene of the Lias with Ichthyosaurus and
+Plesiosaurus.]
+
+The Plesiosaurus was scarcely so large as the Ichthyosaurus. The
+specimen of _I. platydon_ in the British Museum probably belonged to an
+animal four-and-twenty feet long, and some are said to indicate thirty
+feet, while there are species of Plesiosauri measuring eighteen and
+twenty, the largest known specimen of _Plesiosaurus Cramptoni_ found in
+the lias of Yorkshire, and now in the Museum of the Royal Society of
+Dublin, being twenty-two feet four inches in length. On the opposite
+page (PLATE XV.) an attempt is made to represent these grand reptiles of
+the Lias in their native element, and as they lived.
+
+Cuvier says of the Plesiosaurus, “that it presents the most monstrous
+assemblage of characteristics that has been met with among the races of
+the ancient world.” This expression should not be understood in a
+literal sense; there are no monsters in Nature; in no living creature
+are the laws of organisation ever positively infringed; and it is more
+in accordance with the general perfection of creation to see in an
+organisation so special, in a structure which differs so notably from
+that of the animals of our own days, the simple development of a type,
+and sometimes also the introduction of beings, and successive changes in
+their structure. We shall see, in examining the curious series of
+animals of the ancient world, that the organisation and physiological
+functions go on improving unceasingly, and that each of the extinct
+genera which preceded the appearance of man, present, for each organ,
+modifications which always tend towards greater perfection. The fins of
+the fishes of Devonian seas become the paddles of the Ichthyosauri and
+of the Plesiosauri; these, in their turn, become the membranous foot of
+the Pterodactyle, and, finally, the wing of the bird. Afterwards comes
+the articulated fore-foot of the terrestrial mammalia, which, after
+attaining remarkable perfection in the hand of the ape, becomes,
+finally, the arm and hand of man, an instrument of wonderful delicacy
+and power, belonging to an enlightened being gifted with the divine
+attribute of reason! Let us, then, dismiss any idea of monstrosity with
+regard to these antediluvian animals; let us learn, on the contrary, to
+recognise, with admiration, the divine proofs of design which they
+display, and in their organisation to see only the handiwork of the
+Creator.
+
+Another strange inhabitant of the ancient world, the _Pterodactylus_
+(from πτερον, _a wing_, and δακτυλος, _a finger_), discovered in 1828,
+made Cuvier pronounce it to be incontestably the most extraordinary of
+all the extinct animals which had come under his consideration; and such
+as, if we saw them restored to life, would appear most strange and
+dissimilar to anything that now exists. In size and general form, and in
+the disposition and character of its wings, this fossil genus, according
+to Cuvier, somewhat resembled our modern bats and vampyres, but had its
+beak elongated like the bill of a woodcock, and armed with teeth like
+the snout of a crocodile; its vertebræ, ribs, pelvis, legs, and feet
+resembled those of a lizard; its three anterior fingers terminated in
+long hooked claws like that on the fore-finger of the bat; and over its
+body was a covering, neither composed of feathers as in the bird, nor of
+hair as in the bat, but probably a naked skin; in short, it was a
+monster resembling nothing that has ever been heard of upon earth,
+except the dragons of romance and heraldry. Moreover, it was probably
+noctivagous and insectivorous, and in both these points resembled the
+bat; but differed from it in having the most important bones in its body
+constructed after the manner of those of reptiles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Pterodactylus crassirostris.]
+
+“Thus, like Milton’s fiend, all-qualified for all services and all
+elements, the creature was a fit companion for the kindred reptiles that
+swarmed in the seas, or crawled on the shores, of a turbulent planet:
+
+    “The Fiend,
+    O’er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare,
+    With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way,
+    And sinks, or swims, or wades, or creeps, or flies.
+
+_Paradise Lost_, Book II., line 947.
+
+“With flocks of such-like creatures flying in the air, and shoals of
+Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri swarming in the ocean, and gigantic
+Crocodiles and Tortoises crawling on the shores of primæval lakes and
+rivers--air, sea, and land must have been strangely tenanted in these
+early periods of our infant world.”[64]
+
+  [64] Professor Buckland on the Pterodactylus. “Trans. Geol. Soc.,” 2nd
+       series, vol. iii., p. 217.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Pterodactylus brevirostris.]
+
+The strange structure of this animal gave rise to most contradictory
+opinions from the earlier naturalists. One supposed it to be a bird,
+another a bat, and others a flying reptile. Cuvier was the first to
+detect the truth, and to prove, from its organisation, that the animal
+was a Saurian. “Behold,” he says, “an animal which in its osteology,
+from its teeth to the end of its claws, presents all the characters of
+the Saurians; nor can we doubt that their characteristics existed in its
+integuments and softer parts, in its scales, its circulation, its
+generative organs: it was at the same time provided with the means of
+flight; but when stationary it could not have made much use of its
+anterior extremities, even if it did not keep them always folded as
+birds fold their wings. It might, it is true, use its small anterior
+fingers to suspend itself from the branches of trees; but when at rest
+it must have been generally on its hind feet, like the birds again, and
+like them it must have carried its neck half-erect and curved backwards,
+so that its enormous head should not disturb its equilibrium.” This
+diversity of opinion need not very much surprise us after all, for, with
+the body and tail of an ordinary mammal, it had the form of a bird in
+its head and the length of its neck, of the bat in the structure and
+proportion of its wings, and of a reptile in the smallness of its head
+and in its beak, armed with at least sixty equal sharp-pointed teeth,
+differing little in form and size.
+
+Dr. Buckland describes eight distinct species, varying in size from a
+snipe to a cormorant. Of these, _P. crassirostris_ (Fig. 105) and _P.
+brevirostris_ (Fig. 106), were both discovered in the Lias of
+Solenhofen. _P. macronyx_ belongs to the Lias of Lyme Regis.
+
+The Pterodactyle was, then, a reptile provided with wings somewhat
+resembling those of Bats, and formed, as in that Mammal, of a membrane
+which connected the body with the excessively elongated phalanges of the
+fourth finger, which served to expand the membrane that answered the
+purposes of a wing. The Pterodactyle of the Liassic period was, as we
+have seen, an animal of small size; the largest species in the older
+Lias beds did not exceed ten or twelve inches in length, or the size of
+a raven, while the later forms found fossil in the Greensand and Wealden
+beds must have measured more than sixteen feet between the tips of the
+expanded wings. On the other hand, its head was of enormous dimensions
+compared with the rest of the body. We cannot admit, therefore, that
+this animal could really fly, and, like a bird, beat the air. The
+membranous appendage which connected its long finger with its body was
+rather a parachute than a wing. It served to moderate the velocity of
+its descent when it dropped on its prey from a height. Essentially a
+climber, it could only raise itself by climbing up tall trees or rocks,
+after the manner of lizards, and throw itself thence to the ground, or
+upon the lower branches, by making use of its natural parachute.
+
+The ordinary position of the Pterodactyle was probably upon its two hind
+feet, the lower extremities being adapted for standing and moving on the
+ground, after the manner of birds. Habitually, perhaps, it perched on
+trees; it could creep, or climb along rocks and cliffs, or suspend
+itself from trees, with the assistance of its claws and feet, after the
+manner of existing Bats. It is even probable, Dr. Buckland thought, that
+it had the power of swimming and diving, so common to reptiles, and
+possessed by the Vampyre Bat of the island of Bonin. It is believed that
+the smaller species lived upon insects, and the larger preyed upon
+fishes, upon which it could throw itself like the sea-gull.
+
+The most startling feature in the organisation of this animal is the
+strange combination of two powerful wings attached to the body of a
+reptile. The imagination of the poets long dwelt on such a combination;
+the _Dragon_ was a creation of their fancy, and it played a great part
+in fable and in pagan mythology. The Dragon, or flying reptile,
+breathing fire and poisoning the air with his fiery breath, had,
+according to the fable, disputed with man the possession of the earth.
+Gods and demigods claimed, among their most famous exploits, the glory
+of having vanquished this powerful and redoubtable monster.
+
+Among the animals of our epoch, only a single reptile is found provided
+with wings, or digital appendages analogous to the membranous wings of
+the bats, and which can be compared to the Pterodactyle. This is called
+the _Dragon_, one of the Draconidæ, a family of Saurians, which has been
+described by Daudin, as distinguished by the first six ribs, instead of
+hooping round the abdomen, extending in nearly a straight line, and
+sustaining a prolongation of skin which forms a sort of wing analogous
+to that of the Pterodactyle. Independent of the four feet, this wing
+sustains the animal, like a parachute, as it leaps from branch to
+branch; but the creature has no power to beat the air with it as birds
+do when flying. This reptile lives in the forests of the hottest parts
+of Africa, and in some isles of the Indian Ocean, especially in Sumatra
+and Java. The only known species is that figured at page 238 (Fig. 107),
+which comes from the East Indies.
+
+What a strange population was that which occupied the earth at this
+stage of its history, when the waters were filled with creatures so
+extraordinary as those whose history we have traced! Plesiosauri and
+Ichthyosauri filled the seas, upon the surface of which floated
+innumerable Ammonites in light skiffs, some of them as large as a
+good-sized cart-wheel, while gigantic Turtles and Crocodiles crawled on
+the banks of the rivers and lakes. Only one genus of Mammals had yet
+appeared, but no birds; nothing broke the silence of the air, if we
+except the breathing of the terrestrial reptiles and the flight of
+winged insects.
+
+The earth cooled progressively up to the Jurassic period, the rains lost
+their continuity and abundance, and the pressure of the atmosphere
+sensibly diminished. All these circumstances favoured the appearance
+and the multiplication of innumerable species of animals, whose singular
+forms then showed themselves on the earth. We can scarcely imagine the
+prodigious quantity of Molluscs and Zoophytes whose remains lie buried
+in the Jurassic rocks, forming entire strata of immense thickness and
+extent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.--Draco volans.]
+
+The same circumstances concurred to favour the production of plants. If
+the shores and seas of the period received such a terrible aspect from
+the formidable animals we have described, the vegetation which covered
+the land had also its peculiar character and appearance. Nothing that we
+know of in the existing scenery of the globe surpasses the rich
+vegetation which decorated the continents of the Jurassic period. A
+temperature still of great elevation, a humid atmosphere, and, we have
+no reason to doubt, a brilliant sun, promoted the growth of a luxuriant
+vegetation, such as some of the tropical islands, with their burning
+temperature and maritime climate, can only give us an idea of, while it
+recalls some of the Jurassic types of vegetation. The elegant Voltzias
+of the Trias had disappeared, but the Horse-tails (_Equiseta_) remained,
+whose slender and delicate stems rose erect in the air with their
+graceful panicles; the gigantic rushes also remained; and though the
+tree-ferns had lost their enormous dimensions of the Carboniferous age,
+they still preserved their fine and delicately-cut leaves.
+
+Alongside these vegetable families, which passed upwards from the
+preceding age, an entire family--the Cycads (Fig. 72, p. 168)--appear
+for the first time. They soon became numerous in genera, such as
+Zamites, Pterophyllum (Williamsonia), and Nilssonia. Among the species
+which characterise this age, we may cite the following, arranging them
+in families:--
+
+  FERNS.                    CYCADS.                   CONIFERS.
+
+  Odontopteris cycadea.    Zamites distans.           Taxodites.
+  Taumopteris Munsteri.    Zamites heterophyllus.     Pinites.
+  Camptopteris crenata.    Zamites gracilis.
+                           Pterophyllum dubium.
+                           Nilssonia contigua.
+                           Nilssonia elegantissima.
+                           Nilssonia Sternbergii.
+
+The _Zamites_ seem to be forerunners of the Palms, which make their
+appearance in the following epoch; they were trees of elegant
+appearance, closely resembling the existing Zamias, which are trees of
+tropical America, and especially of the West India Islands; they were so
+numerous in species and in individuals that they seem to have formed, of
+themselves alone, one half of the forests during the period which
+engages our attention. The number of their fossilised species exceeds
+that of the living species. The trunk of the Zamites, simple and covered
+with scars left by the old leaves, supports a thick crown of leaves more
+than six feet in length, disposed in fan-like shape, arising from a
+common centre.
+
+The _Pterophyllum_ (Williamsonia), formed great trees, of considerable
+elevation, and covered with large pinnated leaves from top to bottom.
+Their leaves, thin and membranous, were furnished with leaflets
+truncated at the summit and traversed by fine nervures, not convergent,
+but abutting on the terminal truncated edge.
+
+The _Nilssonia_, finally, were Cycadeaceæ resembling the Pterophyllum,
+but with thick and coriaceous leaves, and short leaflets contiguous to,
+and in part attached to the base; they were obtuse or nearly truncated
+at the summit, and would present nervures arched or confluent towards
+that summit.
+
+The essential characters of the vegetation during the Liassic sub-period
+were:--1. The great predominance of the Cycadeaceæ, thus continuing the
+development which commenced in the previous period, expanding into
+numerous genera belonging both to this family and that of the _Zamites_
+and _Nilssonia_; 2. The existence among the Ferns of many genera with
+reticulated veins or nervures, and under forms of little variation,
+which scarcely show themselves in the more ancient formations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Millepora alcicornis.
+
+(Recent Coral.)]
+
+[Illustration: XVI.--Ideal Landscape of the Liassic Period.]
+
+On the opposite page (PLATE XVI.) is an ideal landscape of the Liassic
+period; the trees and shrubs characteristic of the age are the elegant
+Pterophyllum, which appears in the extreme left of the picture, and the
+Zamites, which are recognisable by their thick and low trunk and
+fan-like tuft of foliage. The large horsetail, or Equisetum of this
+epoch, mingles with the great Tree-ferns and the Cypress, a Conifer
+allied to those of our own age. Among animals, we see the Pterodactyle
+specially represented. One of these reptiles is seen in a state of
+repose, resting on its hind feet. The other is represented, not flying,
+after the manner of a bird, but throwing itself from a rock in order to
+seize upon a winged insect, the dragon-fly (_Libellula_), the remains of
+which have been discovered, associated with the bones of the
+Pterodactyle, in the lithographic limestone of Pappenheim and
+Solenhofen.
+
+
+OOLITIC SUB-PERIOD.
+
+This period is so named because many of the limestones entering into the
+composition of the formations it comprises, consist almost entirely of
+an aggregation of rounded concretionary grains resembling, in outward
+appearance, the roe or eggs of fishes, and each of which contains a
+nucleus of sand, around which concentric layers of calcareous matter
+have accumulated; whence the name, from ωον, _egg_, and λιθος, _stone_.
+
+The Oolite series is usually subdivided into three sections, the
+_Lower_, _Middle_, and _Upper Oolite_. These rocks form in England a
+band some thirty miles broad, ranging across the country from Yorkshire,
+in the north-east, to Dorset, in the south-west, but with a great
+diversity of mineral character, which has led to a further subdivision
+of the series, founded on the existence of particular strata in the
+central and south-western counties:--
+
+     UPPER.                 MIDDLE.            LOWER.
+
+  1. Purbeck Beds.       1. Coral Rag.      1. Cornbrash.
+  2. Portland Stone      2. Oxford Clay.    2. Great Oolite & Forest
+     and Sand.                                 Marble.
+  3. Kimeridge Clay.                        3. Stonesfield Slate.
+                                            4. Fuller’s Earth.
+                                            5. Inferior Oolite.
+
+The alternations of clay and masses of limestone in the Liassic and
+Oolite formations impart some marked features to the outline of the
+scenery both of France and England: forming broad valleys, separated
+from each other by ranges of limestone hills of more or less elevation.
+In France, the Jura mountains are composed of the latter; in England,
+the slopes of this formation are more gentle--the valleys are
+intersected by brooks, and clothed with a rich vegetation; it forms what
+is called a tame landscape, as compared with the wilder grandeur of the
+Primary rocks--it pleases more than it surprises. It yields materials
+also, more useful than some of the older formations, numerous quarries
+being met with which furnish excellent building-materials, especially
+around Bath, where the stone, when first quarried, is soft and easily
+worked, but becomes harder on exposure to the air.
+
+The annexed section (Fig. 109) will give some idea of the configuration
+which the stratification assumes, such as may be observed in proceeding
+from the north-west to the south-east, from Caermarthenshire to the
+banks of the Ouse.
+
+
+LOWER OOLITE FAUNA.
+
+The most salient and characteristic feature of this age is, undoubtedly,
+the appearance of animals belonging to the class of Mammals. But the
+organisation, quite special, of the first of the Mammalia will certainly
+be a matter of astonishment to the reader, and must satisfy him that
+Nature proceeded in the creation of animals by successive steps, by
+transitions which, in an almost imperceptible manner, connect the beings
+of one age with others more complicated in their organisation. The first
+Mammals which appeared upon the earth, for example, did not enjoy all
+the organic attributes belonging to the more recent creations of the
+class. In the latter the young are brought forth living, and not from
+eggs, like Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes. But the former belonged to that
+order of animals quite special, and never numerous, the young of which
+are transferred in a half-developed state, from the body of the mother
+to an external pouch in which they remain until they become perfected;
+in short, to marsupial animals. The mother nurses her young during a
+certain time in a sort of pouch external to the body, in the
+neighbourhood of the abdomen, and provided with teats to which the young
+adhere. After a more or less prolonged sojourn in this pouch, the young
+animal, when sufficiently matured and strong enough to battle with the
+world, emerges from its warm retreat, and enters fully into life and
+light; the process being a sort of middle course between oviparous
+generation, in which the animals are hatched from eggs after exclusion
+from the mother’s body, like Birds; and viviparous, in which the animals
+are brought forth alive, as in the ordinary Mammals.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.--General view of the succession of British
+strata, with the elevations they reach above the level of the sea.
+
+_G_, Granitic rocks; _a_, Gneiss; _b_, Mica-schist; _c_, Skiddaw or
+Cumbrian Slates; _d_, Snowdon rocks; _e_, Plynlymmon rocks; _f_,
+Silurian rocks; _g_, Old Red Sandstone; _h_, Carboniferous Limestone;
+_i_, Millstone Grit; _k_, Coal-measures; _l_, Magnesian Limestone; _m_,
+New Red Sandstone; _n_, Lias; _o_, Lower, Middle, and Upper Oolites;
+_p_, Greensand; _q_, Chalk; _r_, Tertiary strata.]
+
+In standard works on natural history the animals under consideration are
+classed as _mammiferous Didelphæ_. They are brought forth in an
+imperfect state, and during their transitional condition are suckled in
+a pouch supported by bones called _marsupial_, which are attached by
+their extremities to the pelvis, and serve to support the marsupium,
+whence the animals provided with these provisions for bringing up their
+progeny are called _Marsupial Mammals_. The Opossum, Kangaroo, and
+Ornithorhynchus are existing representatives of this group.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Jaw of Thylacotherium Prevostii.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Jaw of Phascolotherium.]
+
+The name of _Thylacotherium_, or _Amphitherium_, or _Phascolotherium_,
+is given to the first of these marsupial Mammals which made their
+appearance, whose remains have been discovered in the Lower Oolite, and
+in one of its higher stages, namely, that called the _Great Oolite_.
+Fig. 110 represents the jaw of the first of these animals, and Fig. 111
+the other--both of the natural size. These jaw-bones represent all that
+has been found belonging to these early marsupial animals; and Baron
+Cuvier and Professor Owen have both decided as to their origin. The
+first was found in the Stonesfield quarries. The Phascolotherium, also a
+Stonesfield fossil, was the ornament of Mr. Broderip’s collection. The
+animals which lived on the land during the Lower Oolitic period would be
+nearly the same with those of the Liassic. The insects were, perhaps,
+more numerous.
+
+The marine fauna included Reptiles, Fishes, Molluscs, and Zoophytes.
+Among the first were the Pterodactyle, and a great Saurian, the
+Teleosaurus, belonging to a family which made its appearance in this
+age, and which reappears in the following epoch. Among the Fishes, the
+Ganoids and Ophiopsis predominate. Among the Ammonites, _Ammonites
+Humphriesianus_, _A. Herveyii_ (Fig. 112), _A. Brongniarti_, _Nautilus
+lineatus_, and many other representatives of the cephalopodous Mollusca.
+Among the Brachiopods are _Terebratula digona_ (Fig. 113) and _T.
+spinosa_. Among the Gasteropoda the _Pleurotomaria conoidea_ is
+remarkable from its elegant shape and markings, and very unlike any of
+the living _Pleurotoma_ as represented by _P. Babylonia_ (Fig. 114).
+_Ostrea Marshii_ and _Lima proboscidea_, which belong to the Acephala,
+are fossil Mollusca of this epoch, to which also belong _Entalophora
+cellarioides_, _Eschara Ranviliana_, _Bidiastopora cervicornis_; elegant
+and characteristic molluscous Polyzoa. We give a representation of two
+living species, as exhibiting the form of these curious beings. (Figs.
+115 and 116.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.--Ammonites Herveyii.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.--Terebratula digona.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Pleurotoma Babylonia. (Recent.)]
+
+The Echinoderms and Polyps appear in great numbers in the deposits of
+the Lower Oolite: _Apiocrinus elegans_, _Hyboclypus gibberulus_,
+_Dysaster Endesii_ represent the first; _Montlivaltia caryophyllata_,
+_Anabacia orbulites_, _Cryptocœnia bacciformis_, and _Eunomia radiata_
+represent the second.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Adeona folifera.
+
+(Recent Polyzoa.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Cellaria loriculata.
+
+(Recent Polyzoa.)]
+
+This last and most remarkable species of Zoophyte presents itself in
+great masses many yards in circumference, and necessitates a long period
+of time for its production. This assemblage of little creatures living
+under the waters but only at a small depth beneath the surface, as Mr.
+Darwin has demonstrated, has nevertheless produced banks, or rather
+islets, of considerable extent, which at one time constituted veritable
+reefs rising out of the ocean. These reefs were principally constructed
+in the Jurassic period, and their extreme abundance is one of the
+characteristics of this geological age. The same phenomenon continues in
+our day, but by the agency of a new race of zoophytes, which carry on
+their operations, preparing a new continent, probably, in the _atolls_
+of the Pacific Ocean. (See Fig. 108, p. 240.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.
+
+1, Otopteris dubia; 2, Otopteris obtusa; 3,
+Otopteris acuminata; 4, Otopteris cuneata.]
+
+The flora of the epoch was very rich. The Ferns continue to exist, but
+their size and bearing were sensibly inferior to what they had been in
+the preceding period. Among them Otopteris, distinguished for its
+simply pinnated leaves, whose leaflets are auriculate at the base: of
+the five species, 1, _O. dubia_; and 2, _O. obtusa_; and 3, _O.
+acuminata_; and 4, _O. cuneata_ (Fig. 117), are from the Oolite. In
+addition to these we may name _Coniopteris Murrayana_, _Pecopteris
+Desnoyersii, Pachypteris lanceolata_, and _Phlebopteris Phillipsii_; and
+among the Lycopods, _Lycopodus falcatus_.
+
+The vegetation of this epoch has a peculiar facies, from the presence of
+the family of the Pandanaceæ, or screw-pines, so remarkable for their
+aërial roots, and for the magnificent tuft of leaves which terminates
+their branches. Neither the leaves nor the roots of these plants have,
+however, been found in the fossil state, but we possess specimens of
+their large and spherical fruit, which leave no room for doubt as to the
+nature of the entire plant.
+
+The Cycads were still represented by the _Zamias_, and by many species
+of Pterophyllum. The Conifers, that grand family of recent times, to
+which the pines, firs, and other trees of our northern forests belong,
+began to occupy an important part in the world’s vegetation from this
+epoch. The earliest Conifers belonged to the genera _Thuites_,
+_Taxites_, and _Brachyphyllum_. The _Thuites_ were true _Thuyas_,
+evergreen trees of the present epoch, with compressed branches, small
+imbricated and serrated leaves, somewhat resembling those of the
+Cypress, but distinguished by many points of special organisation. The
+_Taxites_ have been referred, with some doubts, to the Yews. Finally,
+the _Brachyphyllum_ were trees which, according to the characteristics
+of their vegetation, seem to have approached nearly to two existing
+genera, the _Arthotaxis_ of Tasmania, and the _Weddringtonias_ of South
+Africa. The leaves of the Brachyphyllum are short and fleshy, with a
+large and rhomboidal base.
+
+
+LOWER OOLITE ROCKS.
+
+The formation which represents the Lower Oolite, and which in England
+attains an average thickness of from 500 to 600 feet, forms a very
+complex system of stratification, which includes the two formations,
+_Bajocien_ and _Bathonian_, adopted by M. D’Orbigny and his followers.
+The lowest beds of the _Inferior Oolite_ occur in Normandy, in the Lower
+Alps (Basses-Alpes), in the neighbourhoods of Lyons and Neuchatel. They
+are remarkable near Bayeux for the variety and beauty of their fossils:
+the rocks are composed principally of limestones--yellowish-brown, or
+red, charged with hydrated oxide of iron, often oolitic, and reposing on
+calcareous sands. These deposits are surmounted by alternate layers of
+clay and marl, blue or yellow--the well-known _Fuller’s Earth_, which is
+so called from its use in the manufacture of woollen fabrics to extract
+the grease from the wool. The second series of the Lower Oolite, which
+attains a thickness of from 150 to 200 feet on the coast of Normandy,
+and is well developed in the neighbourhood of Caen and in the Jura, has
+been divided, in Britain, into four formations, in an ascending scale:--
+
+1. The _Great_ or _Bath Oolite_, which consists principally of a very
+characteristic, fine-grained, white, soft, and well-developed oolitic
+limestone, at Bath, and also at Caen in Normandy. At the base of the
+Great Oolite the Stonesfield beds occur, in which were found the bones
+of the marsupial Mammals, to which we have already alluded; and along
+with them bones of Reptiles, principally Pterodactyles, together with
+some finely-preserved fossil plants, fruits, and insects.
+
+2. _Bradford Clay_, which is a bluish marl, containing many fine
+Encrinites (commonly called stone-lilies), but which had only a local
+existence, appearing to be almost entirely confined to this formation.
+“In this case, however,” says Lyell, “it appears that the solid upper
+surface of the ‘Great Oolite’ had supported, for a time, a thick
+submarine forest of these beautiful Zoophytes, until the clear and still
+water was invaded with a current charged with mud, which threw down the
+stone-lilies, and broke most of their stems short off near the point of
+attachment. The stumps still remain in their original position.”[65] See
+Fig. 1, PLATE XIX., p. 261. (Bradford, or Pear, Encrinite.)
+
+  [65] “Elements of Geology,” p. 399.
+
+3. _Forest Marble_, which consists of an argillaceous shelly limestone,
+abounding in marine fossils, and sandy and quartzose marls, is quarried
+in the forest of Wichwood, in Wiltshire, and in the counties of Dorset,
+Wilts, and Somerset.
+
+4. The _Cornbrash_ (wheat-lands) consists of beds of rubbly
+cream-coloured limestone, which forms a soil particularly favourable to
+the cultivation of cereals; hence its name.[66]
+
+  [66] See Bristow in Descriptive Catalogue of Rocks, in _Mus. Pract.
+       Geol._, p. 134.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Meandrina Dædalæa.
+
+_a_, entire figure, reduced; _b_, portion, natural size.
+
+(Recent Coral.)]
+
+The Lower Oolite ranges across the greater part of England, but “attains
+its maximum development near Cheltenham, where it can be subdivided, at
+least, into three parts. Passing north, the two lower divisions, each
+more or less characterised by its own fossils, disappear, and the
+Ragstone north-east of Cheltenham lies directly upon the Lias;
+apparently as conformably as if it formed its true and immediate
+successor, while at Dundry the equivalents of the upper freestones and
+ragstones (the lower beds being absent) lie directly on the exceedingly
+thin sands, which there overlie the Lower Lias. In Dorsetshire, on the
+coast, the series is again perfect, though thin. Near Chipping Norton,
+in Oxfordshire, the Inferior Oolite disappears altogether, and the Great
+Oolite, having first overlapped the Fullers’ Earth, passes across the
+Inferior Oolite, and in its turn seems to lie on the Upper Lias with a
+regularity as perfect as if no formation in the neighbourhood came
+between them. In Yorkshire the changed type of the Inferior Oolite, the
+prevalence of sands, land-plants, and beds of coal, occur in such a
+manner as to leave no doubt of the presence of terrestrial surfaces on
+which the plants grew, and all these phenomena lead to the conclusion
+that various and considerable oscillations of level took place in the
+British area during the deposition of the strata, both of the Inferior
+Oolite and of the formations which immediately succeed it.”[67]
+
+  [67] President’s Address, by Professor A. C. Ramsay. _Quart. Jour.
+       Geol. Soc._, 1864, vol. xx., p. 4.
+
+The Inferior Oolite here alluded to is a thin bed of calcareous
+freestone, resting on, and sometimes replaced by yellow sand, which
+constitutes the passage-beds from the Liassic series. The Fullers’ Earth
+clay lies between the limestones of the Inferior and Great Oolite, at
+the base of which last lies the Stonesfield slate--a slightly oolitic,
+shelly limestone, or flaggy and fissile sandstone, some six feet thick,
+rich in organic remains, and ranging through Oxfordshire towards the
+north-east, into Northamptonshire and Yorkshire. At Colley Weston, in
+Northamptonshire, fossils of _Pecopteris polypodioides_ are found. In
+the Great Oolite formation, near Bath, are many corals, among which the
+_Eunomia radiata_ is very conspicuous. The fossil is not unlike the
+existing brain-coral of the tropical seas (Fig. 118). The work of this
+coral seems to have been suddenly stopped by “an invasion,” says Lyell,
+“of argillaceous matter, which probably put a sudden stop to the growth
+of Bradford Encrinites, and led to their preservation in marine
+strata.”[68] The Cornbrash is, in general, a cream-coloured limestone,
+about forty feet thick, in the south-west of England, and occupying a
+considerable area in Dorsetshire and North Wilts, as at Cricklade,
+Malmesbury, and Chippenham, in the latter county. _Terebratula obovata_
+is its characteristic shell, and _Nucleolites clunicularis_, _Lima
+gibbosa_, and _Avicula echinata_ occur constantly in great numbers.
+Wherever it occurs the Cornbrash affords a rich and fertile soil, well
+adapted for the growth of wheat, while the Forest Marble, as a soil, is
+generally poor. The Cornbrash passes downwards into the Forest Marble,
+and sometimes, as at Bradford, near Bath, is replaced by clay. This
+clay, called the Bradford clay, is almost wholly confined to the county
+of Wilts. _Terebratula decussata_ is one of the most characteristic
+fossils, but the most common is the Apiocrinites or pear-shaped
+encrinite, whose remains in this clay are so perfectly preserved that
+the most minute articulations are often found in their natural
+positions. PLATE XIX., p. 261 (Fig. 1), represents an adult attached by
+a solid base to the rocky bottom on which it grew, whilst the smaller
+individuals show the Encrinite in its young state--one with arms
+expanded, the other with them closed. Ripple-marked slabs of fissile
+Forest Marble are used as a roofing-slate, and may be traced over a
+broad band of country in Wiltshire and Gloucestershire, separated from
+each other by thin seams of clay, in which the undulating ridges of
+the sand are preserved, and even the footmarks of small Crustaceans are
+still visible.
+
+  [68] “Elements of Geology,” p. 400.
+
+[Illustration: XVII.--Ideal Landscape of the Lower Oolite Period.]
+
+On the opposite page (PLATE XVII.) is represented an ideal landscape of
+the period of the Lower Oolite. On the shore are types of the vegetation
+of the period. The _Zamites_, with large trunk covered with fan-like
+leaves, resembled in form and bearing the existing Zamias of tropical
+regions; a _Pterophyllum_, with its stem covered from base to summit
+with its finely-cut feathery leaves; Conifers closely resembling our
+Cypress, and an arborescent Fern. What distinguishes this sub-period
+from that of the Lias is a group of magnificent trees, _Pandanus_,
+remarkable for their aërial roots, their long leaves, and globular
+fruit.
+
+Upon one of the trees of this group the artist has placed the
+_Phascolotherium_, not very unlike to our Opossum. It was amongst the
+first of the Mammalia which appeared in the ancient world. The artist
+has here enlarged the dimensions of the animal in order to show its
+form. Let the reader reduce it in imagination one-sixth, for it was not
+larger than an ordinary-sized cat.
+
+A Crocodile and the fleshless skeleton of the Ichthyosaurus remind us
+that Reptiles still occupied an important place in the animal creation.
+A few Insects, especially Dragon-flies, fly about in the air. Ammonites
+float on the surface of the waves, and the terrible Plesiosaurus, like a
+gigantic swan, swims about in the sea. The circular reef of coral, the
+work of ancient Polyps, foreshadows the atolls of the great ocean, for
+it was during the Jurassic period that the Polyps of the ancient world
+were most active in the production of coral-reefs and islets.
+
+
+MIDDLE OOLITE.
+
+The terrestrial flora of this age was composed of Ferns, Cycads, and
+Conifers. The first represented by the _Pachypteris microphylla_, the
+second by _Zamites Moreana_. _Brachyphyllum Moreanum_ and _B. majus_
+appear to have been the Conifers most characteristic of the period;
+fruits have also been found in the rocks of the period, which appear to
+belong to Palms, but this point is still obscure and doubtful.
+
+Numerous vestiges of the fauna which animated the period are also
+revealed in the rocks of this age. Certain hemipterous insects appear on
+the earth for the first time, and the Bees among the Hymenoptera,
+Butterflies among the Lepidoptera, and Dragon-flies among the
+Neuroptera. In the bosom of the ocean, or upon its banks, roamed the
+_Ichthyosaurus_, _Ceteosaurus_, _Pterodactylus crassirostris_, and the
+_Geosaurus_; the latter being very imperfectly known.
+
+The Ceteosaurus whose bones have been discovered in the upper beds of
+the Great Oolite at Enslow Rocks, at the Kirtlington Railway Station,
+north of Oxford, and some other places, was a species of Crocodile
+nearly resembling the modern Gavial or Crocodile of the Ganges. This
+huge whale-like reptile has been described by Professor John Phillips as
+unmatched in size and strength by any of the largest inhabitants of the
+Mesozoic land or sea--perhaps the largest animal that ever walked upon
+the earth. A full-grown Ceteosaurus must have been _at least_ fifty feet
+long, ten feet high, and of a proportionate bulk. In its habits it was,
+probably, a marsh-loving or river-side animal, dwelling amidst filicene,
+cycadaceous, and coniferous shrubs and trees full of insects and small
+mammalia. The one small and imperfect tooth which has been found
+resembles that of Iguanodon more than of any other reptile; and it seems
+probable that the Ceteosaurus was nourished by vegetable food, which
+abounded in the vicinity of its haunts, and was not obliged to contend
+with the Megalosaurus for a scanty supply of more stimulating diet.[69]
+
+  [69] For a full account of the Ceteosaurus, see “The Geology of the
+       Thames Valley,” by Prof. John Phillips, F.R.S. 1871.
+
+Another reptile allied to the Pterodactyle lived in this epoch--the
+_Ramphorynchus_, distinguished from the Pterodactyle by a long tail. The
+imprints which this curious animal has left upon the sandstone of the
+period are impressions of its feet and the linear furrow made by its
+tail. Like the Pterodactyle, the Ramphorynchus, which was about the size
+of a crow, could not precisely fly, but, aided by the wing (a sort of
+natural parachute formed by the membrane connecting the fingers with the
+body), it could throw itself from a height upon its prey. Fig. 119
+represents a restoration of this animal. The footprints in the soil are
+in imitation of those which accompany the remains of the Ramphorynchus
+in the Oolitic rocks, and they show the imprints of the anterior and
+posterior feet and also the marks made by the tail.
+
+This tail was very long, far surpassing in length the rest of the
+vertebral column, and consisting of more than thirty vertebræ--which
+were at first short, but rapidly elongate, retain their length for a
+considerable distance, and then gradually diminish in size.
+
+[Illustration: XVIII.--Ideal landscape of the Middle Oolitic Period.]
+
+Another genus of Reptiles appears in the Middle Oolite, of which we have
+had a glimpse in the Lias and Great Oolite of the preceding section.
+This is the _Teleosaurus_, which the recent investigations of M. E.
+Deslongchamps allow of re-construction. The Teleosaurus enables us to
+form a pretty exact idea of these Crocodiles of the ancient seas--these
+cuirassed Reptiles, which the German geologist Cotta describes as “the
+great barons of the kingdom of Neptune, armed to the teeth, and clothed
+in an impenetrable panoply; the true filibusters of the primitive seas.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.--Ramphorynchus restored. One-quarter natural
+size.]
+
+The Teleosaurus resembled the Gavials of India. The former inhabited the
+banks of rivers, perhaps the sea itself; they were longer, more slender,
+and more active than the living species; they were about thirty feet in
+length, of which the head may be from three to four feet, with their
+enormous jaws sometimes with an opening of six feet, through which they
+could engulf, in the depths of their enormous throat, animals of
+considerable size.
+
+The _Teleosaurus cadomensis_ is represented on the opposite page (PLATE
+XVIII.), after the sketch of M. E. Deslongchamps, carrying from the sea
+in its mouth a _Geoteuthis_, a species of Calamary of the Oolitic epoch.
+This creature was coated with a cuirass both on the back and belly. In
+order to show this peculiarity, a living individual is represented on
+the shore, and a dead one is floating on its back in shallow water,
+leaving the ventral cuirass exposed.
+
+Behind the _Teleosaurus cadomensis_ in the engraving, another Saurian,
+the _Hylæosaurus_, is represented, which makes its appearance in the
+Cretaceous epoch. We have here adopted the restoration which has been so
+ably executed by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, at the Crystal Palace,
+Sydenham.
+
+Besides the numerous Fishes with which the Oolitic seas swarmed, they
+contained some Crustaceans, Cirripedes, and various genera of Mollusca
+and Zoophytes. _Eryon arctiformis_, represented in Fig. 119, belongs to
+the class of Crustaceans, of which the spiny lobster is the type. Among
+the Mollusca were some Ammonites, Belemnites, and Oysters, of which many
+hundred species have been described. Of these we may mention _Ammonites
+refractus, A. Jason and A. cordatus, Ostrea dilatata, Terebratula
+diphya, Diceras arietena, Belemnites hastatus_, and _B. Puzosianus_. In
+some of the finely-laminated clays the Ammonites are very perfect, but
+somewhat compressed, with the outer lip or margin of the aperture entire
+(Fig. 120). Similar prolongations have been noticed in Belemnites found
+by Dr. Mantell in the Oxford Clay, near Chippenham.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.--Eryon arctiformis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.--Perfect Ammonite.]
+
+Among the Echinoderms, _Cidaris glandiferus_, _Apiocrinus Roissyanus_,
+and _A. rotundus_, the graceful _Saccocoma pectinata_, _Millericrinus
+nodotianus_, _Comatula costata_, and _Hemicidaris crenularis_ may be
+mentioned; _Apiocrinites rotundus_, figured in PLATE XIX., is a reduced
+restoration: 1, being expanded; _a_, closed; 3, a cross section of
+the upper extremity of the pear-shaped head; 4, a vertical section
+showing the enlargement of the alimentary canal, with the hollow
+lenticular spaces which descend through the axis of the column, forming
+the joints, and giving elasticity and flexure to the whole stem, without
+risk of dislocation. _A. rotundus_ is found at Bradford in Wiltshire,
+Abbotsbury in Dorset, at Soissons, and Rochelle. This species--known as
+the Bradford Pear-Encrinite--is only found in the strata mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: XIX.--Fig. 1.--Apiocrinites rotundus. Fig. 2.--Encrinus
+liliiformis.]
+
+The Corals of this epoch occur in great abundance. We have already
+remarked that these aggregations of Polyps are often met with at a great
+depth in the strata. These small calcareous structures have been formed
+in the ancient seas, and the same phenomenon is extending the
+terrestrial surface in our days in the seas of Oceania, where reefs and
+atolls of coral are rising by slow and imperceptible steps, but with no
+less certainty. Although their mode of production must always remain to
+some extent a mystery, the investigations of M. Lamaroux, Mr. Charles
+Darwin, and M. D’Orbigny have gone a long way towards explaining their
+operations; for the Zoophyte in action is an aggregation of these minute
+Polyps. Describing what he believes to be a sea-pen, a Zoophyte allied
+to _Virgularia Patagonia_, Mr. Darwin says: “It consists of a thin,
+straight, fleshy stem, with alternate rows of polypi on each side, and
+surrounding an elastic stony axis. The stem at one extremity is
+truncate, but at the other is terminated by a vermiform fleshy
+appendage. The stony axis which gives strength to the stem, may be
+traced at this extremity into a mere vessel filled with granular matter.
+At low water hundreds of these zoophytes might be seen, projecting like
+stubble, with the truncate end upwards, a few inches above the surface
+of the muddy sand. When touched or pulled, they drew themselves in
+suddenly, with force, so as nearly or quite to disappear. By this
+action, the highly-elastic axis must be bent at the lower extremity,
+where it is naturally slightly curved; and I imagine it is by this
+elasticity alone that the zoophyte is enabled to rise again through the
+mud. Each polypus, though closely united to its brethren, has a distinct
+mouth, body, and tentacula. Of these polypi, in a large specimen there
+must be many thousands. Yet we see that they act by one movement; that
+they have one central axis, connected with a system of obscure
+circulation.” Such is the brief account given by a very acute observer
+of these singular beings. They secrete the calcareous matter held in
+solution in the oceanic waters, and produce the wonderful structures we
+have now under consideration; and these calcareous banks have been in
+course of formation during many geological ages. They just reach the
+level of the waters, for the polyps perish as soon as they are so far
+above the surface that neither the waves nor the flow of the tides can
+reach them. In the Oolitic rocks these banks are frequently found from
+twelve to fifteen feet thick, and many leagues in length, and
+preserving, for the most part, the relative positions which they
+occupied in the sea while in course of formation.
+
+The rocks which now represent the Middle Oolitic Period are usually
+divided into the _Oxford Clay_, the lower member of which is an
+arenaceous limestone, known as the _Kellaways Rock_, which in Wiltshire
+and other parts of the south-west of England attains a thickness of
+eight or ten feet, with the impressions of numerous Ammonites, and other
+shells. In Yorkshire, around Scarborough, it reaches the thickness of
+thirty feet; and forms well-developed beds of bluish-black marl in the
+department of Calvados, in France. It is the base of this clay which
+forms the soil (_Argile de Dives_) of the valley of the Auge, renowned
+for its rich pasturages and magnificent cattle. The same beds form the
+base of the oddly-shaped but fine rocks of La Manche, which are
+popularly known as the _Vaches Noires_ (or black cows)--a locality
+celebrated, also, for its fine Ammonites transformed into pyrites.
+
+The _Oxford Clay_ constitutes the base of the hills in the neighbourhood
+of Oxford, forming a bed of clay sometimes more than 600 feet thick. It
+is found well-developed in France, at Trouville, in the department of
+the Calvados; and at Neuvisy, in the department of the Ardennes, where
+it attains a thickness of about 300 feet. It is a bluish, sometimes
+whitish limestone (often argillaceous), and bluish marl. The _Gryphæa
+dilatata_ is the most common fossil in the Oxford Clay. The _Coral Rag_
+is so called from the fact that the limestone of which it is chiefly
+composed consists, in part, of an aggregation of considerable masses of
+petrified Corals; not unlike those now existing in the Pacific Ocean,
+supposing them to be covered up for ages and fossilised. This coral
+stratum extends through the hills of Berkshire and North Wilts, and it
+occurs again near Scarborough. In the counties of Dorset, Bedford,
+Buckingham, and Cambridge, and some other parts of England, the
+limestone of the Coral Rag disappears and is replaced by clay--in which
+case the Oxford Clay is overlaid directly by the Kimeridge Clay. In
+France it is found in the departments of the Meuse, of the Yonne, of the
+Ain, of the Charente Inférieure. In the Alps the _Diceras limestone_ is
+regarded, by most geologists, as coeval with the English Coral Rag.
+
+
+UPPER OOLITE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Bird of Solenhofen (Archæopteryx).]
+
+Some marsupial Mammals have left their remains in the Upper Oolite as in
+the Lower. They belong to the genus _Sphalacotherium_. Besides the
+Plesiosauri and Teleosauri, there still lived in the maritime regions a
+Crocodile, the _Macrorhynchus_; and the monstrous _Pœcilopleuron_, with
+sharp cutting teeth, one of the most formidable animals of this epoch;
+the _Hylæosaurus_, _Cetiosaurus_, _Stenosaurus_, and _Streptospondylus_,
+and among the Turtles, the _Emys_ and _Platemys_. As in the Lower
+Oolite, so also in the Upper, Insects similar to those by which we are
+surrounded, pursued their flight in the meadows and hovered over the
+surface of the water. Of these, however, too little is known for us to
+give any very precise indication on the subject of their special
+organisation.
+
+The most remarkable fact relating to this period is the appearance of
+the first bird. Hitherto the Mammals, and of these only
+imperfectly-organised species, namely, the Marsupials, have alone
+appeared. It is interesting to witness birds appearing immediately
+after. In the quarries of lithographic stone at Solenhofen, the remains
+of a bird, with feet and feathers, have been found, but without the
+head. These curious remains are represented in Fig. 122, in the position
+in which they were discovered. The bird is usually designated the Bird
+of Solenhofen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.
+
+Shell of Physa fontinalis.]
+
+The Oolitic seas of this series contained Fishes belonging to the genera
+_Asteracanthus_, _Strephodes_, _Lepidotus_, and _Microdon_. The
+Cephalopodous Mollusca were not numerous, the predominating genera
+belonging to the Lamellibranchs and to the Gasteropods, which lived on
+the shore. The reef-making Madrepores or Corals were more numerous. A
+few Zoophytes in the fossil state testify to the existence of these
+extraordinary animals. The fossils characteristic of the fauna of the
+period include _Ammonites decipiens_ and _A. giganteus_, _Natica
+elegans_ and _hemispherica_, _Ostrea deltoidea_ and _O. virgula_,
+_Trigonia gibbosa_, _Pholadomya multicostata_ and _P. acuticostata_,
+_Terebratula subsella_, and _Hemicidaris Purbeckensis_. Some _Fishes_,
+_Turtles_, _Paludina_, _Physa_ (Fig. 123), _Unio_, _Planorbis_ (Fig.
+201), and the little crustacean bivalves, the Cypris, constituted the
+fresh-water fauna of the period.
+
+The terrestrial flora of the period consisted of Ferns, Cycadeaceæ, and
+Conifers; in the ponds and swamps some Zosteræ. The _Zosteræ_ are
+monocotyledonous plants of the family of the Naïdaceæ, which grow in the
+sandy mud of maritime regions, forming there, with their long, narrow,
+and ribbon-like leaves, vast prairies of the most beautiful green. At
+low tides these masses of verdure appear somewhat exposed. They would
+form a retreat for a great number of marine animals, and afford
+nourishment to others.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: XX.--Ideal Landscape of the Upper Oolitic Period.]
+
+On the opposite page an ideal landscape of the period (PLATE XX.)
+represents some of the features of the Upper Oolite, especially the
+vegetation of the Jurassic period. The _Sphenophyllum_, among the
+Tree-ferns, is predominant in this vegetation; some _Pandanas_, a few
+_Zamites_, and many _Conifers_, but we perceive no Palms. A coral islet
+rises out of the sea, having somewhat of the form of the _atolls_ of
+Oceania, indicating the importance these formations assumed in the
+Jurassic period. The animals represented are the _Crocodileimus_ of
+Jourdan, the _Ramphorynchus_, with the imprints which characterise its
+footsteps, and some of the invertebrated animals of the period, as the
+_Asteria_, _Comatula_, _Hemicidaris_, _Pteroceras_. Aloft in the air
+floats the bird of Solenhofen, the _Archæopteryx_, which has been
+re-constructed from the skeleton, with the exception of the head, which
+remains undiscovered.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The rocks which represent the Upper Oolite are usually divided into two
+series: 1. The _Purbeck Beds_; 2. The _Portland Stone and Sand_; and 3.
+The _Kimeridge Clay_.
+
+The _Kimeridge Clay_, which in many respects bears a remarkable
+resemblance to the Oxford Clay, is composed of blue or yellowish
+argillaceous beds, which occur in the state of clay and shale
+(containing locally beds of bituminous schist, sometimes forming a sort
+of earthy impure coal), and several hundred feet in thickness. These
+beds are well developed at Kimeridge, in Dorsetshire, whence the clay
+takes its name. In some parts of Wiltshire the beds of bituminous matter
+have a shaly appearance, but there is an absence of the impressions of
+plants which usually accompany the bitumen, derived from the
+decomposition of plants. These rocks, with their characteristic fossils,
+_Cardium striatulum_ and _Ostrea deltoidea_, are found throughout
+England: in France, at Tonnerre, Dept. Yonne; at Havre; at Honfleur; at
+Mauvage; in the department of the Meuse it is so rich in shells of
+_Ostrea deltoidea_ and _O. virgula_, that, “near Clermont in Argonne, a
+few leagues from St. Menehould,” says Lyell,[70] “where these indurated
+marls crop out from beneath the Gault, I have seen them (_Gryphæa
+virgula_) on decomposing leave the surface of every ploughed field
+literally strewed over with this fossil oyster.”
+
+  [70] “Elements of Geology,” p. 393.
+
+The second section of this series consists of the oolitic limestone of
+Portland, which is quarried in the Isle of Portland and in the cliffs of
+the Isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire, and also at Chilmark in the Vale of
+Wardour, in Wiltshire. In France, the Portland beds are found near
+Boulogne, at Cirey-le-Château, Auxerre, and Gray (Haute Saône).
+
+The Isle, or rather peninsula of Portland,[71] off the Dorsetshire
+coast, rises considerably above the sea-level, presenting on the side of
+the port a bold line of cliffs, connected with the mainland by the
+Chesil bank,[72] an extraordinary formation, consisting of a beach of
+shingle and pebbles loosely piled on the blue Kimeridge clay, and
+stretching ten miles westward along the coast. The quarries are chiefly
+situated in the northerly part of the island. The story told of this
+remarkable island is an epitome of the revolutions the surface of the
+earth has undergone. The slaty Purbeck beds which overlie the Portland
+stone are of a dark-yellowish colour; they are burnt in the
+neighbourhood for lime. The next bed is of a whiter and more lively
+colour. It is the stone of which the portico of St. Paul’s and many of
+the houses of London, built in Queen Anne’s time, were constructed. The
+building-stone contains fossils exclusively marine. Upon this stratum
+rests a bed of limestone formed in lacustrine waters. Finally, upon this
+bed rests another deposit of a substance which consists of very
+well-preserved vegetable earth or _humus_, quite analogous to our
+vegetable soil, of the thickness of from fifteen to eighteen inches, and
+of a blackish colour; it contains a strong proportion of carbonaceous
+earth; it abounds in the silicified remains of Conifers and other
+plants, analogous to the _Zamia_ and _Cycas_--this soil is known as the
+“dirt-bed.” The trunks of great numbers of silicified trees and tropical
+plants are found here erect, their roots fixed in the soil, and of
+species differing from any of our forest trees. “The ruins of a forest
+upon the ruins of a sea,” says Esquiros, “the trunks of these trees were
+petrified while still growing. The region now occupied by the narrow
+channel and its environs had been at first a sea, in whose bed the
+Oolitic deposits which now form the Portland stone accumulated: the bed
+of the sea gradually rose and emerged from the waves. Upon the land thus
+rescued from the deep, plants began to grow; they now constitute with
+their ruins the soil of the dirt-bed. This soil, with its forest of
+trees, was afterwards plunged again into the waters--not the bitter
+waters of the ocean, but in the fresh waters of a lake formed at the
+mouth of some great river.”
+
+  [71] For details respecting these strata the reader may consult, with
+       advantage, the useful handbook to the geology of Weymouth and
+       Portland, by Robert Damon.
+
+  [72] See Bristow and Whitaker “On the Chesil Bank,” _Geol. Mag._, vol.
+       vi., p. 433.
+
+Time passed on, however; a calcareous sediment brought from the interior
+by the waters, formed a layer of mud over the dirt-bed; finally, the
+whole region was covered by a succession of calcareous deposits, until
+the day when the Isle of Portland was again revealed to light. “From the
+facts observed,” says Lyell, “we may infer:--1. That those beds of the
+Upper Oolite, called the Portland, which are full of marine shells, were
+overspread with fluviatile mud, which became dry land, and covered with
+a forest, throughout a portion of space now occupied by the south of
+England, the climate being such as to admit of the growth of the _Zamia_
+and _Cycas_. 2. This land at length sank down and was submerged with its
+forest beneath a body of fresh water from which sediment was thrown down
+enveloping fluviatile shells. 3. The regular and uniform preservation of
+this thin bed of black earth over a distance of many miles, shows that
+the change from dry land to the state of a fresh-water lake, or estuary,
+was not accompanied by any violent denudation or rush of water, since
+the loose black earth, together with the trees which lay prostrate on
+its surface, must inevitably have been swept away had any such violent
+catastrophe taken place.”[73]
+
+  [73] “Elements of Geology,” p. 389.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Geological humus. _a_, Fresh-water calcareous
+slate (Purbeck); _b_, Dirt-bed, with roots and stems of trees; _c_,
+Fresh-water beds; _d_, Portland Stone.]
+
+The soil known as the _dirt-bed_ is nearly horizontal in the Isle of
+Portland; but we discover it again not far from there in the sea-cliffs
+of the Isle of Purbeck, having an inclination of 45°, where the trunks
+continue perfectly parallel among themselves, affording a fine example
+of a change in the position of beds originally horizontal. Fig. 124
+represents this species of geological _humus_. “Each _dirt-bed_” says
+Sir Charles Lyell, “may, no doubt, be the memorial of many thousand
+years or centuries, because we find that two or three feet of vegetable
+soil is the only monument which many a tropical forest has left of its
+existence ever since the ground on which it now stands was first covered
+with its shade.”[74]
+
+  [74] Ibid, p. 391.
+
+This bed of vegetable soil is, then, near the summit of that long and
+complicated series of beds which constitute the Jurassic period; these
+ruins, still vegetable, remind us forcibly of the coal-beds, for they
+are nothing else than a less advanced state of that kind of vegetable
+fossilisation which was perfected on such an immense scale, and during
+an infinite length of time in the coal period.
+
+The Purbeck beds, which are sometimes subdivided into Lower, Middle, and
+Upper, are mostly fresh-water formations, intimately connected with the
+Upper Portland beds. But there they begin and end, being scarcely
+recognisable except in Dorsetshire, in the sea-cliffs of which they were
+first studied. They are finely exposed in Durdlestone Bay, near Swanage,
+and at Lulworth Cove, on the same coast. The _lower beds_ consist of a
+purely fresh-water marl, eighty feet thick, containing shells of
+_Cypris_, _Limnæa_, and some _Serpulæ_ in a bed of marl of
+brackish-water origin, and some _Cypris_-bearing shales, strangely
+broken up at the west end of the Isle of Purbeck.
+
+The _Middle series_ consists of twelve feet of marine strata known as
+the “cinder-beds,” formed of a vast accumulation of _Ostrea distorta_,
+resting on fresh-water strata full of _Cypris fasciculata_, _Planorbis_,
+and _Limnæa_, by which this strata has been identified as far inland as
+the vale of Wardour in Wiltshire. Above the cinder-beds are shales and
+limestones, partly of fresh-water and partly of brackish-water origin,
+in which are Fishes, many species of Lepidotus, and the crocodilian
+reptile, _Macrorhynchus_. On this rests a purely marine deposit, with
+_Pecten_, _Avicula_, &c. Above, again, are brackish beds with _Cyrena_,
+overlying which is thirty feet of fresh-water limestone, with _Fishes_,
+_Turtles_, and _Cyprides_.
+
+The _upper beds_ are purely fresh-water strata, about fifty feet thick,
+containing _Paludina_, _Physa_, _Limnæa_, all very abundant. In these
+beds the Purbeck marble, formerly much used in the ornamental
+architecture of the old English cathedrals, was formerly quarried. (See
+Note, page 274.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A few words may be added, in explanation of the term _oolite_, applied
+to this sub-period of the Jurassic formation. In a great number of rocks
+of this series the elements are neither crystalline nor amorphous--they
+are, as we have already said, oolitic; that is to say, the mass has the
+form of the roe of certain fishes. The question naturally enough arises,
+Whence this singular oolitic structure assumed by the components of
+certain rocks? It is asserted that the grinding action of the sea acting
+upon the precipitated limestone produces rounded forms analogous to
+grains of sand. This hypothesis may be well founded in some cases. The
+marine sediments which are deposited in some of the warm bays of
+Teneriffe are found to take the spheroidal granulated form of the
+oolite. But these local facts cannot be made to apply to the whole
+extent of the oolitic formations. We must, therefore, look further for
+an explanation of the phenomena.
+
+It is admitted that if the cascades of Tivoli, for example, can give
+birth to the oolitic grains, the same thing happens in the quietest
+basins, that in stalactite-caverns oolitic grains develop themselves,
+which afterwards, becoming cemented together from the continued, but
+very slow, affluence of the calcareous waters, give rise to certain
+kinds of oolitic rocks.
+
+On the other hand, it is known that nodules, more or less large, develop
+themselves in marls in consequence of the concentration of the
+calcareous elements, without the possibility of any wearing action of
+water. Now, as there exists every gradation of size between the smallest
+oolitic grains and the largest concretions, it is reasonable to suppose
+that the oolites are equally the product of concentration.
+
+Finally, from research to research, it is found that perfectly
+constituted oolites--that is to say, concentric layers, as in the
+Jurassic limestone--develop themselves in vegetable earth in places
+where the effects of water in motion is not more admissible than in the
+preceding instances.
+
+Thus we arrive at the conclusion, that if Nature sometimes forms
+crystals with perfect terminations in magmas in the course of
+solidification, she gives rise also to spheroidal forms surrounding
+various centres, which sometimes originate spontaneously, and in other
+cases are accumulated round the débris of fossils, or even mere grains
+of sand. Nevertheless, all mineral substances are not alike calculated
+to produce oolitic rocks; putting aside some particular cases, this
+property is confined to limestone and oxide of iron.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+With regard to the distribution of the Jurassic formation on the
+terrestrial globe, it may be stated that the Cotteswold Hills in
+England, and in France the Jura mountains, are almost entirely composed
+of these rocks, the several series of beds being all represented in
+them--this circumstance, in fact, induced Von Humboldt to name the
+formation after this latter range. The Upper Lias also exists in the
+Pyrenees and in the Alps; in Spain; in many parts of Northern Italy; in
+Russia, especially in the government of Moscow, and in the Crimea; but
+it is in Germany where it occupies the most important place. A thin bed
+of oolitic limestone presents, at Solenhofen in Bavaria, a geological
+repository of great celebrity, containing fossil Plants, Fishes,
+Insects, Crustaceans, with some Pterodactyles, admirably preserved; it
+yielded also some of the earliest of the feathered race. The fine
+quarries of lithographic stone at Pappenheim, so celebrated all over
+Europe, belong to the Jurassic formation.
+
+It has recently been announced that these rocks have been found in
+India; they contribute largely to the formation of the main mass of the
+Himalayas, and to the chain of the Andes in South America; finally, from
+recent investigations, they seem to be present in New Zealand.
+
+In England the Lias constitutes a well-defined belt about thirty miles
+broad, extending from Dorsetshire, in the south, to Yorkshire, in the
+north, formed of alternate beds of clay, shales, and limestone (with
+layers of jet), on the coast near Whitby. It is rich, as we have seen,
+in ancient life, and that in the strongest forms imaginable. From the
+unequal hardness of the rocks it comprises, it stands out boldly in some
+of the minor ranges of hills, adding greatly to the picturesque beauty
+of the scenery in the centre of the country. In Scotland the formation
+occupies a very limited space.
+
+A map of the country at the close of the Jurassic period would probably
+show double the extent of dry land in the British Islands, compared with
+what it displayed as an island in the primordial ocean; but Devon and
+Cornwall had long risen from the sea, and it is probable that the
+Jurassic beds of Dorsetshire and France were connected by a tongue of
+land running from Cherbourg to the Liassic beds of Dorsetshire, and that
+Boulogne, still an island, was similarly connected with the Weald.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.--Crioceras Duvallii, Sowerby. A non-involuted
+Ammonite. (Neocomian.)]
+
+    NOTE.--Sections of the Purbeck strata of Dorsetshire have been
+    constructed by Mr. Bristow, from actual measurement, in the
+    several localities in the Isle of Purbeck, where they are most
+    clearly and instructively displayed.
+
+    These sections, published by the Geological Survey, show in
+    detail the beds in their regular and natural order of
+    succession, with the thickness, mineral character, and contents,
+    as well as the fossils, of each separate bed.
+
+
+THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD.
+
+The name _Cretaceous_ (from _creta_, chalk) is given to this epoch in
+the history of our globe because the rocks deposited by the sea, towards
+its close, are almost entirely composed of chalk (carbonate of lime).
+
+Carbonate of lime, however, does not now appear for the first time as a
+part of the earth’s crust; we have already seen limestone occurring,
+among the terrestrial materials, from the Silurian period; the Jurassic
+formation is largely composed of carbonate of lime in many of its beds,
+which are enormous in number as well as extent; it appears, therefore,
+that in the period called _Cretaceous_ by geologists, carbonate of lime
+was no new substance in the constitution of the globe. If geologists
+have been led to give this name to the period, it is because it accords
+better than any other with the characteristics of the period; with the
+vast accumulations of chalky or earthy limestone in the Paris basin, and
+the beds of so-called Greensand, and Chalk of the same age, so largely
+developed in England.
+
+We have already endeavoured to establish the origin of lime, in speaking
+of the Silurian and Devonian periods, but it may be useful to
+recapitulate the explanation here, even at the risk of repeating
+ourselves.
+
+We have said that lime was, in all probability, introduced to the globe
+by thermal waters flowing abundantly through the fissures, dislocations,
+and fractures in the ground, which were themselves caused by the gradual
+cooling of the globe; the central nucleus being the grand reservoir and
+source of the materials which form the solid crust. In the same manner,
+therefore, as the several eruptive substances--such as granites,
+porphyries, trachytes, basalts, and lava--have been ejected, so have
+thermal waters charged with carbonate of lime, and often accompanied by
+silica, found their way to the surface in great abundance, through the
+fissures, fractures, and dislocations in the crust of the earth. We need
+only mention here the Iceland geysers, the springs of Plombières, and
+the well-known thermal springs of Bath and elsewhere in this country.
+
+But how comes lime in a state of bicarbonate, dissolved in these
+thermal waters, to form rocks? That is what we propose to explain.
+
+During the primary geological periods, thermal waters, as they reached
+the surface, were discharged into the sea and united themselves with the
+waves of the vast primordial ocean, and the waters of the sea became
+sensibly calcareous--they contained, it is believed, from one to two per
+cent. of lime. The innumerable animals, especially Zoophytes, and
+Mollusca with solid shells, with which the ancient seas swarmed,
+secreted this lime, out of which they built up their mineral
+dwelling--or shell. In this liquid and chemically calcareous medium, the
+Foraminifera and Polyps of all forms swarmed, forming an innumerable
+population. Now what became of the bodies of these creatures after
+death? They were of all sizes, but chiefly microscopic; that is, so
+small as to be individually all but invisible to the naked eye. The
+perishable animal matter disappeared in the bosom of the waters by
+decomposition, but there still remained behind the indestructible
+inorganic matter, that is to say, the carbonate of lime forming their
+testaceous covering; these calcareous deposits accumulating in thick
+beds at the bottom of the sea, became compacted into a solid mass, and
+formed a series of continuous beds superimposed on each other. These,
+increasing imperceptibly in the course of ages, ultimately formed the
+rocks of the _Cretaceous_ period, which we have now under consideration.
+
+These statements are not, as the reader might conceive from their
+nature, a romantic conception invented to please the imagination of
+those in search of a system--the time is past when geology should be
+regarded as the romance of Nature--nor has what we advance at all the
+character of an arbitrary conception. One is no doubt struck with
+surprise on learning, for the first time, that all the limestone rocks,
+all the calcareous stones employed in the construction of our dwellings,
+our cities, our castles and cathedrals, were deposited in the seas of an
+earlier world, and are only composed of an aggregation of shells of
+Mollusca, or fragments of the testaceous coverings of Foraminifera and
+other Zoophytes--nay, that they were secreted from the water itself, and
+then assimilated by these minute creatures, and that this would appear
+to have been the great object of their creation in such myriads. Whoever
+will take the trouble to observe, and reflect on what he observes, will
+find all his doubts vanish. If chalk be examined with a microscope, it
+will be found to be composed of the remains of numerous Zoophytes, of
+minute and divers kinds of shells, and, above all, of Foraminifera, so
+small that their very minuteness seems to have rendered them
+indestructible. A hundred and fifty of these small beings placed end to
+end, in a line, will only occupy the space of about one-twelfth part of
+an inch.
+
+[Illustration: Chalk under the Microscope.
+
+Fig. 126.--Chalk of Meudon (magnified).]
+
+Much of this curious information was unknown, or at least only
+suspected, when Ehrenberg began his microscopical investigations. From
+small samples of chalk reduced to powder, placed upon the object-glass,
+and examined under the microscope, Ehrenberg prepared the designs which
+we reproduce from his learned micrographical work, in which some of the
+elegant forms discovered in the Chalk are illustrated, greatly
+magnified. Fig. 126 represents the chalk of Meudon, in France, in which
+ammonite-like forms of Foraminifera and others, equally beautiful,
+appear. Fig. 127, from the chalk of Gravesend, contains similar objects.
+Fig. 128 is an example of chalk from the island of Moën, in Denmark;
+and Fig. 129, that which is found in the Tertiary rocks of Cattolica, in
+Sicily. In all these the shells of Ammonites appear, with clusters of
+round Foraminifera and other Zoophytes. In two of these engravings
+(Figs. 126 and 128), the chalk is represented in two modes--in the upper
+half, by transparency or transmitted light; in the lower half, the mass
+is exhibited by superficial or reflected light.
+
+[Illustration: Chalk under the Microscope.
+
+Fig. 127.--Chalk of Gravesend. (After Ehrenberg).--Magnified.]
+
+Observation, then, establishes the truth of the explanation we have
+given concerning the formation of the chalky or Cretaceous rocks; but
+the question still remains--How did these rocks, originally deposited in
+the sea, become elevated into hills of great height, with bold
+escarpments, like those known in England as the North and South Downs?
+The answer to this involves the consideration of other questions which
+have, at present, scarcely got beyond hypothesis.
+
+[Illustration: Chalk under the Microscope.
+
+Fig. 128.--Chalk of the Isle of Moën, Denmark.]
+
+[Illustration: Chalk under the Microscope.
+
+Fig. 129.--Chalk of Cattolica, Sicily (magnified).]
+
+During and after the deposition of the Portland and Purbeck beds, the
+entire Oolite Series, in the south and centre of England and other
+regions, was raised above the sea-level and became dry land. Above these
+Purbeck beds, as Professor Ramsay tells us [in the district known as the
+Weald], “we have a series of beds of clays, sandstones, and shelly
+limestones, indicating by their fossils that they were deposited in an
+estuary where fresh water and occasionally brackish water and marine
+conditions prevailed. The Wealden and Purbeck beds indeed represent the
+delta of an immense river which in size may have rivalled the Ganges,
+Mississippi, Amazon, &c., and whose waters carried down to its mouth the
+remains of land-plants, small Mammals, and great terrestrial Reptiles,
+and mingled them with the remains of Fishes, Molluscs, and other forms
+native to its waters. I do not say that this immense river was formed
+or supplied by the drainage of what we now call Great Britain--I do not
+indeed know where this continent lay, but I do know that England formed
+a part of it, and that in size it must have been larger than Europe, and
+was probably as large as Asia, or the great continent of America.”
+Speaking of the geographical extent of the Wealden, Sir Charles Lyell
+says: “It cannot be accurately laid down, because so much of it is
+concealed beneath the newer marine formations. It has been traced about
+200 miles from west to east; from the coast of Dorsetshire to near
+Boulogne, in France; and nearly 200 miles from north-west to
+south-east, from Surrey and Hampshire to Beauvais, in France;”[75] but
+he expresses doubt, supposing the formation to have been continuous, if
+the two areas were contemporaneous, the region having undergone frequent
+changes, the great estuary having altered its form, and even shifted its
+place. Speaking of a hypothetical continent, Sir Charles Lyell says: “If
+it be asked where the continent was placed from the ruins of which the
+Wealden strata were derived, and by the drainage of which a great river
+was fed, we are half tempted to speculate on the former existence of the
+Atlantis of Plato. The story of the submergence of an ancient continent,
+however fabulous in history, must have been true again and again as a
+geological event.”[76]
+
+  [75] “Elements of Geology,” p. 349.
+
+  [76] Ibid, p. 350.
+
+The proof that the Wealden series were accumulated under fresh-water
+conditions and as a river deposit[77] lies partly in the nature of the
+strata, but chiefly in the nature of the organic remains. The fish give
+no positive proof, but a number of Crocodilian reptiles give more
+conclusive evidence, together with the shells, most of them being of
+fresh-water origin, such as Paludina, Planorbis, Lymnæa, Physa, and such
+like, which are found living in many ponds and rivers of the present
+day. Now and then we find bands of marine remains, not mixed with
+fresh-water deposits, but interstratified with them; showing that at
+times the mouth and delta of the river had sunk a little, and that it
+had been invaded by the sea; then by gradual change it was lifted up,
+and became an extensive fresh-water area. This episode at last comes to
+an end by the complete submergence of the Wealden area; and upon these
+fresh-water strata a set of marine sands and clays, and upon these again
+thick beds of pure white earthy limestone of the Cretaceous period were
+deposited. The lowest of these formations is known as the Lower
+Greensand; then followed the clays of the Gault, which were succeeded by
+the Upper Greensand. Then, resting upon the Upper Greensand, comes the
+vast mass of Chalk which in England consists of soft white earthy
+limestone, containing, in the upper part, numerous bands of
+interstratified flints, which were mostly sponges originally, that have
+since become silicified and converted into flint. The strata of chalk
+where thickest are from 1,000 to 1,200 feet in thickness. Their upheaval
+into dry land brought this epoch to an end; the conditions which had
+contributed to its formation ceased in our area, and as the uppermost
+member of the Secondary rocks, it closes the record of Mesozoic times in
+England.
+
+  [77] “The Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain,” by A. C.
+       Ramsay, F.R.S., p. 64.
+
+Let us add, to remove any remaining doubts, that in the basin of a
+modern European sea--the Baltic--a curious assemblage of phenomena,
+bearing on the question, is now in operation. The bed and coast-line of
+the Baltic continue slowly but unceasingly to rise, and have done so for
+several centuries, in consequence of the constant deposit which takes
+place of calcareous shells, added to the natural accumulations of sand
+and mud. The Baltic Sea will certainly be filled up in time by these
+deposits, and this modern phenomenon, which we find in progress, so to
+speak, brings directly under our observation an explanation of the
+manner in which the cretaceous rocks were produced in the ancient world,
+more especially when taken in connection with another branch of the same
+subject to which Sir Charles Lyell called attention, in an address to
+the Geological Society. It appears that just as the northern part of the
+Scandinavian continent is now rising, and while the middle part south of
+Stockholm remains unmoved, the southern extremity in Scania is sinking,
+or at least has sunk, within the historic period; from which he argues
+that there may have been a slow upheaval in one region, while the
+adjoining one was stationary, or in course of submergence.
+
+After these explanations as to the manner in which the cretaceous rocks
+were formed, let us examine into the state of animal and vegetable life
+during this important period in the earth’s history.
+
+The vegetable kingdom of this period forms an introduction to the
+vegetation of the present time. Placed at the close of the Secondary
+epoch, this vegetation prepares us for transition, as it were, to the
+vegetation of the Tertiary epoch, which, as we shall see, has a great
+affinity with that of our own times.
+
+The landscapes of the ancient world have hitherto shown us some species
+of plants of forms strange and little known, which are now extinct. But
+during the period whose history we are tracing, the vegetable kingdom
+begins to fashion itself in a less mysterious manner; Palms appear, and
+among the regular species we recognise some which differ little from
+those of the tropics of our days. The dicotyledons increase slightly in
+number amid Ferns and Cycads, which have lost much of their importance
+in numbers and size; we observe an obvious increase in the dicotyledons
+of our own temperate climate, such as the alder, the wych-elm, the
+maple, and the walnut, &c.
+
+“As we retire from the times of the primitive creation,” says Lecoq,
+“and slowly approach those of our own epoch, the sediments seem to
+withdraw themselves from the polar regions and restrict themselves to
+the temperate or equatorial zones. The great beds of sand and
+limestone, which constitute the Cretaceous formation, announce a state
+of things very different from that of the preceding ages. The seasons
+are no longer marked by indications of central heat; zones of latitude
+already show signs of their existence.
+
+“Hitherto two classes of vegetation predominated: the cellular
+_Cryptogams_ at first, the dicotyledonous _Gymnosperms_ afterwards; and
+in the epoch which we have reached--the transition epoch of
+vegetation--the two classes which have reigned heretofore become
+enfeebled, and a third, the dicotyledonous _Angiosperms_, timidly take
+possession of the earth--they consist at first of a small number of
+species, and occupy only a small part of the soil, of which they
+afterwards take their full share; and in the succeeding periods, as in
+our own times, we shall see that their reign is firmly established;
+during the Cretaceous period, in short, we witness the appearance of the
+first dicotyledonous _Angiosperms_. Some arborescent Ferns still
+maintain their position, and the elegant _Protopteris Singeri_,
+Preissl., and P. _Buvigneri_, Brongn., still unfold their light fronds
+to the winds of this period. Some _Pecopteri_, differing from the
+Wealden species, live along with them. Some _Zamites_, _Cycads_, and
+_Zamiostrobi_ announce that in the Cretaceous period the temperature was
+still high. New Palms show themselves, and, among others, _Flabellaria
+chamæropifolia_ is especially remarkable for the majestic crown at its
+summit.
+
+“The _Conifers_ have endured better than the _Cycadeæ_; they formed
+then, as now, great forests, where _Damarites_, _Cunninghamias_,
+_Araucarias_, _Eleoxylons_, _Abietites_, and _Pinites_ remind us of
+numerous forms still existing, but dispersed all over the earth.
+
+“From this epoch date the _Comptonias_, attributed to the Myricaceæ;
+_Almites Friesii_, Nils., which we consider as one of the Betulaceæ;
+_Carpinites arenaceus_, Gœp., which is one of the Cupuliferæ; the
+_Salicites_, which are represented to us by the arborescent willows; the
+Acerinæ would have their _Acerites cretaceæ_, Nils., and the Juglanditæ,
+the _Juglandites elegans_, Gœp. But the most interesting botanical event
+of this period is the appearance of the _Credneria_, with its
+triple-veined leaves, of which no less than eight species have been
+found and described, but whose place in the systems of classification
+still remains uncertain. The _Crednerias_, like the _Salicites_, were
+certainly trees, as were most of the species of this remote epoch.”
+
+In the following illustration are represented two of the Palms belonging
+to the Cretaceous period, restored from the imprints and fragments of
+the fossil remains left by the trunk and branches in the rocks of the
+period (Fig. 130.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.--Fossil Palms restored.]
+
+But if the vegetation of the Cretaceous period exhibits sensible signs
+of approximation to that of our present era, we cannot say the same of
+the animal creation. The time has not yet come when Mammals analogous to
+those of our epoch gave animation to the forests, plains, and shores of
+the ancient world; even the Marsupial Mammals, which made their
+appearance in the Liassic and Oolitic formations, no longer exist, so
+far as is known, and no others of the class have taken their place. No
+climbing Opossum, with its young ones, appears among the leaves of the
+Zamites. The earth appears to be still tenanted by Reptiles, which alone
+break the solitudes of the woods and the silence of the valleys. The
+Reptiles, which seem to have swarmed in the seas of the Jurassic period,
+partook of the crocodilian organisation, and those of this period seem
+to bear more resemblance to the Lizards of our day. In this period the
+remains of certain forms indicate that they stood on higher legs; they
+no longer creep on the earth, and this is apparently the only
+approximation which seems to connect them more closely with higher
+forms.
+
+It is not without surprise that we advert to the immense development,
+the extraordinary dimensions which the Saurian family attained at this
+epoch. These animals which, in our days, rarely exceed a yard or so in
+length, attained in the Cretaceous period as much as twenty. The marine
+lizard, which we notice under the name of _Mosasaurus_, was then the
+scourge of the seas, playing the part of the Ichthyosauri of the
+Jurassic period; for, from the age of the Lias to that of the Chalk, the
+Ichthyosauri, the Plesiosauri, and the Teleosauri were, judging from
+their organisation, the tyrants of the waters. They appear to have
+become extinct at the close of the Cretaceous period, and to give place
+to the _Mosasaurus_, to whom fell the formidable task of keeping within
+proper limits the exuberant production of the various tribes of Fishes
+and Crustaceans which inhabited the seas. This creature was first
+discovered in the celebrated rocks of St. Peter’s Mount at Maestricht,
+on the banks of the Meuse. The skull alone was about four feet in
+length, while the entire skeleton of _Iguanodon Mantelli_, discovered by
+Dr. Mantell in the Wealden strata, has since been met with in the
+Hastings beds of Tilgate Forest, measuring, as Professor Owen estimates,
+between fifty and sixty feet in length. These enormous Saurians
+disappear in their turn, to be replaced in the seas of the Tertiary
+epoch by the Cetaceans; and henceforth animal life begins to assume,
+more and more, the appearance it presents in the actually existing
+creation.
+
+Seeing the great extent of the seas of the Cretaceous period, Fishes
+were necessarily numerous. The pike, salmon, and dory tribes, analogous
+to those of our days, lived in the seas of this period; they fled before
+the sharks and voracious dog-fishes, which now appeared in great
+numbers, after just showing themselves in the Oolitic period.
+
+The sea was still full of Polyps, Sea-urchins, Crustaceans of various
+kinds, and many genera of Mollusca different from those of the Jurassic
+period; alongside of gigantic Lizards are whole piles of
+animalculæ--those Foraminifera whose remains are scattered in infinite
+profusion in the Chalk, over an enormous area and of immense thickness.
+The calcareous remains of these little beings, incalculable in number,
+have indeed covered, in all probability, a great part of the terrestrial
+surface. It will give a sufficient idea of the importance of the
+Cretaceous period in connection with these organisms to state that, in
+the rocks of the period, 268 genera of animals, hitherto unknown, and
+more than 5,000 species of special living beings have been found; the
+thickness of the rocks formed during the period being enormous. Where is
+the geologist who will venture to estimate the time occupied in creating
+and destroying the animated masses of which this formation is at once
+both the cemetery and the monument? For the purposes of description it
+will be convenient to divide the Cretaceous series into lower and upper,
+according to their relative ages and their peculiar fossils.
+
+
+THE LOWER CRETACEOUS PERIOD.
+
+  English equivalents.              French classification.
+
+  Lower Greensand, upper part.      Étage Aptien st.
+  Lower Greensand, lower part.        „   Néocomien supérieur.
+  Weald clay and Hastings sands.      „   Néocomien inférieur.
+
+The Lower Wealden or Hastings Sand consists of sand, sandstone, and
+calciferous grit, clay, and shale, the argillaceous strata
+predominating. This part of the Wealden consists, in descending order,
+of:--
+
+                                                                 Feet.
+  Tunbridge Wells sand--Sandstone and loam                        150
+  Wadhurst clay--Blue and brown shale and clay, with a little
+  calc grit                                                       100
+  Ashdown sands--Hard sand, with beds of calc grit                160
+  Ashburnham sands--Mottled, white, and red clay and sandstone    330
+
+The Hastings sand has a hard bed of white sand in its upper part, whose
+steep natural cliffs produce the picturesque scenery of the “High rocks”
+of Hastings in Sussex.
+
+Calcareous sandstone and grit, in which Dr. Mantell found the remains of
+the _Iguanodon_ and _Hylæosaurus_, form an upper member of the
+Tunbridge Wells Sand. The formation extends over Hanover and Westphalia;
+the Wealden of these countries, according to Dr. Dunker and Von Meyer,
+corresponding in their fossils and mineral characters with those of the
+English series. So that “we can scarcely hesitate,” says Lyell, “to
+refer the whole to one great delta.”[78]
+
+  [78] Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” p. 349.
+
+The overlying Weald clay crops out from beneath the Lower Greensand in
+various parts of Kent and Sussex, and again in the Isle of Wight, and in
+the Isle of Purbeck, where it reappears at the base of the chalk.
+
+The upper division (or the Weald clay) is, as we have said, of purely
+fresh-water origin, and is supposed to have been the estuary of some
+vast river which, like the African Quorra, may have formed a delta some
+hundreds of miles broad, as suggested by Dr. Dunker and Von Meyer.
+
+The Lower Greensand is known, also, as the _Néocomien_, after Neocomium,
+the Latin name of the city of Neufchatel, in Switzerland, where this
+formation is largely developed, and where, also, it was first recognised
+and established as a distinct formation. Dr. Fitton, in his excellent
+monograph of the Lower Cretaceous formations, gives the following
+descending succession of rocks as observable in many parts of Kent:--
+
+                                                           Feet.
+
+  1. Sand, white, yellowish, or brown, with concretions
+     of limestone and chert                                     70
+  2. Sand, with green matter                             70 to 100
+  3. Calcareous stone, called Kentish rag                60 to  80
+
+These divisions, which are traceable more or less from the southern part
+of the Isle of Wight to Hythe in Kent, present considerable variations.
+At Atherfield, where sixty-three distinct strata, measuring 843 feet,
+have been noticed, the limestone is wholly wanting, and some fossils
+range through the whole series, while others are confined to particular
+divisions; but Prof. E. Forbes states, that when the same conditions are
+repeated in overlying strata the same species reappear; but that changes
+of depth, or of the mineral nature of the sea-bottom, the presence or
+absence of lime or of peroxide of iron, the occurrence of a muddy,
+sandy, or gravelly bottom, are marked by the absence of certain species,
+and the predominance of others.[79]
+
+  [79] Ibid, p. 340.
+
+Among the marine fauna of the Néocomian series the following are the
+principal. Among the _Acephala_, one of the largest and most abundant
+shells of the lower Néocomian, as displayed in the Atherfield section,
+is the large _Perna Mulleti_ (Fig. 131).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.--Perna Mulleti. One-quarter natural size.
+
+_a_, exterior; _b_, part of the upper hinge.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Hamites. One-third natural size.]
+
+The _Scaphites_ have a singular boat-shaped form, wound with contiguous
+whorls in one part, which is detached at the last chamber, and projects
+in a more or less elongated condition.
+
+_Hamites_, _Crioceras_, and _Ancyloceras_ have club-like terminations
+at both extremities; they may almost be considered as non-involuted
+Ammonites with the spiral evolutions disconnected or partially unrolled,
+as in the engraving (Figs. 125 and 132). _Ancyloceras Matheronianus_
+seems to have had spines projecting from the ridge of each of the
+convolutions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.--Shell of Turritella terebra.
+
+(Living form.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.--Turrillites costatus.
+
+(Chalk.)]
+
+The _Toxoceras_ had the shell also curved, and not spiral.
+
+The _Baculites_ had the shell differing from all Cephalopods, inasmuch
+as it was elongated, conical, perfectly straight, sometimes very
+slender, and tapering to a point.
+
+The _Turrilites_ have the shell regular, spiral, and _sinistral_; that
+is, turning to the left in an oblique spiral of contiguous whorls. The
+engraving will convey the idea of their form (Fig. 134).
+
+Among others, as examples of form, we append Figs. 133, 135, 136.
+
+This analysis of the marine fauna belonging to the Néocomian formation
+might be carried much further, did space permit, or did it promise to be
+useful; but, without illustration, any further merely verbal description
+would be almost valueless.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135--Terebrirostra lyra.
+
+_a_, back view; _b_, side view.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.--Terebratula deformis.]
+
+Numerous Reptiles, a few Birds, among which are some “Waders,” belong to
+the genera of _Palæornis_ or _Cimoliornis_; new Molluscs in considerable
+quantities, and some extremely varied Zoophytes, constitute the rich
+fauna of the Lower Chalk. A glance at the more important of these
+animals, which we only know in a few mutilated fragments, is all our
+space allows; they are true medals of the history of our globe, medals,
+it is true, half effaced by time, but which consecrate the memory of
+departed ages.
+
+In the year 1832 Dr. Mantell added to the wonderful discoveries he had
+made in the Weald of Sussex, that of the great Lizard-of-the-woods, the
+_hylæosaurus_ (ὑλη, _wood_, σαυρος, _lizard_). This discovery was made
+in Tilgate forest, near Cuckfield, and the animal appears to have been
+from twenty to thirty feet in length. The osteological characters
+presented by the remains of the Hylæosaurus are described by Dr. Mantell
+as affording another example of the blending of the Crocodilian with the
+Lacertian type of structure; for we have, in the pectoral arch, the
+scapula or omoplate of a crocodile associated with the coracoid of a
+lizard. Another remarkable feature in these fossils is the presence of
+the large angular bones or spines, which, there is reason to infer,
+constituted a serrated crest along the middle of the back; and the
+numerous small oval dermal bones which appear to have been arranged in
+longitudinal series along each side of the dorsal fringe.
+
+The _Megalosaurus_, the earliest appearance of which is among the more
+ancient beds of the Liassic and Oolitic series, is again found at the
+base of the Cretaceous rocks. It was, as we have seen, an enormous
+lizard, borne upon slightly raised feet; its length exceeded forty feet,
+and in bulk it was equal to an elephant seven feet high.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.--Lower Jaw of the Megalosaurus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Tooth of Megalosaurus.]
+
+The Megalosaurus found in the ferruginous sands of Cuckfield, in Sussex,
+in the upper beds of the Hastings Sands, must have been at least sixty
+or seventy feet long. Cuvier considered that it partook both of the
+structure of the Iguana and the Monitors, the latter of which belong to
+the Lacertian Reptiles which haunt the banks of the Nile and tropical
+India. The Megalosaurus was probably an amphibious Saurian. The
+complicated structure and marvellous arrangement of the teeth prove that
+it was essentially carnivorous. It fed probably on other Reptiles of
+moderate size, such as the Crocodiles and Turtles which are found in a
+fossil state in the same beds. The jaw represented in Fig. 137 is the
+most important fragment of the animal we possess. It is the lower jaw,
+and supports many teeth: it shows that the head terminated in a straight
+muzzle, thin and flat on the sides, like that of the _Gavial_, the
+Crocodile of India. The teeth of the Megalosaurus were in perfect accord
+with the destructive functions with which this formidable creature was
+endowed. They partake at once of the nature of a knife, sabre, and saw.
+Vertical at their junction with the jaw, they assume, with the increased
+age of the animal, a backward curve, giving them the form of a
+gardener’s pruning-knife (Fig. 138; also _c._ Fig. 179). After
+mentioning some other particulars, respecting the teeth, Buckland says:
+“With teeth constructed so as to cut with the whole of their concave
+edge, each movement of the jaws produced the combined effect of a knife
+and a saw, at the same time that the point made a first incision like
+that made by a point of a double-cutting sword. The backward curvature
+taken by the teeth at their full growth renders the escape of the prey
+when once seized impossible. We find here, then, the same arrangements
+which enable mankind to put in operation many of the instruments which
+they employ.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.--Nasal Horn of Iguanodon.
+
+Two-thirds natural size.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Ammonites rostratus.
+
+(Upper Greensand.)]
+
+The _Iguanodon_, signifying _Iguana-toothed_ (from the Greek word,
+οδους, _tooth_), was more gigantic still than the Megalosaurus; one of
+the most colossal, indeed, of all the Saurians of the ancient world
+which research has yet exposed to the light of day. Professor Owen and
+Dr. Mantell were not agreed as to the form of the tail; the former
+gentleman assigning it a short tail, which would affect Dr. Mantell’s
+estimate of its probable length of fifty or sixty feet; the largest
+thigh-bone yet found measures four feet eight inches in length. The form
+and disposition of the feet, added to the existence of a bony horn (Fig.
+139), on the upper part of the muzzle or snout, almost identifies it as
+a species with the existing Iguanas, the only Reptile which is known to
+be provided with such a horn upon the nose; there is, therefore, no
+doubt as to the resemblance between these two animals; but while the
+largest of living Iguanas scarcely exceeds a yard in length, its fossil
+congener was probably fifteen or sixteen times that length. It is
+difficult to resist the feeling of astonishment, not to say incredulity,
+which creeps over one while contemplating so striking a disproportion as
+that which subsists between this being of the ancient world and its ally
+of the new.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.--Teeth of Iguanodon.
+
+_a_, young tooth; _b_, _c_, teeth further advanced, and worn.
+
+(Wealden.)]
+
+The Iguanodon carried, as we have said, a horn on its muzzle; the bone
+of its thigh, as we have seen, surpassed that of the Elephant in size;
+the form of the bone and feet demonstrates that it was formed for
+terrestrial locomotion; and its dental system shows that it was
+herbivorous.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Fishes of the Cretaceous period.
+
+1, Beryx Lewesiensis; 2, Osmeroides Mantelli.]
+
+The teeth (Fig. 141), which are the most important and characteristic
+organs of the whole animal, are imbedded laterally in grooves, or
+sockets, in the dentary bone; there are three or four sockets of
+successional teeth on the inner side of the base of the old teeth. The
+place thus occupied by the edges of the teeth, their trenchant and
+saw-like form, their mode of curvature, the points where they become
+broader or narrower which turn them into a species of nippers or
+scissors--are all suitable for cutting and tearing the tough vegetable
+substances which are also found among the remains buried with this
+colossal reptile, a restoration of which is represented in PLATE XXI.,
+p. 296.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Cretaceous seas contained great numbers of Fishes, among which some
+were remarkable for their strange forms. The _Beryx Lewesiensis_ (1),
+and the _Osmeroides Mantelli_ (2) (Fig. 142), are restorations of these
+two species as they are supposed to have been in life. The _Odontaspis_
+is a new genus of Fishes which may be mentioned. _Ammonites rostratus_
+(Fig. 140), and _Exogyra conica_ (Fig. 147), are common shells in the
+Upper Greensand.
+
+[Illustration: XXI.--Ideal scene in the Lower Cretaceous Period, with
+Iguanodon and Megalosaurus.]
+
+The seas of the Lower Cretaceous period were remarkable in a zoological
+point of view for the great number of species and the multiplicity of
+generic forms of molluscous Cephalopods. The Ammonites assume quite
+gigantic dimensions; and we find among them new species distinguished by
+their furrowed transverse spaces, as in the _Hamites_ (Fig. 132). Some
+of the _Ancyloceras_ attained the magnitude of six feet, and other
+genera, as the _Scaphites_, the _Toxoceras_, the _Crioceras_ (Fig. 125),
+and other Mollusca, unknown till this period, appeared now. Many
+Echinoderms, or sea-urchins, and Zoophytes, have enriched these rocks
+with their animal remains, and would give its seas a condition quite
+peculiar.
+
+On the opposite page an ideal landscape of the period is represented
+(PLATE XXI.), in which the Iguanodon and Megalosaurus struggle for the
+mastery in the centre of a forest, which enables us also to convey some
+idea of the vegetation of the period. Here we note a vegetation at once
+exotic and temperate--a flora like that of the tropics, and also
+resembling our own. On the left we observe a group of trees, which
+resemble the dicotyledonous plants of our forests. The elegant
+_Credneria_ is there, whose botanical place is still doubtful, for its
+fruit has not been found, although it is believed to have belonged to
+plants with two seed-leaves, or dicotyledonous, and the arborescent
+Amentaceæ. An entire group of trees, composed of Ferns and Zamites, are
+in the background; in the extreme distance are some Palms. We also
+recognise in the picture the alder, the wych-elm, the maple, and the
+walnut-tree, or at least species analogous to these.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Néocomian beds in France are found in Champagne, in the departments
+of the Aube, the Yonne, the Haute-Alps, &c. They are largely developed
+in Switzerland at Neufchatel, and in Germany.
+
+1. The Lower Néocomian consists of marls and greyish clay, alternating
+with thin beds of grey limestone. It is very thick, and occurs at
+Neufchatel and in the Drôme. The fossils are _Spatangus retusus_,
+_Crioceras_ (Fig. 125), _Ammonites Asterianus_, &c.
+
+2. _Orgonian_ (the limestone of Orgon). This group exists, also, at
+Aix-les-Bains in Savoy, at Grenoble, and generally in the thick, white,
+calcareous beds which form the precipices of the Drôme. The fossils
+_Chama ammonia_, _Pigaulus_, &c.
+
+3. The _Aptien_ (or Greensand) consists generally of marls and clay. In
+France it is found in the department of Vaucluse, at Apt (whence the
+name Aptien), in the department of the Yonne, and in the Haute-Marne.
+Fossils, _Ancyloceras Matheronianus_, _Ostrea aquila_, and _Plicatula
+placunea_. These beds consist here of greyish clay, which is used for
+making tiles; there of bluish argillaceous limestone, in black or
+brownish flags. In the Isle of Wight it becomes a fine sandstone,
+greyish and slightly argillaceous, which at Havre, and in some parts of
+the country of Bray, become well-developed ferruginous sandstones.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.--Cypris spinigera.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.--Cypris Valdensis.]
+
+We have noted that the Lower Néocomian formation, although a marine
+deposit, is in some respects the equivalent of the _Weald Clay_, a
+fresh-water formation of considerable importance on account of its
+fossils. We have seen that it was either formed at the mouth of a great
+river, or the river was sufficiently powerful for the fresh-water
+current to be carried out to sea, carrying with it some animals, forming
+a fluviatile, or lacustrine fauna, on a small scale. These were small
+Crustaceans of the genus _Cypris_, with some molluscous Gasteropoda of
+the genera _Melania_, _Paludina_, and acephalous Mollusca of the five
+genera _Cyrena_, _Unio_, _Mytilus_, _Cyclas_, and _Ostrea_. Of these,
+_Cypris spinigera_ (Fig. 143) and _Cypris Valdensis_ (Fig. 144) may be
+considered as among the most characteristic fossils of this local fauna.
+
+The Cretaceous series is not interesting for its fossils alone; it
+presents also an interesting subject for study in a mineralogical point
+of view. The white Chalk, examined under the microscope by Ehrenberg,
+shows a curious globiform structure. The green part of its sandstone and
+limestone constitutes very singular compounds. According to the result
+of Berthier’s analysis, we must consider them as silicates of iron. The
+iron shows itself here not in beds, as in the Jurassic rocks, but in
+masses, in a species of pocket in the Orgonian beds. They are usually
+hydrates in the state of hematites, accompanied by quantities of ochre
+so abundant that they are frequently unworkable. In the south of France
+these veins were mined to a great depth by the ancient monks, who were
+the metallurgists of their age. But for the artist the important
+Orgonian beds possess a special interest; their admirable vertical
+fractures, their erect perpendicular peaks, each surpassing the other in
+boldness, form his finest studies. In the Var, the defiles of Vésubia,
+of the Esteron, and Tinéa, are jammed up between walls of peaks, for
+many hundreds of yards, between which there is scarcely room for a
+narrow road by the side of the roaring torrent. “In the Drôme,” says
+Fournet, “the entrance to the beautiful valley of the Vercors is closed
+during a part of the year, because, in order to enter, it is necessary
+to cross the two gullies, the _Great_ and _Little Goulet_, through which
+the waters escape from the valley. Even during the dry season, he who
+would enter the gorge must take a foot-bath.
+
+“This state of things could not last; and in 1848 it was curious to see
+miners suspended on the sides of one of these lateral precipices, some
+450 feet above the torrent, and about an equal distance below the summit
+of the Chalk. There they began to excavate cavities or niches in the
+face of the rock, all placed on the same level, and successively
+enlarged. These were united together in such a manner as to form a road
+practicable for carriages; now through a gallery, now covered by a
+corbelling, to look over which affords a succession of surprises to the
+traveller.
+
+“This is not all,” adds M. Fournet: “he who traverses the high plateaux
+of the country finds at every step deep diggings in the soil, designated
+pits or _scialets_, the oldest of which have their sides clothed with a
+curious vegetation, in which the _Aucolin_ predominates; shelter is
+found in these pits from the cutting winds which rage so furiously in
+these elevated regions. Others form a kind of cavern, in which a
+temperature obtains sufficient to freeze water even in the middle of
+summer. These cavities form natural _glaciers_, which we again find upon
+some of the table-lands of the Jura.
+
+“The cracks and crevasses of the limestone receive the waters produced
+by falling rain and melted snow; true to the laws of all fluid bodies,
+they filter through the rocks until they reach the lower and impervious
+marly beds, where they form sheets of water, which in course of time
+find some outlet through which they discharge themselves. In this manner
+subterranean galleries, sometimes of great extent, are formed, in which
+are assembled all the marvels which crumbling stalactites, stalagmites,
+placid lakes, and headlong torrents can produce; finally, these waters,
+forcing their way through the external orifices, give rise to those fine
+cascades which, with the first gushing torrent, form an actual river.”
+
+The _Albien_ of Alc. D’Orbigny, which Lyell considers to be the
+equivalent of the _Gault_, French authors treat as the “_glauconie_”
+formation, the name being drawn from a rock composed of chalk with
+greenish grains of _glauconite_, or silicate of iron, which is often
+mixed with the limestone of this formation. The fossils by which it is
+identified are very varied. Among its numerous types, we find
+Crustaceans belonging to the genera _Arcania_ and _Corystes_; many new
+Mollusca, _Buccinum_, _Solen_, _Pterodonta_, _Voluta_, _Chama_, &c.;
+great numbers of molluscous Brachiopods, forming highly-developed
+submarine strata; some Echinoderms, unknown up to this period, and
+especially a great number of Zoophytes; some Foraminifera, and many
+Polyzoa (Bryozoa). The glauconitic formation consists of two groups of
+strata: the _Gault_ Clay and the _glauconitic_ chalk, or Upper Greensand
+and Chloritic Marl.
+
+
+UPPER CRETACEOUS PERIOD.
+
+During this phase of the terrestrial evolutions, the continents, to
+judge from the fossilised wood which we meet with in the rocks which now
+represent it, would be covered with a very rich vegetation, nearly
+identical, indeed, with that which we have described in the preceding
+sub-period; according to Adolphe Brongniart, the “age of angiosperms”
+had fairly set in; the Cretaceous flora displays, he considers, a
+transitional character from the Secondary to the Tertiary vegetation;
+that the line between the gymnosperms, or naked-seeded plants, and the
+angiosperms, having their seeds enclosed in seed-vessels, runs between
+the Upper and Lower Cretaceous formations. “We can now affirm,” says
+Lyell, “that these Aix-la-Chapelle plants, called Credneria, flourished
+before the rich reptilian fauna of the secondary rocks had ceased to
+exist. The Ichthyosaurus, Pterodactyle, and Mosasaurus were of coeval
+date with the oak, the walnut, and the fig.”[80]
+
+  [80] Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” p. 333.
+
+The terrestrial fauna, consisting of some new Reptiles haunting the
+banks of rivers, and Birds of the genus Snipe, have certainly only
+reached us in small numbers. The remains of the marine fauna are, on the
+contrary, sufficiently numerous and well preserved to give us a great
+idea of its riches, and to enable us to assign to it a characteristic
+facies.
+
+The sea of the Upper Cretaceous period bristled with numerous submarine
+reefs, occupying a vast extent of its bed--reefs formed of Rudistes
+(Lamarck), and of immense quantities of various kinds of corals which
+are everywhere associated with them. The Polyps, in short, attain here
+one of the principal epochs of their existence, and present a remarkable
+development of forms; the same occurs with the Polyzoa (Bryozoa) and
+Amorphozoa; while, on the contrary, the reign of the Cephalopods seems
+to end. Beautiful types of these ancient reefs have been revealed to us,
+and we discover that they have been formed under the influence of
+submarine currents, which accumulated masses of these animals at certain
+points. Nothing is more curious than this assemblage of
+_Rudistes_--still standing erect, isolated or in groups--as may be seen,
+for instance, at the summit of the mountains of the _Cornes_ in the
+Corbières, upon the banks of the pond of Berre in Provence, and in the
+environs of Martigues, at La Cadière, at Figuières, and particularly
+above Beausset, near Toulon.
+
+“It seems,” says Alcide D’Orbigny, “as if the sea had retired in order
+to show us, still intact, the submarine fauna of this period, such as it
+was when in life. There are here enormous groups of _Hippurites_ in
+their places, surrounded by Polyps, Echinoderms, and Molluscs, which
+lived in union in these animal colonies, analogous to those which still
+exist in the coral-reefs of the Antilles and Oceania. In order that
+these groups should have been preserved intact, they must first have
+been covered suddenly by sediment, which, being removed by the action of
+the atmosphere, reveals to us, in their most secret details, this Nature
+of the past.”
+
+In the Jurassic period we have already met with these isles or reefs
+formed by the accumulation of Coral and other Zoophytes; they even
+constituted, at that period, an entire formation called the _Coral-rag_.
+The same phenomenon, reproduced in the Cretaceous seas, gave rise to
+similar calcareous formations. We need not repeat what we have said
+already on this subject when describing the Jurassic period. The coral
+or madrepore isles of the Jurassic epoch and the reefs of Rudistes and
+Hippurites of the Cretaceous period have the same origin, and the
+_atolls_ of Oceania are reproductions in our own day of precisely
+similar phenomena.
+
+The invertebrate animals which characterise the Cretaceous age are among
+
+    CEPHALOPODA.
+
+    _Nautilus sublævigatus_ and _N. Danicus; Ammonites rostratus;
+    Belemnitella mucronata._
+
+    GASTEROPODA.
+
+    _Voluta elongata; Phorus canaliculatus; Nerinea bisulcata;
+    Pleurotomaria Fleuriausa_, and _P. Santonensis; Natica
+    supracretacea._
+
+    ACEPHALA.
+
+    _Trigonia scabra; Inoceramus problematicus_ and _I. Lamarckii;
+    Clavigella cretacea; Pholadomya æquivalvis; Spondylus spinosus;
+    Ostrea vesicularis; Ostrea larva; Janira quadricostata; Arca
+    Gravesii; Hippurites Toucasianus_ and _H. organisans; Caprina
+    Aguilloni; Radiolites radiosus_, and _R. acuticostus._
+
+    BRACHIOPODA.
+
+    _Crania Ignabergensis; Terebratula obesa._
+
+    POLYZOA (BRYOZOA) AND ESCHINODEMATA.
+
+    _Reticulipora obliqua; Ananchytes ovatus; Micraster
+    cor-anguinum, Hemiaster bucardium_ and _H. Fourneli; Galerites
+    albogalerus; Cidaris Forchammeri; Palæocoma Furstembergii._
+
+    1. POLYPI; 2. FORAMINIFERA; 3. AMORPHOZOA.
+
+    1. _Cycollites elliptica; Thecosmilia rudis; Enallocœnia ramosa;
+    Meandrina Pyrenaica; Synhelia Sharpeana_. 2. _Orbitoides media;
+    Lituola nautiloidea; Flabellina rugosa_. 3. _Coscinopora
+    cupuliformis; Camerospongia fungiformis_.
+
+Among the numerous beings which inhabited the Upper Cretaceous seas
+there is one which, by its organisation, its proportions, and the
+despotic empire which it would exercise in the bosom of the waters, is
+certainly most worthy of our attention. We speak of the _Mosasaurus_,
+which was long known as the great animal of _Maestricht_, because its
+remains were found near that city in the most modern of the Cretaceous
+deposits.
+
+In 1780 a discovery was made in the quarries of Saint Peter’s Rocks,
+near Maestricht, of the head of a great Saurian, which may now be seen
+in the Museum of Natural History in Paris. This discovery baffled all
+the science of the naturalists, at a period when the knowledge of these
+ancient beings was still in its infancy. One saw in it the head of a
+Crocodile; another, that of a Whale; memoirs and monographs rained down,
+without throwing much light on the subject. It required all the efforts
+of Adrian Camper, joined to those of the immortal Cuvier, to assign its
+true zoological place to the Maestricht animal. The controversy over
+this fine fossil engaged the attention of the learned for the remainder
+of the last century and far into the present.
+
+Maestricht is a city of the Netherlands, built on the banks of the
+Meuse. At the gates of this city, in the hills which skirt the left or
+western bank of the river, there rises a solid mass of cretaceous
+formation known as Saint Peter’s Rocks. In composition these beds
+correspond with the Meudon chalk beds, and they contain similar fossils.
+The quarries are about 100 feet deep, consisting in the upper part of
+twenty feet abounding in corals and Polyzoa, succeeded by fifty feet of
+soft yellowish limestone, furnishing a fine building stone, which has
+been quarried from time immemorial, and extends up to the environs of
+Liège; this is succeeded by a few inches of greenish soil with
+Encrinites, and then by a very white chalk with layers of flints. The
+quarry is filled with marine fossils, often of great size.
+
+These fossil remains, naturally enough, attracted the attention of the
+curious, and led many to visit the quarries; but of all the discoveries
+which attracted attention the greatest interest attached to the gigantic
+animal under consideration. Among those interested by the discovery of
+these strange vestiges was an officer of the garrison of Maestricht,
+named Drouin. He purchased the bones of the workmen as the pick
+disengaged them from the rock, and concluded by forming a collection in
+Maestricht, which was spoken of with admiration. In 1766, the trustees
+of the British Museum, hearing of this curiosity, purchased it, and had
+it removed to London. Incited by the example of Drouin, Hoffmann, the
+surgeon of the garrison, set about forming a similar collection, and his
+collection soon exceeded that of Drouin’s Museum in riches. It was in
+1780 that he purchased of the quarrymen the magnificent fossil head,
+exceeding six feet in length, which has since so exercised the sagacity
+of naturalists.
+
+Hoffman did not long enjoy the fruits of his precious prize, however;
+the chapter of the church of Maestricht claimed, with more or less
+foundation, certain rights of property; and in spite of all protest, the
+head of the _Crocodile of Maestricht_, as it was already called, passed
+into the hands of the Dean of the Chapter, named Goddin, who enjoyed
+the possession of his antediluvian trophy until an unforeseen incident
+changed the aspect of things. This incident was nothing less than the
+bombardment and surrender of Maestricht to the Army of the North under
+Kleber, in 1794.
+
+The Army of the North did not enter upon a campaign to obtain the crania
+of Crocodiles, but it had on its staff a savant who was devoted to such
+pacific conquests. Faujas de Saint-Fond, who was the predecessor of
+Cordier in the Zoological Chair of the Jardin des Plantes, was attached
+to the Army of the North as Scientific Commissioner; and it is suspected
+that, in soliciting this mission, our naturalist had in his eye the
+already famous head of the Crocodile of the Meuse. However that may be,
+Maestricht fell into the hands of the French, and Faujas eagerly claimed
+the famous fossil for the French nation, which was packed with the care
+due to a relic numbering so many thousands of ages, and dispatched to
+the Museum of Natural History in Paris. On its arrival, Faujas undertook
+a labour which, as he thought, was to cover him with glory. He commenced
+the publication of a work entitled “The Mountain of Saint Peter of
+Maestricht,” describing all the fossil objects found in the Dutch quarry
+there, especially the _Great Animal_ of Maestricht. He endeavoured to
+prove that this animal was a Crocodile.
+
+Unfortunately for the glory of Faujas, a Dutch savant had devoted
+himself to the same study. Adrian Camper was the son of a great
+anatomist of Leyden, Pierre Camper, who had purchased of the heirs of
+the surgeon Hoffman some parts of the skeleton of the animal found in
+the quarry of Saint Peter. He had even published in the _Philosophical
+Transactions_ of London, as early as 1786, a memoir, in which the animal
+is classed as a Whale. At the death of his father, Adrian Camper
+re-examined the skeleton, and in a work which Cuvier quotes with
+admiration, he fixed the ideas which were until then floating about. He
+proved that the bones belonged neither to a Fish, nor a Whale, nor to a
+Crocodile, but rather to a particular genus of Saurian Reptiles, or
+marine lizards, closely resembling in many important structural
+characters, existing Monitors and Iguanas, and peculiar to rocks of the
+Cretaceous period, both in Europe and America. Long before Faujas had
+finished the publication of his work on _La Montagne de Saint-Pierre_
+that of Adrian Camper had appeared, and totally changed the ideas of the
+world on this subject. It did not, however, hinder Faujas from
+continuing to call his animal the Crocodile of Maestricht. He even
+announced, some time after, that Adrian Camper was also of his opinion.
+“Nevertheless,” says Cuvier, “it is as far from the Crocodile as it is
+from the Iguana; and these two animals differ as much from each other
+in their teeth, bones, and viscera, as the ape differs from the cat, or
+the elephant from the horse.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.
+
+_a_, skull of Monitor Niloticus; _b_, under-jaw of same.]
+
+The masterly memoir of Cuvier, while confirming all the views of Camper,
+has restored the individuality of this surprising being, which has since
+received the name of Mosasaurus, that is to say, Saurian or Lizard of
+the Meuse. It appears, from the researches of Camper and Cuvier, that
+this reptile of the ancient world formed an intermediate genus between
+the group of the Lacertilia, which comprehends the Monitors (represented
+in Fig. 145), and the ordinary Lizards; and the Lacertilia, whose
+palates are armed with teeth, a group which embraces the _Iguana_ and
+the _Anolis_. In respect to the Crocodiles, the Mosasaurus resembles
+them in so far as they all belong to the same class of Reptiles.
+
+The idea of a lizard, adapted for living and moving with rapidity at the
+bottom of the water, is not readily conceived; but a careful study of
+the skeleton of the Mosasaurus reveals to us the secret of this
+anatomical mechanism. The vertebræ of the animal are concave in front
+and convex behind; they are attached by means of orbicular or arched
+articulations, which permitted it to execute easily movements of flexion
+in any direction. From the middle of the back to the extremity of the
+tail these vertebræ are deficient in the articular processes which
+support and strengthen the trunk of terrestrial vertebrated animals:
+they resemble in this respect the vertebræ of the Dolphins; an
+organisation necessary to render swimming easy. The tail, compressed
+laterally at the same time that it was thick in a vertical direction,
+constituted a straight rudder, short, solid, and of great power. An
+arched bone was firmly attached to the body of each caudal vertebra in
+the same manner as in Fishes, for the purpose of giving increased power
+to the tail; finally, the extremities of the animal could scarcely be
+called feet, but rather paddles, like those of the Ichthyosaurus, the
+Plesiosaurus, and the Whale. We see in Fig. 146 that the jaws are armed
+with numerous teeth, fixed in their sockets by an osseous base, both
+large and solid. Moreover, an altogether peculiar dental system occupies
+the vault of the palate, as in the case of certain Serpents and Fishes,
+where the teeth are directed backwards, like the barb of a hook, thus
+opposing themselves to the escape of prey. Such a disposition of the
+teeth sufficiently proves the destructive character of this Saurian.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.--Head of Mosasaurus Camperi.]
+
+The dimensions of this aquatic lizard, estimated at twenty-four feet,
+are calculated to excite surprise. But, as we have already seen, the
+Ichthyosauri and Teleosauri were of great dimensions, as were also the
+Iguanodon and Megalosaurus, which were ten times the size of living
+Iguanas. In all these colossal forms we can only see a difference of
+dimensions, the aggrandisement of a type; the laws which affected the
+organisation of all these beings remain unchanged, they were not errors
+of Nature--_monstrosities_, as we are sometimes tempted to call
+them--but simply types, uniform in their structure, and adapted by their
+dimensions to the physical conditions with which God had surrounded
+them.
+
+[Illustration: XXII.--Ideal Landscape of the Cretaceous Period.]
+
+In PLATE XXII. is represented an ideal view of the earth during the
+_Upper Cretaceous_ period. In the sea swims the Mosasaurus; Molluscs,
+Zoophytes, and other animals peculiar to the period are seen on the
+shore. The vegetation seems to approach that of our days; it consists of
+Ferns and Cycadeæ (Pterophyllums), mingled with Palms, Willows, and some
+dicotyledons of species analogous to those of our present epoch. Algæ,
+then very abundant, composed the vegetation of the sea-shore.
+
+We have said that the terrestrial flora of the Upper Cretaceous period
+was nearly identical with that of the Lower. The marine flora of these
+two epochs included some Algæ, Confervæ, and Naïadæ, among which may be
+noted the following species: _Confervites fasciculatus_, _Chondrites
+Mantelli_, _Sargassites Hynghianus_. Among the Naïadæ, _Zosterites
+Orbigniana_, _Z. lineata_, and several others.
+
+The _Confervæ_ are fossils which may be referred, but with some doubt,
+to the filamentous Algæ, which comprehend the great group of the
+Confervæ. These plants were formed of simple or branching filaments,
+diversely crossing each other; or subdivided, and presenting traces of
+transverse partitions.
+
+The _Chondrites_ are, perhaps, fossil Algæ, with thick, smooth branching
+fronds, pinnatifid, or divided into pairs, with smooth cylindrical
+divisions, and resembling _Chondrus_, _Dumontia_, and _Halymenia_ among
+living genera.
+
+The _Sargassites_, finally, have been vaguely referred to the genus
+_Sargassum_, so abundant in tropical seas. These Algæ are distinguished
+by a filiform, branched, or ramose stem, bearing foliaceous appendages,
+regular, often petiolate, and altogether like leaves, and globular
+vesicles, supported by a small stalk.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The rocks which actually represent the _Upper Cretaceous period_ divide
+themselves naturally into six series; but British and French geologists
+make some distinction: the former dividing them into 1, _Maestricht_ and
+_Faxoe_ beds, said not to occur in England; 2, _White Chalk_, with
+_flints_; 3, _White Chalk_, without _flint_s; 4, _Chalk Marl_; 5, _Upper
+Greensand_; and 6, _Gault_. The latter four are divided by foreign
+geologists into 1, _Turonian_; 2, _Senonian_; 3, _Danian_.
+
+The _Gault_ is the lowest member of the Upper Cretaceous group. It
+consists of a bluish-black clay mixed with greensand, which underlies
+the Upper Greensand. Near Cambridge, where the Gault is about 200 feet
+thick, a layer of shells, bones, and nodules, called the “Coprolite
+Bed,” from nine inches to a foot thick, represents the Upper Greensand,
+and rests on the top of the Gault Clay. These nodules and fossils are
+extensively worked on account of the phosphatic matter they contain, and
+when ground and converted into superphosphate of lime they furnish a
+very valuable agricultural manure. The Gault attains a thickness of
+about 100 feet on the south-east coast of England. It extends into
+Devonshire, Mr. Sharpe considering the Black Down beds of that country
+as its equivalents. It shows itself in the Departments of the
+Pas-de-Calais, the Ardennes, the Meuse, the Aube, the Yonne, the Ain,
+the Calvados, and the Seine-Inférieure. It presents very many distinct
+mineral forms, among which two predominate: green sandstone and blackish
+or grey clays. It is important to know this formation, for it is at this
+level that the Artesian waters flow in the wells of Passy and Grenelle,
+near Paris.
+
+The _glaucous_ chalk, or Upper Greensand, which is represented typically
+in the departments of the Sarthe, of the Charente-Inférieure, of the
+Yonne and the Var, is composed of quartzose sand, clay, sandstone, and
+limestone. In this formation, at the mouth of the Charente, we find a
+remarkable bed, which has been described as a submarine forest. It
+consists of large trees with their branches imbedded horizontally in
+vegetable matter, containing kidney-shaped nodules of amber, or
+fossilised resin.
+
+The _Turonian_ beds are so named because the province of Touraine,
+between Saumur and Montrichard, possesses the best-developed type of
+this strata. The mineralogical composition of the beds is a fine and
+grey marly chalk, as at Vitry-le-François; of a pure white chalk, with a
+very fine grain, slightly argillaceous, and poor in fossils, in the
+Departments of the Yonne, the Aube, and the Seine-Inférieure; granular
+tufaceous chalk, white or yellowish, mixed with spangles of mica, and
+containing Ammonites, in Touraine and a part of the Department of the
+Sarthe; white, grey, yellow, or bluish limestone, inclosing Hippurites
+and Radiolites. In England the Lower Chalk passes also into Chalk Marl,
+with Ammonites, and then into beds known as the Upper Greensand,
+containing green particles of glauconite, mixed, in Hampshire and
+Surrey, with much calcareous matter. In the Isle of Wight this formation
+attains a thickness of 100 feet. The _Senonian_ beds take their name
+from the ancient _Senones_. The city of Sens is in the centre of the
+best-characterised portion of this formation; Epernay, Meudon, Sens,
+Vendôme, Royau, Cognac, Saintes, are the typical regions of the
+formation in France. In the Paris basin, inclusive of the Tours beds, it
+attains a thickness of upwards of 1,500 feet, as was proved by the
+samples brought up, during the sinking of the Artesian well, at
+Grenelle, by the borings.
+
+In its geographical distribution the Chalk has an immense range; fine
+Chalk of nearly similar aspect and composition being met with in all
+directions over hundreds of miles, alternating in its lower beds with
+layers of flints. In England the higher beds usually consist of a
+pure-white calcareous mass, generally too soft for building-stone, but
+sometimes passing into a solid rock.
+
+The _Danian_ beds, which occupy the summit of the scale in the
+Cretaceous formation, are finely developed at Maestricht, on the Meuse;
+and in the Island of Zeeland, belonging to Denmark; where they are
+represented by a slightly yellowish, compact limestone, quarried for the
+construction of the city of Faxoe. It is slightly represented in the
+Paris basin at Meudon, and Laversines, in the Department of the Oise, by
+a white and often rubbly limestone known as _pisolitic limestone_. In
+this formation _Ammonites Danicus_ is found. The yellowish sandy
+limestone of Maestricht is referred to the _Danian_ type. Besides
+Molluscs, Polyps, and Polyzoa (Bryozoa), this limestone contains remains
+of Fishes, Turtles, and Crocodiles. But what has rendered this rock so
+celebrated was that it contained the remains of the _great animal of
+Mæstricht_, the Mæsasaurus.
+
+At the close of the geological period, whose natural physiognomy we have
+thus traced, Europe was still far from displaying the configuration
+which it now presents. A map of the period would represent the great
+basin of Paris (with the exception of a zone of Chalk), the whole of
+Switzerland, the greater part of Spain and Italy, the whole of Belgium,
+Holland, Prussia, Hungary, Wallachia, and Northern Russia, as one vast
+sheet of water. A band of Jurassic rocks still connected France and
+England at Cherbourg--which disappeared at a later period, and caused
+the separation of the British Islands from what is now France.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Exogym conica. Upper Greensand and Gault, from
+Blackdown Hill.]
+
+
+
+
+TERTIARY PERIOD.
+
+
+A new organic creation makes its appearance in the Tertiary period;
+nearly all the animal life is changed, and what is most remarkable in
+this new development is the appearance, in larger numbers, of the great
+class of Mammifera.
+
+During the Primary period, Crustaceans and Fishes predominated in the
+animal kingdom; in the Secondary period the earth was assigned to
+Reptiles; but during the Tertiary period the Mammals were kings of the
+earth; nor do these animals appear in small number, or at distant
+intervals of time; great numbers of these beings appear to have lived on
+the earth, and at the same moment; many of them being, so to say,
+unknown and undescribed.
+
+If we except the Marsupials, the first created Mammals would appear to
+have been the Pachyderms, to which the Elephant belongs. This order of
+animals long held the first rank; it was almost the only representative
+of the Mammal during the first of the three periods which constitute the
+Tertiary epoch. In the second and third periods Mammals appear of
+species which have now become extinct, and which were alike curious from
+their enormous proportions, and from the singularity of their structure.
+Of the species which appeared during the latter part of the epoch, the
+greater number still exist. Among the new Reptiles, some Salamanders, as
+large as Crocodiles, and not very distinct from existing forms, are
+added to the animal creation during the three periods of the Tertiary
+epoch. Chelonians were abundant within the British area during the older
+epoch. During the same epoch Birds are present, but in much fewer
+numbers than the Mammalia; here songsters, there birds of prey, in other
+cases domestic--or, rather, some appear to wait the yoke and
+domestication from man, the future supreme lord of the earth.
+
+The seas were inhabited by a considerable number of beings of all
+classes, and nearly as varied as those now living; but we no longer find
+in the Tertiary seas those Ammonites, Belemnites, and Hippurites which
+peopled the seas and multiplied with such astonishing profusion during
+the Secondary period. Henceforth the testaceous Mollusca approximate in
+their forms to those of the present time. The older and newer Tertiary
+Series contain few peculiar genera. But genera now found in warmer
+climates were greatly developed within the British area during the
+earlier Tertiary times, and _species_ of cold climates mark the close of
+the later Tertiaries.
+
+What occurs to us, however, as most remarkable in the Tertiary epoch is
+the prodigious increase of animal life; it seems as if it had then
+attained its fullest extension. Swarms of testaceous Mollusca of
+microscopic proportions--Foraminifera and Nummulites--must have
+inhabited the seas, crowding together in ranks so serried that the
+agglomerated remains of their shells form, in some places, beds hundreds
+of feet thick. It is the most extraordinary display which has appeared
+in the whole range of creation.
+
+Vegetation during the Tertiary period presents well-defined
+characteristics. The Tertiary flora approaches, and is sometimes nearly
+identical with, that of our days. The class of dicotyledons shows itself
+there in its fullest development; it is the epoch of flowers. The
+surface of the earth is embellished by the variegated colours of the
+flowers and fruits which succeed them. The white spikes of the Gramineæ
+display themselves upon the verdant meadows without limit; they seem
+provocative of the increase of Insects, which now singularly multiply.
+In the woods crowded with flowering trees, with rounded tops, like our
+oak and birch, Birds become more numerous. The atmosphere, purified and
+disembarrassed of the veil of vapour which has hitherto pervaded it, now
+permits animals with such delicate pulmonary organs to live and multiply
+their race.
+
+During the Tertiary period the influence of the central heat may have
+ceased to make itself felt, in consequence of the increased thickness of
+the terrestrial crust. By the influence of the solar heat, climates
+would be developed in the various latitudes; the temperature of the
+earth would still be nearly that of our present tropics, and at this
+epoch, also, cold would begin to make itself felt at the poles.
+
+Abundant rains would, however, continue to pour upon the earth enormous
+quantities of water, which would give rise to important rivers; new
+lacustrine deposits of fresh water were formed in great numbers; and
+rivers, by means of their alluvial deposits, began to form new land. It
+is, in short, during the Tertiary epoch that we trace an alternate
+succession of beds containing organic beings of marine origin, with
+others peculiar to fresh water. It is at the end of this period that
+continents and seas take their respective places as we now see them,
+and that the surface of the earth received its present form.
+
+The Tertiary epoch, or series, embraces three very distinct periods, to
+which the names of _Eocene_, _Miocene_, and _Pliocene_ have been given
+by Sir Charles Lyell. The etymology of these names is derived--Eocene,
+from the Greek ηως, _dawn_, and καινος, _recent_; Miocene, from μειον,
+_less_, καινος, _recent_; and Pliocene, from πλειον, _more_, καινος,
+_recent_; by which it is simply meant to express, that each of these
+periods contains a minor or greater proportion of recent species (of
+Testacea), or is more or less remote from the dawn of life and from the
+present time;[81] the expressions are in one sense forced and incorrect,
+but usage has consecrated them, and they have obtained universal
+currency in geological language, from their convenience and utility.
+
+  [81] Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” p. 187.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.--Trigonia margaritacea. (Living form.)]
+
+
+THE EOCENE PERIOD.
+
+During this period _terra firma_ has vastly gained upon the domain of
+the sea; furrowed with streams and rivers, and here and there with great
+lakes and ponds, the landscape of this period presented the same curious
+mixture which we have noted in the preceding age, that is to say, a
+combination of the vegetation of the primitive ages with one analogous
+to that of our own times. Alongside the birch, the walnut, the oak, the
+elm, and the alder, rise lofty palm-trees, of species now extinct, such
+as _Flabellaria_ and _Palmacites_; with many evergreen trees (Conifers),
+for the most part belonging to genera still existing, as the _firs_, the
+_pines_, the _yews_, the _cypresses_, the _junipers_, and the _thuyas_
+or tree of life.
+
+The _Cupanioides_, among the Sapindaceæ; the _Cucumites_, among the
+Cucurbitaceæ (species analogous to our bryony), climb the trunks of
+great trees, and hang in festoons of aerial garlands from their
+branches.
+
+The Ferns were still represented by the genera _Pecopteris_, by the
+_Tæniopteris_, _Asplenium_, _Polypodium_. Of the mosses, some
+_Hepaticas_ formed a humble but elegant and lively vegetation alongside
+the terrestrial and frequently ligneous plants which we have noted.
+_Equiseta_ and _Charæ_ would still grow in marshy places and on the
+borders of rivers and ponds.
+
+It is not without some surprise that we observe here certain plants of
+our own epoch, which seem to have had the privilege of ornamenting the
+greater watercourses. Among these we may mention the Water Caltrop,
+_Trapa natans_, whose fine rosettes of green and dentated leaves float
+so gracefully in ornamental ponds, supported by their spindle-shaped
+petioles, its fruit a hard coriaceous nut, with four horny spines, known
+in France as _water-chestnuts_, which enclose a farinaceous grain not
+unpleasant to the taste; the pond-weed, _Potamogeton_, whose leaves form
+thick tufts of green, affording food and shelter to the fishes;
+_Nympheaceæ_, which spread beside their large round and hollow leaves,
+so admirably adapted for floating on the water, now the deep-yellow
+flowers of the _Nenuphar_ now the pure white flowers of the _Nymphæa_.
+Listen to Lecoq, as he describes the vegetation of the period:--“The
+Lower Tertiary period,” he says, “constantly reminds us of the tropical
+landscapes of the present epoch, in localities where water and heat
+together impress on vegetation a power and majesty unknown in our
+climates. The Algæ, which have already been observed in the marine
+waters at the close of the Cretaceous period, represented themselves
+under still more varied forms, in the earlier Tertiary deposits, when
+they have been formed in the sea. Hepaticas and Mosses grew in the more
+humid places; many pretty Ferns, as _Pecopteris_, _Tæniopteris_, and the
+_Equisetum stellare_ (Pomel) vegetated in cool and humid places. The
+fresh waters are crowded with _Naiades_, _Chara_, _Potamogeton_,
+_Caulinites_, with _Zosterites_, and with _Halochloris_. Their leaves,
+floating or submerged, like those of our aquatic plants, concealed
+legions of Molluscs whose remains have also reached us.
+
+“Great numbers of Conifers lived during this period. M. Brongniart
+enumerates forty-one different species, which, for the most part, remind
+us of living forms with which we are familiar--of Pines, Cypresses,
+Thuyas, Junipers, Firs, Yews, and Ephedra. Palms mingled with these
+groups of evergreen trees; the _Flabellaria Parisiensis_ of Brongniart,
+_F. raphifolia_ of Sternberg, _F. maxima_ of Unger; and some
+_Palmacites_, raised their widely-spreading crowns near the magnificent
+_Hightea_; Malvaceæ, or _Mallows_, doubtless arborescent, as many among
+them, natives of very hot climates, are in our days.
+
+“Creeping plants, such as the _Cucumites variabilis_ (Brongn.), and the
+numerous species of _Cupanioïdes_--the one belonging to the
+Cucurbitaceæ, and the other to the Sapindaceæ--twined their slender
+stems round the trunks, doubtless ligneous, of various Leguminaceæ.
+
+“The family of Betulaceæ of the order Cupuliferæ show the form, then
+new, of _Quercus_, the Oak; the Juglandeæ, and Ulmaceæ mingle with the
+Proteaceæ, now limited to the southern hemisphere. _Dermatophyllites_,
+preserved in amber, seem to have belonged to the family of the Ericineæ,
+and _Tropa Arcturæ_ of Unger, of the group Œnothereæ, floated on the
+shallow waters in which grew the _Chara_ and the _Potamogeton_.
+
+“This numerous flora comprises more than 200 known species, of which 143
+belonged to the Dicotyledons, thirty-three to the Monocotyledons, and
+thirty-three to the Cryptogams.
+
+“Trees predominate here as in the preceding period, but the great
+numbers of aquatic plants of the period are quite in accordance with the
+geological facts, which show that the continents and islands were
+intersected by extensive lakes and inland seas, while vast marine bays
+and arms of the sea penetrated deeply into the land.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Branch of Eucalyptus restored.]
+
+It is moreover a peculiarity of this period that the whole of Europe
+comprehended a great number of those plants which are now confined to
+Australasia, and which give so strange an aspect to that country, which
+seems, in its vegetation, as in its animals, to have preserved in its
+warm latitudes the last vestiges of the organic creations peculiar to
+the primitive world. As a type of dicotyledonous trees of the epoch, we
+present here a restored branch of _Eucalyptus_ (Fig. 149), with its
+flowers. All the family of the Proteaceæ, which comprehends the
+_Banksia_, the _Hakea_, the _Gerilea protea_, existed in Europe during
+the Tertiary period. The family of Mimosas, comprising the _Acacia_ and
+_Inga_, which in our age are only natives of the southern hemisphere,
+abounded in Europe during the same geological period. A branch of
+_Banksia_, with its fructification, taken from impressions discovered in
+rocks of the period, is represented in Fig. 150--it is different from
+any species of Banksia living in our days.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Fruit-branch of Banksia restored.]
+
+Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Insects, and Molluscs, form the
+terrestrial fauna of the Eocene period. In the waters of the lakes,
+whose surfaces are deeply ploughed by the passage of large Pelicans,
+lived Molluscs of varied forms, as _Physa_, _Limnæa_, _Planorbis_; and
+Turtles swam about, as _Trionyx_ and the _Emides_. Snipes made their
+retreat among the reeds which grew on the shore; sea-gulls skimmed the
+surface of the waters or ran upon the sands; owls hid themselves in the
+cavernous trunks of old trees; gigantic buzzards hovered in the air,
+watching for their prey; while heavy crocodiles slowly dragged their
+unwieldy bodies through the high marshy grasses. All these terrestrial
+animals have been discovered in England or in France, alongside the
+overthrown trunks of palm-trees. The temperature of these countries was
+then much higher than it is now. The Mammals which lived under the
+latitudes of Paris and London are only found now in the warmest
+countries of the globe.
+
+The Pachyderms (from the Greek παχυς, _thick_, δερμα, _skin_) seem to
+have been amongst the earliest Mammals which appeared in the Eocene
+period, and they held the first rank from their importance in number of
+species as well as in size. Let us pause an instant over these
+Pachyderms. Their predominance over other fossil Mammals, which exceed
+considerably the number now living, is a fact much insisted on by
+Cuvier. Among them were a great number of intermediate forms, which we
+seek for in vain in existing genera. In fact, the Pachyderms are
+separated, in our days, by intervals of greater extent than we find in
+any other mammalian genera; and it is very curious to discover among the
+animals of the ancient world the broken link which connects the chain of
+these beings, which have for their great tomb the plaster-quarries of
+Paris, Montmartre and Pantin being their latest refuge.
+
+Each block taken from those quarries encloses some fragment of a bone of
+these Mammals; and how many millions of these bones had been destroyed
+before attention was directed to the subject! The _Palæotherium_ and the
+_Anoplotherium_ were the first of these animals which Cuvier restored;
+and subsequent discoveries of other fragments of the same animals have
+only served to confirm what the genius of the great naturalist divined.
+His studies in the quarries of Montmartre gave the signal, as they
+became the model, for similar researches and restorations of the animals
+of the ancient world, all over Europe--researches which, in our age,
+have drawn geology from the state of infancy in which it languished, in
+spite of the magnificent and persevering labours of Steno, Werner,
+Hutton, and Saussure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.--Palæotherium magnum restored.]
+
+The _Palæotherium_, _Anoplotherium_, and _Xiphodon_ were herbivorous
+animals, which must have lived in great herds. They appear to have been
+intermediate, according to their organisation, between the Rhinoceros,
+the Horse, and the Tapir. There seem to have existed many species of
+them, of very different sizes. After the labours of Cuvier, nothing is
+easier than to represent the _Palæotherium_ as it lived: the nose
+terminating in a muscular fleshy trunk, or rather snout, somewhat like
+that of the Tapir; the eye small, and displaying little intelligence;
+the head enormously large; the body squat, thick, and short; the legs
+short and very stout; the feet supported by three toes, enclosed in a
+hoof; the size, that of a large horse. Such was the great Palæotherium,
+peaceful flocks of which must have inhabited the valleys of the plateau
+which surrounds the ancient basin of Paris; in the lacustrine formations
+of Orleans and Argenton; in the Tertiary formations of Issil and
+Puy-en-Velay, in the department of the Gironde; in the Tertiary
+formations near Rome; and in the beds of limestone[82] at the quarries
+of Binsted, in the Isle of Wight. Fig. 151 represents the great
+Palæotherium, after the design, in outline, given by Cuvier in his work
+on _fossil bones_.
+
+  [82] This limestone belongs to the Bembridge beds, and forms part of
+       the Fluvio-marine series. See “Survey Memoir on the Geology of
+       the Isle of Wight,” by H. W. Bristow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Skull of Palæotherium magnum.]
+
+The discovery and re-arrangement of these and other forms, now swept
+from the face of the globe, are the noblest triumphs of the great French
+zoologist, who gathered them, as we have seen, from heaps of confused
+fragments, huddled together pell-mell, comprising the bones of a great
+many species of animals of a former age of the world, all unknown within
+the historic period. The generic characters of Palæotherium give them
+forty-four teeth, namely, twelve _molars_, two _canines_, and
+twenty-eight others, three toes, a short proboscis, for the attachment
+of which the bones of the nose were shortened, as represented in Fig.
+153, leaving a deep notch below them. The molar teeth bear considerable
+resemblance to those of the Rhinoceros. In the structure of that part of
+the skull intended to support the short proboscis, and in the feet, the
+animal seems to have resembled the Tapir.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Skeletons of the Palæotherium magnum (_a_) and
+minimum (_b_) restored.]
+
+The geological place of the extinct Palæotherium seems to have been in
+the first great fresh-water formation of the Eocene period, where it is
+chiefly found with its allies, of which several species have been found
+and identified by Cuvier. Dr. Buckland is not singular in thinking that
+they lived and died on the margins of lakes and rivers, as the
+Rhinoceros and Tapir do now. He is also of opinion that some retired
+into the water to die, and that the dead carcases of others may have
+been drifted into the deeper parts in seasons of flood.
+
+The _Palæotherium_ varied greatly in size, some species being as large
+as the Rhinoceros, while others ranged between the size of the Horse and
+that of a Hog or a Roe. The smaller Palæotherium resembled the Tapir.
+Less in size than a Goat, with slim and light legs, it must have been
+very common in the north of France, where it would browse on the grass
+of the wild prairies. Another species, the _P. minimum_, scarcely
+exceeded the Hare in size, and it probably had all the lightness and
+agility of that animal. It lived among the bushy thickets of the
+environs of Paris, in Auvergne, and elsewhere.
+
+All these animals lived upon seeds and fruits, on the green twigs, or
+subterranean stems, and the succulent roots of the plants of the period.
+They generally frequented the neighbourhood of fresh water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154.--Anoplotherium commune. One-twentieth natural
+size.]
+
+The _Anoplotherium_ (from ανοπλος, _defenceless_, θηριον, _animal_), had
+the posterior molar teeth analogous to those of the Rhinoceros, the feet
+terminating in two great toes, forming an equally divided hoof, like
+that of the Ox and other Ruminants, and the tarsus of the toes nearly
+like those of the Camel. It was about the size of the Ass; its head was
+light; but what would distinguish it most must have been an enormous
+tail of at least three feet in length, and very thick at its junction
+with the body. This tail evidently served it as a rudder and propeller
+when swimming in the lakes or rivers, which it frequented, not to seize
+fish (for it was strictly herbivorous), but in search of roots and stems
+of succulent aquatic plants. “Judging from its habits of swimming and
+diving,” says Cuvier, “the Anoplotherium would have the hair smooth,
+like the otter; perhaps its skin was even half naked. It is not likely
+either that it had long ears, which would be inconvenient in its aquatic
+kind of life; and I am inclined to think that, in this respect, it
+resembled the Hippopotamus and other quadrupeds which frequent the water
+much.” To this description Cuvier had nothing more to add. His memoir
+upon the _pachydermatous fossils_ of Montmartre is accompanied by a
+design in outline of _Anoplotherium commune_, which has been closely
+followed in Fig. 154.
+
+There were species of Anoplotherium of very small size. _A. leporinum_
+(or the Hare-Anoplotherium), whose feet are evidently adapted for speed;
+_A. minimum_ and _A. obliquum_ were of still smaller dimensions; the
+last, especially, scarcely exceeded the size of a rat. Like the
+Water-rats, this species inhabited the banks of brooks and small rivers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155.--Xiphodon gracile.]
+
+The _Xiphodon_ was about three feet in height at the withers, and
+generally about the size of the Chamois, but lighter in form, and with a
+smaller head. In proportion as the appearance of the _Anoplotherium
+commune_ was heavy and sluggish, so was that of _Xiphodon gracile_
+graceful and active; light and agile as the Gazelle or the Goat, it
+would rapidly run round the marshes and ponds, depasturing on the
+aromatic herbs of the dry lands, or browsing on the sprouts of the young
+shrubs. “Its course,” says Cuvier, in the memoir already quoted, “was
+not embarrassed by a long tail; but, like all active herbivorous
+animals, it was probably timid, and with large and very mobile ears,
+like those of the stag, announcing the slightest approach of danger.
+Neither is there any doubt that its body was covered with short smooth
+hair; and consequently we only require to know its colour in order to
+paint it as it formerly existed in this country, where it has been dug
+up after so many ages.” Fig. 155 is a reproduction from the design in
+outline with which Cuvier accompanied the description of this animal,
+which he classes with the Anoplotherium, and which has received in our
+days the name of _Xiphodon gracile_.
+
+The gypsum-quarries of the environs of Paris include, moreover, the
+remains of other Pachyderms: the _Chæropotamus_, or River-hog (from
+χοιρος ποταμος), which has some analogy with the living Pecari, though
+much larger; the _Adapis_, which reminds us, in its form, of the
+Hedgehog, of which, however, it was three times the size. It seems to
+have been a link between the Pachyderms and the Insectivorous Carnivora.
+The _Lophiodon_, the size of which varied with the species, from that of
+the Rabbit to that of the Rhinoceros, was still more closely allied to
+the Tapir than to the Anoplotherium; it is found in the lower beds of
+the gypseous formation, that is to say in the “Calcaire Grossier.”
+
+A Parisian geologist, M. Desnoyers, librarian of the Museum of Natural
+History there, has discovered in the gypseous beds of the valley of
+Montmorency, and elsewhere in the neighbourhood of Paris, as at Pantin,
+Clichy, and Dammartin, the imprints of the footsteps of some Mammals, of
+which there seems to be some question, especially with regard to the
+Anoplotherium and Palæotherium. Footprints of Turtles, Birds, and even
+of Carnivora, sometimes accompany these curious traces, which have a
+sort of almond-shape more or less lobed, according to the divisions of
+the hoof of the animal, and which recall to mind completely, in their
+mode of production and preservation, those imprints of the steps of the
+Labyrinthodon which have been mentioned as occurring in rocks of the
+Triassic period. This discovery is interesting, as it furnishes a means
+of comparison between the imprints and the animals which have produced
+them. It brings into view, as it were, the material traces left in their
+walks upon the soil by animals now annihilated, but who once occupied
+the mysterious sites of an earlier world. (See Fig. 1, p. 12.)
+
+It is interesting to picture in imagination the vast pasturages of the
+Tertiary period swarming with Herbivora of all sizes. The country now
+surrounding the city of Paris belongs to the period in question, and not
+far from its gates, the woods and plains were crowded with “game” of
+which the Parisian sportsman little dreams, but which would nevertheless
+singularly animate the earth at this distant epoch. The absence of great
+Carnivora explains the rapid increase of the agile and graceful denizens
+of the wood, whose race seems to have been so multiplied then, but which
+was ultimately annihilated by the ferocious beasts of prey which
+afterwards made their appearance.
+
+The same novelty, riches, and variety which distinguished the Mammals of
+the Tertiary period extended to other classes of animals. The class of
+Birds, of which we can only name the most remarkable, was represented by
+the curious fossil known as the “_Bird of Montmartre_.” The bones of
+other birds have been obtained from Hordwell, as well as the remains of
+quadrupeds. Among the latter the _Hyænodon_, supposed to be the oldest
+known example of a true carnivorous animal in the series of British
+fossils, and the fossil Bat known as the _Vespertilio Parisiensis_.
+Among Reptiles the Crocodile, which bears the name of Isle of Wight
+Alligator, _Crocodilus Toliapicus_. Among the Turtles the _Trionyx_, of
+which there is a fine specimen in the Museum of Natural History in Paris
+(Fig. 156).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156.--Trionyx, or Turtle, of the Tertiary period.]
+
+In the class Fishes we now see the _Pleuronectes_, or flat-fish, of
+which _Platax altissimus_ and _Rhombus minimus_ are well-known examples.
+Among the Crustaceans we see the earliest crabs. At the same time
+multitudes of new Mollusca make their appearance: _Oliva_, _Triton_,
+_Cassis_, _Harpa_, _Crepidula_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: XXIII.--Ideal Landscape of the Eocene Period.]
+
+The hitherto unknown forms of _Schizaster_ are remarkable among
+Echinoderms; the Zoophytes are also abundant, especially the
+_Foraminifera_, which seem to make up by their numbers for their
+deficiency in size. It was in this period, in the bosom of its seas, and
+far from shore, that the _Nummulites_ existed, whose calcareous
+envelopes play such a considerable part as the elements of some of the
+Tertiary formations. The shelly agglomerates of these Protozoan
+Rhizopods constitute now very important rocks. The Nummulitic limestone
+forms, in the chain of the Pyrenees, entire mountains of great height;
+in Egypt it forms strata of considerable extent, and it is of these
+rocks that the ancient pyramids were built. What an enormous time must
+have been necessary to convert the remains of these little shells into
+beds many hundreds of feet thick! The _Miliola_ were also so abundant in
+the Eocene seas as to constitute the greater part of calcareous
+rocks[83] out of which Paris has been built. Agglomerated in this
+manner, these little shells form the continuous beds of limestone which
+are quarried for building purposes in the environs of Paris, at
+Gentilly, Vaugirard, and Châtillon.
+
+  [83] Similar beds of Miliolite limestone are found in the Middle
+       Bagshot beds on the coast of Sussex, off Selsey--the only
+       instance in England of the occurrence of such calcareous deposits
+       of Middle Eocene age.--H. W. B.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+On the opposite page we present, in PLATE XXIII., an imaginary landscape
+of the Eocene period. We remark amongst its vegetation a mixture of
+fossil species with others belonging to the present time. The Alders,
+the Wych-elms, and the Cypresses, mingle with _Flabellaria_; the Palms
+of extinct species. A great Bird--a wader, the _Tantalus_--occupies the
+projecting point of a rock on the right; the Turtle (_Trionyx_), floats
+on the river, in the midst of Nymphæas, Nenuphars, and other aquatic
+plants; whilst a herd of Palæotheria, Anoplotheria, and Xiphodon
+peacefully browse the grass of the natural meadows of this peaceful
+oasis.
+
+With a general resemblance in their fossils, nothing can be more
+dissimilar, on the whole, than the lithological or mineral characters of
+the Eocene deposits of France and England; “those of our own island,”
+says Lyell,[84] “being almost exclusively of mechanical
+origin--accumulations of mud, sand, and pebbles; while in the
+neighbourhood of Paris we find a great succession of strata composed of
+limestones, some of them siliceous, and of crystalline gypsum and
+siliceous sandstone, and sometimes of pure flint used for millstones.
+Hence it is by no means an easy task to institute an exact comparison
+between the various members of the English and French series. It is
+clear that, on the sites both of Paris and London, a continual change
+was going on in the fauna and flora by the coming in of new species and
+the dying out of others; and contemporaneous changes of geographical
+conditions were also in progress in consequence of the rising and
+sinking of the land and bottom of the sea. A particular subdivision,
+therefore, of time was occasionally represented in one area by land, in
+another by an estuary, in a third by sea; and even where the conditions
+were in both areas of a marine character, there was often shallow water
+in one, and deep sea in another, producing a want of agreement in the
+state of animal life.” The Eocene rocks, as developed in France and
+England, may be tabulated as follows, in descending order:--
+
+  [84] “Elements of Geology,” p. 292.
+
+
+                 English.                            French.
+                 /                   \               / Calcaire de la Beauce.
+                 | Hempstead beds.   |               \ Grès de Fontainebleau.
+                 |                   |
+  Upper Eocene. <                    |               / Calcaire silicieux or
+                 | Bembridge beds.    >Fluvio-marine<  Calcaire Lacustre
+                 |                   | series.       | Moyen. Gypseous
+                 \                   |               \ series of Montmartre.
+                                     |
+                 / Osborne beds.     |               / Grès de Beauchamp
+                 | Headon beds.      /               \ and Calcaire Marin.
+                 |
+                 | Upper Bagshot sand.                 Upper Sables Moyens.
+                 |
+  Middle Eocene.<                                    / Lower Sables Moyens,
+                 | Barton clay.      \ Middle       <  Lower Calcaire
+                 | Bracklesham beds. / Bagshot.      | Grossier, and
+                 |                                   \ Glauconie Grossière.
+                 |
+                 | Lower Bagshot                     / Lits coquillières.
+                 \ beds.                             \ Glauconie Moyenne.
+
+                 / London clay.                        Wanting.
+                 |
+                 | Woolwich and     \                / Argile Plastique.
+                 | Reading beds, or  >               \ Glauconie Inférieure.
+  Lower Eocene. <  Plastic clay.    /
+                 |
+                 | Oldhaven beds.
+                 |
+                 \ Thanet sands.                       Sables Inférieurs.
+
+The Woolwich and Reading Beds, or the Plastic Clay of older writers,
+consists of extensive beds of sand with occasional beds of potter’s
+clay, which lie at the base of the Tertiary formation in both England
+and France. Generally variegated, sometimes grey or white, it is
+employed as a potter’s earth in the manufacture of delf-ware.
+
+In England the red-mottled clay of the Woolwich and Reading Beds in
+Hampshire and the Isle of Wight is often seen in contact with the chalk;
+but in the south-eastern part of the London basin, Mr. Prestwich shows
+that the Thanet Sand (consisting of a base of fine, light-coloured sand,
+mixed with more or less argillaceous matter) intervenes between the
+Chalk and the Oldhaven Beds, or in their absence the Woolwich and
+Reading beds, which lie below the London Clay. The Thanet Sands derive
+their name from their occurrence in the Isle of Thanet, in Kent, in the
+eastern part of which county they attain their greatest development.
+Under London and its southern suburbs the Thanet sand is from thirteen
+to forty-four feet thick, but it becomes thinner in a westerly
+direction, and does not occur beyond Ealing.[85]
+
+  [85] “Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. The Geology of
+       Middlesex, &c.;” by W. Whitaker, p. 9.
+
+The Woolwich and Reading beds in the Hampshire basin rest immediately on
+the Chalk, and separate it from the overlying London Clay, as may be
+seen in the fine exposure of the Tertiary strata in Alum Bay, at the
+western extremity of the Isle of Wight, and in Studland Bay, on the
+western side of the Isle of Purbeck, in Dorsetshire.
+
+In the London basin the Woolwich and Reading beds also rest on the
+Chalk, where the Thanet Sands are absent, as is the case, for the most
+part, over the area west of Ealing and Leatherhead.
+
+The beds in question are very variable in character, but may be
+generally described as irregular alternations of clays and sands--the
+former mostly red, mottled with white, and from their plastic nature
+suitable for the purposes of the potter; the latter also of various
+colours, but sometimes pure white, and sometimes containing pebbles of
+flint.
+
+The Woolwich and Reading beds are called after the localities of the
+same names; they are fifty feet thick at Woolwich, and from sixty to
+seventy feet at Reading.
+
+The Oldhaven beds (so termed by Mr. W. Whitaker from their development
+at the place of the same name in Kent) are a local deposit, occurring
+beneath the London Clay on the south side of the London basin, from
+Croydon eastward, at the most eastern part of Surrey, and through
+Kent--in the north-western corner of which county they form some
+comparatively broad tracts. The beds consist of rounded flint pebbles,
+in a fine sandy base, or of fine light-coloured sand, and are from
+eighty to ninety feet thick under London.
+
+The London Clay, which has a breadth of twenty miles or more about
+London, consists of tenacious brown and bluish-grey clay, with layers of
+the nodular concretions, called Septaria, which are well known on the
+Essex and Hampshire coasts, where they are collected for making Roman
+cement. The London Clay has a maximum thickness of nearly 500 feet. The
+fossils of the London Clay are of marine genera, and very plentiful in
+some districts. Taken altogether they seem to indicate a moderate,
+rather than a tropical climate, although the Flora is, as far as can be
+judged, certainly tropical in its affinities.[86] The number of species
+of extinct Turtles obtained from the Isle of Sheppey alone, is stated by
+Prof. Agassiz to exceed that of all the species of Chelone now known to
+exist throughout the globe. Above this great bed lie the Bracklesham and
+Bagshot beds, which consist of light-yellow sand with an intermediate
+layer of dark-green and brown clay, over which lie the Barton Clay (in
+the Hampshire basin) and the white Upper Bagshot Sands, which are
+succeeded by the Fluvio-marine series comprising the Headon, Bembridge,
+and Hempstead series, and consisting of limestones, clays, and marls, of
+marine, brackish, and fresh-water origin.[87] For fuller accounts of the
+Tertiary strata of England, the reader is recommended to the numerous
+excellent memoirs of Mr. Prestwich, to the memoir “On the Tertiary
+Fluvio-marine Formations of the Isle of Wight,” by Professor Edward
+Forbes, and to the memoir “On the Geology of the London Basin,” by Mr.
+W. Whitaker.
+
+  [86] Prestwich. _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, vol. x., p. 448.
+
+  [87] Detailed sections of the whole of the Tertiary strata of the Isle
+       of Wight have been constructed by Mr. H. W. Bristow from actual
+       measurement of the beds in their regular order of succession, as
+       displayed at Hempstead, Whitecliff Bay, Colwell and Tolland’s
+       Bays, Headon Hill, and Alum Bay. These sections, published by the
+       Geological Survey of Great Britain, show the thickness, mineral
+       character, and organic remains found in each stratum, and are
+       accompanied by a pamphlet in explanation.
+
+At the base of the _Argile Plastique_ of France is a conglomerate of
+chalk and of divers calcareous substances, in which have been found at
+Bas-Meudon some remains of Reptiles, Turtles, Crocodiles, Mammals, and,
+more lately, those of a large Bird, exceeding the Ostrich in size, the
+_Gastornis_, which Professor Owen classes among the wading rather than
+among aquatic birds. In the Soissonnais there is found, at the same
+horizon, a great mass of lignite, enclosing some shells and bones of the
+most ancient Pachyderm yet discovered, the _Coryphodon_, which resembles
+at once both the Anoplotherium and the Pig. The _Sables Inférieurs_, or
+Bracheux Sands, form a marine bed of great thickness near Beauvais; they
+are principally sands, but include beds of calciferous clay and banks of
+shelly sandstone, and are considered to be older than the plastic clay
+and lignite, and to correspond with the Thanet Sands of England. They
+are rich in shells, including many Nummulites. At La Fère, in the
+Department of the Aisne, a fossil skull of _Arctocyon primævus_,
+supposed to be related both to the Bear and to the Kinkajou, and to be
+the oldest known Tertiary Mammal, was found in a deposit of this age.
+This series seems to have been formed chiefly in fresh water.
+
+The _Calcaire grossier_, consisting of marine limestones of various
+kinds, and with a coarse, sometimes compact, grain, is suitable for
+mason-work. These deposits, which form the most characteristic member
+of the Paris basin, naturally divide themselves into three groups of
+strata, characterised, the first, by _Nummulites_; the second by
+_Miliolites_; and the third or upper beds by _Cerithia_. The beds are
+also sometimes named Nummulite limestone, Miliolite limestone, and
+Cerithium limestone. Above these a great mass, generally sandy, is
+developed. It is marine at the base, and there are indications of
+brackish water in its upper parts; it is called Beauchamp Sandstone, or
+Sables Moyens (_Grès de Beauchamp_). These sands are very rich in
+shells. The _siliceous limestone_, or lower travertin, is a compact
+siliceous limestone extending over a wide area, and resembles a
+precipitate from mineral waters. The _gypseous_ formation consists of a
+long series of marly and argillaceous beds, of a greyish, green, or
+white colour, in the intervals between which a thick deposit of gypsum,
+or sulphate of lime, is intercalated. This gypsum bed is found in its
+greatest thickness in France at Montmartre and Pantin near Paris. The
+formation of this gypsum is probably due to the action of free sulphuric
+acid upon the carbonate of lime of the formation; the sulphuric acid
+itself being produced by the transformation of the gaseous masses of
+sulphuretted hydrogen emanating from volcanic vents, into that acid, by
+the action of air and water. It was, as we have already said, in the
+gypsum-quarries of Montmartre that the numerous bones of Palæotherium
+and Anoplotherium were found. It is exclusively at this horizon that we
+find the remains of these animals, which seem to have been preceded by
+the _Coryphodon_, and afterwards by the _Lophiodon_; the order of
+succession in the appearance of these animals is now perfectly
+established. It may be added that round Paris the Eocene formation, from
+its lowest beds to the highest, is composed of beds of plastic clay, of
+the _Calcaire grossier_ with its _Nummulites_, _Miliolites_, and
+_Alveolites_, followed by the gypseous formation; the series terminating
+in the Fontainebleau Sandstone, remarkable for its thickness and also
+for its fine scenery, as well as for its usefulness in furnishing
+paving-stone for the capital. In Provence the same series of rocks are
+continued, and attain an enormous thickness. This upper part of the
+Eocene deposit is entirely of lacustrine formation. Grignon has procured
+from a single spot, where they were embedded in a calcareous sand, no
+less than 400 fossils, chiefly formed of comminuted shells, in which,
+however, were well-preserved species both of marine, terrestrial, and
+fresh-water shells. Of the Paris basin, Sir Charles Lyell says: “Nothing
+is more striking in this assemblage of fossil testacea than the great
+proportion of species referable to the genus _Cerithium_. There occur no
+less than 137 species of this genus in the Paris basin, and almost all
+of them in the _Calcaire grossier_. Most of the living _Cerithia_ (Figs.
+157 and 168) inhabit the sea near the mouths of rivers, where the waters
+are brackish; so that their abundance in the marine strata now under
+consideration is in harmony with the hypothesis that the Paris basin
+formed a gulf into which several rivers flowed.”[88]
+
+  [88] “Elements of Geology,” p. 300.
+
+To give the reader some idea of the formation, first come the limestones
+and lower marls, which contain fine lignite or wood-coal produced from
+vegetable matter buried in moist earth, and excluded from all access of
+air, a material which is worked in some parts of the south of France as
+actively as a coal-mine. In these lignites _Anodon_ and other
+fresh-water shells are found.
+
+From the base of Sainte-Victoire to the other side of Aix, we trace a
+conglomerate characterised by its red colour, but which dies away in its
+prolongation westward. This conglomerate contains land-snails (_Helix_)
+of various sizes, mixed with fresh-water shells. Upon this conglomerate,
+comprising therein the marls, rests a thick deposit of limestone with
+the gypsum of Aix and Manosque, which is believed to correspond with
+that of Paris. Some of the beds are remarkably rich in sulphur. The
+calcareous marly laminæ which accompany the gypsum of Aix contain
+Insects of various kinds, and Fishes resembling _Lebias cephalotes_.
+Finally, the whole terminates at Manosque in a fresh series of marls and
+sandstones, alternating with beds of limestone with _Limnæa_ and
+_Planorbis_. At the base of this series are found three or four beds of
+lignite more inflammable than coal, which also give out a very
+sulphurous oil. We may form some estimate of the thickness of this last
+stage, if we add that, above the beds of fusible lignite, we may reckon
+sixty others of dry lignite, some of them capable of being very
+profitably worked if this part of Provence were provided with more
+convenient roads.
+
+“The Nummulitic formation, with its characteristic fossils,” says
+Lyell,[89] “plays a far more conspicuous part than any other Tertiary
+group in the solid framework of the earth’s crust, whether in Europe,
+Asia, or Africa. It often attains a thickness of many thousand feet, and
+extends from the Alps to the Carpathians, and is in full force in the
+north of Africa, as, for example, in Algeria and Morocco. It has been
+traced from Egypt, where it was largely quarried of old for the building
+of the Pyramids, into Asia Minor, and across Persia, by Bagdad, to the
+mouth of the Indus. It occurs not only in Cutch, but in the mountain
+ranges which separate Scinde from Persia, and which form the passes
+leading to Caboul; and it has been followed still further eastward into
+India, as far as eastern Bengal and the frontiers of China.”
+
+  [89] Ibid., p. 305.
+
+“When we have once arrived at the conclusion,” he adds, “that the
+Nummulitic formation occupies a middle place in the Eocene series, we
+are struck with the comparatively modern date to which some of the
+greatest revolutions in the physical geography of Europe, Asia, and
+northern Africa must be referred. All the mountain chains, such as the
+Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians, and Himalayas, into the composition of
+whose central and loftiest parts the Nummulitic strata enter bodily,
+could have had no existence till after the Middle Eocene period.”
+
+The Eocene strata, Professor Ramsay thinks, extended in their day _much
+further_ west, “because,” he says, “here, at the extreme edge of the
+chalk escarpments, you find outlying fragments of them,” from which he
+argues that they were originally deposited all over the Chalk as far as
+these points, but being formed of soft strata they were “denuded”
+backwards.
+
+The Beloptera represented in Fig. 195 are curious Belemnite-like
+organisms, occurring in Tertiary strata, and evidently the internal bone
+of a Cephalopod, having a wing-like projection or process on each side.
+As a genus it holds a place intermediate between the Cuttle-fish and the
+Belemnite.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 157.--Cerithium telescopium.
+
+(Living form.)]
+
+
+THE MIOCENE PERIOD.
+
+The Miocene formation is not present in England; unless we suppose, with
+Sir Charles Lyell, that it is represented by the Hempstead beds of the
+Isle of Wight.
+
+It is on the European continent that we find the most striking
+characteristics of the Miocene period. In our own islands traces of it
+are few and far between. In the Island of Mull certain beds of shale,
+interstratified with basalt and volcanic ash, are described by the Duke
+of Argyll as of Miocene date;[90] and Miocene clay is found
+interstratified with bands of imperfect coal at Bovey Tracey. The
+vegetation which distinguished the period is a mixture of the vegetable
+forms peculiar to the burning climate of the present tropical Africa,
+with such as now grow in temperate Europe, such as Palms, Bamboos,
+various kinds of Laurels, Combretaceæ (Terminalia), with the grand
+Leguminales of warm countries (as _Phaseolites_, _Erythrina_,
+_Bauhinia_, _Mimosites_, _Acacia_); Apocyneæ analogous to the genera of
+our tropical regions; a _Rubiacea_ altogether tropical (_Steinhauera_)
+mingle with some Maples, Walnut-trees, Beeches, Elms, Oaks, and
+Wych-elms, genera now confined to temperate and even cold countries.
+
+  [90] _Quarterly Journal of Geol. Soc._, vol. vii., p. 89.
+
+Besides these, there were, during the Miocene period, mosses, mushrooms,
+charas, fig-trees, plane-trees, poplars, and evergreens. “During the
+second period of the Tertiary epoch,” says Lecoq, “the Algæ and marine
+Monocotyledons were less abundant than in the preceding age; the Ferns
+also diminished, the mass of Conifers were reduced, and the Palms
+multiplied in species. Some of those cited in the preceding period seem
+still to belong to this, and the magnificent _Flabellaria_, with the
+fine _Phœnicites_, which we see now for the first time, gave animation
+to the landscape. Among the Conifers some new genera appear; among them
+we distinguish _Podocarpens_, a southern form of vegetation of the
+present age. Almost all the arborescent families have their
+representatives in the forests of this period, where for the first time
+types so different are united. The waters are covered with _Nymphæa
+Arithnæa_ (Brongniart); and with _Myriophyllites capillifolius_ (Unger);
+_Culmites animalis_ (Brongniart); and _C. Gœpperti_ (Munster), spring up
+in profusion upon their banks, and the grand _Bambusinites sepultana_
+throws the shadow of its long articulated stem across them. Some
+analogous species occupy the banks of the great rivers of the New World;
+one Umbellifera is even indicated, by Unger, in the _Pimpinellites
+zizioides_.
+
+Of this period date some beds of lignite resulting from the
+accumulation, for ages, of all these different trees. It seems that
+arborescent vegetation had then attained its apogee. Some _Smilacites_
+interlaced like the wild vines with these grand plants, which fell on
+the ground where they grew, from decay; some parts of the earth, even
+now, exhibit these grand scenes of vegetation. They have been described
+by travellers who have traversed the tropical regions, where Nature
+often displays the utmost luxury, under the screen of clouds which does
+not allow the rays of the sun to reach the earth. M. D’Orbigny cites an
+interesting instance which is much to the point. “I have reached a
+zone,” he says (speaking of Rio Chapura in South America), “where it
+rains regularly all the year round. We can scarcely perceive the rays of
+the sun, at intervals, through the screen of clouds which almost
+constantly veils it. This circumstance, added to the heat, gives an
+extraordinary development to the vegetation. The wild vines fall on all
+sides, in garlands, from the loftiest branches of trees whose summits
+are lost in the clouds.”
+
+The fossil species of this period, to the number of 133, begin to
+resemble those which enrich our landscapes. Already tropical plants are
+associated with the vegetables of temperate climates; but they are not
+yet the same as existing species. Oaks grow side by side with Palms, the
+Birch with Bamboos, Elms with Laurels, the Maples are united to the
+Combretaceæ, to the Leguminales, and to the tropical Rubiaceæ. The forms
+of the species, belonging to temperate climates, are rather American
+than European.
+
+The luxuriance and diversity of the Miocene flora has been employed by a
+German savant in identifying and classifying the Middle Tertiary or
+Miocene strata of Switzerland. We are indebted to Professor Heer, of
+Zurich, for the restoration of more than 900 species of plants, which he
+classified and illustrated in his “Flora Tertiaria Helvetiæ.” In order
+to appreciate the value of the learned Professor’s undertaking, it is
+only necessary to remark that, where Cuvier had to study the position
+and character of a bone, the botanist had to study the outline,
+nervation, and microscopic structure of a leaf. Like the great French
+naturalist, he had to construct a new science at the very outset of his
+great work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 158.--Andrias Scheuchzeri.]
+
+The Miocene formations of Switzerland are called _Molasse_ (from the
+French _mol_, soft), a term which is applied to a _soft_, incoherent,
+greenish sandstone, occupying the country between the Alps and the Jura,
+and they may be divided into lower, middle, and upper Miocene; the
+middle one is marine, the other two being fresh-water formations. The
+upper fresh-water Molasse is best seen at Œningen, in the Rhine valley,
+where, according to Sir Roderick Murchison, it ranges ten miles east and
+west from Berlingen, on the right bank, to Waugen and to Œningen, near
+Stein, on the left bank. In this formation Professor Heer enumerates
+twenty-one beds. No. 1, a bluish-grey marl seven feet thick, without
+organic remains, resting on No. 2, limestone, with fossil plants,
+including leaves of poplar, cinnamon, and pond-weed (_Potamogeton_). No.
+3, bituminous rock, with _Mastodon angustidens_. No. 5, two or three
+inches thick, containing fossil Fishes. No. 9, the stone in which the
+skeleton of the great Salamander _Andrias Scheuchzeri_ (Fig. 158) was
+found. Below this, other strata with Fishes, Tortoises, the great
+Salamander, as before, with fresh-water Mussels, and plants. In No. 16,
+Sir R. Murchison obtained the fossil fox of Œningen, _Galacynus
+Œningensis_ (Owen). In these beds Professor Heer had, as early as 1859,
+determined 475 species of fossil plants, and 900 insects.
+
+The plants of the Swiss Miocene period have been obtained from a country
+not one-fifth the size of Switzerland, yet such an abundance of species,
+which Heer reckons at 3,000, does not exist in any area of equal extent
+in Europe. It exceeds in variety, he considers, after making every
+allowance for all not having existed at the same time, and from other
+considerations, the Southern American forests, and rivals such tropical
+countries as Jamaica and Brazil. European plants occupy a secondary
+place, while the evergreen Oaks, Maples, Poplars, and Plane-trees,
+Robinias, and Taxodiums of America and the smaller Atlantic islands,
+occupy such an important place in the fossil flora that Unger was
+induced to suggest the hypothesis, that, in the Miocene period the
+present basin of the Atlantic was dry land--and this hypothesis has been
+ably advocated by Heer.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The terrestrial animals which lived in the Miocene period were Mammals,
+Birds, and Reptiles. Many new Mammals had appeared since the preceding
+period; among others, Apes, Cheiropteras (Bats), Carnivora, Marsupials,
+Rodents, Dogs. Among the first we find _Pithecus antiquus_ and
+_Mesopithecus_; the Bats, Dogs, and Coati inhabited Brazil and Guiana;
+the Rats North America; the Genettes, the Marmots, the Squirrels, and
+Opossums having some affinity to the Opossums of America. Thrushes,
+Sparrows, Storks, Flamingoes, and Crows, represent the class Birds.
+Among the Reptiles appear several Snakes, Frogs, and Salamanders. The
+lakes and rivers were inhabited by Perches and Shad. But it is among the
+Mammals that we must seek for the most interesting species of animals of
+this period. They are both numerous and remarkable for their dimensions
+and peculiarities of form; but the species which appeared in the Miocene
+period, as in those which preceded it, are now only known by their
+fossil remains and bones.
+
+The _Dinotherium_ (Fig. 159), one of the most remarkable of these
+animals, is the largest terrestrial Mammal which has ever lived. For a
+long time we possessed only very imperfect portions of the skeleton of
+this animal, upon the evidence of which Cuvier was induced erroneously
+to place it among the Tapirs. The discovery of a lower jaw, nearly
+perfect, armed with defensive tusks descending from its lower jaw,
+demonstrated that this hitherto mysterious animal was the type of an
+altogether new and singular genus. Nevertheless, as it was known that
+there were some animals of the ancient world in which both jaws were
+armed, it was thought for some time that such was the case with the
+Dinotherium. But in 1836, a head, nearly entire, was found in the
+already celebrated beds at Eppelsheim, in the Grand Duchy of Hesse
+Darmstadt. In 1837 this fine fragment was carried to Paris, and exposed
+to public view. It was nearly a yard and a half long, and above a yard
+wide. The defences, it was found, were enormous, and were carried at the
+anterior extremity of the lower maxillary bone, and much curved inwards,
+as in the Morse. The molar teeth were in many respects analogous to
+those of the Tapir, and the great suborbital apertures, joined to the
+form of the nasal bone, rendered the existence of a proboscis or trunk
+very probable. But the most remarkable bone belonging to the Dinotherium
+which has yet been found is an omoplate or scapula, which by its form
+reminds us of that of the Mole.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159.--Dinotherium.]
+
+This colossus of the ancient world, respecting which there has been so
+much argument, somewhat approaches the Mastodon; it seems to announce
+the appearance of the Elephant; but its dimensions were infinitely
+greater than those of existing Elephants, and superior even to those of
+the Mastodon and of the Mammoth, both fossil Elephants, the remains of
+which we shall have to describe presently.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160.--Teeth of Mastodon.]
+
+From its kind of life, and its frugal regimen, this Pachyderm scarcely
+merited the formidable name of Dinotherium which has been bestowed on it
+by naturalists (from δεινος, _terrible_, θηριον, _animal_). Its size
+was, no doubt, frightful enough, but its habits seem to have been
+peaceful. It is supposed to have inhabited fresh-water lakes, or the
+mouths of great rivers and the marshes bordering their banks by
+preference. Herbivorous, like the Elephant, it employed its proboscis
+probably in seizing the plants which hung suspended over the waters, or
+floated on their surface. We know that the elephants are very partial to
+the roots of herbaceous plants which grow in flooded plains. The
+Dinotherium appears to have been organised to satisfy the same tastes.
+With the powerful natural mattock which Nature had supplied him for
+penetrating the soil, he would be able to tear from the bed of the
+river, or lake, feculent roots like those of the Nymphæa, or even much
+harder ones, for which the mode of articulation of the jaws, and the
+powerful muscles intended to move them, as well as the large surface of
+the teeth, so well calculated for grinding, were evidently intended
+(Fig. 160).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The _Mastodon_ was, to all appearance, very nearly of the size and form
+of our Elephant--his body, however, being somewhat longer, while his
+limbs, on the contrary, were a little thicker. He had tusks, and very
+probably a trunk, and is chiefly distinguished from the existing
+Elephant by the form of his molar teeth, which form the most distinctive
+character in his organisation. These teeth are nearly rectangular, and
+present on the surface of their crown great conical tuberosities, with
+rounded points disposed in pairs to the number of four or five,
+according to the species. Their form is very distinct, and may be easily
+recognised. They do not bear any resemblance to those of the carnivora,
+but are like those of herbivorous animals, and particularly those of the
+Hippopotamus. The molar teeth are at first sharp and pointed, but when
+the conical points are ground down by mastication, they assume the
+appearance presented in Fig. 161. When, from continued grinding, the
+conical teat-like points are more deeply worn, they begin to assume the
+appearance shown in Fig. 160. In Fig. 162 we represent the head and
+lower jaw of the Miocene Mastodon; from which it will appear that the
+animal had two projecting tusks in the lower jaw, corresponding with two
+of much larger dimensions which projected from the upper jaw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161.--Molar teeth of Mastodon, worn.]
+
+It was only towards the middle of the last century that the Mastodon
+first attracted attention in Europe. About the year 1705, it is true,
+some bones of this animal had been found at Albany, now the capital of
+New York, but the discovery attracted little attention. In 1739, a
+French officer, M. de Longueil, traversed the virgin forests bordering
+the great river Ohio, in order to reach the great river Mississippi, and
+the savages who escorted him accidentally discovered on the borders of a
+marsh various bones, some of which seemed to be those of unknown
+animals. In this turfy marsh, which the natives designated the Great
+Salt Lake, in consequence of the many streams charged with salt which
+lose themselves in it, herds of wild ruminants still seek its banks,
+attracted by the salt--for which they have a great fondness--such being
+the reason probably which had caused the accumulation, at this point, of
+the remains of so large a number of quadrupeds belonging to these remote
+ages in the history of the globe. M. de Longueil carried some of these
+bones with him, and, on his return to France, he presented them to
+Daubenton and Buffon; they consisted of a femur, one extremity of a
+tusk, and three molar teeth. Daubenton, after mature examination,
+declared the teeth to be those of a Hippopotamus; the tusk and the
+gigantic femur, according to his report, belonged to an Elephant; so
+that they were not even considered to be parts of one and the same
+animal. Buffon did not share this opinion, and he was not long in
+converting Daubenton, as well as other French naturalists, to his views.
+Buffon declared that the bones belonged to an Elephant, whose race had
+lived only in the primitive ages of the globe. It was then, only, that
+the fundamental notion of extinct species of animals, exclusively
+peculiar to ancient ages of the world, began to be entertained for the
+first time by naturalists--a notion which laid dormant during nearly a
+century, before it bore the admirable fruits which have since so
+enriched the natural sciences and philosophy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.--Head of the Mastodon of the Miocene period.
+
+A, B, the whole head; C, lower jaw.]
+
+Buffon gave the fossil the name of the _Animal or Elephant of the Ohio_,
+but he deceived himself as to its size, believing it to be from six to
+eight times the size of our existing Elephant; an estimate which he was
+led to make by an erroneous notion with regard to the number of the
+Elephant’s teeth. The _Animal of the Ohio_ had only four molars, while
+Buffon imagined that it might have as many as sixteen, confounding the
+germs, or supplementary teeth, which exist in the young animal, with the
+permanent teeth of the adult individual. In reality, however, the
+Mastodon was not much larger than the existing species of African
+Elephant.
+
+The discovery of this animal had produced a great impression in Europe.
+Becoming masters of Canada by the peace of 1763, the English sought
+eagerly for more of these precious remains. The geographer Croghan
+traversed anew the region of the Great Salt Lake, pointed out by De
+Longueil, and found there some bones of the same nature. In 1767 he
+forwarded many cases to London, addressing them to divers naturalists.
+Collinson, among others, the friend and correspondent of Franklin, who
+had his share in this consignment, took the opportunity of sending a
+molar tooth to Buffon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.--Skeleton of Mastodon giganteus.]
+
+It was not, however, till 1801 that the remains of the perfect skeleton
+were discovered. An American naturalist, named Peale, was fortunate
+enough to get together two nearly complete skeletons of this important
+animal. Having been apprised that many large bones had been found in the
+marly clay on the banks of the Hudson, near Newburg, in the State of New
+York, Mr. Peale proceeded to that locality. In the spring of 1801 a
+considerable part of one skeleton was found by the farmer who had dug it
+out of the ground, but, unfortunately, it was much mutilated by his
+awkwardness, and by the precipitancy of the workmen. Having purchased
+these fragments, Mr. Peale sent them on to Philadelphia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Mastodon restored.]
+
+In a marsh, situated five leagues west of the Hudson, the same gentleman
+discovered, six months after, a second skeleton of the Mastodon,
+consisting of a perfect jaw and a great number of bones. With the bones
+thus collected, the naturalist managed to construct two nearly complete
+skeletons. One of these still remains in the Museum of Philadelphia; the
+other was sent to London, where it was exhibited publicly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.--Molar tooth of Mastodon.]
+
+Discoveries nearly analogous to these followed, the most curious of
+which was made in this manner by Mr. Barton, a Professor of the
+University of Pennsylvania. At a depth of six feet in the ground, and
+under a great bank of chalk, bones of the Mastodon were found sufficient
+to form a skeleton. One of the teeth found weighed about seventeen
+pounds (Fig. 165); but the circumstance which made this discovery the
+more remarkable was, that in the middle of the bones, and enveloped in a
+kind of sac which was probably the stomach of the animal, a mass of
+vegetable matter was discovered, partly bruised, and composed of small
+leaves and branches, among which a species of rush has been recognised
+which is yet common in Virginia. We cannot doubt that these were the
+undigested remains of the food, which the animal had browsed on just
+before its death.
+
+The aboriginal natives of North America called the Mastodon the _father
+of the ox_. A French officer named Fabri wrote thus to Buffon in 1748.
+The natives of Canada and Louisiana, where these remains are abundant,
+speak of the Mastodon as a fantastic creature which mingles in all their
+traditions and in their ancient national songs. Here is one of these
+songs, which Fabri heard in Canada: “When the great _Manitou_ descended
+to the earth, in order to satisfy himself that the creatures he had
+created were happy, he interrogated all the animals. The bison replied
+that he would be quite contented with his fate in the grassy meadows,
+where the grass reached his belly, if he were not also compelled to keep
+his eyes constantly turned towards the mountains to catch the first
+sight of the _father of oxen_, as he descended, with fury, to devour
+him and his companions.”
+
+The Cheyenne Indians have a tradition that these great animals lived in
+former times, conjointly with a race of men whose size was proportionate
+to their own, but that the _Great Being_ destroyed both by repeated
+strokes of his terrible thunderbolts.
+
+The native Indians of Virginia had another legend. As these gigantic
+Elephants destroyed all other animals specially created to supply the
+wants of the Indians, God, the thunderer, destroyed them; a single one
+only succeeded in escaping. It was “the great male, which presented its
+head to the thunderbolts and shook them off as they fell; but being at
+length wounded in the side, he took to flight towards the great lakes,
+where he remains hidden to this day.” All these simple fictions prove,
+at least, that the Mastodon has lived upon the earth at some not very
+distant period. We shall see, in fact, that it was contemporaneous with
+the Mammoth, which, it is now supposed, may have been co-existent with
+the earlier races of mankind, or only preceded a little the appearance
+of man.
+
+Buffon, as we have said, gave to this great fossil animal the name of
+the Elephant of the Ohio; it has also been called the Mammoth of the
+Ohio. In England it was received with astonishment. Dr. Hunter showed
+clearly enough, from the thigh-bone and the teeth, that it was no
+Elephant; but having heard of the existence of the Siberian Mammoth, he
+at once came to the conclusion that they were bones of that animal. He
+then declared the teeth to be carnivorous, and the idea of a
+_carnivorous elephant_ became one of the wonders of the day. Cuvier at
+once dissipated the clouds of doubt which surrounded the subject,
+pointing out the osteological differences between the several species,
+and giving to the American animal the appropriate name of Mastodon (from
+μαστος, _a teat_, and οδους, _a tooth_), or teat-like-toothed animal.
+
+Many bones of the Mastodon have been found in America since that time,
+but remains are rarely met with in Europe, except as fragments--as the
+portion of a jaw-bone discovered in the Red Crag near Norwich, which
+Professor Owen has named _Mastodon angustidens_. It was even thought,
+for a long time, with Cuvier, that the Mastodon belonged exclusively to
+the New World; but the discovery of many of the bones mixed with those
+of the Mammoth, (_Elephas primigenius_) has dispelled that opinion.
+Bones of Mastodon have been found in great numbers in the Val d’Arno. In
+1858 a magnificent skeleton was discovered at Turin.
+
+The form of the teeth of the Mastodon shows that it fed, like the
+Elephant, on the roots and succulent parts of vegetables; and this is
+confirmed by the curious discovery made in America by Barton. It lived,
+no doubt, on the banks of rivers and on moist and marshy lands. Besides
+the great Mastodon of which we have spoken, there existed a Mastodon
+one-third smaller than the Elephant, and which inhabited nearly all
+Europe.
+
+There are some curious historical facts in connection with the remains
+of the Mastodon which ought not to be passed over in silence. On the
+11th of January, 1613, the workmen in a sand-pit situated near the
+Castle of Chaumont, in Dauphiny, between the cities of Montricourt and
+Saint-Antoine, on the left bank of the Rhône, found some bones, many of
+which were broken up by them. These bones belonged to some great fossil
+Mammal, but the existence of such animals was at that time wholly
+unknown. Informed of the discovery, a country surgeon named Mazuyer
+purchased the bones, and gave out that he had himself discovered them in
+a tomb, thirty feet long by fifteen broad, built of bricks, upon which
+he found the inscription TEUTOBOCCHUS REX. He added that, in the same
+tomb, he found half a hundred medals bearing the effigy of Marius. This
+Teutobocchus was a barbarian king, who invaded Gaul at the head of the
+Cimbri, and who was vanquished near _Aquæ Sextiæ_ (Aix in Provence) by
+Marius, who carried him to Rome to grace his triumphal procession. In
+the notice which he published in confirmation of this story, Mazuyer
+reminded the public that, according to the testimony of Roman authors,
+the head of the Teuton king exceeded in dimensions all the trophies
+borne upon the lances in the triumph. The skeleton which he exhibited
+was five-and-twenty feet in length and ten broad.
+
+Mazuyer showed the skeleton of the pretended Teutobocchus in all the
+cities of France and Germany, and also to Louis XIII., who took great
+interest in contemplating this marvel. It gave rise to a long
+controversy, or rather an interminable dispute, in which the anatomist
+Riolan distinguished himself--arguing against Habicot, a physician,
+whose name is all but forgotten. Riolan attempted to prove that the
+bones of the pretended king were those of an Elephant. Numerous
+pamphlets were exchanged by the two adversaries, in support of their
+respective opinions. We learn also from Gassendi, that a Jesuit of
+Tournon, named Jacques Tissot, was the author of the notice published by
+Mazuyer. Gassendi also proves that the pretended medals of Marius were
+forgeries, on the ground that they bore Gothic characters. It seems very
+strange that these bones, which are still preserved in the cases of the
+Museum of Natural History in Paris, where anybody may see them, should
+ever have been mistaken, for a single moment, for human remains. The
+skeleton of Teutobocchus remained at Bordeaux till 1832, when it was
+sent to the Museum of Natural History in Paris, where M. de Blainville
+declared that it belonged to a Mastodon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166.--Skeleton of Mesopithecus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Mesopithecus restored. One-fifth natural
+size.]
+
+The Apes made their appearance at this period. In the ossiferous beds
+of Sansan M. Lartet discovered the _Dryopithecus_, as well as _Pithecus
+antiquus_, but only in imperfect fragments. M. Albert Gaudry was more
+fortunate: in the Miocene rocks of Pikermi, in Greece, he discovered the
+entire skeleton of _Mesopithecus_, which we present here (Fig. 166),
+together with the same animal restored (Fig. 167). In its general
+organisation it resembles the dog-faced baboon or ape, a piece of
+information which has guided the artist in the restoration of the
+animal.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The seas of the Miocene period were inhabited by great numbers of beings
+altogether unknown in earlier formations; we may mention no less than
+ninety marine genera which appear here for the first time, and some of
+which have lived down to our epoch. Among these, the molluscous
+Gasteropods, such as _Conus_, _Turbinella_, _Ranella_, _Murex_ (Fig.
+169), and _Dolium_ are the most abundant; with many Lamellibranchiata.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.--Cerithium plicatum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169.--Murex Turonensis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Ostrea longirostris. One quarter natural size.
+
+Living form.]
+
+The Foraminifera are also represented by new genera, among which are the
+Bolivina, Polystomella, and Dentritina.
+
+Finally, the Crustaceans include the genera _Pagurus_ (or the Hermit
+crabs); _Astacus_. (the lobster); and _Portunus_ (or paddling crabs). Of
+the first, it is doubtful if any fossil species have been found; of the
+last, species have been discovered bearing some resemblance to
+_Podophthalmus vigil_, as _P. Defrancii_, which only differs from it in
+the absence of the sharp spines which terminate the lateral angles of
+the carapace in the former; while _Portunus leucodon_ (Desmarest) bears
+some analogy to Lupea.
+
+[Illustration: XXIV.--Ideal Landscape of the Miocene Period.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Podophthalmus vigil.]
+
+An ideal landscape of the Miocene period, which is given on the opposite
+page (PLATE XXIV.), represents the Dinotherium lying in the marshy
+grass, the Rhinoceros, the Mastodon, and an Ape of great size, the
+_Dryopithecus_, hanging from the branches of a tree. The products of the
+vegetable kingdom are, for the greater part, analogous to those of the
+present time. They are remarkable for their abundance, and for their
+graceful and serried vegetation; and still remind us in some respects,
+of the vegetation of the Carboniferous period. It is, in fact, a
+continuation of the characteristics of that period, and from the same
+cause, namely, the submersion of land under marshy waters, which has
+given birth to a sort of coal which is often found in the Miocene
+formation, and which we call _lignite_. This imperfect coal does not
+quite resemble that of the Carboniferous, or true Coal-measure period,
+because it is of much more recent date, and because it has not been
+subjected to the same internal heat, accompanied by the same pressure of
+superincumbent strata, which produced the older coal-beds of the Primary
+epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Lupea pelagica.]
+
+The _lignites_, which we find in the Miocene, as in the Eocene period,
+constitute, however, a combustible which is worked and utilised in many
+countries, especially in Germany, where it is made in many places to
+serve in place of coal. These beds sometimes attain a thickness of above
+twenty yards, but in the environs of Paris they form beds of a few
+inches only, which alternate with clays and sands. We cannot doubt that
+lignites, like true coal, are the remains of the buried forests of an
+ancient world; in fact, the substance of the woods of our forests, often
+in a state perfectly recognisable, is frequently found in the lignite
+beds; and the studies of modern botanists have demonstrated, that the
+species of which the lignites are formed, belong to a vegetation
+closely resembling that of Europe in the present day.
+
+Another very curious substance is found with the lignite--yellow amber.
+It is the mineralised resin, which flowed from certain extinct
+pine-trees of the Tertiary epoch; the waves of the Baltic Sea, washing
+the amber out of the deposits of sand and clay in which it lies buried,
+this substance, being very little heavier than water, is thrown by the
+waves upon the shore. For ages the Baltic coast has supplied commerce
+with amber. The Phœnicians ascended its banks to collect this beautiful
+fossil resin, which is now chiefly found between Dantzic and Memel,
+where it is a government monopoly in the hands of contractors, who are
+protected by a law making it theft to gather or conceal it.
+
+Amber,[91] while it has lost none of its former commercial value, is,
+besides, of much palæontological interest; fossil insects, and other
+extraneous bodies, are often found enclosed in the nodules, where they
+have been preserved in all their original colouring and integrity of
+form. As the poet says--
+
+  [91] See Bristow’s “Glossary of Mineralogy,” p. 11.
+
+    “The things themselves are neither rich nor rare,
+     The wonder’s how the devil they got there.”
+
+The natural aromatic qualities of the amber combined with exclusion of
+air, &c., have embalmed them, and thus transmitted to our times the
+smaller beings and the most delicate organisms of earlier ages.
+
+The Miocene rocks, of marine origin, are very imperfectly represented in
+the Paris basin, and their composition changes with the localities. They
+are divided into two groups of beds: 1. _Molasse_, or soft clay; 2.
+_Faluns_, or shelly marl.
+
+In the Paris basin the _Molasse_ presents, at its base, quartzose sands
+of great thickness, sometimes pure, sometimes a little argillaceous or
+micaceous. They include beds of sandstone (with some limestone), which
+are worked in the quarries of Fontainebleau, d’Orsay, and Montmorency,
+for paving-stone for the streets of Paris and the neighbouring towns.
+This last formation is altogether marine. To these sands and sandstones
+succeeds a fresh-water deposit, formed of a whitish and partly siliceous
+limestone, which forms the ground of the plateau of La Beauce, between
+the valleys of the Seine and the Loire: this is called the _Calcaire de
+la Beauce_. It is there mixed with a reddish and more or less sandy
+clay, containing small blocks of burrh-stone used for millstones, easily
+recognised by their yellow-ochreous colour, and the numerous cavities
+or hollows with which their texture is honeycombed.
+
+This grit, or _silex meulier_, is much used in Paris for the arches of
+cellars, underground conduits, sewers, &c.
+
+The _Faluns_ in the Paris basin consist of divers beds formed of shells
+and Corals, almost entirely broken up. In many parts of the country, and
+especially in the environs of Tours and Bordeaux, they are dug out for
+manuring the land. To the Falun series belong the fresh-water marl,
+limestone, and sand, which composed the celebrated mound of Sansan, near
+Auch, in the Department of Gers, in which M. Lartet found a considerable
+number of bones of Turtles, Birds, and especially Mammals, such as
+_Mastodon_ and _Dinotherium_, together with a species of long-armed ape,
+which he named _Pithecus antiquus_, from the circumstance of its
+affording the earliest instance of the discovery of the remains of the
+quadrumana, or monkey-tribe, in Europe. Isolated masses of Faluns occur,
+also, near the mouth of the Loire and to the south of Tours, and in
+Brittany.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Caryophylla cyathus.]
+
+
+PLIOCENE PERIOD.
+
+This last period of the Tertiary epoch was marked, in some parts of
+Europe, by great movements of the terrestrial crust, always due to the
+same cause--namely, the continual and gradual cooling of the globe. This
+leads us to recall what we have repeatedly stated, that this cooling,
+during which the outer zone of the fluid mass passed to the solid state,
+produced irregularities and inequalities in the external surface,
+sometimes accompanied by fractures through which the semi-fluid or pasty
+matter poured itself; leading afterwards to the upheaval of mountain
+ranges through these gaping chasms. Thus, during the Pliocene period,
+many mountains and mountain-chains were formed in Europe by basaltic and
+volcanic eruptions. These upheavals were preceded by sudden and
+irregular movements of the elastic mass of the crust--by earthquakes, in
+short--phenomena which have been already sufficiently explained.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In order to understand the nature of the vegetation of the period, as
+compared with that with which we are familiar, let us listen to M.
+Lecoq: “Arrived, finally,” says that author, “at the last period which
+preceded our own epoch--the epoch in which the temperate zones were
+still embellished by tropical forms of vegetation, which were, however,
+slowly declining, driven out as it were by a cooling climate and by the
+invasion of more vigorous species--great terrestrial commotions took
+place: mountains are covered with eternal snow; continents now take
+their present forms; but many great lakes, now dried up, still existed;
+great rivers flowed majestically through smiling countries, whose
+surface man had not yet come to modify.
+
+“Two hundred and twelve species compose this rich flora, in which the
+Ferns of the earlier ages of the world are scarcely indicated, where the
+Palms seem to have quite disappeared, and we see forms much more like
+those which are constantly under our observation. The _Culmites
+arundinaceus_ (Unger) abounds near the water, where also grows the
+_Cyperites tertiarius_ (Unger), where floats _Dotamogeton geniculatus_
+(Braun), and where we see submerged _Isoctites Brunnii_ (Unger). Great
+Conifers still form the forests. This fine family has, as we have seen,
+passed through every epoch, and still presents us with its elegant forms
+and persistent evergreen foliage; _Taxodites_, _Thuyoxylum_,
+_Abietites_, _Pinites_, _Eleoxylon_, and _Taxites_ being still the forms
+most abundant in these old natural forests.
+
+“The predominating character of this period is the abundance of the
+group of the Amentaceæ; whilst the Conifers are thirty-two in number, of
+the other we reckon fifty-two species, among which are many European
+genera, such as _Alnus_; _Quercus_, the oak; _Salix_, the willow;
+_Fagus_, the beech; _Betula_, the birch, &c.
+
+“The following families constitute the arborescent flora of the period
+besides those already mentioned:--Balsaminaceæ, Lauraceæ, Thymelæaceæ,
+Santalaceæ, Cornaceæ, Myrtaceæ, Calycanthaceæ, Pomaceæ, Rosaceæ,
+Amygdaleæ, Leguminosæ, Anacardiaceæ, Juglandaceæ, Rhamnaceæ,
+Celastrinaceæ, Sapindaceæ, Meliaceæ, Aceraceæ, Tiliaceæ, Magnoliaceæ,
+Capparidaceæ, Sapoteaceæ, Styracaceæ, Oleaceæ, Juncaceæ, Ericaceæ.
+
+“In all these families great numbers of European genera are found, often
+even more abundant in species than now. Thus, as Brongniart observes, in
+this flora we reckon fourteen species of Maple; three species of Oak;
+and these species proceed from two or three very circumscribed
+localities, which would not probably, at the present time, represent in
+a radius of several leagues more than three or four species of these
+genera.”
+
+An important difference distinguishes the Pliocene flora, as compared
+with those of preceding epochs, it is the absence of the family of Palms
+in the European flora, as noted by Lecoq, which forms such an essential
+botanical feature in the Miocene period. We mention this, because, in
+spite of the general analogy which exists between the vegetation of the
+Pliocene period and that of temperate regions in the present day, it
+does not appear that there is a single species of the former period
+absolutely identical with any one now growing in Europe. Thus, the
+European vegetation, even at the most recent geological epoch, differs
+specifically from the vegetation of our age, although a general
+resemblance is observable between the two.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Skeleton of the Mastodon of Turin.]
+
+The terrestrial animals of the Pliocene period present us with a great
+number of creatures alike remarkable from their proportions and from
+their structure. The Mammals and the batrachian Reptiles are alike
+deserving of our attention in this epoch. Among the former the Mastodon,
+which makes its first appearance in the Miocene formations, continues
+to be found, but becomes extinct apparently before we reach the upper
+beds. Others present themselves of genera totally unknown till now, some
+of them, such as the _Hippopotamus_, the _Camel_, the _Horse_, the _Ox_,
+and the _Deer_, surviving to the present day. The fossil horse, of all
+animals, is perhaps that which presents the greatest resemblance to
+existing individuals; but it was small, not exceeding the ass in size.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.--Head of Rhinoceros tichorhinus, partly
+restored under the direction of Eugene Deslongchamps.]
+
+The _Mastodon_, which we have considered in our description of the
+preceding period, still existed in Pliocene times; in Fig. 174 the
+species living in this latter age is represented--it is called the
+Mastodon of Turin. As we see, it has only two projecting tusks or
+defences in the upper jaw, instead of four, like the American species,
+which is described in page 343. Other species belonging to this period
+are not uncommon; the portion of an upper jaw-bone with a tooth which
+was found in the Norwich Crag at Postwick, near Norwich, Dr. Falconer
+has shown to be a Pliocene species, first observed in Auvergne, and
+named by Messrs. Croizet and Jobert, its discoverers, _Mastodon
+Arvernensis_.
+
+The _Hippopotamus_, _Tapir_, and _Camel_, which appear during the
+Pliocene period, present no peculiar characteristics to arrest our
+attention.
+
+The Apes begin to abound in species; the Stags were already numerous.
+
+The _Rhinoceros_, which made its appearance in the Miocene period,
+appears in greater numbers in the Pliocene deposits. The species
+peculiar to the Tertiary epoch is _R. tichorhinus_, which is descriptive
+of the bony partition which separated its two nostrils, an anatomical
+arrangement which is not found in our existing species. Two horns
+surmount the nose of this animal, as represented in Fig. 175. Two living
+species, namely, the Rhinoceros of Africa and Sumatra, have two horns,
+but they are much smaller than those of _R. tichorhinus_. The existing
+Indian Rhinoceros has only one horn.
+
+The body of _R. tichorhinus_ was covered with very thick hair, and its
+skin was without the rough and callous scales which we remark on the
+skin of the living African species.
+
+Contemporaneously with this gigantic species there existed a dwarf
+species about the size of our Hog; and along with it several
+intermediate species, whose bones are found in sufficient numbers to
+enable us to reconstruct the skeleton. The curvature of the nasal bone
+of the fossil Rhinoceros and its gigantic horn have given rise to many
+tales and popular legends. The famous bird, the _Roc_, which played so
+great a part in the fabulous myths of the people of Asia, originated in
+the discovery in the bosom of the earth of the cranium and horns of a
+fossil Rhinoceros. The famous dragons of western tradition have a
+similar origin.
+
+In the city of Klagenfurth, in Carinthia, is a fountain on which is
+sculptured the head of a monstrous dragon with six feet, and a head
+surmounted by a stout horn. According to the popular tradition still
+prevalent at Klagenfurth, this dragon lived in a cave, whence it issued
+from time to time to frighten and ravage the country. A bold cavalier
+kills the dragon, paying with his life for this proof of his courage. It
+is the same legend which is current in every country, from that of the
+valiant St. George and the Dragon and of St. Martha, who nearly about
+the same age conquered the fabulous _Tarasque_ of the city of Languedoc,
+which bears the name of Tarascon.
+
+But at Klagenfurth the popular legend has happily found a
+mouth-piece--the head of the pretended dragon, killed by the valorous
+knight, is preserved in the Hôtel de Ville, and this head has furnished
+the sculptor for his fountain with a model for the head of his statue.
+Herr Unger, of Vienna, recognised at a glance the cranium of the fossil
+Rhinoceros; its discovery in some cave had probably originated the fable
+of the knight and the dragon. And all legends are capable of some such
+explanation when we can trace them back to their sources, and reason
+upon the circumstances on which they are founded.
+
+The traveller Pallas gives a very interesting account of a _Rhinoceros
+tichorhinus_ which he saw, with his own eyes, taken out of the ice in
+which its skin, hair, and flesh had been preserved. It was in December,
+1771, that the body of the Rhinoceros was observed buried in the frozen
+sand upon the banks of the Viloui, a river which discharges itself into
+the Lena below Yakutsk, in Siberia, in 64° north latitude. “I ought to
+speak,” the learned naturalist says, “of an interesting discovery which
+I owe to the Chevalier de Bril. Some Yakouts hunting this winter near
+the Viloui found the body of a large unknown animal. The Sieur Ivan
+Argounof, inspector of the Zimovic, had sent on to Irkutsk the head and
+a fore and hind foot of the animal, all very well preserved.” The Sieur
+Argounof, in his report, states that the animal was half buried in the
+sand; it measured as it lay three ells and three-quarters Russian in
+length, and he estimated its height at three and a half; the animal,
+still retaining its flesh, was covered with skin which resembled tanned
+leather; but it was so decomposed that he could only remove the fore and
+hind foot and the head, which he sent to Irkutsk, where Pallas saw them.
+“They appeared to me at first glance,” he says, “to belong to a
+Rhinoceros; the head especially was quite recognisable, since it was
+covered with its leathery skin, and the skin had preserved all its
+external characters, and many short hairs. The eyelids had even escaped
+total decay, and in the cranium here and there, under the skin, I
+perceived some matter which was evidently the remains of putrefied
+flesh. I also remarked in the feet the remains of the tendons and
+cartilages where the skin had been removed. The head was without its
+horn, and the feet without hoofs. The place of the horn, and the raised
+skin which had surrounded it, and the division which existed in both the
+hind and fore feet, were evident proofs of its being a Rhinoceros. In a
+dissertation addressed to the Academy of St. Petersburg, I have given a
+full account of this singular discovery. I give there reasons which
+prove that a Rhinoceros had penetrated nearly to the Lena, in the most
+northern regions, and which have led to the discovery of the remains of
+other strange animals in Siberia. I shall confine myself here to a
+description of the country where these curious remains were found, and
+to the cause of their long preservation.
+
+“The country watered by the Viloui is mountainous; all the
+stratification of these mountains is horizontal. The beds consist of
+selenitic and calcareous schists and beds of clay, mixed with numerous
+beds of pyrites. On the banks of the Viloui we meet with coal much
+broken; probably coal-beds exist higher up near to the river. The brook
+Kemtendoï skirts a mountain entirely formed of selenite or crystallised
+sulphate of lime and of rock-salt, and this mountain of alabaster is
+more than 300 versts (about 200 miles), in ascending the Viloui, from
+the place where the Rhinoceros was found. Opposite to the place we see,
+near the river, a low hill, about a hundred feet high, which, though
+sandy, contains some beds of millstone. The body of the Rhinoceros had
+been buried in coarse gravelly sand near this hill, and the nature of
+the soil, which is always frozen, had preserved it. The soil near the
+Viloui never thaws to a great depth, for, although the rays of the sun
+soften the soil to the depth of two yards in the more elevated sandy
+places, in the valleys, where the soil is half sand and half clay, it
+remains frozen at the end of summer half an ell below the surface.
+Without this intense cold the skin of the animal and many parts of it
+would long since have perished. The animal could only have been
+transported from some southern country to the frozen north at the epoch
+of the Deluge, for the most ancient chronicles speak of no changes of
+the globe more recent, to which we could attribute the deposit of these
+remains and of the bones of elephants which are found dispersed all over
+Siberia.”[92]
+
+  [92] “Pallas’s Voyage,” vol. iv., pp. 130-134.
+
+In this extract the author refers to a memoir previously published by
+himself, in the “Commentarii” of the Academy of St. Petersburg. This
+memoir, written in Latin, and entitled “Upon some Animals of Siberia,”
+has never been translated. After some general considerations, the author
+thus relates the circumstances attending the discovery of the fossil
+Rhinoceros, with some official documents affirming their correctness,
+and the manner in which the facts were brought under his notice by the
+Governor of Irkutsk, General Bril: “The skin and tendons of the head and
+feet still preserved considerable flexibility, imbued as it were with
+humidity from the earth; but the flesh exhaled a fetid ammoniacal odour,
+resembling that of a latrine. Compelled to cross the Baïkal Lake before
+the ice broke up, I could neither draw up a sufficiently careful
+description nor make sketches of the parts of the animal; but I made
+them place the remains, without leaving Irkutsk, upon a furnace, with
+orders that after my departure they should be dried by slow degrees and
+with the greatest care, continuing the process for some time, because
+the viscous matter which incessantly oozed out could only be dissipated
+by great heat. It happened, unfortunately, that during the operation the
+posterior part of the upper thigh and the foot were burnt in the
+overheated furnace, and they were thrown away; the head and the
+extremity of the hind foot only remained intact and undamaged by the
+process of drying. The odour of the softer parts, which still contained
+viscous matter in their interior, was changed by the desiccation into
+one resembling that of flesh decomposed in the sun.
+
+“The Rhinoceros to which the members belonged was neither large for its
+species nor advanced in age, as the bones of the head attest, yet it
+was evidently an adult from the comparison made of the size of the
+cranium as compared with that of others of the same species more aged,
+which were afterwards found in a fossil state in divers parts of
+Siberia. The entire length of the head from the upper part of the nape
+of the neck to the extremity of the denuded bone of the jaw was thirty
+inches; the horns were not with the head, but we could still see evident
+vestiges of two horns, the nasal and frontal. The front, unequal and a
+little protuberant between the orbits, and of a rhomboidal egg-shape, is
+deficient in the skin, and only covered by a light horny membrane,
+bristling with straight hairs as hard as horn.
+
+“The skin which covers the greater part of the head is in the dried
+state, a tenacious, fibrous substance, like curried leather, of a
+brownish-black on the outside and white in the inside; when burnt, it
+had the odour of common leather; the mouth, in the place where the lips
+should have been soft and fleshy, was putrid and much lacerated; the
+extremities of the maxillary bone were bare. Upon the left side, which
+had probably been longest exposed to the air, the skin was here and
+there decomposed and rubbed on the surface; nevertheless, the greater
+part of the mouth was so well preserved on the right side that the
+pores, or little holes from which doubtless the hairs had fallen, were
+still visible all over that side, and even in front. In the right side
+of the jaw there were still in certain places numerous hairs grouped in
+tufts, for the most part rubbed down to the roots, and here and there of
+two or three lines still retaining their full length. They stand erect,
+are stiff, and of an ashy colour, but with one or two black, and a
+little stiffer than the others, in each bunch.
+
+“What was most astonishing, however, was the fact that the skin which
+covered the orbits of the eyes, and formed the eyelids, was so well
+preserved and so healthy that the openings of the eyelids could be seen,
+though deformed and scarcely penetrable to the finger; the skin which
+surrounded the orbits, though desiccated, formed circular furrows. The
+cavities of the eyes were filled with matter, either argillaceous or
+animal, such as still occupied a part of the cavity of the cranium.
+Under the skin the fibres and tendons still remained, and above all the
+remains of the temporal muscles; finally, in the throat hung some great
+bundles of muscular fibres. The denuded bones were young and less solid
+than in other fossil crania of the same species. The bone which gave
+support to the nasal horn was not yet attached to the _vomer_; it was
+unprovided with articulations like the processes of the young bones. The
+extremities of the jaws preserved no vestige either of teeth or
+sockets, but they were covered here and there with the remains of the
+integument. The first molar was distant about four inches from the
+extreme edge of the jaw.
+
+“The foot which remains to me, and which, if I am not mistaken, belongs
+to the left hind limb, has not only preserved its skin quite intact and
+furnished with hairs, or their roots, as well as the tendons and
+ligaments of the heel in all their strength, but also the skin itself
+quite whole as far as the bend in the knee. The place of the muscles was
+filled with black mud. The extremity of the foot is cloven into three
+angles, the bony parts of which, with the periosteum, still remain here
+and there; the horny hoofs had been detached. The hairs adhering in many
+places to the skin were from one to three lines in length, tolerably
+stiff and ash-coloured. What remains of it proves that the foot was
+covered with bunches of hair, which hung down.
+
+“We have never, so far as I know, observed so much hair on any
+rhinoceros which has been brought to Europe in our times, as appears to
+have been presented by the head and feet we have described. I leave you
+then to decide if our rhinoceros of the Lena was born or not in the
+temperate climate of Central Asia. In fact, the rhinoceros, as I gather
+from the relations of travellers, belongs to the forests of Northern
+India; and it is likely enough that these animals differ in a more hairy
+skin from those which live in the burning zones of Africa, just in the
+same way that other animals of a hotter climate are less warmly covered
+than those of the same genera in temperate countries.”[93]
+
+  [93] “Commentarii Academiæ Petersburgicæ,” p. 3.
+
+Of all fossil ruminants one of the largest and most singular is the
+_Sivatherium_, whose remains have been found in the valley of Murkunda,
+in the Sewalik branch of the Sub-Himalayan Mountains. Its name is taken
+from that of Siva, the Indian deity worshipped in that part of India.
+
+The _Sivatherium giganteum_ had a body as bulky as that of an ox, and
+bore a sort of resemblance to the living Elk. It combined in itself the
+characteristics of different kinds of Herbivores, at the same time that
+it was marked by individual peculiarities. The massive head possessed
+four deciduous, hollow horns, like the Prongbuck; two front ones
+conical, smooth, and rapidly rising to a point, and two hinder ones of
+larger size, and branched, projected forward above the eyes.[94] Thus it
+differed from the deer, whose solid horns annually drop off, and from
+the antelope tribe, sheep and oxen, whose hollow horns are persistent,
+and resembled only one living ruminant, the prongbuck, in having had
+hollow horns subject to shedding. Fig. 176 is a representation of the
+_Sivatherium_ restored, in so far, at least, as it is possible to do so
+in the case of an animal of which only the cranium and a few other bones
+have been discovered.
+
+  [94] Dr. James Murie, _Geological Magazine_, vol. viii., p. 438.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176.--Sivatherium restored.]
+
+As if to rival these gigantic Mammals, great numbers of Reptiles seem to
+have lived in the Pliocene period, although they are no longer of the
+same importance as in the Secondary epoch. Only one of these, however,
+need occupy our attention, it is the _Salamander_. The living
+Salamanders are amphibious Batrachians, with smooth skins, and rarely
+attaining the length of twenty inches. The Salamander of the Tertiary
+epoch had the dimensions of a Crocodile; and its discovery opens a
+pregnant page in the history of geology. The skeleton of this Reptile
+was long considered to be that of a human victim of the deluge, and was
+spoken of as “_homo diluvii testis_.” It required all the efforts of
+Camper and Cuvier to eradicate this error from the minds of the learned,
+and probably in the minds of the vulgar it survived them both.
+
+Upon the left bank of the Rhine, not far from Constance, a little above
+Stein, and near the village of Œningen, in Switzerland, there are some
+fine quarries of schistose limestone. In consequence of their varied
+products these quarries have often been described by naturalists; they
+are of Tertiary age, and were visited, among others, by Horace de
+Saussure, by whom they are described in the third volume of his “Voyage
+dans les Alpes.”
+
+In 1725, a large block of stone was found, incrusted in which a skeleton
+was discovered, remarkably well preserved; and Scheuchzer, a Swiss
+naturalist of some celebrity, who added to his scientific pursuits the
+study of theology, was called upon to give his opinion as to the nature
+of this relic of ancient times. He thought he recognised in the skeleton
+that of a man. In 1726 he published a description of these fossil
+remains in the “Philosophical Transactions” of London; and in 1731 he
+made it the subject of a special dissertation, entitled “_Homo diluvii
+testis_”--Man, a witness of the Deluge. This dissertation was
+accompanied by an engraving of the skeleton. Scheuchzer returned to the
+subject in another of his works, “Physica Sacra,” saying: “It is certain
+that this schist contains the half, or nearly so, of the skeleton of a
+man; that the substance even of the bones, and, what is more, of the
+flesh and of parts still softer than the flesh, are there incorporated
+in the stone; in a word, it is one of the rarest relics which we have of
+that accursed race which was buried under the waters. The figure shows
+us the contour of the frontal bone, the orbits with the openings which
+give passage to the great nerves of the fifth pair. We see there the
+remains of the brain, of the sphenoidal bone, of the roots of the nose,
+a notable fragment of the maxillary bone, and some vestiges of the
+liver.”
+
+And our pious author exclaims, this time taking the lyrical form--
+
+    “Betrübtes Beingerüst von einem altem Sünder
+     Erweiche, Stein, das Herz der neuen Bosheitskinder!”
+
+    “O deplorable skeleton of an accursed ancient,
+     Mayst thou soften the hearts of the late children of wickedness!”
+
+The reader has before him the fossil of the Œningen schist (Fig. 177).
+It is obviously impossible to see in this skeleton what the enthusiastic
+savant wished to perceive. And we can form an idea from this instance,
+of the errors to which a preconceived idea, blindly followed, may
+sometimes lead. How a naturalist of such eminence as Scheuchzer could
+have perceived in this enormous head, and in these upper members, the
+least resemblance to the osseous parts of a man is incomprehensible!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177.--Andrias Scheuchzeri.]
+
+The Pre-Adamite “witness of the deluge” made a great noise in Germany,
+and no one there dared to dispute the opinion of the Swiss naturalist,
+under his double authority of theologian and savant. This, probably, is
+the reason why Gesner in his “Traité des Pétrifactions,” published in
+1758, describes with admiration the fossil of Œningen, which he
+attributes, with Scheuchzer, to the _antediluvian man_.
+
+Pierre Camper alone dared to oppose this opinion, which was then
+universally professed throughout Germany. He went to Œningen in 1787 to
+examine the celebrated fossil animal; he had no difficulty in detecting
+the error into which Scheuchzer had fallen. He recognised at once that
+it was a Reptile; but he deceived himself, nevertheless, as to the
+family to which it belonged; he took it for a Saurian. “A petrified
+lizard,” Camper wrote; “could it possibly pass for a man?” It was left
+to Cuvier to place in its true family the fossil of Œningen; in a memoir
+on the subject he demonstrated that this skeleton belonged to one of the
+amphibious batrachians called Salamanders. “Take,” he says in his
+memoir, “a skeleton of a Salamander and place it alongside the fossil,
+without allowing yourself to be misled by the difference of size, just
+as you could easily do in comparing a drawing of the salamander of the
+natural size with one of the fossil reduced to a sixteenth part of its
+dimensions, and everything will be explained in the clearest manner.”
+
+“I am even persuaded,” adds the great naturalist, in a subsequent
+edition of this memoir, “that, if we could re-arrange the fossil and
+look closer into the details, we should find still more numerous proofs
+in the articular faces of the vertebræ, in those of the jaws, in the
+vestiges of very small teeth, and even in the labyrinth of the ear.” And
+he invited the proprietors or depositaries of the precious fossil to
+proceed to such an examination. Cuvier had the gratification of making,
+personally, the investigation he suggested. Finding himself at Haarlem,
+he asked permission of the Director of the Museum to examine the stone
+which contained the supposed fossil man. The operation was carried on in
+the presence of the director and another naturalist. A drawing of the
+skeleton of a Salamander was placed near the fossil by Cuvier, who had
+the satisfaction of recognising, as the stone was chipped away under the
+chisel, each of the bones, announced by the drawing, as they made their
+appearance. In the natural sciences there are few instances of such
+triumphant results--few demonstrations so satisfactory as this, of the
+certitude of the methods of observation and induction on which
+palæontology is based.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+During the Pliocene period Birds of very numerous species, and which
+still exist, gave animation to the vast solitudes which man had not yet
+occupied. Vultures and Eagles, among the rapacious birds; and among
+other genera of birds, gulls, swallows, pies, parroquets, pheasants,
+jungle-fowl, ducks, &c.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the marine Pliocene fauna we see, for the first time, aquatic Mammals
+or Cetaceans--the _Dolphin_ and _Balæna_ belonging to the period. Very
+little, however, is known of the fossil species belonging to the two
+genera. Some bones of Dolphins, found in different parts of France,
+apprise us, however, that the ancient species differed from those of our
+days. The same remark may be made respecting the Narwhal. This Cetacean,
+so remarkable for its long tusk, or tooth, in the form of a horn, has
+at all times been an object of curiosity.
+
+The Whales, whose remains are found in the Pliocene rocks, differ little
+from those now living. But the observations geologists have been able to
+make upon these gigantic remains of the ancient world are too few to
+allow of any very precise conclusion. It is certain, however, that the
+fossil differs from the existing Whale in certain characters drawn from
+the bones of the cranium. The discovery of an enormous fragment of a
+fossil Whale, made at Paris in 1779, in the cellar of a wine-merchant in
+the Rue Dauphine, created a great sensation. Science pronounced, without
+much hesitation, on the true origin of these remains; but the public had
+some difficulty in comprehending the existence of a whale in the Rue
+Dauphine. It was in digging some holes in his cellars that the
+wine-merchant made this interesting discovery. His workmen found, under
+the pick, an enormous piece of bone buried in a yellow clay. Its
+complete extraction caused him a great deal of labour, and presented
+many difficulties. Little interested in making further discoveries, our
+wine-merchant contented himself with raising, with the help of a chisel,
+a portion of the monstrous bone. The piece thus detached weighed 227
+pounds. It was exhibited in the wine-shop, where large numbers of the
+curious went to see it. Lamanon, a naturalist of that day, who examined
+it, conjectured that the bone belonged to the head of a whale. As to the
+bone itself, it was purchased for the Teyler Museum, at Haarlem, where
+it still remains.
+
+There exists in the Museum of Natural History in Paris only a copy of
+the bone of the whale of the Rue Dauphine, which received the name of
+_Balænodon Lamanoni_. The examination of this figure by Cuvier led him
+to recognise it as a bone belonging to one of the antediluvian Balænæ,
+which differed not only from the living species, but from all others
+known up to this time.
+
+Since the days of Lamanon, other bones of Balæna have been discovered in
+the soil in different countries, but the study of these fossils has
+always left something to be desired. In 1806 a fossil Balæna was
+disinterred at Monte-Pulgnasco by M. Cortesi. Another skeleton,
+seventy-two feet long, was found on the banks of the river Forth, near
+Alloa, in Scotland. In 1816 many bones of this animal were discovered in
+a little valley formed by a brook running into the Chiavana, one of the
+affluents of the Po.
+
+Cuvier has established, among the cetacean fossils, a particular genus,
+which he designates under the name of _Ziphius_. The animals to which he
+gave the name, however, are not identical either with the Whales
+(_Balænæ_), the Cachelots or Sperm Whales, or with the Hyperoodons. They
+hold, in the order of Cetaceans, the place that the Palæotherium and
+Anoplotherium occupy among the Pachyderms, or that which the Megatherium
+and Megalonyx occupy in the order of the Edentates. The _Ziphius_ still
+lives in the Mediterranean.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 178.--Pecten Jacobæus.
+
+(Living species.)]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The genera of Mollusca, which distinguish this period from all others,
+are very numerous. They include the Cardium, Panopæa, Pecten (Fig.
+178), Fusus, Murex, Cypræa, Voluta, Chenopus, Buccinum, Nassa, and many
+others.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The _Pliocene_ series prevails over Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, where
+it is popularly known as the Crag. In Essex it rests directly on the
+London Clay. Near Norwich it rests on the Chalk.
+
+The _Pliocene rocks_ are divided into lower and upper. The _Older
+Pliocene_ comprises the White or Coralline Crag, including the Red Crag
+of Suffolk, containing marine shells, of which sixty per cent. are of
+extinct species. The _Newer Pliocene_ is represented by the
+Fluvio-marine or Norwich Crag, which last, according to the Rev. Osmond
+Fisher, is overlaid by Chillesford clay, a very variable and more arctic
+deposit, often passing suddenly into sands without a trace of clay.
+
+The Norfolk Forest Bed rests upon the Chillesford clay, when that is not
+denuded.
+
+A ferruginous bed, rich in mammalian remains, and known as the Elephant
+bed, overlies the Forest Bed, of which it is considered by the Rev. John
+Gunn to be an upper division.
+
+The Crag, divided into three portions, is a local deposit of limited
+extent. It consists of variable beds of sand, gravel, and marl;
+sometimes it is a shelly ferruginous grit, as the Red Crag; at others a
+soft calcareous rock made up of shells and bryozoa, as the Coralline
+Crag.
+
+The _Coralline Crag_, of very limited extent in this country, ranges
+over about twenty miles between the rivers Stour and Alde, with a
+breadth of three or four. It consists of two divisions--an upper one,
+formed chiefly of the remains of Bryozoa, and a lower one of
+light-coloured sands, with a profusion of shells. The upper division is
+about thirty-six feet thick at Sudbourne in Suffolk, where it consists
+of a series of beds almost entirely composed of comminuted shells and
+remains of Bryozoa, forming a soft building-stone. The lower division is
+about forty-seven feet thick at Sutton; making the total thickness of
+the Coralline Crag about eighty-three feet.
+
+Many of the Coralline Crag Mollusca belong to living species; they are
+supposed to indicate an equable climate free from intense cold--an
+inference rendered more probable by the prevalence of northern forms of
+shells, such as _Glycimeris_, _Cyprina_, and _Astarte_. The late
+Professor Edward Forbes, to whom science is indebted for so many
+philosophical deductions, points out some remarkable inferences drawn
+from the fauna of the Pliocene seas.[95] It appears that in the glacial
+period, which we shall shortly have under consideration, many shells,
+previously established in the temperate zone, retreated southwards, to
+avoid an uncongenial climate. The Professor gives a list of fifty which
+inhabited the British seas while the Coralline and Red Crag were
+forming, but which are all wanting in the glacial deposits;[96] from
+which he infers that they migrated at the approach of the glacial
+period, and returned again northwards, when the temperate climate was
+restored.[97]
+
+  [95] Edward Forbes in “Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great
+       Britain,” vol. i., p. 336.
+
+  [96] For full information on these deposits the reader is referred to
+       the “Memoirs on the Structure of the Crag-beds of Norfolk and
+       Suffolk,” by J. Prestwich, F.R.S., in the _Quart. Jour. Geol.
+       Soc._, vol. xxvii., pp. 115, 325, and 452 (1871). Also to the
+       many Papers by the Messrs. Searles Wood published in the _Quar.
+       Jour. Geol. Soc._, the _Ann. Nat. Hist._, the _Phil. Mag._, &c.
+
+  [97] Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” p. 203.
+
+In the Upper or Mammaliferous (or Norwich) Crag, of which there is a
+good exposure in a pit near the asylum at Thorpe, bones of Mammalia are
+found with existing species of shells. The greater number of the
+Mammalian remains have been supposed, until lately, to be extraneous
+fossils; but they are now considered by Mr. Prestwich as truly
+contemporaneous. The peculiar mixture of southern forms of life with
+others of a more northern type lead to the inference that, at this early
+period, a lowering of temperature began gradually to set in from the
+period of the Coralline Crag to that of the Forest Bed, which marks the
+commencement of the Glacial Period.
+
+The distinction between the Mammaliferous Crag of Norwich and the Red
+Crag of Suffolk is purely palæontological, no case of superposition
+having yet been discovered, and they are now generally considered as
+contemporaneous. Two Proboscidians abundant during the Crag period were
+the _Mastodon Arvernensis_ and the _Elephas meridionalis_. In the Red
+Crag the Mastodon is stated by the Rev. John Gunn to be more abundant
+than the Elephant, while in the Norwich beds their proportions are
+nearly equal.
+
+At or near the base of the Red Crag there is a remarkable accumulation,
+varying in thickness from a few inches to two feet, of bones, teeth, and
+phosphatic nodules (called coprolites), which are worked for making
+superphosphate of lime for agricultural manure.
+
+The foreign equivalents of the older Pliocene are found in the
+_sub-Apennine strata_. These rocks are sufficiently remarkable in the
+county of Suffolk, where they consist of a series of marine beds of
+quartzose sand, coloured red by ferruginous matter.
+
+At the foot of the Apennine chain, which forms the backbone, as it
+were, of Italy, throwing out many spurs, the formations on either side,
+and on both sides of the Adriatic, are Tertiary strata; they form in
+many cases, low hills lying between the Apennines of Secondary formation
+and the sea, the strata generally being a light-brown or bluish marl
+covered with yellow calcareous sand and gravel, with some fossil shells,
+which, according to Brocchi, are found all over Italy. But this wide
+range includes some older Tertiary formations, as in the strata of the
+Superga near Turin, which are Miocene.
+
+The _Antwerp_ Crag, which is of the same age with the Red and Coralline
+Crag of Suffolk, forms great accumulations upon divers points of Europe:
+at Antwerp in Belgium, at Carentan and Perpignan, and, we believe, in
+the basin of the Rhône, in France. The thickest deposits of this rock
+consist of clay and sand, alternating with marl and arenaceous
+limestone. These constitute the sub-Apennine hills, alluded to above as
+extending on both slopes of the Apennines. This deposit occupies the
+Upper Val d’Arno, above Florence. Its presence is recognised over a
+great part of Australia. Finally, the seven hills of Rome are composed,
+in part, of marine Tertiary rocks belonging to the Pliocene period.
+
+In PLATE XXV. an ideal landscape of the Pliocene period is given under
+European latitudes. In the background of the picture, a mountain,
+recently thrown up, reminds us that the period was one of frequent
+convulsions, in which the land was disturbed and upheaved, and mountains
+and mountain-ranges made their appearance. The vegetation is nearly
+identical with the present. We see assembled in the foreground the more
+important animals of the period--the fossil species, as well as those
+which have survived to the present time.
+
+At the close of the Pliocene period, and in consequence of the deposits
+left by the seas of the Tertiary epoch, the continent of Europe was
+nearly what it is now; few permanent changes have occurred since to
+disturb its general outline. Although the point does not admit of actual
+proof, there is strong presumptive evidence that in this period, or in
+that immediately subsequent to it, the entire European area, with some
+trifling exceptions, including the Alps and Apennines, emerged from the
+deep. In Sicily, Newer Pliocene rocks, covering nearly half the surface
+of the island, have been raised from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the level
+of the sea. Fossil shells have been observed at the height of 8,000 feet
+in the Pyrenees; and, as if to fix the date of upheaval, there are great
+masses of granite which have penetrated the Lias and the Chalk. Fossil
+shells of the period are also found at a height of 10,000 feet in the
+Alps, at 13,000 feet in the Andes, and at 18,000 feet in the Himalayas.
+
+[Illustration: XXV.--Ideal Landscape of the Pliocene Period.]
+
+In the mountainous regions of the Alps it is always difficult to
+determine the age of beds, in consequence of the disturbed state of the
+strata; for instance, the lofty chain of the Swiss Jura consists of many
+parallel ridges, with intervening longitudinal valleys; the ridges
+formed of contorted fossiliferous strata, which are extensive in
+proportion to the number and thickness of the formations which have been
+exposed on upheaval. The proofs which these regions offer of
+comparatively recent elevation are numerous. In the central Alps,
+Cretaceous, Oolitic, Liassic, and Eocene strata are found at the
+loftiest summits, passing insensibly into metamorphic rocks of granular
+limestone, and into talcose and mica-schists. In the eastern parts of
+the chain the older fossiliferous rocks are recognised in similar
+positions, presenting signs of intense Plutonic action. Oolitic and
+Cretaceous strata have been raised 12,000 feet, Eocene 10,000, and
+Miocene 4,000 and 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. Equally
+striking proofs of recent elevation exist in the Apennines; the
+celebrated Carrara marble, once supposed--from its crystalline texture
+and the absence of fossils, and from its resting--1. on talcose schists,
+2. on quartz and gneiss--to be very ancient, now turns out to be an
+altered limestone of the Oolitic series, and the underlying crystalline
+rocks to be metamorphosed Secondary sandstones and shales. Had all these
+rocks undergone complete metamorphism, another page in the earth’s
+history would have been obscured. As it is, the proofs of what we state
+are found in the gradual approach of the rocks to their unaltered
+condition as the distance from the intrusive rock increases. This
+intrusive rock, however, does not always reach the surface, but it
+exists below at no great depth, and is observed piercing through the
+talcose gneiss, and passing up into Secondary strata.
+
+At the close of this epoch, therefore, there is every probability that
+Europe and Asia had pretty nearly attained their present general
+configuration.
+
+
+
+
+QUATERNARY EPOCH.
+
+
+The Quaternary epoch of the history of our globe commences at the close
+of the Tertiary epoch, and brings the narrative of its revolutions down
+to our own times.
+
+The tranquillity of the globe was only disturbed during this era by
+certain cataclysms whose sphere was limited and local, and by an
+interval of cold of very extended duration; the _deluges_ and the
+_glacial_ period--these are the two most remarkable peculiarities which
+distinguished this epoch. But the fact which predominates in the
+Quaternary epoch, and distinguishes it from all other phases of the
+earth’s history is the appearance of man, the culminating and supreme
+work of the Creator of the universe.
+
+In this last phase of the history of the earth geology recognises three
+chronological divisions:--
+
+    1. The European Deluges.
+
+    2. The Glacial Period.
+
+    3. The creation of man and subsequent Asiatic Deluge.
+
+Before describing the three orders of events which occurred in the
+Quaternary epoch, we shall present a brief sketch of the organic
+kingdoms of Nature, namely, of the animals and vegetables which
+flourished at this date, and the new formations which arose. Lyell, and
+some other geologists, designate this the POST-TERTIARY EPOCH, which
+they divide into two subordinate groups.--1. _The Post-Pliocene Period_;
+2. _The Recent or Pleistocene Period._
+
+
+POST-PLIOCENE PERIOD.
+
+In the days of Cuvier the Tertiary formations were considered as a mere
+chaos of superficial deposits, having no distinct relations to each
+other. It was reserved for the English geologists, with Sir Charles
+Lyell at their head, to throw light upon this obscure page of the
+earth’s history; from the study of fossils, science has not only
+re-animated the animals, it has re-constructed the theatre of their
+existence. We see the British Islands now a straggling archipelago, and
+then the mouth of a vast river, of which the continent is lost; for,
+says Professor Ramsay, “We are not of necessity to consider Great
+Britain as having always been an island; it is an accident that it is an
+island now, and it has been an island many times before.” In the
+Tertiary epoch we see it surrounded, then, by shallow seas swarming with
+numerous forms of animal life; islands covered with bushy Palms; banks
+on which Turtles basked in the sun; vast basins of fresh or brackish
+water, in which the tide made itself felt, and which abounded with
+various species of sharks; rivers in which Crocodiles increased and
+multiplied; woods which sheltered numerous Mammals and some Serpents of
+large size; fresh-water lakes which received the spoils of numerous
+shells. Dry land had increased immensely. Groups of ancient isles we
+have seen united and become continents, with lakes, bays, and perhaps
+inland seas. Gigantic Elephants, vastly larger than any now existing,
+close the epoch, and probably usher in the succeeding one; for we are
+not to suppose any sudden break to distinguish one period from another
+in Nature, although it is convenient to arrange them so for the purposes
+of description. If we may judge from their remains, these animals must
+have existed in great numbers, for it is stated that on the coast of
+Norfolk alone the fishermen, in trawling for oysters, dredged up between
+1820 and 1833, no less than 2,000 molar teeth of Elephants. If we
+consider how slowly these animals multiply, these quarries of ivory, as
+we may call them, must have required many centuries for their production
+and accumulation.
+
+The same lakes and rivers were at this time occupied, also, by the
+Hippopotamus, as large and as formidably armed as that now inhabiting
+the African solitudes; also the two-horned Rhinoceros; and three species
+of Bos, one of which was hairy and bore a mane. Some Deer of gigantic
+size, as compared with living species, bounded over the plains. In the
+same savannahs lived the Reindeer, the Stag, a Horse of small size, the
+Ass, the Bear, and the Roe, for Mammals had succeeded the Ichthyosauri
+of a former age. Nevertheless, the epoch had its tyrants also. A Lion,
+as large as the largest of the Lions of Africa, hunted its prey in the
+British jungles. Another animal of the feline race, the _Machairodus_
+(Fig. 179), was probably the most ferocious and destructive of
+Carnivora; bands of Hyænas and a terrible Bear, surpassing in size that
+of the Rocky Mountains, had established themselves in the caverns; two
+species of Beaver made their appearance on the scene.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179.--_a_, Tooth of Machairodus, imperfect below,
+natural size; _b_, outline of cast of tooth, perfect, half natural size;
+_c_, tooth of Megalosaurus, natural size.]
+
+The finding of the remains of most of these animals in caverns was
+perhaps among the most interesting discoveries of geology. The discovery
+was first made in the celebrated Kirkdale Cave in Yorkshire, which has
+been described by Dr. Buckland; and afterwards at Kent’s Hole, near
+Torquay. This latter pleasant Devonshire town is built in a creek, shut
+out from exposure on all sides except the south. In this creek, hollowed
+out of the rocks, is the great fissure or cavern known as Kent’s Hole;
+like that of Kirkdale, it has been under water, from whence, after a
+longer or shorter interval, it emerged, but remained entirely closed
+till the moment when chance led to its discovery. The principal cavern
+is 600 feet in length, with many crevices or fissures of smaller extent
+traversing the rock in various directions. A bed of hard stalagmite of
+very ancient formation, which has been again covered with a thin layer
+of soil, forms the floor of the cavern, which is a red sandy clay. From
+this bed of red loam or clay was disinterred a mass of fossil bones
+belonging to extinct species of Bear, Lion, Rhinoceros, Reindeer,
+Beaver, and Hyæna.
+
+Such an assemblage gave rise to all sorts of conjectures. It was
+generally thought that the dwelling of some beasts of prey had been
+discovered, which had dragged the carcases of elephants, deer, and
+others into these caves, to devour them at leisure. Others asked if, in
+some cases, instinct did not impel sick animals, or animals broken down
+by old age, to seek such places for the purpose of dying in quiet; while
+others, again, suggested that these bones might have been engulfed
+pell-mell in the hole during some ancient inundation. However that may
+be, the remains discovered in these caves show that all these Mammals
+existed at the close of the Tertiary epoch, and that they all lived in
+England. What were the causes which led to their extinction?
+
+It was the opinion of Cuvier and the early geologists that the ancient
+species were destroyed in some great and sudden catastrophe, from which
+none made their escape. But recent geologists trace their extinction to
+slow, successive, and determinative action due to local causes, the
+chief one being the gradual lowering of the temperature. We have seen
+that at the beginning of the Tertiary epoch, in the older Eocene age,
+palms, cocoa-nuts, and acacias, resembling those now met with in
+countries more favoured by the sun, grew in our island. The Miocene
+flora presents indications of a climate still warm, but less tropical;
+and the Pliocene period, which follows, contains remains which announce
+an approach to our present climate. In following the vegetable
+productions of the Tertiary epoch, the botanist meets with the floras of
+Africa, South America, and Australia, and finally settles in the flora
+of temperate Europe. Many circumstances demonstrate this decreasing
+temperature, until we arrive at what geologists call the _glacial
+period_--one of the winters of the ancient world.
+
+But before entering on the evidences which exist of the glacial era we
+shall glance at the picture presented by the animals of the period; the
+vegetable products we need not dwell on--it is, in fact, that of our own
+era, the flora of temperate regions in our own epoch. The same remark
+would apply to the animals, but for some signal exceptions. In this
+epoch Man appears, and some of the Mammals of the last epoch, but of
+larger dimensions, have long disappeared. The more remarkable of these
+extinct animals we shall describe, as we have those belonging to
+anterior ages. They are not numerous; those of our hemisphere being the
+Mammoth, _Elephas primigenius_; the Bear, _Ursus spelæus_; gigantic
+Lion, _Felis spelæa_; Hyæna, _Hyæna spelæa_; Ox, _Bison priscus_, _Bos
+primigenius_; the gigantic Stag, _Cervus megaceros_; to which we may add
+the _Dinornis_ and _Epiornis_, among birds. In America there existed in
+the Quaternary epoch some Edentates of colossal dimensions and of very
+peculiar structure, these were _Megatherium_, _Megalonyx_, and
+_Mylodon_; we shall pass these animals in review, beginning with those
+of our own hemisphere.
+
+The Mammoth, the skeleton of which is represented in Fig. 180, surpassed
+the largest existing Elephants of the tropics in size, for it was from
+sixteen to eighteen feet in height. The teeth, and the size of the
+monstrous tusks, much curved, and with a spiral turn outwards, and which
+were from ten to fifteen feet in length, serve to distinguish the
+Mammoth from the two Elephants living at the present day, the African
+and the Indian. The form of its teeth permits of its being distinguished
+from its ally, the Mastodon; for while the teeth of the latter have
+rough mammillations on their surface, those of the Mammoth, like those
+of the living Indian Elephant, have a broad united surface, with regular
+furrowed lines of large curvature. The teeth of the Mammoth are four in
+number, like the Elephants, two in each jaw when the animal is adult,
+its head is elongated, its forehead concave, its jaws curved and
+truncated in front. It has been an easy task, as we shall see, to
+recognise the general form and structure of the Mammoth, even to its
+skin. We know beyond a doubt that it was thickly covered with long
+shaggy hair, and that a copious mane floated upon its neck and along its
+back; its trunk resembled that of the Indian Elephant; its body was
+heavy, with a tail naked to the end, which was covered with thick tufty
+hair, and its legs were comparatively shorter than those of the latter
+animal, many of the habits of which it nevertheless possessed.
+Blumenbach gave it the specific name of _Elephas primigenius_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 180.--Skeleton of the Mammoth, Elephas primigenius.]
+
+In all ages, and in almost all countries, chance discoveries have been
+made of fossil bones of elephants in the soil. Pliny has transmitted to
+us a tradition, recorded by the historian Theophrastus, who wrote 320
+years before Jesus Christ, of the existence of bones of fossil ivory in
+the soil of Greece, that the bones were sometimes transformed into
+stones. “These bones,” the historian gravely tells us, “were both black
+and white, and born of the earth.” Some of the elephant’s bones having a
+slight resemblance to those of man, they have often been mistaken for
+human bones. In the earlier historic times these great bones,
+accidentally disinterred, have passed as having belonged to some hero or
+demigod; at a later period they were thought to be the bones of giants.
+We have already spoken of the mistake made by the Greeks in taking the
+patella of a fossil elephant for the knee-bone of Ajax; in the same
+manner the bones revealed by an earthquake, and attributed by Pliny to a
+giant, belonged, no doubt, to a fossil elephant. To a similar origin we
+may assign the pretended body of Orestes, thirteen feet in length, which
+was discovered at Tegea by the Spartans; those of Asterius, the son of
+Ajax, discovered in the Isle of Ladea, of ten cubits in length (about
+eighteen feet), according to Pausanius; finally, such were the great
+bones found in the Isle of Rhodes, of which Phlegon of Tralles speaks in
+his “Mundus Subterraneus.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181.--Tooth of the Mammoth.]
+
+We might fill volumes with the history of the remains of pretended
+giants found in ancient tombs. The books, in fact, which exist, formed a
+voluminous literature in the middle ages--entitled _Gigantology_. All
+the facts, more or less real, true or imaginative, may be explained by
+the accidental discovery of the bones of some of these gigantic animals.
+We find in works on Gigantology, the history of a pretended giant,
+discovered in the 4th century, at Trapani in Sicily, of which Boccaccio
+speaks, and which may be taken for Polyphemus; of another, found in the
+16th century, according to Fasellus, near Palermo; others, according to
+the same author, at Melilli between Leontium and Syracuse, Calatrasi and
+Petralia, at each of which places the bones of supposed giants were
+disinterred. P. Kircher speaks of three other giants being found in
+Sicily, of which only the teeth remained perfect.
+
+In 1577, a storm having uprooted an oak near the cloisters of Reyden, in
+the Canton of Lucerne, in Switzerland, some large bones were exposed to
+view. Seven years after, the celebrated physician and Professor at
+Basle, Felix Pläten, being at Lucerne, examined these bones, and
+declared they could only be those of a giant. The Council of Lucerne
+consented to send the bones to Basle for more minute examination, and
+Pläten thought himself justified in attributing to the giant a height of
+nineteen feet. He designed a human skeleton on this scale, and returned
+the bones with the drawing to Lucerne. In 1706 there only remained of
+these bones a portion of the scapula and a fragment of the wrist bone;
+the anatomist Blumenbach, who saw them at the beginning of the century,
+easily recognised in them the bones of an Elephant. Let us not omit to
+add, as a complement to this story, that since the sixteenth century,
+the inhabitants of Lucerne have adopted the image of this fabulous giant
+as the supporter of the city arms.
+
+Spanish history preserves many stories of giants. The supposed tooth of
+St. Christopher, shown at Valence, in the church dedicated to the saint,
+was certainly the molar tooth of a fossil Elephant; and in 1789, the
+canons of St. Vincent carried through the streets in public procession,
+to procure rain, the pretended arm of a saint, which was nothing more
+than the femur of an Elephant.
+
+In France, in the reign of Charles VII. (1456), some of these bones of
+imaginary giants appeared in the bed of the Rhône. A repetition of the
+phenomenon occurred near Saint-Peirat, opposite Valence, when the
+Dauphin, afterwards Louis XI., then residing at the latter place, caused
+the bones to be gathered together and sent to Bourges, where they long
+remained objects of public curiosity in the interior of the
+Sainte-Chapelle. In 1564 a similar discovery took place in the same
+neighbourhood. Two peasants observed on the banks of the Rhône, along a
+slope, some great bones sticking out of the ground. They carried them to
+the neighbouring village, where they were examined by Cassanion, who
+lived at Valence. It was no doubt apropos to this that Cassanion wrote
+his treatise “De Gigantibus.” The description given by the author of a
+tooth sufficed, according to Cuvier, to prove that it belonged to an
+Elephant; it was a foot in length, and weighed eight pounds. It was also
+on the banks of the Rhône, but in Dauphiny, as we have seen, that the
+skeleton of the famous Teutobocchus, of which we have spoken in a
+previous chapter, was found.
+
+In 1663 Otto de Guericke, the illustrious inventor of the air-pump,
+witnessed the discovery of the bones of an Elephant, buried in the
+shelly limestone, or Muschelkalk. Along with it were found its enormous
+tusks, which should have sufficed to establish its zoological origin.
+Nevertheless they were taken for horns, and the illustrious Leibnitz
+composed, out of the remains, a strange animal, carrying a horn in the
+middle of its forehead, and in each jaw a dozen molar teeth a foot long.
+Having fabricated this fantastic animal, Leibnitz named it also--he
+called it the _fossil unicorn_. In his “Protogæa,” a work remarkable
+besides as the first attempt at a theory of the earth, Leibnitz gave the
+description and a drawing of this imaginary animal. During more than
+thirty years the unicorn of Leibnitz was universally accepted throughout
+Germany; and nothing less than the discovery of the entire skeleton of
+the Mammoth in the valley of the Unstrut was required to produce a
+change of opinion. This skeleton was at once recognised by Tinzel,
+librarian to the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, as that of an Elephant, and was
+established as such; not, however, without a keen controversy with
+adversaries of all kinds.
+
+In 1700 a soldier of Würtemberg accidentally observed some bones showing
+themselves projecting out of the earth, in an argillaceous soil, near
+the city of Canstadt, not far from the banks of the Necker. Having
+addressed a report to the reigning Duke, the latter caused the place to
+be excavated, which occupied nearly six months. A veritable cemetery of
+elephants was discovered, in which were not less than sixty tusks. Those
+which were entire were preserved; the fragments were abandoned to the
+court physician, and they became a mere vulgar medicine. In the last
+century the fossil bones of bears, which were abundant in Germany, were
+administered in that country medicinally, as an absorbent, astringent,
+and sudorific. It was then called by the German doctors the _Ebur
+fossile_, or _Unicornu fossile_, _Licorn fossil_. The magnificent tusks
+of the Mammoth found at Canstadt helped to combat fever and colic. What
+an intelligent man this court physician of Würtemberg must have been!
+
+Numerous discoveries like those we have quoted distinguished the 18th
+century; but the progress of science has now rendered such mistakes as
+we have had to relate impossible. These bones were at length universally
+recognised as belonging to an Elephant, but erudition now intervened,
+and helped to obscure a subject which was otherwise perfectly clear.
+Some learned pedant declared that the bones found in Italy and France
+were the remains of the Elephants which Hannibal brought from Carthage
+with the army in his expedition against the Romans. The part of France
+where the most ancient bones of these Elephants were found is in the
+environs of the Rhône, and consequently on the route of the Carthaginian
+general, and this consideration appeared to these terrible savants to be
+a particularly triumphant answer to the naturalist’s reasoning. Again,
+at a later period, Domitius Ænobarbus conducted the Carthaginian armies,
+which were followed by a number of Elephants, armed for war. Cuvier
+scarcely took the trouble to refute this insignificant objection. It is
+merely necessary to read, in his learned dissertation, of the number of
+elephants which could remain to Hannibal when he had entered Gaul.
+
+But the best reply that can be made to this strange objection raised by
+the learned, is to show how extensively these fossil bones of Elephants
+are scattered, not in Europe only, but over the world--there are few
+regions of the globe in which their remains are not found. In the north
+of Europe, in Scandinavia, in Ireland, in Belgium, in Germany, in
+Central Europe, in Poland, in Middle Russia, in South Russia, in Greece,
+in Italy, in Africa, in Asia, and, as we have seen, in England. In the
+New World remains of the Mammoth are also met with. What is most
+singular is that these remains exist more especially in great numbers in
+the north of Europe, in the frozen regions of Siberia--regions
+altogether uninhabitable for the Elephant in our days. “There is not,”
+says Pallas, “in all Asiatic Russia, from the Don to the extremity of
+the promontory of Tchutchis, a stream or river, especially of those
+which flow in the plains, on the banks of which some bones of Elephants
+and other animals foreign to the climate have not been found. But in the
+more elevated regions, the primitive and schistose chains, they are
+wanting, as are marine petrifactions. But in the lower slopes and in the
+great muddy and sandy plains, above all, in places which are swept by
+rivers and brooks, they are always found, which proves that we should
+not the less find them throughout the whole extent of the country if we
+had the same means of searching for them.”
+
+Every year in the season when thaw takes place, the vast rivers which
+descend to the Frozen Ocean in the north of Siberia sweep down with
+their waters numerous portions of the banks, and expose to view bones
+buried in the soil and in the excavations left by the rushing waters.
+Cuvier gives a long list of places in Russia in which interesting
+discoveries have been made of Elephants’ bones; and it is certainly
+curious that the more we advance towards the north in Russia the more
+numerous and extensive do the bone depositories become. In spite of the
+oft-repeated and undoubted testimony of numerous travellers, we can
+scarcely credit the statements made respecting some of the islands of
+the glacial sea near the poles, situated opposite the mouth of the Lena
+and of the Indighirka. Here, for example, is an extract from “Billing’s
+Voyage” concerning these isles: “The whole island (which is about
+thirty-three leagues in length), except three or four small rocky
+mountains, is a mixture of ice and sand; and as the shores fall, from
+the heat of the sun’s thawing them, the tusks and bones of the mammont
+are found in great abundance. To use Chvoinoff’s own expression, the
+island is formed of the bones of this extraordinary animal, mixed with
+the horns and heads of the buffalo, or something like it, and some horns
+of the rhinoceros.”
+
+New Siberia and the Lächow Islands off the mouth of the river Lena, are,
+for the most part, only an agglomeration of sand, ice, and Elephants’
+teeth. At every tempest the sea casts ashore new quantities of mammoths’
+tusks, and the inhabitants of Siberia carry on a profitable commerce in
+this fossil ivory. Every year, during the summer, innumerable
+fishermen’s barks direct their course towards this _isle of bones_; and,
+during winter, immense caravans take the same route, all the convoys
+drawn by dogs, returning charged with the tusks of the Mammoth, each
+weighing from 150 to 200 pounds. The fossil ivory thus withdrawn from
+the frozen north is imported into China and Europe, where it is employed
+for the same purposes as ordinary ivory, which is furnished, as we know,
+by the existing Elephant and Hippopotamus of Africa and Asia.
+
+The _Isle of Bones_ has served as a quarry of this valuable material,
+for export to China, for 500 years; and it has been exported to Europe
+for upwards of 100. But the supply from these strange diggings
+apparently remains practically undiminished. What a number of
+accumulated generations of these bones and tusks does not this profusion
+imply!
+
+It was in Siberia that the fossil Elephant received the name of the
+_Mammoth_, and its tusks that of _mammoth horns_. The celebrated Russian
+savant, Pallas, who gave the first systematic description of the
+Mammoth, asserts that the name is derived from the word _mama_, which in
+the Tartar idiom signifies the _earth_. According to others, the name is
+derived from _behemoth_, mentioned in the Book of Job; or from the
+epithet _mahemoth_, which the Arabs add to the word “elephant,” to
+designate one of unusual size. A curious circumstance enough is, that
+this same legend of an animal living exclusively under ground, exists
+amongst the Chinese. They call it _tien-schu_, and we read, in the
+great Chinese work on natural history, which was written in the
+sixteenth century: “The animal named _tien-schu_, of which we have
+already spoken in the ancient work upon the ceremonial entitled “Lyki”
+(a work of the fifth century before Jesus Christ), is called also
+_tyn-schu_ or _yn-schu_, that is to say, _the mouse which hides itself_.
+It always lives in subterranean caverns; it resembles a mouse, but is of
+the size of a buffalo or ox. It has no tail; its colour is dark; it is
+very strong, and excavates caverns in places full of rocks, and
+forests.” Another writer, quoting the same passage, thus expresses
+himself: “The _tyn-schu_ haunts obscure and unfrequented places. It dies
+as soon as it is exposed to the rays of the sun or moon; its feet are
+short in proportion to its size, which causes it to walk badly. Its tail
+is a Chinese ell in length. Its eyes are small, and its neck short. It
+is very stupid and sluggish. When the inundations of the river
+_Tamschuann-tuy_ took place (in 1571), a great many tyn-schu appeared in
+the plain; it fed on the roots of the plant _fu-kia_.”
+
+The existence in Russia of the bones and tusks of the Mammoth is
+sufficiently confirmed by the following extract from an old Russian
+traveller, Ysbrants Ides, who, in 1692, was sent by Peter the Great as
+ambassador to the Emperor of China. In the extract which follows, we
+remark the very surprising fact of the discovery of a head and foot of
+the Mammoth which had been preserved in ice with all the flesh. “Amongst
+the hills which are situate north-east of the river Kata,” says the
+traveller, “the Mammuts’ tongues and legs are found, as they are also
+particularly on the shores of the river Jenize, Trugan, Mongamsea, Lena,
+and near Jakutskoi, even as far as the Frozen Ocean. In the spring, when
+the ice of this river breaks, it is driven in such vast quantities and
+with such force by the high swollen waters, that it frequently carries
+very high banks before it, and breaks off the tops of hills, which,
+falling down, discover these animals whole, or their teeth only, almost
+frozen to the earth, which thaw by degrees. I had a person with me who
+had annually gone out in search of these bones; he told it to me as a
+real truth, that he and his companions found the head of one of these
+animals, which was discovered by the fall of such a frozen piece of
+earth. As soon as he opened it, he found the greatest part of the flesh
+rotten, but it was not without difficulty that they broke out his teeth,
+which were placed in the fore-part of his mouth, as those of the
+Elephants are; they also took some bones out of his head, and afterwards
+came to his fore-foot, which they cut off, and carried part of it to the
+city of Trugan, the circumference of it being as large as that of the
+waist of an ordinary man. The bones of the head appeared somewhat red,
+as though they were tinctured with blood.
+
+“Concerning this animal there are very different reports. The heathens
+of Jakuti, Tungusi, and Ostiacki, say that they continually, or at
+least, by reason of the very hard frosts, mostly live under ground,
+where they go backwards and forwards; to confirm which they tell us,
+that they have often seen the earth heaved up when one of these beasts
+was upon the march, and after he was passed, the place sink in, and
+thereby make a deep pit. They further believe, that if this animal comes
+so near to the surface of the frozen earth as to smell the air, he
+immediately dies, which they say is the reason that several of them are
+found dead on the high banks of the river, where they unawares came out
+of the ground.
+
+“This is the opinion of the Infidels concerning these beasts, which are
+never seen.
+
+“But the old Siberian Russians affirm, that the Mammuth is very like the
+Elephant, with this difference only, that the teeth of the former are
+firmer, and not so straight as those of the latter. They also are of
+opinion that there were Elephants in this country before the Deluge,
+when this climate was warmer, and that their drowned bodies, floating on
+the surface of the water of that flood, were at last washed and forced
+into subterranean cavities; but that after this universal deluge, the
+air, which before was warm, was changed to cold, and that these bones
+have lain frozen in the earth ever since, and so are preserved from
+putrefaction till they thaw, and come to light, which is no very
+unreasonable conjecture, though it is not absolutely necessary that this
+climate should have been warmer before the Flood, since the carcases of
+the drowned elephants were very likely to float from other places
+several hundred miles distant to this country in the great deluge which
+covered the surface of the whole earth. Some of these teeth, which
+doubtless have lain the whole summer on the shore, are entirely black
+and broken, and can never be restored to their former condition. But
+those which are found in good case, are as good as ivory, and are
+accordingly transported to all parts of Muscovy, where they are used to
+make combs, and all other such-like things, instead of ivory.
+
+“The above-mentioned person also told me that he once found two teeth in
+one head that weighed above twelve Russian pounds, which amount to four
+hundred German pounds; so that these animals must of necessity be very
+large, though a great many lesser teeth are found. By all that I could
+gather from the heathens, no person ever saw one of these beasts alive,
+or can give any account of its shape; so that all we heard said on this
+subject arises from bare conjecture only.”
+
+It is possible this recital may seem suspicious to some readers. We have
+ourselves felt some difficulty in believing that this head and foot were
+taken from the ice, with the flesh and skin, when we consider that the
+animal to which they belonged has been extinct probably more than ten
+thousand years. But the assertion of Ysbrants Ides is confirmed by
+respectable testimony of more recent date. In 1800, a Russian
+naturalist, Gabriel Sarytschew, travelled in northern Siberia. Having
+arrived in the neighbourhood of the Frozen Ocean, he found upon the
+banks of the Alasœia, which discharges itself into this sea, the entire
+body of a Mammoth enveloped in a mass of ice. The body was in a complete
+state of preservation, for the permanent contact of the ice had kept out
+the air and prevented decomposition. It is well known that at zero and
+below it, animal substances will not putrefy, so that in our households
+we can preserve all kinds of animal food as long as we can surround them
+with ice; and this is precisely what happened to the Mammoth found by
+Gabriel Sarytschew in the ice of the Alasœia. The rolling waters had
+disengaged the mass of ice which had imprisoned the monstrous pachyderm
+for thousands of years. The body, in a complete state of preservation
+and covered with its flesh as well as its entire hide, to which long
+hairs adhered in certain places, found itself, again, nearly erect on
+its four feet.
+
+The Russian naturalist Adams, in 1806, made a discovery quite as
+extraordinary as the preceding. We borrow his account from a paper by
+Dr. Tilesius in the “Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St.
+Petersburg” (vol. v.). In 1799, a Tungusian chief, Ossip Schumachoff,
+while seeking for mammoth-horns on the banks of the lake Oncoul,
+perceived among the blocks of ice a shapeless mass, not at all
+resembling the large pieces of floating wood which are commonly found
+there. The following year he noticed that this mass was more disengaged
+from the blocks of ice, and had two projecting parts, but he was still
+unable to make out what it could be. Towards the end of the following
+summer one entire side of the animal and one of his tusks were quite
+free from the ice. But the succeeding summer of 1802, which was less
+warm and more windy than common, caused the Mammoth to remain buried in
+the ice, which had scarcely melted at all. At length, towards the end of
+the fifth year (1803), the ice between the earth and the Mammoth having
+melted faster than the rest, the plane of its support became inclined;
+and this enormous mass fell by its own weight on a bank of sand. In the
+month of March, 1804, Schumachoff cut off the horns (the tusks), which
+he exchanged with the merchant Bultenof for goods of the value of fifty
+roubles (not quite eight pounds sterling). It was not till two years
+after this that Mr. Adams, of the St. Petersburg Academy, who was
+travelling with Count Golovkin, sent by the Czar of Russia on an embassy
+to China, having been told at Jakutsk of the discovery of an animal of
+extraordinary magnitude on the shores of the Frozen Ocean, near the
+mouth of the river Lena, betook himself to the place. He found the
+Mammoth still in the same place, but altogether mutilated. The
+Jakoutskis of the neighbourhood had cut off the flesh, with which they
+fed their dogs; wild beasts, such as white bears, wolves, wolverines,
+and foxes, had also fed upon it, and traces of their footsteps were seen
+around. The skeleton, almost entirely cleared of its flesh, remained
+whole, with the exception of one fore-leg. The spine of the back, one
+scapula, the pelvis, and the other three limbs were still held together
+by the ligaments and by parts of the skin; the other scapula was found
+not far off. The head was covered with a dry skin; one of the ears was
+furnished with a tuft of hairs; the balls of the eyes were still
+distinguishable; the brain still occupied the cranium, but seemed dried
+up; the point of the lower lip had been gnawed and the upper lip had
+been destroyed so as to expose the teeth; the neck was furnished with a
+long flowing mane; the skin, of a dark-grey colour, covered with black
+hairs and a reddish wool, was so heavy that ten persons found great
+difficulty in transporting it to the shore. There was collected,
+according to Mr. Adams, more than thirty-six pounds’ weight of hair and
+wool which the white bears had trod into the ground, while devouring the
+flesh. This Mammoth was a male so fat and well fed, according to the
+assertion of the Tungusian chief, that its belly hung down below the
+joints of its knees. Its tusks were nine feet six inches in length,
+measured along the curve, and its head without the tusks weighed 414
+pounds avoirdupois.
+
+Mr. Adams took every care to collect all that remained of this unique
+specimen of an ancient creation, and forwarded the parts to St.
+Petersburg, a distance of 11,000 versts (7,330 miles). He succeeded in
+re-purchasing what he believed to be the tusks at Jakutsk, and the
+Emperor of Russia, who became the owner of this precious relic, paid him
+8,000 roubles. The skeleton is deposited in the Museum of the Academy of
+St. Petersburg, and the skin still remains attached to the head and the
+feet. “We have yet to find,” says Cuvier, “any individual equal to
+it.”
+
+[Illustration: XXVI.--Skeleton of the Mammoth in the St. Petersburg
+Museum.]
+
+Beside the skeleton of this famous Mammoth there is placed that of an
+Indian Elephant, and another Elephant with skin and hair, in order that
+the visitor may have a proper appreciation of the vast proportions of
+the Mammoth, as compared with them. PLATE XXVI., on the opposite page,
+represents the saloon of the Museum of St. Petersburg, which contains
+these three interesting remains.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182.--Mammoth restored.]
+
+In 1860 a great number of bones of the Mammoth, with remains of Hyæna,
+Horse, Reindeer, Rhinoceros-megarhinus, and Bison, were found in Belgium
+in digging a canal at Lierre, in the province of Antwerp. An entire
+skeleton of a young Mammoth, eleven feet six inches high (to the
+shoulder), has been reconstructed from these remains by M. Dupont, and
+is now placed in the Royal Museum of Natural History in Brussels.[98]
+
+  [98] H. Woodward, _Geological Magazine_, vol. viii., p. 193.
+
+We cannot doubt, after such testimony, of the existence in the frozen
+north, of the almost entire remains of the Mammoth. The animals seem to
+have perished suddenly; enveloped in ice at the moment of their death,
+their bodies have been preserved from decomposition by the continued
+action of the cold. If we suppose that one of those animals had sunk
+into a marsh which froze soon afterwards, or had fallen accidentally
+into the crevasse of some glacier, it would be easy for us to understand
+how its body, buried immediately under eternal ice, had remained there
+for thousands of years without undergoing decomposition.
+
+In Cuvier’s great work on _fossil bones_, he gives a long and minute
+enumeration of the various regions of Germany, France, Italy, and other
+countries, which have furnished in our days bones or tusks of the
+Mammoth. We venture to quote two of these descriptions:--“In October,
+1816,” he says, “there was discovered at Seilberg, near Canstadt, in
+Würtemberg, near which some remarkable discoveries were made in 1700, a
+very remarkable deposit, which the king, Frederick I., caused to be
+excavated, and its contents collected with the greatest care. We are
+even assured that the visit which the prince, in his ardour for all that
+was great, paid to this spot, aggravated the malady of which he died a
+few days after. An officer, Herr Natter, commenced some excavations, and
+in four-and-twenty hours discovered twenty-one teeth or fragments of
+teeth of elephant, mixed with a great number of bones. The king having
+ordered him to continue the excavations, on the second day they came
+upon a group of thirteen tusks heaped close upon each other, and along
+with them some molar teeth, lying as if they had been packed
+artificially. It was on this discovery that the king caused himself to
+be transported thither, and ordered all the surrounding soil to be dug
+up, and every object to be carefully preserved in its original position.
+The largest of the tusks, though it had lost its points and its roots,
+was still eight feet long and one foot in diameter. Many isolated tusks
+were also found, with a quantity of molar teeth, from two inches to a
+foot in length, some still adhering to the jaws. All these fragments
+were better preserved than those of 1700, which was attributed to the
+depth of the bed, and, perhaps, to the nature of the soil. The tusks
+were generally much curved. In the same deposit some bones of Horses and
+Stags were found, together with a quantity of teeth of the Rhinoceros,
+and others which were thought to belong to a Bear, and one specimen
+which was attributed to the Tapir. The place where this discovery was
+made is named Seilberg; it is about 600 paces from the city of Canstadt,
+but on the opposite side of the Necker.
+
+“All the great river basins of Germany have, like those of the Necker,
+yielded fossil bones of the Elephant; those especially abutting on the
+Rhine are too numerous to be mentioned, nor is Canstadt the only place
+in the valley of the Necker where they are found.”
+
+But of all parts of Europe, that in which they are found in greatest
+numbers is the valley of the Upper Arno. We find there a perfect
+cemetery of Elephants. These bones were at one time so common in this
+valley, that the peasantry employed them, indiscriminately with stones,
+in constructing walls and houses. Since they have learned their value,
+however, they reserve them for sale to travellers.
+
+The bones and tusks of the Mammoth are met with in America as well as in
+the Old World, scattered through Canada, Oregon, and the Northern States
+as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. Cuvier enumerates several places on
+that continent where their remains are met with, mingled with those of
+the Mastodon. The Russian Lieutenant Kotzebue found them on the north
+coast of America, in the cliffs of frozen mud in Eschsholtz Bay, within
+Behring’s Strait, and in other distant parts of the shores of the Arctic
+Seas, where they were so common that the sailors burnt many pieces in
+their fires.
+
+It is very strange that the East Indies, that is, one of the only two
+regions which is now the home of the Elephant, should be almost the only
+country in which the fossil bones of these animals have not been
+discovered. In short, from the preceding enumeration, it appears that,
+during the geological period whose history we are recording the gigantic
+Mammoth inhabited most regions of the globe. Now-a-days, the only
+climates which are suited for the existing race of Elephants are those
+of Africa and India, that is to say, tropical countries; from which we
+must draw the conclusions to which so many other inferences lead, that,
+at the epoch in which these animals lived, the temperature of the earth
+was much higher than in our days; or, more probably, the extinct race of
+Elephants must have been adapted for living in a colder climate than
+that which they now require.
+
+Among the antediluvian Carnivora, one of the most formidable seems to
+have been the _Ursus spelæus_, or Cave-bear (Fig. 183). This species
+must have been a fifth, if not a fourth, larger than the Brown Bear of
+our days. It was also more squat: some of the skeletons we possess are
+from nine to ten feet long, and only about six feet high. The _U.
+spelæus_ abounded in England, France, Belgium, and Germany; and so
+extensively in the latter country, that the teeth of the antediluvian
+Bear, as we have already stated, formed for a long time part of its
+materia medica, under the name of _fossil licorn_. Fig. 183 represents
+the skull of the Cave-bear.
+
+At the same time with the _Ursus spelæus_ another Carnivore, the _Felis
+spelæus_, or Cave-lion, lived in Europe. This animal is specifically
+identical with the living Lion of Asia and Africa: but since in these
+early times he had not to contend with the hunter for food, he was, on
+the whole, considerably larger than any Lion now existing on the earth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183.--Head of Ursus spelæus.]
+
+The Hyænas of our age consist of two species, the striped and the
+spotted Hyænas. The last presents considerable conformity in its
+structure with that of the Post-pliocene period, which Cuvier designates
+under the name of the fossil Spotted Hyæna. It seems to have been only a
+little larger than the existing species. Fig. 184 represents the head of
+the _Hyæna spelæa_, whose remains, with those of others, were found in
+the caves of Kirkdale and Kent’s Hole; the remains of about 300 being
+found in the former. Dr. Buckland satisfied himself, from the quantity
+of their dung, that the Hyænas had lived there. In the cave were found
+remains of the ox, young elephant, rhinoceros, horse, bear, wolf, hare,
+water-rat, and several birds. All the bones present an appearance of
+having been broken and gnawed by the teeth of the Hyænas, and they occur
+confusedly mixed in loam or mud, or dispersed through the crust of
+stalagmite which covered the contents of the cave.
+
+The Horse dates from the Quaternary epoch, if not from the last period
+of the Tertiary epoch. Its remains are found in the same rocks with
+those of the Mammoth and the Rhinoceros. It is distinguished from our
+existing Horse only by its size, which was smaller--its remains abound
+in the Post-pliocene rocks, not only in Europe, but in America; so that
+an aboriginal Horse existed in the New World long before it was carried
+thither by the Spaniards, although we know that it was unknown at the
+date of their arrival. “Certainly it is a marvellous fact in the history
+of the Mammalia, that in South America, a native horse should have lived
+and disappeared, to be succeeded in after ages by the countless herds
+descended from the few introduced with the Spanish colonists!”[99]
+
+  [99] “Darwin’s Journal,” p. 130.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184.--Head of Hyæna spelæa.]
+
+The Oxen of the period, if not identical with, were at least very near
+to our living species. There were three species: the _Bison priscus_,
+_B. primigenius_, and _B. Pallasii_; the first with slender legs, with
+convex frontal, broader than it was high, and differing but slightly
+from the _Aurochs_, except in being taller and by having larger horns.
+The remains of _Bison priscus_ are found in England, France, Italy,
+Germany, Russia, and America. _Bison primigenius_ was, according to
+Cuvier, the source of our domestic cattle. The _Bos Pallasii_ is found
+in America and in Siberia, and resembles in many respects the Musk-ox of
+Canada.
+
+Where these great Mammals are found we generally discover the fossil
+remains of several species of Deer. The palæontological question as
+regards these animals is very obscure, and it is often difficult to
+determine whether the remains belong to an extinct or an existing
+species. This doubt does not extend, however, to the gigantic
+forest-stag, _Cervus megaceros_, one of the most magnificent of the
+antediluvian animals, whose remains are still frequently found in
+Ireland in the neighbourhood of Dublin; more rarely in France, Germany,
+Poland, and Italy. Intermediate between the Fallow-deer and the Elk, the
+_Cervus megaceros_ partakes of the Elk in its general proportions and in
+the form of its cranium, but it approaches the Fallow-deer in its size
+and in the disposition of its horns. These magnificent appendages,
+however, while they decorated the head of the animal and gave a most
+imposing appearance to it, must have sadly impeded its progress through
+the thick and tangled forests of the ancient world. The length of these
+horns was between nine and ten feet; and they were so divergent that,
+measured from one extremity to the other, they occupied a space of
+between three and four yards.
+
+The skeleton of the _Cervus megaceros_ is found in the deposits of
+calcareous tufa, which underlie the immense peat moss of Ireland;
+sometimes in the turf itself, as near the Curragh in Kildare; in which
+position they sometimes occur in little mounds piled up in a small
+space, and nearly always in the same attitude, the head aloft, the neck
+stretched out, the horns reversed and thrown downwards towards the back,
+as if the animal, suddenly immersed into marshy ground, had been under
+the necessity of throwing up its head in search of respirable air. In
+the Geological Cabinet of the Sorbonne, at Paris, there is a magnificent
+skeleton of _Cervus megaceros_; another belongs to the College of
+Surgeons in London; and there is a third at Vienna.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The most remarkable creatures of the period, however, were the great
+Edentates--the Glyptodon, the gigantic Megatherium, the Mylodon and the
+Megalonyx. The order of Edentates is more particularly characterised by
+the absence of teeth in the fore part of the mouth. The masticating
+apparatus of the Edentates consists only of molars, the incisors and
+canine teeth being, with a few exceptions, absent altogether, as the
+animals composing this order feed chiefly on insects or the tender
+leaves of plants. The Armadillo, Anteater and Pangolin, are the living
+examples of the order. We may add, as still further characteristics,
+largely developed claws at the extremities of the toes. The order seems
+thus to establish itself as a zoological link in the chain between the
+hoofed Mammals and the ungulated animals, or those armed with claws.
+All these animals are peculiar to the continent of America.
+
+The _Glyptodon_, which appears during the Quaternary period, belonged to
+the family of Armadilloes, and their most remarkable feature was the
+presence of a hard, scaly shell, or coat of mail six feet in length, and
+composed of numerous segments, which covered the entire upper service of
+the animal from the head to the tail. It was, in short, a mammiferous
+animal, which appears to have been enclosed in a shell like that of a
+Turtle; it resembled in many respects the _Dasypus_ or Anteater, and had
+sixteen teeth in each jaw. These teeth were channelled laterally with
+two broad and deep grooves, which divided the surface of the molars into
+three parts, whence it was named the Glyptodon. The hind feet were broad
+and massive, and evidently designed to support a vast incumbent mass; it
+presented phalanges armed with short thick and depressed nails or claws.
+The animal was, as we have said, enveloped in, and protected by, a
+cuirass, or solid carapace, composed of plates which, seen from beneath,
+appeared to be hexagonal and united by denticulated sutures: above they
+represented double rosettes. The habitat of _Glyptodon clavipes_ was the
+pampas of Buenos Ayres, and the banks of an affluent of the Rio Santo,
+near Monte Video; specimens have been found not less than nine feet in
+length.
+
+The tesselated carapace of the Glyptodon was long thought to belong to
+the Megatherium; but Professor Owen shows, from the anatomical structure
+of the two animals, that the cuirass belonged to one of them only,
+namely, the Glyptodon.
+
+The _Schistopleuron_ does not differ essentially from the Glyptodon, but
+is supposed to have been a different species of the same genus; the
+chief difference between the two animals being in the structure of the
+tail, which is massive in the first and in the other composed of half a
+score of rings. In other respects the organisation and habits are
+similar, both being herbivorous, and feeding on roots and vegetables.
+Fig. 185 represents the _Schistopleuron typus_ restored, and as it
+appeared when alive.
+
+Some of the fossil Tortoises discovered in the sub-Himalayan beds
+possessed a carapace twelve feet long by six feet in breadth, which must
+have corresponded to an animal from eighteen to twenty feet in length;
+and the bones of the legs were as massive as those of the Rhinoceros.
+
+The _Megatherium_, or Animal of Paraguay, as it was called, is, at first
+view, the oddest and most remarkable animal we have yet had under
+consideration, where all have been, according to our notions, strange,
+extraordinary, and formidable. The animal creation still goes on as if--
+
+    “Nature made them and then broke the die.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Schistopleuron typus. One-twentieth natural
+size.]
+
+[Illustration: XXVII.--Skeleton of the Megatherium (Clift).]
+
+If we cast a glance at the skeleton figured on the opposite page (PLATE
+XXVII.), which was found in Paraguay, at Buenos Ayres, in 1788, and
+which is now placed, in a perfect state of preservation, in the Museum
+of Natural History in Madrid, it is impossible to avoid being struck
+with its unusually heavy form, at once awkward as a whole, and ponderous
+in most of its parts. It is allied to the existing genus of Sloths,
+which Buffon tells us is “of all the animal creation that which has
+received the most vicious organisation--a being to which Nature has
+forbidden all enjoyment; which has only been created for hardships and
+misery.” This notion of the romantic Buffon is, however, altogether
+incorrect. An attentive examination of the _Animal of_ _Paraguay_
+shows that its organisation cannot be considered either odd or awkward
+when viewed in connection with its mode of life and individual habits.
+The special organisation which renders the movements of the Sloths so
+sluggish, and apparently so painful on level ground, gives them, on the
+other hand, marvellous assistance when they live in trees, the leaves of
+which constitute their exclusive food. In the same manner, if we
+consider that the _Megatherium_ was created to burrow in the earth and
+feed upon the roots of trees and shrubs, every organ of its heavy frame
+would appear to be perfectly appropriate to its kind of life, and well
+adapted to the special purpose which was assigned to it by the Creator.
+We ought to place the Megatherium between the Sloths and the Anteaters.
+Like the first, it usually fed on the branches and leaves of trees; like
+the latter, it burrowed deep in the soil, finding there both food and
+shelter. It was as large as an Elephant or Rhinoceros of the largest
+species. Its body measured twelve or thirteen feet in length, and it was
+between five and six feet high. The engraving on page 403 (PLATE XXVII.)
+will convey, more accurately than any mere verbal description, an idea
+of the form and proportions of the animal.
+
+The English reader is chiefly indebted to the zeal and energy of Sir
+Woodbine Parish for the materials from which our naturalists have been
+enabled to re-construct the history of the Megatherium. The remains
+collected by him were found in the river Salado, which runs through the
+flat alluvial plains called Pampas to the south of the city of Buenos
+Ayres. A succession of three unusually dry seasons had lowered the
+waters to such a degree as to expose part of the pelvis to view, as the
+skeleton stood upright in the mud forming the bed of the river. Further
+inquiries led to the discovery of the remains of two other skeletons
+near the place where the first had been found; and with them an immense
+shell or carapace was met with, most of the bones associated with which
+crumbled to pieces on exposure to the air. The osseous structure of this
+enormous animal, as furnished by Mr. Clift, an eminent anatomist of the
+day, and under whose superintendence the skeleton was drawn, must have
+exceeded fourteen feet in length, and upwards of eight feet in height.
+The deeply shaded parts of the figure show the portions which are
+deficient in the Madrid skeleton.
+
+Cuvier pointed out that the skull very much resembled that of the
+Sloths, but that the rest of the skeleton bore relationship, partly to
+the Sloths, and partly to the Anteaters.
+
+The large bones, which descend from the zygomatic arch along the
+cheek-bones, would furnish a powerful means of attaching the motor
+muscles of the jaws. The anterior part of the muzzle is fully developed,
+and riddled with holes for the passage of the nerves and vessels which
+must have been there, not for a trunk, which would have been useless to
+an animal furnished with a very long neck, but for a snout analogous to
+that of the Tapir.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186.--Skeleton of Megatherium foreshortened.]
+
+The jaw and dental apparatus cannot be exactly stated, because the
+number of teeth in the lower jaw is not known. The upper jaw, Professor
+Owen has shown, contained five molars on each side; and from comparison
+and analogy with the _Scelidotherium_ it may be conjectured that the
+_Megatherium_ had four on each side of the lower jaw. Being without
+incisors or canines, the structure of its eighteen molars proves that it
+was not carnivorous: they each resemble the composite molars of the
+Elephant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187.--Bones of the pelvis of the Megatherium.]
+
+The vertebræ of the neck (as exhibited in the foreshortened figure (Fig.
+186), taken from the work of Pander and D’Alton, and showing nearly a
+front view of the head), as well as the anterior and posterior
+extremities of the Madrid skeleton, although powerful, are not to be
+compared in dimensions to those of the other extremity of the body; for
+the head seems to have been relatively light and defenceless. The lumbar
+vertebræ increase in a degree corresponding to the enormous enlargement
+of the pelvis and the posterior members. The vertebræ of the tail are
+enormous, as is seen in Fig. 187, which represents the bones of the
+pelvis and hind foot, discovered by Sir Woodbine Parish, and now in the
+Museum of the College of Surgeons. If we add to these osseous organs the
+muscles, tendons, and integuments which covered them, we must admit that
+the tail of the _Megatherium_ could not be less than two feet in
+diameter. It is probable that, like the Armadillo, it employed the tail
+to assist in supporting the enormous weight of its body; it would also
+be a formidable defensive organ when employed, as is the case with the
+Pangolins and Crocodiles. The fore-feet would be about three feet long
+and one foot broad. They would form a powerful implement for excavating
+the earth, to the greatest depths at which the roots of vegetables
+penetrate. The fore-feet rested on the ground to their full length. Thus
+solidly supported by the two hind-feet and the tail, and in advance by
+one of the fore-feet, the animal could employ the fore-foot left at
+liberty in clearing away the earth, in digging up the roots of trees, or
+in tearing down the branches; the toes of the fore-feet were, for this
+purpose, furnished with large and powerful claws, which lie at an
+oblique angle relatively to the ground, much like the burrowing talons
+of the mole.
+
+The solidity and size of the pelvis must have been enormous; its immense
+iliac bones are nearly at right angles with the vertebral column; their
+external edges are distant more than a yard and a half from each other
+when the animal is standing. The femur is three times the thickness of
+the thigh-bone of the Elephant, and the many peculiarities of structure
+in this bone appear to have been intended to give solidity to the whole
+frame, by means of its short and massive proportions. The two bones of
+the leg are, like the femur, short, thick, and solid; presenting
+proportions which we only meet with in the Armadilloes and Anteaters;
+burrowing animals with which, as we have said, its two extremities seem
+to connect it.
+
+The anatomical organisation of these members denotes heavy, slow, and
+powerful locomotion, but solid and admirable combinations for supporting
+the weight of an enormous sedentary creature; a sort of excavating
+machine, slow of motion but of incalculable power for its own purposes.
+In short, the _Megatherium_ exceeded in dimensions all existing
+Edentates. It had the head and shoulders of the Sloth, the feet and legs
+combined the characteristics of the Anteaters and Sloths, of enormous
+size, since it was at least twelve feet long when full grown, its feet
+armed with gigantic claws, and its tail at once a means of supporting
+its huge body and an instrument of defence. An animal built with such
+massive proportions could evidently neither creep nor run; its walk
+would be excessively slow. But what necessity was there for rapid
+movement in a being only occupied in burrowing under the earth, seeking
+for roots, and which would consequently rarely change its place? What
+need had it of agility to fly from its enemies, when it could overthrow
+the Crocodile with a sweep of its tail? Secure from the attacks of other
+animals, this robust herbivorous creature, of which Figure 188 is a
+restoration, must have lived peacefully and respected in the solitary
+pampas of America.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Megatherium restored.]
+
+The immediate cause of the extinction of the Megatherium is, probably,
+to be found in causes which are still in operation in South America. The
+period between the years 1827 and 1830 is called the “gran seco,” or
+the great drought, in South America; and according to Darwin, the loss
+of cattle in the province of Buenos Ayres alone was calculated at
+1,000,000 head. One proprietor at San Pedro, in the middle of the finest
+pasture-country, had lost 20,000 cattle previously to those years. “I
+was informed by an eyewitness,” he adds, “that the cattle, in herds of
+thousands, rushed into the Parana, and, being exhausted by hunger, they
+were unable to crawl up the muddy banks, and thus were drowned. The arm
+of the river which runs by San Pedro was so full of putrid carcases,
+that the master of a vessel told me that the smell rendered it quite
+impassable. All the small rivers became highly saline, and this caused
+the death of vast numbers in particular spots; for when an animal drinks
+of such water it does not recover. Azara describes the fury of the wild
+horses on a similar occasion: rushing into the marshes, those which
+arrived first being overwhelmed and crushed by those which
+followed.”[100] The upright position in which the various specimens of
+Megatheria were found indicates some such cause of death; as if the
+ponderous animal, approaching the banks of the river, when shrunk within
+its banks, had been bogged in soft mud, sufficiently adhesive to hold it
+there till it perished.
+
+  [100] “Journal of Researches,” &c., 2nd ed., p. 133. Charles Darwin.
+
+Like the Megatherium, the _Mylodon_ closely resembled the Sloth, and it
+belonged exclusively to the New World. Smaller than the Megatherium, it
+differed from it chiefly in the form of the teeth. These organs
+presented only molars with smooth surfaces, indicating that the animal
+fed on vegetables, probably the leaves and tender buds of trees. As the
+Mylodon presents at once hoofs and claws on each foot, it has been
+thought that it formed the link between the hoofed, or ungulated animals
+and the Edentates. Three species are known, which lived in the pampas of
+Buenos Ayres.
+
+In consequence of some hints given by the illustrious Washington, Mr.
+Jefferson, one of his successors as President of the United States,
+discovered, in a cavern of Western Virginia, the bones of a species of
+gigantic Sloth, which he pronounced to be the remains of some
+carnivorous animal. They consisted of a femur, a humerus, an ulna, and
+three claws, with half a dozen other bones of the foot. These bones Mr.
+Jefferson believed to be analogous to those of the lion. Cuvier saw at
+once the true analogies of the animal. The bones were the remains of a
+species of gigantic Sloth; the complete skeleton of which was
+subsequently discovered in the Mississippi, in such a perfect state of
+preservation that the cartilages, still adhering to the bones, were not
+decomposed. Jefferson called this species the _Megalonyx_. It resembled
+in many respects the Sloth. Its size was that of the largest ox; the
+muzzle was pointed; the jaws were armed with cylindrical teeth; the
+anterior limbs much longer than the posterior; the articulation of the
+foot oblique to the leg; two great toes, short, and armed with long and
+very powerful claws; the index finger more slender, and armed also with
+a less powerful claw; the tail strong and solid: such were the salient
+points of the organisation of the _Megalonyx_, whose form was a little
+slighter than that of the _Megatherium_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Mylodon robustus.]
+
+The country in which the Megatherium has been found is described by Mr.
+Darwin as belonging to the great Pampean formation, which consists
+partly of a reddish clay and in part of a highly calcareous marly rock.
+Near the coast there are some plains formed from the wreck of the upper
+plain, and from mud, gravel, and sand thrown up by the sea during the
+slow elevation of the land, as shown by the raised beds of recent
+shells. At Punta Alta there is a highly-interesting section of one of
+the later-formed little plains, in which many remains of these gigantic
+land-animals have been found. These were, says Mr. Darwin:--“First,
+parts of three heads and other bones of the Megatherium, the huge
+dimensions of which are expressed by its name. Secondly, the
+_Megalonyx_, a great allied animal. Thirdly, the _Scelidotherium_, also
+an allied animal, of which I obtained a nearly perfect skeleton: it must
+have been as large as a rhinoceros; in the structure of its head it
+comes, according to Professor Owen, nearest to the Cape Anteater, but in
+some other respects it approaches to the Armadilloes. Fourthly, the
+_Mylodon Darwinii_, a closely related genus, of little inferior size.
+Fifthly, another gigantic edental quadruped. Sixthly, a large animal
+with an osseous coat, in compartments, very like that of an armadillo.
+Seventhly, an extinct kind of horse. Eighthly, a tooth of a
+pachydermatous animal, probably the same with the Macrauchenia, a huge
+beast with a long neck like a camel. Lastly, the Toxodon, perhaps one of
+the strangest animals ever discovered; in size it equalled an Elephant
+or Megatherium, but the structure of its teeth, as Professor Owen
+states, proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the
+Gnawers, the order which, at the present day, includes most of the
+smallest quadrupeds; in many details it is allied to the pachydermata;
+judging from the position of its eyes, ears, and nostrils, it was
+probably aquatic, like the Dugong and Manatee, to which it is allied.
+How wonderfully are the different orders--at the present time so well
+separated--blended together in different points in the structure of the
+Toxodon!”[101]
+
+  [101] “Journal of Researches,” &c., by Charles Darwin, p. 81.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Lower jaw of the Mylodon.]
+
+The remains on which our knowledge of the _Scelidotherium_ is founded
+include the cranium, which is nearly entire, with the teeth and part of
+the os hyoides, seven cervical, eight dorsal, and five sacral vertebræ,
+both the scapulæ, and some other bones. The remains of the cranium
+indicate that its general form was an elongated slender compressed cone,
+beginning behind by a flattened vertical base, expanding slightly to the
+cheek-bone, and thence contracting to the anterior extremity. All these
+parts were discovered in their natural relative positions, indicating,
+as Mr. Darwin observes, that the gravelly formation in which they were
+discovered had not been disturbed since its deposition.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Skull of Scelidotherium.]
+
+The lower jaw-bone of _Mylodon_, which Mr. Darwin discovered at the base
+of the cliff called Punta Alta, in Northern Patagonia, had the teeth
+entire on both sides; they are implanted in deep sockets, and only about
+one-sixth of the last molar projects above the alveolus, but the
+proportion of the exposed part increases gradually in the inner teeth
+(Fig. 191).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Dinornis, and Bos.]
+
+“The habits of life of these Megatheroid animals were a complete puzzle
+to naturalists, until Professor Owen solved the problem with remarkable
+ingenuity. The teeth indicate, by their simple structure, that these
+Megatheroid animals lived on vegetable food, and probably on the leaves
+and small twigs of trees; their ponderous forms and great strong curved
+claws seem so little adapted for locomotion, that some eminent
+naturalists have actually believed that, like the Sloths, to which they
+are intimately related, they subsisted by climbing back downwards, on
+trees, and feeding on the leaves. It was a bold, not to say preposterous
+idea to conceive even antediluvian trees with branches strong enough to
+bear animals as large as elephants. Professor Owen, with far more
+probability, believes that, instead of climbing on the trees, they
+pulled the branches down to them, and tore up the smaller ones by the
+roots, and so fed on the leaves. The colossal breadth and weight of
+their hinder quarters, which can hardly be imagined without having been
+seen, become, on this view, of obvious service instead of being an
+encumbrance; their apparent clumsiness disappears. With their great
+tails and their huge heels firmly fixed like a tripod in the ground,
+they could freely exert the full force of their most powerful arms and
+great claws. The _Mylodon_, moreover, was furnished with a long
+extensile tongue, like that of the giraffe, which by one of those
+beautiful provisions of Nature, thus reaches, with the aid of its long
+neck, its leafy food.”[102]
+
+  [102] “Journal of Researches,” &c., by Charles Darwin, 2nd ed., p. 81.
+
+[Illustration: XXVIII.--Ideal European Landscape in the Quaternary
+Epoch.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Two gigantic birds seem to have lived in New Zealand during the
+Quaternary epoch. The _Dinornis_, which, if we may judge from the
+_tibia_, which is upwards of three feet long, and from its eggs, which
+are much larger than those of the Ostrich, must have been of most
+extraordinary size for a bird. In Fig. 192 an attempt is made to restore
+this fearfully great bird, the _Dinornis_. As to the _Epiornis_, its
+eggs only have been found.
+
+On the opposite page (PLATE XXVIII.) an attempt is made to represent the
+appearance of Europe during the epoch we have under consideration. The
+Bear is seated at the mouth of its den--the cave (thus reminding us of
+the origin of its name of _Ursus spelæus_), where it gnaws the bones of
+the Elephant. Above the cavern the _Hyæna spelæa_ looks out, with savage
+eye, for the moment when it will be prudent to dispute possession of
+these remains with its formidable rival. The great Wood-stag, with other
+great animals of the epoch, occupies the farthest shore of a small lake,
+where some small hills rise out of a valley crowned with the trees and
+shrubs of the period. Mountains, recently upheaved, rise on the distant
+horizon, covered with a mantle of frozen snow, reminding us that the
+glacial period is approaching, and has already begun to manifest itself.
+
+All these fossil bones, belonging to the great Mammalia which we have
+been describing, are found in the Quaternary formation; but the most
+abundant of all are those of the Elephant and the Horse. The extreme
+profusion of the bones of the Mammoth, crowded into the more recently
+formed deposits of the globe, is only surpassed by the prodigious
+quantity of the bones of the Horse which are buried in the same beds.
+The singular abundance of the remains of these two animals proves that,
+during the Quaternary epoch, the earth gave nourishment to immense herds
+of the Horse and the Elephant. It is probable that from one pole to the
+other, from the equator to the two extremities of the axis of the globe,
+the earth must have formed a vast and boundless prairie, while an
+immense carpet of verdure covered its whole surface; and such abundant
+pastures would be absolutely necessary to sustain these prodigious
+numbers of herbivorous animals of great size.
+
+The mind can scarcely realise the immense and verdant plains of this
+earlier world, animated by the presence of an infinity of such
+inhabitants. In its burning temperature, Pachyderms of monstrous forms,
+but of peaceful habits, traversed the tall vegetation, composed of
+grasses of all sorts. Deer of gigantic size, their heads ornamented with
+enormous horns, escorted the heavy herds of the Mammoth; while the
+Horse, small in size and compact of form, galloped and frisked round
+these magnificent horizons of verdure which no human eye had yet
+contemplated.
+
+Nevertheless, all was not quiet and tranquil in the landscapes of the
+ancient world. Voracious and formidable carnivorous animals waged a
+bloody war on the inoffensive herds. The Tiger, the Lion, and the
+ferocious Hyæna; the Bear, and the Jackal, there selected their prey. On
+the opposite page an endeavour is made to represent the great animals
+among the Edentates which inhabited the American plains during the
+Quaternary epoch (PLATE XXIX). We observe there the Glyptodon, the
+Megatherium, the Mylodon, and, along with them, the Mastodon. A small
+Ape (the Orthopithecus), which first appeared in the Miocene period,
+occupies the branch of a tree in the landscape. The vegetation is that
+of tropical America at the present time.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The deposits of this age, which are of later date than the Crag, and of
+earlier date than the Boulder Clay, with its fragments of rocks
+frequently transported from great distances, are classed under the term
+“pre-glacial.”
+
+After the deposition of the Forest Bed, which is seen overlying the Crag
+for miles between high and low-water mark, on the shore west of Cromer,
+in Norfolk, there was a general reduction of temperature, and a period
+of intense cold, known as the “glacial period,” seems to have set in,
+during which a great part of what is now the British Islands was covered
+with a thick coating of ice, and probably united with the Continent.
+
+At this time England south of the Bristol Channel (the estuary of the
+Severn), and the Thames, appears to have been above water. The northern
+part of the country, and the high-ground generally of Britain and
+Ireland were covered with gliding glaciers, by whose grinding action the
+whole surface became moulded and worn into its present shape, while the
+floating icebergs which broke off at the sea-side from these glaciers,
+conveyed away and dropped on the bed of the sea those fragments of rocks
+and the gravel and other earthy materials which are now generally
+recognised as glacial accumulations.
+
+In all directions, however, proofs are being gradually obtained that,
+about this period, movements of submersion under the sea were in
+progress, all north of the Thames.
+
+[Illustration: XXIX.--Ideal American Landscape in the Quaternary
+Epoch.]
+
+Ramsay points out indications, first of an intensely cold period, when
+land was much more elevated than it is now; then of submergence beneath
+the sea; and, lastly, re-elevation attended by glacial action. “When we
+speak of the vegetation and quadrupeds of Cromer Forest being
+pre-glacial,” says Lyell, “we merely mean that their formation preceded
+the era of the general submergence of the British Isles beneath the
+waters of the glacial sea. The successive deposits seen in direct
+superposition on the Norfolk coast,” adds Sir Charles, “imply at first
+the prevalence over a wide area of the Newer Pliocene Sea. Afterwards,
+the bed of the sea was converted into dry land, and underwent several
+oscillations of level, so as to be, first, dry land supporting a forest;
+then an estuary; then again land; and, finally, a sea near the mouth of
+a river, till the downward movement became so great as to convert the
+whole area into a sea of considerable depth, in which much floating ice,
+carrying mud, sand, and boulders melted, letting its burthen fall to the
+bottom. Finally, over the till with boulders stratified drift was
+formed; after which, but not until the total subsidence amounted to more
+than 400 feet, an upward movement began, which re-elevated the whole
+country, so that the lowest of the terrestrial formations, or the forest
+bed, was brought up to nearly its pristine level, in such a manner as to
+be exposed at a low tide. Both the descending and ascending movement
+seem to have been very gradual.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193.--Palæophognos Gesneri. Fossil Toad.]
+
+
+EUROPEAN DELUGES.
+
+The Tertiary formations, in many parts of Europe, of more or less
+extent, are covered by an accumulation of heterogeneous deposits,
+filling up the valleys, and composed of very various materials,
+consisting mostly of fragments of the neighbouring rocks. The erosions
+which we remark at the bottoms of the hills, and which have greatly
+enlarged already existing valleys; the mounds of gravel accumulated at
+one point, and which is formed of rolled materials, that is to say, of
+fragments of rocks worn smooth and round by continual friction during a
+long period, in which they have been transported from one point to
+another--all these signs indicate that these denudations of the soil,
+these displacements and transport of very heavy bodies to great
+distances, are due to the violent and sudden action of large currents of
+water. An immense wave has been thrown suddenly on the surface of the
+earth, making great ravages in its passage, furrowing the earth and
+driving before it débris of all sorts in its disorderly course.
+Geologists give the name of _diluvium_ to a formation thus removed and
+scattered, which, from its heterogeneous nature, brings under our eyes,
+as it were, the rapid passage of an impetuous torrent--a phenomenon
+which is commonly designated as a _deluge_.
+
+To what cause are we to attribute these sudden and apparently temporary
+invasions of the earth’s surface by rapid currents of water? In all
+probability to the upheaval of some vast extent of dry land, to the
+formation of some mountain or mountain-range in the neighbourhood of the
+sea, or even in the bed of the sea itself. The land suddenly elevated by
+an upward movement of the terrestrial crust, or by the formation of
+ridges and furrows at the surface, has, by its reaction, violently
+agitated the waters, that is to say, the more mobile portion of the
+globe. By this new impulse the waters have been thrown with great
+violence over the earth, inundating the plains and valleys, and for the
+moment covering the soil with their furious waves, mingled with the
+earth, sand, and mud, of which the devastated districts have been
+denuded by their abrupt invasion. The phenomenon has been sudden but
+brief, like the upheaval of the mountain or chain of mountains, which is
+presumed to have been the cause of it; but it was often repeated:
+witness the valleys which occur in every country, especially those in
+the neighbourhood of Lyons and of the Durance. These strata indicate as
+many successive deposits. Besides this, the displacement of blocks of
+minerals from their normal position is proof, now perfectly
+recognisable, of this great phenomenon.
+
+There have been, doubtless, during the epochs anterior to the Quaternary
+period of which we write, many deluges such as we are considering.
+Mountains and chains of mountains, through all the ages we have been
+describing, were formed by upheaval of the crust into ridges, where it
+was too elastic or too thick to be fractured. Each of these subterranean
+commotions would be provocative of momentary irruptions of the waves.
+
+But the visible testimony to this phenomenon--the living proofs of this
+denudation, of this tearing away of the soil, are found nowhere so
+strikingly as in the beds superimposed, far and near, upon the Tertiary
+formations, and which bear the geological name of _diluvium_. This term
+was long employed to designate what is now better known as the “boulder”
+formation, a glacial deposit which is abundant in Europe north of the
+50th, and in America north of the 40th, parallel, and re-appearing again
+in the southern hemisphere; but altogether absent in tropical regions.
+It consists of sand and clay, sometimes stratified, mixed with rounded
+and angular fragments of rock, generally derived from the same district;
+and their origin has generally been ascribed to a series of diluvial
+waves raised by hurricanes, earthquakes, or the sudden upheaval of land
+from the bed of the sea, which had swept over continents, carrying with
+them vast masses of mud and heavy stones, and forcing these stones over
+rocky surfaces so as to polish and impress them with furrows and striæ.
+Other circumstances occurred, however, to establish a connection between
+this formation and the glacial drift. The size and number of the erratic
+blocks increase as we travel towards the Arctic regions; some intimate
+association exists, therefore, between this formation and the
+accumulations of ice and snow which characterise the approaching glacial
+period.
+
+As we have already stated at the beginning of this chapter, there is
+very distinct evidence of two successive deluges in our hemisphere
+during the Quaternary epoch. The two may be distinguished as the
+_European Deluge_ and the _Asiatic_. The two European deluges occurred
+prior to the appearance of man; the Asiatic deluge happened after that
+event; and the human race, then in the early days of its existence,
+certainly suffered from this cataclysm. In the present chapter we
+confine ourselves to the two cataclysms which overwhelmed Europe in the
+Quaternary epoch.
+
+The first occurred in the north of Europe, where it was produced by the
+upheaval of the mountains of Norway. Commencing in Scandinavia, the wave
+spread and carried its ravages into those regions which now constitute
+Sweden, Norway, European Russia, and the north of Germany, sweeping
+before it all the loose soil on the surface, and covering the whole of
+Scandinavia--all the plains and valleys of Northern Europe--with a
+mantle of transported soil. As the regions in the midst of which this
+great mountainous upheaval occurred--as the seas surrounding these vast
+spaces were partly frozen and covered with ice, from their elevation and
+neighbourhood to the pole--the wave which swept these countries carried
+along with it enormous masses of ice. The shock, produced by the
+collision of these several solid blocks of frozen water, would only
+contribute to increase the extent and intensity of the ravages
+occasioned by this violent cataclysm, which is represented in PLATE XXX.
+
+The physical proof of this _deluge of the north of Europe_ exists in the
+accumulation of unstratified deposits which covers all the plains and
+low grounds of Northern Europe. On and in this deposit are found
+numerous blocks which have received the characteristic and significant
+name of erratic blocks, and which are frequently of considerable size.
+These become more characteristic as we ascend to higher latitudes, as in
+Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, the southern borders of the Baltic, and in
+the British Islands generally, in all of which countries deposits of
+marine fossil shells occur, which prove the submergence of large areas
+of Scandinavia, of the British Isles, and other regions during parts of
+the glacial period. Some of these rocks, characterised as _erratic_, are
+of very considerable volume; such, for instance, is the granite block
+which forms the pedestal of the statue of Peter the Great at St.
+Petersburg. This block was found in the interior of Russia, where the
+whole formation is _Permian_, and its presence there can only be
+explained by supposing it to have been transported by some vast iceberg,
+carried by a diluvial current. This hypothesis alone enables us to
+account for another block of granite, weighing about 340 tons, which was
+found on the sandy plains in the north of Prussia, an immense model of
+which was made for the Berlin Museum. The last of these erratic blocks
+deposited in Germany covers the grave of King Gustavus Adolphus, of
+Sweden, killed at the battle of Lutzen, in 1632. He was interred beneath
+the rock. Another similar block has been raised in Germany into a
+monument to the geologist Leopold von Buch.
+
+[Illustration: XXX.--Deluge of the North of Europe.]
+
+These erratic blocks which are met with in the plains of Russia, Poland,
+and Prussia, and in the eastern parts of England, are composed of rocks
+entirely foreign to the region where they are found. They belong to the
+primary rocks of Norway; they have been transported to their present
+sites, protected by a covering of ice, by the waters of the northern
+deluge. How vast must have been the impulsive force which could carry
+such enormous masses across the Baltic, and so far inland as the places
+where they have been deposited for the surprise of the geologist or the
+contemplation of the thoughtful!
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The second European deluge is supposed to have been the result of the
+formation and upheaval of the Alps. It has filled with débris and
+transported material the valleys of France, Germany, and Italy over a
+circumference which has the Alps for its centre. The proofs of a great
+convulsion at a comparatively recent geological date are numerous. The
+Alps may be from eighty to 100 miles across, and the probabilities are
+that their existence is due, as Sir Charles Lyell supposes, to a
+succession of unequal movements of upheaval and subsidence; that the
+Alpine region had been exposed for countless ages to the action of rain
+and rivers, and that the larger valleys were of pre-glacial times, is
+highly probable. In the eastern part of the chain some of the Primary
+fossiliferous rocks, as well as Oolitic and Cretaceous rocks, and even
+Tertiary deposits, are observable; but in the central Alps these
+disappear, and more recent rocks, in some places even Eocene strata,
+graduate into metamorphic rocks, in which Oolitic, Cretaceous, and
+Eocene strata have been altered into granular marble, gneiss, and other
+metamorphic schists; showing that eruptions continued after the deposit
+of the Middle Eocene formations. Again, in the Swiss and Savoy Alps,
+Oolitic and Cretaceous formations have been elevated to the height of
+12,000 feet, and Eocene strata 10,000 feet above the level of the sea;
+while in the Rothal, in the Bernese Alps, occurs a mass of gneiss 1,000
+feet thick between two strata containing Oolitic fossils.
+
+Besides these proofs of recent upheaval, we can trace effects of two
+different kinds, resulting from the powerful action of masses of water
+violently displaced by this gigantic upheaval. At first broad tracks
+have been hollowed out by the diluvial waves, which have, at these
+points, formed deep valleys. Afterwards these valleys have been filled
+up by materials derived from the mountain and transported into the
+valley, these materials consisting of rounded pebbles, argillaceous and
+sandy mud, generally calcareous and ferriferous. This double effect is
+exhibited, with more or less distinctness, in all the great valleys of
+the centre and south of France. The valley of the Garonne is, in respect
+to these phenomena, classic ground, as it were.
+
+As we leave the little city of Muret, three successive levels will be
+observed on the left bank of the Garonne. The lowest of the three is
+that of the valley, properly so called; while the loftiest corresponds
+to the plateau of Saint-Gaudens. These three levels are distinctly
+marked in the Toulousean country, which illustrates the diluvial
+phenomena in a remarkable fashion. The city of Toulouse reposes upon a
+slight eminence of diluvial formation. The flat diluvial plateau
+contrasts strongly with the rounded hills of Gascony and Languedoc. They
+are essentially constituted of a bed of gravel, formed of rounded or
+oval pebbles, and again covered with sandy and earthy deposits. The
+pebbles are principally quartzose, brown or black externally, mixed with
+portions of hard “Old Red” and New Red Sandstone. The soft earth which
+accompanies the pebbles and gravel is a mixture of argillaceous sand of
+a red or yellow colour, caused by the oxide of iron which enters into
+its composition. In the valley, properly so called, we find the pebbles
+again associated with other minerals which are rare at the higher
+levels. Some teeth of the Mammoth, and _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, have
+been found at several points on the borders of this valley.
+
+The small valleys, tributary to the principal valley, would appear to
+have been excavated secondarily, partly out of diluvial deposits, and
+their alluvium, essentially earthy, has been formed at the expense of
+the Tertiary formation, and even of the diluvium itself. Among other
+celebrated sites, the diluvial formation is largely developed in Sicily.
+The ancient temple of the Parthenon at Athens is built on an eminence
+formed of diluvial earth.
+
+In the valley of the Rhine, in Alsace, and in many isolated parts of
+Europe, a particular sort of _diluvium_ forms thick beds; it consists of
+a yellowish-grey mud, composed of argillaceous matter mixed with
+carbonate of lime, quartzose and micaceous sand, and oxide of iron. This
+mud, termed by geologists _loess_, attains in some places considerable
+thickness. It is recognisable in the neighbourhood of Paris. It rises a
+little both on the right and left, above the base of the mountains of
+the Black Forest and of the Vosges; and forms thick beds on the banks of
+the Rhine.
+
+The fossils contained in diluvial deposits consist, generally, of
+terrestrial, lacustrine, or fluviatile shells, for the most part
+belonging to species still living. In parts of the valley of the Rhine,
+between Bingen and Basle, the fluviatile loam or loess, now under
+consideration, is seen forming hills several hundred feet thick, and
+containing, here and there, throughout that thickness, land and
+fresh-water shells; from which it seems necessary to suppose, according
+to Lyell, first, a time when the loess was slowly accumulated, then a
+later period, when large portions of it were removed--and followed by
+movements of oscillation, consisting, first, of a general depression,
+and then of a gradual re-elevation of the land.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We have already noticed the caverns in which such extraordinary
+accumulations of animal remains were discovered: it will not be out of
+place to give here a résumé of the state of our knowledge concerning
+_bone-caves_ and _bone-breccias_.
+
+The _bone-caves_ are not simply cavities hollowed out of the rock; they
+generally consist of numerous chambers or caverns communicating with
+each other by narrow passages (often of considerable length) which can
+only be traversed by creeping. One in Mexico extends several leagues.
+Perhaps the most remarkable in Europe is that of Gailenreuth in
+Franconia. The Harz mountains contain many fine caverns; among others,
+those of Scharrfeld and _Baumann’s Hohl_, in which many bones of Hyæna,
+Bears, and Lions have been found together. The _Kirkdale Cave_, so well
+known from the description given of it by Dr. Buckland, lying about
+twenty-five miles north-north-east of York, was the burial-place, as we
+have stated, of at least 300 Hyænas belonging to individuals of
+different ages; besides containing some other remains, mostly teeth
+(those of the Hyæna excepted) belonging to ruminating animals. Buckland
+states that the bones of all the other animals, those of the Hyænas not
+excepted, were gnawed. He also noticed a partial polish and wearing away
+to a considerable depth of one side of many of the best preserved
+specimens of teeth and bones, which can only be accounted for by
+referring the partial destruction to the continual treading of the
+Hyænas, and the rubbing of their skin on the side that lay uppermost at
+the bottom of the den.
+
+From these facts it would appear probable that the Cave at Kirkdale was,
+“during a long succession of years, inhabited as a den by Hyænas, and
+that they dragged into its recesses the other animal bodies, whose
+remains are found mixed indiscriminately with their own.”[103] This
+conjecture is made almost certain by the discovery made by Dr. Buckland
+of many coprolites of animals that had fed on bones, as well as traces
+of the frequent passage of these animals to or from the entrance of the
+cavern or den. A modern naturalist visiting the Cavern of Adelsberg, in
+Carniola, traversed a series of chambers extending over three leagues in
+the same direction, and was only stopped in his subterranean discoveries
+by coming to a lake which occupied its entire breadth.
+
+  [103] “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” by the Rev. W. Buckland, 1823, p. 19.
+
+The interior walls of the bone-caves are, in general, rounded off, and
+furrowed, presenting many traces of the erosive action of water,
+characteristics which frequently escape observation because the walls
+are covered with the calcareous deposit called _stalactite_ or
+_stalagmite_--that is, with carbonate of lime, resulting from the
+deposition left by infiltrating water, through the overlying limestone,
+into the interior of the cavern. The formation of the stalactite, with
+which many of the bones were incrusted in the Cave of Gailenreuth, is
+thus described by Liebig. The limestone over the cavern is covered with
+a rich soil, in which the vegetable matter is continually decaying. This
+mould, or humus, being acted on by moisture and air, evolves carbonic
+acid, which is dissolved by rain. The rain-water thus impregnated,
+permeating the porous limestone, dissolves a portion of it, and
+afterwards, when the excess of carbonic acid evaporates in the caverns,
+parts with the calcareous matter, and forms _stalactite_--the
+stalactites being the pendent masses of carbonate of lime, which hang in
+picturesque forms either in continuous sheets, giving the cave and its
+sides the appearance of being hung with drapery, or like icicles
+suspended from the roof of the cave, through which the water percolates;
+while those formed on the surface of the floor form _stalagmite_. These
+calcareous products ornament the walls of these gloomy caverns in a most
+brilliant and picturesque manner.
+
+Under a covering of stalagmite, the floor of the cave frequently
+presents deposits of mud and gravel. It is in excavating this soil that
+the bones of antediluvian animals, mixed with shells, fragments of
+rocks, and rolled pebbles, are discovered. The distribution of these
+bones in the middle of the gravelly argillaceous mud is as irregular as
+possible. The skeletons are rarely entire; the bones do not even occur
+in their natural positions. The bones of small Rodents are found
+accumulated in the crania of great Carnivora. The teeth of Bears,
+Hyænas, and Rhinoceros are cemented with the jaw-bones of Ruminants. The
+bones are very often polished and rounded, as if they had been
+transported from great distances; others are fissured; others,
+nevertheless, are scarcely altered. Their state of preservation varies
+with their position in the cave.
+
+The bones most frequently found in caves are those of the Carnivora of
+the Quaternary epoch: the Bear, Hyæna, the Lion, and Tiger. The animals
+of the plain, and notably the great Pachyderms--the Mammoth and
+Rhinoceros--are only very rarely met with, and always in small numbers.
+From the cavern of Gailenreuth more than a thousand skeletons have been
+taken, of which 800 belonged to the large _Ursus spelæus_, and sixty to
+the smaller species, with 200 Hyænas, Wolves, Lions, and Gluttons. A jaw
+of the Glutton has lately been found by Mr. T. McK. Hughes in a cave in
+the Mountain Limestone at Plas Heaton, associated with Wolf, Bison,
+Reindeer, Horse, and Cave Bear; proving that the Glutton, which at the
+present day inhabits Siberia and the inclement northern regions of
+Europe, inhabited Great Britain during the Pleistocene or Quaternary
+Period. In the Kirkdale cave the remains, as we have seen, included
+those of not less than 300 Hyænas of all ages. Dr. Buckland concludes,
+from these circumstances, that the Hyænas alone made this their den, and
+that the bones of other animals accumulated there had been carried
+thither by them as their prey; it is, however, now admitted that this
+part of the English geologist’s conclusions do not apply to the contents
+of all bone-caves. In some instances the bones of the Mammals are broken
+and worn as with a long transport, _rolled_, according to the technical
+geological expression, and finally cemented in the same mud, together
+with fragments of the rocks of the neighbourhood. Besides bones of
+Hyænas, are found not only the bones of inoffensive herbivora, but
+remains of Lions and Bears.
+
+We ought to note, in order to make this explanation complete, that some
+geologists consider that these caves served as a refuge for sick and
+wounded animals. It is certain that we see, in our own days, some
+animals, when attacked by sickness, seek refuge in the fissures of
+rocks, or in the hollows of trunks of trees, where they die; to this
+natural impulse it may, probably, be ascribed that the skeletons of
+animals are so rarely found in forests or plains. We may conclude, then,
+that besides the more general mode in which these caverns were filled
+with bones, the two other causes which we have enumerated may have been
+in operation; that is to say, they were the habitual sojourn of
+carnivorous and destructive animals, and they became the retreat of sick
+animals on some particular occasions.
+
+What was the origin of these caves? How have these immense excavations
+been produced? Nearly all these caves occur in limestone rocks,
+particularly in the Jurassic and Carboniferous formations, which present
+many vast subterranean caverns. At the same time some fine caves exist
+in the Silurian formation, such as the _Grotto des Demoiselles_ (Fig.
+194) near Ganges, of Hérault. It should be added, in order to complete
+the explanation of the cave formations, that the greater part of these
+vast internal excavations have been chiefly caused by subterranean
+watercourses, which have eroded and washed away a portion of the walls,
+and in this manner greatly enlarged their original dimensions.
+
+But there are other modes than the above of accounting, in a more
+satisfactory manner, for the existence of these caves. According to Sir
+Charles Lyell, there was a time when (as now) limestone rocks were
+dissolved, and when the carbonate of lime was carried away gradually by
+springs from the interior of the earth; that another era occurred, when
+engulfed rivers or occasional floods swept organic and inorganic débris
+into the subterranean hollows previously formed; finally, there were
+changes, in which engulfed rivers were turned into new channels, and
+springs dried up, after which the cave-mud, breccia, gravel, and fossil
+bones were left in the position in which they are now discovered. “We
+know,” says that eminent geologist,[104] “that in every limestone
+district the rain-water is _soft_, or free from earthy ingredients, when
+it falls upon the soil, and when it enters the rocks below; whereas it
+is _hard_, or charged with carbonate of lime, when it issues again to
+the surface in springs. The rain derives some of its carbonic acid from
+the air, but more from the decay of vegetable matter in the soil through
+which it percolates; and by the excess of this acid, limestone is
+dissolved, and the water becomes charged with carbonate of lime. The
+mass of solid matter silently and unceasingly subtracted in this way
+from the rocks in every century is considerable, and must in the course
+of thousands of years be so vast, that the space it once occupied may
+well be expressed by a long suite of caverns.”
+
+  [104] “Elements of Geology,” p. 122.
+
+The most celebrated of these bone-caves are those of Gailenreuth, in
+Franconia; of Nabenstein, and of Brumberg, in the same country; the
+caves on the banks of the Meuse, near Liège, of which the late Dr.
+Schmerling examined forty; of Yorkshire, Devonshire, Somersetshire, and
+Derbyshire, in England; also several in Sicily, at Palermo, and
+Syracuse; in France at Hérault, in the Cévennes, and Franche Comté; and
+in the New World, in Kentucky and Virginia.
+
+The _ossiferous breccia_ differs from the bone-caves only in form. The
+most remarkable of them are seen at Cette, Antibes, and Nice, on the
+shores of Italy; and in the isles of Corsica, Malta, and Sardinia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 194.--Grotto des Demoiselles, Hérault.]
+
+Nearly the same bones are found in the _breccia_ which we find in the
+caves; the chief difference being that fossils of the Ruminants are
+there in greater abundance. The proportions of bones to the fragments of
+stone and cement vary considerably in different localities. In the
+_breccia_ of Cagliari, where the remains of Ruminants are less abundant
+than at Gibraltar and Nice, the bones, which are those of the small
+Rodents, are, so to speak, more abundant than the mud in which they are
+embedded. We find, there, also, three or four species of Birds which
+belong to Thrushes and Larks. In the _breccia_ at Nice the remains of
+some great Carnivora are found, among which are recognised two species
+of Lion and Panther. In the Grotto di San-Ciro, in the Monte Griffone,
+about six miles from Palermo, in Sicily, Dr. Falconer collected remains
+of two species of Hippopotamus and bones of _Elephas antiquus_, Bos,
+Stag, Pig, Bear, Dog, and a large _Felis_, some of which indicated a
+Pliocene age. Like many others, this cave contains a thick mass of
+bone-breccia on its floor, the bones of which have long been known, and
+were formerly supposed to be those of giants; while Prof. Ferrara
+suggested that the Elephants’ bones were due to the Carthaginian
+elephants imported into Sicily for purposes of sport.[105]
+
+  [105] _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, 1859.
+
+But the _breccia_ is not confined to Europe. We meet with it in all
+parts of the globe; and recent discoveries in Australia indicate a
+formation corresponding exactly to the _ossiferous breccia_ of the
+Mediterranean, in which an ochreous-reddish cement binds together
+fragments of rocks and bones, among which we find four species of
+Kangaroos.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 195.--Beloptera Sepioidea.]
+
+
+GLACIAL PERIOD.
+
+The two cataclysms, of which we have spoken, surprised Europe at the
+moment of the development of an important creation. The whole scope of
+animated Nature, the evolution of animals, was suddenly arrested in that
+part of our hemisphere over which these gigantic convulsions spread,
+followed by the brief but sudden submersion of entire continents.
+Organic life had scarcely recovered from the violent shock, when a
+second, and perhaps severer blow assailed it. The northern and central
+parts of Europe, the vast countries which extend from Scandinavia to the
+Mediterranean and the Danube, were visited by a period of sudden and
+severe cold: the temperature of the polar regions seized them. The
+plains of Europe, but now ornamented by the luxurious vegetation
+developed by the heat of a burning climate, the boundless pastures on
+which herds of great Elephants, the active Horse, the robust
+Hippopotamus, and great Carnivorous animals grazed and roamed, became
+covered with a mantle of ice and snow.
+
+To what cause are we to attribute a phenomenon so unforeseen, and
+exercising itself with such intensity? In the present state of our
+knowledge no certain explanation of the event can be given. Did the
+central planet, the sun, which was long supposed to distribute light and
+heat to the earth, lose during this period its calorific powers? This
+explanation is insufficient, since at this period the solar heat is not
+supposed to have greatly influenced the earth’s temperature. Were the
+marine currents, such as the _Gulf Stream_, which carries the Atlantic
+Ocean towards the north and west of Europe, warming and raising its
+temperature, suddenly turned in the contrary direction? No such
+hypothesis is sufficient to explain either the cataclysms or the glacial
+phenomena; and we need not hesitate to confess our ignorance of this
+strange, this mysterious, episode in the history of the globe.
+
+There have been attempts, and very ingenious ones too, to explain these
+phenomena, of which we shall give a brief summary, without committing
+ourselves to any further opinion, using for that purpose the information
+contained in M. Ch. Martins’ excellent work. “The most violent
+convulsions of the solid and liquid elements,” says this able writer,
+“appear to have been themselves only the effects due to a cause much
+more powerful than the mere expansion of the pyrosphere; and it is
+necessary to recur, in order to explain them, to some new and bolder
+hypothesis than has yet been hazarded. Some philosophers have belief in
+an astronomical revolution which may have overtaken our globe in the
+first age of its formation, and have modified its position in relation
+to the sun. They admit that the poles have not always been as they are
+now, and that some terrible shock displaced them, changing at the same
+time the inclination of the axis of the rotation of the earth.” This
+hypothesis, which is nearly the same as that propounded by the Danish
+geologist, Klee, has been ably developed by M. de Boucheporn. According
+to this writer, many multiplied shocks, caused by the violent contact of
+the earth with comets, produced the elevation of mountains, the
+displacement of seas, and perturbations of climate--phenomena which he
+ascribes to the sudden disturbance of the parallelism of the axis of
+rotation. The antediluvian equator, according to him, makes a right
+angle with the existing equator.
+
+“Quite recently,” adds M. Martins, “a learned French mathematician, M.
+J. Adhémar, has taken up the same idea; but, dismissing the more
+problematical elements of the concussion with comets as untenable, he
+seeks to explain the deluges by the laws of gravitation and celestial
+mechanics, and his theory has been supported by very competent writers.
+It is this: We know that our planet is influenced by two essential
+movements--one of rotation on its axis, which it accomplishes in
+twenty-four hours; the other of translation, which it accomplishes in a
+little more than 365¼ days. But besides these great and perceptible
+movements, the earth has a third, and even a fourth movement, with one
+of which we need not occupy ourselves; it is that designated _nutation_
+by astronomers. It changes periodically, but within very restricted
+limits, the inclination of the terrestrial axis to the plane of the
+ecliptic by a slight oscillation, the duration of which is only eighteen
+hours, and its influence upon the relative length of day and night
+almost inappreciable. The other movement is that on which M. Adhémar’s
+theory is founded.
+
+“We know that the curve described by the earth in its annual revolution
+round the sun is not a circle, but an ellipse; that is, a slightly
+elongated circle, sometimes called a circle of two centres, one of which
+is occupied by the sun. This curve is called the ecliptic. We know,
+also, that, in its movement of translation, the earth preserves such a
+position that its axis of rotation is intercepted, at its centre, by the
+plane of the ecliptic. But in place of being perpendicular, or at right
+angles with this plane, it crosses it obliquely in such a manner as to
+form on one side an angle of one-fourth, and on the other an angle of
+three-fourths of a right angle. This inclination is only altered in an
+insignificant degree by the movement of _nutation_. I need scarcely add
+that the earth, in its annual revolution, occupies periodically four
+principal positions on the ecliptic, which mark the limits of the four
+seasons. When its centre is at the extremity most remote from the sun,
+or _aphelion_, it is the summer solstice for the northern hemisphere.
+When its centre is at the other extremity, or _perihelion_, the same
+hemisphere is at the winter solstice. The two intermediate points mark
+the equinoxes of spring and autumn. The great circle of separation of
+light and shade passes, then, precisely through the poles, the day and
+night are equal, and the line of intersection of the plane of the
+equator and that of the ecliptic make part of the vector ray from the
+centre of the sun to the centre of the earth--what we call the
+_equinoctial line_.
+
+“Thus placed, it is evident that if the terrestrial axis remained always
+parallel to itself, the equinoctial line would always pass through the
+same point on the surface of the globe. But it is not absolutely thus.
+The parallelism of the axis of the earth is changed slowly, very slowly,
+by a movement which Arago ingeniously compares to the varying
+inclination of a top when about to cease spinning. This movement has the
+effect of making the equinoctial points on the surface of the earth
+retrograde towards the east from year to year, in such a manner that at
+the end of 25,800 years according to some astronomers, but 21,000 years
+according to Adhémar, the equinoctial point has literally made a circuit
+of the globe, and has returned to the same position which it occupied at
+the beginning of this immense period, which has been called the ‘_great
+year_.’ It is this retrograde evolution, in which the terrestrial axis
+describes round its own centre that revolution round a double conic
+surface, which is known as the _precession of the equinoxes_. It was
+observed 2,000 years ago by Hipparchus; its cause was discovered by
+Newton; and its complete evolution explained by D’Alembert and Laplace.
+
+“Now, we know that the consequence of the inclination of the terrestrial
+axis with the plane of the ecliptic is--
+
+“1. That the seasons are inverse to the two hemispheres--that is to
+say, the northern hemisphere enjoys its spring and summer, while the
+southern hemisphere passes through autumn and winter.
+
+“2. When the earth approaches nearest to the sun, our hemisphere has its
+autumn and winter; and the regions near the pole, receiving none of the
+solar rays, are plunged into darkness, approaching that of night, during
+six months of the year.
+
+“3. When the earth is most distant from the sun, when much the greater
+half of the ecliptic intervenes between it and the focus of light and
+heat, the pole, being then turned towards this focus, constantly
+receives its rays, and the rest of the northern hemisphere enjoys its
+long days of spring and summer.
+
+“Bearing in mind that, in going from the equinox of spring to the
+autumnal equinox of our hemisphere, the earth traverses a much longer
+curve than it does on its return; bearing in mind, also, the accelerated
+movement it experiences in its approach to the sun from the attraction,
+which increases in inverse proportion to the square of its distance, we
+arrive at the conclusion that our summer should be longer and our winter
+shorter than the summer and winter of our antipodes; and this is
+_actually_ the case by about eight days.
+
+“I say _actually_, because, if we now look at the effects of the
+precession of the equinoxes, we shall see that in a time equal to half
+of the _grand year_, whether it be 12,900 or 10,500 years, the
+conditions will be reversed; the terrestrial axis, and consequently the
+poles, will have accomplished the half of their bi-conical revolution
+round the centre of the earth. It will then be the northern hemisphere
+which will have the summers shorter and the winters longer, and the
+southern hemisphere exactly the reverse. In the year 1248 before the
+Christian era, according to M. Adhémar, the north pole attained its
+maximum summer duration. Since then--that is to say for the last 3,112
+years--it has begun to decrease, and this will continue to the year 7388
+of our era before it attains its maximum winter duration.
+
+“But the reader may ask, fatigued perhaps by these abstract
+considerations, What is there here in common with the deluges?
+
+“The _grand year_ is here divided, for each hemisphere, into two great
+seasons, which De Jouvencel calls the great summer and winter, which
+will each, according to M. Adhémar, be 10,500 years.
+
+“During the whole of this period one of the poles has constantly had
+shorter winters and longer summers than the other. It follows that the
+pole which experiences the long winter undergoes a gradual and
+continuous cooling, in consequence of which the quantities of ice and
+snow, which melt during the summer, are more than compensated by those
+which are again produced in the winter. The ice and snow go on
+accumulating from year to year, and finish at the end of the period by
+forming, at the coldest pole, a sort of crust or cap, vast, thick, and
+heavy enough to modify the spheroidal form of the earth. This
+modification, as a necessary consequence, produces a notable
+displacement of the centre of gravity, or--for it amounts to the same
+thing--of the centre of attraction, round which all the watery masses
+tend to restore it. The south pole, as we have seen, finished its _great
+winter_ in 1248 B.C. The accumulated ice then added itself to the snow,
+and the snow to the ice, at the south pole, towards which the watery
+masses all tended until they covered nearly the whole of the southern
+hemisphere. But since that date of 1248, our _great winter_ has been in
+progress. Our pole, in its turn, goes on getting cooler continually; ice
+is being heaped upon snow, and snow upon ice, and in 7,388 years the
+centre of gravity of the earth will return to its normal position, which
+is the geometrical centre of the spheroid. Following the immutable laws
+of central attraction, the southern waters accruing from the melted ice
+and snow of the south pole will return to invade and overwhelm once more
+the continents of the northern hemisphere, giving rise to new
+continents, in all probability, in the southern hemisphere.”
+
+Such is a brief statement of the hypothesis which Adhémar has very
+ingeniously worked out. How far it explains the mysterious phenomena
+which we have under consideration we shall not attempt to say, our
+concern being with the effects. Does the evidence of upward and downward
+movements of the surface in Tertiary times explain the great change? For
+if the cooling which preceded and succeeded the two European deluges
+still remains an unsolved problem, its effects are perfectly
+appreciable. The intense cold which visited the northern and central
+parts of Europe resulted in the annihilation of organic life in those
+countries. All the watercourses, the rivers and streams, the seas and
+lakes, were frozen. As Agassiz says in his first work on “Glaciers”: “A
+vast mantle of ice and snow covered the plains, the valleys, and the
+seas. All the springs were dried up; the rivers ceased to flow. To the
+movements of a numerous and animated creation succeeded the silence of
+death.” Great numbers of animals perished from cold. The Elephant and
+Rhinoceros perished by thousands in the midst of their grazing grounds,
+which became transformed into fields of ice and snow. It is then that
+these two species disappeared, and seem to have been effaced from
+creation. Other animals were overwhelmed, without their race having been
+always entirely annihilated. The sun, which lately lighted up the
+verdant plains, as it dawned upon these frozen steppes, was only saluted
+by the whistling of the north winds, and the horrible rending of the
+crevasses, which opened up on all sides under the heat of its rays,
+acting upon the immense glacier which formed the sepulchre of many
+animated beings.
+
+How can we accept the idea that the plains, but yesterday smiling and
+fertile, were formerly covered, and that for a very long period, with an
+immense sheet of ice and snow? To satisfy the reader that the proof of
+this can be established on sufficient evidence, it is necessary to
+direct his attention to certain parts of Europe. It is essential to
+visit, at least in idea, a country where _glacial phenomena_ still
+exist, and to prove that the phenomena, now confined to those countries,
+were spread, during geological times, over spaces infinitely vaster. We
+shall choose for our illustration, and as an example, the glaciers of
+the Alps. We shall show that the glaciers of Switzerland and Savoy have
+not always been restricted to their present limits; that they are, so to
+speak, only miniature resemblances of the gigantic glaciers of times
+past; and that they formerly extended over all the great plains which
+extend from the foot of the chain of the Alps.
+
+To establish these proofs we must enter upon some consideration of
+existing glaciers, upon their mode of formation, and their peculiar
+phenomena.
+
+The snow which, during the whole year, falls upon the mountains, does
+not melt, but maintains its solid state, when the elevation exceeds the
+height of 9,000 feet or thereabouts. Where the snow accumulates to a
+great thickness, in the valleys, or in the deep fissures in the ground,
+it hardens under the influence of the pressure resulting from the
+incumbent weight. But it always happens that a certain quantity of
+water, resulting from the momentary thawing of the superficial portions,
+traverses its substance, and this forms a crystalline mass of ice, with
+a granular structure, which the Swiss naturalists designate _névé_. From
+the successive melting and freezing caused by the heat by day and the
+cold by night, and the infiltration of air and water into its
+interstices, the _névé_ is slowly transformed into a homogeneous azure
+mass of ice, full of an infinite number of little air-bubbles--this was
+what was formerly called _glace bulleuse_ (bubble-ice). Finally, these
+masses, becoming completely frozen, water replaces the bubbles of air.
+Then the transformation is complete; the ice is homogeneous, and
+presents those beautiful azure tints so much admired by the tourist who
+traverses the magnificent glaciers of Switzerland and Savoy.
+
+Such is the origin of, and such is the mode in which the glaciers of
+the Alps are formed. An important property of glaciers remains to be
+pointed out. They have a general movement of translation in the
+direction of their slope, under the influence of which they make a
+certain yearly progress downward, according to the angle of the slope.
+The glacier of the Aar, for example, advances at the rate of about 250
+feet each year.
+
+Under the joint influence of the slope, the weight of the frozen mass,
+and the melting of the parts which touch the earth, the glacier thus
+always tends downwards; but from the effects of a more genial
+temperature, the lower extremity melting rapidly, has a tendency to
+recede. It is the difference between these two actions which constitutes
+the real progressive movement of the glacier.
+
+The friction exercised by the glacier upon the bottom and sides of the
+valley, ought necessarily to leave its traces on the rocks with which it
+may happen to be in contact. Over all the places where a glacier has
+passed, in fact, we remark that the rocks are polished, levelled,
+rounded, and, as it is termed, _moutonnées_. These rocks present,
+besides, striations or scratches, running in the direction of the motion
+of the glacier, which have been produced by hard and angular fragments
+of stones imbedded in the ice, and which leave their marks on the
+hardest rocks under the irresistible pressure of the heavy-descending
+mass of ice. In a work of great merit, which we have before quoted, M.
+Charles Martins explains the physical mechanism by which granite rocks
+borne onwards in the progressive movements of a glacier, have scratched,
+scored, and rounded the softer rocks which the glacier has encountered
+in its descent. “The friction,” says M. Martins, “which the glacier
+exercises upon the bottom and upon the walls, is too considerable not to
+leave its traces upon the rocks with which it may be in contact; but its
+action varies according to the mineralogical nature of the rocks, and
+the configuration of the ground they cover. If we penetrate between the
+soil and the bottom of the glacier, taking advantage of the ice-caverns
+which sometimes open at its edge or extremity, we creep over a bed of
+pebbles and fine sand saturated with water. If we remove this bed, we
+soon perceive that the underlying rock is levelled, polished, ground
+down by friction, and covered with rectilinear striæ, resembling
+sometimes small grooves, more frequently perfectly straight scratches,
+as though they had been produced by means of a graver, or even a very
+fine needle. The mechanism by which these striæ have been produced is
+that which industry employs to polish stones and metals. We rub the
+metallic surface with a fine powder called _emery_, until we give it a
+brilliancy which proceeds from the reflection of the light from an
+infinity of minute striæ. The bed of pebbles and mud, interposed between
+the glacier and the subjacent rock, here represents the emery. The rock
+is the metallic surface, and the mass of the glacier which presses on
+and displaces the mud in its descent towards the plain, represents the
+hand of the polisher. These striæ always follow the direction of the
+glacier; but as it is sometimes subject to small lateral deviations, the
+striæ sometimes cross, forming very small angles with one another. If we
+examine the rocks by the side of a glacier, we find similar striæ
+engraved on them where they have been in contact with the frozen mass. I
+have often broken the ice where it thus pressed upon the rock, and have
+found under it polished surfaces, covered with striations. The pebbles
+and grains of sand which had engraved them were still encased in the
+ice, fixed like the diamond of the glazier at the end of the instrument
+with which he marks his glass.
+
+“The sharpness and depth of the striæ or scratches depend on many
+circumstances: if the rock acted upon is calcareous, and the emery is
+represented by pebbles and sand derived from harder rocks, such as
+gneiss, granite, or protogine, the scratches are very marked. This we
+can verify at the foot of the glaciers of Rosenlaui, and of the
+Grindenwald in the Canton of Berne. On the contrary, if the rock is
+gneissic, granitic, or serpentinous, that is to say, very hard, the
+scratches will be less deep and less marked, as may be seen in the
+glaciers of the Aar, of Zermatt, and Chamounix. The polish will be the
+same in both cases, and it is often as perfect as in marble polished for
+architectural purposes.
+
+“The scratches engraved upon the rocks which confine these glaciers are
+generally horizontal or parallel to the surface. Sometimes, owing to the
+contractions of the valley, these striæ are nearly vertical. This,
+however, need not surprise us. Forced onwards by the superincumbent
+weight, the glacier squeezes itself through the narrow part, its bulk
+expanding upwards, in which case the flanks of the mountain which barred
+its passage are marked vertically. This is admirably seen near the
+Châlets of Stieregg, a narrow defile which the lower glacier of the
+Grindenwald has to clear before it discharges itself into the valley of
+the same name. Upon the right bank of the glacier the scratches are
+inclined at an angle of 45° to the horizon. Upon the left bank the
+glacier rises sometimes quite up to the neighbouring forest, carrying
+with it great clods of earth charged with rhododendrons and clumps of
+alder, birches, and firs. The more tender or foliated rocks were broken
+up and demolished by the prodigious force of the glacier; the harder
+rocks offered more resistance, but their surface is planed down,
+polished, and striated, testifying to the enormous pressure which they
+had to undergo. In the same manner the glacier of the Aar, at the foot
+of the promontory on which M. Agassiz’ tent was erected, is polished to
+a great height, and on the face, turned towards the upper part of the
+valley, I have observed scratches inclined 64°. The ice, erect against
+this escarpment, seemed to wish to scale it, but the granite rock held
+fast, and the glacier was compelled to pass round it slowly.
+
+“In recapitulation, the considerable pressure of a glacier, joined to
+its movement of progression, acts at once upon the bottom and flanks of
+the valley which it traverses: it polishes all the rocks which may be
+too hard to be demolished by it, and frequently impresses upon them a
+peculiar and characteristic form. In destroying all the asperities and
+inequalities of these rocks, it levels their surfaces and rounds them on
+the sides pointing up the stream, whilst in the opposite direction, or
+down the stream, they sometimes preserve their abrupt, unequal, and
+rugged surface. We must comprehend, in short, that the force of the
+glacier acts principally on the side which is towards the circle whence
+it descends, in the same way that the piles of a bridge are more damaged
+up-stream, than down, by the icebergs which the river brings down during
+the winter. Seen from a distance, a group of rocks thus rounded and
+polished reminds us of the appearance of a flock of sheep: hence the
+name _roches moutonnées_ given them by the Swiss naturalists.”
+
+Another phenomenon which plays an important part in existing glaciers,
+and in those, also, which formerly covered Switzerland, is found in the
+fragments of rock, often of enormous size, which have been transported
+and deposited during their movement of progression.
+
+The peaks of the Alps are exposed to continual degradations. Formed of
+granitic rocks--rocks eminently alterable under the action of air and
+water, they become disintegrated and often fall in fragments more or
+less voluminous. “The masses of snow,” continues Martins, “which hang
+upon the Alps during winter, the rain which infiltrates between their
+beds during summer, the sudden action of torrents of water, and more
+slowly, but yet more powerfully, the chemical affinities, degrade,
+disintegrate, and decompose the hardest rocks. The débris thus produced
+falls from the summits into the circles occupied by the glaciers with a
+great crash, accompanied by frightful noises and great clouds of dust.
+Even in the middle of summer I have seen these avalanches of stone
+precipitated from the highest ridges of the Schreckhorn, forming upon
+the immaculate snow a long black train, consisting of enormous blocks
+and an immense number of smaller fragments. In the spring a rapid
+thawing of the winter snows often causes accidental torrents of extreme
+violence. If the melting is slow, water insinuates itself into the
+smallest fissures of the rocks, freezes there, and rends asunder the
+most refractory masses. The blocks detached from the mountains are
+sometimes of gigantic dimensions: we have found them sixty feet in
+length, and those measuring thirty feet each way are by no means rare in
+the Alps.”[106]
+
+  [106] _Revue des Deux Mondes_, p. 925; March 1, 1847.
+
+Thus, the action of aqueous infiltrations followed by frost, the
+chemical decomposition which granite undergoes under the influence of a
+moist atmosphere, degrade and disintegrate the rocks which constitute
+the mountains enclosing the glacier. Blocks, sometimes of very
+considerable dimensions, often fall at the foot of these mountains on to
+the surface of the glacier. Were it immovable the débris would
+accumulate at its base, and would form there a mass of ruins heaped up
+without order. But the slow progression, the continuous displacement of
+the glacier, lead, in the distribution of these blocks, to a certain
+kind of arrangement: the blocks falling upon its surface participate in
+its movement, and advance with it. But other downfalls take place daily,
+and the new débris following the first, the whole form a line along the
+outer edge of the glacier. These regular trains of rocks bear the name
+of “_moraines_.” When the rocks fall from two mountains, and on each
+edge of the glacier, and two parallel lines of débris are formed, they
+are called _lateral moraines_. There are also _median moraines_, which
+are formed when two glaciers are confluent, in such a manner that the
+_lateral moraine_, on the right of the one, trends towards the left-hand
+one of the other. Finally, those moraines are _frontal_, or _terminal_,
+which repose, not upon the glacier, but at its point of termination in
+the valleys, and which are due to the accumulation of blocks fallen from
+the terminal escarpments of glaciers there arrested by some obstacle. In
+PLATE XXXI. we have represented an actual Swiss glacier, in which are
+united the physical and geological peculiarities belonging to these
+enormous masses of frozen water: the moraines here are _lateral_, that
+is to say, formed of a double line of débris.
+
+[Illustration: XXXI.--Glaciers of Switzerland.]
+
+Transported slowly on the surface of the glacier, all the blocks from
+the mountain preserve their original forms unaltered; the sharpness of
+their edges is never altered by their gentle transport and almost
+imperceptible motion. Atmospheric agency only can affect or destroy
+these rocks when formed of hard resisting material. They then remain
+nearly of the same form and volume they had when they fell on the
+surface of the glacier; but it is otherwise with blocks and fragments
+enclosed between the rock and the glacier, whether it be at the bottom
+or between the glacier and its lateral walls. Some of these, under the
+powerful and continuous action of this gigantic grinding process, will
+be reduced to an impalpable mud, others are worn into facets, while
+others are rounded, presenting a multitude of scratches crossing each
+other in all directions. These scratched pebbles are of great importance
+in studying the extent of ancient glaciers; they testify, on the spot,
+to the existence of pre-existing glaciers which shaped, ground, and
+striated the pebbles, which water does not; on the contrary, in the
+latter, they become polished and rounded, and even natural striations
+are effaced.
+
+Thus, huge blocks transported to great distances from their true
+geological beds, that is, _erratic blocks_, to use the proper technical
+term, rounded (_moutonnées_), polished, and scratched surfaces,
+_moraines_; finally, pebbles, ground, polished, rounded, or worn into
+smooth surfaces, are all physical effects of glaciers in motion, and
+their presence alone affords sufficient proof to the naturalist that a
+glacier formerly existed in the locality where he finds them. The reader
+will now comprehend how it is possible to recognise, in our days, the
+existence of ancient glaciers in different parts of the world. Above
+all, wherever we may find both _erratic blocks_ and _moraines_, and
+observe, at the same time, indications of rocks having been polished and
+striated in the same direction, we may pronounce with certainty as to
+the existence of a glacier during geological times. Let us take some
+instances.
+
+At Pravolta, in the Alps, going towards _Monte Santo-Primo_, upon a
+calcareous rock, we find the mass of granite represented in Fig. 196.
+This erratic block exists, with thousands of others, on the slopes of
+the mountain. It is about fifty feet long, nearly forty feet broad, and
+five-and-twenty in height; and all its edges and angles are perfect.
+Some parallel striæ occur along the neighbouring rocks. All this clearly
+demonstrates that a glacier existed, in former times, in this part of
+the Alps, where none appear at the present time. It is a glacier, then,
+which has transported and deposited here this enormous block, weighing
+nearly 2,000 tons.
+
+In the Jura Mountains, on the hill of Fourvières, a limestone eminence
+at Lyons, blocks of granite are found, evidently derived from the Alps,
+and transported there by the Swiss glaciers. The particular mode of
+transport is represented theoretically in Fig. 197. A represents, for
+example, the summit of the Alps, B the Jura Mountains, or the hill of
+Fourvières, at Lyons. At the glacial period, the glacier A B C extended
+from the Alps to the mountain B. The granitic débris, which was detached
+from the summit of the Alpine mountains, fell on the surface of the
+glacier. The movement of progression of this glacier transported these
+blocks as far as the summit B. At a later period the temperature of the
+globe was raised, and when the ice had melted, the blocks, D E, were
+quietly deposited on the spots where they are now found, without having
+sustained the slightest shock or injury in this singular mode of
+transport.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Erratic Blocks in the Alps.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Transported blocks.]
+
+Every day traces, more or less recognisable, are found on the Alps of
+ancient glaciers far distant from their existing limits. Heaps of
+débris, of all sizes, comprehending blocks with sharp-pointed angles,
+are found in the Swiss plains and valleys. _Blocs perchés_ (Perched
+blocks), as in PL. XXXI., are often seen perched upon points of the Alps
+situated far above existing glaciers, or dispersed over the plain which
+separates the Alps from the Jura, or even preserving an incredible
+equilibrium, when their great mass is taken into consideration, at
+considerable heights on the eastern flank of this chain of mountains. It
+is by the aid of these indications that the geologist has been able to
+trace to extremely remote distances signs of the former existence of the
+ancient glaciers of the Alps, to follow them in their course, and fix
+their point of origin, and where they terminated. Thus the humble Mount
+Sion, a gently-swelling hill situated to the north of Geneva, was the
+point at which three great ancient glaciers had their confluence--the
+glacier of the Rhône, which filled all the basin of Lake Leman, or Lake
+of Geneva; that of the Isère, which issued from the Annecy and Bourget
+Lakes; and that of the Arve, which had its source in the valley of
+Chamounix, all converged at this point. According to M. G. de Mortillet,
+who has carefully studied this geological question, the extent and
+situation of these ancient glaciers of the Alps were as follows:--Upon
+its northern flank the _glacier of the Rhine_ occupied all the basin of
+Lake Constance, and extended to the borders of Germany; that of the
+_Linth_, which was arrested at the extremity of the Lake of Zurich--this
+city is built upon its terminal moraine--that of the _Reus_, which
+covered the lake of the four cantons with blocks torn from the peaks of
+Saint-Gothard;--that of the _Aar_, the last moraines of which crown the
+hills in the environs of Berne;--those of the _Arve_ and the _Isère_,
+which, as we have said, debouched from Lake Annecy and Lake Bourget
+respectively;--that of the _Rhône_, the most important of all. It is
+this glacier which has deposited upon the flanks of the Jura, at the
+height of 3,400 feet above the level of the sea, the great _erratic
+blocks_ already described. This mighty glacier of the Rhône had its
+origin in all the lateral valleys formed by the two parallel chains of
+the Valais. It filled all the Valais, and extended into the plain, lying
+between the Alps and the Jura, from Fort de L’Écluse, near the fall of
+the Rhône, up to the neighbourhood of Aarau.
+
+The fragments of rocks transported by the ice-sea which occupied all the
+Swiss plain follow, in northerly direction, the course of the valley of
+the Rhine. On the other hand, the glacier of the Rhône, after reaching
+the plain of Switzerland, turned off obliquely towards the south,
+received the glacier of the Arve, then that of the Isère, passed between
+the Jura and the mountains of the Grande-Chartreuse, spread over La
+Bresse, then nearly all Dauphiny, and terminated in the neighbourhood of
+Lyons.
+
+Upon the southern flank of the Alps, the ancient glaciers, according to
+M. de Mortillet’s map, occupied all the great valleys from that of the
+Dora, on the west, to that of the Tagliamento, on the east. “The glacier
+of the _Dora_” says de Mortillet, whose text we greatly abridge,
+“debouched into the valley of the Po, close to Turin. That of the
+_Dora-Baltéa_ entered the plain of Ivréa, where it has left a
+magnificent semicircle of hills, which formed its terminal moraine. That
+of the _Toce_ discharged itself into Lake Maggiore, against the glacier
+of the Tessin, and then threw itself into the valley of Lake Orta, at
+the southern extremity of which its terminal moraines were situated.
+That of the Tessin filled the basin of Lake Maggiore, and established
+itself between Lugano and Varèse. That of the _Adda_ filled the basin of
+Lake Como, and established itself between Mendrizio and Lecco, thus
+describing a vast semicircle. That of the _Oglio_ terminated a little
+beyond Lake Iseo. That of the _Adige_, finding no passage through the
+narrow valley of Roveredo, where the valley became very narrow, took
+another course, and filled the immense valley of the Lake of Garda. At
+Novi it has left a magnificent moraine, of which Dante speaks in his
+‘Inferno.’ That of the _Brenta_ extended over the plain of that commune.
+The _Drave_ and the _Tagliamento_ had also their glaciers. Finally,
+glaciers occupied all the valleys of the Austrian and Bavarian
+Alps.”[107]
+
+  [107] “Carte des Anciens Glaciers des Alpes,” pp. 8-10. (1860.)
+
+Similar traces of the existence of ancient glaciers occur in many other
+European countries. In the Pyrenees, in Corsica, the Vosges, the Jura,
+&c., extensive ranges of country have been covered, in geological
+times, by these vast plains of ice. The glacier of the Moselle was the
+most considerable of the glaciers of the Vosges, receiving numerous
+affluents; its lowest frontal moraine, which is situated below
+Remiremont, could not be less than a mile and a quarter in length.
+
+But the phenomenon of the glacial extension which we have examined in
+the Alps was not confined to Central Europe. The same traces of their
+ancient existence are observed in all the north of Europe, in Russia,
+Iceland, Norway, Prussia, the British Islands, part of Germany, in the
+north, and even in some parts of the south, of Spain. In England,
+_erratic_ blocks of granite are found which were derived from the
+mountains of Norway. It is evident that these blocks were borne by a
+glacier which extended from the north pole to England. In this manner
+they crossed the Baltic and the North Seas. In Prussia similar traces
+are observable.
+
+Thus, during the Quaternary epoch, glaciers which are now limited to the
+Polar regions, or to mountainous countries of considerable altitude,
+extended very far beyond their present known limits; and, taken in
+connection with the deluge of the north, and the vast amount of organic
+life which they destroyed, they form, perhaps, the most striking and
+mysterious of all geological phenomena.
+
+M. Edouard Collomb, to whom we owe much of our knowledge of ancient
+glaciers, furnishes the following note explanatory of a map of Ancient
+Glaciers which he has prepared:--
+
+“The area occupied by the ancient Quaternary glaciers may be divided
+into two orographical regions:--1. The region of the north, from lat.
+52° or 55° up to the North Pole. 2. The region of Central Europe and
+part of the south.
+
+“The region of the north which has been covered by the ancient glaciers
+comprehends all the Scandinavian peninsula, Sweden, Norway, and a part
+of Western Russia, extending from the Niemen on the north in a curve
+which passed near the sources of the Dnieper and the Volga, and thence
+took a direction towards the shores of the glacial ocean. This region
+comprehends Iceland, Scotland, Ireland, the isles dependent on them,
+and, finally, a great part of England.
+
+“This region is bounded, on all its sides, by a wide zone from 2° to 5°
+in breadth, over which is recognised the existence of erratic blocks of
+the north: it includes the middle region of Russia in Europe, Poland, a
+part of Prussia, and Denmark; losing itself in Holland on the Zuider
+Zee, it cut into the northern part of England, and we find a shred of it
+in France, upon the borders of the Cotentin.
+
+“The ancient glaciers of Central Europe consisted, first, of the grand
+masses of the Alps. Stretching to the west and to the north, they
+extended to the valley of the Rhône as far as Lyons, then crossing the
+summit-level of the Jura, they passed near Basle, covering Lake
+Constance, and stretching beyond into Bavaria and Austria. Upon the
+southern slopes of the Alps, they turned round the summit of the
+Adriatic, passed near to Udinet, covered Peschiera, Solferino, Como,
+Varèse, and Ivréa, extended to near Turin, and terminated in the valley
+of the Stura, near the Col de Tenda.
+
+“In the Pyrenees, the ancient glaciers have occupied all the principal
+valleys of this chain, both on the French and Spanish sides, especially
+the valleys of the centre, which comprehend those of Luchon, Aude,
+Baréges, Cauterets, and Ossun. In the Cantabrian chain, an extension of
+the Pyrenees, the existence of ancient glaciers has also been
+recognised.
+
+“In the Vosges and the Black Forest they covered all the southern parts
+of these mountains. In the Vosges, the principal traces are found in the
+valleys of Saint-Amarin, Giromagny, Munster, the Moselle, &c.
+
+“In the Carpathians and the Caucasus the existence of ancient glaciers
+of great extent has also been observed.
+
+“In the Sierra Nevada, in the south of Spain, mountains upwards of
+11,000 feet high, the valleys which descend from the Picacho de Veleta
+and Mulhacen have been covered with ancient glaciers during the
+Quaternary epoch.”
+
+There is no reason to doubt that at this epoch all the British islands,
+at least all north of the Thames, were covered by glaciers in their
+higher parts. “Those,” says Professor Ramsay, “who know the Highlands of
+Scotland, will remember that, though the weather has had a powerful
+influence upon them, rendering them in places rugged, jagged, and
+cliffy, yet, notwithstanding, their general outlines are often
+remarkably rounded and flowing; and when the valleys are examined in
+detail, you find in their bottoms and on the sides of the hills that the
+mammillated structure prevails. This rounded form is known, by those who
+study glaciers, by the name of _roches moutonnées_, given to them by the
+Swiss writers. These mammillated forms are exceedingly common in many
+British valleys, and not only so, but the very same kind of grooving and
+striation, so characteristic of the rocks in the Swiss valleys, also
+marks those of the Highlands of Scotland, of Cumberland, and Wales.
+Considering all these things, geologists, led by Agassiz some five or
+six and twenty years ago, have by degrees come to the conclusion, that a
+very large part of our island was, during the glacial period, covered,
+or nearly covered, with a thick coating of ice in the same way that the
+north of Greenland is at present; and that by the long-continued
+grinding power of a great glacier, or set of glaciers nearly universal
+over the northern half of our country, and the high ground of Wales, the
+whole surface became moulded by ice.”
+
+Whoever traverses England, observing its features with attention, will
+remark in certain places traces of the action of ice in this era. Some
+of the mountains present on one side a naked rock, and on the other a
+gentle slope, smiling and verdant, giving a character more or less
+abrupt, bold, and striking, to the landscape. Considerable portions of
+dry land were formerly covered by a bluish clay, which contained many
+fragments of rock or “boulders” torn from the old Cumbrian mountains;
+from the Pennine chain; from the moraines of the north of England; and
+from the Chalk hills--hence called “boulder” clay--present themselves
+here and there, broken, worn, and ground up by the action of water and
+ice. These erratic blocks or “boulders” have clearly been detached from
+the parent rock by violence, and often transported to considerable
+distances. They have been carried, not only across plains, but over the
+tops of mountains; some of them being found 130 miles from the parent
+rocks. We even find, as already hinted, some rocks of which no
+prototypes have been found nearer than Norway. There is, then, little
+room for doubting the fact of an extensive system of glaciers having
+covered the land, although the proofs have only been gathered
+laboriously and by slow degrees in a long series of years. In 1840
+Agassiz visited Scotland, and his eye, accustomed to glaciers in his
+native mountains, speedily detected their signs. Dr. Buckland became a
+zealous advocate of the same views. North Wales was soon recognised as
+an independent centre of a system which radiated from lofty Snowdon,
+through seven valleys, carrying with them large stones and grooving the
+rocks in their passage. In the pass of Llanberis there are all the
+common proofs of the valley having been filled with glacier ice. “When
+the country was under water,” says Professor Ramsay, “the drift was
+deposited which more or less filled up many of the Welsh valleys. When
+the land had risen again to a considerable height, the glaciers
+increased in size: although they never reached the immense magnitude
+which they attained in the earlier portion of the icy epoch. Still they
+became so large that such a valley as the Pass of Llanberis was a second
+time occupied by ice, which ploughed out the drift that more or less
+covered the valley. By degrees, however, as we approach nearer our own
+days, the climate slowly ameliorated, and the glaciers began to decline,
+till, growing less and less, they crept up and up; and here and there,
+as they died away, they left their terminal and lateral moraines still
+as well defined in some cases as moraines in lands where glaciers now
+exist. Frequently, too, masses of stone, that floated on the surface of
+the ice, were left perched upon the rounded _roches moutonnées_, in a
+manner somewhat puzzling to those who are not geologists.
+
+“In short, they were let down upon the surface of these rocks so quietly
+and so softly, that there they will lie, until an earthquake shakes them
+down, or until the wasting of the rock on which they rest precipitates
+them to a lower level.”
+
+It was the opinion of Agassiz, after visiting Scotland, that the
+Grampians had been covered by a vast thickness of ice, whence erratic
+blocks had been dispersed in all directions as from a centre; other
+geologists after a time adopted the opinion--Mr. Robert Chambers going
+so far as to maintain, in 1848, that Scotland had been at one time
+moulded by ice. Mr. T. F. Jamieson followed in the same track, adducing
+many new facts to prove that the Grampians once sent down glaciers in
+all directions towards the sea. “The glacial grooves,” he says, “radiate
+outward from the central heights towards all points of the compass,
+although they do not strictly conform to the actual shape and contour of
+the minor valleys and ridges.” But the most interesting part of Mr.
+Jamieson’s investigations is undoubtedly the ingenious manner in which
+he has worked out Agassiz’ assertion that Glenroy, whose remarkable
+“_Parallel Roads_” have puzzled so many investigators, was once the
+basin of a frozen lake.
+
+Glenroy is one of the many romantic glens of Lochaber, at the head of
+the Spey, near to the Great Glen, or the valley of the Caledonian Canal,
+which stretches obliquely across the country in a northwesterly
+direction from Loch Linnhè to Loch Ness, leaving Loch Arkaig, Loch Aich,
+Glen Garry, and many a highland loch besides, on the left, and Glen
+Spean, in which Loch Treig, running due north and south, has its mouth,
+on the south. Glenroy opens into it from the north, while Glen Gluoy
+opens into the Great Glen opposite Loch Arkaig. Mr. Jamieson commenced
+his investigations at the mouth of Loch Arkaig, which is about a mile
+from the lake itself. Here he found the gneiss ground down as if by ice
+coming from the east. On the hill, north of the lake, the gneiss, though
+much worn and weathered, still exhibited well-marked striæ, directed up
+and down the valley. Other markings showed that the Glen Arkaig glacier
+not only blocked up Glen Gluoy, but the mouth of Glen Spean, which lies
+two miles or so north of it on the opposite side.
+
+At Brackletter, on the south side of Glen Spean, near its junction with
+Glen Lochy, glacial scores pointing more nearly due west, but slightly
+inclining to the north, were observed, as if caused by the pressure of
+ice from Glen Lui. The south side of Glen Spean, from its mouth to Loch
+Treig, is bounded by lofty hills--an extension of Ben Nevis, the highest
+of these peaks exceeding 3,000 feet. Numerous gullies intersect their
+flanks, and the largest of these, Corry N’Eoin, presents a series of
+rocky amphitheatres, or rather large caldrons, whose walls have been
+ground down by long-continued glacial action: the quartz-veins are all
+shorn down to the level of the gneiss, and streaked with fine scratches,
+pointing down the hollows and far up the rocks on either side. During
+all these operations the great valley was probably filled up with ice,
+which would close Glen Gluoy and Glen Spean, and might also close the
+lowest of the lines in Glenroy. But how about the middle and upper
+lines?
+
+A glacier crossing from Loch Treig, and protruding across Glen Spean,
+would cut off Glens Glaibu and Makoul, when the water in Glenroy could
+only escape over the Col into Strathspey, when the first level would be
+marked.
+
+Now let the Glen Treig glacier shrink a little, so as to let out water
+to the level of the second line by the outline at Makoul, and the theory
+is complete. When the first and greatest glacier gave way, Glenroy would
+be nearly in its present state.
+
+The glacier, on issuing from the gorge at the end of Loch Treig, would
+dilate immensely, the right flank spreading over a rough expanse of
+syenite, the neighbouring hills being mica-schists, with veins of
+porphyry. Now the syenite breaks into large cuboidal blocks of immense
+size. These have been swept before the advancing glacier along with
+other débris, and deposited in a semicircle of mounds having a sweep of
+several miles, forming circular bands which mark the edges of the
+glacier as it shrunk from time to time under the influence of a milder
+climate.
+
+This moraine, which was all that was wanting to complete the theory laid
+down by Agassiz, is found on the pony-road leading from the mouth of
+Loch Treig towards Badenoch. A mile or so brings the traveller to the
+summit-level of the road, and beyond the hill a low moor stretches away
+to the bottom of the plain. Here, slanting across the slope of the hill
+towards Loch Treig, two lines of moraine stretch across the road. At
+first they consist of mica-schists and bits of porphyry, but blocks of
+syenite soon become intermingled. Outside these are older hillocks,
+rising in some places sixty and seventy feet high, forming narrow
+steep-sided mounds, with blocks fourteen feet in length sticking out of
+the surface, mixed with fragments of mica-schist and gneiss. The inner
+moraine consists, almost wholly, of large blocks of syenite, five, ten,
+fifteen, and five-and-twenty feet long.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 198.--Parallel roads of Glenroy; from a sketch by
+Professor J. Phillips.]
+
+The present aspect of Glenroy is that of an upper and lower glen opening
+up from the larger Glen Spean. The head-waters of Lochaber gather in a
+wild mountain tract, near the source of the Spey. The upper glen is an
+oval valley, four miles long, by about one broad, bounded on each side
+by high mountains, which throw off two streams dividing the mica-schist
+from the gneissic systems; the former predominating on the west side,
+and the latter on the east. The united streams flow to the south-west
+for two miles, when the valley contracts to a rocky gorge which
+separates the upper from the lower glen. Passing from the upper to the
+lower glen, a line is observed to pass from near the junction of the two
+streams, on a level with a flat rock at the gorge, and also with the
+uppermost of the three lines of terraces in the lower glen. This line
+girdles the sides of the hills right and left, with a seemingly higher
+sweep, and is followed by two other perfectly parallel and continuous
+lines till Glenroy expands into Glen Spean, which crosses its mouth and
+enters the great glen a little south of Loch Lochy. At the point,
+however, where Glenroy enters Glen Spean, the two upper terraces cease,
+while the lower of the three appears on the north and south side of Glen
+Spean, as far as the pass of Glen Muckal, and southward a little way up
+the Gubban river and round the head of Loch Treig.
+
+In Scotland, and in Northern England and Wales, there is distinct
+evidence that the Glacial Epoch commenced with an era of continental
+ice, the land being but slightly lower than at present, and possibly at
+the same level, during which period the Scottish hills received their
+rounded outlines, and scratched and smoothed rock-surfaces; and the
+plains and valleys became filled with the stiff clay, with angular
+scratched stones, known as the “Till,” which deposit is believed by
+Messrs. Geikie, Jamieson, and Croll to be a _moraine profonde_, the
+product of a vast ice-sheet.
+
+In Wales, Professor Ramsay has described the whole of the valleys of the
+Snowdonian range as filled with enormous glaciers, the level of the
+surface of the ice filling the Pass of Llanberis, rising 500 feet above
+the present watershed at Gorphwysfa. In the Lake District of Cumberland
+and Westmorland, Mr. De Rance has shown that a vast series of glaciers,
+or small ice-sheets, filled all the valleys, radiating out in all
+directions from the larger mountains, which formed centres of
+dispersion, the ice actually pushing over many of the lesser watersheds,
+and scooping out the great rock-basins in which lie the lakes
+Windermere, Ullswater, Thirlmere, Coniston Water, and Wastwater, the
+bottoms of which are nearly all below the sea-level. The whole of this
+district, he has shown, experienced a second glaciation, after the
+period of great submergence, in which valley-glaciers scooped out the
+marine drift, and left their _moraines_ in the Liza, Langdale, and
+other valleys, and high up in the hills, as at Harrison’s Stickle, where
+a tarn has been formed by a little _moraine_, acting as a dam, as shown
+by Professor Hull.
+
+In Wales, also, valley-glaciers existed after the submergence beneath
+the Glacial sea. Thus in Cwm-llafar, under the brow of Carnedd Dafydd,
+and Carnedd Llewelyn, Professor Ramsay has shown that a narrow glacier,
+about two miles in length, has ploughed out a long narrow hollow in the
+drift (which “forms a succession of terraces, the result of marine
+denudation, during pauses in the re-elevation of its submersion) to a
+depth of more than 2,000 feet.”[108]
+
+  [108] Professor Ramsay, “The Old Glaciers of North Wales.” Longman,
+        1860.
+
+The proofs of this great submergence, succeeding the era of “land-ice,”
+are constantly accumulating. Since 1863, when Professor Hull first
+divided the thick glacial deposits of Eastern Lancashire and Cheshire
+into an Upper Boulder Clay, and Lower Boulder Clay divided by a Middle
+Sand and Gravel, the whole of which are of marine origin, these
+subdivisions have been found to hold good, by himself and Mr. A. H.
+Green, over 600 square miles of country around Manchester, Bolton, and
+Congleton; by Mr. De Rance over another 600 square miles, around
+Liverpool, Preston, Blackpool, Blackburn, and Lancaster, and also in the
+low country lying between the Cumberland and Welsh mountains and the
+sea.
+
+In Ireland, also, the same triplex arrangement appears to exist.
+Professors Harkness and Hull have identified the “Limestone and Manure
+Gravels” of the central plain, as referable to the “Middle Sand and
+Gravel,” and the “Lower Boulder Clay” rests on a glaciated rock-surface
+along the coasts of Antrim and Down, and is overlain by sand, which, in
+1832, was discovered by Dr. Scouler to be shell-bearing. At Kingstown
+the three deposits are seen resting on a moutonnéed surface of granite,
+scored from the N.N.W.
+
+In Lancashire and on the coast of North Wales, between Llandudno and
+Rhyl, Mr. De Rance has shown that these deposits often lie upon the
+denuded and eroded surface of another clay, of older date, which he
+believes to be the product of land-ice, the remnant of the _moraine
+profonde_, and the equivalent of the Scotch “Till.” He also shows that
+the Lower Boulder Clay never rises above an elevation of fifty or eighty
+feet above the sea-level; and that the Middle Sand and Shingle rests
+directly upon the rock, or on the surface of this old Till.
+
+Near Manchester the Lower Boulder Clay occasionally rests upon an old
+bed of sand and gravel. It is extremely local, but its presence has been
+recorded in several sections by Mr. Edward Binney, who was the first to
+show, in 1842,[109] that the Lancashire Boulder Clays were formed in the
+sea, and that the erratic pebbles and boulders, mainly derived from the
+Cumberland Lake Districts, were brought south by means of floating ice.
+
+  [109] In 1840 Dr. Buckland described the occurrence of boulders of
+        Criffel Granite between Shalbeck and Carlisle, and attributed
+        their position to the agency of ice floating across the Solway
+        Firth.
+
+Most of the erratic pebbles and boulders in the Lancashire clays are
+more or less scratched and scored, many of them (though quite rounded)
+in so many directions that Mr. De Rance believes the Cumberland and
+Westmoreland hills to have been surrounded by an ice-belt, which,
+occasionally thawing during summer or warm episodes, admitted “breaker
+action” on the gradually subsiding coast, wearing the fragments of rocks
+brought down by rivers or by glaciers into pebbles that, with the return
+of the cold, became covered with the “ice-belt,” which, lifted by the
+tides, rolled and dinted the pebbles one against another, and gradually
+allowed them to be impressed into its mass, with which they eventually
+floated away.
+
+The Middle Sands and Shingles in England have also afforded a great
+number of shells of mollusca. At Macclesfield they have been described
+by Messrs. Prestwich and Darbishire as occurring at an elevation of
+1,100 to 1,200 feet above the level of the sea.[110]
+
+  [110] Mr. Darbishire records seventy species from Macclesfield and
+        Moel Tryfaen, taken together, of which 6 are Arctic, and 18 are
+        not known in the Upper Crag.
+
+Among other proofs of glacial action and submersion in Wales may be
+mentioned the case of Moel Tryfaen, a hill 1,400 feet high, lying to the
+westward of Caernarvon Bay, and six or seven miles from Caernarvon. Mr.
+Joshua Trimmer had observed stratified drift near the summit of this
+mountain, from which he obtained some marine shells; but doubts were
+entertained as to their age until 1863, when a deep and extensive
+cutting was made in search of slates. In this cutting a stratified mass
+of loose sand and gravel was laid open near the summit, thirty-five feet
+thick, containing shells, some entire, but mostly in fragments. Sir
+Charles Lyell examined the cutting, and obtained twenty species of
+shells, and in the lower beds of the drift, “large heavy boulders of
+far-transported rocks, glacially polished and scratched on more than one
+side:” underneath the whole, the edges of vertical slates were exposed
+to view, exhibiting “unequivocal marks of prolonged glaciation.” The
+shells belonged to species still living in British or more northern
+seas.
+
+From the gravels of the Severn Valley, described by Mr. Maw, thirty-five
+forms of mollusca have been identified by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys. In the
+Shingle beds of Leyland, Euxton, Chorley, Preston, Lancaster, and
+Blackpool,[111] Mr. De Rance has obtained nearly thirty species.
+
+  [111] The typical species in West Lancashire are _Tellina Balthica_,
+        _Cardium edule_, _C. aculeatum_, _C. rusticum_, _Psammobia
+        ferroensis_, _Turritella terebra_.
+
+In Eastern Yorkshire, Mr. Searles V. Wood, Jun., has divided the glacial
+deposits into “Purple Clay without Chalk,” “Purple Clay with Chalk,” and
+“Chalky Clay,” the whole being later than his “Middle Glacial Sands and
+Gravel,” which, in East Anglia, are overlain by the “Chalky Clay,” and
+rest unconformably upon the “Contorted Drift” of Norfolk, the Cromer
+Till, and the Forest Bed. His three Yorkshire clays are, however,
+considered by most northern geologists to be the representatives of the
+“Upper Boulder Clay” west of the Pennine Chain, the “Chalky Clay” having
+been formed before the country had sufficiently subsided to allow the
+sandstones and marls, furnishing the red colouring matter, to have
+suffered denudation; while the “Purple Clay without Chalk, and with Shap
+Granite,” was deposited when all the chalk was mainly beneath the sea,
+and the granite from Shap Fell, which had been broken up by
+breaker-action during the Middle Sand era, was floated across the passes
+of the Pennine Chain and southwards and northwards. A solitary pebble of
+Shap granite has been found by Mr. De Rance at Hoylake, in Cheshire; and
+many of Criffel Granite, in that county, and on the coast of North
+Wales, by Mr. Mackintosh, who has also traced the flow of this granite
+in the low country lying north and south of the Cumberland mountains.
+
+At Bridlington, in Yorkshire, occurs a deposit at the base of the
+“Purple Clay,” with a truly Arctic fauna. Out of seventy forms of
+mollusca recorded by Mr. S. V. Wood, Jun., nineteen are unknown to the
+Crag--of these thirteen are purely arctic, and two not known as living.
+
+Shells have been found in the Upper Boulder Clay of Lancashire, at
+Hollingworth Reservoir, near Mottram, by Messrs. Binney, Bateman, and
+Prestwich, at an elevation of 568 feet above the sea, consisting of
+_Fusus Bamffius_, _Purpura lapillus_, _Turritilla terebra_, and _Cardium
+edule_. The clay is described by Mr. Binney as sandy, and
+brown-coloured, with pebbles of granite and greenstone, some rounded and
+some angular. All the above shells, as well as _Tellina Balthica_, have
+been found in the Upper Clay of Preston, Garstang, Blackpool, and
+Llandudno, by Mr. De Rance, who has also found all the above species
+(with the exception of _Fusus_), as well as _Psammobia ferroensis_, and
+the siliceous spiculæ of marine sponges, in the Lower Boulder Clay of
+West Lancashire. He has described the ordinary red Boulder Clay of
+Lancashire as extending continuously through Cheshire and Staffordshire
+into Warwickshire, gradually becoming less red and more chalky,
+everywhere overlying intermittent sheets of “sands and shingle-beds,”
+one of which is particularly well seen at Leamington and Warwick, where
+it contains Pectens from the Crag, _Gryphæa_ from the Lias, and chalk
+fossils and flints. The latter have also been found by Mr. Lucy in the
+neighbourhood of Mount Sorrel, associated with bits of the Coral Rag of
+Yorkshire. The gravels of Leicester, Market Harborough, and Lutterworth
+were long ago described by the Rev. W. D. Conybeare as affording
+“specimens of the organic remains of most of the Secondary Strata in
+England.”
+
+The Rev. O. Fisher, F.G.S., has paid much attention to the superficial
+covering usually described as “heading,” or “drift,” as well as to the
+contour of the surface, in districts composed of the softer strata, and
+has published his views in various papers in the _Journal of the
+Geological Society_ and in the _Geological Magazine_. He thinks that the
+contour of the surface cannot be ascribed entirely to the action of rain
+and rivers, but that the changes in the ancient contour since produced
+by those changes can be easily distinguished. He finds the covering beds
+to consist of two members--a lower one, entirely destitute of organic
+remains, and generally unstratified, which has often been forcibly
+indented into the bed beneath it, sometimes exhibiting slickenside at
+the junction.
+
+There is evidence of this lower member having been pushed or dragged
+over the surface, from higher to lower levels, in a plastic condition;
+on which account he has named it “The Trail.”
+
+The upper member of the covering beds consists of soil derived from the
+lower one, by weathering. It contains, here and there, the remains of
+the land-shells which lived in the locality at a period antecedent to
+cultivation. It is “The Warp” of Mr. Trimmer.
+
+Neither of these accumulations occur on low flats, where the surface has
+been modified since the recent period. They both alike pass below
+high-water mark, and have been noticed beneath estuarine deposits.
+
+Mr. Fisher is of opinion that land-ice has been instrumental in forming
+the contour of the surface, and that the trail is the remnant of its
+_moraine profonde_. And he has given reasons[112] for believing that the
+climate of those latitudes may have been sufficiently rigorous for that
+result about 100,000 years ago. He attributes the formation of the
+superficial covering of Warp to a period of much rainfall and severe
+winter-frosts, after the ice-sheet had disappeared.
+
+  [112] _Geological Magazine_, vol. iii., p. 483.
+
+The phenomena which so powerfully affected our hemisphere present
+themselves, in a much grander manner, in the New World. The
+glacier-system appears to have taken in America the same gigantic
+proportions which other objects assume there. Nor is it necessary, in
+order to explain the permanent existence of this icy mantle in temperate
+climates, to infer the prevalence of any very extraordinary degree of
+cold. On this subject M. Ch. Martins thus expresses himself: “The mean
+temperature of Geneva is 9° 5 Cent. Upon the surrounding mountains the
+limit of perpetual snow is found at 8,800 feet above the level of the
+sea. The great glaciers of the valley of Chamounix descend 5,000 feet
+below this line. Thus situated, let us suppose that the mean temperature
+of Geneva was lowered only 4°, and the average became 5° 5; the decrease
+of temperature with the height being 1° c. for every 600 feet, the limit
+of perpetual snow would be lowered by 2,437 feet, and would be 6,363
+feet above the level of the sea. We can readily admit that the glaciers
+of Chamounix would descend below this new limit, to an extent at least
+equal to that which exists between their present limit and their lower
+extremity. Now, in reality, the foot of these glaciers is 5,000 feet
+above the ocean; with a climate 4° colder, it would be 2,437 feet lower;
+that is to say, at the level of the Swiss plain. Thus, the lowering of
+the line of perpetual snow to this extent would suffice to bring the
+glacier of the Arve to the environs of Geneva.... Of the climate which
+has favoured the prodigious development of glaciers we have a pretty
+correct idea; it is that of Upsala, Stockholm, Christiana, and part of
+North America, in the State of New York.... To diminish by four degrees
+the mean temperature of a country in order to explain one of the
+grandest revolutions of the globe, is to venture on an hypothesis not
+bolder than geology has sometimes permitted to itself.”[113]
+
+  [113] _Revue des Deux Mondes._
+
+In proving that glaciers covered part of Europe during a certain period,
+that they extended from the North Pole to Northern Italy and the Danube,
+we have sufficiently established the reality of this _glacial period_,
+which we must consider as a curious episode, as well as certain, in the
+history of the earth. Such masses of ice could only have covered the
+earth when the temperature of the air was lowered at least some degrees
+below zero. But organic life is incompatible with such a temperature;
+and to this cause must we attribute the disappearance of certain species
+of animals and plants--in particular, the Rhinoceros and the
+Elephant--which, before this sudden and extraordinary cooling of the
+globe, appear to have limited themselves, in immense herds, to Northern
+Europe, and chiefly to Siberia, where their remains have been found in
+such prodigious quantities. Cuvier says, speaking of the bodies of the
+quadrupeds which the ice had seized, and in which they have been
+preserved, with their hair, flesh, and skin, up to our own times: “If
+they had not been frozen as soon as killed, putrefaction would have
+decomposed them; and, on the other hand, this eternal frost could not
+have previously prevailed in the place where they died; for they could
+not have lived in such a temperature. It was, therefore, at the same
+instant when these animals perished that the country they inhabited was
+rendered glacial. These events must have been sudden, instantaneous, and
+without any gradation.”[114]
+
+  [114] “Ossements fossiles. Discours sur les Révolutions du Globe.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 199.--Fissurella nembosa.
+
+(Living shell.)]
+
+How can we explain the _glacial period_? We have explained M. Adhémar’s
+hypothesis, to which it may be objected that the cold of the glacial
+period was so general throughout the Polar and temperate regions on both
+sides of the equator, that mere local changes in the external
+configuration of our planet and displacement of the centre of gravity
+scarcely afford adequate causes for so great a revolution in
+temperature. Sir Charles Lyell, speculating upon the suggestion of
+Ritter and the discovery of marine shells spread far and wide over the
+Sahara Desert by Messrs. Escher von der Linth, Desor, and Martins--which
+seem to prove that the African Desert has been under water at a very
+recent period--infers that the Desert of Sahara constituted formerly a
+wide marine area, stretching several hundred miles north and south, and
+east and west. “From this area,” he adds, “the south wind must formerly
+have absorbed moisture, and must have been still further cooled and
+saturated with aqueous vapour as it passed over the Mediterranean. When
+at length it reached the Alps, and, striking them, was driven into the
+higher and more rarefied regions of the atmosphere, it would part with
+its watery burthen in the form of snow; so that the same aërial current
+which, under the name of the Föhn, or Sirocco, now plays a leading part
+with its hot and dry breath, sometimes, even in the depth of winter, in
+melting the snow and checking the growth of glaciers, must, at the
+period alluded to, have been the principal feeder of Alpine snow and
+ice.”[115] Nevertheless, we repeat, no explanation presents itself which
+can be considered conclusive; and in science we should never be afraid
+to say, _I do not know_.
+
+  [115] Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” p. 175.
+
+
+CREATION OF MAN AND THE ASIATIC DELUGE.
+
+It was only after the glacial period, when the earth had resumed its
+normal temperature, that man was created. Whence came he?
+
+He came from whence originated the first blade of grass which grew upon
+the burning rocks of the Silurian seas; from whence proceeded the
+different races of animals which have successively replaced each other
+upon the globe, gradually, but unceasingly, rising in the scale of
+perfection. He emanated from the supreme will of the Author of the
+worlds which constitute the universe.
+
+The earth has passed through many phases since the time when--in the
+words of the Sacred Record--“the earth was without form and void; and
+darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon
+the face of the waters.” We have considered all these phases; we have
+seen the globe floating in space in a state of gaseous nebulosity,
+condensing into liquidity, and beginning to solidify at the surface. We
+have pictured the internal agitations, the disturbances, the partial
+dislocations to which the earth has been subjected, almost without
+interruption, while it could not, as yet, resist the force of the waves
+of the fiery sea imprisoned within its fragile crust. We have seen this
+envelope acquiring solidity, and the geological cataclysms losing their
+intensity and frequency in proportion as this solid crust increased in
+thickness. We have looked on, so to speak, while the work of organic
+creation was proceeding. We have seen life making its appearance upon
+the globe; and the first plants and animals springing into existence. We
+have seen this organic creation multiplying, becoming more complex, and
+constantly made more perfect with each advance in the progressive phases
+of the history of the earth. We now arrive at the greatest event of this
+history, at the crowning of the edifice, _si parva licet componere
+magnis_.
+
+At the close of the Tertiary epoch, the continents and seas assumed the
+respective limits which they now present. The disturbances of the
+ground, the fractures of the earth’s crust, and the volcanic eruptions
+which are the consequence of them, only occurred at rare intervals,
+occasioning only local and restricted disasters. The rivers and their
+affluents flowed between tranquil banks. Animated Nature is that of our
+own days. An abundant vegetation, diversified by the existence of a
+climate which has now been acquired, embellishes the earth. A multitude
+of animals inhabit the waters, the dry land, and the air. Nevertheless,
+creation has not yet achieved its greatest work--a being capable of
+comprehending these marvels and of admiring the sublime work--a soul is
+wanting to adore and give thanks to the Creator.
+
+God created man.
+
+What is man?
+
+We might say that man is an intelligent and moral being; but this would
+give a very imperfect idea of his nature. Franklin says that man is one
+that can make tools! This is to reproduce a portion of the first
+proposition, while depreciating it. Aristotle calls man the “wise
+being,” ζωον πολιτικον. Linnæus, in his “System of Nature,” after having
+applied to man the epithet of wise (_homo sapiens_) writes after this
+generic title these profound words: _Nosce te ipsum_. The French
+naturalist and philosopher, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, says, “The
+plant _lives_, the animal _lives and feels_, man _lives, feels, and
+thinks_”--a sentiment which Voltaire had already expressed. “The Eternal
+Maker,” says the philosopher of Ferney, “has given to man organisation,
+sentiment, and intelligence; to the animals sentiment, and what we call
+instinct; to vegetables organisation alone. His power then acts
+continually upon these three kingdoms.” It is probably the animal which
+is here depreciated. The animal on many occasions undoubtedly thinks,
+reasons, deliberates with itself, and acts in virtue of a decision
+maturely weighed; it is not then reduced to mere sensation.
+
+To define exactly the human being, we believe that it is necessary to
+characterise the nature and extent of his intelligence. In certain cases
+the intelligence of the animal approaches nearly to that of man, but the
+latter is endowed with a certain faculty which belongs to him
+exclusively; in creating him, God has added an entirely new step in the
+ascending scale of animated beings. This faculty, peculiar to the human
+race, is _abstraction_. We will say, then, that man is an _intelligent_
+being, gifted with the faculty of comprehending the _abstract_.
+
+It is by this faculty that man is raised to a pre-eminent degree of
+material and moral power. By it he has subdued the earth to his empire,
+and by it also his mind rises to the most sublime contemplations. Thanks
+to this faculty, man has conceived the ideal, and realised poesy. He has
+conceived the infinite, and created mathematics. Such is the
+distinction which separates the human race so widely from the
+animals--which makes him a creation apart and absolutely new upon the
+globe. A being capable of comprehending the ideal and the infinite, of
+creating poetry and algebra, such is man! To invent and understand this
+formula--
+
+  (_a_ + _b_)² = _a_² + 2_ab_ + _b_²,
+
+or the algebraic idea of negative quantities, this belongs to man. It is
+the greatest privilege of the human being to express and comprehend
+thoughts like the following:
+
+    J’étais seul près des flots, par une nuit d’étoiles,
+    Pas un nuage aux cieux, sur les mers pas de voiles,
+    Mes yeux plongeaient plus loin que le monde réel,
+    Et les vents et les mers, et toute la nature
+    Semblaient interroger dans un confus murmure,
+        Les flots des mers, les feux du ciel.
+
+    Et les étoiles d’or, légions infinies,
+    À voix haute, à voix basse, avec mille harmonies
+    Disaient, en inclinant leur couronne de feu;
+    Et les flots bleus, que rien ne gouverne et n’arrête:
+    Disaient, en recourbant l’écume de leur crête:
+          “C’est le Seigneur, le Seigneur Dieu!”*
+
+VICTOR HUGO, _les Orientales_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    * Alone with the waves, on a starry night,
+      My thoughts far away in the infinite;
+      On the sea not a sail, not a cloud in the sky,
+      And the wind and the waves with sweet lullaby
+      Seem to question in murmurs of mystery,
+          The fires of heaven, the waves of the sea.
+
+      And the golden stars of the heavens rose higher,
+      Harmoniously blending their crowns of fire,
+      And the waves which no ruling hand may know,
+      ‘Midst a thousand murmurs, now high, now low,
+      Sing, while curving their foaming crests to the sea,
+            “It is the Lord God! It is He.”
+
+The “Mécanique Céleste” of Laplace, the “Principia” of Newton, Milton’s
+“Paradise Lost,” the “Orientales” by Victor Hugo--are the fruits of the
+_faculty of abstraction_.
+
+In the year 1800, a being, half savage, who lived in the woods,
+clambered up the trees, slept upon dried leaves, and fled on the
+approach of men, was brought to a physician named Pinel. Some
+sportsmen had found him; he had no voice, and was devoid of
+intelligence; he was known as the little savage of Aveyron. The Parisian
+_savants_ for a long time disputed over this strange individual. Was it
+an ape?--was it a wild man?
+
+[Illustration: XXXII.--Appearance of Man.]
+
+The learned Dr. Itard has published an interesting history of the savage
+of Aveyron. “He would sometimes descend,” he writes, “into the garden of
+the deaf and dumb, and seat himself upon the edge of the fountain,
+preserving his balance by rocking himself to and fro; after a time his
+body became quite still, and his face assumed an expression of profound
+melancholy. He would remain thus for hours--regarding attentively the
+surface of the water--upon which he would, from time to time, throw
+blades of grass and dried leaves. At night, when the clear moonlight
+penetrated into the chamber he occupied, he rarely failed to rise and
+place himself at the window, where he would remain part of the night,
+erect, motionless, his neck stretched out, his eyes fixed upon the
+landscape lit up by the moon, lost in a sort of ecstasy of
+contemplation.” This being was, undoubtedly, a man. No ape ever
+exhibited such signs of intelligence, such dreamy manifestations, vague
+conceptions of the ideal--in other words, that faculty of _abstraction_
+which belongs to humanity alone. In order worthily to introduce the new
+inhabitant who comes to fill the earth with his presence--who brings
+with him intelligence to comprehend, to admire, to subdue, and to rule
+the creation (PL. XXXII.), we require nothing more than the grand and
+simple language of Moses, whom Bossuet calls “the most ancient of
+historians, the most sublime of philosophers, the wisest of
+legislators.” Let us listen to the words of the inspired writer: “And
+God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them
+have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air,
+and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping
+thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in his _own_
+image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he
+them.”
+
+“And God saw everything that he had made, and, behold, _it was_ very
+good.”
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Volumes have been written upon the question of the unity of the human
+race; that is, whether there were many centres of the creation of man,
+or whether our race is derived solely from the Adam of Scripture. We
+think, with many naturalists, that the stock of humanity is unique, and
+that the different human races, the negroes, and the yellow race, are
+only the result of the influence of climate upon organisation. We
+consider the human race as having appeared for the first time (the mode
+of his creation being veiled in Divine mystery, eternally impenetrable
+to us) in the rich plains of Asia, on the smiling banks of the
+Euphrates, as the traditions of the most ancient races teach us. It is
+there, where Nature is so rich and vigorous, in the brilliant climate
+and under the radiant sky of Asia, in the shade of its luxuriant masses
+of verdure and its mild and perfumed atmosphere, that man loves to
+represent to himself the father of his race as issuing from the hand of
+his Creator.
+
+We are, it will be seen, far from sharing the opinion of those
+naturalists who represent man, at the beginning of the existence of his
+species, as a sort of ape, of hideous face, degraded mien, and covered
+with hair, inhabiting caves like the bears and lions, and participating
+in the brutal instincts of those savage animals.[116] There is no doubt
+that early man passed through a period in which he had to contend for
+his existence with ferocious beasts, and to live in a primitive state in
+the woods or savannahs, where Providence had placed him. But this period
+of probation came to an end, and man, an eminently social being, by
+combining in groups, animated by the same interests and the same
+desires, soon found means to intimidate the animals, to triumph over the
+elements, to protect himself from the innumerable perils which
+surrounded him, and to subdue to his rule the other inhabitants of the
+earth. “The first men,” says Buffon, “witnesses of the convulsive
+movements of the earth, still recent and frequent, having only the
+mountains for refuge from the inundations; and often driven from this
+asylum by volcanoes and earthquakes, which trembled under their feet;
+uneducated, naked, and exposed to the elements, victims to the fury of
+ferocious animals, whose prey they were certain to become; impressed
+also with a common sentiment of gloomy terror, and urged by necessity,
+would they not unite, first, to defend themselves by numbers, and then
+to assist each other by working in concert, to make habitations and
+arms? They began by shaping into the forms of hatchets these hard
+flints, the Jade, and other stones, which were supposed to have been
+formed by thunder and fallen from the clouds, but which are,
+nevertheless, only the first examples of man’s art in a pure state of
+Nature. He will soon draw fire from these same flints, by striking them
+against each other; he will seize the flames of the burning volcano, or
+profit by the fire of the red-hot lava to light his fire of brushwood in
+the forest; and by the help of this powerful element he cleanses,
+purifies, and renders wholesome the place he selects for his habitation.
+With his hatchet of stone he chops wood, fells trees, shapes timber, and
+puts it together, fashions instruments of warfare and the most necessary
+tools and implements; and after having furnished themselves with clubs
+and other weighty and defensive arms, did not these first men find means
+to make lighter weapons to reach the swift-footed stag from afar? A
+tendon of an animal, a fibre of the aloe-leaf, or the supple bark of
+some ligneous plant, would serve as a cord to bring together the two
+extremities of an elastic branch of yew, forming a bow; and small
+flints, shaped to a point, arm the arrow. They will soon have snares,
+rafts, and canoes; they will form themselves into communities composed
+of a few families, or rather of relations sprung from the same family,
+as is still the case with some savage tribes, who have their game, fish,
+and fruits in common. But in all those countries whose area is limited
+by water, or surrounded by high mountains, these small nations, becoming
+too numerous, have been in time forced to parcel out the land between
+them; and from that moment the earth has become the domain of man; he
+has taken possession of it by his labour, he has cultivated it, and
+attachment to the soil follows the very first act of possession; the
+private interest makes part of the national interest; order,
+civilisation, and laws succeed, and society acquires force and
+consistency.”[117] We love to quote the sentiments of a great
+writer--but how much more eloquent would the words of the naturalist
+have been, if he had added to his own grand eloquence of language, the
+knowledge which science has placed within reach of the writers of the
+present time--- if he could have painted man in the early days of his
+creation, in presence of the immense animal population which then
+occupied the earth, and fighting with the wild beasts which filled the
+forests of the ancient world! Man, comparatively very weak in
+organisation, destitute of natural weapons of attack or defence,
+incapable of rising into the air like the birds, or living under water
+like the fishes and some reptiles, might seem doomed to speedy
+destruction. But he was marked on the forehead with the Divine seal.
+Thanks to the superior gift of an exceptional intelligence, this being,
+in appearance so helpless, has by degrees swept the most ferocious of
+its occupants from the earth, leaving those only who cater to his wants
+or desires, or by whose aid he changes the primitive aspects of whole
+continents.
+
+  [116] It is told of a former distinguished and witty member of the
+        Geological Society that, having obtained possession of the rooms
+        on a certain day, when there was to be a general meeting, he
+        decorated its walls with a series of cartoons, in which the
+        parts of the members were strangely reversed. In one cartoon
+        Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri were occupied with the skeleton of
+        Homo sapiens; in another, a party of Crustaceans were occupied
+        with a cranium suspiciously like the same species; while in a
+        third, a party of Pterichthys were about to dine on a biped with
+        a suspicious resemblance to a certain well-conditioned F.G.S. of
+        the day.
+
+  [117] “Époques de la Nature,” vol. xii., pp. 322-325. 18mo. Paris,
+        1778.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The antiquity of man is a question which has largely engaged the
+attention of geologists, and many ingenious arguments have been
+hazarded, tending to prove that the human race and the great extinct
+Mammalia were contemporaneous. The circumstances bearing on the question
+are usually ranged under three series of facts: 1. The Cave-deposits; 2.
+Peat and shell mounds; 3. Lacustrine habitations, or Lake dwellings.
+
+We have already briefly touched upon the Cave-deposits. In the Kirkdale
+Cave no remains or other traces of man’s presence seem to have been
+discovered. But in Kent’s Hole, an unequal deposit of loam and clay,
+along with broken bones much gnawed, and the teeth of both extinct and
+living Mammals, implements evidently fashioned by the human hand were
+found in the following order: in the upper part of the clay,
+artificially-shaped flints; on the clay rested a layer of stalagmite, in
+which streaks of burnt charcoal occurred, and charred bones of existing
+species of animals. Above the stalagmite a stone hatchet, or celt, made
+of syenite, of more finished appearance, was met with, with articles of
+bone, round pieces of blue slate and sandstone-grit, pieces of pottery,
+a number of shells of the mussel, limpet, and oyster, and other remains,
+Celtic, British, and Roman, of very early date; the lower deposits are
+those with which we are here more particularly concerned. The Rev. J.
+MacEnery, the gentleman who explored and described them, ascertained
+that the flint-instruments occupied a uniform situation intermediate
+between the stalagmite and the upper surface of the loam, forming a
+connecting link between both; and his opinion was that the epoch of the
+introduction of the knives must be dated antecedently to the formation
+of the stalagmite, from the era of the quiescent settlement of the mud.
+From this view it would follow that the cave was visited posteriorly to
+the introduction and subsidence of the loam, and before the formation of
+the new super-stratum of stalagmite, by men who entered the cave and
+disturbed the original deposit. Although flints have been found in the
+loam underlying the regular crust of stalagmite, mingled confusedly with
+the bones, and unconnected with the evidence of the visits of man--such
+as the excavation of ovens or pits--Dr. Buckland refused his belief to
+the statement that the flint-implements were found beneath the
+stalagmite, and always contended that they were the work of men of a
+more recent period, who had broken up the sparry floor. The doctor
+supposed that the ancient Britons had scooped out ovens in the
+stalagmite, and that through them the knives got admission to the
+underlying loam, and that in this confused state the several materials
+were cemented together.
+
+In 1858 Dr. Falconer heard of the newly-discovered cave at Brixham, on
+the opposite side of the bay to Torquay, and he took steps to prevent
+any doubts being entertained with regard to its contents. This cave was
+composed of several passages, with four entrances, formerly blocked up
+with breccia and earthy matter; the main opening being ascertained by
+Mr. Bristow to be seventy-eight feet above the valley, and ninety-five
+feet above the sea, the cave itself being in some places eight feet
+wide. The contents of the cave were covered with a layer of stalagmite,
+from one to fifteen inches thick, on the top of which were found the
+horns of a Reindeer; under the stalagmite came reddish loam or
+cave-earth, with pebbles and some angular stones, from two to thirteen
+feet thick, containing the bones of Elephants, Rhinoceros, Bears,
+Hyænas, Felis, Reindeer, Horses, Oxen, and several Rodents; and, lastly,
+a layer of gravel, and rounded pebbles without fossils, underlaid the
+cave-earth and formed the lowest deposit.
+
+In these beds no human bones were found, but in almost every part of the
+bone-bed were flint-knives, one of the most perfect being found thirteen
+feet down in the bone-bed, at its lowest part. The most remarkable fact
+in connection with this cave was the discovery of an entire left
+hind-leg of the Cave-bear lying in close proximity to this knife; “not
+washed in a fossil state out of an older alluvium, and swept afterwards
+into this cave, so as to be mingled with the flint implements, but
+having been introduced when clothed in its flesh.” The implement and the
+Bear’s leg were evidently deposited about the same time, and it only
+required some approximative estimate of the date of this deposit, to
+settle the question of the antiquity of man, at least in an affirmative
+sense.
+
+Mr. H. W. Bristow, who was sent by the Committee of the Royal Society to
+make a plan and drawings of the Brixham Cave, found that its entrance
+was situated at a height of ninety-five feet above the present level of
+the sea. In his Report made to the Royal Society, in explanation of the
+plan and sections, Mr. Bristow stated that, in all probability, at the
+time the cave was formed, the land was at a lower level to the extent of
+the observed distance of ninety-five feet, and that its mouth was then
+situated at or near the level of the sea.
+
+The cave consisted of wide galleries or passages running in a north and
+south direction, with minor lateral passages branching off nearly at
+right angles to the main openings--- the whole cave being formed in the
+joints, or natural divisional planes, of the rock.
+
+The mouth or entrance to the cave originated, in the first instance, in
+an open joint or fissure in the Devonian limestone, which became widened
+by water flowing backwards and forwards, and was partly enlarged by the
+atmospheric water, which percolated through the cracks, fissures, and
+open joints in the overlying rock. The pebbles, forming the lowest
+deposit in the cave, were ordinary shingle or beach-gravel, washed in by
+the waves and tides. The cave-earth was the residual part of the
+limestone rock, after the calcareous portion had been dissolved and
+carried away in solution; and the stalactite and stalagmite were derived
+from the lime deposited from the percolating water.
+
+With regard to bone-caves generally, it would seem that, like other such
+openings, they are most common in limestone rocks, where they have been
+formed by water, which has dissolved and carried away the calcareous
+ingredient of the rock. In the case of the Brixham cave, the mode of
+action of the water could be clearly traced in two ways: first, in
+widening out the principal passages by the rush of water backwards and
+forwards from the sea; and, secondly, by the infiltration and
+percolation of atmospheric water through the overlying rock. In both
+cases the active agents in producing the cave had taken advantage of a
+pre-existing fissure or crack, or an open joint, which they gradually
+enlarged and widened out, until the opening received its final
+proportions.
+
+The cave presented no appearance of ever having been inhabited by man;
+or of having been the den of Hyænas or other animals, like Wookey Hole
+in the Mendips, and some other bone-caves. The most probable supposition
+is, that the hind quarter of the Bear and other bones which were found
+in the cave-earth, had been washed into the cave by the sea, in which
+they were floating about.
+
+We draw some inferences of the greatest interest and significance from
+the Brixham cave and its contents.
+
+We learn that this country was, at one time, inhabited by animals which
+are now extinct, and of whose existence we have not even a tradition;
+that man, then ignorant of the use of metal, and little better than the
+brutes, was the contemporary of the animals whose remains were found in
+the cave, together with a rude flint-implement--the only kind of weapon
+with which our savage ancestor defended himself against animals scarcely
+wilder than himself.
+
+We also learn that after the cave had been formed and sealed up again,
+as it were, together with all its contents, by the deposition of a solid
+crust of stalagmite--an operation requiring a very great length of time
+to effect--the Reindeer (_Cervus Tarandus_) was indigenous to this
+country, as is proved by the occurrence of an antler of that animal
+which was found lying upon, and partly imbedded in, the stalagmite
+forming the roof or uppermost, that is, the latest formed, of the
+cave-deposits.
+
+Lastly, we learn that, at the time the cave was formed, and while the
+land was inhabited by man, that part of the country was lower by
+ninety-five feet than it is now; and that this elevation has probably
+been produced so slowly and so gradually, as to have been imperceptible
+during the time it was taking place, which extended over a vast interval
+of time, perhaps over thousands of years.
+
+Perhaps it may not be out of place here to describe the mode of
+formation of bone-caves generally, and the causes which have produced
+the appearances these now present.
+
+Caves in limestone rocks have two principal phases--one of formation,
+and one of filling up. So long as the water which enters the cavities in
+the course of formation, and carries off some of the calcareous matter
+in solution, can find an easy exit, the cavity is continually enlarged;
+but when, from various causes, the water only enters in small
+quantities, and does not escape, or only finds its way out slowly, and
+with difficulty, the lime, instead of being removed, is re-deposited on
+the walls, roof, sides, and floor of the cavity, in the form of
+stalactites and stalagmite, and the work of re-filling with solid
+carbonate of lime then takes place.
+
+Encouraged by the Brixham discoveries, a congress of French and English
+geologists met at Amiens, in order to consider certain evidence, on
+which it was sought to establish as a fact that man and the Mammoth were
+formerly contemporaries.
+
+The valley of the Somme, between Abbeville and Amiens, is occupied by
+beds of peat, some twenty or thirty feet deep, resting on a thin bed of
+clay which covers other beds, of sand and gravel, and itself rests on
+white Chalk with flints. Bordering the valley, some hills rise with a
+gentle slope to a height of 200 or 300 feet, and here and there, on
+their summits, are patches of Tertiary sand and clay, with fossils, and
+again more extensive layers of loam. The inference from this geological
+structure is that the river, originally flowing through the Tertiary
+formation, gradually cut its way through the various strata down to its
+present level. From the depth of the peat, its lower part lies below the
+sea-level, and it is supposed that a depression of the region has
+occurred at some period: again, in land lying quite low on the
+Abbeville side of the valley, but above the tidal level, marine shells
+occur, which indicate an elevation of the region; again, about 100 feet
+above the valley, on the right bank of the river, and on a sloping
+surface, is the Moulin-Quignon, where shallow pits exhibit a floor of
+chalk covered by gravel and sand, accompanied by gravel and marly chalk
+and flints more or less worn, well-rounded Tertiary flints and pebbles,
+and fragments of Tertiary sandstone. Such is the general description of
+a locality which has acquired considerable celebrity in connection with
+the question of the antiquity of man.
+
+The Quaternary deposits of Moulin-Quignon and the peat-beds of the Somme
+formerly furnished Cuvier with some of the fossils he described, and in
+later times chipped flint-implements from the quarries and bogs came
+into the possession of M. Boucher de Perthes; the statements were
+received at first not without suspicion--especially on the part of
+English geologists who were familiar with similar attempts on their own
+credulity--that some at least of these were manufactured by the workmen
+of the district. At length, the discovery of a human jaw and tooth in
+the gravel-pits of St. Acheul, near Amiens, produced a rigorous
+investigation into the facts, and it seems to have been established to
+the satisfaction of Mr. Prestwich and his colleagues, that
+flint-implements and the bones of extinct Mammalia are met with in the
+same beds, and in situations indicating very great antiquity. In the
+sloping and irregular deposits overlooking the Somme, the bones of
+Elephants, Rhinoceros, with land and fresh-water shells of existing
+species, are found mingled with flint-implements. Shells like those now
+found in the neighbouring streams and hedge-rows, with the bones of
+existing quadrupeds, have been obtained from the peat, with flint-tools
+of more than usual finish, and together with them a few fragments of
+human bones. Of these reliquiæ, the Celtic memorials lie below the
+Gallo-Roman; above them, oaks, alders, and walnut trees occur, sometimes
+rooted, but no succession of a new growth of trees appear.
+
+The theory of the St. Acheul beds is this: they were deposited by
+fluviatile action, and are probably amongst the oldest deposits in which
+human remains occur, older than the peat-beds of the Somme--but what is
+their _real_ age? Before submitting to the reader the very imperfect
+answer this question admits of, a glance at the previous discoveries,
+which tended to give confirmation to the observations just narrated, may
+be useful.
+
+Implements of stone and flint have been continually turning up during
+the last century and a half in all parts of the world. In the
+neighbourhood of Gray’s Inn Lane, in 1715, a flint spear-head was picked
+up, and near it some Elephants’ bones. In the alluvium of the Wey, near
+Guildford, a wedge-shaped flint-tool was found in the gravel and sand,
+in which Elephants’ tusks were also found. Under the cliffs at
+Whitstable an oval-shaped flint-tool was found in what had probably been
+a fresh-water deposit, and in which bones of the Bear and Elephant were
+also discovered. Between Herne Bay and Reculver five other flint-tools
+have been found, and three more near the top of the cliff, all in
+fresh-water gravel. In the valley of the Ouse, at Beddenham, in
+Bedfordshire, flint-implements, like those of St. Acheul, mixed with the
+bones of Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Hippopotamus, have been found, and
+near them an oval and a spear-shaped implement. In the peat of Ireland
+great numbers of such implements have been met with. But nowhere have
+they been so systematically sought for and classified as in the
+Scandinavian countries.
+
+The peat-deposits of those countries--of Denmark especially--are formed
+in hollows and depressions, in the northern drift and Boulder clay, from
+ten to thirty feet deep. The lower stratum, of two or three feet in
+thickness, consists of _sphagnum_, over which lies another growth of
+peat formed of aquatic and marsh plants. On the edge of the bogs trunks
+of Scotch firs of large size are found--a tree which has not grown in
+the Danish islands within historic times, and does not now thrive when
+planted, although it was evidently indigenous within the human period,
+since Steenstrup took with his own hands a flint-implement from beneath
+the trunk of one. The sessile variety of the oak would appear to have
+succeeded the fir, and is found at a higher level in the peat. Higher up
+still, the common oak, _Quercus robur_, is found along with the birch,
+hazel, and alder. The oak has in its turn been succeeded by the beech.
+
+Another source from which numerous relics of early humanity have been
+taken is the midden-heaps (Kjökken-mödden) found along the Scandinavian
+coast. These heaps consist of castaway shells mixed with bones of
+quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, which reveal in some respects the habits
+of the early races which inhabited the coast. Scattered through these
+mounds are flint-knives, pieces of pottery, and ashes, but neither
+bronze nor iron. The knives and hatchets are said to be a degree less
+rude than those of older date found in the peat. Mounds corresponding to
+these, Sir Charles Lyell tells us, occur along the American coast, from
+Massachusetts and Georgia. The bones of the quadrupeds found in these
+mounds correspond with those of existing species, or species which have
+existed in historic times.
+
+By collecting, arranging, and comparing the flint and stone implements,
+the Scandinavian naturalists have succeeded in establishing a
+chronological succession of periods, which they designate--1. The Age of
+Stone; 2. The Age of Bronze; 3. The Age of Iron. The first, or Stone
+period, in Denmark, corresponded with the age of the Scotch fir, and, in
+part, of the sessile oak. A considerable portion of the oak period
+corresponded, however, with the age of _bronze_, swords made of that
+metal having been found in the peat on the same level with the oak. The
+_iron_ age coincides with the beech. Analogous instances, confirmatory
+of these statements, occur in Yorkshire, and in the fens of
+Lincolnshire.
+
+The traces left indicate that the aborigines went to sea in canoes
+scooped out of a single tree, bringing back deep-sea fishes. Skulls
+obtained from the peat and from tumuli, and believed to be
+contemporaneous with the mounds, are small and round, with prominent
+supra-orbital ridges, somewhat resembling the skulls of Laplanders.
+
+The third series of facts (_Lake-dwellings_, or _lacustrine
+habitations_) consisted of the buildings on piles, in lakes, and once
+common in Asia and Europe. They are first mentioned by Herodotus as
+being used among the Thracians of Pæonia, in the mountain-lake Prasias,
+where the natives lived in dwellings built on piles, and connected with
+the shore by a narrow causeway, by which means they escaped the assaults
+of Xerxes. Buildings of the same description occupied the Swiss lakes,
+in the mud of which hundreds of implements, like those found in Denmark,
+have been dredged up. In Zurich, Moosseedorf near Berne, and Lake
+Constance, axes, celts, pottery, and canoes made out of single trees,
+have been found; but of the human frame scarcely a trace has been
+discovered. One skull dredged up at Meilen, in the Lake of Zurich, was
+intermediate between the Lapp-like skull of the Danish tumuli and the
+more recent European type.
+
+The age of the different formations in which these records of the human
+race are found will probably ever remain a mystery. The evidence which
+would make the implements formed by man contemporaneous with the Mammoth
+and other great Mammalia would go a great way to prove that man was also
+pre-glacial. Let us see how that argument stands.
+
+At the period when the upper Norwich Crag was deposited, the general
+level of the British Isles is supposed to have been about 600 feet above
+its present level, and so connected with the European continent as to
+have received the elements of its fauna and flora from thence.
+
+By some great change, a period of depression occurred, in which all the
+country north of the mouth of the Thames and the Bristol Channel was
+placed much below the present level. Moel Tryfaen experienced a
+submergence of at least 1,400 feet, during which it received the erratic
+blocks and other marks, indicative of floating icebergs, which have been
+described in a former chapter. The country was raised again to something
+like its original level, and again occupied by plants, Molluscs, Fishes
+and Reptiles, Birds, and Mammifera. Again subsidence takes place, and,
+after several oscillations, the level remains as we now find it. The
+estimated time required for these various changes is something enormous,
+and might have extended the term to double the number of years. The unit
+of the calculation is the upward rate of movement observed on the
+Scandinavian coast; applied to the oscillation of the ancient coast of
+Snowdonia, the figures represent 224,000 years for the several
+oscillations of the glacial period. Adding the pre-glacial period, the
+computation gives an additional 48,000 years. But, let us repeat, the
+figures and data are somewhat hypothetical.
+
+With regard to the St. Acheul beds--said to be the most ancient
+formation in which the productions of human hands have been found--they
+are confessedly older than the peat-beds, and the time required for the
+production of other peat-beds of equal thickness has been estimated at
+7,000 years. The antiquity of the gravel-beds of St. Acheul may be
+estimated on two grounds:--1. General elevation above the level of the
+valley. 2. By estimating the animal-remains found in the gravel-beds,
+and not in the peat. The first question implies the denudation of the
+valley below the level of the gravel, or the elevation of the whole
+plateau. Each of these operations would involve an incalculable time,
+for want of data. In the second case, judging from the slow rate at
+which quadrupeds have disappeared in historic times, the extinct Mammoth
+and other great animals must have occupied many centuries in dying out,
+for the notion that they died out suddenly from sharp and sudden
+refrigeration, is not generally admitted.
+
+With regard to the three ages of stone, bronze, and iron, M. Morlot has
+based some calculations upon the condition of the delta of Tinière, near
+Villeneuve, which lead him to assign to the oldest, or stone period, an
+age of 5,000 to 7,000 years, and to the bronze period from 3,000 to
+4,000. We may, then, take leave of this subject with the avowal that,
+while admitting the probability that an immense lapse of time would be
+required for the operations described, we are, in a great measure,
+without reliable data for estimating its actual extent.
+
+The opinion which places the creation of man on the banks of the
+Euphrates in Central Asia is confirmed by an event of the highest
+importance in the history of humanity, and by a crowd of concordant
+traditions, preserved by different races of men, all tending to confirm
+it. We speak of the Asiatic deluge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 200.--Mount Ararat.]
+
+The Asiatic deluge--of which sacred history has transmitted to us the
+few particulars we know--was the result of the upheaval of a part of the
+long chain of mountains which are a prolongation of the Caucasus. The
+earth opening by one of the fissures made in its crust in course of
+cooling, an eruption of volcanic matter escaped through the enormous
+crater so produced. Volumes of watery vapour or steam accompanied the
+lava discharged from the interior of the globe, which, being first
+dissipated in clouds and afterwards condensing, descended, in torrents
+of rain, and the plains were drowned with the volcanic mud. The
+inundation of the plains over an extensive radius was the immediate
+effect of this upheaval, and the formation of the volcanic cone of Mount
+Ararat, with the vast plateau on which it rests, altogether 17,323 feet
+above the sea, the permanent result. The event is graphically detailed
+in the seventh chapter of Genesis.
+
+11. “In the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second month, the
+seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the fountains of the
+great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened.
+
+12. “And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights.”
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+17. “And the flood was forty days upon the earth; and the waters
+increased, and bare up the ark, and it was lift up above the earth.
+
+18. “And the waters prevailed, and were increased greatly upon the
+earth; and the ark went upon the face of the waters.
+
+19. “And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth; and all the
+high hills, that _were_ under the whole heaven, were covered.
+
+20. “Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains
+were covered.
+
+21. “And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl, and of
+cattle, and of beast, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the
+earth, and every man:
+
+22. “All in whose nostrils _was_ the breath of life, of all that _was_
+in the dry land, died.
+
+23. “And every living substance was destroyed which was upon the face of
+the ground, both man, and cattle, and the creeping things, and the fowl
+of the heaven; and they were destroyed from the earth: and Noah only
+remained _alive_, and they that _were_ with him in the ark.
+
+24. “And the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days.”
+
+All the particulars of the Biblical narrative here recited are only to
+be explained by the volcanic and muddy eruption which preceded the
+formation of mount Ararat. The waters which produced the inundation of
+these countries proceeded from a volcanic eruption accompanied by
+enormous volumes of vapour, which in due course became condensed and
+descended on the earth, inundating the extensive plains which now
+stretch away from the foot of Ararat. The expression, “the earth,” or
+“all the earth” as it is translated in the Vulgate, which might be
+implied to mean the entire globe, is explained by Marcel de Serres, in a
+learned book entitled “La Cosmogonie de Moïse,” and other philologists,
+as being an inaccurate translation. He has proved that the Hebrew word
+_haarets_, incorrectly translated “all the earth,” is often used in the
+sense of _region_ or _country_, and that, in this instance, Moses used
+it to express only the part of the globe which was then peopled, and not
+its entire surface. In the same manner “_the mountains_” (rendered “_all
+the mountains_” in the Vulgate), only implies all the mountains known to
+Moses. Similarly, M. Glaire, in the “Christomathie Hébraïque,” which he
+has placed at the end of his Grammar, quotes the passage in this sense:
+“The waters were so prodigiously increased, that the highest mountains
+of the vast horizon were covered by them;” thus restricting the
+mountains covered by the inundation to those bounded by the horizon.
+
+Nothing occurs, therefore, in the description given by Moses, to hinder
+us from seeing in the Asiatic deluge a means made use of by God to
+chastise and punish the human race, then in the infancy of its
+existence, and which had strayed from the path which he had marked out
+for it. It seems to establish the countries lying at the foot of the
+Caucasus as the cradle of the human race; and it seems to establish also
+the upheaval of a chain of mountains, preceded by an eruption of
+volcanic mud, which drowned vast territories entirely composed, in these
+regions, of plains of great extent. Of this deluge many races besides
+the Jews have preserved a tradition. Moses dates it from 1,500 to 1,800
+years before the epoch in which he wrote. Berosus, the Chaldean
+historian, who wrote at Babylon in the time of Alexander, speaks of a
+universal deluge, the date of which he places immediately before the
+reign of Belus, the father of Ninus.
+
+The _Vedas_, or sacred books of the Hindus, supposed to have been
+composed about the same time as Genesis, that is, about 3,300 years ago,
+make out that the deluge occurred 1,500 years before their time. The
+_Guebers_ speak of the same event as having occurred about the same
+date.
+
+Confucius, the celebrated Chinese philosopher and lawgiver, born towards
+the year 551 before Christ, begins his history of China by speaking of
+the Emperor named Jas, whom he represents as making the waters flow
+back, which, _being raised to the heavens_, washed the feet of the
+highest mountains, covered the less elevated hills, and inundated the
+plains. Thus the Biblical deluge (PLATE XXXIII.) is confirmed in many
+respects; but it was local, like all phenomena of the kind, and was
+the result of the upheaval of the mountains of western Asia.
+
+[Illustration: XXXIII.--The Asiatic Deluge.]
+
+A deluge, quite of modern date, conveys a tolerably exact idea of this
+kind of phenomena. We recall the circumstances the better to comprehend
+the true nature of the ravages the deluge inflicted upon some Asiatic
+countries in the Quaternary period. At six days’ journey from the city
+of Mexico there existed, in 1759, a fertile and well-cultivated
+district, where grew abundance of rice, maize, and bananas. In the month
+of June frightful earthquakes shook the ground, and were continued
+unceasingly for two whole months. On the night of the 28th September the
+earth was violently convulsed, and a region of many leagues in extent
+was slowly raised until it attained a height of about 500 feet over a
+surface of many square leagues. The earth undulated like the waves of
+the sea in a tempest; thousands of small hills alternately rose and
+fell, and, finally, an immense gulf opened, from which smoke, fire,
+red-hot stones and ashes were violently discharged, and darted to
+prodigious heights. Six mountains emerged from this gaping gulf; among
+which the volcanic mountain Jorullo rises 2,890 feet above the ancient
+plain, to the height of 4,265 feet above the sea.
+
+At the moment when the earthquake commenced the two rivers _Cuitimba_
+and _San Pedro_ flowed backwards, inundating all the plain now occupied
+by Jorullo; but in the regions which continually rose, a gulf opened and
+swallowed up the rivers. They reappeared to the west, but at a point
+very distant from their former beds.
+
+This inundation reminds us on a small scale of the phenomena which
+attended the deluge of Noah.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Besides the deposits resulting from the partial deluges which we have
+described as occurring in Europe and Asia during the Quaternary epoch
+there were produced in the same period many new formations resulting
+from the deposition of _alluvia_ thrown down by seas and rivers. These
+deposits are always few in number, and widely disseminated. Their
+stratification is as regular as that of any which belong to preceding
+periods; they are distinguished from those of the Tertiary epoch, with
+which they are most likely to be confounded, by their situation, which
+is very frequently upon the shores of the sea, and by the predominance
+of shells of a species identical with those now living in the adjacent
+seas.
+
+A marine formation of this kind, which, after constituting the coast of
+Sicily, principally on the side of Girgenti, Syracuse, Catania, and
+Palermo, occupies the centre of the island, where it rises to the
+height of 3,000 feet, is amongst the most remarkable of the great
+Quaternary European productions. It is chiefly formed of two great beds;
+the lower a bluish argillaceous marl, the other a coarse but very
+compact limestone, both containing shells analogous to those of the
+present Mediterranean coast. The same formation is found in the
+neighbouring islands, especially in Sardinia and Malta. The great sandy
+deserts of Africa, as well as the argillo-arenaceous formation of the
+steppes of Eastern Russia, and the fertile Tchornozem, or “_black
+earth_” of its southern plains, have the same geological origin; so have
+the Travertines of Tuscany, Naples, and Rome, and the Tufas, which are
+an essential constituent of the Neapolitan soil.
+
+The pampas of South America--which consist of an argillaceous soil of a
+deep reddish-brown colour, with horizontal beds of marly clay and
+calcareous tufa, containing shells either actually living now in the
+Atlantic, or identical with fresh-water shells of the country--ought
+surely to be considered as a Quaternary deposit, of even greater extent
+than the preceding.
+
+We are now approaching so near to our own age, that we can, as it were,
+trace the hand of Nature in her works. Professor Ramsay shows, in the
+Memoirs of the Government Geological Survey, that beds nearly a mile in
+thickness have been removed by denudation from the summit of the Mendip
+Hills, and that broad areas in South Wales and the neighbouring counties
+have been denuded of their higher beds, the materials being transported
+elsewhere to form newer strata. Now, no combination of causes has been
+imagined which has not involved submersion during long periods, and
+subsequent elevation for periods of longer or shorter duration.
+
+We can hardly walk any great distance along the coast, either of England
+or Scotland, without remarking some flat terrace of unequal breadth, and
+backed by a more or less steep escarpment--upon such a terrace many of
+the towns along the coast are built. No geologist now doubts that this
+fine platform, at the base of which is a deposit of loam or sandy
+gravel, with marine shells, had been, at some period, the line of coast
+against which the waves of the ocean once broke at high water. At that
+period the sea rose twenty, and thirty, and some places a hundred feet
+higher than it does now. The ancient sea-beaches in some places formed
+terraces of sand and gravel, with littoral shells, some broken, others
+entire, and corresponding with species in the seas below; in others they
+form bold projecting promontories or deep bays. In an historical point
+of view, this coast-line should be very ancient, though it may be only
+of yesterday in a geological sense--its origin ascending far beyond
+written tradition. The wall of Antoninus, raised by the Romans as a
+protection from the attacks of the Caledonians, was built, in the
+opinion of the best authorities, not in connection with the old, but
+with the new coast-line. We may, then, conclude that in A.D. 140, when
+the greater part of this wall was constructed, the zone of the ancient
+coast-line had attained its present elevation above the actual level of
+the sea.
+
+The same proofs of a general and gradual elevation of the country are
+observable almost everywhere: in the estuary of the Clyde, canoes and
+other works of art have been exhumed, and assigned to a recent period.
+Near St. Austell, and at Carnon, in Cornwall, human skulls and other
+relics have been met with beneath marine strata, in which the bones of
+whales and still-existing species of land-quadrupeds were imbedded. But
+in the countries where hard limestone rocks prevail, in the ancient
+Peloponnesus, along the coast of Argolis and Arcadia, three and even
+four ranges of ancient sea-cliffs are well preserved, which Messrs.
+Boblaye and Verlet describe as rising one above the other, at different
+distances from the present coast, sometimes to the height of 1,000 feet,
+as if the upheaving force had been suspended for a time, leaving the
+waves and currents to throw down and shape the successive ranges of
+lofty cliffs. On the other hand, some well-known historical sites may be
+adduced as affording evidence of the subsidence of the coast-line of the
+Mediterranean in times comparatively modern. In the Bay of Baiæ, the
+celebrated temple of Serapis, at Puzzuoli, near Naples, which was
+originally built about 100 feet from the sea, and at or near its present
+level, exhibits proofs of having gradually sunk nineteen feet, and of a
+subsequent elevation of the ground on which the temple stands of nearly
+the same amount.
+
+So, also, about half a mile along the sea-shore, and standing at some
+distance from it, in the sea, there are the remains of buildings and
+columns which bear the name of the Temples of the Nymphs and of Neptune.
+The tops of these broken columns are now nearly on a level with the
+surface of the water, which is about five feet deep.
+
+With respect to the littoral deposits of the Quaternary period, they are
+of very limited extent, except in a few localities. They are found on
+the western coast of Norway, and on the coasts of England. In France, an
+extensive bed of Quaternary formation is seen on the shores of the
+ancient Guienne, and on other parts of the coast, where it is sometimes
+concealed by trees and shrubs, or by blown sand, as at Dax in the
+Landes, where a steep bank may be traced about twelve miles inland, and
+parallel with the present coast, which falls suddenly about fifty feet
+from a higher platform of the land, to a lower one extending to the sea.
+In making some excavations for the foundations of a building at Abesse,
+in 1830, it was discovered that this fall consisted of drift-sand,
+filling up a steep perpendicular cliff about fifty feet high, consisting
+of a bed of Tertiary clay extending to the sea, a bed of limestone with
+Tertiary shells and corals, and, at the summit, the Tertiary sand of the
+Landes. The marine beds, together with the alluvium of the rivers, have
+given rise to those deposits which occur more especially near the mouths
+of rivers and watercourses.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 201.--Shell of Planorbis corneus.]
+
+
+
+
+EPILOGUE.
+
+
+Having considered the past history of the globe, we may now be permitted
+to bestow a glance upon the future which awaits it.
+
+Can the actual state of the earth be considered as definitive? The
+revolutions which have fashioned its surface, and produced the Alps in
+Europe, Mount Ararat in Asia, the Cordilleras in the New World--are they
+to be the last? In a word, will the terrestrial sphere for ever preserve
+the form under which we know it--as it has been, so to speak, impressed
+on our memories by the maps of the geographers?
+
+It is difficult to reply with any confidence to this question;
+nevertheless, our readers will not object to accompany us a step
+further, while we express an opinion, founded on analogy and scientific
+induction.
+
+What are the causes which have produced the present inequalities of the
+globe--the mountain-ranges, continents, and waters? The primordial cause
+is, as we have had frequent occasion to repeat, the cooling of the
+earth, and the progressive solidification of the external crust, the
+nucleus of which still remains in a fluid or viscous state. These have
+produced the contortions, furrows, and fractures which have led to the
+elevation of the great mountain-ranges and the depression of the great
+valleys--which have caused some continents to emerge from the bed of
+ocean and have submerged others. The secondary causes which have
+contributed to the formation of a vast extent of dry land are due to the
+sedimentary deposits, which have resulted in the creation of new
+continents by filling up the basins of the ancient seas.
+
+Now these two causes, although in a minor degree, continue in operation
+to the present day. The thickness of the terrestrial crust is only a
+small fraction compared to that of the internal liquid mass. The
+principal cause, then, of the great dislocations of the earth’s crust
+is, so to speak, at our gates; it threatens us unceasingly. Of this the
+earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which are still frequent in our
+day, give us disastrous and incontestable proofs. On the other hand, our
+seas are continually forming new land: the bed of the Baltic Sea, for
+instance, is gradually rising, in consequence of the deposits which will
+obviously fill up its area entirely in an interval of time which it
+might not be impossible to calculate.
+
+It is, then, probable that the actual condition of the surface and the
+respective limits of seas and continents have nothing fixed or definite
+in them--that they are, on the contrary, open to great modifications in
+the future.
+
+There is another problem much more difficult of solution than the
+preceding, but for which neither induction nor analogy furnish us with
+any certain data--viz., the perpetuity of our species. Is man doomed to
+disappear from the earth some day, like all the races of animals which
+preceded him, and prepared the way for his advent? Will a new _glacial
+period_, analogous to that which, during the Quaternary period, was felt
+so rigorously, again come round to put an end to his existence? Like the
+Trilobites of the Silurian period, the great Reptiles of the Lias, the
+Mastodons of the Tertiary, and the Megatheriums of the Quaternary epoch,
+is the human species to be annihilated--to perish from the globe by a
+simple natural extinction? Or must we believe that man, gifted with the
+attribute of reason, marked, so to say, with the Divine seal, is to be
+the ultimate and supreme term of creation?
+
+Science cannot pronounce upon these grave questions, which exceed the
+competence, and extend beyond the circle of human reasoning. It is not
+impossible that man should be only a step in the ascending and
+progressive scale of animated beings. The Divine Power which has
+lavished upon the earth life, sentiment, and thought; which has given
+organisation to plants; to animals, motion, sensation, and intelligence;
+to man, in addition to these multiple gifts, the faculty of reason,
+doubled in value by the ideal--reserves to Himself perhaps in His wisdom
+the privilege of creating alongside of man, or after him, a being still
+more perfect. This new being, religion and modern poesy would present in
+the ethereal and radiant type of the Christian angel, with moral
+qualities whose nature and essence would escape our perceptions--of
+which we could no more form a notion than one born blind could conceive
+of colour, or the deaf and dumb of sound. _Erunt æquales angelis Dei._
+“They will be as the angels of God,” says Holy Scripture, speaking of
+man raised to the life eternal.
+
+During the Metamorphic epoch the _mineral kingdom_ existed alone; the
+rocks, silent and solitary, were all that was yet formed of the burning
+earth. During the Primary epoch, the vegetable kingdom, newly created,
+extended itself over the whole globe, which it soon covered from pole to
+pole with an uninterrupted mass of verdure. During the Secondary and
+Tertiary epochs, the vegetable and animal kingdoms divided the earth
+between them. In the Quaternary epoch the _human kingdom_ appeared. Is
+it in the future destinies of our planet to receive yet another lord?
+And after the four kingdoms which now occupy it, is there to be a _new
+kingdom_ created, the attributes of which can never be anything but an
+impenetrable mystery, and which will differ from man in as great a
+degree as man differs from the other animals, and plants from rocks?
+
+We must be contented with suggesting, without hoping to solve, this
+formidable problem. It is a great mystery, which, according to the fine
+expression of Pliny, “lies hidden in the majesty of Nature,” _latet in
+majestate naturæ_; or (to speak more in the spirit of Christian
+philosophy) it is known only to the Almighty Creator of the Universe.
+
+
+
+
+  TABLE
+  OF
+  BRITISH SEDIMENTARY AND FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA.
+
+  BY H. W. BRISTOW.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             | SUBDIVISIONS. |   FOREIGN   |   ORIGIN.    |  COMMERCIAL  |
+  |             |               | EQUIVALENTS.|              |  PRODUCTS.   |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             | Blown Sand.   |             |              |    Peat.     |
+  |             | Raised        |             |              |   Amber.     |
+  |             | Beaches.      | Mud of the  |              |  Gold, Dia-  |
+  |POST         | Alluvium.     |    Nile.    |              |  monds, and  |
+  |PLIOCENE.    | Brick Earth.  |Loess of the |   Various.   |  other Gems  |
+  |             | River Gravel. |   Rhine.    |              |   derived    |
+  |             | Cave Deposits.|             |              |   from the   |
+  |             | Glacial De-   |             |              |  older de-   |
+  |             | posits.       |             |              |   posits.    |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |PLIOCENE.    | Crags.        |Sub-Apennine |    Marine    |  Phosphatic  |
+  |             |               |  Strata.    |              |   Nodules.   |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             | Leaf Beds and |  Molasse.   |              |              |
+  |MIOCENE.     | Lignite.      |  Faluns of  |     and      |  Pipeclay.   |
+  |             |               |  Touraine.  |              |              |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             | Upper Eocene. |  Calcaire   | Freshwater.  | Sand, Brown  |
+  |             | Bagshot Beds. |  Grossier.  |              | Coal, Pipe-  |
+  |EOCENE.      | London Clay.  | Nummulitic  |  Estuarine   | clay, Cement |
+  |             | Reading Beds, | Limestones  |     and      |Stone, Bricks,|
+  |             | &c.           |(European and|   Marine.    | and Pottery. |
+  |             |               |  Asiatic).  |              |              |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             | White and     |{Maestricht  |              |  Flints from |
+  |UPPER        | Grey Chalk.   |{Beds.       |              |  Up. Chalk.  |
+  |CRETACEOUS.  | Upper Green-  |{Senonien    |              | Phosphate of |
+  |             | sand.         |{Turonien.   |  Marine and  |     Lime.    |
+  |             | Gault.       }|             |  Freshwater  | Iron Pyrites.|
+  |LOWER        | Lower Green- }|Albien.      |  (Wealden).  |  Sandy Iron- |
+  |CRETACEOUS.  | sand.        }|Aptien.      |              |    stones.   |
+  |             | Wealden Beds,}|Neocomian.   |              |   Building   |
+  |             | &c.          }|             |              |    Stone.    |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |UPPER        |{Purbeck.      |             |Estuarine and |              |
+  |OOLITIC.     |{Portland and  |             |   Marine.    |              |
+  |             |{Kimeridge.    |             |              |  Coal, Jet,  |
+  |MIDDLE       | Coral Rag &   |             |              |  Iron Ores,  |
+  |OOLITIC.     | Oxford Clay.  |             |              |   Roofing    |
+  |             |{Cornbrash.    |             |              |   Slates,    |
+  |             |{Forest Marble |    Jura     |              |  Building    |
+  |             |{and Great     | Formation.  |   Marine.    | Stones, and  |
+  |LOWER        |{Oolite.       |             |              |    Flags.    |
+  |OOLITIC.     |{Stonesfield   |             |              | Alum Shales. |
+  |             |{Slate.        |             |              |   Hydraulic  |
+  |             |{Inferior      |             |              | Limestones.  |
+  |             |{Oolite.       |             |              |              |
+  |             | Lias.         |             |              |              |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             | Rhætic.       |             |              |              |
+  |             | New Red Marl, |             |              |   Gypsum.    |
+  |KEUPER.      | Sandstone,    | Muschelkalk | Inland Seas. |  Rock Salt.  |
+  |             | and Conglom-  |  absent in  |              |   Building   |
+  |BUNTER.      | erate.        |   British   | Salt Lakes.  |   Stones.    |
+  |             | Sandstone &   |    Isles.   |              |              |
+  |             | Pebble Beds.  |             |              |              |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             | Red Marls and |             |              |              |
+  |MAGNESIAN    | Magnesian     |             |              |              |
+  |LIMESTONE.   | Limestone.    | Zechstein.  |              |              |
+  |             | Red Marl,     |   Kupfer-   |   Marine.    |   Building   |
+  |LOWER        | Sandstone,    |  schiefer.  |              |   Stones.    |
+  |PERMIAN.     | and Conglom-  |Rothliegende.|              |              |
+  |             | erate.        |             |              |              |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             | Coal Measures.|  Carboni-   |              | Coal, Anthra-|
+  |             | Millstone     |  ferien.    |              |    cite.     |
+  |CARBONIFER-  | Grit.         |             | Terrestrial  | Iron and Lead|
+  |OUS.         | Yoredale      |             |     and      |    Ores.     |
+  |             | Rocks.        |             |   Marine.    | Bldng. Stone,|
+  |             | Mountain Lime-|             |              |   Marble.    |
+  |             | stone.        |             |              | Oil Springs. |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             |               |             |              |  Ornamental  |
+  |DEVONIAN     | Devonian      |             |              |   Marbles.   |
+  |AND          | Slates and    |   Eifel     |  Marine And  | Serpentine & |
+  |OLD RED SAND-| Limestones.   | Limestone.  |  Freshwater. |   Slates.    |
+  |STONE.       | Old Red Sand- |             |              | Tin, Copper, |
+  |             | stone, &c.    |             |              | Lead, Silver |
+  |             |               |             |              |  Ores, &c.   |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |            {| Ludlow.       |             |              |              |
+  |UPPER SILU- {| Wenlock.      |             |              |              |
+  |RIAN.       {| Upper         |             |              |   Roofing    |
+  |            {| Llandovery.   |             |              |   Slates.    |
+  |             |{Lower         |             |   Marine.    |   Building   |
+  |             |{Llandovery.   |             |              |   Stones.    |
+  |LOWER SILU-  |{Bala and Cara-|             |              | Gold & other |
+  |RIAN.        |{doc.          |             |              |   Metals.    |
+  |             |{Llandeilo.    |             |              |              |
+  |             |{Lingula Flags.| Primordial  |              |              |
+  |             |{              |   Zone.     |              |              |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             | Harlech Grits.|             |              |   Roofing    |
+  |CAMBRIAN.    | Llanberis     | Huronian of |   Marine.    |   Slates.    |
+  |             | Slates.       |  America.   |              | Gold & other |
+  |             |               |             |              |   Metals.    |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |             |    Gneiss     |             |              |              |
+  |             | of the Outer  | Labradorite |              |  Serpentine. |
+  |LAURENTIAN.  | Hebrides, and |  Series in  |   Marine.    |  Graphite.   |
+  |             | N.W. Coast of |   Canada.   |              |              |
+  |             | Scotland.     |             |              |              |
+  +-------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |                                                                         |
+  |METAMORPHIC ROCKS (_of all ages_):--                                     |
+  |       Gneiss, Mica-schist, Quartzite, Talcose-schist, &c. (Serpentine   |
+  |       probably?)                                                        |
+  |                                                                         |
+  |INTRUSIVE ROCKS (_of all ages_):--                                       |
+  |       Lavas, Basalt, Trachyte, Pitchstone, &c.                          |
+  |       Granite, Syenite, Greenstone, Felstone, Porphyrites, Melaphyres,  |
+  |       Mica-Traps, &c. &c.                                               |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+EXTENSION OF THE PREVIOUS TABLE.
+
+
+     /    /             /             / Blown Sand and Shingle.
+     |    |             |             | Alluvium and River Deltas.
+     |    |             |             | Burtle Beds of Somerset.
+     |    |             | RECENT AND  | Clay, with Scrobicularia of Pagham,
+     |    |             | PRE-       <    Morecombe, &c.
+     |    |             | HISTORIC.   | Submerged Forests of Bristol
+     |    |             |             | Channel, &c.
+     |    |             |             | Peat Bogs of Ireland and Peat Beds
+     | P  |             |             \ of England.
+     | O  |             |
+     | S  |             |             / Raised Beaches.
+     | T  |             |             |               / Cave Earth and Loam.
+     |    |  PLEIS-     |             | Cave Deposits<  Stalagmite and Bone-
+     | T  |  TOCENE,    |             |               \ breccia.
+     | E <   OR        <              | River Gravels, Brick Earths, and
+     | R  |  QUATER-    | Post       <  Freshwater Clays, with Mammalian
+     | T  |  NARY.      | Glacial     | Remains.
+     | I  |             |             | Gravels of Bedford Levels, Salisbury,
+     | A  |             |             | and other Old Valley Gravels and
+     | R  |             |             | Alluvia.
+     | Y  |             |             \ Tufa and Shell-marl.
+     | .  |             |
+     |    |             |             / Kaimes or Kames of Scotland.
+     |    |             |             | Eskers or Escars of Ireland.
+     |    |             | Glacial    <  Drift (Upper Boulder Clay or Till,
+     |    |             |             | Marine Gravels, Lower Till and
+  A  |    |             |             | Moraines), Scotch and Welsh,
+  G  |    |             |             \ Loess of the Rhine, &c.
+  E  |    |             |
+     |    \             \ Pre-glacial   Forest Bed of Norfolk Shore.
+  O  |
+  F  |    /             \             /               \  _Norwich and_
+     |    |             |             | Mammaliferous |  _Chillesford_
+  M <     |             |             | Crag           > _Crag_
+  A  |    | PLIOCENE.    > Crag      <  Red Crag      |  (Newer
+  M  |    |             |             |               /  Pliocene).
+  M  |    |             |             | Coralline Crag (_Suffolk Crag_)
+  A  |    |             /             \ (Older Pliocene).
+  L  | K  |
+  S  | A  |                           / Leaf Bed of Mull.
+  .  | I  | MIOCENE.                 <  Lignite of Antrim.
+     | N  |                           \ Bovey Beds, with Lignite.
+     | O  |
+     | Z  |    /        /             / Corbula Beds.              \  F
+     | O  |    |        | Hempstead  <  Upper  \   Freshwater and  |  l
+     | I  |    |        | Beds        | Middle  >  Estuary         |  u
+     | O  |    | UPPER <              \ Lower  /   Marls.          |  v  S
+     | ,  |    | EO-    |                                          |  i  e
+     |    |    | CENE.  | Bembridge   / Bembridge Marls.           |  o  r
+     | O <     |        \ Beds        \     „     Limestone.        > -  i
+     | R  |    |                                                   |  M  e
+     |    |    |        / Osborne     / St. Helen’s Sands.         |  a  s
+     | T  |    |        | Beds        \ Nettlestone Grits.         |  r  .
+     | E  | E  |        |                                          |  i
+     | R  | O  |        |             / Upper  \                   |  n
+     | T  | C  |        | Headon     <  Middle  > Headon Beds.     |  e
+     | I  | E <  MIDDLE<  Beds        \ Lower  /                   /
+     | A  | N  | EO-    |
+     | R  | E  | CENE.  |             / Upper Bagshot Sand.
+     | Y  | .  |        |             | Middle   „    / Barton Clay.
+     | .  |    |        | Bagshot    <                \ Bracklesham Beds.
+     |    |    |        | Beds        | Lower    „    Sand and Pipeclay,
+     |    |    |        \             \ with Plants.
+     |    |    |
+     |    |    |        /             / London Clay and Bognor Beds (Upper
+     |    |    |        |             | London Tertiaries).
+     |    |    | LOWER <  London     <  Oldhaven Beds.            \
+     |    |    | EO-    | Tertiaries  | Woolwich and Reading Beds |
+     |    |    | CENE.  |             | (Plastic Clay).            > Lower
+     \    \    \        \             \ Thanet Beds.              /  do.
+
+
+    /        /     C /                 / Upper Chalk, with Layers of Flint
+    |        |     R |                 | (Maestricht and Faxoe Beds).
+    |        |     E |  Chalk.        <  Lower Chalk, without Flints.
+    |        |  U  T |                 | Chalk Marl.
+    |        |  P  A<                  \ Chloritic Marl.
+    |        |  P  C |
+    |        |  E  E |                   Upper Greensand (Fire-stone of
+    |        |  R  O |                   Surrey, Malm-rock), &c.
+    |        |     U |
+    |   C    |     S \                   Gault.
+    |   R    |     .
+    |   E    |  L    /   /    /        / Folkestone Beds (Sand).
+    |   T    |  O    |   |    | Lower  | Sandgate Beds (with Fullers’
+    |   A    |  W  O |   |    | Green-<  Earth).
+    |   C   <   E  R |   |    | sand.  | Hythe Beds (with Kentish Rag and
+    |   E    |  R    |   |  N |        | Bargate Stone).
+    |   O    |     N |   |  e |        \ Atherfield Clay.
+    |   U    |  C  E |   |  o |
+    |   S    |  R  O | W |  c |        / Weald Clay (with Sussex or Bethers-
+    |   .    |  E  C<  e |  o<         \ den Marble and Horsham Stone).
+    |        |  T  O | a |  m |
+    |        |  A  M | l<   i |        / Upper Tunbridge Wells  \
+    |        |  C  I | d |  a |        | Sand.                  |  Tunbridge
+    |        |  E  A | e |  n | Has-   | Grinstead Clay.         > Wells
+    |        |  O  N | n |  . | tings <  Lower Tunbridge Wells  |  Beds.
+    |        |  U  . | . |    | Sands. | Sand.                  /
+    |        |  S    |   |    |        | Wadhurst Clay (with Iron Ore).
+    |        |  ,    |   |    |        | Ashdown Sands.
+    |        \       \   |    \        \ Ashburnham Beds.
+    |                    |
+    |   /    /     O /   |      Pur-   / Upper (with Purbeck Marble).\ Pur-
+    |   |    |  U  O |   |      beck. <  Middle.                      >beck
+    |   |    |  P  L |   \             \ Lower (with Dirt Beds).     / Beds.
+    |   |    |  P  I<
+    |   |    |  E  T |                 / Portland Stone.
+    |   |    |  R  E | Portland.      <  Portland Sand.
+    |   |    |     . |                 | Kimeridge Clay (with Bituminous
+    |   |    |       \                 \ Shale).
+    |   |    |
+    |   |    |  M  O / Coralline       / Upper Calcareous Grit.
+  M |   |    |  I  O | Oolite.        <  Coral Rag (with Iron Ore).
+  E |   |    |  D  L<                  \ Lower Calcareous Grit.
+  S |   |    |  D  I |
+  O |   | O  |  L  T | Oxford Clay.    / Oxford Clay and
+  Z |   | O  |  E  E \                 \ Kellaways Rock.
+  O |   | L  |     .
+  I |   | I  |       /                 / Cornbrash.
+  C | J | T  |       | Forest Marble. <  Forest Marble and Bradford Clay
+  , | U | I  |       |                 \ (with Encrinites).
+    | R | C  |       |
+  O | A |   <        |                 / Great or Bath Oolite (with “Ful-
+  R<  S | S  |       |                 | lers’ Earth” at base, in S. of
+    | S | E  |       | Great Oolite.  <  England).
+  S | I | R  |       |                 | Stonesfield Slate, near the base,
+  E | C<  I  |   L   |                 \ in part of S. of England.
+  C |   | E  |   O   |
+  O | S | S  |   W   |                 / Upper Fullers’ Earth (Clay).
+  N | E | .  |   E   | Fullers’ Earth.<  Fullers’ Earth Rock (Limestone).
+  D | R |    |   R   |                 \ Lower Fullers’ Earth (Clay).
+  A | I |    |       |
+  R | E |    |   O  <                  / Northampton Sand (with Iron Ore,
+  Y | S |    |   O   |                 | in N. Oxfordshire and S.
+  . | . |    |   L   |                 | Northamptonshire).
+    |   |    |   I   |                 | Ragstone and Clypeus Bed.\  Chel-
+    |   |    |   T   |                 | Upper Freestone.         |  ten-
+    |   |    |   E   | Inferior       <  Oolite Marl.              > ham
+    |   |    |   .   | Oolite.         | Lower Freestone.         |  Sec-
+    |   |    |       |                 | Pea Grit.                /  tions.
+    |   |    |       |                 | (Colleyweston Slate, at the base
+    |   |    |       |                 | of the Limestone, in Lincoln-
+    |   |    |       |                 | shire).
+    |   |    \       |                 \ Sands.
+    |   | AGE OF   / | L  /
+    |   |REPTILES, | | i  | Upper Lias.  Clay and Shale.
+    |   |OR SAURO-<  | a <  Middle Lias, or Marlstone (Rock Bed, with Iron
+    |   |  ZOIC    | | s  | Ore, Sand, &c.).
+    |   \ EPOCH.   \ \ .  \ Lower Lias.  Clay, Shale, and Limestone.
+    |
+    |   / T  /       /                 / “White Lias,” Avicula contorta
+    |   | R  |       | Rhætic, or     <  Beds, with Koessen Beds.
+    |   | I  |       | Penarth Beds.   | Bone Beds of Aust, &c.
+    |   | A  |       |                 \ _St. Cassian and Hallstadt Beds._
+    |   | S  | U  T  |
+    | P | ,  | P  R  |                 / Red variegated Marl and Upper
+    | O |    | P  I <                  | Keuper Sandstone (with Gypsum and
+    | I | O  | E  A  |                 | Rock Salt).
+    | K | R  | R  S  | Keuper.        <  Lower Keuper Sandstone and Marl
+    | I |    |    .  |                 | (Waterstones).
+    | L | N  |       |                 | Dolomitic Conglomerate (of Keuper
+    | I | E  |       |                 | Age, Somerset, Gloucester, and S.
+    | T | W  |       \                 \ Wales).
+    | I<    <
+    | C | R  | M  T  /
+    |   | E  | I  R  |
+    | S | D  | D  I <                    _Muschelkalk, absent in Britain._
+    | E |    | D  A  |
+    | R | S  | L  S  |
+    | I | A  | E  .  \
+    | E | N  |
+    | S | D  | L  T  /
+    | . | S  | O  R  |                 / Upper Red and Mottled Sandstone.
+    |   | T  | W  I <  Bunter.        <  Pebble Beds, Calcareous Con-
+    |   | O  | E  A  |                 | glomerate, and Breccia.
+    |   | N  | R  S  |                 \ Lower Red and Mottled Sandstone.
+    |   | E  |    .  \
+    \   \ .  \
+
+
+                                                                  GERMANY.
+     /   A /   P    /Upper, or / Upper Red Marl and Sandstone. \
+     |   G |   E    |Magnesian<  Upper Magnesian Limestone.     > Zechstein.
+     |   E |   R    |Limestone | Lower Red Marl and Sandstone. |
+     |     |   M   <  Series.  \ Lower Magnesian Limestone.    /
+     |   O |   I    |
+     |   F |   A    |Lower, or / Red Marl, Sandstone, Breccia, Röthe-liegende,
+     |     |   N    | Rothlie-<  and Conglomerate.
+     |   F |   .    \  gende.  \
+     |   I |
+     |U  S |C       /                    ENGLAND.              SCOTLAND.
+     |P  H |A       |
+     |P  E |R  A  P |           / Upper Coal Measures.   \
+     |E  S |B  G  H |   Coal    | Middle Coal Measures. }|  Upper Coal
+     |R  , |O  E  Y | Measures.<  Pennant Grit.         } > Measures.
+     |     |N     T |           | Lower Coal Measures.   |
+     |P  O |I  O  O |           \ Gannister Beds.        /
+     |A  R< F  F  Z |
+     |L    |E     O |           / Millstone Grit or      \  Moor
+     |Æ  I |R  P  I<            \ Farewell Rock.         /  Rock.
+     |O  C |O  L  C |
+     |Z  H |U  A    |           / Upper Limestone Shale  \  Upper Limestones.
+     |O  T |S  N  E |           | (Yoredale Rocks).       > Edge Coals Series.
+     |I  H |   T  P |           | Carboniferous Lime-    |  Lower Limestones.
+     |C  Y |S  S  O |  Carboni- | stone.                 /
+     |.  O |E  ,  C |   ferous, |
+     |   Z |R     H |     or   <                         \  Sandstones, Shales,
+     |   O |I  O  . |  Mountain | Lower Limestone Shale.  > and Burdie House
+     |   I |E  R    | Limestone.|                        /  Limestone.
+     |   C |S       |           |
+     |     |.       \           \
+  P  |   E |
+  A  |   P |OLD RED / Old Red  / Upper Devonian or Barnstaple and Marwood Beds,
+  L  |   O | SAND-  |  Sand-   | with Petherwin Limestone, in N. E. Cornwall.
+  Æ  |   C | STONE < stone, or<  Middle Devonian or Ilfracombe Beds, with
+  O  |   H |  AND   |Devonian  | Fossiliferous Limestones and Cornstones.
+  Z  |   . | DEVONI-|  Beds.   \ Lower Devonian, or Lynton Beds.
+  O  |     \   AN.  \
+  I  |                                 WALES AND CENTRAL        LAKE DISTRICT.
+  C  |                                      ENGLAND.
+  ,  |L    /   /      /             Tilestones (Passage     \
+     |O  A |   |      |             Beds).                  |
+  O < W  N |   |      |                                      > Kirkby Moor
+  R  |E  D |   |      |           / Upper Ludlow Beds (with |  Flags.
+     |R    |   |  U   | Ludlow   <  Bone Bed).              /
+  P  |   M |   |  P   | Beds.     | Aymestry Limestone.     \
+  R  |P  O |   |  P   |           \ Lower Ludlow Beds.      |
+  I  |A  L |   |  E   |                                      > Bannisdale Beds.
+  M  |L  L |   |  R   |           / Wenlock Limestone.      |
+  A  |Æ  U |   |      |           | Wenlock Shale, Sand-    |
+  R  |O  S |   |  S   |           | stone, and Flags.       /
+  Y  |Z  C |   |  I  <  Wenlock  <  Woolhope Limestone and  \  Coniston Grits
+  .  |O  S |S  |  L   | Beds.     | Shale.                  |  and Flags.
+     |I  , |I  |  U   |           | Denbighshire Grits,      > Stockdale
+     |C    |L  |  R   |           | Shales, Slates, and     |  Slates.
+     |.  O |U  |  I   |           \ Flags.                  /
+     |   R< R <   A   |
+     |A    |I  |  N   |             Tarannon Shale (Pale Slates).
+     |G  M |A  |  .   |
+     |E  A |N  |      |           / Upper Llandovery Rocks.
+     |   L |.  |      | Llando-   | (May Hill Sandstone).
+     |O  A |   |      | very     <  (Pentamerus Beds).
+     |F  C |   |      | Beds.     |
+     |   O |   |      \           \ Lower Llandovery Rocks.
+     |C  Z |   |
+     |R  O |   |    S / Caradoc,  / Caradoc and Bala Beds.  \
+     |U  I |   |    I | or Bala  < (Sandstones often shelly,|  Coniston Lime-
+     |S  C |   | L  L | Beds.     | with Bala Limestone,    |  stone, Bala
+     |T    |   | O  U |           \ Shale, and Slate).       > (Limestone and
+     |A  E |   | W  R |                                     |  Shale).
+     |C  P |   | E  I<  Llan-     / Llandeilo Flags and     |  Skiddaw Slates.
+     |E  O |   | R  A | deilo.   <  Limestone, &c.          /
+     |A  C |   |    N |           \ Tremadoc Slates.
+     |N  H |   |    . |
+     |S  . |   |      | Lingula     Lingula Flags. (Primordial Zone of
+     |     \   \      \ Beds.       Barrande).
+     |
+     |     /          /           / Harlech Grits, &c.
+     |     |          |           | Purple Slates and Grits (St. David’s).
+     |  E  |CAMBRIAN.<  Cambrian.<  Llanberis Grits and Slates.
+     |  O  |          |           | Longmynd Rocks.
+     |  Z  |          |           \ Red Sandstone and Conglomerate (Scotland).
+     |  O <           \
+     |  I  |
+     |  C  |                      / Fundamental Gneiss of the Outer Hebrides
+     |  .  |LAURENTIAN.          <  and of the N. W. coast of Scotland, &c.,
+     |     |                      | containing the oldest known fossil,
+     \     \                      \ _Eozoon Canadense_.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+⁂ ITALICS ARE WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+  Abbeville, 475.
+    „        Peat-beds and Flint-tools of, 476.
+  Abietinæ, 193.
+  Acacia, 318.
+  _Acanthodes_, 126.
+  Acephala of the Oolite, 246.
+  Acephalous or headless Molluscs, 288.
+  Acerites cretaceæ, 283.
+  Acrodus nobilis, 217.
+  Acrogens, 123.
+  Adams, Mr., discoveries of, 391.
+  Adapis, 325.
+  Adelsberg Cave, 430.
+  _Adeona folifera_, 247.
+  Adhémar’s Glacial Hypothesis, 436.
+  Adiantites, 120.
+  Agassiz on Glaciers, 439.
+  Age of Angiosperms, 300.
+     „   Formations, how ascertained, 5.
+  Ailsa Craig, 49.
+  Air Volcano at Turbaco, 61, 63.
+  Albien of D’Orbigny, 300.
+  Albite, 96.
+  Aleutian Isles, 70.
+  Algæ, 103, 114, 123, 309, 336.
+  Alkaline Waters of Plombières, 64.
+  Alleghany Mountains, 75.
+  Alluvial Deposits, 485.
+  Almites Frescii, 203.
+  Alps, upheaval of, 427.
+  Alveolites, 333.
+  Amber, 310, 316, 355.
+  Amblypterus, 146.
+  Amiens, Peat-beds of, 475.
+  _Ammonite, a perfect_, 260.
+      „      _restoration of an_, 216.
+  Ammonites, 11, 12, 207, 212, 214, 246.
+      „      _rostratus_, 292, 294.
+      „      _Turneri_, 215.
+      „      of Jurassic Period, 215.
+      „      rotundus, 263.
+      „      Herveyii, 246.
+      „      Danicus, 311.
+  Amorphozoa, 301.
+  Ancient Glaciers of the Rhine, Linth, and the Reus, 449.
+  Ancient Granite, 31.
+  Ancyloceras, 288.
+  _Andrias Scheuchzeri_, 368.
+  Angiosperms, Age of, 300.
+       „       Seeds, in a Seed-vessel, 283, 300.
+  Animal of the Ohio, 343.
+     „   of Paraguay, 401.
+  Annelides, 126.
+  Anning, Mary, 219, 225.
+  Annularia, 137, 154.
+      „      _orifolia_, 158.
+  Anodon, 120, 334.
+  Anomopteris, 193.
+  Anoplotherium, 319, 323.
+        „        _commune_, 323.
+  Anorthite, 96.
+  Antediluvian Glaciers, 449.
+       „       Man, 367.
+  Anthracite, 72.
+  Antiquity of Man, 469.
+  Antwerp Crag, 373.
+  Ape, 360.
+  Ape, First Appearance of, 349.
+  _Apiocrinites liliiformis_, 261.
+         „      _rotundus_, 261.
+  _Aploceras_, 146.
+  Aptien (Greensand of Apt) Fossils of Havre, of the Isle of Wight, 297.
+  Apuan Alps, 76.
+  _Arborescent Ferns_, 130.
+  Arbroath Paving-stone, 129.
+  Archæopteryx, 265.
+  _Archegosaurus minor_, 154, 158.
+  Arctocyon primævus, 332.
+  Arenicolites, 101.
+  Argile de Dives, 264.
+     „   plastique, 332.
+  Armentaceæ, 297.
+  Arran, Granite of, 38.
+  Artesian Wells, 16, 88.
+  Artificially-formed Coal, 164.
+  _Asaphus caudatus_, 103.
+  Ashburnham Sands, 286.
+  Ashdown Sands, 286.
+  Ashes, Showers of Volcanic, 58.
+  Asiatic Deluge, 423; caused by upheaval of Caucasian Range, 480.
+  Asplenium, 315.
+  Asteracanthus, 266.
+  Asterias lombricalis, 213.
+  Asterophyllites, 120, 154, 158, 173, 177.
+        „          _foliosa_, 157.
+  Atherfield Series of Rocks, 287.
+  Atlantis of Plato, 118, 281.
+  _Atrypa reticularis_, 127.
+  Auchenaspis, 129.
+  Aucolin, 299.
+  Augite, 44.
+  Auvergne, Mountains of, 62.
+     „      Acidulated Springs in, 64.
+     „      Extinct Volcanoes of, 51.
+  Aveyron Savage, 469.
+  Avicula, 189, 205, 252, 272.
+     „     contorta, 207.
+     „     contorta zone, 207.
+  Azores, New Islands formed in the, 70.
+
+  Baculites, 289.
+  Bagshot Beds, 332.
+  Bajocien Formation, 249.
+  Bala Beds, 109.
+  Balæna of Monte Pulgnasco, 370.
+  Balænodon Lamanoni, 370.
+  Balistes, or Silurus, 218.
+  Baltic Sea filling up, 282, 490.
+  _Banksia_, 318.
+  Barmouth Sandstone, 101.
+  _Basalt in Prismatic Columns_, 47.
+  Basalt, 44.
+     „    Action of, upon Limestone, 72.
+     „    of Ireland, 48.
+     „    Prismatic Structure of, 49.
+  Basaltic Formations, 44.
+     „     Causeways, 48, 49.
+     „     _Plateau, theoretical view of_, 47.
+     „     Cavern of Staffa, 50.
+  Bat, 326, 338.
+  Bath Oolite, 243, 250.
+  Bathonian Formation, 249.
+  Batrachian Reptiles of Pliocene, 358.
+  Baumann’s Hohl, 429.
+  Bay of Fundy, 159.
+  Beaver, Disappearance of, 184.
+     „    of Post-Pliocene Period, 379.
+  Beds of Coal, Formation of, 159.
+  Bees, 255.
+  _Belemnite restored_, 216.
+       „     of Liassic Period, 217.
+  Belemnites, 212, 215, 260.
+       „      _acutus_, 217.
+  Bellerophon, 108.
+      „        _costatus_, 145.
+      „        _hiulcus_, 145.
+  _Beloptera Sepioidea_, 181, 434.
+  Bembridge Series, 330, 332.
+  Ben Nevis, 90, 182.
+  Bernese Alps, 427.
+  _Beryx Lewesiensis_, 294.
+  Biblical Account of Noachian Deluge, 480.
+  Bidiastopora cervicornis, 246.
+  Bigsby, Dr. J. T., on Silurian Fauna and Flora, 104.
+  Binney, Edw., on Boulder Clay of Lancashire, 462.
+  _Bird of Solenhofen_, 265.
+     „  of Montmartre, 326.
+  Birds, First Appearance of, 193.
+    „    of Eocene Period, 326.
+    „    of Miocene Period, 369.
+  Bison primigenius, 399.
+    „   priscus, 399.
+  Bituminous Fountains, 60.
+  Black Down Beds, 310.
+  Boccaccio’s Giant, 284.
+  Bogs of Denmark, 477.
+  Bone-beds of Rhætic, or Penarth Series, 207.
+  Bone-breccias, 429.
+  Bone Caves, 429.
+    „    „    H. W. Bristow on formation of, 475.
+  _Bos_, 379, 414.
+    „    Pallasii, 399.
+    „    Primigenius, 184.
+  Bracheux Sands, 332.
+  Brachiopoda, 109.
+      „        Abundance of, in Devonian Period, 126.
+      „        in Upper Cretaceous Period, 300.
+      „        Reign of, 126.
+  Brachyphyllum, 249.
+  Bracklesham Beds, 332.
+  Bradford Clay, 250.
+     „     Encrinites, 252.
+  _Branch of Banksia_, 318.
+       „     _Eucalyptus_, 317.
+  Bray Head, 101.
+  Breccia, Ossiferous, 432.
+  Brecciated Limestone, 174, 176.
+  Bridlington Beds, 460.
+  Bristow, H. W., on Formation of Bone Caves, 475.
+       „          on Brixham Bone-cave, 473.
+       „          on Penarth or Rhætic Beds, 207.
+  British Islands at close of Jurassic Period, 274.
+  _British Strata_, Section of, 244.
+          „         Table of, 493-499.
+  Brixham Bone-cave, 473.
+  Brongniart, Ad., on Upper Cretaceous Fauna, 301.
+  Bronze Age, 478.
+  Brumberg Cavern, 432.
+  Buckland, Dr., on Kirkdale Cave, 380.
+  Buffon and Voltaire, 6.
+    „    on Man, 470.
+    „    on Fossils, 6.
+  Bunter Sandstone, 187.
+  Burrh Stone, 355.
+  Butterflies, 255.
+
+  Caithness Flags, 128.
+  Calamary, 215, 259.
+  _Calamite restored_, 135.
+  Calamites, 134, 152, 177, 193, 202.
+      „      arenaceus, 194.
+      „      _cannæformis_, 154.
+      „      _Trunk of_, 136.
+  Calcaire de la Beauce, 355.
+      „    Grossier, 325, 332.
+  Calceola Sandalina, 127.
+  Calderas, 70.
+  _Calymene Blumenbachii_, 110.
+  Cambrian Period, 101.
+     „     Fauna, 101.
+  Camper, Pierre, on the Mosasaurus, 304.
+    „       „     „  Œningen Skeleton, 368.
+  Camptopteris crenata, 239.
+  Canstadt Excavations, 386, 396.
+  Cantal Group of Mountains, 43.
+    „       „         „      _a peak of_, 40.
+  Cape Wrath, Granite and Gneiss of, 32.
+  Capitosaurus, 190.
+  Caradoc Beds, 109.
+  Carboniferous Flora, 151.
+       „          „    compared with that of Islands in the Pacific, 151.
+  Carboniferous Limestone, 130, 140.
+       „        Period, 130.
+       „        Vegetation of, 130.
+       „        Climate of, 133.
+       „        Foraminifera of, 143, 146.
+       „        of France, 150.
+       „        Crustaceans of, 141.
+       „        Rocks, 149.
+       „        Seas, 146.
+  Cardiocarpon, 177.
+  Cardium Rhæticum, 207.
+     „    striatulum, 269.
+  Carpinites arenaceus, 283.
+  Carrara Marble, 65, 73, 76, 377.
+  _Caryophylla cyathus_, 356.
+  Causeways, Basaltic, 49.
+  Cave Bear, 395, 473.
+    „  Deposits, 468, 472.
+    „  Hyæna, 398.
+    „  Lion, 398.
+  Caverns, their Origin, 129.
+  Cellaria loriculata, 247.
+  Central Heat of the Earth, 15.
+     „    Increase of in Depth, 16.
+  Central France, Puys of, 51.
+  _Cephalaspis_, 125.
+  Cephalopoda, 108, 127, 215, 301.
+  Ceratites, 189.
+  _Ceratites nodosus_, 189.
+  Cerithium, 333, 334.
+  _Cerithium plicatum_, 350.
+       „     _telescopium_, 335.
+  Cervus megaceros, 184, 400.
+  Cestracion, 218.
+  Cetaceans of Pliocene Period, 369.
+  Cetiosaurus, 256, 265.
+  Chæropotamus, 325.
+  Chætetes, 146.
+  Chalk Formation, 275, 309.
+         „         _Foraminifera of_, 146.
+  Chalk Marl, 309.
+    „   White, 309.
+    „   _of Cattolica, Sicily_, 280.
+    „   _of Gravesend_, 278.
+    „   _of Isle of Moën_, 279.
+    „   _of Meudon_, 277.
+  Chara, 315.
+  Cheirotherium, 13, 21, 190.
+  Chemical Theory of the Earth, 15.
+  Chesil Bank, 270.
+  Chillesford Beds, 372.
+  Chimæra, 218.
+  Chloë, Isle of, 151.
+  Chondrites, 309.
+  Chorda-filum, 124.
+  Christiana Granite and Syenite, 38.
+  Cinder Bed of Purbeck, 272.
+  Cipoline Marble, 76.
+  Cirripedes, 260.
+  Clermont-Ferrand, 51.
+  Climate of the Coal Period, 151.
+          „      Permian Period, 174.
+  _Climatius_, 126.
+  Clinkstone, 43.
+  _Clymenia Sedgwickii_, 127.
+  Coal, 132.
+    „   Formation of, 159.
+    „   Origin of, 159.
+    „   Theories Respecting Formation of, 159.
+    „   _Stratification of Beds of_, 165.
+    „   Quantities annually raised in different Countries, 166.
+    „   Quantity of, in United Kingdom, 167.
+  Coal Measures, 130, 150.
+        „        Composition of, 164.
+        „        Extent of, 166.
+        „        Flora of, 150.
+        „        of Scotland, 167.
+        „        of South Wales, 167.
+        „        of Belgium, 167.
+        „        of France, 167.
+        „        Time of Formation, 132.
+        „        Composition of, 132.
+  _Coal Mines of Treuil_, 160.
+  _Coccosteus_, 125, 142.
+  Cœlacanthus, 175.
+  Composition of Air in Carboniferous Period, 133.
+  Comptonia, 283.
+  Confervæ of the Chalk, 309.
+  Conglomerates, 129.
+  Conifers of Jurassic Period, 249, 269.
+     „     of Cretaceous Period, 283.
+     „     of Eocene Period, 316.
+     „     of Miocene Period, 336.
+     „     of Pliocene Period, 358.
+  _Contortions of Coal Beds_, 167.
+  Conybeare’s Account of Plesiosaurus, 229.
+  Copper Slate, Fossils of, 177.
+        „            „      of Thuringia, 178.
+  Coprolites, Petrified Excrements of Antediluvian Animals, 12, 207, 373.
+      „       _of Ichthyosaurus, enclosing Bones_, 225.
+      „       _of Ichthyosaurus, showing Cast of Intestines_, 225.
+      „       Bed of Cambridge, 309.
+  Coral Rag, 243, 264, 301.
+  Coralline Crag, Corals of, 372.
+  Corals, 141, 205, 240, 247, 263, 266, 301.
+  Cornbrash, 243, 250, 252.
+  Cornstone, 129.
+  Cornwall, Granite of, 38.
+  Coryphodon, 332.
+  Cotham Marble, 208.
+  _Coupe, la, d’Ayzac_, 46, 47.
+  Crag, 372.
+  Creation of Man, 464.
+    „          „   Evidences of, 469.
+    „         World, Scriptural Account of, Defended, 18.
+  Credneria, 283, 297-300.
+  Crematopteris, 163.
+  Cretaceous Period, 275, 306.
+         „           Fauna of, 282, 285, 300.
+         „           Flora of, 282, 300.
+         „           Reptiles of, 285.
+         „           Fishes of, 285, 294.
+  Crinoidea, 127.
+  Crioceras, 288, 297.
+      „      _Duvallii_, 274.
+  Crocodile of Maestricht, 184, 303, 326.
+  Crocodilus Toliapicus, 326.
+  Croll, J., on Till, 457.
+  Crust of the Earth, Composition of, 96.
+           „          Thickness of, 87, 89.
+           „          Temperature of, 88.
+  Crustaceans, 107, 110, 141, 286.
+       „       Predominance of, in Lower Silurian Seas, 107.
+       „       Rarity of in Carboniferous Period, 141.
+       „       of Eocene Period, 326.
+       „       of Miocene Period, 350.
+  Cryptogamia, 187, 194, 203.
+  Crystalline Action, 71.
+      „       Limestone, 174, 176.
+      „       Rocks Defined, 28.
+  Cucumites, 315.
+  Cupanioides, 315.
+  _Cupressocrinus crassus_, 128.
+  Cuvier’s Account of Plesiosaurus, 233.
+      „    Account of Pterodactyle, 33.
+      „    on the Restoration of Extinct Animals, 7.
+      „    on the Destruction of Species, 381.
+      „    on the Mammoth, 396.
+  Cyathophyllum, 146.
+  Cycadeaceæ, 266.
+  Cycads, 239, 249, 270, 283.
+  _Cycas circinalis_, 168.
+  Cypress, 240, 249.
+  Cypris, 272.
+     „    fasciculata, 272.
+     „    _spinigera and C. Valdensis_, 298.
+  _Cyrtoceras depressum_, 176.
+
+  Damara, 194.
+  Danian Beds, 309, 311.
+  Danish Peat Mosses and Kjökken Mödden, 477.
+  Dartmoor, Granite of, 36, 37, 79.
+  Darwin, C., on Coral Formations, 263.
+       „         Volcanoes of Quito, 55.
+  Daubeny on Basalt, 44.
+  Davidsonia Verneuilli, 127.
+  Dawkins, W. B., Discoverer of Microlestes, 207.
+  De la Beche on the Plesiosaurus, 229.
+  De Rance, C. E., on Glacial Deposits, 458.
+  Deer, 399.
+  Deluge confirmed by traditions of all Ancient Races, 482.
+  Denudation, 28.
+  Descartes, 15.
+  Destruction of Successive Creations, 184.
+  Devon and Cornwall, Granite of, 38.
+  Devonian Period, 119.
+     „     System, 170.
+     „     Flora, 120.
+     „     _Fishes_, 125.
+  Diameter of the Earth, 87.
+  Diceras Limestone, 265.
+  Dicotyledons, 182, 282.
+  Diluvium, 422, 423.
+  Dinornis, 134, 382.
+  _Dinornis_, 414, 417.
+  Dinotherium, 339, 356.
+       „       _restored_, 340.
+  Diorite, 35.
+  _Diplacanthus_, 126.
+  Dirt-bed, Fossils of, 271.
+  Dodo, 184.
+  Dolomite, 178.
+  Domite, 43.
+  Donati on Fossil Shells, 6.
+  Downs, North and South, 278.
+  Downton Sandstone, 112.
+  _Draco volans_, 238.
+  Draconidæ, 237.
+  Dragon Fly, 243, 255.
+  Dragons of Mythology, 237, 361.
+  Drifted Rocks, 27.
+  Drôme, the, 299.
+  Dryopithecus, 350, 353.
+  Dykes, 27.
+
+  Early Geologists, 5.
+  Earth, Cooling of the, 80.
+    „    Theories of the Origin of the, 6.
+    „    _in a Gaseous State_, 81.
+  Earth’s Crust, Thickness of, 89.
+     „    Surface, Changes of, 3.
+  Earthy Limestone, 281.
+  Ebur Fossile, 386.
+  Echinoderms, 189, 213, 247, 261, 297, 300, 301, 326.
+  Edentates, 382, 400, 407.
+  Ehrenberg’s Microscopic Investigations, 277.
+  Electric Currents, Action of, 79.
+  Elephant of the Ohio, 343, 347.
+  Elephants, Fossil, 386.
+  Elephants’ Cemetery at Canstadt, 386.
+  Elephas meridionalis, 372.
+     „    primigenius, 347, 382, 383.
+  Emys, 265, 319.
+  Encrinites, 127, 173, 181, 196, 252.
+      „       Abundance of during Devonian Period, 120.
+  _Encrinus liliiformis_, 190, 261.
+  Entalophora cellarioides, 246.
+  Eocene Strata of France and England, 329.
+  Eocene, 314.
+     „    Period, 315.
+     „    Vegetation, 315.
+     „    Fauna, Seas, 319, 329.
+     „    Characters of, 330.
+     „    Table of Strata, 330.
+  Epilogue, 489.
+  Epiornis, 184, 382, 417.
+  Equiseta (Horse-tails), 134, 202, 203, 239, 315.
+  Erratic Blocks, 424.
+         „        _of the Alps_, 448.
+  _Eruption of Granite_, 92.
+  Eruptive Rocks, 4, 27, 30, 31.
+        „         Plutonic Eruptions, 31.
+        „         Volcanic     „      51.
+  _Eryon arctiformis_, 260.
+  Erymanthean Boar, 184.
+  Estimated Coal Measures of the World, 166.
+  Etheridge, R., on Devonian and Old Red Sandstone, 129.
+  Etna, Volcano of Mount, 56, 68.
+  _Eucalyptus_, 317.
+  Eunomia radiata, 247, 252.
+  Europe at Close of Cretaceous Period, 311.
+       „       „     Pliocene Period, 377.
+  European Deluge, 378, 422.
+  Eurypterus, 110.
+       „      _remipes_, 111.
+  _Exogyra conica_, 294, 311.
+  Expansion of the Earth at the Equator, 84.
+  Extinct Volcanoes of Auvergne, 51.
+  Eye of Ichthyosaurus, 220.
+
+  Falconer, Dr., on Brixham Cave, 473.
+  Faluns, 355.
+     „    of Paris Basin, 356.
+  Fans, of Brecon, 128.
+  Fault, a Dislocation of Strata, 71.
+  Fauna, Definition of Term, 4.
+    „    Devonian, 129.
+    „    Neocomian, 287.
+    „    of Permian Period, 183.
+    „    of the Middle Oolite, 255.
+    „    of the Upper Oolite, 265.
+    „    of Cretaceous Period, 285, 294.
+    „    of Eocene Period, 319.
+    „    of Pliocene Period, 358.
+    „    of Miocene Period, 339.
+  Faxoe Beds, 309.
+  Felis spelæa, 398.
+  Felspar, composition of, 96.
+  Fenestrella retiformis, 175.
+  Ferns, 130, 134, 140, 176, 193, 239, 248, 282, 315.
+  Fingal’s Cave, Staffa, 49, 50.
+  Fisher, Rev. O., on Chillesford Clay, 372.
+    „     on Warp and Trail, 461.
+  Fishes, Silurian, 107.
+     „    Bones of, 112.
+     „    of Devonian Period, 125.
+     „    of Carboniferous Period, 146.
+     „    of Oolitic Seas, 266.
+     „    of Cretaceous Seas, 285, 294.
+     „    of Eocene Period, 326.
+     „    of Miocene Period, 339.
+  _Fissurella nembosa_, 463.
+  _Fissures near Locarno_, 57.
+  Flabellaria, 315, 329, 336.
+       „       Chamæropifolia, 288.
+  Flint-tools in peat-beds, 475.
+  Flints, 281.
+  Flora of Upper Cretaceous Period, 309.
+    „   of Devonian Period, 120.
+    „   of Cretaceous Period, 282.
+    „   of Tertiary Period, 313.
+    „   of Eocene Period, 329.
+    „   of Triassic Period, 194.
+    „   of Miocene Period, 326, 353, 381.
+    „   of Carboniferous Period, 135.
+    „   of Permian Period, 174, 183.
+    „   of Pliocene Period, 381.
+    „   of Upper Oolite Period, 266.
+  Fluvio-marine Crag, 372.
+  Foliation, Cause of, 77.
+  Footprints in Rocks, 121, 173, 190, 196, 269.
+    „        at Corncockle Moor, 13.
+  Foraminifera, 146, 313, 326.
+       „        _of the Chalk_, 146, 276, 286.
+       „        _of the Mountain Limestone_, 146.
+  Forbes (Professor Ed.) on the Pliocene Marine Fauna, 374.
+  Forest-bed of Norfolk, 372, 418.
+  Forest Marble, 243, 250, 252.
+  _Formation of Primitive Granite_, 90.
+  Fossil, Term Defined, 4.
+    „     Bones, 4, 5.
+    „     Uses of, 5.
+    „     Condition of, 11.
+    „     Footprints, 13.
+    „     Species, relations of, to existing Species, 11.
+    „     Ivory of Siberia, 388.
+    „     _Palms restored_, 284.
+    „     Shells, 4.
+    „     Fishes, 175.
+    „     Leeches, 217.
+    „     Licorn, 398.
+    „     Unicorn, 386.
+  Fossils of Permian Formation, 173.
+     „    of Keuper Formation, 201.
+     „    of Upper Oolite, 265.
+     „    of Neocomian Beds, 297.
+     „    of Orgonian Beds, 297.
+     „    of Aptien Beds, 297.
+     „    of the Glauconie, 300.
+     „    of Calcaire Grossier, 332.
+     „    of Muschelkalk, 189.
+     „    of New Red Sandstone, 187.
+     „    of Argile Plastique, 332.
+  Fournet on the Drôme, 299.
+     „    on Eruptions of Granite, &c., 36.
+     „    on Eruptions of Gas and Water, 64.
+  Fox of Œningen, 338.
+  _Fucoids_, 123.
+  Fuller’s Earth, 243, 250.
+  _Fusulina cylindrica_, 143.
+  Future of the Earth and Man considered, 489.
+
+  Gabian, Bituminous Springs of, 60.
+  Gailenreuth, Caves of, 429, 430.
+  Galacynus Œningensis, 339.
+  Ganoid Fishes, 181, 217, 246.
+  Garonne Valley, 428.
+  Gastornis, 332.
+  Gault, 281, 300, 309.
+  Gavials of India, 259, 291.
+  Geikie, Prof., on Till, 457.
+  Gemerelli on Fossils, 6.
+  _Geological humus_, 271.
+       „      Inferences,  Hypothetical Nature of, 3.
+  Geological Record, Complexity of, 30.
+  Geology, Objects of, 2, 3.
+    „      a Recent Science, 3.
+    „      its  Influence  on  other Sciences, 3.
+    „      How to be Studied, 3.
+  Geosaurus, 256.
+  Geoteuthis, 259.
+  Gerilea protea, 318.
+  _Geysers of Iceland_, 16, 67.
+  Giants’ Causeways, 49.
+     „        „      _in the Ardèche_, 48.
+     „    Legends of, accounted for, 5.
+  Gigantology, 384.
+  Glacial Action during Permian Period, 174.
+     „    Deposits of Northern England and Wales, 457.
+     „    Period, 372, 378, 435.
+     „    Evidences of, 463.
+     „    Regions of Europe, 451.
+     „    Theory of Martins, 462.
+  Glacier System of Wales, 106.
+     „    Systems, 440.
+  Glaciers of Scotland, 454.
+     „     of Switzerland, 449.
+     „     of the British Isles, 457.
+  Glauconie, or Glauconite, 300.
+  Glaucous Chalk, 300, 310.
+  Glenroy, Parallel Roads of, 456.
+  Globe, Modification of Surface of, 26.
+  Glyptodon, the, 401.
+  Glyptolepis, 120.
+  Gneiss of Cape Wrath, 32.
+    „    Laurentian, 74.
+    „    Composition of, 96.
+  Goniatites, 127.
+  _Goniatites evolutus_, 145.
+  Goulet, Great and Little, 299.
+  Granite, 182.
+     „     Mineral Composition of, 32, 96.
+     „     How Formed, 33.
+     „     of St. Austell, 39.
+     „     of Christiana, 36.
+     „     of Dartmoor, 79.
+     „     of Cornwall and Devon, 36, 38.
+     „     Eruptions of, 90, 92, 98.
+     „     Stratified or Foliated, 97.
+     „     Qualities of, 32.
+     „     How Formed, 33.
+     „     _Veins of, at Cape Wrath_, 32.
+  _Granitic Eruptions_, 92.
+  Gran Seco, 410.
+  Graptolites, 107.
+  _Gravesend Chalk, under Microscope_, 278.
+  Great Animal of Maestricht, 304.
+  Great Oolite, 243, 250.
+       „        Reptiles of, 250.
+  Great Year, the, 436.
+  Green, A. H., on Glacial Deposits, 458.
+  Greensand, Upper and Lower, 275, 281, 297, 309.
+  Greenstone, 35.
+  Grès Bigarré, 37, 185.
+  Grès de Beauchamp, 333.
+  Grès des Vosges, 178.
+  Grotta del Cane, 64.
+  _Grotto des Demoiselles_, 433.
+  Grotto of Cheeses, Trèves, 50.
+  Gryphæa dilatata, 264.
+     „    virgula, 269.
+     „    _incurva_, 212.
+  Gulf Stream, 435.
+  Gymnogens, Plants with Naked Ovary, 152.
+  Gymnosperms, 193, 283, 300.
+  Gypseous Formation, 333.
+  Gypsum Quarries of Montmartre, Fossils in, 73, 325.
+  Gyroceras, 108.
+
+  Haidingera speciosa, 194.
+  Hakea, 318.
+  Hallstadt Beds, 205.
+  _Halysites catenularius_, 113.
+  _Hamites_, 288, 297.
+  Hannibal’s Elephants, 387.
+  Harkness, Prof., on Glacial Deposits, 458.
+  Harlech Sandstones, 101.
+  Hastings Sands, 287.
+  Hawaii, Volcanoes of, 59, 69.
+  _Head of Cave-bear_, 398.
+    „   _of Cave-hyæna_, 399.
+    „   _of Mosasaurus Camperi_, 306.
+    „   _of Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, 360.
+  Headon Beds, 330, 332.
+  _Hemicosmites pyriformis_, 108.
+  Hennessey, on the Earth’s Crust, 89.
+  Hepaticas, 315.
+  _Herbaceous ferns_, 131.
+  Herbivora, Eocene, 325.
+  Heterocercal, 175.
+  Hippopotamus, 360, 379.
+  Hippurites, 301, 310.
+  Holl, Dr., on Malvern Rocks, 78.
+  Holoptychius, 154.
+  Homo diluvii testis, 367.
+  Homocercal, 175.
+  Hopkins, Evan, on Earth’s Antiquity, 20.
+     „       „   on  Terrestrial Magnetism, 22.
+     „     W., Theory of Central Heat, 17.
+     „      „  on the Earth’s Crust, 88.
+  Horse, 379, 399, 417.
+  Horse-tails, 134, 202.
+  Hot Springs, 64.
+  Hughes, T. McK., Discovery of Glutton by, 431.
+  Hull, Prof., on Trias, 185.
+        „      on Glacial Deposits, 458.
+  Human Jaw, 472.
+    „   Period, 474.
+  Hunt, Rob., Electric Experiments of, 79.
+    „   Prof. Sterry, on Formation of Crystalline Schists, 96.
+  Hutton’s Theory of the Earth, 3.
+  Hyæna Spelæa, 398, 417.
+       „        _head of_, 399, 417.
+  Hyænodon, 396.
+  Hybodus, 217.
+  Hyera, Island of, 70.
+  Hylæosaurus, Lizard of the Woods, 205, 207, 225, 290.
+  Hymenoptera, 225.
+
+  Iceland, Geysers of, 16, 65, 67.
+     „     Lava Streams in, 60.
+     „     Volcanoes of, 60, 67.
+  Ichthyodorulites, 217.
+  Ichthyosaurus, 218, 229, 255, 256.
+  Ichthyosaurus, Coprolites of, 12.
+  _Ichthyosaurus communis_, 218.
+        „        _platydon_, 219, 222.
+  Igneous Rocks, 31, 182.
+  Iguana, 293.
+  Iguanodon, 292.
+      „      Mantelli, 285.
+      „      _Teeth of_, 293.
+  _Illænus Barriensis_, 112.
+  Incandescence of the Globe, 17.
+        „       of the Sun, 17.
+  Indian Traditions of the Father of the Ox, 347.
+  Inferior Oolite, 249.
+  Infra-Lias, 209.
+  _Injected Veins of Granite_, 32.
+  Insects, 157, 225, 334.
+     „     of Coal-measures, 151.
+     „     of Oolites, 255, 266.
+  Iron Age, 478.
+     „ Ore in Coal-measures, 165.
+     „  „  in Orgonian Beds, 298.
+  _Ischadites Kœnigii_, 118.
+  Islands, Sudden Appearance of, 70.
+  Isle of Bones, 388.
+     „    Lächow, 388.
+     „    Portland, 270.
+     „    Purbeck, 271.
+     „    Wight Alligator, 326.
+
+  Jamieson, T. F., on Glenroy, 454.
+  Jarrow Colliery, 139.
+  Java, Volcanic Mountains of, 67, 69.
+    „   Valley of Poison, 64.
+  _Jaw and Tooth of Megalosaurus_, 291.
+         „       _of Phascolotherium_, 245.
+         „       _of Thylacotherium_, 245.
+  Jet, 274.
+  Juglandites elegans, 283.
+  Jukes, J. B., on Devonian and Old Red Sandstone, 129.
+  Jura Mountains, 243, 273.
+  Jurassic Limestone, 243.
+     „     Distribution of, 272.
+     „     Reptiles of, 220.
+     „     Plants of the, 238.
+     „     Series, Distinguishing  Features of, 215.
+
+  Kangaroo, 245.
+  Kea, Mauna, 61, 69.
+  Kellaways Rock, 264.
+  Kent’s Hole, 380, 472.
+  Kentish Rag, 287.
+  Keuper, 199, 293.
+     „    Rock Salt in, 199, 204.
+  Kilauea, Volcano of, 56.
+     „     Eruption of, 69.
+     „     Crater of, 56, 59.
+  Kimeridge Clay, 19, 243, 266, 269.
+  King, Prof., on Permian System, 174.
+  Kirkdale Cave, 380, 398, 429.
+  Kjökken-Mödden, 477.
+  Koessen Beds, 208.
+  Kupfer Schiefer, 170.
+
+  Labradorite, 44.
+  Labyrinthodon, 190.
+        „        _pachygnathus_, 12.
+  _Labyrinthodon restored_, 193.
+  La Coupe d’Ayzac, Crater of, 45.
+  Lacunosus laciniatus, 184.
+  Lacustrine Habitations, 472.
+  Ladies’ Fingers, 216.
+  Lake Dwellings, 472.
+  Lamellibranchs, 266.
+  Landscape Stone, 208.
+  Land-turtles, 190.
+  Laplace’s Theory of the Earth, 17, 80.
+  Lasmocyathus, 146.
+  Laurentian Formation in Britain, 10, 79.
+      „      Gneiss, 74.
+  Lava Formations, 39, 51, 59.
+    „  Streams of, 59.
+  Lecoq, on Triassic Vegetation, 194.
+      „     Keuper Flora, 202.
+      „     Cretaceous Flora, 282.
+      „     Tertiary Flora, 316.
+      „     Flora of Miocene Period, 336.
+      „     the Vegetation of Pliocene Period, 357.
+  Leibnitz’ Fossil Unicorn, 386.
+  Lepidodendra, 134, 138, 157, 173.
+  Lepidodendron carinatum, 134, 138.
+        „       _elegans_, 140.
+        „       _Sternbergii_, 139, 141.
+        „       _Sternbergii restored_, 142.
+  Lepidoptera, 255.
+  _Lepidostrobus variabilis_, 140.
+  Lepidotus, 266, 272.
+     „       gigas, 217.
+  Leptæna Murchisoni, 127.
+  _Le Puy, Chain of_, 51.
+  Lias, The, 211;
+    „  Lower, Upper, and Middle, 212.
+  Liassic Period, 211, 217.
+     „    Fauna, 213.
+     „    Flora, 239.
+  Libellula, 243.
+  Licorn Fossil, 386.
+  Life, First Appearance of, 99.
+   „    Abundance of, in Upper Silurian Times, 104.
+  Lignite, 337, 354.
+  Lima gigantea, 212.
+   „   striata, 189.
+   „   proboseilea, 246.
+  Limestone, 212.
+      „      of La Beauce, 355.
+      „      of Solenhofen, 243, 273.
+      „      Metamorphism of, 73, 75.
+  Limnæa, 272, 334.
+  Lingula, 107.
+     „     Credneri, 175.
+     „     Flags, 101, 107.
+  Lions with Curly Manes, 184.
+  Lipari Isles, 55, 68.
+  Lithographic Limestone of Solenhofen, 343.
+  _Lithostrotion_, 181.
+         „         _basaltiforme_, 145.
+  _Lituites cornu-arietis_, 108.
+  Lizard of the Meuse, 305.
+  Llanberis Slates, 101.
+  Llandeilo Flags, 109.
+  Llandovery Rocks, 107.
+  Loa, Mauna, 55.
+  _Locarno, Fissures of_, 57, 58.
+  Logan, Sir W., on Laurentian Gneiss of Canada, 10, 74.
+  Logan, Sir W., on Underclay of Coal Measures, 161.
+  Lomatophloyos crassicaule, 134, 138.
+  _Lonchopteris Bricii_, 134, 144.
+  London Clay, Flora of, 331.
+  Longmynd Hills, 101.
+  _Lonsdalea floriformis_, 145.
+  Lophiodon, 325, 333.
+  Lower Cretaceous Period, 286, 297.
+    „   Keuper Sandstone, 186, 204.
+    „   Neocomian, 297.
+    „   Lias, 212.
+    „   Silurian Rocks, 104.
+    „   Oolite Fauna, 244.
+    „   Oolite Rocks, 249.
+    „   Greensand, 281, 287.
+  Lucerne, The Giant of, 385.
+  Ludlow Bone-beds, 112.
+    „    Rocks, 111.
+  _Lupea pelagica_, 354.
+  Lycopodiaceæ, 134, 151.
+  Lycopods, 123, 134.
+  Lyell, Sir Charles, on Formation of Granite, 33, 36.
+  Lyell, Sir Charles, on the Upper Cretaceous Flora, 300.
+  Lyme Regis, 219, 225.
+
+  Machairodus, 379.
+       „       _Tooth of_, 380.
+  Macrorhynchus, 265, 272.
+  Madrepores, 266.
+  Maestricht Quarries, 285.
+      „      Animal of, 302.
+      „      Beds, 303, 304, 309.
+  Magnesian Limestone, 170, 178.
+  Magnetism, Terrestrial, Evan Hopkins on, 22.
+  Malvern Hills, Dr. Holl on, 78.
+  Mammals, First Appearance of, 207, 244.
+     „     of Pliocene Period, 358.
+  Mammaliferous Crag, 372.
+  Mammiferous Didelphæ, 245.
+  Mammoth, 347.
+     „     of Ohio, 347.
+     „     of the Unstrut, 386.
+     „     Origin of Name, 388.
+     „     Siberian Accounts of, 387-395.
+     „     _restored_, 395.
+     „     _Skeleton of the_, 383, 394.
+     „     Teeth and Tusks of, 342.
+     „     Tooth of the, 384.
+  Man and Animals Compared, 465.
+   „  First Appearance of, 382.
+   „  Antiquity of, considered, 478.
+   „  Age of St. Acheul Beds, 479.
+   „  Morlot’s Calculation, 479.
+  Mantell’s, Dr., Discoveries, 290.
+  Marble, 74.
+     „    Carrara, 73, 76.
+     „    Cipoline, 76.
+     „    of France, 76.
+  Marbre de Flandres and M. de petit Granit, 150.
+  Mare’s-tail, 134.
+  Marl, 199.
+  Marl-slate, 160.
+  Marlstone of the Lias, 212.
+  Marsupial Mammals, 207, 245, 250, 263.
+  Martins, C., on Glaciers, 462.
+  Mastodon, 341, 356, 360.
+     „      its Discovery, 342.
+     „      Opinions of Naturalists, 343.
+     „      Difference from Mammoth, 341.
+     „      Molar Tooth of, 346.
+     „      Arvernensis, 372.
+     „      angustidens, 347.
+     „      _restored_, 345.
+     „      _Skeleton of_, 344.
+     „      _Skeleton of the Turin_, 359.
+     „      _Teeth of_, 341, 342.
+  Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, 56, 69.
+  Mazuyer’s Pretended Discovery, 348.
+  _Meandrina Dædalæa_, 251.
+  Mechanical Theory of the Earth, 15.
+  Megaceros Hibernicus, 184, 400.
+  Megalonyx, 371, 382, 400, 411.
+  Megalosaurus, 291.
+      „        _Jaw of_, 291.
+      „        _Tooth of_, 291, 380.
+  Megalichthys, 154.
+  Megatherium, 382, 401, 418.
+       „       _Pelvis of_, 407.
+       „       _Restored_, 409.
+       „       _Skeleton of_, 403.
+       „           „     _foreshortened_, 406.
+  Megatheroid Animals, Habits of, 413.
+  Mendip Hills, Denudation of, 28.
+  Mesopithecus, 339, 350.
+       „        _restored_, 349.
+       „        _Skeleton of_, 349.
+  _Metallic veins_, 91.
+  Metamorphic Rocks, 4, 71.
+  Metamorphism, Special and General, 65, 71, 74.
+       „        Action of, on Limestone, 71, 72, 75.
+       „        of Combustible Materials, 14, 72.
+       „        of Argillaceous Beds, 73.
+       „        Cause of, 78.
+  _Meudon Chalk under Microscope_, 277.
+  Mexican Deluge, 485.
+  Mezen, Le, Peak of, 44.
+  Mica, Composition of, 96.
+  Mica-schist, 77, 377.
+  Microdon, 266.
+  Microlestes, 207.
+      „        Discovery of teeth of by Mr. C. Moore, 208.
+  Middle Lias, 212.
+     „   Oolite, 255.
+  Miliola, 329.
+  Millepora alcicornis, 240.
+  Miller, Hugh, How he became a Geologist, 10.
+    „     First Lesson in Geology, 124.
+  Milliolites, 333.
+  Mimosa, 318.
+  Mineral Masses composing the Earth’s Crust, 27.
+  Mines, Greatest Depths of, 88.
+  Miocene, Meaning of, 314.
+  Miocene Period, 336.
+     „    Vegetation, 336, 339, 353, 381.
+     „    Fauna, 339, 350.
+     „    Volcanoes of, 51.
+     „    Foraminifera, 356.
+     „    Rocks of Greece, 339.
+  Moel Tryfaen, 459.
+  _Molar Teeth of Mastodon_, 346.
+  Molasse, or Soft Clay, 338, 355.
+  Mollusca, 245.
+     „      of Pliocene, 371.
+     „      of Eocene, 319.
+     „      of Miocene, 350.
+     „      of Crag, 373.
+     „      Gasteropodous, 266.
+  _Monitor Niloticus_, 305.
+  Monocotyledons, 151, 266.
+  Montmartre, Gypseous Series of, 333.
+      „       Cuvier on Fossils of, 7.
+  Mont Dore, 40, 43.
+  Moraines, 444.
+  Moro, Lazzaro, 6.
+  Mortillet on Glaciers, 449.
+  Mosaic Account of Creation, 24.
+  Mosasaurus, 285, 302, 305.
+       „      _Camperi_, 306.
+  Mosses, 336.
+  Moulin-Quignon, Chalk Beds of, 476.
+  _Mount Ararat_, 480.
+     „   Hecla, 67.
+     „   Idienne, 64.
+     „   Sion, 449.
+  Mountain Limestone, 149.
+  Mountains, First Appearance of, 90.
+      „      Chains, Formation of, 28.
+  Mud Volcanoes, 59.
+         „       of Italy, 60, 63.
+  Murchison, Sir R. I., Founder of Silurian System, 10, 102.
+  _Murex Turonensis_, 350.
+  Muschelkalk, 185, 188.
+  Mussels, 189.
+  Mylodon, 382, 400, 410, 413, 418.
+      „    _Lower Jaw of_, 412.
+      „    _restored_, 411.
+  Mytilus, 189.
+
+  Nabenstein, Cavern of, 432.
+  Naïdaceæ, 266.
+  Nantwich Salt-works, 204.
+  Nasal Horn of Iguanodon, 292.
+  Natica, 189.
+  Nautilus, 215.
+  Nebular Theory of the Earth, 15.
+  Nenuphar, 316.
+  Neocomian Beds, 287, 297.
+     „       „    of France, 286, 287.
+     „      Formation, 286.
+     „      Fauna of, 287.
+  Neptunian Rocks, 30.
+      „     Theory, 6.
+  Nereites Cambriensis, 108.
+  Neuroptera, 250.
+  Neuropteris elegans, 194.
+      „       _gigantea_, 143, 176.
+  New Red Marl, 186.
+     „   Period, 185.
+     „   Sandstone, 185, 187.
+     „   Plants of, 193.
+     „   Colour of, 201.
+     „   Fauna of, 201.
+  New Zealand, Birds of, 184.
+  Newer Pliocene, 372.
+    „       „     of Alps, 377.
+    „       „     of Sicily, 374.
+  Nicol, Prof., on Ben Nevis, 90.
+  Nilssonia, 194, 239.
+  Nöggerathia, 177.
+  Norfolk Forest Bed, 372.
+  Northern Deluge, 424.
+  Norwich Crag, 372, 478.
+  Nothosaurus, 190, 196.
+  Nummulites, 313, 326, 333.
+  Nummulitic Formation, 334.
+       „     Limestone, 326.
+  Nympheaceæ, 315.
+
+  Odontaspis, 294.
+  _Odontopteris Brardii_, 144.
+        „       Cycades, 212.
+  Œchmodus Buchii, 217.
+  Œningen Formation, 338.
+      „   Limestone, 367.
+  _Ogygia Guettardi_, 107.
+  Old Red Sandstone, 119.
+   „   „  Colour of, 120.
+   „   „  Period, Vegetation of, 120.
+   „   „  Fishes of, 124.
+   „   „  Rocks of, 128.
+   „   „  Conglomerate of, 129.
+  Older Pliocene, 372.
+  Oldhamia, 101.
+  Oldhaven Beds, 331.
+  Olivine, 44.
+  Oolite, 243, 272.
+     „    of Solenhofen, 273.
+     „    Upper, 243.
+     „    Lower, 243, 244.
+     „    Middle, 243.
+     „    Great, 243.
+     „    Conifers of, 249.
+     „    Rocks, 249.
+  Oolitic Fauna, 244.
+     „    Mollusca, 246.
+     „    Echinoderms, 247.
+     „    Insects, 255, 266.
+     „    Period, 243.
+     „    Flora of, 248, 249, 255, 266.
+     „    Mammals of, 255.
+     „    Reptiles of, 256.
+     „    Corals of, 247.
+     „    Zoophytes of, 247.
+  Ophiopsis, 246.
+  Opossum, 245.
+  Orgon Limestone, 297, 298, 299.
+  Ornithorhynchus, 223, 245.
+  Orthoceras, 141.
+      „       Disappearance of, 205.
+      „       _laterale_, 145.
+  Orthoceratites, 104.
+  Orthoclase, 33, 96, 418.
+  Orthopithecus, 418.
+  _Osmeroides Mantelli_, 294.
+  Ossiferous Beds of Sansan, 350.
+       „     Breccia, 2, 432.
+  Ostrea deltoidea, 269.
+     „   distorta, 272.
+     „   liassica, 207, 212.
+     „   _longirostris_, 350.
+     „   Marshii, 246.
+     „   virgula, 269.
+  _Otopteris acuminata_, 248.
+       „     _dubia_, 248.
+       „     _obtusa_, 248.
+       „     _cuneata_, 248.
+  Ovid a geologist, 6.
+  Owen, Prof., on Megatheroid Animals,   413.
+       „       on Plesiosaurus, 228.
+  Ox, 382, 399.
+  Oxford Clay, 243, 264.
+  Oysters, 175, 213.
+
+  Pachyderms, 312, 319, 418.
+  Pachypteris microphylla, 255.
+  Palæocoma Furstembergii, 213.
+  Palæoniscus, 175.
+  Palæontology, the Study of Ancient Life, 5.
+  Palæontology Defined, 14.
+  _Palæophognos Gesneri_, 421.
+  Palæotherium, 319.
+       „        _magnum and P. minimum, Skeletons of_, 322.
+       „        _Skull of_, 321.
+  Palæoxyris Münsteri, 202.
+  Palæozoic Fishes, 173.
+  Palissy, Bernard, on Fossils, 5.
+  Pallas on the Siberian Rhinoceros, 361.
+    „    on the Siberian Mammoth, 386.
+  Palmacites, 315.
+  Palms, 282.
+    „    absence of, in Pliocene Period,   358.
+    „    of Tertiary Epoch, 336.
+    „    of Cretaceous Period, 283, 297.
+    „    _Fossil, restored_, 284.
+  Paludina, 272.
+  Pampean Formation, 411.
+  Pandanaceæ, The, 249.
+  Pandanus, 255.
+  Pappenheim, Lithographic Stone of,   273.
+  _Paradoxides Bohemicus_, 100.
+  _Parallel Roads of Glenroy_, 456.
+  Parian Marble, 76.
+  Paris Basin, Sir C. Lyell on, 329.
+  Parkfield Colliery, 159.
+  _Patella vulgata_, 205.
+  _Peaks of the Cantal Chain_, 40.
+  Pear Encrinite, 250.
+  Peat-deposits and Shell-mounds, 472.
+  Pecopteris, 120, 202, 252, 315.
+      „       _lonchitica_, 143.
+  Pecten, 201, 272.
+    „     _Jacobæus_, 371.
+    „     _orbicularis_, 202.
+    „     Valoniensis, 207.
+  Penarth Beds, 186, 205, 207.
+  Pennine Chain, 115.
+  _Pentacrinites Briareus_, 183, 214.
+  Perched Blocks, 449.
+  Permian Flora, 174.
+     „    Rocks, 177, 186.
+     „    Ocean, 180.
+     „    Period, 15, 170.
+     „    Fauna and Flora of, 183.
+  _Perna Mulleti_, 288.
+  Phascolotherium, 245, 255.
+  Philadelphia Museum, 346.
+  Phillips, Prof. J., on Rate of Formation of Coal, 132.
+  Phillips, Prof. J., on Thickness of Carboniferous Limestone, 130.
+  Phonolite, 43.
+  _Physa fontinalis_, 266.
+  Phytosaurus, 190.
+  Pic de Sancy, 41, 43.
+  Pimpinellites zizioides, 337.
+  Pinites, 239.
+  Pisolitic Limestone, 311.
+  Pithecus antiquus, 339, 350, 356.
+  Placodus gigas, 189.
+  Planorbis, 266, 272, 334.
+      „      _corneus_, 488.
+  Plants, First Appearance of, 99.
+     „    _of Devonian Period_, 123.
+     „    _of the Palæozoic Epoch_, 114.
+  Plastic Clay, 330.
+  Platemys, 255.
+  Platycrinus, 146.
+  Platysomus, 174.
+  Pleistocene Period, 378.
+  Plesiosaurus, 221, 226, 255.
+        „       Cramptoni, 230.
+        „       _Sternum of_, 228.
+        „       _Skull of_, 226.
+        „       _Skeleton of_, 229.
+  Pleuronectes, 326.
+  _Pleurotoma Babylonia_, 246.
+  Pleurotomaria conoidea, 246.
+  Pliocene, Meaning of, 314.
+      „     Period, 357.
+      „     Birds of, 369.
+      „     Series, 372.
+      „     Vegetation of, 357.
+      „     Fauna of, 359, 369.
+      „     Reptiles of, 367.
+      „     Mollusca of, 371.
+  Plombières, Alkaline Waters of, 64.
+  Plutonic Rocks, 31.
+     „     Theory, 6.
+     „     Eruptions, 31.
+     „     Ancient Granite, 31.
+  _Podophthalmus vigil_, 353.
+  Pœcilopleuron, 265.
+  Poikilitic Series, 199.
+  Polyphemus, Supposed Bones of, 384.
+  Polypodium, 315.
+  Polyps of Carboniferous Period, 141, 246, 255, 286, 301.
+  Polyzoa, 141, 143, 175, 307.
+  Pontgibaud Mines, 64.
+  Porphyritic Granite, 33.
+  Porphyry, 33, 37.
+      „     Definition of, 37.
+      „     Components of, 37.
+  Portland Isle, 270.
+     „     Dirt Bed, 271.
+     „     Sand, 243, 266.
+     „     Stone, 243, 269.
+  Posidonia, 189.
+  Post-pliocene Period, 378.
+       „        Animals of the, 382.
+       „        Birds of the, 417.
+       „        Carnivora of, 417.
+       „        Deposits in Britain, 417.
+  Post-Tertiary Epoch, 378.
+  Potamogeton, 315.
+  Pravolta, 447.
+  Pre-glacial deposits, 418.
+  Preissleria antiqua, 202.
+  Prestwich, J., on Glacial Deposits, 459.
+  PRIMARY EPOCH, 99.
+     „      „    Retrospective Glance at, 180.
+     „      „    Vegetation of, 182.
+  Proboscideans of Crag, 372.
+  Producta, 173, 175.
+      „     _horrida_, 149.
+  _Producta Martini_, 145, 205.
+      „     subaculeata, 127.
+  Protogine, 35.
+  Protopteris, 283.
+  Psammodus, 141.
+  Psaronius, 174.
+  _Psilophyton_, 123.
+  Pteraspis, 129.
+  _Pterichthys_, 125.
+  Pteroceras, 269.
+  Pterodactyles, 221, 233, 240, 243, 245.
+       „         _brevirostris_, 235.
+       „         _crassirostris_, 234, 256.
+  Pterophyllum, 239, 249, 255.
+       „        Jägeri, 202.
+       „        Münsteri, 202.
+  Pterygotus, 110.
+      „       _bilobatus_, 113.
+  Ptylopora, 146.
+  Purbeck Beds, 269, 271, 279.
+     „    Marble, 272.
+     „    Isle of, 271.
+  Puy-de-Dôme, 40, 43.
+  _Puy-de-Dôme, Extinct Volcanoes of_, 53.
+  Puys, Chain of, in Central France, 51.
+  Pycnodus, 190.
+  Pygopterus, 174.
+
+  Quadersandstein, 211.
+  QUATERNARY EPOCH, 378.
+      „        „    Animals of, 382.
+  Quartz, 96.
+  Quartziferous Porphyry, 33.
+  Quartzite, 77.
+
+  Rain, First Fall of, 95.
+  _Raindrops, Impressions of, in Rocks_, 14, 102, 173.
+  Raised Beaches, 488.
+  _Ramphorynchus_, 255, 259, 269.
+  Ramsay, A. C., on the Lower Oolite, 252.
+     „      „    on Formation of Keuper Marls, 201.
+     „      „    on Colour of Red Rocks, 101.
+     „      „    on Denudation, 28.
+     „      „    on Formation of Granite, 33.
+     „      „    on Glacial Deposits, 458.
+  Reading Beds, 330.
+  Recent or Historical Period, 378.
+  Re-construction of Fossil Animals from a Part, 7.
+         „        Difficulties Attendant on, 8.
+  Red Crag, 372.
+  Reindeer, 379.
+  _Relative Volume of the Earth_, 83.
+  _Remains of Plesiosaurus macrocephalus_, 229.
+  Reptiles, Prevalence of during Secondary Epoch, 201, 220.
+      „           „       during Cretaceous Period, 285.
+      „           „       during the Pliocene Period, 358, 366.
+  Rhætic Strata, 180, 205, 267.
+  Rhinoceros, 360.
+      „       Discovery of, Entire, in Siberia, 361, 379.
+      „       _Head of_, 360.
+      „       tichorhinus, 360, 428.
+  Rhombus minimus, 326.
+  _Rhyncholites_, 181.
+  Rio Chapura, Humidity of, 337.
+  Ripple-marks, 15.
+        „       on Sandstone, 173, 204, 252.
+  River, Great, of Cretaceous Period, 279.
+  Roc, 361.
+  Roches moutonnées, 443, 447.
+  Rock, in Geology, 28.
+  Rocks composing the Earth’s Crust, 27.
+    „   formed during the Carboniferous Limestone Period, 149.
+    „   Crystalline, 28.
+  Rock Salt, its Origin, 199.
+      „      Quantity produced in England, 304.
+  Rocking Stones, 35.
+  Rosso Antico, 37.
+  Rostellaria, 189.
+  Rothliegende, 170, 174.
+  Rudistes, 301.
+  Runn of Cutch, 200.
+
+  Sables Inférieurs, 331.
+    „    Moyens, 333.
+  Saccharoid Limestone, Minerals of, 76.
+  St. Acheul Gravel Beds, 476.
+  St. Acheul Gravel Beds, probable Age of, 479.
+  St. Austell, Granite of, 39.
+  St. Cassian Beds, 205.
+  St. Christopher’s Tooth, 385.
+  Salamander of Œningen, 367.
+  Salicites, 283.
+  Saliferous or Keuper Period, 186, 199.
+        „            „         Fauna of, 201.
+  Saline Springs, 23.
+  Salses, 60.
+  Salt Mines, 199, 204.
+  Sandwich Islands, Volcanoes of, 56, 69.
+  Sargassites, 309.
+  Sargassum, 309.
+  Saurians, 187.
+      „     of Cretaceous Period, 285.
+      „     of Lias, 229.
+  Savoy Alps, 440.
+  Scandinavian Continent, Upheaval and Depression of, 282.
+  Scaphites, 288.
+  Scelidotherium, 406, 412.
+        „         _Skull of_, 413.
+  _Scheuchzer’s Salamander_, 367.
+  Schist, 77, 97.
+  Schistopleuron typus, 401.
+        „          „    _restored_, 402.
+  Schizaster, 326.
+  Scoriæ, Volcanic, 57.
+  Sea-Pen, Virgularia Patagonia, 263.
+  Sea Urchins, 205, 286.
+  SECONDARY EPOCH, 185.
+  _Section of a Volcano in Action_, 52.
+  Sectional Appearance of the Earth, 2.
+  Sedgwick, Prof. A., on Cambrian Rocks, 10.
+           „          on Granite of Devon and Cornwall, 39.
+           „          on Classification of Rocks, 102.
+  Sedimentary Rocks, 28.
+  Senonian Beds, 309, 310.
+  Septaria, 331.
+  Serpentine, 38.
+  Serpents of Tertiary Epoch, 379.
+  Serpulæ, 126, 272.
+  Shell Mounds, 478.
+  Shells, Marine, on Tops of Mountains, 5.
+  Sheppey, Isle of, 331.
+     „        „     Turtles of, 331.
+  Siberia, Fossil Elephants in, 387.
+  Sigillaria, 130, 136, 152, 157.
+       „      _lavigata_, 138.
+       „      _reniformis_, 157.
+  Silex meulier, 356.
+  Siliceous Limestone, 333.
+  Silurian Period, 102.
+      „    Divisions of, 109, 110.
+      „    Characteristics of, 103.
+      „    Fauna and Flora of, 104.
+      „    Fishes of, 107.
+      „    Mollusca of, 108.
+      „    _Plants_ of, 103.
+      „    System, 102.
+  Sivatherium, 365.
+      „        _restored_, 366.
+  Skaptár Jokul, 60.
+  _Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus_, 218.
+      „    _of Plesiosaurus_, 227.
+  _Skull of Plesiosaurus_, 226.
+       „    _Palæotherium magnum_, 321.
+       „    _Scelidotherium_, 413.
+  Skye, Basalt of Isle of, 49.
+  Smith, Dr. W., Labours of, 9.
+  Smilax, 202.
+  Solenhofen, Limestone of, 273.
+  Solfataras, 63.
+  Somma, Mount, 68.
+  Somme, River, Valley of, 475.
+     „   Peat-Beds of the, 475.
+  South America, Depression and Upheaval of, 21.
+  Spalacotherium, 265.
+  Sphenophyllum, 154, 269.
+        „        _restored_, 153.
+  Sphenophyllites, 136.
+  Sphenopteris, 136.
+       „        _artemisiæfolia_, 144.
+  Spirifera, 173, 175.
+      „      concentrica, 127.
+      „      undulata, 175.
+  Sphœrodus, 190.
+  _Staffa, Grotto of_, 50.
+  Stag, gigantic Forest, 379.
+  Stalactite, 430.
+  Stalagmite, 430.
+  Stellispongia variabilis, 205.
+  Stenosaurus, 265.
+  _Sternum and Pelvis of Plesiosaurus_, 228.
+  Stigmaria, 130, 137, 157, 162.
+  _Stigmaria_, 138.
+  Stone Age, The, 478.
+  Stone Lilies, 127.
+  Stonesfield Slate, 243, 245, 250, 252.
+  Strata, Disposition of, 2.
+  Stratification, Order of, 29.
+          „       _of Coal Beds_, 165.
+  Strephodus, 266.
+  Streptospondylus, 265.
+  Stringocephalus Burtini, 127.
+  Stromboli, Volcanic Island of, 55, 68.
+  _Strophalosia Morrisiana_, 176.
+  Struthionidæ, 193.
+  Submarine Volcanoes, 70.
+  Sub-Apennine Strata, 373.
+  Suffolk Crag, 372.
+  Sulphurous Streams from Mount Idienne, 64.
+  Sun-cracks, 102, 173.
+  Syenite, 34.
+
+  Tæniopteris, 315.
+  Taxoceras, 289.
+  Taxodites, 239.
+      „      Münsterianus, 202.
+  Teeth of Mammoth, 384.
+  _Teeth of Iguanodon_, 293.
+       „    _Mastodon_, 346.
+       „    _Megalosaurus_, 291, 380.
+       „    _Machairodus_, 380.
+  Teleosaurus, 245, 256, 259.
+        „      cadomensis, 259.
+  Temperature of the Earth, Increase of as we descend, 2, 16, 87.
+       „            „       at Various Depths, 16.
+       „            „       of Deep Mines, 16, 88.
+       „            „       at the Centre, 16.
+       „      of Planetary Regions, 86.
+       „      uniform, in Carboniferous Period, 133.
+       „      Gradual Alteration of, during Tertiary Period, 313.
+       „      of Cretaceous Period, 283.
+  _Terebellaria ramosissima_, 184.
+  _Terebratula digona_, 246.
+        „      decussata, 252.
+        „      hastata, 141.
+        „      _deformis_, 290.
+        „      _subsella_, 266.
+  _Terebrirostra lyra_, 290.
+  Terrestrial Plants of Devonian Period, 120.
+  Tertiary Period, 312.
+         „         Vegetation of, 313.
+         „         Animals of, 312.
+  Tetragonolepis, 217.
+  Teutobocchus Rex, 348.
+  Thallogens, 123.
+  Thanet Beds, 330.
+  _Theoretical View of a Plateau_, 47.
+  Theories of the Earth, 15.
+  Theory, Hutton’s, 3.
+     „    Laplace’s, 17.
+  Thermal Springs, 23.
+  Thickness of the Earth’s Crust, 89.
+  Thomson, Sir William, on the Earth’s Crust, 89.
+  _Thylacotherium_, 245.
+  Tidal Wave, 22.
+  Tile Stones, 110.
+  Till Formation, 457.
+  Tortoises, 401.
+  Toxoceras, 289.
+  Toxodon, 412.
+  Trachyte, 39.
+  Trachytic Formations, 39.
+  Trail, 461.
+  Transition, or Primary Epoch, 99.
+  _Transported Blocks_, 449.
+        „      Rocks, 27.
+  Trapa natans, 315.
+  _Trappean Grotto, Staffa_, 47.
+  Travertin, 333.
+  Tree Ferns, 174, 240.
+  Tremadoc Slates, 109.
+  _Treuil, Coal Mine at_, 160.
+  Triassic Period, 185.
+     „     Flora, 187, 193, 202.
+  Trigonia, 12, 205.
+      „     _margaritacea_, 314.
+  _Trigonocarpum Nöggerathii_, 177.
+  Trilobites, 104, 107, 110, 126, 141, 181.
+  Trimmer, Joshua, on Moel Tryfaen, 459.
+  _Trinucleus Lloydii_, 129.
+  _Trionyx of Tertiary Period_, 326.
+  Trionyx, a Turtle, 319, 326, 329.
+  Tropical Vegetation, D’Orbigny on, 337.
+  _Trunk of Calamites_, 136.
+      „     _Sigillaria_, 136.
+  Tunbridge Wells Sand, 286.
+  Turbaco, Mud Volcanoes of, 61.
+  Turonian Series, 309, 310.
+  Turrilites, 289.
+      „       _communis_, 290.
+      „       _costatus_, 289.
+  _Turritella terebra_, 289.
+  Turtle, 187, 237, 272, 319, 326, 329, 331, 356.
+  Tyndall’s, Professor, Theory of Heat, 24.
+
+  Uncites Gryphus, 127.
+  Under Clay, 161.
+  Unicornu Fossile, 386.
+  Unio, 266.
+  Upper Cretaceous, 300-306.
+    „   Greensand, 300, 309.
+    „   Oolite, 265.
+    „   Lias, 212, 273.
+    „   Lias Clay, 212.
+    „   Silurian Period, 110.
+  Ursus spelæus, 184, 395, 417.
+        „        _Head of_, 184.
+
+  Vale of Wardour, 269.
+  Valley of Poison, 64.
+  Vallisneri on Marine Deposits of Italy, 6.
+  Variegated Sandstone, 187.
+  _Veins of Granite traversing Gneiss of Cape Wrath_, 32.
+  Velay, Chain of the, 43.
+  Vertebrata, First Appearance of, 107.
+  Vespertilio Parisiensis, 326.
+  Vesuvius, 56, 68.
+     „      _Existing Crater of_, 56.
+  Virgularia, 263.
+  Vivarais, Valley of, 47.
+  Volcanic Bombs, 59.
+     „     Ashes, 58.
+     „     Scoriæ, 57.
+     „     Eruptions, 57.
+     „     Formations, 51.
+     „     Islands, 55.
+     „     Rocks, 31, 39.
+  _Volcano in Action_, 52.
+  Volcanoes, 51.
+      „      Action of, 57, 63.
+      „      Active, 55, 67.
+      „      Mud, 60, 63.
+      „      Extinct, 63.
+      „      Sandwich Islands, 56.
+      „      Watery, 23, 59.
+  Voltaire and Buffon, 6.
+  Voltzia heterophylla, 194.
+  _Voltzia restored_, 195.
+  Vosges Mountains, 75.
+     „       „      Submergence of in Permian Period, 180.
+
+  Wadhurst Clay, 286.
+  Walchia, 177.
+      „    _Schlotheimii_, 176.
+  Warp, 461.
+  Water, First Cradle of Life, 100.
+  Waterstones, 245.
+  Watery Volcanoes, 23, 59.
+  Weald Clay, 279, 281, 286, 298.
+  Wealden Beds, 279.
+     „    Shells, 281.
+  Wenlock Rocks, 110.
+  Whale of the Rue Dauphine, 370.
+  White Chalk, Berthier’s Analysis, 298.
+  White Lias, 208.
+  Wild Man of Aveyron, 469.
+  Williamsonia, 239.
+  Wood, Searles V., Junr., on Glacial Deposits, 460.
+  Wookey Hole, 474.
+  Woolwich and Reading Beds, 330.
+  Wright, Dr. Thos., on Penarth Beds, 209.
+
+  Xiphodon, 320, 324, 329.
+      „     _gracile_, 324.
+
+  Ysbrants Ides’ Account of Discovery of Frozen Mammoth, 389.
+  Yuccites, 194.
+
+  Zamia, 249, 270.
+    „    Moreana, 255.
+  Zamites, 194, 239, 255, 297.
+  Zechstein, 170.
+  Zeolites, 44.
+  Ziphius, 370.
+  Zones of different density round the incandescent Earth, 85.
+  Zoophytes of Lias, 238.
+      „     Middle Oolite, 263.
+      „     of Carboniferous Period, 141.
+  _Zostera_, 123, 266.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+  CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, LONDON, E.C.
+  773
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+MESSRS. CASSELL, PETTER, & GALPIN
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+  M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London.
+  With 576 Illustrations                                   7s. 6d.
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+  an eminent Botanist. With 470 Illustrations              7s. 6d.
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+  &c. With 307 Illustrations. 664 pp.                      7s. 6d.
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+
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+    M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in King’s College, London.
+    With 576 Illustrations. _Third Edition._
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+
+
+
+
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                        TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:                       |
+  |                                                                   |
+  | The original text has been maintained, including inconsistencies  |
+  | in spelling, hyphenation, lay-out, formatting, etc. and in the use|
+  | of capitals, diacriticals and accents, except as described below  |
+  | under Changes Made. Important inconsistencies include: Saarbruck/ |
+  | Saarbrück, Coalbrookdale/Coalbrook Dale, Roth-liegende/           |
+  | Rothliegende/Röthe-liegende, Westmorland/Westmoreland, blow-pipe/ |
+  | blowpipe, cuttle-fish/cuttlefish, frame-work/framework,           |
+  | fresh-water/freshwater, Kupfer-schiefer/Kupferschiefer,           |
+  | rain-drops/raindrops, re-construct/reconstruct (and related       |
+  | words), Roth-todt-liegende/Rothe-todte-liegende, sub-divide/      |
+  | subdivide (and related words), tile-stones/tilestones, under-clay/|
+  | underclay, water-stones/waterstones, aërial/aerial, Baikal/Baïkal,|
+  | Ceteosaurus/Cetiosaurus, Colley Weston/Colleyweston, Cupanioides/ |
+  | Cupanioïdes, Hoffman/Hoffmann (this is apparently the same person,|
+  | it is not clear what the correct spelling should be); Kjökken-    |
+  | Mödden/Kjökken Mödden/Kjökken-mödden, Mæstricht/Maestricht,       |
+  | Néocomian/Neocomian, predaceous/predacious, proboscideans/        |
+  | proboscidians, and Tunguragua/Tunguraqua.                         |
+  |                                                                   |
+  | There are slight differences in wording between the Table of      |
+  | Contents, the Index and the text. Since the meaning is not        |
+  | affected, this has not been standardised.                         |
+  |                                                                   |
+  | Textual remarks:                                                  |
+  | - Page 109 (table): 12,060 should possibly be 12,000;             |
+  | - Page 196 (table): Red and variegated sandstone (Collyhurst) ...:|
+  |   there is a line missing in the original work that is not present|
+  |   in other editions either. This line has been replaced by [...]; |
+  | - Page 212: The Lias, in England, is generally in three groups:   |
+  |   possibly there is a word (divided or similar) missing;          |
+  | - Page 301: The invertebrate animals which characterise the       |
+  |   Cretaceous age are among: possibly there is a word missing at   |
+  |   the end of the sentence (others);                               |
+  | - Page 339: not one-fifth the size of Switzerland should possibly |
+  |   be not one-fifth the size of Great Britain;                     |
+  | - Index: contrary to the remark at the top of the index, not all  |
+  |   italic entries refer to illustrations.                          |
+  |                                                                   |
+  | Multi-page tables have been combined into single tables.          |
+  |                                                                   |
+  | Changes made to original text:                                    |
+  | - Some obvious typographical errors (including punctuation) have  |
+  |   been corrected silently.                                        |
+  | - Table of Contents: entries Eruptive Rocks and The Beginning have|
+  |   been indented one level less as in the text; entry Metamorphic  |
+  |   Rocks has been indented one level less, in line with the other  |
+  |   headings printed in small capitals.                             |
+  | Page 11: Ancylyceras changed to Ancyloceras;                      |
+  | Page 34: has disappeared changed to have disappeared; Strasburg   |
+  | changed to Strasbourg as elsewhere;                               |
+  | Page 36: Cevennes changed to Cévennes as elsewhere;               |
+  | Page 37: bigarrè changed to bigarré; gres changed to grès as      |
+  | elsewhere; porpyhries changed to porphyries;                      |
+  | Page 57: diameter) changed to diameter (bracket removed);         |
+  | Page 152: on page 155 changed to on page 157;                     |
+  | Page 167: Liége changed to Liège;                                 |
+  | Page 184: Cevennes changed to Cévennes as elsewhere; Rhone changed|
+  | to Rhône as elsewhere;                                            |
+  | Page 194: Nilsonia changed to Nilssonia as elsewhere;             |
+  | Page 206: Cevennes changed to Cévennes as elsewhere;              |
+  | Page 213: Pentatrinus changed to Pentacrinus;                     |
+  | Page 225: Ichythyosaurus changed to Ichthyosaurus;                |
+  | Page 239: Nilsonia changed to Nilssonia as elsewhere;             |
+  | Page 240: Nilsonia changed to Nilssonia as elsewhere;             |
+  | Page 247, caption fig 115: Polyzoa. changed to Polyzoa.) (bracket |
+  | added);                                                           |
+  | Page 248: O. cuneatea changed to O. cuneata;                      |
+  | Page 250: first footnote anchor missing, inserted in most likely  |
+  | place;                                                            |
+  | Page 269: Gryphea changed to Gryphæa as elsewhere;                |
+  | Page 305: represented in Fig. 146 changed to represented in Fig.  |
+  | 145;                                                              |
+  | Page 316: Nymphæea changed to Nymphæa;                            |
+  | Page 319: πσχυς changed to παχυς; inférièure/inférièurs changed to|
+  | inférieure/inférieurs;                                            |
+  | Page 329: Nymphæeas changed to Nymphæas;                          |
+  | Page 338: --astodon changed to Mastodon;                          |
+  | Page 341: Fig. 161 changed to Fig. 160;                           |
+  | Page 348: Rhone changed to Rhône as elsewhere;                    |
+  | Page 401: chaneled changed to channelled as elsewhere; Fig 186    |
+  | changed to Fig. 185;                                              |
+  | Page 413: antedulivian changed to antediluvian;                   |
+  | Page 429: Bauman's changed to Baumann's;                          |
+  | Page 430: Gailenruth changed to Gailenreuth as elsehwere;         |
+  | Page 452: Varese changed to Varèse;                               |
+  | Page 462: Upsal changed to Upsala;                                |
+  | Page 470, footnote 117: Epoques changed to Époques as elsewhere;  |
+  | Page 479: Tiniêre changed to Tinière;                             |
+  | Page 502: Archeopterix changed to Archeopteryx as in text;        |
+  | Bathonean changed to Bathonian as in text; cervicornus changed to |
+  | cervicornis as in text;                                           |
+  | Page 503: second entry Carboniferous Flora aligned with Flora,    |
+  | ditto marks added;                                                |
+  | Page 504: ditto mark added under Man in Creation of Man for       |
+  | clarity; Cerithium plicatum 250 changed to 350; Coccosteus 141    |
+  | changed to 142; Coupe d'Ayzac 45, 47 changed to 46, 47;           |
+  | Page 505: Danien changed to Danian as in text; Duvalii changed to |
+  | Duvallii as in text (the modern spelling is Duvalii, Lyell used   |
+  | Duvallii);                                                        |
+  | Page 508: tichorhynus changed to tichorhinus as in text;          |
+  | Page 509: Igneous, Iguana and Iguanodon moved to proper place in  |
+  | alphabetical order; Kellaway's changed to Kellaways as in text;   |
+  | Lachow changed to Lächow as in text; lacumosus changed to         |
+  | lacunosus as in text; Leptœna changed to Leptæna as in text;      |
+  | Page 510: Limnea changed to Limnæa as in text; Lithostrotion      |
+  | cornu-arietis changed to Lituites cornu-arietis;                  |
+  | Page 511: page numbers added after Mortillet on Glaciers and      |
+  | Mosaic Account of Creation; page reference 737 changed to 73;     |
+  | Page 512: Osmeroïdes changed to Osmeroides as in text;            |
+  | Page 513: Pecopteris, page numbers placed in numerical order;     |
+  | Fustembergii changed to Furstembergii as in text; second reference|
+  | to Otopteris acuminata removed; Pecten obicularis changed to      |
+  | Pecten orbicularis as in text;                                    |
+  | Page 514: Podophtalmus changed to Podophthalmus as in text;       |
+  | Purbeck Beds: 27 changed to 279.;                                 |
+  | Page 515: Reptiles, Prevalence of: two entries combined into one; |
+  | St. Cassian Beds moved to proper alphabetical order; tichorhynus  |
+  | changed to tichorhinus as in text; entries on Sheppey Isle moved  |
+  | to proper alphabetical order;                                     |
+  | Page 516: Sphærodus changed to Sphœrodus and moved to proper      |
+  | alphabetic place; Sun-Appenine changed to Sub-Apennine;           |
+  | Terebellaria moved to proper place in alphabetical order.         |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The World Before the Deluge, by Louis Figuier
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The World Before the Deluge, by Louis Figuier
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The World Before the Deluge
+
+Author: Louis Figuier
+
+Editor: H. W. Bristow
+
+Release Date: May 18, 2012 [EBook #39723]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD BEFORE THE DELUGE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lam� and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="tnbox" style="margin: 2em 10%; padding: 2em;">
+<p class="center">Please see <a href="#TN">Transcriber's Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover" width="450" height="647" /></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a>
+<img src="images/illo002.jpg" alt="Frontispiece" width="600" height="381" />
+<p class="caption">THE FIRST MAN.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<h1><span class="fsize80">THE</span><br />
+<span class="fsize125 smcap">World before the Deluge.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="center">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center fsize150"><i><span class="gesp">LOUIS FIGUIE</span>R</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center fsize125">NEWLY EDITED AND REVISED<br />
+<span class="fsize80">BY</span><br />
+<b>H. W. BRISTOW, F.R.S., F.G.S.,</b></p>
+
+<p class="center fsize80"><i>Of the Geological Survey of Great Britain; Hon. Fellow of King&#8217;s College, London.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="c05" style="margin-bottom: 0;" />
+<p class="center oldtype" style="margin: 0 auto;">With 235 Illustrations.</p>
+<hr class="c05" style="margin-top: 0;" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="gesp">CASSELL, PETTER, &amp; GALPI</span>N,<br />
+LONDON, PARIS, AND NEW YORK.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table style="max-width: 80%;" summary="ToC">
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 2em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 2em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="right fsize80">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top padr1">GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Consideration of Fossils</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Chemical and Nebular Hypotheses of the Globe</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Modifications of the Earth&#8217;s Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top padr1">ERUPTIVE ROCKS</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Plutonic Eruptions</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Granite</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Syenite</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Protogine</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Porphyry</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Serpentine</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Volcanic Rocks</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Trachytic Formations</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Basaltic Formations</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Volcanic or Lava Formations</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Metamorphic Rocks</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">General Metamorphism</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top padr1">THE BEGINNING</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top padr1">PRIMARY EPOCH</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Cambrian Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Silurian Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Lower Silurian Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Upper Silurian Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Old Red Sandstone and Devonian Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Carboniferous Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Carboniferous Limestone</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Coal Measures</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Formation of Coal</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Permian Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Permian Rocks</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top padr1">SECONDARY EPOCH</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Triassic, or New Red Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">New Red Sandstone</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Muschelkalk</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Keuper Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Rh&aelig;tic (Penarth) Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Jurassic Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Liassic Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Oolitic Sub-Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Lower Oolite Fauna</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; Rocks</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Middle Oolite</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Upper Oolite</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Cretaceous Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Lower Cretaceous Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Upper Cretaceous Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top padr1">TERTIARY EPOCH</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Eocene Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Miocene Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Pliocene Period</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top padr1">QUATERNARY EPOCH<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Post-Pliocene</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">European Deluges</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_422">422</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Glacial Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Creation of Man</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_464">464</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap">Asiatic Deluge</span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_480">480</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top padr1">EPILOGUE</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_489">489</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top padr1">TABLE AND DIAGRAM OF BRITISH SEDIMENTARY AND FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_493">493</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<h2>FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<table style="max-width: 80%;" summary="Full-page illustrations">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="center"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Frontispiece">Frontispiece</a>&mdash;The First Man.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="right fsize80">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1" style="width: 4em;"><a href="#Plate_I">I.</a></td>
+<td class="left top padr1">De Sancy Peak, Mont Dore</td>
+<td class="right bot">42</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_II">II</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Basaltic Mountain of La Coupe d&#8217;Ayzac</td>
+<td class="right bot">46</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_III">III</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Extinct Volcanoes of Le Puy</td>
+<td class="right bot">52</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_IV">IV</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Mud Volcano of Turbaco</td>
+<td class="right bot">62</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_V">V</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Great Geyser of Iceland</td>
+<td class="right bot">66</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_VI">VI</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">The Earth in a gaseous state circulating in space</td>
+<td class="right bot">82</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_VII">VII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Condensation and rainfall</td>
+<td class="right bot">94</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_VIII">VIII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Silurian Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">104</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_IX">IX</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Devonian Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">121</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_X">X</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal view of marine life in the Carboniferous Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">147</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XI">XI</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal view of a marshy forest in the Coal Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">156</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XII">XII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Permian Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">172</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XIII">XIII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Muschelkalk Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">191</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XIV">XIV</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Saliferous or Keuper Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">198</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XV">XV</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Scene of the Lias Period with Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus</td>
+<td class="right bot">231</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XVI">XVI</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Liassic Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">241</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XVII">XVII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Lower Oolite Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">254</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XVIII">XVIII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Middle Oolite Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">258</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XIX">XIX</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Apiocrinites rotundus and Encrinus liliiformis</td>
+<td class="right bot">261</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XX">XX</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Upper Oolite Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">267</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXI">XXI</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Scene of the Lower Cretaceous Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">296</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXII">XXII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Cretaceous Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">307</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXIII">XXIII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Eocene Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">328</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXIV">XXIV</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Miocene Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">352</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXV">XXV</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Pliocene Period</td>
+<td class="right bot">375</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXVI">XXVI</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Skeleton of the Mammoth in the St. Petersburg Museum</td>
+<td class="right bot">394</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXVII">XXVII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Skeleton of Megatherium</td>
+<td class="right bot">403</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXVIII">XXVIII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal View of the Quaternary Epoch&mdash;Europe</td>
+<td class="right bot">416</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXIX">XXIX</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Ideal Landscape of the Quaternary Epoch&mdash;America</td>
+<td class="right bot">419</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXX">XXX</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Deluge of the North of Europe</td>
+<td class="right bot">425</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXXI">XXXI</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Glaciers of Switzerland</td>
+<td class="right bot">445</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXXII">XXXII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Appearance of Man</td>
+<td class="right bot">468</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Plate_XXXIII">XXXIII</a>.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Asiatic Deluge</td>
+<td class="right bot">483</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr1"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_Last">Diagram at End</a></span>&mdash;Ideal
+Section of the Earth&#8217;s Crust, showing the order of superposition or chronological succession of the principal groups of strata.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></p>
+
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<div style="line-height: 1.5em;">
+<p>The object of &#8220;The World before the Deluge&#8221; is to trace
+the progressive steps by which the earth has reached its
+present state, from that condition of chaos when it &#8220;was
+without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of
+the deep,&#8221; and to describe the various convulsions and
+transformations through which it has successively passed.
+In the words of the poet&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i00">&#8220;Where rolls the deep, there grew the tree;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">O Earth, what changes hast thou seen!<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">There, where the long street roars, hath been<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The silence of the central sea.&#8221;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div style="line-height: 1.5em;">
+<p>It has been thought desirable that the present edition of
+the work should undergo a thorough revision by a practical
+geologist, a task which Mr. H. W. Bristow has performed.
+Mr. Bristow has however confined himself to such alterations
+as were necessary to secure accuracy in the statement
+of facts, and such additions as were necessary to represent
+more precisely the existing state of scientific opinion. Many
+points which are more or less inferential and therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span>
+matters of individual opinion, and especially those on which
+M. Figuier bases his speculations, have been left in their
+original form, in preference to making modifications which
+would wholly change the character of the book. In a work
+whose purpose is to give the general reader a summarised
+account of the results at which science has arrived, and of the
+method of reasoning regarding the facts on which these
+generalisations rest, it would be out of place, as well as
+ineffective, to obscure general statements with those limitations
+which caution imposes on the scientific investigator.</p>
+
+<p>In the original work the Author had naturally enough
+drawn most of his facts from French localities; in the
+translation these are mostly preserved, but others drawn
+from British Geology have been added, either from the translator&#8217;s
+own knowledge, or from the works of well-known
+British writers. It was considered desirable, for similar
+reasons, to enlarge upon the opinions of British geologists,
+to whom the French work scarcely does justice, considering
+the extent to which the science is indebted to them for its
+elucidation.</p>
+
+<p>In the original work the chapter on Eruptive Rocks
+comes at the end of the work, but, as the work proceeded,
+so many unexplained allusions to that chapter were found
+that it seemed more logical, and more in accordance with
+chronological order, if the expression may be used, to place
+that chapter at the beginning.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span>A
+new edition of the French work having appeared in
+the early part of 1866, to which the Author contributed
+a chapter on Metamorphic Rocks, a translation of it is
+appended to the chapter on Eruptive Rocks.</p>
+
+<p>A chapter on the Rh&aelig;tic (or Penarth) beds has been
+inserted (amongst much other original matter), the stratigraphical
+importance of that series having been recognised
+since the publication of the First Edition.</p>
+
+<p>In the present Edition the text has been again thoroughly
+revised by Mr. Bristow, and many important additions made,
+the result of the recent investigations of himself and his
+colleagues of the Geological Survey.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi"></a></p>
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center fsize150">THE<br />
+<span class="smcap fsize150">World before the Deluge.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<h2>GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.</h2>
+
+<p>The observer who glances over a rich and fertile plain, watered
+by rivers and streams which have, during a long series of ages,
+pursued the same uniform and tranquil course; the traveller who
+contemplates the walls and monuments of a great city, the first
+founding of which is lost in the night of ages, testifying, apparently,
+to the unchangeableness of things and places; the naturalist who
+examines a mountain or other locality, and finds the hills and valleys
+and other accidents of the soil in the very spot and condition in which
+they are described by history and tradition&mdash;none of these observers
+would at first suspect that any serious change had ever occurred to
+disturb the surface of the globe. Nevertheless, the earth has not
+always presented the calm aspect of stability which it now exhibits;
+it has had its convulsions, and its physical revolutions, whose story
+we are about to trace. The earth, like the body of an animal, is
+wasted, as the philosophical Hutton tells us, at the same time that it
+is repaired. It has a state of growth and augmentation; it has
+another state, which is that of diminution and decay: it is destroyed
+in one part to be renewed in another; and the operations by which
+the renewal is accomplished are as evident to the scientific eye as
+those by which it is destroyed. A thousand causes, aqueous,
+igneous, and atmospheric, are continually at work modifying the
+external form of the earth, wearing down the older portions of its
+surface, and reconstructing newer out of the older; so that in many
+parts of the world denudation has taken place to the extent of many
+thousand feet. Buried in the depths of the soil, for example, in one
+of those vast excavations which the intrepidity of the miner has dug in
+search of coal or other minerals, there are numerous phenomena
+which strike the mind of the inquirer, and carry their own conclusions
+with them. A striking increase of temperature in these subterranean<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+places is one of the most remarkable of these. It is found that the
+temperature of the earth rises one degree for every sixty or seventy
+feet of descent from its surface. Again: if the mine be examined
+vertically, it is found to consist of a series of layers or beds, sometimes
+horizontal, but more frequently inclined, upright, or contorted
+and undulating&mdash;even folded back upon themselves. Then, instances
+are numerous where horizontal and parallel beds have been penetrated,
+and traversed vertically or obliquely by veins of ores or
+minerals totally different in their appearance and nature from the
+surrounding rocks. All these undulations and varying inclinations
+of strata are indications that some powerful cause, some violent
+mechanical action, has intervened to produce them. Finally, if the
+interior of the beds be examined more minutely&mdash;if, armed with the
+miner&#8217;s pick and hammer, the rock is carefully broken up&mdash;it is not impossible
+that the very first efforts at mining may be rewarded by the
+discovery of some fossilised organic form no longer found in the
+living state. The remains of plants and animals belonging to the
+earlier ages of the world, are, in fact, very common; entire strata are
+sometimes formed of them; and in some localities the rocks can
+scarcely be disturbed without yielding fragments of bones and shells,
+or the impressions of fossilised animals and vegetables&mdash;the buried
+remains of extinct creations.</p>
+
+<p>These bones&mdash;these remains of animals or vegetables which the
+hammer of the geologist has torn from the rock&mdash;belong possibly
+to some organism which no longer any where exists: it may not be
+identical with any animal or plant living in our times: but it is
+evident that these beings, whose remains are now so deeply buried,
+have not always been so covered; they once lived on the surface of
+the earth as plants and animals do in our days, for their organisation
+is essentially the same. The beds in which they now repose must,
+then, in older times have formed the surface of the earth; and the
+presence of these fossils proves that the earth has suffered great
+mutations at some former period of its history.</p>
+
+<p>Geology explains to us the various transformations which the
+earth has passed through before it arrived at its present condition.
+We can determine, with its help, the comparative epoch to which
+any beds belong, as well as the order in which others have been
+superimposed upon them. Considering that the stratigraphical crust
+of the earth with which the geologist has to deal may be some ten
+miles thick, and that it has been deposited in distinct layers in a
+definite order of succession, the dates or epochs of each formation
+may well be approached with hesitation and caution.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>Dr. Hutton, the earliest of our philosophical geologists, eloquently
+observes, in his &#8220;Theory of the Earth,&#8221; that the solid earth is everywhere
+wasted at the surface. The summits of the mountains are
+necessarily degraded. The solid and weighty materials of these
+mountains have everywhere been carried through the valleys by the
+force of running water. The soil which is produced in the destruction
+of the solid earth is gradually transported by the moving waters,
+and is as constantly supplying vegetation with its necessary aid. This
+drifted soil is at last deposited upon some coast, where it forms a
+fertile country. But the billows of the ocean again agitate the loose
+material upon the shore, wearing away the coast with endless repetitions
+of this act of power and imparted force; the solid portion of our
+earth, thus sapped to its foundations, is carried away into the deep
+and sunk again at the bottom of the sea whence it had originated,
+and from which sooner or later it will again make its appearance. We
+are thus led to see a circulation of destruction and renewal in the
+matter of which the globe is formed, and a system of beautiful
+economy in the works of Nature. Again, discriminating between the
+ordinary and scientific observer, the same writer remarks, that it is not
+given to common observation to see the operation of physical causes.
+The shepherd thinks the mountain on which he feeds his flock has
+always been there. The inhabitant of the valley cultivates the soil as
+his fathers did before him, and thinks the soil coeval with the valley
+or the mountain. But the scientific observer looks into the chain
+of physical events, sees the great changes that have been made, and
+foresees others that must follow from the continued operation of like
+natural causes. For, as Pythagoras taught 2,350 years ago, &#8220;the
+minerals and the rocks, the islands and the continents, the rivers and
+the seas, and all organic Nature, are perpetually changing; there is
+nothing stationary on earth.&#8221; To note these changes&mdash;to decipher
+the records of this system of waste and reconstruction, to trace the
+physical history of the earth&mdash;is the province of <span class="smcap">Geology</span>, which, the
+latest of all modern sciences, is that which has been modified most
+profoundly and most rapidly. In short, resting as it does on observation,
+it has been modified and transformed according to every series
+of facts recorded; but while many of the facts of geology admit of
+easy and obvious demonstration, it is far otherwise with the inferences
+which have been based upon them, which are mostly hypothetical,
+and in many instances from their very nature incapable of proof. Its
+applications are numerous and varied, projecting new and useful
+lights upon many other sciences. Here we ask of it the teachings
+which serve to explain the origin of the globe&mdash;the evidence it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+furnishes of the progressive formation of the different rocks and
+mineral masses of which the earth is composed&mdash;the description and
+restoration of the several species of animals and vegetables which
+have existed, have died and become extinct, and which form, in the
+language of naturalists, the <i>Fauna</i> and <i>Flora</i> of the ancient world.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>In order to explain the origin of the earth, and the cause of its
+various revolutions, modern geologists invoke three orders of facts, or
+fundamental considerations:</p>
+
+<div class="indented"><p>I. The hypothesis of the original incandescence of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>II. The consideration of fossils.</p>
+
+<p>III. The successive deposition of the sedimentary rocks.</p></div>
+
+<p>As a corollary to these, the hypothesis of the upheaval of the
+earth&#8217;s crust follows&mdash;upheavals having produced local revolutions.
+The result of these upheavals has been to superimpose new materials
+upon the older rocks, introducing extraneous rocks called
+<i>Eruptive</i>, beneath, upon, and amongst preceding deposits, in such a
+manner as to change their nature in divers ways. Whence is derived
+a third class of rocks called <i>Metamorphic</i> or altered <i>rocks</i>, our knowledge
+of which is of comparatively recent date.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Fossils.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The name of <i>Fossil</i> (from <i>fossilis</i>, dug up) is given to all organised
+bodies, animal or vegetable, buried naturally in the terrestrial strata,
+and more or less petrified, that is, converted into stone. Fossils
+of the older formations are remains of organisms which, so far as
+species is concerned, are quite extinct; and only those of recent
+formations belong to genera living in our days. These fossil remains
+have neither the beauty nor the elegance of most living species,
+being mutilated, discoloured, and often almost shapeless; they are,
+therefore, interesting only in the eyes of the observer who would
+interrogate them, and who seeks to reconstruct, with their assistance,
+the Fauna and Flora of past ages. Nevertheless, the light they throw
+upon the past history of the earth is of the most satisfactory description,
+and the science of fossils, or pal&aelig;ontology, is now an important
+branch of geological inquiry. Fossil shells, in the more recent
+deposits, are found scarcely altered; in some cases only an impression
+of the external form is left&mdash;sometimes an entire cast of the
+shell, exterior and interior. In other cases the shell has left a perfect
+impression of its form in the surrounding mud, and has then been
+dissolved and washed away, leaving only its mould. This mould,
+again, has sometimes been filled up by calcareous spar, silica, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+pyrites, and an exact cast of the original shell has thus been
+obtained. Petrified wood is also of very common occurrence.</p>
+
+<p>These remains of an earlier creation had long been known to the
+curious, and classed as <i>freaks of Nature</i>, for so we find them described
+in the works of the ancient philosophers who wrote on natural history,
+and in the few treatises on the subject which the Middle Ages
+have bequeathed to us. Fossil bones, especially those of elephants,
+were known to the ancients, giving rise to all sorts of legends and
+fabulous histories: the tradition which attributed to Achilles, to
+Ajax, and to other heroes of the Trojan war, a height of twenty
+feet, is attributable, no doubt, to the discovery of the bones of
+elephants near their tombs. In the time of Pericles we are assured
+that in the tomb of Ajax a <i>patella</i>, or knee-bone of that hero, was
+found, which was as large as a dinner-plate. This was probably only
+the patella of a fossil elephant.</p>
+
+<p>The uses to which fossils are applied by the geologist are&mdash;First, to
+ascertain the relative age of the formations in which they occur;
+secondly, the conditions under which these were deposited. The age
+of the formation is determined by a comparison of the fossils it
+contains with others of ascertained date; the conditions under
+which the rocks were deposited, whether marine, lacustrine, or
+terrestrial, are readily inferred from the nature of the fossils. The
+great artist, Leonardo da Vinci, was the first to comprehend the real
+meaning of fossils, and Bernard Palissy had the glory of being the
+first modern writer to proclaim the true character of the fossilised
+remains which are met with, in such numbers, in certain formations,
+both in France and Italy, particularly in those of Touraine, where
+they had come more especially under his notice. In his work on
+&#8220;Waters and Fountains,&#8221; published in 1580, he maintains that the
+<i>figured stones</i>, as fossils were then called, were the remains of organised
+beings preserved at the bottom of the sea. But the existence
+of marine shells upon the summits of mountains had already arrested
+the attention of ancient authors. Witness Ovid, who in Book XV.
+of the &#8220;Metamorphoses&#8221; tells us he had seen land formed at the
+expense of the sea, and marine shells lying dead far from the ocean;
+and more than that, an ancient anchor had been found on the very
+summit of a mountain.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8">&#8220;Vidi factas ex &aelig;quore terras,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Et procul a pelago conch&aelig; jacuere marin&aelig;,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Et vetus inventa est in montibus anchora summis.&#8221;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 13em;">Ov., <i>Met.</i>, Book xv.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Danish geologist Steno, who published his principal works<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+in Italy about the middle of the seventeenth century, had deeply
+studied the fossil shells discovered in that country. The Italian
+painter Scilla produced in 1670 a Latin treatise on the fossils of
+Calabria, in which he established the organic nature of fossil
+shells.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century gave birth to two very opposite theories
+as to the origin of our globe&mdash;namely, the <i>Plutonian</i> or igneous, and
+the <i>Neptunian</i> or aqueous theory. The Italian geologists gave a
+marked impulse to the study of fossils, and the name of Vallisneri<a name="FNanchor_1"
+id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+may be cited as the author to whom science is indebted for the
+earliest account of the marine deposits of Italy, and of the most
+characteristic organic remains which they contain. Lazzaro Moro<a name="FNanchor_2"
+id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+continued the studies of Vallisneri, and the monk Gemerelli reduced
+to a complete system the ideas of these two geologists, endeavouring
+to explain all the phenomena as Vallisneri had wished, &#8220;without
+violence, without fiction, without miracles.&#8221; Marselli and Donati
+both studied in a very scientific manner the fossil shells of Italy,
+and in particular those of the Adriatic, recognising the fact that
+they affected in their beds a regular and constant order of superposition.<a name="FNanchor_3"
+id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>In France the celebrated Buffon gave, by his eloquent writings,
+great popularity to the notions of the Italian naturalists concerning
+the origin of fossil remains. In his admirable &#8220;&Eacute;poques de la
+Nature&#8221; he sought to prove that the shells found in great quantities
+buried in the soil, and even on the tops of mountains, belonged, in
+reality, to species not living in our days. But this idea was too novel
+not to find objectors: it counted among its adversaries the bold
+philosopher who might have been expected to adopt it with most
+ardour. Voltaire attacked, with his jesting and biting criticism, the
+doctrines of the illustrious innovator. Buffon insisted, reasonably
+enough, that the presence of shells on the summit of the Alps was a
+proof that the sea had at one time occupied that position. But
+Voltaire asserted that the shells found on the Alps and Apennines
+had been thrown there by pilgrims returning from Rome. Buffon
+might have replied to his opponent, by pointing out whole mountains
+formed by the accumulation of these shells. He might have sent
+him to the Pyrenees, where shells of marine origin cover immense<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+areas to a height of 6,600 feet above the present sea-level. But his
+genius was averse to controversy; and the philosopher of Ferney
+himself put an end to a discussion in which, perhaps, he would not
+have had the best of the argument. &#8220;I have no wish,&#8221; he wrote, &#8220;to
+embroil myself with Monsieur Buffon about shells.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It was reserved for the genius of George Cuvier to draw from the
+study of fossils the most wonderful results: it is the study of these
+remains, in short, which, in conjunction with mineralogy, constitutes
+in these days positive geology. &#8220;It is to fossils,&#8221; says the great
+Cuvier, &#8220;that we owe the discovery of the true theory of the earth;
+without them we should not have dreamed, perhaps, that the globe
+was formed at successive epochs, and by a series of different operations.
+They alone, in short, tell us with certainty that the globe has
+not always had the same envelope; we cannot resist the conviction
+that they must have lived on the surface of the earth before being
+buried in its depths. It is only by analogy that we have extended to
+the primary formations the direct conclusions which fossils furnish us
+with in respect to the secondary formations; and if we had only
+unfossiliferous rocks to examine, no one could maintain that the
+earth was not formed all at once.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>The method adopted by Cuvier for the reconstruction and
+restoration of the fossil animals found in the plaster-quarries of Montmartre,
+at the gates of Paris, has served as a model for all succeeding
+naturalists; let us listen, then, to his exposition of the vast problem
+whose solution he proposed to himself. &#8220;In my work on fossil
+bones,&#8221; he says, &#8220;I propose to ascertain to what animals the osseous
+fragments belong; it is seeking to traverse a road on which we have
+as yet only ventured a few steps. An antiquary of a new kind,
+it seemed to me necessary to learn both to restore these monuments
+of past revolutions, and to decipher their meaning. I had to gather
+and bring together in their primitive order the fragments of which
+they are composed; to reconstruct the ancient beings to which these
+fragments belonged; to reproduce them in their proportions and with
+their characteristics; to compare them, finally, with others now living
+on the surface of the globe: an art at present little known, and which
+supposes a science scarcely touched upon as yet, namely, that of the
+laws which preside over the co-existence of the forms of the several
+parts in organised beings. I must, then, prepare myself for these
+researches by others, still more extended, upon existing animals. A
+general review of actual creation could alone give a character of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+demonstration to my account of these ancient inhabitants of the
+world; but it ought, at the same time, to give me a great collection
+of laws, and of relations not less demonstrable, thus forming a body
+of new laws to which the whole animal kingdom could not fail to find
+itself subject.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;When the sight of a few bones inspired me, more than twenty
+years ago, with the idea of applying the general laws of comparative
+anatomy to the reconstruction and determination of fossil species;
+when I began to perceive that these species were not quite perfectly
+represented by those of our days, which resembled them the most&mdash;I
+no longer doubted that I trod upon a soil filled with spoils more
+extraordinary than any I had yet seen, and that I was destined to
+bring to light entire races unknown to the present world, and which
+had been buried for incalculable ages at great depths in the earth.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I had not yet given any attention to the published notices of
+these bones, by naturalists who made no pretension to the recognition
+of their species. To M. Vaurin, however, I owe the first intimation
+of the existence of these bones, with which the gypsum-quarries swarm.
+Some specimens which he brought me one day struck me with
+astonishment; I learned, with all the interest the discovery could
+inspire me with, that this industrious and zealous collector had
+already furnished some of them to other collectors. Received by
+these amateurs with politeness, I found in their collections much to
+confirm my hopes and heighten my curiosity. From that time I
+searched in all the quarries with great care for other bones, offering
+such rewards to the workmen as might awaken their attention. I
+soon got together more than had ever been previously collected, and
+after a few years I had nothing to desire in the shape of materials.
+But it was otherwise with their arrangement, and with the reconstruction
+of the skeleton, which could alone lead to any just idea of
+the species.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;From the first moment of discovery I perceived that, in these
+remains, the species were numerous. Soon afterwards I saw that
+they belonged to many genera, and that the species of the different
+genera were nearly the same size, so that size was likely rather to
+hinder than aid me. Mine was the case of a man to whom had been
+given at random the mutilated and imperfect remains of some
+hundreds of skeletons belonging to twenty sorts of animals; it was
+necessary that each bone should find itself alongside that to which it
+ought to be connected: it was almost like a small resurrection, and I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+had not at my disposal the all-powerful trumpet; but I had the
+immutable laws prescribed to living beings as my guide; and at the
+voice of the anatomist each bone and each part of a bone took its
+place. I have not expressions with which to describe the pleasure I
+experienced in finding that, as soon as I discovered the character of
+a bone, all the consequences of the character, more or less foreseen,
+developed themselves in succession: the feet were found conformable
+to what the teeth announced; the teeth to that announced by
+the feet; the bones of the legs, of the thighs, all those which ought
+to reunite these two extreme parts, were found to agree as I expected;
+in a word, each species was reproduced, so to speak, from only one
+of its elements.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>While the Baron Cuvier was thus zealously prosecuting his inquiries
+in France, assisted by many eminent fellow-labourers, what
+was the state of geological science in the British Islands? About
+that same time, Dr. William Smith, better known as &#8220;the father of
+English geology,&#8221; was preparing, unaided, the first geological map of
+this country. Dr. Smith was a native of Wiltshire, and a canal
+engineer in Somersetshire; his pursuits, therefore, brought him in
+the midst of these hieroglyphics of Nature. It was his practice, when
+travelling professionally, during many years to consult masons, miners,
+wagoners, and agriculturists. He examined the soil; and in the
+course of his inquiries he came to the conclusion that the earth was
+not all of the same age; that the rocks were arranged in layers, or
+strata, superimposed on each other in a certain definite order, and
+that the strata, when of the same age, could be identified by means
+of their organic remains. In 1794 he formed the plan of his geological
+map, showing the superposition of the various beds; for a
+quarter of a century did he pursue his self-allotted task, which was
+at last completed, and in 1801 was published, being the first attempt
+to construct a stratigraphical map.</p>
+
+<p>Taking the men in the order of the objects of their investigation,
+rather than in chronological order, brings before us the patient and
+sagacious investigator to whom we are indebted for our knowledge
+of the Silurian system. For many years a vast assemblage of broken
+and contorted beds had been observed on the borders of North
+Wales, stretching away to the east as far as Worcestershire, and to
+the south into Gloucester, now rising into mountains, now sinking
+into valleys. The ablest geologists considered them as a mere labyrinth
+of ruins, whose order of succession and distinctive organic remains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+were entirely unknown, &#8220;But a man came,&#8221; as M. Esquiros
+eloquently writes, &#8220;who threw light upon this sublime confusion of
+elements.&#8221; Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, then a young President
+of the Geological Society, had his attention directed, as he himself
+informs us, to some of these beds on the banks of the Wye. After
+seven years of unremitting labour, he was rewarded by success. He
+established the fact that these sedimentary rocks, penetrated here
+and there by eruptive masses of igneous origin, formed a unique
+system, to which he gave the name of <i>Silurian</i>, because the rocks
+which he considered the most typical of the whole were most fully
+developed, charged with peculiar organic remains, in the land of
+the ancient Silures, who so bravely opposed the Roman invaders
+of their country. Many investigators have followed in Sir Roderick&#8217;s
+steps, but few men have so nobly earned the honours and fame
+with which his name is associated.</p>
+
+<p>The success which attended Sir R. Murchison&#8217;s investigations
+soon attracted the attention of other geologists. Professor Sedgwick
+examined the older slaty strata, and succeeded in proving the
+position of the Cambrian rocks to be at the base of the Silurian.
+Still it was reserved for Sir William Logan, the Director of the
+Canadian Geological Survey, to establish the fact that immense
+masses of gneissic formation lay at the base of the Cambrian; and, by
+subsequent investigations, Sir Roderick Murchison satisfied himself
+that this formation was not confined to Canada, but was identical with
+the rocks termed by him Fundamental Gneiss, which exist in enormous
+masses on the west coast of Scotland, and which he proved to be the
+oldest stratified rocks in the British Isles. Subsequently he demonstrated
+the existence of these same Laurentian rocks in Bohemia and
+Bavaria, far beneath the Silurian rocks of Barrande.</p>
+
+<p>While Murchison and Sedgwick were prosecuting their inquiries
+into the Silurian rocks, Hugh Miller and many others had their
+attention occupied with the Old Red Sandstone&mdash;the Devonian of
+Sedgwick and Murchison&mdash;which immediately overlies them. After a
+youth passed in wandering among the woods and rocks of his native
+Cromarty, the day came when Miller found himself twenty years of
+age, and, for the time, a workman in a quarry. A hard fate he
+thought it at the time, but to him it was the road to fame and success
+in life. The quarry in which he laboured was at the bottom of a bay
+formed by the mouth of a river opening to the south, a clear current
+of water on one side, as he vividly described it, and a thick wood on
+the other. In this silent spot, in the remote Highlands, a curious
+fossil fish of the Old Red Sandstone was revealed to him; its
+appearance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+struck him with astonishment; a fellow-workman named a spot
+where many such monuments of a former world were scattered about;
+he visited the place, and became a geologist and the historian of the
+&#8220;Old Red.&#8221; And what strange fantastic forms did it afterwards fall
+to his lot to describe! &#8220;The figures on a China vase or Egyptian
+obelisk,&#8221; he says, &#8220;differ less from the real representation of the
+objects than the fossil fishes of the &#8216;Old Red&#8217; differ from the living
+forms which now swim in our seas.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Carboniferous Limestone</i>, which underlies the coal, the <i>Coal-measures</i>
+themselves, the <i>New Red Sandstone</i>, the <i>Lias</i>, and the
+<i>Chalk</i>, have in their turn found their historians; but it would be
+foreign to our object to dwell further here on these particular branches
+of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Some few of the fossilised beings referred to resemble species still
+found living, but the greater part belong to species which have become
+altogether extinct. These fossil remains may constitute natural
+families, none of the genera of which have survived. Such is the
+<i>Pterodactyle</i> among Pterosaurian reptiles; the <i>Ammonite</i> among
+Mollusca; the <i>Ichthyosaurus</i> and the <i>Plesiosaurus</i> among the Enaliosaurian
+reptiles. At other times there are only extinct genera, belonging
+to families of which there are still some genera now living, as
+the genus <i>Pal&aelig;oniscus</i> among fishes. Finally, in Tertiary deposits,
+we meet with some extinct species belonging to genera of our existing
+fauna: the <i>Mammoth</i>, for example, of the youngest Tertiary deposits,
+is an extinct species of the genus elephant.</p>
+
+<p>Some fossils are terrestrial, like the gigantic Irish stag, <i>Cervus
+Megaceros</i>, the snail or <i>Helix</i>; fluviatile or lacustrine, like the
+<i>Planorbis</i>, the <i>Lymn&aelig;a</i>, the <i>Physa</i>, and the <i>Unio</i>; marine, or
+inhabiting the sea exclusively, as the Cowry (<i>Cypr&aelig;a</i>), and the Oyster,
+(<i>Ostrea</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Fossils are sometimes preserved in their natural state, or are but
+very slightly changed. Such is the state of some of the bones extracted
+from the more recent caves; such, also, is the condition of
+the insects found enclosed in the fossil resins in which they have been
+preserved from decomposition; and certain shells, found in recent
+and even in old formations, such as the Jurassic and Cretaceous
+strata&mdash;in some of which the shells retain their colours, as well as
+their brilliant pearly lustre or nacre. At Trouville, in Normandy,
+in the Kimeridge strata, magnificent <i>Ammonites</i> are found in the
+clay and marl, all brilliant with the colours of mother-of-pearl. In
+the Cretaceous beds at Mach&eacute;rom&eacute;nil, some species of <i>Ancyloceras</i>
+and <i>Hamites</i> are found still covered with a nacre, displaying
+brilliant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+reflections of blue, green, and red, and retaining an admirable lustre.
+At Glos, near Liseaux, in the Coral Rag, not only the <i>Ammonites</i>, but
+the <i>Trigoni&aelig;</i> and <i>Avicul&aelig;</i> have preserved all their brilliant nacre.
+Sometimes these remains are much changed, the organic matter
+having entirely disappeared; it sometimes happens also, though
+rarely, that they become petrified, that is to say, the external form is
+preserved, but the original organic elements have wholly disappeared,
+and have been replaced by foreign mineral substances&mdash;generally by
+silica or by carbonate of lime.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a>
+<img src="images/illo022.png" alt="Fig. 1" width="500" height="381" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Labyrinthodon pachygnathus and footmarks.</p></div>
+
+<p>Geology also enables us to draw very important conclusions from
+certain fossil remains whose true nature was long misunderstood, and
+which, under the name of <i>coprolites</i>, had given rise to much controversial
+discussion. Coprolites are the petrified excrements of
+extinct fossil animals. The study of these singular remains has
+thrown unexpected light on the habits and physiological organisation
+of some of the great antediluvian animals. Their examination has
+revealed the scales and teeth of fishes, thus enabling us to determine
+the kind of food in which the animals of the ancient world indulged:
+for example, the coprolites of the great marine reptile which bears the
+name of <i>Ichthyosaurus</i> contain the bones of other animals, together
+with the remains of the vertebr&aelig;, or of the phalanges (paddle-bones)<span
+class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+of other Ichthyosauri; showing that this animal habitually fed on the
+flesh of its own species, as many fishes, especially the more voracious
+ones, do in our days.</p>
+
+<p>The imprints left upon mud or sand, which time has hardened
+and transformed into sandstone, furnish to the geologist another series
+of valuable indications. The reptiles of the ancient world, the turtles
+in particular, have left upon the sands, which time has transformed
+into blocks of stone, impressions which evidently represent the exact
+moulds of the feet of those animals. These impressions have, sometimes,
+been sufficient for naturalists to determine to what species the
+animal belonged which thus left its impress on the wet ground. Some
+of these exhibit tracks to which we shall have occasion to refer;
+others present traces of the footprints of the great reptile known as
+the <i>Labyrinthodon</i> or <i>Cheirotherium</i>, whose footmarks slightly resemble
+the impression made by the human hand (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>). Another well-known
+impression, which has been left upon the sandstone of Corncockle
+Moor, in Dumfriesshire, is supposed to be the impress of the
+foot of some great fossil Turtle.</p>
+
+<p>We may be permitted to offer a short remark on this subject.
+The historian and antiquary may traverse the battle-fields of the
+Greeks and Romans, and search in vain for traces of those conquerors,
+whose armies ravaged the world. Time, which has overthrown the
+monuments of their victories, has also effaced the marks of their footsteps;
+and of the many millions of men whose invasions have spread
+desolation throughout Europe, not even a trace of a footprint is left.
+Those reptiles, on the other hand, which crawled thousands of ages
+ago on the surface of our planet when it was still in its infancy, have
+impressed on the soil indelible proofs of their existence. Hannibal
+and his legions, the barbarians and their savage hordes, have passed
+over the land without leaving a material mark of their passage; while
+the poor turtle, which dragged itself along the silent shores of the
+primitive seas, has bequeathed to learned posterity the image and
+impression of a part of its body. These imprints may be perceived
+as distinctly on the rocks, as the traces left on moist sand or in newly-fallen
+snow by some animal walking under our own eyes. What grave
+reflections should be awakened within us at the sight of these blocks
+of hardened earth, which thus carry back our thoughts to the early
+ages of the world! and how insignificant seem the discoveries of the
+arch&aelig;ologist who throws himself into ecstacies before some piece of
+Greek or Etruscan pottery, when compared with these veritable
+antiquities of the earth!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a>
+<img src="images/illo024.jpg" alt="Fig. 2" width="400" height="325" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Impressions of rain-drops.</p></div>
+
+<p>The pal&aelig;ontologist (from &#960;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#962; &#8220;ancient,&#8221;
+&#959;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#8220;being,&#8221; &#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#962;<span
+class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+&#8220;discourse&#8221;), who occupies himself with the study of animated beings
+which have lived on the earth, takes careful account also of the
+sort of moulds left by organised bodies in the fine sediment which
+has enveloped them after death. Many organic beings have left no
+trace of their existence in Nature, except their impressions, which we
+find perfectly preserved in the sandstone and limestone, in marl or
+clay, and in the coal-measures; and these moulds are sufficient to tell
+us the kind to which the living animals belonged. We shall, no doubt,
+astonish our readers when we tell them that there are blocks of sandstone
+with distinct impressions of drops of rain which had fallen upon
+sea-shores of the ancient world. The impressions of these rain-drops,
+made upon the sands, were preserved by desiccation; and these same
+sands, being transformed by subsequent hardening into solid and
+coherent sandstones, their impressions have been thus preserved to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+the present day. <a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a> represents impressions of this kind upon the
+sandstone of Connecticut river in America, which have been reproduced
+from the block itself by photography. In a depression of the
+granitic rocks of Massachusetts and Connecticut, the red sandstone
+occupies an area of a hundred and fifty miles in length from north to
+south, and from five to ten miles in breadth. &#8220;On some shales of the
+finest texture,&#8221; says Sir Charles Lyell, &#8220;impressions of rain-drops may
+be seen, and casts of them in the argillaceous sandstones.&#8221; The
+same impressions occur in the recent red mud of the Bay of Fundy.
+In addition to these, the undulations left by the passage of the waters
+of the sea, over the sands of the primitive world, are preserved by the
+same physical agency. Traces of undulations of this kind have been
+found in the neighbourhood of Boulogne-sur-Mer, and elsewhere.
+Similar phenomena occur in a still more striking manner in some
+sandstone-quarries worked at Chalindrey (Haute-Marne). The strata
+there present traces of the same kind over a large area, and along
+with them impressions of the excrements of marine worms. One may
+almost imagine oneself to be standing on the sea-shore while the tide
+is ebbing.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Chemical and Nebular Hypotheses of the Globe.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Among the innumerable hypotheses which human ingenuity has
+framed to explain the phenomena which surround the globe, the two
+which have found most ready acceptance have been termed respectively
+the <span class="smcap">Chemical</span>, and the <span class="smcap">Nebular</span> or mechanical hypothesis.
+By the first the solid crust is supposed to have contained abundance
+of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and other metallic elements.
+The percolating waters, coming in contact with these substances,
+produce combinations resulting in the conversion of the
+metals into their oxides&mdash;potash, soda, lime, and magnesia&mdash;all of
+which enter largely into the composition of volcanic rocks. The
+second hypothesis involves the idea of an original incandescent mass
+of vapour, succeeded by a great and still existing central fire.</p>
+
+<p>This idea of a great central fire is a very ancient hypothesis:
+admitted by Descartes, developed by Leibnitz, and advocated by
+Buffon, it is supposed to account for many phenomena otherwise inexplicable;
+and it is confirmed by a crowd of facts, and adopted, or at
+least not opposed, by the leading authorities of the age. Dr. Buckland
+makes it the basis of his Bridgewater treatise. Herschel, Hind, Murchison,
+Lyell, Phillips, and other leading English astronomers and
+geologists give a cautious adhesion to the doctrine. The following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+are some of the principal arguments adduced in support of the
+hypothesis, for, in the nature of the proofs it admits of, it can be
+no more.</p>
+
+<p>When we descend into the interior of a mine, it is found that the
+temperature rises in an appreciable manner, and that it increases with
+the depth below the surface.</p>
+
+<p>The high temperature of the waters in Artesian wells when these
+are very deep, testifies to a great heat of the interior of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The thermal waters which issue from the earth&mdash;of which the
+temperature sometimes rises to 100&deg; Centigrade and upwards&mdash;as,
+for instance, the Geysers of Iceland&mdash;furnish another proof in support
+of the hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>Modern volcanoes are said to be a visible demonstration of the
+existence of central heat. The heated gases, the liquid lava, the
+flames which escape from their craters, all tend to prove sufficiently
+that the interior of the globe has a temperature prodigiously elevated
+as compared with that at its surface.</p>
+
+<p>The disengagement of gases and burning vapours through the
+accidental fissures in the crust, which accompany earthquakes, still
+further tends to establish the existence of a great heat in the interior
+of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>We have already said that the temperature of the globe increases
+about one degree for every sixty or seventy feet of depth beneath its
+surface. The correctness of this observation has been verified in a
+great number of instances&mdash;indeed, to the greatest depth to which
+man has penetrated, and been able to make use of the thermometer.
+Now, as we know exactly the length of the radius of the terrestrial
+sphere, it has been calculated from this progression of temperature,
+supposing it to be regular and uniform, that the centre of the globe
+ought to have at the present time a mean temperature of 195,000&deg;
+Centigrade. No matter could preserve its solid state at this excessive
+temperature; it follows, then, that the centre of the globe,
+and all parts near the centre, must be in a permanent state of
+fluidity.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Werner, of Hutton, of Leopold von Buch, of Humboldt,
+of Cordier, W. Hopkins, Buckland, and some other English
+philosophers, have reduced this hypothesis to a theory, on which has
+been based, to a considerable extent, the whole science of modern
+geology; although, properly speaking, and in the popular acceptation
+of the term, that science only deals with the solid crust of
+the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The nebular theory thus embraces the whole solar system, and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+by analogy, the universe. It assumes that the <span class="smcap">sun</span> was originally a
+mass of incandescent matter, that vast body being brought into a
+state of evolution by the action of laws to which the Creator, in His
+divine wisdom, has subjected all matter. In consequence of its
+immense expansion and attenuation, the exterior zone of vapour,
+expanding beyond the sphere of attraction, is supposed to have been
+thrown off by centrifugal force. This zone of vapour, which may
+be supposed at one time to have resembled the rings of Saturn, would
+in time break up into several masses, and these masses coalescing
+into globes, would (by the greater power of attraction which they
+would assume as consolidated bodies) revolve round the sun, and,
+from mechanical considerations, would also revolve with a rotary
+motion on their own axes.</p>
+
+<p>This doctrine is applied to all the planets, and assumes each to
+have been in a state of incandescent vapour, with a central incandescent
+nucleus. As the cooling went on, each of these bodies may
+be supposed to have thrown off similar masses of vapour, which, by
+the operation of the same laws, would assume the rotary state,
+and, as satellites, revolve round the parent planet. Such, in brief,
+was the grand conception of Laplace; and surely it detracts nothing
+from our notions of the omnipotence of the Creator that it initiates the
+creation step by step, and under the laws to which matter is subjected,
+rather than by the direct fiat of the Almighty. The hypothesis
+assumes that as the vaporous mass cooled by the radiation of heat
+into space, the particles of matter would approximate and solidify.</p>
+
+<p>That the figure of the earth is such as a very large mass of
+matter in a state of fluidity would assume from a state of rotation,
+seems to be admitted, thus corroborating the speculations of Leibnitz,
+that the earth is to be looked on as a heated fluid globe, cooled, and
+still cooling at the surface, by radiation of its superfluous heat into
+space. Mr. W. Hopkins<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+has put forth some strong but simple
+reasons in support of a different theory; although he does not attempt
+to solve the problem, but leaves the reader to form his own conclusions.
+As far as we have been able to follow his reasoning we
+gather from it that:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>If the earth were a fluid mass cooled by radiation, the cooled
+parts would, by the laws of circulating fluids, descend towards the
+centre, and be replaced on the surface by matter at a higher
+temperature.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>The consolidation of such a mass would, therefore, be accompanied
+by a struggle for superiority between pressure and temperature,
+both of which would be at their maximum at the centre of the mass.</p>
+
+<p>At the surface, it would be a question of rapidity of cooling, by
+radiation, as compared with the internal condition&mdash;for comparing
+which relations we are without data; but on the result of which
+depends whether such a body would most rapidly solidify at the
+surface by radiation, or at the centre by pressure.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of the first would be solidification at the surface, followed
+by condensation at the centre through pressure. There would
+thus be two masses, a spherical fluid nucleus, and a spherical shell or
+envelope, with a large zone of semi-fluid, pasty matter between, continually
+changing its temperature as its outer or inner surface became
+converted to the solid state.</p>
+
+<p>If pressure, on the other hand, gained the victory, the centre
+would solidify before the circulation of the heated matter had ceased;
+and the solidifying process would proceed through a large portion of
+the globe, and even approach the surface before that would become
+solid. In other words, solidification would proceed from the centre
+until the diminishing power of pressure was balanced by radiation,
+when the gradual abstraction of heat would allow the particles to
+approximate and become solid.</p>
+
+<p>The terrestrial sphere may thus be a solid indurated mass at the
+centre, with a solid stony crust at the surface, and a shifting viscous,
+but daily-decreasing, mass between the two; a supposition which the
+diminished and diminishing frequency and magnitude of volcanic
+and other eruptive convulsions seem to render not improbable.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed that amongst the various hypotheses of
+which the cosmogony of the world has been the object, a literal
+acceptation of the scriptural account finds no defenders among men
+of science. &#8220;Why,&#8221; asks one of these
+writers,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> after some scornful
+remarks upon the geologists and their science&mdash;&#8220;why an omnipotent
+Creator should have called into being a gaseous-granite nebulous
+world, only to have to cool it down again, consisting as it does of an
+endless variety of substances, should even have been supposed to be
+originally constituted of the matter of granite alone, for nothing else
+was provided by the theory, nobody can rationally explain. How
+the earth&#8217;s centre now could be liquid fire with its surface solid and
+cold and its seas not boiling caldrons, has never been attempted to
+be accounted for. How educated gentlemen, engaged in scientific<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+investigations, ever came to accept such a monstrously stupid mass of
+absurdities as deductions of &#8216;science,&#8217; and put them in comparison
+with the rational account of the creation given by Moses, is more
+difficult to understand than even this vague theory itself, which it is
+impossible to describe.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Of the first creation of the chaotic world,&#8221; the same writer goes
+on to say, &#8220;or the material elements, before they were shaped into
+their present forms, we can scarce have the most vague conception.
+All our experience relates to their existing conditions. But knowing
+somewhat of the variety of the constituent elements and their distinct
+properties, by which they manifest their existence to us, we cannot
+conceive of their creation without presupposing a Divine wisdom,
+and&mdash;if I may say so, with all reverence, and only to suit our human
+notions&mdash;a Divine ingenuity,&#8221; and he follows for six days the operations
+as described by Moses, with a running comment. When light
+is created, the conception of the work becomes simpler to our minds.
+Its least manifestation would suffice at once to dispel darkness, and
+yet how marvellous is the light! In the second day&#8217;s work the
+firmament of heaven is opened; the expanse of the air between the
+heavens and the earth, dividing the waters above from the waters
+below, is the work recorded as performed. Not till the third day commence
+the first geological operations. The waters of the earth are
+gathered together into seas, and the dry land is made to appear. It
+is now that we can imagine that the formation of the primary strata
+commenced, while by some of the internal forces of matter the earth
+was elevated and stood above the waters.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately the dry land is raised above and separated from the
+waters the fiat goes forth, &#8220;Let the earth <i>bring forth</i> grass, and
+herb and tree;&#8221; vegetable life begins to exist, and the world is first
+decorated with its beauteous flora, with all its exquisite variety of forms
+and brilliancy of colouring, with which not even Solomon in all his
+glory can compare. In like manner, on the sixth day the earth is
+commanded to bring forth land-animals&mdash;the living creature &#8220;after
+his kind,&#8221; cattle and creeping thing, and beast of the earth, &#8220;after his
+kind;&#8221; and last of all, but on the same day, man is created, and
+made the chief and monarch of God&#8217;s other living creatures&mdash;for
+that is &#8220;man&#8217;s place in Nature.&#8221; &#8220;Let us now see,&#8221; he continues,
+&#8220;how this history came to be discredited by the opposition of a falsely
+so-called &#8216;science&#8217; of geology, that, while spared by our theologians,
+has since pulled itself to pieces. The first step in the false inductions
+geology made arose from the rash deduction, that the order in which
+the fossil remains of organic being were found deposited in the various<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+strata necessarily determined the order of their creation; and the next
+error arose from blindly rushing to rash conclusions, and hasty
+generalisation from a very limited number of facts, and the most imperfect
+investigations. There were also (and, indeed, are still) some
+wild dogmatisms as to the time necessary to produce certain geologic
+formations; but the absurdities of science culminated when it adopted
+from Laplace the irrational and unintelligible theory of a <i>natural</i>
+origin for the world from a nebula of gaseous granite, intensely hot,
+and supposed to be gradually cooled while gyrating senselessly in
+space.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In this paper the writer does not attempt to deal with the various
+phenomena of volcanoes, earthquakes, hot springs, and other matters
+which are usually considered as proofs of great internal heat. Mr.
+Evan Hopkins, C.E., F.G.S., is more precise if less eloquent. He
+shows that, in tropical countries, plains of gravel may in a day be
+converted into lagoons and marshes; that by the fall of an avalanche
+rivers have been blocked up, which, bursting their banks, have covered
+many square miles of fertile country with several feet of mud, sand,
+and gravel. &#8220;Two thousand four hundred years ago,&#8221; he says,
+&#8220;Nineveh flourished in all its grandeur, yet it is now buried in
+oblivion, and its site overwhelmed with sand. Look at old Tyre, once
+the queen of cities and mistress of the sea. She was in all her pride
+two thousand four hundred and forty years ago. We now see but a
+bare rock in the sea, on which fishermen spread their nets! A thousand
+years ago, according to Icelandic histories, Greenland was a fertile
+land in the south, and supported a large population. Iceland at that
+period was covered with forests of birch and fir, and the inhabitants
+cultivated barley and other grain. We may, therefore, conclude, with
+these facts before us, that there is no necessity to assign myriads of
+ages to terrestrial changes, as assumed by geologists, as they can be
+accounted for by means of alterations effected during a few thousand
+years, for the surface of the earth is ever changing.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Grant geological speculators,&#8221; Mr. Hopkins continues, &#8220;a few
+millions of centuries, with a command over the agencies of Nature to
+be brought into operation when and how they please, and they think
+they can form a world with every variety of rock and vegetation, and
+even transform a worm into a man! Yet the wisest of our philosophers
+would be puzzled if called upon to explain why fluids become
+spheres, as dew-drops; why carbonate of lime acquires in solidifying
+from a liquid the figure of an obtuse rhomboihedron, silica of a six-sided
+prism; and why oxygen and hydrogen gases produce both <i>fire</i>
+and <i>water</i>. And what do they gain,&#8221; he proceeds to ask, &#8220;by
+carrying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+back the history of the world to these myriads of centuries? Do they,
+by the extension of the period to infinity, explain how the &#8216;<i>Original</i>&#8217;
+materials were created? But,&#8221; he adds, &#8220;geologists are by no means
+agreed in their assumed geological periods! The so-called glacial
+period has been computed by some to be equal to about eighty-three
+thousand years, and by others at even as much as twelve hundred and
+eighty millions of years! Were we to ask for a <i>demonstrative proof</i> of
+any given deposit being more than four or five thousand years old, they
+could not give it. Where is Babylon, the glory of the kingdoms? Look
+at Thebes, and behold its colossal columns, statues, temples, obelisks,
+and palaces desolated; and yet those great cities flourished within the
+last three thousand years. Even Pompeii and Herculaneum were all
+but lost to history! What,&#8221; he asks after these brief allusions to the
+past&mdash;&#8220;what, as a matter of fact, have geologists discovered, as regards
+the great terrestrial changes, more than was known to Pythagoras
+and the ancient philosophers who taught, two thousand three hundred
+and fifty years ago, &#8216;that the surface of the earth was ever changing&mdash;solid
+land converted into sea, sea changed into dry land, marine shells
+lying far distant from the deep, valleys excavated by running water,
+and floods washing down hills into the sea?&#8217;&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In reference to the argument of the vast antiquity of the earth,
+founded on elevation of coasts at a given rate of upheaval, he adduces
+many facts to show that upheavals of equal extent have occurred
+almost within the memory of man. Two hundred and fifty years ago
+Sir Francis Drake, with his fleet, sailed into Albemarle Sound through
+Roanoke Outlet, which is now a sand-bank above the reach of the
+highest tides. Only seventy years ago it was navigable by vessels
+drawing twelve feet of water. The whole American coast, both on
+the Atlantic and Pacific, have undergone great changes within the last
+hundred years. The coast of South America has, in some places,
+been upheaved twenty feet in the last century; in others, a few
+hundred miles distant, it has been depressed to an equal extent. A
+transverse section from Rio Santa Cruz to the base of the Cordilleras,
+and another in the Rio Negro, in Patagonia, showed that the whole
+sedimentary series is of recent origin. Scattered over the whole at
+various heights above the sea, from thirteen hundred feet downwards,
+are found recent shells of <i>littoral</i> species of the neighbouring coast&mdash;denoting
+upheavals which might have been effected during the last
+three thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>Coming nearer home, he shows that in 1538 the whole coast of
+Pozzuoli, near Naples, was raised twenty feet in a single night.
+Then, with regard to more compact crystalline or semi-crystalline<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+rocks, no reliable opinion can be formed on mere inspection. Two
+blocks of marble may appear precisely alike, though formed at
+different periods. A crystal of carbonate of lime, formed in a few
+years, would be found quite perfect, and as compact as a crystal
+formed during many centuries. Nothing can be deduced from the
+process of petrifaction and crystallisation, unless they enclose relics
+of a known period. At San Filippo, a solid mass of limestone
+thirty feet thick has been formed in about twenty years. A hard
+stratum of travertine a foot thick is obtained, from these thermal
+springs, in the course of four months. Nor can geologists demonstrate
+that the Amiens deposits, in which the flint-implements occur,
+are more than three or four thousand years old.</p>
+
+<p>The causes of these changes and mutations are referred by some
+persons to floods, or to pre-Adamite convulsions, whereas the
+cause is in constant operation; they are due to an invisible and
+subtle power which pervades the air, the ocean, and the rocks below&mdash;in
+which all are wrapped and permeated&mdash;which is universally
+present, namely, magnetism&mdash;a power always in operation, always in
+a state of activity and tension. It has an attractive power towards
+the surface of the earth, as well as a directive action from pole to
+pole. &#8220;It is, indeed,&#8221; he adds, emphatically, &#8220;the <i>terrestrial gravitation</i>.
+Magnetic needles freely suspended show its meridional or
+directive polar force, and that the force converges at two opposite
+parts, which are bounded by the Antarctic and Arctic circles.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This polar force, like a stream, is constantly moving from pole to
+pole; and experiment proves that this movement is from the South
+Pole to the North. &#8220;Hence the various terrestrial substances, solids
+and fluids, through which this subtle and universal power permeates,
+are controlled, propelled, and modified over the entire surface of our
+globe, commencing at the south and dissolving at the north. Thus,
+all terrestrial matter moves towards the Arctic region, and finally
+disappears by dissolution and absorption, to be renewed again and
+again in the Antarctic Sea to the end of time.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In order to prove that the north polar basin is the receptacle of
+the final dissolution of all terrestrial substances, Mr. Hopkins quotes
+the Gulf Stream. Bottles, tropical plants, and wrecks cast into the
+sea in the South Atlantic, are carried to Greenland in a comparatively
+short time. The great <i>tidal</i> waves commence at the fountain-head in
+the Antarctic circle, impinge against the south coast of Tierra del
+Fuego, New Zealand, and Tasmania, and are then propelled northward
+in a series of undulations. The South Atlantic stream, after
+doubling the Cape of Good Hope, moves towards the Guinea coast,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+bends towards the Caribbean Sea, producing the trade winds; again
+leaves Florida as the Gulf Stream, and washes the coasts of Greenland
+and Norway, and finally reaches the north polar basin.</p>
+
+<p>Again the great polar force shows itself in the arrangement of the
+mineral structure below. In all the primary rocks in every quarter of
+the globe where they have been examined, its action is recognised in
+giving to the crystalline masses&mdash;granites and their laminated elongations&mdash;a
+polar grain and vertical cleavage. &#8220;Had it been possible to
+see our globe stripped of its sedimentary deposits and its oceanic
+covering, we should see it like a gigantic melon, with a uniform
+grain extending from pole to pole.&#8221; This structure appears to give
+polarity to earthquakes&mdash;thermal waters and earthquakes&mdash;which are
+all traceable in the direction of the polar grain or cleavage from north
+to south.</p>
+
+<p>In England, for instance, thermal and saline springs are traceable
+from Bath, through Cheltenham, to Dudley. In Central France,
+mineral springs occur in lines, more or less, north and south. All
+the known salt-springs in South America occur in meridional bands.
+Springs of chloride of sodium in the Eastern Cordilleras stretch
+from Pinceima to the Llanoes de Meta, a distance of 200 miles.
+The most productive metalliferous deposits are found in meridional
+bands. The watery volcanoes in South America are generally situated
+along the lines of the meridional splits and the secondary eruptive
+pores on the transverse fractures. The sudden ruptures arising
+locally from increasing tension of the polar force, and the rapid
+expansion of the generated gases, produce a vibratory jar in the
+rocky structure below, which being propagated along the planes of
+the polar cleavage, gives rise to great superficial oscillations, and
+thus causes earthquakes and subterranean thunder for thousands of
+miles, from south to north.</p>
+
+<p>In 1797, the district round the volcano of Tunguraqua in Quito,
+during one of the great meridional shocks, experienced an undulating
+movement, which lasted upwards of four minutes, and this was
+propagated to the shores of the Caribbean Sea.</p>
+
+<p>All these movements demonstrated, according to Mr. Hopkins,
+that the land as well as the ocean moves from the south pole and
+north pole, and that the magnetic power has a tendency to proceed
+from pole to pole in a <i>spiral</i> path from south-east to north-west, a
+movement which produces an apparent change in the equinoxes, or
+the outer section of the plane of the ecliptic with the equator, a
+phenomenon known to astronomers as the precession of the
+equinoxes.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>Such is a very brief summary of the arguments by which Mr. Evan
+Hopkins maintains the literal correctness of the Mosaic account of
+the creation, and attempts to show that all the facts discovered by
+geologists may have occurred in the ages included in the Mosaic
+chronology.</p>
+
+<p>That the mysterious power of terrestrial magnetism can perform
+all that he claims for it, we can perhaps admit. But how does
+this explain the succession of Silurian, Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous
+and other strata, up to the Tertiary deposits, with their
+fossils, each differing in character from those of the preceding series?
+That these were successive creations admits of no doubt, and while it
+is undeniable that the fiat of the Creator could readily produce all
+these phenomena, it may reasonably be asked if it is probable that
+all these myriads of organic beings, whose remains serve as records
+of their existence, were created only to be immediately destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Again, does not the author of the &#8220;Principles of Terrestrial
+Physics&#8221; prove too much? He admits that 3,000 years ago the
+climate of England was tropical: he does not deny that a subsequent
+period of intense cold intervened, 2,550 years ago. He
+admits historical records, and 2,350 years ago Pythagoras constructed
+his cosmography of the world, which has never been seriously impugned;
+and yet he has no suspicion that countries so near to his
+own had changed their climates first from tropical to glacial, and
+back again to a temperate zone. It is not reasonable to believe this
+parable.</p>
+
+<p>The school of philosophy generally considered to be the most
+advanced in modern science has yet another view of cosmogony, of
+which we venture to give a brief outline. Space is infinite, says the
+exponent of this system,<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9"
+class="fnanchor">[9]</a> for wherever in imagination we erect a
+boundary, we are compelled to think of space as existing beyond
+it. The starry heavens proclaim that it is not entirely void; but the
+question remains, are the vast regions which surround the stars, and
+across which light is propagated, absolutely empty? No. Modern
+science, while it rejects the notion of the luminiferous particles of the
+old philosophy, has cogent proofs of the existence of a luminiferous
+ether with definite mechanical properties. It is infinitely more attenuated,
+but more solid than gas. It resembles jelly rather than
+air, and if not co-extensive with space, it extends as far as the most
+distant star the telescope reveals to us; it is the vehicle of their light
+in fact; it takes up their molecular tremors and conveys them with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+inconceivable rapidity to our organs of vision. The splendour of
+the firmament at night is due to this vibration. If this ether has a
+boundary, masses of ponderable matter may exist beyond it, but
+they could emit no light. Dark suns may burn there, metals may be
+heated to fusion in invisible furnaces, planets may be molten amid
+intense darkness; for the loss of heat being simply the abstraction of
+molecular motion by the ether, where this medium is absent no
+cooling could take place.</p>
+
+<p>This, however, does not concern us; as far as our knowledge of
+space extends, we are to conceive of it as the holder of this luminiferous
+ether, through which the fixed stars are interspersed at
+enormous distances apart. Associated with our planet we have a
+group of dark planetary masses revolving at various distances around
+it, each rotating on its axis; and, connected with them, their moons.
+Was space furnished at once, by the fiat of Omnipotence, with these
+burning orbs? The man of science should give no answer to this
+question: but he has better materials to guide him than anybody
+else, and can clearly show that the present state of things <i>may</i> be
+derivative. He can perhaps assign reasons which render it probable
+that it <i>is derivative</i>. The law of gravitation enunciated by Newton
+is, that every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other
+particle with a force which diminishes as the square of the distance
+increases. Under this law a stone falls to the ground, and heat is
+produced by the shock; meteors plunge into the atmosphere and
+become incandescent; showers of such doubtless fall incessantly
+upon the sun, and were it stopped in its orbit, the earth would rush
+towards the sun, developing heat in the collision (according to the
+calculations of MM. Joule, Mayer, Helmholtz, and Thomson), equal
+to the combustion of five thousand worlds of solid coal. In the
+attraction of gravity, therefore, acting upon this luminous matter, we
+have a source of heat more powerful than could be derived from any
+terrestrial combustion.</p>
+
+<p>To the above conception of space we must add that of its being
+in a continual state of tremor. The sources of vibration are the
+ponderable masses of the universe. Our own planet is an aggregate
+of solids, liquids, and gases. On closer examination, these are found
+to be composed of still more elementary parts: the water of our rivers
+is formed by the union, in definite proportions, of two gases, oxygen
+and hydrogen. So, likewise, our chalk hills are formed by a combination
+of carbon, oxygen, and calcium; elements which in definite
+proportions form chalk. The flint found within that chalk is compounded
+of oxygen and silicon, and our ordinary clay is for the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+part formed by a union of silicon, oxygen, and aluminum. By far
+the greater part of the earthy crust is thus compounded of a few
+elementary substances.</p>
+
+<p>Such is Professor Tyndall&#8217;s view of the universe, rising incidentally
+out of his theory of heat, his main object being to elucidate his
+theory of heat and light.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Modifications of the Surface of the Globe.</span></h3>
+
+<p>As a consequence of the hypothesis of central heat, it is admitted
+that our planet has been agitated by a series of local disturbances;
+that is to say, by ruptures of its solid crust occurring at more or less
+distant intervals. These partial revolutions at the surface are supposed
+to have been produced, as we shall have occasion to explain,
+by upheavals or depressions of the solid crust, resulting from the
+fluidity of the central parts, and by the cooling down of the external
+crust of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all bodies, in passing from a liquid to a solid state, are
+diminished in size in the process. In molten metals which resume
+the solid state by cooling, this diminution amounts to about a tenth
+of their volume; but the decrease in size is not equal throughout the
+whole mass. Hence, as a result of the solidification of the internal
+parts of the globe, the outer envelope would be too large; and would
+no longer fit the inner sphere, which had contracted in cooling.
+Cracks and hollows occur under such circumstances, even in small
+masses, and the effect of converting such a vast body as the earth
+from a liquid, or rather molten condition, to a solid state, may be
+imagined. As the interior became solid and concrete by cooling,
+furrows, corrugations, and depressions in the external crust of the
+globe would occur, causing great inequalities in its surface; producing,
+in short, what are now called <i>chains of mountains</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At other times, in lieu of furrows and irregularities, the solid crust
+has become ruptured, producing fissures and fractures in the outer
+envelope, sometimes of immense extent. The liquid substances contained
+in the interior of the globe, with or without the action of the
+gases they enclose, escape through these openings; and, accumulating
+on the surface, become, on cooling and consolidating, <i>mountains</i> of
+various heights.</p>
+
+<p>It would also happen, and always from the same cause, namely,
+from the internal contraction caused by the unequal cooling of the
+globe, that minor fissures would be formed in the earth&#8217;s crust; incandescent
+liquid matter would be afterwards injected into these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+fissures, filling them up, and forming in the rocky crust those long
+narrow lines of foreign substances which we call <i>dykes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, it would occasionally happen, that in place of molten
+matter, such as granite or metalliferous compounds, escaping through
+these fractures and fissures in the globe, actual rivers of boiling water,
+abundantly charged with various mineral salts (that is to say, with
+silicates, and with calcareous and magnesian compounds), would also
+escape, since the elements of water would be abundant in the incandescent
+mass. Added to these the chemical and mechanical action
+of the atmosphere, of rain, rivers, and the sea, have all a tendency to
+destroy the hardest rocks. The mineral salts and other foreign
+substances, entering into combination with those already present in
+the waters of the sea, and separating at a subsequent period from these
+waters, would be thrown down, and thus constitute extensive deposits&mdash;that
+is to say, <i>sedimentary formations</i>. These became, on consolidation,
+the <i>sedimentary rocks</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The furrows, corrugations, and fractures in the terrestrial crust,
+which so changed the aspect of the surface, and for the time displaced
+the sea-basins, would be followed by periods of calm. During
+these periods, the d&eacute;bris, torn by the movement of the waters from
+certain points of the land, would be transported to other parts of the
+globe by the oceanic currents. These accumulated heterogeneous
+materials, when deposited at a later period, would ultimately constitute
+formations&mdash;that is, <i>transported or drifted rocks</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We have ventured to explain some of the theories by which it is
+sought to explain the cosmography of the world. But our readers
+must understand that all such speculations are, of necessity, purely
+hypothetical.</p>
+
+<p>In conformity with the preceding considerations we shall divide
+the mineral substances of which the earth is composed into three
+general groups, under the following heads:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Eruptive Rocks.</i>&mdash;Crystalline, like the second, but formed at all
+geological periods by the irruption or intrusion of the liquid matter occupying
+the interior of our globe through all the pre-existing rocks.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Crystalline Rocks.</i>&mdash;That portion of the terrestrial crust which
+was primarily liquid, owing to the heat of the globe, but which
+solidified at the period of its first cooling down; forming the masses
+known as Fundamental Gneiss, and Laurentian, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Sedimentary Rocks.</i>&mdash;Consisting of various mineral substances
+deposited by the water of the sea, such as silica, the carbonates of
+lime and magnesia, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>The
+mineral masses which constitute the <i>sedimentary rocks</i> form
+beds, or <i>strata</i>, having among themselves a constant order of superposition
+which indicates their relative age. The mineral structure of
+these beds, and the remains of the organised beings they contain,
+impress on them characters which enable us to distinguish each bed
+from that which precedes and follows it.</p>
+
+<p>It does not follow, however, that all these beds are met with,
+regularly superimposed, over the whole surface of the globe; under
+such circumstances geology would be a very simple science, only
+requiring the use of the eyes. In consequence of the frequent eruptions
+of granite, porphyry, serpentine, trachyte, basalt, and lava, these
+beds are often broken, cut off, and replaced by others.</p>
+
+<p><i>Denudation</i> has been another fruitful source of change. Professor
+Ramsay<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10"
+class="fnanchor">[10]</a> shows, in the &#8220;Memoirs of the Geological Survey,&#8221; that
+beds once existed above a great part of the Mendip Hills to the
+extent of at least 6,000 feet, which have been removed by the
+denuding agency of the sea; while in South Wales and the adjacent
+country, a series of Palaeozoic rocks, eleven thousand feet in thickness,
+has been removed by the action of water. In fact, every foot
+of the earth now forming the dry land is supposed to have been at
+one time under water&mdash;to have emerged, and to have been again submerged,
+and subjected to the destructive action of the ocean. At
+certain points a whole series of sedimentary deposits, and often several
+of them, have been removed by this cause, known by geologists as
+<i>Denudation</i>. The regular series of rock formations are, in fact, rarely
+found in unbroken order. It is only by combining the collected observations
+of the geologists of all countries, that we are enabled to arrange,
+according to their relative ages, the several beds composing the solid
+terrestrial crust as they occur in the following Table, which proceeds
+from the surface towards the centre, in descending order:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h4>ORDER OF STRATIFICATION.</h4>
+
+<table class="fsize80 coll" summary="Table p. 28">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr3">Quaternary Epoch</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Modern Period.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padr3">Tertiary Epoch</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bl bt"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Pliocene Period.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bl"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Miocene Period.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bl bb"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Eocene Period.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padr3">Secondary Epoch</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bl bt"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Cretaceous Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bl"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Jurassic Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bl bb"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Triassic Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padr3">Primary Epoch</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bl bt"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Permian Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bl"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Carboniferous Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bl"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Devonian Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bl bb"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Silurian Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padr3">Metamorphic Series</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bl bt"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Cambrian Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bl bb"></td>
+<td class="left padl1">Fundamental Gneiss, or Laurentian.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>Under
+these heads we propose to examine the successive transformations
+to which the earth has been subjected in reaching its
+present condition; in other words, we propose, both from an historical
+and descriptive point of view, to take a survey of the several
+<i>epochs</i> which can be distinguished in the gradual formation of the
+earth, corresponding with the formation of the great groups of rocks
+enumerated in the preceding table. We shall describe the living
+creatures which have peopled the earth at each of these epochs, and
+which have disappeared, from causes which we shall also endeavour
+to trace. We shall describe the plants belonging to each great phase
+in the history of the globe. At the same time, we shall not pass over
+entirely in silence the rocks deposited by the waters, or thrown up by
+eruption during these periods; we propose, also, to give a summary
+of the mineralogical characters and of the fossils characteristic of, or
+peculiar to each formation. What we propose, in short, is to give a
+history of the formation of the globe, and a description of the principal
+rocks which actually compose it; and to take also a rapid glance
+at the several generations of animals and plants which have succeeded
+and replaced each other on the earth, from the very beginning of
+organic life up to the time of man&#8217;s appearance.</p>
+
+<hr class="footnote" />
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Dei corpi marini, &amp;c., 1721.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Sui crostaccei ed altri corpi marini
+che s&egrave; trovano sui monti, 1740.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Consult Lyell&#8217;s
+&#8220;Principles of Geology&#8221; and the sixth edition of the
+&#8220;Elements,&#8221; with much new matter, for further information relative to the study
+of fossils during the last two centuries.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> &#8220;Ossements Fossiles&#8221;
+(4to), vol. i., p. 29.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> &#8220;Ossements Fossiles&#8221;
+(4to), vol. i., pp. 1, 2.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> &#8220;Ossements Fossiles,&#8221;
+vol. iv. (4to), p. 32.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See <i>Phil. Transactions</i>,
+1839-40-42; also, <i>Quarterly Journal of the Geological
+Society</i>, vol. viii., p. 56.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> &#8220;Fresh Springs of
+Truth.&#8221; R. Griffin and Co.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Professor Tyndall in <i>Fortnightly
+Review</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> &#8220;Memoirs of the Geological
+Survey of Great Britain,&#8221; vol. i., p. 297.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></p>
+<h2>ERUPTIVE ROCKS.</h2>
+
+<p>Nothing is more difficult than to write a chronological history of the
+revolutions and changes to which the earth has been subjected during
+the ages which preceded the historic times. The phenomena which
+have concurred to fashion its enormous mass, and to give to it its
+present form and structure, are so numerous, so varied, and sometimes
+so nearly simultaneous in their action, that the records defy the
+powers of observation to separate them. The deposition of the sedimentary
+rocks has been subject to interruption during all ages of the
+world. Violent igneous eruptions have penetrated the sedimentary
+beds, elevating them in some places, depressing them in others, and
+in all cases disturbing their order of superposition, and ejecting masses
+of crystalline rocks from the incandescent centre to the surface.
+Amidst these perturbations, sometimes stretching over a vast extent
+of country, anything like a rigorous chronological record becomes
+impossible, for the phenomena are so continuous and complex that
+it is no longer possible to distinguish the fundamental from the
+accidental and secondary causes.</p>
+
+<p>In order to render the subject somewhat clearer, the great facts
+relative to the progressive formation of the terrestrial globe are
+divided into epochs, during which the sedimentary rocks were formed
+in due order in the seas of the ancient world, the mud and sand in
+which were deposited day by day. Again, even where the line of
+demarcation is clearest between one formation and another, it must
+not be supposed there is any sharply defined line of separation
+between them. On the contrary, one system gradually merges into
+that which succeeds it. The rocks and fossils of the one gradually
+disappear, to be succeeded by those of the overlying series in the
+regular order of succession. The newly-made strata became the
+cemetery of the myriads of beings which lived and died in the bosom
+of the ocean. The rocks thus deposited were called <i>Neptunian</i> by
+the older geologists.</p>
+
+<p>But while the seas of each epoch were thus building up, grain by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+grain, and bed by bed, the new formation out of the ruins of the older,
+other influences were at work, sometimes, to all appearance, impeding
+sometimes advancing, the great work. The <i>Plutonic rocks</i>&mdash;the
+<i>igneous or eruptive rocks</i> of modern geology, as we have seen above,
+were the great disturbing agents, and these disturbances occur in
+every age of the earth&#8217;s history. We shall have occasion to speak of
+these eruptive formations while describing the phenomena of the several
+epochs. But it is thought that the narrative will be made clearer and
+more instructive by grouping this class of phenomena into one
+chapter, which we place at the commencement, inasmuch as the constant
+reference to the eruptive rocks will thus be rendered more
+intelligible. To these are now added the section &#8220;Metamorphic
+Rocks,&#8221; from the fifth edition of the French work.</p>
+
+<p>The rocks which issued from the centre of the earth in a state of
+fusion are found associated or interstratified with masses of every epoch,
+more especially with those of the more ancient strata. The formations
+which these rocks have originated possess great interest; first, because
+they enter into the composition of the terrestrial crust; secondly, because
+they have impressed on its surface, in the course of their eruption,
+some of the characteristics of its configuration and structure; finally,
+because, by their means, the metals which are the objects of human
+industry have been brought nearer to the surface. According to the
+order of their appearance, or as nearly so as can be ascertained, we
+shall class the eruptive rocks in two groups:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>I. The <i>Volcanic Rocks</i>, of comparatively recent origin, which have
+given rise to a succession of trachytes, basalts, and modern lavas.
+These, being of looser texture, are presumed to have cooled more
+rapidly than the Plutonic rocks, and at or near the surface.</p>
+
+<p>II. The <i>Plutonic Rocks</i>, of older date, which are exemplified in
+the various kinds of granites, the syenites, the protogines, porphyries,
+&amp;c. These differ from the volcanic rocks in their more compact
+crystalline structure, in the absence of tufa, as well as of pores and
+cavities; from which it is inferred that they were formed at considerable
+depths in the earth, and that they have cooled and crystallised
+slowly under great pressure.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Plutonic Eruptions.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The great eruptions of <i>ancient granite</i> are supposed to have
+occurred during the primary epoch, and chiefly in the carboniferous
+period. They present themselves sometimes in considerable masses,
+for the earth&#8217;s crust being still thin and permeable, it was
+prepared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+as it were for absorbing the granite masses. In consequence of its
+weak cohesion, the primitive crust of the globe would be rent and
+penetrated in all directions, as represented in the following section of
+Cape Wrath, in Sutherlandshire, in which the veins of granite ramify
+in a very irregular manner across the gneiss and hornblende-schist,
+there associated with it. (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a>
+<img src="images/illo042.png" alt="Fig. 3" width="500" height="373" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Veins of granite traversing the gneiss of Cape Wrath.</p></div>
+
+<p>Granite, when it is sound, furnishes a fine building-stone, but we
+must not suppose that it deserves that character of extreme hardness
+with which the poets have gratuitously gifted it. Its granular texture
+renders it unfit for road-stone, where it gets crushed too quickly to
+dust. With his hammer the geologist easily shapes his specimens;
+and in the Russian War, at the bombardment of Bomarsund, the
+shot from our ships demonstrated that ramparts of granite could be
+as easily demolished as those constructed of limestone.</p>
+
+<p>The component minerals of granite are felspar, quartz, and mica,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+in varying proportions; felspar being generally the predominant
+ingredient, and quartz more plentiful than mica&mdash;the whole being
+united into a confusedly granular or crystalline mass. Occasionally
+it passes insensibly from fine to coarse-grained granite, and the
+finer grained is even sometimes found embedded in the more
+coarsely granular variety: sometimes it assumes a porphyritic texture.
+Porphyritic granite is a variety of granite, the components of which&mdash;quartz,
+felspar, and mica&mdash;are set in a non-crystallised paste,
+uniting the mass in a manner which will be familiar to many of our
+readers who may have seen the granite of the Land&#8217;s End, in Cornwall.
+Alongside these orthoclase crystals, quartz is implanted, usually in
+grains of irregular shape, more rarely crystallised, and seldom in the
+form of perfect crystals. To these ingredients are added thin scales
+or small hexagonal plates and crystals of white, brown, black, or
+greenish-coloured mica. Finally, the name of <i>quartziferous porphyry</i>
+is reserved for those varieties which present crystals of quartz; the
+other varieties are simply called <i>porphyritic granite</i>. <i>True</i> porphyry
+presents a paste essentially composed of compact felspar, in which
+the crystals of orthoclase&mdash;that is, felspar with a potash base&mdash;are
+abundantly disseminated, and sometimes with great regularity.</p>
+
+<p>Granite is supposed to have been &#8220;formed at considerable depths
+in the earth, where it has cooled and crystallised slowly under great
+pressure, where the contained gases could not expand.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_11"
+id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> &#8220;The
+influence,&#8221; says Lyell, &#8220;of subterranean heat may extend downwards
+from the crater of every active volcano to a great depth below,
+perhaps several miles or leagues, and the effects which are produced
+deep in the bowels of the earth may, or rather must, be distinct; so
+that volcanic and plutonic rocks, each different in texture, and sometimes
+even in composition, may originate simultaneously, the one at
+the surface, the other far beneath it.&#8221; Other views, however, of its
+origin are not unknown to science: Professor Ramsay and some
+other geologists consider granite to be metamorphic. &#8220;For my own
+part,&#8221; says the Professor, &#8220;I believe that in one sense it is an igneous
+rock; that is to say, that it has been completely fused. But in
+another sense it is a metamorphic rock, partly because it is impossible
+in many cases to draw any definite line between gneiss and granite,
+for they pass into each other by insensible gradations; and granite
+frequently <i>occupies the space that ought to be filled with gneiss</i>, were it
+not that the gneiss has been entirely fused. I believe therefore that
+granite and its allies are simply the effect of the extreme of
+metamorphism,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+brought about by great heat with presence of water. In other
+words, when the metamorphism has been so great that all traces of
+the semi-crystalline laminated structure have disappeared, a more perfect
+crystallisation has taken place.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> It is obvious that the very result
+on which the Professor founds his theory, namely, the difficulty &#8220;in
+many cases,&#8221; of drawing a line between the granite and the gneiss,
+would be produced by the sudden injection of the fluid minerals into
+gneiss, composed of the same materials. Moreover, it is only in some
+cases that the difficulty exists; in many others the line of separation
+is definable enough.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>The granitic rock called <i>Syenite</i>, in which a part of the mica is
+replaced by hornblende or amphibole, has to all appearance been
+erupted to the surface subsequently to the granite, and very often
+alongside of it. Thus the two extremities of the Vosges, towards
+Belfort and Strasburg, are eminently syenitic, while the intermediate
+part, towards Colmar, is as markedly granitic. In the Lyonnais, the
+southern region is granitic; the northern region, from Arbresle, is in
+great part syenitic. Syenite also makes its appearance in the
+Limousin.</p>
+
+<p>Syenite, into which rose-coloured felspar often enters, forms a
+beautiful rock, because the green or nearly black hornblende heightens,
+by contrast, the effect of its colour. This rock is a valuable adjunct
+for architectural ornament; it is that out of which the ancient
+Egyptians shaped many of their monumental columns, sphinxes, and
+sarcophagi; the most perfect type of it is found in Egypt, not far
+from the city of Syene, from which it derives its name. The obelisk
+of Luxor now in Paris, several of the Egyptian obelisks in Rome,
+and the celebrated sphinxes, of which copies may be seen in front of
+the Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace, the pedestal of the statue
+of Peter the Great at St. Petersburg, and the facing of the sub-basement
+of the column in the Place Vend&ocirc;me in Paris, are of this stone,
+of which there are quarries in the neighbourhood of Plancher-les-Mines
+in the Vosges.</p>
+
+<p>Syenite disintegrates more readily than granite, and it contains
+indurated nodular concretions, which often remain in the form of
+large spherical balls, in the midst of the d&eacute;bris resulting from
+disintegration<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+of the mass. It remains to be added that syenitic masses
+are often very variable as regards their composition; the hornblende
+is sometimes wanting, in which case we can only recognise an
+ancient granite. In other instances the hornblende predominates to
+such a degree, that a large or small-grained <i>diorite</i>, or greenstone,
+results. The geologist should be prepared to observe these transitions,
+which are apt to lead him into error if passed over without
+being noticed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protogine</i> is a talcose granite, composed of felspar, quartz, and
+talc or <i>chlorite</i>, or decomposed mica, which take the place of the usual
+mica. Excessively variable in its texture, protogine passes from the
+most perfect granitic aspect to that of a porphyry, in such a manner
+as to present continual subjects of uncertainty, rendering it very
+difficult to determine its geological age. Nevertheless, it is supposed
+to have come to the surface before and during the coal-period; in
+short, at Creusot, protogine covers the coal-fields so completely, that
+it is necessary to sink the pits through the protogine, in order to
+penetrate to the coal, and the rock has so manifestly acted on the
+coal-measure strata, as to have contorted and metamorphosed them.
+Something analogous to this manifests itself near Mont Blanc, where
+the colossal mass which predominates in that chain, and the peaks
+which belong to it, consist of protogine. But as no such action can
+be perceived in the overlying rocks of the Triassic period, it may be
+assumed that at the time of the deposition of the New Red Sandstone
+the protoginous eruptions had ceased.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to add, however, that if the protogine rises in such
+bold pinnacles round Mont Blanc, the circumstance only applies to
+the more elevated parts of the mountain, and is influenced by the
+excessive rigour of the seasons, which demolishes and continually
+wears away all the parts of the rock which have been decomposed
+by atmospheric agency. Where protogine occurs in milder climates&mdash;around
+Creusot, and at Pierre-sur-Autre, in the Forez chain, for
+instance&mdash;the mountains show none of the scarped and bristling
+peaks exhibited in the chain of Mont Blanc. Only single isolated
+masses occasionally form <i>rocking-stones</i>, so called because, resting
+with a convex base upon a pedestal also convex, but in a contrary
+way, it is easy to move these naturally balanced blocks, although
+from their vast size it would require very considerable force to displace
+them. This tendency to fashion themselves into rounded or
+ellipsoidal forms belongs, also, to other granitic rocks, and even to
+some of the variegated sandstones. The rocking-stones have often
+given rise to legends and popular myths.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>The great eruptions of granite, protogine, and porphyry took
+place, according to M. Fournet, during the carboniferous period, for
+porphyritic pebbles are found in the conglomerates of the Coal-measure
+period. &#8220;The granite of Dartmoor, in Devonshire,&#8221; says
+Lyell,<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14"
+class="fnanchor">[14]</a> &#8220;was formerly supposed to be one of the most ancient of the
+plutonic rocks, but it is now ascertained to be posterior in date to the
+culm-measures of that county, which from their position, and as containing
+true coal-plants, are regarded by Professor Sedgwick and Sir
+R. Murchison as members of the true Carboniferous series. This
+granite, like the syenitic granite of Christiana, has broken through
+the stratified formations without much changing their strike. Hence,
+on the north-west side of Dartmoor, the successive members of the
+Culm-measures abut against the granite, and become metamorphic as
+they approach. The granite of Cornwall is probably of the same
+date, and therefore as modern as the Carboniferous strata, if not newer.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The <i>ancient granites</i> show themselves in France in the Vosges,
+in Auvergne, at Espinouse in Languedoc, at Plan-de-la-Tour in
+Provence, in the chain of the C&eacute;vennes, at Mont Pilat near Lyons,
+and in the southern part of the Lyonnaise chain. They rarely impart
+boldness or grandeur to the landscape, as might be expected from
+their crystallised texture and hardness; for having been exposed to
+the effects of atmospheric changes from the earliest times of the
+earth&#8217;s consolidation, the rocks have become greatly worn away and
+rounded in the outlines of their masses. It is only when recent
+dislocations have broken them up that they assume a picturesque
+character.</p>
+
+<p>The Christiania granite alluded to above was at one time thought
+to have belonged to the Silurian period. But, in 1813, Von Buch
+announced that the strata in question consisted of limestones containing
+orthoceratites and trilobites; the shales and limestone being
+only penetrated by granite-veins, and altered for a considerable
+distance from the point of contact.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15"
+class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The same granite is found to
+penetrate the ancient gneiss of the country on which the fossiliferous
+beds rest&mdash;unconformably, as the geologists say; that is, they rest on
+the edges of the gneiss, from which other stratified deposits had been
+washed away, leaving the gneiss denuded before the sedimentary beds
+were deposited. &#8220;Between the origin, therefore, of the gneiss and
+the granite,&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16"
+class="fnanchor">[16]</a> says Lyell, &#8220;there intervened, first, the period when the
+strata of gneiss were denuded; secondly, the period of the deposition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+of the Silurian deposits. Yet the granite produced after this long
+interval is often so intimately blended with the ancient gneiss at the
+point of the junction, that it is impossible to draw any other than an
+arbitrary line of separation between them; and where this is not the
+case, tortuous veins of granite pass freely through gneiss, ending
+sometimes in threads, as if the older rock had offered no resistance to
+their passage.&#8221; From this example Sir Charles concludes that it is
+impossible to conjecture whether certain granites, which send veins
+into gneiss and other metamorphic rocks, have been so injected
+while the gneiss was scarcely solidified, or at some time during the
+Secondary or Tertiary period. As it is, no single mass of granite
+can be pointed out more ancient than the oldest known fossiliferous
+deposits; no Lower Cambrian stratum is known to rest immediately
+on granite; no pebbles of granite are found in the conglomerates of
+the Lower Cambrian. On the contrary, granite is usually found, as
+in the case of Dartmoor, in immediate contact with primary formations,
+with every sign of elevation subsequent to their deposition.
+Porphyritic pebbles are found in the Coal-measures; porpyhries continue
+during the Triassic period; since, in some parts of Germany,
+veins of porphyry are found traversing the New Red Sandstone, or
+<i>gr&egrave;s bigarr&eacute;</i> of French geologists. Syenites have especially reacted
+upon the Silurian deposits and other old sedimentary rocks, up to
+those of the Lower Carboniferous period.</p>
+
+<p>The term porphyry is usually applied to a rock with a paste or
+base of compact felspar, in which felspathic crystals of various sizes
+assume their natural form. The variety of their mineralogical characters,
+the admirable polish which can be given to them, and which
+renders them eminently useful for ornamentation, give to the porphyries
+an artistic and industrial importance, which would be greatly
+enhanced if the difficulty of working such a hard material did not
+render the price so high.</p>
+
+<p>The porphyries possess various degrees of hardness and compactness.
+When a fine dark-red colour&mdash;which contrasts well with the
+white of the felspar&mdash;is combined with hardness, a magnificent stone
+is the result, susceptible of taking a polish, and fit for any kind of
+ornamental work; for the decoration of buildings, for the construction
+of vases, columns, &amp;c. The red Egyptian porphyry, called
+<i>Rosso antico</i>, was particularly sought after by the ancients, who made
+sepulchres, baths, and obelisks of it. The grandest known mass of
+this kind of porphyry is the Obelisk of Sextus V. at Rome. In
+the Museum of the Louvre, in Paris, some magnificent basins and
+statues, made of the same stone, may also be seen.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>In spite of its compact texture porphyry disintegrates, like other
+rocks, when exposed to air and water. One of the sphinxes transported
+from Egypt to Paris, being accidentally placed under a gutter
+of the Louvre, soon began to exhibit signs of exfoliation, notwithstanding
+it had remained sound for ages under the climate of Egypt.
+In this country, and even in France, where the climate is much
+drier, the porphyries frequently decompose so as to become scarcely
+recognisable. They crop out in various parts of France, but are
+only abundant in the north-eastern part of the central plateau, and in
+some parts of the south. They form mountains of a conical form,
+presenting, nearly always, considerable depressions on their flanks.
+In the Vosges they attain a height of from three to four thousand
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Serpentine</i> rocks are a sort of compact <i>talc</i>, which owe their
+soapy texture and greasy feel to silicate of magnesia. Their softness
+permits of their being turned in a lathe and fashioned into vessels of
+various forms. Even stoves are constructed of this substance, which
+bears heat well. The serpentine quarried on the banks of Lake
+Como, which bears the name of pierre ollaire, or pot-stone, is excellently
+adapted for this purpose. Serpentine shows itself in the
+Vosges, in the Limousin, in the Lyonnais, and in the Var; it occupies
+an immense tract in the Alps, as well as in the Apennines.
+Mona marble is an example of serpentine; and the Lizard Point,
+Cornwall, is a mass of it. A portion of the stratified rocks of Tuscany,
+and also those of the Island of Elba, have been upheaved and
+overturned by eruptions of it.</p>
+
+<p>As for the British Islands, plutonic rocks are extensively developed
+in Scotland, where the Cambrian and Silurian rocks, often of
+gneissic character&mdash;associated here and there with great bosses of
+granite and syenite&mdash;form by far the greater part of the region known
+as the Highlands. In the Isle of Arran a circular mass of coarse-grained
+granite protrudes through the schists of the northern part of
+the island; while, in the southern part, a finer-grained granite and
+veins of porphyry and coarse-grained granite have broken through the
+stratified rocks.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17"
+class="fnanchor">[17]</a> In Devonshire and Cornwall there are four great
+bosses of granite; in the southern parts of Cornwall the mineral axis is
+defined by a line drawn through the centre of the several bosses from
+south-west to north-east; but in the north of Cornwall, and extending
+into Devonshire, it strikes nearly east and west. The great granite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+mass in Cornwall lies on the moors north of St. Austell, and indicates
+the existence of more than one disturbing force. &#8220;There was an
+elevating force,&#8221; says Professor Sedgwick,<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18"
+class="fnanchor">[18]</a> &#8220;protruding from the
+St. Austell granite; and, if I interpret the phenomena correctly, there
+was a contemporaneous elevating force acting from the south; and
+between these two forces, the beds, now spread over the surface from
+the St. Austell granite to the Dodman and Narehead, were broken,
+contorted, and placed in their present disturbed position. Some
+great disturbing forces,&#8221; he observes, &#8220;have modified the symmetry
+of this part of Cornwall, affecting,&#8221; he believes, &#8220;the whole transverse
+section of the country from the headlands near Fowey to those south
+of Padstow.&#8221; This great granite-axis was upheaved in a line commencing
+at the west end of Cornwall, rising through the slate-rocks of
+the older Devonian group, continuing in association with them as
+far as the boss north of St. Austell, producing much confusion in
+the stratified masses; the granite-mass between St. Clear and Camelford
+rose between the deposition of the Petherwin and that of the
+Plymouth group; lastly, the Dartmoor granite rose, partially moving
+the adjacent slates in such a manner that its north end abuts against
+and tilts up the base of the Culm-trough, mineralising the great Culm-limestone,
+while on the south it does the same to the base of the
+Plymouth slates. These facts prove that the granite of Dartmoor,
+which was formerly thought to be the most ancient of the Plutonic
+rocks, is of a date subsequent to the Culm-measures of Devonshire,
+which are now regarded as forming part of the true carboniferous
+series.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Volcanic Rocks.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Considered as a whole, the volcanic rocks may be grouped into
+three distinct formations, which we shall notice in the following order,
+which is that of their relative antiquity, namely:&mdash;1. <i>Trachytic</i>;
+2. <i>Basaltic</i>; 3. <i>Volcanic or Lava formations</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a>
+<img src="images/illo050.png" alt="Fig. 4" width="350" height="410" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;A peak of the Cantal chain.</p></div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Trachytic Formations.</span></h4>
+
+<p><i>Trachyte</i> (derived from &#964;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#965;&#962;, rough), having a coarse, cellular
+appearance, and a rough and gritty feel, belongs to the class of
+volcanic rocks. The eruptions of trachyte seem to have commenced
+towards the middle of the Tertiary period, and to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+continued up to its close. The trachytes present considerable
+analogy in their composition to the felspathic porphyries, but their
+mineralogical characters are different. Their texture is porous; they
+form a white, grey, black, sometimes yellowish matrix, in which, as a
+rule, felspar predominates, together with disseminated crystals of
+felspar, some hornblende or augite, and dark-coloured mica. In its
+external appearance trachyte is very variable. It forms the three
+most elevated mountain ranges of Central France; the groups of
+Cantal and Mont Dore, and the chain of the Velay (Puy-de-D&ocirc;me).<a name="FNanchor_19"
+id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a></span><span class='pagenum'
+style="margin-top: -1.5em;"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_I" id="Plate_I"></a>
+<img src="images/illo052.jpg" alt="Plate I" width="600" height="376" />
+<p class="caption">I.&mdash;Peak of Sancy in the Mont Dore group, Auvergne.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>The igneous group of Cantal may be described as a series of lofty
+summits, ranged around a large cavity, which was at one period
+probably a volcanic crater, the circular base of which occupies an
+area of nearly fifteen leagues in diameter. The strictly trachytic
+portion of the group rises in the centre, and is composed of high
+mountains, throwing off spurs, which gradually decrease in height, and
+terminate in plateaux more or less inclined. These central mountains
+attain a height varying between 4,500 and 5,500 feet above the
+level of the sea. A scaly or schistose variety of trachyte, called
+<i>phonolite</i>, or clinkstone (from the ringing metallic sound it emits
+when struck with the hammer), with an unusual proportion of felspar,
+or, according to Gmelin, composed of felspar and zeolite, forms the
+steep trachytic escarpments at the centre, which enclose the principal
+valleys; their abrupt peaks giving a remarkably picturesque
+appearance to the landscape. In the engraving on p. 40 (<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>) the slaty,
+laminated character of the clinkstone is well represented in one of the
+phonolitic peaks of the Cantal group. The group at Mont Dore
+consists of seven or eight rocky summits, occupying a circuit of about
+five leagues in diameter. The massive trachytic rock, of which this
+mountainous mass is chiefly formed, has an average thickness of 1,200
+to 2,600 feet; comprehending over that range prodigious layers of
+scori&aelig;, pumiceous conglomerates, and detritus, interstratified with
+beds of trachyte and basalt, bearing the signs of an igneous origin, tufa
+forming the base; and between them occur layers of lignite, or imperfectly
+mineralised woody fibre, the whole being superimposed on a
+primitive plateau of about 3,250 feet in height. Scored and furrowed
+out by deep valleys, the viscous mass was gradually upheaved, until
+in the needle-like Pic de Sancy (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_I">Plate I.</a></span>), a pyramidal rock of
+porphyritic trachyte, which is the loftiest point of Mont Dore, it
+attains the height of 6,258 feet. The Pic de Sancy, represented on
+page 40 (<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>), gives an excellent idea of the general appearance of
+the trachytic mountains of Mont Dore.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the same plateau with Mont Dore, and about seven miles
+north of its last slopes, the trachytic formation is repeated in four
+rounded domes&mdash;those of Puy-de-D&ocirc;me, Sarcou&iuml;, Clierzou, and Le
+Grand Suchet. The Puy-de-D&ocirc;me, one of the most remarkable
+volcanic domes in Auvergne, presents another fine and very striking
+example of an eruptive trachytic rock. The rock here assumes a
+peculiar mineral character, which has caused the name of <i>domite</i> to be
+given to it.</p>
+
+<p>The chain of the Velay forms a zone, composed of independent
+plateaux and peaks, which forms upon the horizon a long and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+strangely intersected ridge. The bareness of the mountains, their
+forms&mdash;pointed or rounded, sometimes terminating in scarped plateaux&mdash;give
+to the whole landscape an appearance at once picturesque and
+characteristic. The peak of Le Mezen, which rises 5,820 feet above
+the sea, forms the culminating point of the chain. The phonolites of
+which it consists have been erupted from fissures which present
+themselves at a great number of points, ranging from north-north-west
+to south-south-east.</p>
+
+<p>On the banks of the Rhine and in Hungary the trachytic formation
+presents itself in features identical with those which indicate it in
+France. In America it is principally represented by some immense
+cones, superposed in the chain of the Andes; the colossal Chimborazo
+being one of those trachytic cones.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a></p><p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_II" id="Plate_II"></a>
+<img src="images/illo056.jpg" alt="Plate II" width="600" height="384" />
+<p class="caption">II.&mdash;Mountain and basaltic crater of La Coupe d&#8217;Ayzac, in the Vivarais.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a>
+<img src="images/illo057a.png" alt="Fig. 5" width="500" height="107" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Theoretical view of a basaltic plateau.</p></div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Basaltic Formations.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Basaltic eruptions seem to have occurred during the Secondary
+and Tertiary periods. Basalt, according to Dr. Daubeny,<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> in its
+more strict sense, &#8220;is composed of an intimate mixture of augite with
+a zeolitic mineral, which appears to have been formed out of labradorite
+(felspar of Labrador), by the addition of water&mdash;the presence
+of water being in all <i>zeolites</i> the cause of that bubbling-up under the
+blow-pipe to which they owe their appellation.&#8221; M. Delesse and
+other mineralogists are of opinion that the idea of augite being the
+prevailing mineral in basalt, must be abandoned; and that although
+its presence gives the rock its distinctive character, as compared with
+trachytic and most other trap rocks, still the principal element in
+their composition is felspar. Basalt, a lava consisting essentially
+of augite, labradorite (or nepheline) and magnetic iron-ore is the
+rock which predominates in this formation. It contains a smaller
+quantity of silica than the trachyte, and a larger proportion of lime
+and magnesia. Hence, independent of the iron in its composition,
+it is heavier in proportion, as it contains more or less silica. Some
+varieties of basalt contain very large quantities of olivine, a mineral
+of an olive-green colour, with a chemical composition differing but
+slightly from serpentine. Both basalts and trachyte contain more
+soda and less silica in their composition than granites; some of the
+basalts are highly fusible, the alkaline matter and lime in their composition
+acting as a flux to the silica. There are examples of basalt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+existing in well-defined flows, which still adhere to craters visible
+at the present day, and with regard to the igneous origin of which
+there can be no doubt. One of the most striking examples of a
+basaltic cone is furnished by the mountain or crater of La Coupe
+d&#8217;Ayzac, in the Vivarais, in the south of France. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_II">Plate II.</a></span>, on
+the opposite page, gives an accurate representation of this curious
+basaltic flow. The remnants of the stream of liquefied basalt which
+once flowed down the flank of the hill may still be seen adhering in
+vast masses to the granite rocks on both sides of a narrow valley
+where the river Volant has cut across the lava and left a pavement or
+causeway, forming an assemblage of upright prismatic columns, fitted
+together with geometrical symmetry; the whole resting on a base of
+gneiss. Basaltic eruptions sometimes form a plateau, as represented in
+<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>, where the process of formation is shown theoretically and in
+a manner which renders further explanation unnecessary. Many of
+these basaltic table-lands form plateaux of very considerable extent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+and thickness; others form fragments of the same, more or less dislocated;
+others, again, present themselves in isolated knolls, far
+removed from similar formations. In short, basaltic rocks present
+themselves in veins or dykes, more or less, in most countries, of
+which Central France and the banks of the Rhine offer many striking
+examples. These veins present very evident proofs that the matter
+has been introduced from below, and in a manner which could only
+result from injection from the interior to the exterior of the earth.
+Such are the proofs presented by the basaltic veins of Villeneuve-de-Berg,
+which terminate in slender filaments, sometimes bifurcated,
+which gradually lose themselves in the rock which they traverse. In
+several parts of the north of Ireland, chalk-formations with flints are
+traversed by basaltic dykes, the chalk being converted into granular
+marble near the basalt, the change sometimes extending eight or ten
+feet from the wall of the dyke, and being greatest near the surface of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+contact. In the Island of Rathlin, the walls of basalt traverse the
+chalk in three veins or dykes; the central one a foot thick, that on
+the right twenty feet, and on the left thirty-three feet thick, and all,
+according to Buckland and Conybeare, within the breadth of ninety
+feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a>
+<img src="images/illo057b.png" alt="Fig. 6" width="450" height="275" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Basalt in prismatic columns.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a>
+<img src="images/illo058.png" alt="Fig. 7" width="500" height="371" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;Basaltic Causeway, on the banks of the river Volant, in the Ard&egrave;che.</p></div>
+
+<p>One of the most striking characteristics of basalt is the prismatic
+and columnar structure which it often assumes; the lava being
+homogeneous and of very fine grain, the laws which determine the
+direction of the fissures or divisional planes consolidated from a
+molten to a solid state, become here very manifest&mdash;these are always
+at right angles to the surfaces of the rock through which the heat of
+the fused mass escaped. The basaltic rocks have been at all times
+remarkable for this picturesque arrangement of their parts. They
+usually present columns of regular prisms, having generally six,
+often five, and sometimes four, seven, or even three sides, whose disposition
+is always perpendicular to the cooling surfaces. These are
+often divided transversely, as in <a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>, at nearly equal distances, like
+the joints of a wall, composed of regularly arranged, equal-sided
+pieces adhering together, and frequently extending over a more or
+less considerable space. The name of Giant&#8217;s Causeway has been
+given, from time immemorial, to these curious columnar structures of
+basalt. In France, in the Vivarais and in the Velay, there are
+many such basaltic causeways. That of which <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a> is a sketch lies
+on the banks of the river Volant, where it flows into the Ard&egrave;che.
+Ireland has always been celebrated for its Giant&#8217;s Causeway, which
+extends over the whole of the northern part of Antrim, covering all
+the pre-existing strata of Chalk, Greensand, and Permian formations;
+the prismatic columns extend for miles along the cliffs, projecting
+into the sea at the point specially designated the Giant&#8217;s Causeway.</p>
+
+<p>These columnar formations vary considerably in length and diameter.
+McCulloch mentions some in Skye, which &#8220;are about four
+hundred feet high; others in Morven not exceeding an inch (vol. ii.
+p. 137). In diameter those of Ailsa Craig measure nine feet, and
+those of Morven an inch or less.&#8221; Fingal&#8217;s Cave, in the Isle of
+Staffa, is renowned among basaltic rocks, although it was scarcely
+known on the mainland a century ago, when Sir Joseph Banks heard
+of it accidentally, and was the first to visit and describe it. Fingal&#8217;s
+Cave has been hollowed out, by the sea, through a gallery of
+immense prismatic columns of trap, which are continually beaten by
+the waves. The columns are usually upright, but sometimes they
+are curved and slightly inclined. <a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a> is a view of the basaltic
+grotto of Staffa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a>
+<img src="images/illo060.png" alt="Fig. 8" width="450" height="286" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Basaltic cavern of Staffa&mdash;exterior.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>Grottoes are sometimes formed by basaltic eruptions on land,
+followed by their separation into regular columns. The Grotto of
+Cheeses, at Bertrich-Baden, between Tr&egrave;ves and Coblentz, is a
+remarkable example of this kind, being so called because its columns
+are formed of round, and usually flattened, stones placed one above
+the other in such a manner as to resemble a pile of cheeses.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_III" id="Plate_III"></a>
+<img src="images/illo062.png" alt="Plate III" width="600" height="381" />
+<p class="caption">III.&mdash;Extinct volcanoes forming the Puy-de-D&ocirc;me Chain.</p></div>
+
+<p>If we consider that in basalt-flows the lower part is compact, and
+often divided into prismatic columns, while the upper part is porous,
+cellular, scoriaceous, and irregularly divided&mdash;that the points of
+separation on which they rest are small beds presenting fragments of
+the porous stony concretions known under the name of <i>Lapilli</i>&mdash;that
+the lower portions of these masses present a multitude of points
+which penetrate the rocks on which they repose, thereby denoting
+that some fluid matter had moulded itself into its crevices&mdash;that the
+neighbouring rocks are often calcined to a considerable thickness,
+and the included vegetable remains carbonised&mdash;no doubt can exist
+as to the igneous origin of basaltic rocks. When it reached the
+surface through certain openings, the fluid basalt spread itself, flowing,
+as it were, over the horizontal surface of the ground; for if it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+had flowed upon inclined surfaces it could not have preserved the
+uniform surface and constant thickness which it generally exhibits.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Volcanic or Lava Formations.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The <i>lava</i> formations comprehend both extinct and active volcanoes.
+&#8220;The term,&#8221; says Lyell, &#8220;has a somewhat vague signification,
+having been applied to all melted matter observed to flow in
+streams from volcanic vents. When this matter consolidates in the
+open air, the upper part is usually scoriaceous, and the mass becomes
+more and more stony as we descend, or in proportion as it has consolidated
+more slowly and under greater pressure.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>The formation of extinct volcanoes is represented in France by
+the volcanoes situated in the ancient provinces of Auvergne, Velay,
+and the Vivarais, but principally by nearly seventy volcanic cones
+of various sizes and of the height of from 500 to 1,000 feet,
+composed of loose scori&aelig;, lava, and pozzuolana, arranged upon
+a granitic table-land, about twelve miles wide, which overlooks the
+town of Clermont-Ferrand, and which seem to have been produced
+along a longitudinal fracture in the earth&#8217;s crust, running in a direction
+from north to south. It is a range of volcanic hills, the &#8220;chain
+of <i>Puys</i>&#8221; nearly twenty miles in length, by two in breadth. By its
+cellular and porous structure, which is also granular and crystalline,
+the felspathic or pyroxenic lava which flowed from these volcanoes
+is readily distinguishable from the analogous lavas which belong to
+the basaltic or trachytic formations. Their surface is irregular, and
+bristles with asperities, formed by heaped-up angular blocks.</p>
+
+<p>The volcanoes of the chain of <i>Puys</i>, represented on opposite
+page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_III">Pl. III.</a></span>) are so perfectly preserved, their lava is so frequently
+superposed on sheets of basalt, and presents a composition and
+texture so distinct, that there is no difficulty in establishing the fact
+that they are posterior to the basaltic formation, and of very recent
+age. Nevertheless, they do not appear to belong to the historic
+ages, for no tradition attests their eruption. Lyell places these
+eruptions in the Lower Miocene period, and their greatest activity
+in the Upper Miocene and Pliocene eras. &#8220;Extinct quadrupeds of
+those eras,&#8221; he says, &#8220;belonging to the genera mastodon, rhinoceros,
+and others, were buried in ashes and beds of alluvial sand and gravel,
+which owe their preservation to overspreading sheets of lava.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_22"
+id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a>
+<img src="images/illo064.png" alt="Fig. 9" width="450" height="374" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;Section of a volcano in action.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>All volcanic phenomena can be explained by the theory we have
+already indicated, of fractures in the solid crust of the globe resulting
+from its cooling. The various phenomena which existing volcanoes
+present to us are, as Humboldt has said, &#8220;the result of every action
+exercised by the interior of a planet on its external crust.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_23"
+id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> We
+designate as volcanoes all conduits which establish a permanent communication
+between the interior of the earth and its surface&mdash;a
+conduit which gives passage at intervals to eruptions of <i>lava</i>, and in
+<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a> we have represented, in an ideal section, the geological mode of
+action of volcanic eruptions. The volcanoes on the surface of the
+globe, known to be in an occasional state of activity, number about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+three hundred, and these may be divided into two classes: the <i>isolated</i>
+or <i>central</i>, and the <i>linear</i> or those volcanoes which belong to a <i>series</i>.<a
+name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first are active volcanoes, around which there may be established
+many secondary active mouths of eruption, always in connection
+with some principal crater. The second are disposed like
+the chimneys of furnaces, along fissures extending over considerable
+distances. Twenty, thirty, and even a greater number of volcanic
+cones may rise above one such rent in the earth&#8217;s crust, the direction
+of which will be indicated by their linear course. The Peak of
+Teneriffe is an instance of a central volcano; the long rampart-like
+chain of the Andes, presents, from the south of Chili to the north-west
+coast of America, one of the grandest instances of a continental
+volcanic chain; the remarkable range of volcanoes in the province of
+Quito belong to the latter class. Darwin relates that on the 19th of
+March, 1835, the attention of a sentry was called to something like a
+large star which gradually increased in size till about three o&#8217;clock,
+when it presented a very magnificent spectacle. &#8220;By the aid of a
+glass, dark objects, in constant succession, were seen in the midst of a
+great glare of red light, to be thrown up and to fall down. The light
+was sufficient to cast on the water a long bright reflection&mdash;it was the
+volcano of Osorno in action.&#8221; Mr. Darwin was afterwards assured
+that Aconcagua, in Chili, 480 miles to the north, was in action on the
+same night, and that the great eruption of Coseguina (2,700 miles
+north of Aconcagua), accompanied by an earthquake felt over 1,000
+miles, also occurred within six hours of this same time; and yet
+Coseguina had been dormant for six-and-twenty years, and Aconcagua
+most rarely shows any signs of action.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> It is also stated by Professor
+Dove that in the year 1835 the ashes discharged from the mountain
+of Coseguina were carried 700 miles, and that the roaring noise of the
+eruption was heard at San Salvador, a distance of 1,000 miles.</p>
+
+<p>In the sea the <i>series</i> of volcanoes show themselves in groups of
+islands disposed in longitudinal series.</p>
+
+<p>Among these may be ranged the volcanic series of Sunda, which,
+according to the accounts of the matter ejected and the violence of
+the eruptions, seem to be among the most remarkable on the globe;
+the series of the Moluccas and of the Philippines; those of Japan;
+of the Marianne Islands; of Chili; of the double series of volcanic
+summits near Quito, those of the Antilles, Guatemala, and Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>Among the central, or isolated volcanoes, we may class those of
+the Lipari Islands, which have <i>Stromboli</i>, in permanent activity,
+for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+their centre; <i>Etna</i>, <i>Vesuvius</i>, the volcanoes of the <i>Azores</i>, of the
+<i>Canaries</i>, of the <i>Cape de Verde</i>, of the <i>Galapagos</i> Islands, the <i>Sandwich</i>
+Islands, the <i>Marquesas</i>, the <i>Society</i> Islands, the <i>Friendly</i> Islands,
+<i>Bourbon</i>, and, finally, <i>Ararat</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/illo066.png" alt="Fig. 10" width="450" height="418" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Existing crater of Vesuvius.</p></div>
+
+<p>The mouths of volcanic chimneys are, almost always, situated near
+the summit of a more or less isolated conical mountain; they usually
+consist of an opening in the form of a funnel, which is called the
+<i>crater</i>, and which descends into the interior of the volcanic chimney.
+But in the course of ages the crater becomes extended and enlarged,
+until, in some of the older volcanoes, it has attained almost incredible
+dimensions. In 1822 the crater of Vesuvius was 2,000 feet
+deep, and of a very considerable circumference. The crater of
+Kilauea, in the Sandwich Islands group, is an immense chasm 1,000<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+feet deep, with an outer circle no less than from two to three
+miles in diameter, in which lava is usually seen, Mr. Dana tells us,
+to boil up at the bottom of a lake, the level of which varies continually
+according to the active or quiescent state of the volcano.
+The cone which supports these craters, and which is designated the
+<i>cone of ejection</i>, is composed for the most part of lava or <i>scori&aelig;</i>, the
+products of eruption. Many volcanoes consist only of a <i>cone of scori&aelig;</i>.
+Such is that of Barren Isle, in the Bay of Bengal. Others, on the
+contrary, present a very small cone, notwithstanding the considerable
+height of the volcanic chain. As an example we may mention the
+new crater of Vesuvius, which was produced in 1829 within the
+former crater (<a href="#Fig_10">Fig. 10</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/illo067.png" alt="Fig. 11" width="450" height="289" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Fissures near Locarno.</p></div>
+
+<p>The frequency and intensity of the eruptions bear no relation to
+the dimensions of the volcanic mountain. The eruption of a volcano
+is usually announced by a subterranean noise, accompanied by shocks,
+quivering of the ground, and sometimes by actual earthquakes. The
+noise, which usually proceeds from a great depth, makes itself heard,
+sometimes over a great extent of country, and resembles a well-sustained
+fire of artillery, accompanied by the rattle of musketry.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+Sometimes it is like the heavy rolling of subterranean thunder.
+Fissures are frequently produced during the eruptions, extending over
+a considerable radius, as represented in the woodcut on page 57 of
+the fissures of Locarno (<a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11</a>), where they present a singular
+appearance; the clefts radiating from a centre in all directions, not
+unlike the starred fracture in a cracked pane of glass. The eruption
+begins with a strong shock, which shakes the whole interior of the
+mountain; masses of heated vapour and fluids begin to ascend,
+revealing themselves in some cases by the melting of the snow upon
+the flanks of the cone of ejection; while simultaneously with the final
+shock, which overcomes the last resistance opposed by the solid crust
+of the ground, a considerable body of gas, and more especially of
+steam, escapes from the mouth of the crater.</p>
+
+<p>The steam, it is important to remark, is essentially the cause of
+the terrible mechanical effects which accompany volcanic eruptions.
+Granitic, porphyritic, trachytic, and sometimes even basaltic matters,
+have reached the surface without producing any of those violent explosions
+or ejections of rocks and stones which accompany modern
+volcanic eruptions; the older granites, porphyries, trachytes, and
+basalts were discharged without violence, because steam did not
+accompany those melted rocks&mdash;a sufficient proof of the comparative
+calm which attended the ancient as compared with modern eruptions.
+Well established by scientific observations, this is a fact which
+enables us to explain the cause of the tremendous mechanical effects
+attending modern volcanic eruptions, contrasted with the more
+tranquil eruptions of earlier times.</p>
+
+<p>During the first moments of a volcanic eruption, the accumulated
+masses of stones and ashes, which fill the crater, are shot up into the
+sky by the suddenly and powerfully developed elasticity of the steam.
+This steam, which has been disengaged by the heat of the fluid lava,
+assumes the form of great rounded bubbles, which are evolved into
+the air to a great height above the crater, where they expand as they
+rise, in clouds of dazzling whiteness, assuming that appearance which
+Pliny the Younger compared to a stone pine rising over Vesuvius. The
+masses of clouds finally condense and follow the direction of the wind.</p>
+
+<p>These volcanic clouds are grey or black, according to the quantity
+of <i>ashes</i>, that is, of pulverulent matter or dust, mixed with watery
+vapour, which they convey. In some eruptions it has been observed
+that these clouds, on descending to the surface of the soil, spread
+around an odour of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, and traces of both
+these acids are found in the rain which proceeds from the condensation
+of these clouds.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>The fleecy clouds of vapour which issue from the volcanoes are
+streaked with lightning, followed by continuous peals of thunder; in
+condensing, they discharge disastrous showers, which sweep the
+sides of the mountain. Many eruptions, known as <i>mud volcanoes</i>,
+and <i>watery volcanoes</i>, are nothing more than these heavy rains, carrying
+down with them showers of ashes, stones, and scori&aelig;, more or less
+mixed with water.</p>
+
+<p>Passing on to the phenomena of which the crater is the scene
+at the time of an eruption, it is stated that at first there is an
+incessant rise and fall of the lava which fills the interior of the crater.
+This double movement is often interrupted by violent explosions of
+gas. The crater of Kilauea, in the Island of Hawaii, contains
+a lake of molten matter 1,600 feet broad, which is subject to such
+a double movement of elevation and depression. Each of the
+vaporous bubbles as it issues from the crater presses the molten lava
+upwards, till it rises and bursts with great force at the surface. A
+portion of the lava, half-cooled and reduced to scori&aelig;, is thus projected
+upwards, and the several fragments are hurled violently in all
+directions, like those of a shell at the moment when it bursts.</p>
+
+<p>The greater number of the fragments being thrown vertically into
+the air, fall back into the crater again. Many accumulating on the
+edge of the opening add more and more to the height of the cone
+of eruption. The lighter and smaller fragments, as well as the fine
+ashes, are drawn upwards by the spiral vapours, and sometimes
+transported by the winds over almost incredible distances.</p>
+
+<p>In 1794 the ashes from Vesuvius were carried as far as the
+extremity of Calabria. In 1812 the volcanic ashes of Saint Vincent,
+in the Antilles, were carried eastward as far as Barbadoes, spreading
+such obscurity over the island, that, in open day, passengers could
+not see their way. Finally, some of the masses of molten lava are
+shot singly into the air during an eruption with a rapid rotatory motion,
+which causes them to assume the rounded shape in which they are
+known by the name of <i>volcanic bombs</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We have already remarked that the lava, which in a fluid state
+fills the crater and the internal vent or chimney of the volcano, is
+forced upwards by gaseous fluids, and by the steam which has been
+generated from the water, entangled with the lava. In some cases
+the mechanical force of this vapour is so great as to drive the lava
+over the edge of the crater, when it forms a fiery torrent, spreading
+over the sides of the mountain. This only happens in the case of
+volcanoes of inconsiderable height; in lofty volcanoes it is not unusual
+for the lava thus to force an outlet for itself near the base of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+mountain, through which the fiery stream discharges itself over the
+surrounding country. In such circumstances the lava cools somewhat
+rapidly; it becomes hard and presents a scoriaceous crust on
+the surface, while the vapour escapes in jets of steam through the
+interstices. But under this superficial crust the lava retains its fluid
+state, cooling slowly in the interior of the mass, while the thickening
+stream moves sluggishly along, impeded in its progress by the fragments
+of rock which this burning river drives before it.</p>
+
+<p>The rate at which a current of lava moves along depends upon
+its mass, upon its degree of fluidity, and upon the inclination of the
+ground. It has been stated that certain streams of lava have
+traversed more than 3,000 yards in an hour; but the rate at which
+they travel is usually much less, a man on foot being often able to
+outstrip them. These streams, also, vary greatly in dimensions.
+The most considerable stream of lava from Etna had, in some parts,
+a thickness of nearly 120 feet, with a breadth of a geographical mile
+and a half. The largest lava-stream which has been recorded issued
+from the Skapt&aacute;r Jokul, in Iceland, in 1783. It formed two currents,
+whose extremities were twenty leagues apart, and which from
+time to time presented a breadth of from seven to fifteen miles and
+a thickness of 650 feet.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar effect, and which only simulates volcanic activity, is
+observable in localities where <i>mud volcanoes</i> exist. Volcanoes of this
+class are for the most part conical hills of low elevation, with a
+hollow or depression at the centre, from which they discharge the
+mud which is forced upwards by gas and steam. The temperature
+of the ejected matter is only slightly elevated. The mud, generally
+of a greyish colour, with the odour of petroleum, is subject to the
+same alternating movements which have been already ascribed to the
+fluid lava of volcanoes, properly so called. The gases which force
+out this liquid mud, mixed with salts, gypsum, naphtha, sulphur,
+sometimes even of ammonia, are usually carburetted hydrogen and
+carbonic acid. Everything leads to the conclusion that these compounds
+proceed, at least in great part, from the reaction produced
+between the various elements of the subsoil under the influence of
+infiltrating water between bituminous marls, complex carbonates,
+and probably carbonic acid, derived from acidulated springs. M.
+Fournet saw in Languedoc, near Roujan, traces of some of these
+formations; and not far from that neighbourhood is the bituminous
+spring of Gabian.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_IV" id="Plate_IV"></a>
+<img src="images/illo072.png" alt="Plate IV" width="600" height="384" />
+<p class="caption">IV.&mdash;Mud volcano at Turbaco, South America.</p></div>
+
+<p>Mud volcanoes, or <i>salses</i>, exist in rather numerous localities.
+Several are found in the neighbourhood of Modena. There are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+some in Sicily, between Aragona and Girgenti. Pallas observed
+them in the Crimea&mdash;in the peninsula of Kertch, and in the Isle of
+Tam&agrave;n. Von Humboldt has described and figured a group of them
+in the province of Cartagena, in South America. Finally, they have
+been observed in the Island of Trinidad and in Hindostan. In
+1797 an eruption of mud ejected from Tunguragua, in Quito, filled a
+valley 1,000 feet wide to a depth of 600 feet. On the opposite page
+is represented the mud volcano of Turbaco, in the province of
+Cartagena (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV.</a></span>), which is described and figured by Von
+Humboldt in his &#8220;Voyage to the Equatorial Regions of America.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In certain countries we find small hillocks of argillaceous formation,
+resulting from ancient discharges of mud volcanoes, from which
+all disengagement of gas, water, and mud has long ceased. Sometimes,
+however, the phenomenon returns and resumes its interrupted
+course with great violence. Slight shocks of earthquakes are then
+felt; blocks of dried earth are projected from the ancient crater,
+and new waves of mud flow over its edge, and spread over the neighbouring
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>To return to ordinary volcanoes, that is to say, those which eject
+lava. At the end of a lava-flow, when the violence of the volcanic
+action begins to subside, the discharge from the crater is confined to
+the disengagement of vaporous gases, mixed with steam, which make
+their escape in more or less abundance through a multitude of
+fissures in the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The great number of volcanoes which have thus become extinct
+form what are called <i>solfataras</i>. The sulphuretted hydrogen, which is
+given out through the fissures in the ground, is decomposed by contact
+with the air, water being formed by the action of the oxygen of the
+atmosphere, and sulphur deposited in considerable quantities on the
+walls of the crater, and in the cracks of the ground. Such is the
+geological source of the sulphur which is collected at Pozzuoli, near
+Naples, and in many other similar regions&mdash;a substance which plays a
+most important part in the industrial occupations of the world. It is,
+in fact, from sulphur extracted from the ground about the mouths of
+extinct volcanoes, that is to say from the products of <i>solfataras</i>, that
+sulphuric acid is frequently made&mdash;sulphuric acid being the fundamental
+agent, one of the most powerful elements, of the manufacturing
+productions of both worlds.</p>
+
+<p>The last phase of volcanic activity is the disengagement of
+carbonic acid gas without any increase of temperature. In places
+where these continued emanations of carbonic acid gas manifest
+themselves, the existence of ancient volcanoes may be recognised, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+which these discharges are the closing phenomenon. This is seen in
+a most remarkable manner in Auvergne, where there are a multitude
+of acidulated springs, that is to say, springs charged with carbonic
+acid. During the time when he was opening the mines of Pontgibaud,
+M. Fournet had to contend with emanations which sometimes
+exhibited themselves with explosive power. Jets of water were thrown
+to great heights in the galleries, roaring with the noise of steam when
+escaping from the boiler of a locomotive engine. The water which
+filled an abandoned mine-shaft was, on two separate occasions,
+upheaved with great violence&mdash;half emptying the pit&mdash;while vast
+volumes of the gas overspread the whole valley, suffocating a horse
+and a flock of geese. The miners were compelled to fly in all haste
+at the moment when the gas burst forth, holding themselves as
+upright as possible, to avoid plunging their heads into the carbonic
+acid gas, which, from its low specific gravity, was now filling the
+lower parts of the galleries. It represented on a small scale the effect
+of the <i>Grotto del Cane</i>, which excites such surprise among the ignorant
+near Naples; passing, also, for one of the marvels of Nature all over
+the world. M. Fournet states that all the minute fissures of the
+metalliferous gneiss near Clermont are quite saturated with free
+carbonic acid gas, which rises plentifully from the soil there, as well
+as in many parts of the surrounding country. The components of
+the gneiss, with the exception of the quartz, are softened by it; and
+fresh combinations of the acid with lime, iron, and manganese are
+continually taking place. In short, long after volcanoes have become
+extinct, hot springs, charged with mineral ingredients, continue to
+flow in the same area.</p>
+
+<p>The same facts as those of the <i>Grotto del Cane</i> manifest themselves
+with even greater intensity in Java, in the so-called Valley of Poison,
+which is an object of terror to the natives. In this celebrated valley
+the ground is said to be covered with skeletons and carcases of tigers,
+goats, stags, birds, and even of human beings; for asphyxia or suffocation,
+it seems, strikes all living things which venture into this
+desolate place. In the same island a stream of sulphurous water, as
+white as milk, issues from the crater of Mount Idienne, on the east
+coast; and on one occasion, as cited by Nozet in the <i>Journal de
+G&eacute;ologie</i>, a great body of hot water, charged with sulphuric acid, was
+discharged from the same volcano, inundating and destroying all the
+vegetation of a large tract of country by its noxious fumes and
+poisonous properties.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Plate_V" id="Plate_V"></a>
+<img src="images/illo076.png" alt="Plate V" width="350" height="563" />
+<p class="caption">V.&mdash;Great Geyser of Iceland.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is known that the alkaline waters of Plombi&egrave;res, in the Vosges,
+have a temperature of 160&deg; Fahr. For 2,000 years, according<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+to Daubr&eacute;e, through beds of concrete, of lime, brick, and sandstone,
+these hot waters have percolated until they have originated
+calcareous spar, aragonite, and fluor spar, together with siliceous
+minerals, such as opal, which are found filling the interstices of the
+bricks and mortar. From these and other similar statements, &#8220;we
+are led,&#8221; says Sir Charles Lyell,<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26"
+class="fnanchor">[26]</a> &#8220;to infer that when in the bowels
+of the earth there are large volumes of molten matter, containing
+heated water and various acids, under enormous pressure, these subterraneous
+fluid masses will gradually part with their heat by the
+escape of steam and various gases through fissures producing hot
+springs, or by the passage of the same through the pores of the
+overlying and injected rocks.&#8221; &#8220;Although,&#8221; he adds,<a name="FNanchor_27"
+id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> &#8220;we can only
+study the phenomena as exhibited at the surface, it is clear that the
+gaseous fluids must have made their way through the whole thickness
+of the porous or fissured rocks, which intervene between the subterraneous
+reservoirs of gas and the external air. The extent, therefore,
+of the earth&#8217;s crust which the vapours have permeated, and are
+now permeating, may be thousands of fathoms in thickness, and their
+heating and modifying influence may be spread throughout the whole
+of this solid mass.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The fountains of boiling water, known under the name of <i>Geysers</i>,
+are another emanation connected with ancient craters. They are
+either continuous or intermittent. In Iceland we find great numbers
+of these gushing springs&mdash;in fact, the island is one entire mass of
+eruptive rock. Nearly all the volcanoes are situated upon a broad
+band of trachyte, which traverses the island from south-west to north-east.
+It is traversed by immense fissures, and covered with masses
+of lava, such as no other country presents. The volcanic action, in
+short, goes on with such energy that certain paroxysms of Mount
+Hecla have lasted for six years without interruption. But the Great
+Geyser, represented on the opposite page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_V">Plate V.</a></span>), is, perhaps,
+even more an object of curiosity. This water-volcano projects a
+column of boiling water, eight yards in diameter, charged with silica,
+to the height, it has been said, of about 150 feet, depositing vast
+quantities of silica as it cools after reaching the earth.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The volcanoes in actual activity are, as we have said, very numerous,
+being more than 200 in number, scattered over the whole
+surface of the globe, but mostly occurring in tropical regions. The
+island of Java alone contains about fifty, which have been mapped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+and described by Dr. Junghahn. Those best known are Vesuvius,
+near Naples; Etna, in Sicily; and Stromboli, in the Lipari Islands.
+A rapid sketch of a few of these may interest the reader.</p>
+
+<p>Vesuvius is of all volcanoes that which has been most closely
+studied; it is, so to speak, the classical volcano. Few persons are
+ignorant of the fact that it opened&mdash;after a period of quiescence
+extending beyond the memory of living man&mdash;in the year 79 of our
+era. This eruption cost the elder Pliny his life, who fell a sacrifice
+to his desire to witness one of the most imposing of natural phenomena.
+After many mutations the present crater of Vesuvius consists
+of a cone, surrounded on the side opposite the sea by a semicircular
+crest, composed of pumiceous matter, foreign to Vesuvius properly
+speaking, for we believe that Mount Vesuvius was originally the
+mountain to which the name of <i>Somma</i> is now given. The cone
+which now bears the name of Vesuvius was probably formed during
+the celebrated eruption of 79, which buried under its showers of
+pumiceous ashes the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. This
+cone terminates in a crater, the shape of which has undergone many
+changes, and which has, since its origin, thrown out eruptions of a
+varied character, together with streams of lava. In our days the
+eruptions of Vesuvius have only been separated by intervals of a
+few years.</p>
+
+<p>The Lipari Isles contain the volcano of Stromboli, which is continually
+in a state of ignition, and forms the natural lighthouse of the
+Tyrrhenian Sea; such it was when Homer mentioned it, such it was
+before old Homer&#8217;s time, and such it still appears in our days. Its
+eruptions are incessant. The crater whence they issue is not situated
+on the summit of the cone, but upon one of its sides, at nearly two-thirds
+of its height. It is in part filled with fluid lava, which is continually
+subjected to alternate elevation and depression&mdash;a movement
+provoked by the ebullition and ascension of bubbles of steam which
+rise to the surface, projecting upwards a tall column of ashes. During
+the night these clouds of vapour shine with a magnificent red reflection,
+which lights up the whole isle and the surrounding sea with a
+lurid glow.</p>
+
+<p>Situated on the eastern coast of Sicily, Etna appears, at the first
+glance, to have a much more simple structure than Vesuvius. Its
+slopes are less steep, more uniform on all sides; its vast base nearly
+represents the form of a buckler. The lower portion of Etna, or the
+cultivated region of the mountain, has an inclination of about three
+degrees. The middle, or forest region, is steeper, and has an inclination
+of about eight degrees. The mountain terminates in a cone of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+an elliptical form of thirty-two degrees of inclination, which bears in
+the middle, above a nearly horizontal terrace, the cone of eruption
+with its circular crater. The crater is 10,874 feet high. It gives out
+no lava, but only vomits forth gas and vapour, the streams of lava
+issuing from sixteen smaller cones which have been formed on the
+slopes of the mountain. The observer may, by looking at the
+summit, convince himself that these cones are disposed in rays, and
+are based upon clefts or fissures which converge towards the crater
+as towards a centre.</p>
+
+<p>But the most extraordinary display of volcanic phenomena occurs
+in the Pacific Ocean, in the Sandwich Islands, and in Java. Mauna
+Loa and Mauna Kea, in Hawaii, are huge flattened cones, 14,000
+feet high. According to Mr. Dana, these lofty, featureless hills sometimes
+throw out successive streams of lava, not very far below their
+summits, often two miles in breadth and six-and-twenty in length;
+and that not from one vent, but in every direction, from the apex of
+the cone down slopes varying from four to eight degrees of inclination.
+The lateral crater of Kilauea, on the flank of Mauna Loa,
+is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level of the sea&mdash;an immense
+chasm 1,000 feet deep, with an outer circuit two to three miles
+in diameter. At the bottom lava is seen to boil up in a molten
+lake, the level of which rises or falls according to the active
+or quiescent state of the volcano; but in place of overflowing,
+the column of melted rock, when the pressure becomes excessive,
+forces a passage through subterranean communications leading
+to the sea. One of these outbursts, which took place at an
+ancient wooded crater six miles east of Kilauea, was observed by
+Mr. Coan, a missionary, in June, 1840. Another indication of the
+subterranean progress of the lava took place a mile or two beyond
+this, in which the fiery flood spread itself over fifty acres of land, and
+then found its way underground for several miles further, to reappear
+at the bottom of a second ancient wooded crater which it partly
+filled up.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>The volcanic mountains of Java constitute the highest peaks of a
+mountain-range running through the island from east to west, on
+which Dr. Junghahn described and mapped forty-six conical eminences,
+ranging from 4,000 to 11,000 feet high. At the top of many
+of the loftiest of these Dr. Junghahn found the active cones and
+craters of small size, and surrounded by a plain of ashes and sand,
+which he calls the &#8220;old crater wall,&#8221; sometimes exceeding
+1,000<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+feet in vertical height, and many of the semicircular walls enclosing
+large cavities or <i>calderas</i>, four geographical miles in diameter. From
+the highest parts of many of these hollows rivers flow, which, in the
+course of ages, have cut out deep valleys in the mountain&#8217;s side.<a name="FNanchor_29"
+id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>To this rapid sketch of actually existing volcanic phenomena we
+may add a brief notice of submarine volcanoes. If these are known
+to us only in small numbers, the circumstance is explained by the
+fact that their appearance above the bosom of the sea is almost
+invariably followed by a more or less complete disappearance; at the
+same time such very striking and visible phenomena afford a sufficient
+proof of the continued persistence of volcanic action beneath the
+bed of the sea-basin. At various times islands have suddenly
+appeared, amid the ocean, at points where the navigator had not
+before noticed them. In this manner we have witnessed the island
+called Graham&#8217;s, Ferdinanda, or Julia, which suddenly appeared off
+the south-west coast Sicily in 1831, and was swept away by the
+waves two months afterwards.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30"
+class="fnanchor">[30]</a> At several periods also, and notably
+in 1811, new islands were formed in the Azores, which raised themselves
+above the waves by repeated efforts all round the islands, and
+at many other points.</p>
+
+<p>The island which appeared in 1796 ten leagues from the northern
+point of Unalaska, one of the Aleutian group of islands, is specially
+remarkable. We first see a column of smoke issuing from the bosom
+of the ocean, afterwards a black point appears, from which bundles
+of fiery sparks seem to rise over the surface of the sea. During the
+many months that these phenomena continue, the island increases in
+breadth and in height. Finally smoke only is seen; at the end of
+four years, even this last trace of volcanic convulsion altogether
+ceases. The island continued, nevertheless, to enlarge and to
+increase in height, and in 1806 it formed a cone, surmounted by
+four other smaller ones.</p>
+
+<p>In the space comprised between the isles of Santorin, Tharasia,
+and Aspronisi, in the Mediterranean, there arose, 160 years
+before our era, the island of <i>Hyera</i>, which was enlarged by the
+upheaval of islets on its margin during the years 19, 726, and
+1427. Again, in 1773, Micra-Kameni, and in 1707, Nea-Kameni,
+made their appearance. These islands increased in size successively
+in 1709, in 1711, in 1712. According to ancient writers, Santorin,
+Tharasia, and Aspronisi, made their appearance many ages before the
+Christian era, at the termination of earthquakes of great violence.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></p>
+<h3><span class="smcap">Metamorphic Rocks.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The rocks composing the terrestrial crust have not always remained
+in their original state. They have frequently undergone
+changes which have altogether modified their properties, physical
+and chemical.</p>
+
+<p>When they present these characteristics, we term them <i>Metamorphic
+Rocks</i>. The phenomena which belong to this subject are at
+once important and new, and have lately much attracted the attention
+of geologists. We shall best enlighten our readers on the metamorphism
+of rocks, if we treat of it under the heads of <i>special</i> and
+<i>general</i> metamorphism.</p>
+
+<p>When a mass of eruptive rock penetrates the terrestrial crust it
+subjects the rocks through which it passes to a special metamorphism&mdash;to
+the effects of <i>heat</i> produced by <i>contact</i>. Such effects may almost
+always be observed near the margin of masses of eruptive rock, and
+they are attributable either to the communicated heat of the eruptive
+rock itself, or to the disengagement of gases, of steam, or of mineral
+and thermal waters, which have accompanied its eruption. The
+effects vary not only with the rock ejected, but even with the nature
+of the rock surrounding it.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of volcanic lava ejected in a molten state, for instance,
+the modifications it effects on the surrounding rock are very characteristic.
+Its structure becomes prismatic, full of cracks, often cellular
+and scoriaceous. Wood and other combustibles touched by the lava
+are consumed or partially carbonised. Limestone assumes a granular
+and crystalline texture. Siliceous rocks are transformed, not only
+into quartz like glass, but they also combine with various bases, and
+yield vitreous and cellular silicates. It is nearly the same with
+argillaceous rocks, which adhere together, and frequently take the
+colour of red bricks.</p>
+
+<p>The surrounding rock is frequently impregnated with specular
+iron-ore, and penetrated with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, and by
+divers salts formed from these acids.</p>
+
+<p>At a certain distance from the place of contact with the lava, the
+action of water aided by heat produces silica, carbonate of lime,
+aragonite, zeolite, and various other minerals.</p>
+
+<p>From immediate contact with the lava, then, the metamorphic
+rocks denote the action of a very strong heat. They bear evident
+traces of calcination, of softening, and even of fusion. When they
+present themselves as hydrosilicates and carbonates, the silica and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+associated minerals are most frequently at some distance from the
+points of contact; and the formation of these minerals is probably
+due to the combination of water and heat, although this last ceases to
+be the principal agent.</p>
+
+<p>The hydrated volcanic rocks, such as the basalts and trappean
+rocks in general, continue to produce effects of metamorphism, in
+which heat operates, although its influence is inconsiderable, water
+being much the more powerful agent. The metamorphosis which is
+observable in the structure and mineralogical composition of neighbouring
+rocks is as follows:&mdash;The structure of separation becomes
+fragmentary, columnar, or many-sided, and even prismatic. It
+becomes especially prismatic in combustibles, in sandstones, in argillaceous
+formations, in felspathic rocks, and even in limestones.
+Prisms are formed perpendicular to the surface of contact, their
+length sometimes exceeding six feet. Most commonly they still
+contain water or volatile matter. These characters may be observed
+at the junction of the basalts which has been ejected upon the argillaceous
+strata near Clermont in Auvergne, at Polignac, and in the
+neighbourhood of Le Puy-en-Velay.</p>
+
+<p>If the vein of Basalt or Trap has traversed a bed of coal or of
+lignite, we find the combustible strongly <i>metamorphosed</i> at the point
+of contact. Sometimes it becomes cellular and is changed into <i>coke</i>.
+This is especially the case in the coal-basin of Brassac. But more
+frequently the coal has lost all, or part of, its bituminous and volatile
+matter&mdash;it has been metamorphosed into anthracite&mdash;as an example
+we may quote the lignite of Mont Meisner.</p>
+
+<p>Again, in some exceptional cases, the combustible may even be
+changed into graphite near to its junction with Trap. This is
+observed at the coal-mine of New Cumnock in Ayrshire.</p>
+
+<p>When near its junction with a <i>trappean</i> rock, a combustible has
+been metamorphosed into <i>coke</i> or anthracite, it is also frequently
+impregnated by hydrated oxide of iron, by clay, foliated carbonate of
+lime, iron pyrites, and by various mineral veins. It may happen that
+the combustible has been reduced to a pulverulent state, in which
+case it is unfit for use. Such is the case in a coal-mine at Newcastle,
+where the coal lies within thirty yards of a dyke of Trap.</p>
+
+<p>When Basalt and Trap have been ejected through limestone rock,
+the latter becomes more or less altered. Near the points of contact,
+the metamorphism which they have undergone is revealed by the
+change of colour and aspect, which is exhibited all around the vein,
+often also by the development of a crystalline structure. Limestone
+becomes granular and saccharoid&mdash;it is changed into marble. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+most remarkable instance of this metamorphism is the Carrara
+marble, a non-fossiliferous limestone of the Oolite series, which has
+been altered and the fossils destroyed; so that the marble of these
+celebrated quarries, once supposed to have been formed before the
+creation of organic beings, is now shown to be an altered limestone of
+the Oolitic period, and the underlying crystalline schists are sandstones
+and shales of secondary age modified by plutonic action.</p>
+
+<p>The action of basalt upon limestone is observable at Villeneuve de
+Berg, in Auvergne; but still more in the neighbourhood of Belfast,
+where we may see the Chalk changed into saccharoid limestone near
+to its contact with the Trap. Sometimes the metamorphism extends
+many feet from the point of contact; nay, more than that, some
+zeolites and other minerals seem to be developed in the crystallised
+limestone.</p>
+
+<p>When sandstone is found in contact with trappean rock, it presents
+unequivocal traces of metamorphism; it loses its reddish colour
+and becomes white, grey, green, or black; parallel veins may be
+detected which give it a jaspideous structure; it separates into prisms
+perpendicular to the walls of the injected veins, when it assumes a
+brilliant and vitreous lustre. Sometimes it is even also found penetrated
+by zeolites, a family of minerals which melt before the blowpipe
+with considerable ebullition. The mottled sandstones of Germany,
+which are traversed by veins of basalt, often exhibit metamorphism,
+particularly at Wildenstern, in W&uuml;rtemberg.</p>
+
+<p>Argillaceous rocks, like all others, are subject to metamorphism when
+they come in contact with eruptive trappean rocks. In these circumstances
+they change colour and assume a varied or prismatic structure;
+at the same time their hardness increases, and they become
+lithoidal or stony in structure. They may also become cellular&mdash;form
+zeolites in their cavities with foliated carbonate of lime, as well as
+minerals which commonly occur in amygdaloid. Sometimes even
+the fissures are coated by the metallic minerals, and the other minerals
+which accompany them in their metalliferous beds. Generally they lose
+a part of their water and of their carbonic acid. In other circumstances
+they combine with oxide of iron and the alkalies. This has been
+asserted, for example, at Essey, in the department of the Meurthe,
+where a very argillaceous sandstone is found, charged with jasper
+porcellanite, near to the junction of the rock with a vein of basalt.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto we have spoken only of the metamorphosis the result of
+volcanic action. A few words will suffice to acquaint the reader with
+the metamorphism exercised by the porphyries and granites. By
+contact with granite, we find coal changed into anthracite or graphite.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+It is important to note, however, that coal has seldom been metamorphosed
+into coke. As to the limestone, it is sometimes, as we have
+seen, transformed into marble; we even find in its interior divers
+minerals, notably silicates with a calcareous base, such as garnets,
+pyroxene, hornblende, &amp;c. The sandstones and clay-slates have
+alike been altered.</p>
+
+<p>The surrounding deposit and the eruptive rock are both frequently
+impregnated with quartz, carbonate of lime, sulphate of baryta,
+fluorides, and, in a word, with the whole tribe of metalliferous minerals,
+which present themselves, besides, with the characteristics which are
+common to them in the veins.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">General Metamorphism.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Sedimentary rocks sometimes exhibit all the symptoms of metamorphism
+where there is no evidence of direct eruptive action, and
+that upon a scale much grander than in the case of special metamorphism.
+It is observable over whole regions, in which it has
+modified and altered simultaneously all the surrounding rocks.
+This state of things is called general, or normal, metamorphism. The
+fundamental gneiss, which covers such a vast extent of country, is the
+most striking instance known of general metamorphism. It was first
+described by Sir W. E. Logan, Director of the Canadian Geological
+Survey, who estimates its thickness at 30,000 feet. The Laurentian
+Gneiss is a term which is used by geologists to designate those metamorphic
+rocks which are known to be older than the Cambrian
+system. They are parts of the old pre-Cambrian continents which lie
+at the base of the great American continent, Scandinavia, the
+Hebrides, &amp;c.; and which are largely developed on the west coast
+of Scotland. In order to give the reader some idea of this metamorphism,
+we shall endeavour to trace its effects in rocks of the same
+nature, indicating the characters successively presented by the rocks
+according to the intensity of the metamorphism to which they have
+been subjected.</p>
+
+<p>Combustibles, which have a special composition, totally different
+from all other rocks, are obviously the first objects of examination.
+When we descend in the series of sedimentary deposits, the combustibles
+are observed completely to change their characters. From the
+<i>peat</i> which is the product of our own epoch, we pass to <i>lignite</i>, to <i>coal</i>,
+to <i>anthracite</i>, and even to <i>graphite</i>; and find that their density
+increases, varying up to at least double. Hydrogen, nitrogen, and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+above all, oxygen, diminish rapidly. Volatile and bituminous matters
+decrease, while carbon undergoes a proportionate increase.</p>
+
+<p>This metamorphism of the combustible minerals, which takes place
+in deposits of different ages, may also be observed even in the same
+bed. For instance, in the coal formations of America, which extend
+to the west of the Alleghany mountains, the Coal-measures contain a
+certain proportion of volatile matter, which goes on diminishing in
+proportion as we approach the granite rocks; this proportion rises to
+fifty per cent. upon the Ohio, but it falls to forty upon the Manon-Gahela,
+and even to sixteen in the Alleghanies. Finally, in the
+regions where the strata have been most disturbed, in Pennsylvania
+and Massachusetts, the coal has been metamorphosed into anthracite
+and even into graphite or plumbago.</p>
+
+<p>Limestone is one of the rocks upon which we can most easily
+follow the effects of general metamorphism. When it has not been
+modified, it is usually found in sedimentary rocks in the state of
+compact limestone, of coarse limestone, or of earthy limestone such
+as chalk. But let us consider it in the mountains, especially in
+mountains which are at the same time granitic, such as the Pyrenees,
+the Vosges, and the Alps. We shall then see its characters completely
+modified. In the long and deep valleys of the Alps, for
+example, we can follow the alterations of the limestone for many
+leagues, the beds losing more and more their regularity in proportion
+as we approach the central chain, until they lose themselves in solitary
+pinnacles and projections enclosed in crystalline schists or granitic
+rocks. Towards the upper regions of the Alps the limestone divides
+itself into pseudo-regular fragments, it is more strongly cemented,
+more compact, more sonorous; its colour becomes paler, and it
+passes from black to grey by the gradual disappearance of organic
+and bituminous matter with which it has been impregnated, at the
+same time its crystalline structure increases in a manner scarcely
+perceptible. It may even be observed to be metamorphosed into
+an aggregate of microscopic crystals, and finally to pass into a white
+saccharoid limestone.</p>
+
+<p>This metamorphism is produced without any decomposition of the
+limestone; it has rather been softened and half melted by the heat,
+that is, rendered plastic, so to speak, for we find in it fossils still
+recognisable, and among these, notably, some Ammonites and Belemnites,
+the presence of which enables us to state that it is the greyish-black
+Jurassic limestone, which has been transformed into white
+saccharoid or granular limestone. If the limestone subjected to
+this transformation were perfectly pure, it would simply take a crystalline<span
+class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+structure; but it is generally mixed with sand and various
+argillaceous matters, which have been deposited along with it, matters
+which go to form new minerals. These new minerals, however, are not
+disseminated by chance; they develop themselves in the direction of
+the lamination, so to speak, of the limestone, and in its fissures, in
+such a manner that they present themselves in nodules, seams, and
+sometimes in veins.</p>
+
+<p>Among the principal minerals of the saccharoid limestone we may
+mention graphite, quartz, some very varied silicates, such as andalusite,
+disthene, serpentine, talc, garnet, augite, hornblende, epidote, chlorite,
+the micas, the felspars; finally, spinel, corundum, phosphate of
+lime, oxide of iron and oligiste, iron pyrites, &amp;c. Besides these,
+various minerals in veins figure among those which exist more
+commonly in the saccharoid limestone.</p>
+
+<p>When metamorphic limestone is sufficiently pure, it is employed as
+statuary marble. Such is the geological origin of Carrara marble,
+which is quarried in the Apuan Alps on a great scale; such, also, was
+the marble of Paros and Antiparos, still so celebrated for its purity.
+On examination, however, with the lens the Carrara marble exhibits
+blackish veins and spangles of graphite; the finest blocks, also, frequently
+contain nodules of ironstone, which are lined with perfectly
+limpid crystals of quartz. These accidental defects are very annoying
+to the sculptor, for they are very minute, and nothing on the exterior
+of the block betrays their existence. In the marble of Paros, even
+when it is strongly translucent, specks of mica are often found. In the
+ancient quarries the nodules are so numerous as to have hindered
+their being worked, up even to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>When the mica which occurs in granular limestone takes a green
+colour and forms veins, it constitutes the Cipoline marble, which is
+found in Corsica, and in the Val Godemar in the Alps. Some white
+marbles are quarried in France, chiefly at Loubie, at Sost, at Saint-B&eacute;at
+in the Pyrenees, and at Chippal in the Vosges. In our country,
+and especially in Ireland, there are numerous quarries of marble,
+veined and coloured of every hue, but none of a purity suitable
+for the finest statuary purposes. All these marbles are only metamorphosed
+limestones.</p>
+
+<p>The white marbles employed almost all over the world are those
+of Carrara. They result from the metamorphism of limestone of the
+Lias. They have not been penetrated by the eruptive rocks, but
+they have been subjected upon a great scale to a general metamorphism,
+to which their crystalline structure may be attributed.</p>
+
+<p>It is easily understood that the calcareous strata have not
+undergone<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+such an energetic metamorphism without the beds of sandstone
+and clay, associated with them, having also undergone some modification
+of the same kind. The siliceous beds accompanying the
+saccharoid limestone have, in short, a character of their own. They
+are formed of small grains of transparent quartz more or less cemented
+one to the other in a manner strongly resembling those of the saccharoid
+limestone. Between these grains are usually developed
+some lamell&aelig; of mica of brilliant and silky lustre, of which the colour
+is white, red, or green; in a word, it has produced a <i>quartzite</i>. Some
+veins of quartz frequently traverse this quartzite in all directions.
+Independent of the mica, it may contain, besides, the different
+minerals already mentioned as occurring in the limestone, and particularly
+silicates&mdash;such as disthene, andalusite, staurotide, garnet, and
+hornblende.</p>
+
+<p>The argillaceous beds present a series of metamorphisms analogous
+to the preceding. We can follow them readily through all their
+gradations when we direct our attention towards such granitic masses
+as those which constitute the Alps, Pyrenees, the Bretagne Mountains,
+or our own Grampians. The schists may perhaps be considered the
+first step towards the metamorphism of certain argillaceous rocks; in
+fact, the schists are not susceptible of mixing with water like clay; they
+become stony, and acquire a much greater density, but their chief
+characteristic is a foliated structure.</p>
+
+<p>Experiment proves that when we subject a substance to a great
+pressure a foliated structure is produced in a direction perpendicular
+to that in which the pressure is exercised. Everything leads us,
+therefore, to believe that pressure is the principal cause of the
+schistous texture, and of the foliation of clay-slates, the most characteristic
+variety of which is the roofing-slate which is quarried so
+extensively in North Wales, in Cumberland, and various parts of Scotland
+in the British Islands; in the Ardennes; and in the neighbourhood
+of Angers, in France.</p>
+
+<p>In some localities the slate becomes siliceous and is charged with
+crystals of felspar. Nevertheless, it still presents itself in parallel
+beds, and contains the same fossil remains still in a recognisable state.
+For example, in the neighbourhood of Thann, in the Vosges, certain
+vegetable imprints are perfectly preserved in the metamorphic schist,
+and in their midst are developed some crystals of felspar.</p>
+
+<p>Mica-schist, which is formed of layers of quartz and mica, is
+found habitually associated with rocks which have taken a crystalline
+structure, proceeding evidently from an energetic metamorphism of
+beds originally argillaceous. Chiastolite, disthene, staurotide,
+hornblende,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+and other minerals are found in it. Mica-schists occur
+extensively in Brittany, in the Vosges, in the Pyrenees. In all cases,
+as we approach the masses of granite, in these regions, the crystalline
+structure becomes more and more marked.</p>
+
+<p>In describing the various facts relating to the metamorphism of
+rocks, we have said little of the causes which have produced it. The
+causes are, indeed, in the region of hypothesis, and somewhat
+mysterious.</p>
+
+<p>In what concerns special metamorphism, the cause is supposed to
+admit of easy explanation&mdash;it is heat. When a rock is ejected from
+the interior of the earth in a state of igneous fusion, we comprehend
+readily enough that the strata, which it traverses, should sustain alterations
+due to the influence of heat, and varying with its intensity. This
+is clear enough in the case of <i>lava</i>. On the other hand, as water
+always exists in the interior of the earth&#8217;s crust, and as this water
+must be at a very high temperature in the neighbourhood of volcanic
+fires, it contributes, no doubt, largely to the metamorphism. If the
+rocks have not been ejected in a state of fusion, it is evidently water,
+with the different mineral substances it holds in solution, which is the
+chief actor in the special metamorphism which is produced.</p>
+
+<p>In general metamorphism, water appears still to be the principal
+agent. As it is infiltered through the various beds it will modify
+their composition, either by dissolving certain substances, or by introducing
+into the metalliferous deposits certain new substances, such
+as may be seen forming, even under our eyes, in mineral springs.
+This has tended to render the sedimentary deposits plastic, and has
+permitted the development of that crystalline structure, which is one
+of the principal characteristics of metamorphic rocks. This action
+has been seconded by other causes, notably by heat and pressure,
+which would have an immense increase of power and energy when
+metamorphism takes place at a great depth beneath the surface. Dr.
+Holl, in an able paper descriptive of the geology of the Malvern
+Hills, read before the Geological Society in February, 1865, adopts
+this hypothesis as explanatory of the vast phenomena which are there
+displayed. After describing the position of this interesting and
+strangely-mingled range of rocks, he adds: &#8220;These metamorphic
+rocks are for the most part highly inclined, and often in a position
+nearly vertical. Their disturbance and metamorphism, their being
+traversed by granitic veins, and still later their invasion by trap-dykes
+and their subsequent elevation above the sea-level, were all
+events which must have occupied no inconsiderable period, even of
+geological time. I presume,&#8221; he adds, &#8220;that it will not be
+maintained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+in the present day that the metamorphism of rocks over areas
+of any but very moderate extent is due to the intrusion of veins and
+erupted masses. The insufficiency of such agency becomes the more
+obvious when we consider the slight effects produced by even tolerably
+extensive outbursts, such as the Dartmoor granite; while in the case
+of the Malverns there is an absence of any local cause whatever.
+The more probable explanation in the case of these larger areas is,
+that they were faulted down, or otherwise depressed, so as to be
+brought within the influence of the earth&#8217;s internal heat, and this is
+the more likely as they belong to an epoch when the crust is believed
+to have been thinner.&#8221; When it is considered that, according to the
+doctrine of modern geology, the Laurentian rocks, or their equivalents,
+lie at the base of all the sedimentary deposits; that this, like
+other systems of stratified rocks, was deposited in the form of
+sand, mud, and clay, to the thickness of 30,000 feet; and that
+over an area embracing Scandinavia, the Hebrides, great part of
+Scotland, and England as far south as the Malverns, besides a large
+proportion of the American continent, with certain forms of animal
+life, as recent investigations demonstrate&mdash;can the mind of man
+realise any other cause by which this vast extent of metamorphism
+could have been produced?</p>
+
+<p>Electric and galvanic currents, circulating in the stratified crust,
+are not to be overlooked. The experiments of Mr. R. W. Fox and
+Mr. Robert Hunt suggest that, in passing long-continued galvanic
+currents through masses of moistened clay, there is a tendency to
+produce cleavage and a semi-crystalline arrangement of the particles
+of matter.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<hr class="footnote" />
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Lyell&#8217;s
+&#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 694.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
+&#8220;Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain,&#8221; by A. C. Ramsay,
+p. 38, 2nd ed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> At the same time it may be
+safely assumed (as Professor Ramsay believes to
+be the case) that granite in most cases is a metamorphic rock; yet are there many
+instances in which it may with greater truth be considered as a true plutonic rock.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of
+Geology,&#8221; p. 716, 6th edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of
+Geology,&#8221; p. 717.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Ibid, p. 718.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> &#8220;Geology of the Island of
+Arran,&#8221; by Andrew C. Ramsay. &#8220;Geology of
+Arran and Clydesdale,&#8221; by James Bryce.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See <i>Quarterly Journal of
+Geological Society</i>, vol. viii., pp. 9 and 10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> For full information in reference
+to the rocks and geology of this part of
+France, the reader is referred to the masterly work on &#8220;The Geology and
+Extinct Volcanoes of Central France,&#8221; by G. Poulett Scrope, 2nd edition, 1858.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> &#8220;Volcanoes,&#8221;
+2nd ed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of
+Geology,&#8221; p. 596.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Ibid, p. 677.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> &#8220;Cosmos,&#8221; vol.
+i., p. 25. Bohn.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> &#8220;Cosmos,&#8221; vol. i.,
+p. 237.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Darwin&#8217;s
+&#8220;Journal,&#8221; p. 291, 2nd edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of
+Geology,&#8221; p. 732.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Ibid, p. 733.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Lyell&#8217;s &#8220;Elements
+of Geology,&#8221; p. 617.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Lyell&#8217;s &#8220;Elements of
+Geology,&#8221; p. 620.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Ibid, p. 620.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Report of the Royal Cornwall
+Polytechnic Society for 1837. Robert Hunt,
+in &#8220;Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain,&#8221; vol. i., p. 433.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></p>
+<h2>THE BEGINNING.</h2>
+
+<p>The theory which has been developed, and which considers the
+earth as an extinct sun, as a star cooled down from its original heated
+condition, as a nebula, or luminous cloud, which has passed from
+the gaseous to the solid state&mdash;this fine conception, which unites so
+brilliantly the kindred sciences of astronomy and geology, belongs
+to the French mathematician, Laplace, the immortal author of the
+&#8220;M&eacute;canique C&eacute;leste.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The hypothesis of Laplace assigns to the sun, and to all bodies
+which gravitate in what Descartes calls his <i>tourbillon</i>, a common
+origin. &#8220;In the primitive state in which we must suppose the sun to
+be,&#8221; he says, &#8220;it resembles one of those nebul&aelig; which the telescope
+reveals to us, consisting of a more or less brilliant central <i>nucleus</i>,
+surrounded by luminous clouds, which clouds, condensing at the
+surface, become transformed into a star.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a>
+<img src="images/illo093.jpg" alt="Fig. 12" width="450" height="373" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Comparative volume of the earth in the gaseous and solid state.</p></div>
+
+<p>It has been calculated that the centre of the earth has a
+temperature of about 195,000&deg; Cent., a degree of heat which
+surpasses all that the imagination can conceive. We can have no
+difficulty in admitting that, at a heat so excessive, all the substances
+which now enter into the composition of the globe would be
+reduced to the state of gas or vapour. Our planet, then, must
+have been originally an aggregation of a&euml;riform fluids&mdash;a mass of
+matter entirely gaseous; and if we reflect that substances in their
+gaseous state occupy a volume eighteen hundred times larger than
+when solid, we shall have some conception of the enormous volume
+of this gaseous mass. It would be as large as the sun, which is
+fourteen hundred thousand times larger than the terrestrial sphere.
+In <a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a> we have attempted to give an idea of the vast difference of
+volume between the earth in its present solid state and in its
+primitive gaseous condition. One of the globes, A, represents the
+former, B the latter. It is simply a comparison of size, which is made
+the more strikingly apparent by means of these geometrical
+figures&mdash;one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82"
+id="Page_82"></a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+the twentieth part of an inch in diameter, the other two inches
+and three quarters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_VI" id="Plate_VI"></a>
+<img src="images/illo092.jpg" alt="Plate VI" width="600" height="380" />
+<p class="caption">VI.&mdash;The Earth circulating in space in the state of a gaseous star.</p></div>
+
+<p>At this excessive temperature the gaseous mass, which we have
+described, would shine in space as the sun does at the present day;
+and with the same brilliancy as that with which, to our eyes, the fixed
+stars and planets shine in the serenity of night, as represented on the
+opposite page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI.</a></span>). Circulating round the sun in obedience
+to the laws of universal gravitation, this incandescent gaseous
+mass was necessarily regulated by the laws which govern other
+material substances. As it got cooler it gradually transferred part of
+its warmth to the glacial regions of the inter-planetary spaces, in the
+midst of which it traced the line of its flaming orbit. Consequent on
+its continual cooling (but at the end of a period of time of which it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+would be impossible, even approximately, to fix the duration), the
+star, originally gaseous, would attain a liquid state. It would then
+be considerably diminished in volume.</p>
+
+<p>The laws of mechanics teach us that liquid bodies, when in a
+state of rotation, assume a spherical form; it is one of the laws of
+their being, emanating from the Creator, and is due to the force of
+attraction. Thus the Earth takes the spheroidal form, belonging to
+it, in common with the greater number of the celestial bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The Earth is subject to two distinct movements; namely, a movement
+of translation round the sun, and a movement of rotation on
+its own axis&mdash;the latter a uniform movement, which produces the
+regular alternations of days and nights. Mechanics have also established
+the fact, which is confirmed by experiment, that a fluid mass
+in motion produces (as the result of the variation of the centrifugal
+force on its different diameters), a swelling towards the equatorial
+diameter of the sphere, and a flattening at the poles or extremities
+of its axis. It is in consequence of this law, that the Earth, when it
+was in a liquid state, became swollen at the equator, and depressed at
+its two poles; and that it has passed from its primitive spherical form
+to the spheroidal&mdash;that is, has become flattened at each of its polar
+extremities, and has assumed its present shape of an oblate spheroid.</p>
+
+<p>This bulging at the equator and flattening towards the poles
+afford the most direct proofs, that can be adduced, of the original
+liquid state of our planet. A solid and non-elastic sphere&mdash;a stone
+ball, for example&mdash;might turn for ages upon its axis, and its form
+would sustain no change; but a fluid ball, or one of a pasty consistence,
+would swell out towards the middle, and, in the same proportion,
+become flattened at the extremities of its axis. It was upon
+this principle, namely, by admitting the primitive fluidity of the
+globe, that Newton announced <i>&agrave; priori</i> the bulging of the globe at
+the equator and its flattening at the poles; and he even calculated
+the amount of this depression. The actual measurement, both of
+this expansion and flattening, by Maupertuis, Clairaut, Camus, and
+Lemonnier, in 1736, proved how exact the calculations of the great
+geometrican were. Those gentlemen, together with the Abb&eacute; Outhier,
+were sent into Lapland by the Academy of Sciences; the Swedish
+astronomer, Celsius, accompanied them, and furnished them with
+the best instruments for measuring and surveying. At the same time
+the Academy sent Bouguer and Condamine to the equatorial regions
+of South America. The measurements taken in both these regions
+established the existence of the equatorial expansion and the polar
+depression, as Newton had estimated it to be in his calculations.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>It does not follow, as a consequence of the partial cooling down
+of the terrestrial mass, that all the gaseous substances composing it
+should pass into a liquid state; some of these might remain in the
+state of gas or vapour, and form round the terrestrial spheroid an
+outer envelope or <i>atmosphere</i> (from the Greek words &#945;&#964;&#956;&#959;&#962;, <i>vapour</i>,
+and &#963;&#966;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#945;, <i>sphere</i>). But we should form a very inexact idea of the
+atmosphere which surrounded the globe, at this remote period, if we
+compared it with that which surrounds it now. The extent of the
+gaseous matter which enveloped the primitive earth must have been
+immense; it doubtless extended to the moon. It included, in
+short, in the state of vapour, the enormous body of water which, as
+such, now constitutes our existing seas, added to all the other
+substances which preserve their gaseous state at the temperature then
+exhibited by the incandescent earth; and it is certainly no exaggeration
+to place this temperature at 2,000&deg; Centigrade. The atmosphere
+would participate in this temperature; and acted on by such
+excessive heat, the pressure that it would exert on the Earth would
+be infinitely greater than that which it exercises at the present time.
+To the gases which form the component parts of the present
+atmospheric air&mdash;namely, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic acid&mdash;to
+enormous masses of watery vapour, must be added vast quantities of
+mineral substances, metallic or earthy, reduced to a gaseous state,
+and maintained in that state by the temperature of this gigantic
+furnace. The metals, the chlorides&mdash;metallic, alkaline, and earthy&mdash;sulphur,
+the sulphides, and even the silicates of alumina and lime;
+all, at this temperature, would exist in a vaporous form in the atmosphere
+surrounding the primitive globe.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be inferred that, under these circumstances, the different
+substances composing this atmosphere would be ranged round the
+globe in the order of their respective densities; the first layer&mdash;that
+nearest to the surface of the globe&mdash;being formed of the heavier
+vapours, such as those of the metals, of iron, platinum, and copper,
+mixed doubtless with clouds of fine metallic dust produced by the
+partial condensation of their vapours. This first and heaviest zone,
+and the thickest also, would be quite opaque, although the surface of
+the earth was still at a red heat. Above it would come the more
+vaporisable substances, such as the metallic and alkaline chlorides,
+particularly the chloride of sodium or common salt, sulphur and
+phosphorus, with all the volatile combinations of these substances.
+The upper zone would contain matter still more easily converted into
+vapour, such as water (steam), together with others naturally gaseous,
+as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid. This order of superposition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+however, would not always be preserved. In spite of their differences
+of density, these three atmospheric layers would often become mixed,
+producing formidable storms and violent ebullitions; frequently
+throwing down, rending, upheaving, and confounding these incandescent
+zones.</p>
+
+<p>As to the globe itself, without being so much agitated as its hot
+and shifting atmosphere, it would be no less subject to perpetual
+tempests, occasioned by the thousand chemical actions which took
+place in its molten mass. On the other hand, the electricity resulting
+from these powerful chemical actions, operating on such a vast scale,
+would induce frightful electric detonations, thunder adding to the
+horror of this primitive scene, which no imagination, no human
+pencil could trace, and which constitutes that gloomy and disastrous
+chaos of which the legendary history of every ancient
+race has transmitted the tradition. In this manner would our globe
+circulate in space, carrying in its train the flaming streaks of its
+multiple atmosphere, unfitted, as yet, for living beings, and impenetrable
+to the rays of the sun, around which it described its vast
+orbit.</p>
+
+<p>The temperature of the planetary regions is infinitely low;
+according to Laplace it cannot be estimated at less than 100&deg;
+below zero. The glacial regions traversed in its course by the
+incandescent globe would necessarily cool it, at first superficially,
+when it would assume a pasty consistence. It must not be forgotten
+that the earth, on account of its liquid state, would be obedient in all
+its mass to the action of flux and reflux, which proceeds from the
+attraction of the sun and moon, but to which the sea alone is now
+subject. This action, to which all its liquid and movable particles
+were subject, would singularly accelerate the commencement of the
+solidification of the terrestrial mass. It would thus gradually assume
+that sort of consistence which iron attains, when it is first withdrawn
+from the furnace, in the process of puddling.</p>
+
+<p>As the earth cooled, beds of concrete substances would necessarily
+be formed, which, floating at first in isolated masses on the
+surface of the semi-fluid matter, would in course of time come
+together, consolidate, and form continuous banks; just as we see
+with the ice of the present Polar Seas, which, when brought in
+contact by the agitation of the waves, coalesces and forms icebergs,
+more or less movable. By extending this phenomenon to the whole
+surface of the globe, the solidification of its entire surface would be
+produced. A solid, but still thin and fragile crust, would thus
+envelop the whole earth, enclosing entirely its still fluid interior.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+The entire consolidation
+would necessarily
+be a much
+slower process&mdash;one
+which, according to
+the received hypothesis,
+is very far from
+being completed at
+the present time; for
+it is estimated that the
+actual thickness of
+the earth&#8217;s crust does
+not exceed thirty
+miles, while the mean
+radius or distance
+from the centre of the
+terrestrial sphere, approaches
+4,000 miles,
+the mean diameter
+being 7,912&middot;409
+miles; so that the
+portion of our planet,
+supposed to be solidified,
+represents only
+a very small fraction
+of its total mass.</p>
+
+<p>We say thirty miles,
+for such is the ordinary
+estimated thickness
+of the earth&#8217;s
+crust, usually admitted
+by savants;
+and the following is
+the process by which
+this result has been
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>We know that the
+temperature of the
+earth increases one
+degree Centigrade for
+every hundred feet of
+descent. This result<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+has been borne out by a great number of measurements, made in
+many of the mines of France, in the tin mines of Cornwall, in the
+mines of the Erzgeberge, of the Ural, of Scotland, and, above all, in
+the soundings effected in the Artesian wells of Grenelle and Passy, near
+Paris, of St. Andr&eacute; de Iregny, and at a great number of other points.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest depth to which miners have hitherto penetrated is
+about 973 yards, which has been reached in a boring executed in
+Monderf, in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. At Neusalzwerk, near
+Minden, in Prussia, another boring has been carried to the depth of
+760 yards. In the coal-mines of Monkwearmouth the pits have been
+sunk 525 yards, and at Dukinfield 717 yards. The mean of the
+thermometic observations made, at all these points, leads to the
+conclusion that the temperature increases about one degree Fahrenheit
+for every sixty feet (English) of descent after the first hundred.</p>
+
+<p>In admitting that this law of temperature exists for all depths of the
+earth&#8217;s crust, we arrive at the conclusion that, at a depth of from
+twenty-five to thirty-five miles&mdash;which is only about five times the
+height of the highest mountains&mdash;the most refractory matter would be in
+a state of fusion. According to M. Mitscherlich, the flame of hydrogen,
+burning in free air, acquires a temperature of 1,560&deg; Centigrade. In
+this flame platinum would be in a state of fusion. Granite melts at a
+lower temperature than soft iron, that is at about 1,300&deg;; while silver
+melts at 1,023&deg;. In imagining an increase of temperature equal to one
+degree for every hundred feet of descent, the temperature at twenty-five
+miles will be 1,420&deg; C. or 2,925&deg; F.; thirty miles below the surface
+there will be a probable temperature of 1,584&deg; C. or 3,630&deg; F.;
+it follows, if these arguments be admitted, and the calculation correct,
+that the thickness of the solid crust of the globe does not much
+exceed thirty miles.</p>
+
+<p>This result, which gives to the terrestrial crust a thickness equal
+to <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>190</sub> of the earth&#8217;s diameter, has nothing, it is true, of absolute
+certainty.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. W. Hopkins, F.R.S., an eminent mathematician, has much
+insisted upon the fact, that the conductibility of granite rocks, for heat,
+is much greater than that of sedimentary rocks; and he argues that in
+the lower stratum of the earth the temperature increases much more
+slowly than it does nearer the surface. This consideration has led
+Mr. Hopkins to estimate the probable thickness of the earth&#8217;s solid
+crust at a minimum of 200 miles.</p>
+
+<p>In support of this estimate Mr. Hopkins puts forward another
+argument, based upon the precession of the equinoxes. We know
+that the terrestrial axis, instead of always preserving the same
+direction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+in space, revolves in a cone round the pole of the ecliptic. Our
+globe, it is calculated, will accomplish its revolution in about 25,000
+years. In about this period it will return to its original position.
+This balancing, which has been compared to that of a top when about
+to cease spinning, produces the movement known as the <i>precession of
+the equinoxes</i>. It is due to the attraction which the sun and moon
+exercise upon the swelling equatorial of the globe. This attraction
+would act very differently upon a globe entirely solid, and upon one
+with a liquid interior, covered by a comparatively thin crust. Mr.
+Hopkins subjected this curious problem to mathematical analysis,
+and he calculated that the precession of the equinoxes, observed by
+astronomers, could only be explained by admitting that the solid
+shell of the earth could not be less than from about 800 to 1,000
+miles in thickness.</p>
+
+<p>In his researches on the <i>rigidity of the earth</i>, Sir William Thomson
+finds that the phenomena of precession and nutation require that the
+earth, if not solid to the core, must be nearly so; and that no continuous
+liquid vesicle at all approaching 6,000 miles in diameter can
+possibly exist in the earth&#8217;s interior, without rendering the phenomena
+in question very sensibly different from what they are.</p>
+
+<p>The calculations of Mr. Hennessey are in direct opposition to
+those of Sir William Thomson, and show that the earth&#8217;s crust cannot
+be less than eighteen miles, or more than 600 miles in thickness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a>
+<img src="images/illo097.png" alt="Fig. 13" width="241" height="550" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Relative volumes of the solid crust and liquid mass of the globe.</p></div>
+
+<p>Admitting, for the present, that the terrestrial crust is only thirty
+miles in thickness, we can express in a familiar, but very intelligible
+fashion, the actual relation between the dimensions of the liquid nucleus
+and the solid crust of the earth. If we imagine the earth to be an orange,
+a tolerably thick sheet of paper applied to its surface will then represent,
+approximately, the thickness of the solid crust which now
+envelopes the globe. <a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a> will enable us to appreciate this fact
+still more correctly. The terrestrial sphere having a mean diameter
+of 7,912 miles, or a mean radius of 3,956 miles, and a solid crust
+about thirty miles thick, which is <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>260</sub> of the diameter, or <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>130</sub> of
+the radius, the engraving may be presumed to represent these proportions
+with sufficient accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>To determine, even approximately, the time such a vast body
+would take in cooling, so as to permit of the formation of a solid
+crust, or to fix the duration of the transformations which we are
+describing, would be an impossible task.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a>
+<img src="images/illo100.png" alt="Fig. 14" width="450" height="296" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;Formation of primitive granitic mountains.</p></div>
+
+<p>The first terrestrial crust formed, as indicated, would be incapable
+of resisting the waves of the ocean of internal fire, which would
+be depressed and raised up at its daily flux and reflux in obedience<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+to the attraction of the sun and moon. Who can trace,
+even in imagination, the fearful rendings, the gigantic inundations,
+which would result from these movements! Who would dare to
+paint the sublime horrors of these first mysterious convulsions of the
+globe! Amid torrents of molten matter, mixed with gases, upheaving
+and piercing the scarcely consolidated crust, large crevices would
+be opened, and through these gaping cracks waves of liquid granite
+would be ejected, and then left to cool and consolidate on the
+surface. <a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a> represents the formation of a primitive granitic
+mountain, by the eruption of the internal granitic matter which forces
+its way to the surface through a fracture in the crust. In some of these
+mountains, Ben Nevis for example, three different stages of the eruption
+can be traced. &#8220;Ben Nevis, now the undoubted monarch of the Scottish
+mountains,&#8221; says Nicol, &#8220;shows well the diverse age and relations of
+igneous rocks. The Great Moor from Inverlochy and Fort William
+to the foot of the hill is gneiss. Breaking through, and partly resting
+on the gneiss is granite, forming the lower two-thirds of the mountain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+up to the small tarn on the shoulder of the hill. Higher still is the
+huge prism of porphyry, rising steep and rugged all around.&#8221; In
+this manner would the first mountains be formed. In this way, also,
+might some metallic veins be ejected through the smaller openings,
+true injections of eruptive matter produced from the interior of the
+globe, traversing the primitive rocks and constituting the precious
+depository of metals, such as copper, zinc, antimony, and lead. <a href="#Fig_15">Fig.
+15</a> represents the internal structure of some of these metallic veins.
+In this case the fracture is only a fissure in the rock, which soon
+became filled with injected matter, often of different kinds, which
+in crystallising would completely fill the hollow of this cleft, or crack;
+but sometimes forming cavities or geodes as a result of the contraction
+of the mass.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a>
+<img src="images/illo101.png" alt="Fig. 15" width="450" height="358" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Metallic veins.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>But some eruptions of granitic and other substances, ejected from
+the interior, never reach the surface at all. In such cases the clefts
+and crevices&mdash;longitudinal or oblique&mdash;are filled, but the fissures
+in the crust do not themselves extend to the surface. <a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a> represents
+an eruption of granite through a mass of sedimentary rock&mdash;the
+granite ejected from the centre fills all the clefts and fractures, but it
+has not been sufficiently powerful to force its way to the surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a>
+<img src="images/illo102.png" alt="Fig. 16" width="450" height="279" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Eruption of granite.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the surface of the earth, then, which would be at first smooth
+and unbroken, there were formed, from the very beginning, swelling
+eminences, hollows, foldings, corrugations, and crevices, which would
+materially alter its original aspect; its arid and burning surface
+bristled with rugged protuberances, or was traversed by enormous
+fissures and cracks. Nevertheless, as the globe continued to cool, a
+time arrived when its temperature became insufficient to maintain, in
+a state of vapour, the vast masses of water which floated in the
+atmosphere. These vapours would pass into the liquid state, and
+then the first rain fell upon the earth. Let us here remark that these
+were veritable rains of boiling water; for in consequence of the very
+considerable pressure of the atmosphere, water would be condensed
+and become liquid at a temperature much above 100&deg; Centigrade
+(212&deg; Fahr.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_VII" id="Plate_VII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo104.png" alt="Plate VII" width="600" height="383" />
+<p class="caption">VII.&mdash;Condensation and rainfall on the primitive globe.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>The
+first drop of water, which fell upon the still heated terrestrial
+sphere, marked a new period in its evolution&mdash;a period the mechanical
+and chemical effects of which it is important to analyse. The contact
+of the condensed water with the consolidated surface of the globe
+opens up a series of modifications of which science may undertake the
+examination with a degree of confidence, or at least with more
+positive elements of appreciation than any we possess for the period
+of chaos; some of the features of which we have attempted to represent,
+leaving of necessity much to the imagination, and for the reader
+to interpret after his own fashion.</p>
+
+<p>The first water which fell, in the liquid state, upon the slightly
+cooled surface of the earth would be rapidly converted into steam
+by the elevation of its temperature. Thus, rendered much lighter
+than the surrounding atmosphere, these vapours would rise to the
+utmost limits of the atmosphere, where they would become condensed
+afresh, in consequence of their radiation towards the glacial
+regions of space; condensing again, they would re-descend to the earth
+in a liquid state, to re-ascend as vapour and fall in a state of condensation.
+But all these changes, in the physical condition of the
+water, could only be maintained by withdrawing a very considerable
+amount of heat from the surface of the globe, whose cooling would
+be greatly hastened by these continual alternations of heat and cold;
+its heat would thus become gradually dissipated and lost in the
+regions of celestial space.</p>
+
+<p>This phenomenon extending itself by degrees to the whole mass
+of watery vapour existing in the atmosphere, the waters covered the
+earth in increasing quantities; and as the conversion of all liquids
+into vapour is provocative of a notable disengagement of electricity,
+a vast quantity of electric fluid necessarily resulted from the conversion
+of such large masses of water into vapour. Bursts of thunder,
+and bright flashes of lightning were the necessary accompaniments
+of this extraordinary struggle of the elements&mdash;a state of things
+which M. Maurando has attempted to represent on the opposite
+page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII.</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>How long did this struggle for supremacy between fire and water,
+with the incessant noise of thunder, continue? All that can be
+said in reply is, that a time came when water was triumphant. After
+having covered vast areas on the surface of the earth, it finally
+occupied and entirely covered the whole surface; for there is good
+reason to believe that at a certain epoch, at the commencement, so to
+speak, of its evolution; the earth was covered by water over its whole
+extent. The ocean was universal. From this moment our globe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+entered on a regular series of revolutions, interrupted only by the
+outbreaks of the internal fires which were concealed beneath its still
+imperfectly consolidated crust.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;At the early periods in which the materials of the ancient crystalline
+schists were accumulated, it cannot be doubted that the chemical
+processes which generated silicates were much more active than in
+more recent times. The heat of the earth&#8217;s crust was probably then
+far greater than at present, while a high temperature prevailed at
+comparatively small depths, and thermal waters abounded. A denser
+atmosphere, charged with carbonic acid gas, must also have contributed
+to maintain, at the earth&#8217;s surface, a greater degree of heat,
+though one not incompatible with the existence of organic life.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;These conditions must have favoured many chemical processes,
+which in later times have nearly ceased to operate. Hence we
+find that subsequently to the eozoic times, silicated rocks of clearly
+marked chemical origin are comparatively rare.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_32"
+id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<p>In order to comprehend the complex action, now mechanical,
+now chemical, which the waters, still in a heated state, exercised on
+the solid crust, let us consider what were the components of this crust.
+The rocks which formed its first <i>stratum</i>&mdash;the framework of the earth,
+the foundation upon which all others repose&mdash;may be presumed to
+have been a compound which, in varying proportions, forms granite
+and gneiss, and has latterly been designated by geologists Laurentian.</p>
+
+<p>What is this gneiss, this granite, speaking of it with reference to
+its mineralogical character? It is a combination of silicates, with a
+base of alumina, potash, soda, and sometimes lime&mdash;<i>quartz</i>, <i>felspar</i>,
+and <i>mica</i> form, by their simple aggregation, <i>granite</i>&mdash;it is thus a
+ternary combination, or composed of three minerals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quartz</i>, the most abundant of all minerals, is silica more or less
+pure and often crystallised. <i>Felspar</i> is a crystalline or crystallised
+mineral, composed of <i>silicate</i> of alumina, potash, soda, or lime;
+potash-felspar is called <i>orthoclase</i>, soda-felspar <i>albite</i>, lime-felspar
+<i>anorthite</i>. <i>Mica</i> is a silicate of alumina and potash, containing magnesia
+and oxide of iron; it takes its name from the Latin <i>micare</i>, to
+shine or glitter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Granite</i> (from the Italian <i>grano</i>, being granular in its structure)
+is, then, a compound rock, formed of felspar, quartz, and mica, and
+the three constituent minerals are more or less crystalline. <i>Gneiss</i> is
+a schistose variety of granite, and composed of the same minerals;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+the only difference between the two rocks (whatever may be their
+difference of origin) being that the constituent minerals, instead of
+being confusedly aggregated, as in granite, assume a foliated texture in
+gneiss. This foliated structure leads sometimes to gneiss being called
+<i>stratified granite</i>. &#8220;The term gneiss originated with the Freiberg
+miners, who from ancient times have used it to designate the rock in
+which their veins of silver-ore were found.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_33"
+id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>The felspar, which enters into the composition of granite, is a
+mineral that is easily decomposed by water, either cold or boiling,
+or by the water of springs rich in carbonic acid. The chemical
+action of carbonic acid and water, and the action (at once chemical
+and mechanical) of the hot water in the primitive seas, powerfully
+modified the granitic rocks which lay beneath them. The warm rains
+which fell upon the mountain-peaks and granitic pinnacles, the
+torrents of rain which fell upon the slopes or in the valleys, dissolved
+the several alkaline silicates which constitute felspar and mica, and
+swept them away to form elsewhere strata of clay and sand; thus
+were the first modifications in the primitive rocks produced by the
+united action of air and water, and thus were the first sedimentary
+rocks deposited from the oceanic waters.</p>
+
+<p>The argillaceous deposits produced by this decomposition of the
+felspathic and micaceous rocks would participate in the still heated
+temperature of the globe&mdash;would be again subjected to long continued
+heat; and when they became cool again, they would assume,
+by a kind of semi-crystallisation, that parallel structure which is called
+foliation. All foliated rocks, then, are metamorphic, and the result of
+a metamorphic action to which sedimentary strata (and even some
+eruptive rocks) have been subjected subsequently to their deposition
+and consolidation, and which has produced a re-arrangement of their
+component mineral particles, and frequently, if not always, of their
+chemical elements also.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner would the first beds of crystalline <i>schist</i>, such as
+mica-schist, be formed, probably out of sandy and clayey muds, or
+arenaceous and argillaceous shales.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of this first phase of its existence, the terrestrial globe
+was, then, covered, over nearly its whole surface, with hot and muddy
+water, forming extensive but shallow seas. A few islands, raising their
+granitic peaks here and there, would form a sort of archipelago, surrounded
+by seas filled with earthy matter in suspension. During a
+long series of ages the solid crust of the globe went on increasing in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+thickness, as the process of solidification of the underlying liquid
+matter nearest to the surface proceeded. This state of tranquillity
+could not last long. The solid portion of the globe had not yet
+attained sufficient consistency to resist the pressure of the gases and
+boiling liquids which it covered and compressed with its elastic crust.
+The waves of this internal sea triumphed, more than once, over the
+feeble resistances which were opposed to it, making enormous dislocations
+and breaches in the ground&mdash;immense upheavals of the
+solid crust raising the beds of the seas far above their previous levels&mdash;and
+thus mountains arose out of the ocean, not now exclusively
+granitic, but composed, besides, of those schistose rocks which have
+been deposited under water, after long suspension in the muddy seas.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand the Earth, as it continued to cool, would also
+contract; and this process of contraction, as we have already explained,
+was another cause of dislocation at the surface, producing
+either considerable ruptures or simple fissures in the continuity
+of the crust. These fissures would be filled, at a subsequent
+period, by jets of the molten matter occupying the interior of the
+globe&mdash;by <i>eruptive granite</i>, that is to say&mdash;or by various mineral
+compounds; they also opened a passage to those torrents of
+heated water charged with mineral salts, with silica, the bicarbonates
+of lime and magnesia, which, mingling with the waters of the vast
+primitive ocean, were deposited at the bottom of the seas, thus
+helping to increase the mass of the mineral substances composing
+the solid portion of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>These eruptions of granitic or metallic matter&mdash;these vast discharges
+of mineral waters through the fractured surface&mdash;would be
+of frequent occurrence during the primitive epoch we are contemplating.
+It should not, therefore, be a matter for surprise to find the
+more ancient rocks almost always fractured, reduced in dimensions
+by faults and contortions, and often traversed by veins containing
+metals or their oxides, such as the oxides of copper and tin; or their
+sulphides, such as those of lead, of antimony, or of iron&mdash;which
+are now the object of the miner&#8217;s art.</p>
+
+<hr class="footnote" />
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> &#8220;Address to the American
+Association for the Advancement of Science,&#8221; by
+Thomas Sterry Hunt, LL.D., p. 56. 1871.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Cotta&#8217;s &#8220;Rocks
+Classified and Described,&#8221; by P. H. Lawrence, p. 232.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></p>
+<h2>PRIMARY EPOCH.</h2>
+
+<p>After the terrible tempests of the primitive period&mdash;after these great
+disturbances of the mineral kingdom&mdash;Nature would seem to have
+gathered herself together, in sublime silence, in order to proceed to
+the grand mystery of the creation of living beings.</p>
+
+<p>During the primitive epoch the temperature of the earth was too
+high to admit the appearance of life on its surface. The darkness of
+thickest night shrouded this cradle of the world; the atmosphere probably
+was so charged with vapours of various kinds, that the sun&#8217;s rays
+were powerless to pierce its opacity. Upon this heated surface, and in
+this perpetual night, organic life could not manifest itself. No plant,
+no animal, then, could exist upon the silent earth. In the seas of
+this epoch, therefore, only unfossiliferous strata were deposited.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, our planet continued to be subjected to a gradual
+refrigeration on the one hand, and, on the other, continuous rains
+were purifying its atmosphere. From this time, then, the sun&#8217;s rays,
+being less obscured, could reach its surface, and, under their beneficent
+influence, life was not slow in disclosing itself. &#8220;Without
+light,&#8221; said the illustrious Lavoisier, &#8220;Nature was without life; it was
+dead and inanimate. A benevolent God, in bestowing light, has
+spread on the surface of the earth organisation, sentiment, and
+thought.&#8221; We begin, accordingly, to see upon the earth&mdash;the temperature
+of which was nearly that of our equatorial zone&mdash;a few plants
+and a few animals make their appearance. These first generations of
+life will be replaced by others of a higher organisation, until at the
+last stage of the creation, man, endowed with the supreme attribute
+which we call intelligence, will appear upon the earth. &#8220;The word
+<i>progress</i>, which we think peculiar to humanity, and even to modern
+times,&#8221; said Albert Gaudry, in a lecture on the animals of the ancient
+world, delivered in 1863, &#8220;was pronounced by the Deity on the day
+when he created the first living organism.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Did plants precede animals? We know not; but such would
+appear to have been the order of creation. It is certain that in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+sediment of the oldest seas, and in the vestiges which remain to us of
+the earliest ages of organic life on the globe, that is to say, in the
+argillaceous schists, we find both plants and animals of advanced
+organisation. But, on the other hand, during the greater part of the
+primary epoch&mdash;especially during the Carboniferous age&mdash;the plants
+are particularly numerous, and terrestrial animals scarcely show themselves;
+this would lead us to the conclusion that plants preceded
+animals. It may be remarked, besides, that
+from their cellular nature, and their looser
+tissues composed of elements readily affected
+by the air, the first plants could be easily
+destroyed without leaving any material vestiges;
+from which it may be concluded,
+that, in those primitive times, an immense
+number of plants existed, no traces of which
+now remain to us.</p>
+
+<p>We have stated that, during the earlier
+ages of our globe, the waters covered a great
+part of its surface; and it is in them that
+we find the first appearance of life. When
+the waters had become sufficiently cool to
+allow of the existence of organised beings,
+creation was developed, and advanced with
+great energy; for it manifested itself by the
+appearance of numerous and very different
+species of animals and plants.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a>
+<img src="images/illo110.png" alt="Fig. 17" width="200" height="394" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 17.&mdash;Paradoxides Bohemicus&mdash;Bohemia.</p></div>
+
+<p>One of the most ancient groups of organic
+remains are the Brachiopoda, a group of
+Mollusca, particularly typified by the genus
+Lingula, a species of which still exist in the present seas; the Trilobites
+(<a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>), a family of Crustaceans, especially characteristic of this
+period; then come Productas, Terebratul&aelig;, and Orthoceratites&mdash;other
+genera of Mollusca. The Corals, which appeared at an early period,
+seem to have lived in all ages, and survive to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporaneously with these animals, plants of inferior organisation
+have left their impressions upon the schists; these are Alg&aelig;
+(aquatic plants, <a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>). As the continents enlarged, plants of a
+higher type made their appearance&mdash;the Equisetace&aelig;, herbaceous
+Ferns, and other plants. These we shall have occasion to specify
+when noticing the periods which constitute the Primary Epoch, and
+which consists of the following periods: the Carboniferous, the Old
+Red Sandstone, and Devonian, the Silurian, and the Cambrian.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></p>
+<h3><span class="smcap">Cambrian Period.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The researches of geologists have discovered but scanty traces of
+organic remains in the rocks which form the base of this system in
+England. <i>Arenicolites</i>, or worm-tracks and burrows, have been found
+in Shropshire, by Mr. Salter, to occur in countless numbers through a
+mile of thickness in the Longmynd rocks; and others were discovered
+by the late Dr. Kinahan in Wicklow. In Ireland, in the picturesque
+tract of Bray Head, on the south and east coasts of Dublin, we find,
+in slaty beds of the same age as the Longmynd rocks, a peculiar
+zoophyte, which has been named by Edward Forbes <i>Oldhamia</i>, after
+its discoverer, Dr. Oldham, Superintendent of the Geological Survey
+of India. This fossil represents one of the earliest inhabitants of the
+ocean, which then covered the greater part of the British Isles. &#8220;In
+the hard, purplish, and schistose rocks of Bray Head,&#8221; says Dr.
+Kinahan,<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34"
+class="fnanchor">[34]</a> &#8220;as well as other parts of Ireland which are recognised as
+Cambrian rocks, markings of a very peculiar character are found.
+They occur in masses, and are recognised as hydrozoic animal assemblages.
+They have regularity of form, abundant, but not universal,
+occurrence in beds, and permanence of character even when the beds
+are at a distance from each other, and dissimilar in chemical and
+physical character.&#8221; In the course of his investigations, Dr. Kinahan
+discovered at least four species of Oldhamia, which he has described
+and figured.</p>
+
+<p>The Cambrian rocks consist of the Llanberis slates of Llanberis
+and Penrhyn in North Wales, which, with their associated sandy
+strata, attain a thickness of about 3,000 feet, and the Barmouth and
+Harlech Sandstones. In the Longmynd hills of Shropshire these last
+beds attain a thickness of 6,000 feet; and in some parts of Merionethshire
+they are of still greater thickness.</p>
+
+<p>Neither in North Wales, nor in the Longmynd, do the Cambrian
+rocks afford any indications of life, except annelide-tracks and
+burrows. From this circumstance, together with general absence of
+Mollusca in these strata, and the sudden appearance of numerous
+shells and trilobites in the succeeding Lingula Flags, a change of
+conditions seems to have ensued at the close of the Cambrian period.</p>
+
+<p>Believing that the red colour of rocks is frequently connected with
+their deposition in inland waters, Professor Ramsay conceives it to
+be possible, that the absence of marine mollusca in the Cambrian
+rocks may be due to the same cause that produced their absence in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+the Old Red Sandstone, and that the presence of sun-cracks and
+rain-pittings in the Longmynd beds is a corroboration of this suggestion.<a name="FNanchor_35"
+id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Silurian Period.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The next period of the Primary Epoch is the <i>Silurian</i>, a system of
+rocks universal in extent, overspreading the whole earth more or
+less completely, and covering up the rocks of older age. The term
+&#8220;Silurian&#8221; was given by the illustrious Murchison to the epoch which
+now occupies our attention, because the system of rocks formed by
+the marine sediments, during the period in question, form large tracts
+of country in Shropshire and Wales, a region formerly peopled by the
+<i>Silures</i>, a Celtic race who fought gloriously against the Romans,
+under Caractacus or Caradoc, the British king of those tracts. The
+reader may find the nomenclature strange, as applied to the vast
+range of rocks which it represents in all parts of the Old and New
+World, but it indicates, with sufficient exactness, the particular region
+in our own country in which the system typically prevails&mdash;reasons
+which led to the term being adopted, even at a time when its vast
+geographical extent was not suspected.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_VIII" id="Plate_VIII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo114.png" alt="Plate VIII" width="600" height="407" />
+<p class="caption">VIII.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Silurian Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>On this subject, and on the principles which have guided geologists
+in their classification of rocks, Professor Sedgwick remarks in one of
+his papers in the <i>Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society</i>: &#8220;In
+every country,&#8221; he says,<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36"
+class="fnanchor">[36]</a> &#8220;which is not made out by reference to a
+pre-existing type, our first labour is that of determining the physical
+groups, and establishing their relations by natural sections. The
+labour next in order is the determination of the fossils found in the
+successive physical groups; and, as a matter of fact, the natural
+groups of fossils are generally found to be nearly co-ordinate with the
+physical groups&mdash;each successive group resulting from certain conditions
+which have modified the distribution of organic types. In
+the third place comes the collective arrangement of the groups into
+systems, or groups of a higher order. The establishment of the
+Silurian system is an admirable example of this whole process. The
+groups called Caradoc, Wenlock, Ludlow, &amp;c., were physical groups
+determined by good natural sections. The successive groups of
+fossils were determined by the sections; and the sections, as the representatives
+of physical groups, were hardly at all modified by any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+consideration of the fossils, for these two distinct views of the natural
+history of such groups led to co-ordinate results. Then followed the
+collective view of the whole series, and the
+establishment of a nomenclature. Not only
+the whole series (considered as a distinct
+system), but every subordinate group was defined
+by a geographical name, referring us to
+a local type within the limits of Siluria; in
+this respect adopting the principle of grouping
+and nomenclature applied by W. Smith to
+our secondary rocks. At the same time, the
+older slate rocks of Wales (inferior to the
+system of Siluria), were called <i>Cambrian</i>, and
+soon afterwards the next great collective
+group of rocks (superior to the system of
+Siluria) was called <i>Devonian</i>. In this way
+was established a perfect congruity of language.
+It was geographical in principle, and
+it represented the actual development of all
+our older rocks, which gave to it its true
+value and meaning.&#8221; The period, then, for
+the purposes of scientific description, may be
+divided into three sub-periods&mdash;the Upper
+and Lower Silurian, and the Cambrian.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a>
+<img src="images/illo115a.png" alt="Fig. 18" width="200" height="355" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 18.&mdash;Back of Asaphus
+caudatus (Dudley, Mus.
+Stokes), with the eyes well
+preserved. (Buckland.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a>
+<img src="images/illo115b.png" alt="Fig. 19" width="450" height="172" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;<i>a</i>, Side view of the left eye of the above, magnified,
+(Buckland.) <i>b</i>, Magnified view of a portion of the eye of
+Calymene macrophthalmus. (H&#339;ninghaus.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The characteristics of the Silurian period, of which we give an ideal
+view opposite (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII.</a></span>), are supposed to have been shallow
+seas of great extent, with barren submarine reefs and isolated rocks
+rising here and there out
+of the water, covered
+with Alg&aelig;, and frequented
+by various
+Mollusca and articulated
+animals. The earliest
+traces of vegetation
+belong to the <i>Thallogens</i>,
+flowerless plants of the
+class Alg&aelig; (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>),
+without leaves or stems,
+which are found among
+the Lower Silurian rocks. To these succeed other plants, according to
+Dr. Hooker, belonging to the Lycopodiace&aelig; (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>), the seeds of
+which are found sparingly in the Upper Ludlow beds. Among animals,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+the <i>Orthoceratites</i> led a predacious life in the Silurian seas. Their
+organisation indicates that they preyed upon other animals, pursuing
+them into the deepest abysses, and strangling them in the embrace of
+their long arms. The <i>Trilobites</i>, a remarkable group of Crustacea, possessing
+simple and reticulated compound eyes, also highly characterise
+this period (<a href="#Fig_17">Figs. 17</a> to <a href="#Fig_20">20</a>); presenting at one period or other of
+their existence 1,677 species, 224 of which are met with in Great
+Britain and Ireland, as we are taught by the &#8220;Thesaurus Siluricus.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_37"
+id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
+Add to this a sun, struggling to penetrate the dense atmosphere of
+the primitive world, and yielding a dim and imperfect light to the first
+created beings as they left the hand of the Creator, organisms often
+rudimentary, but at other times sufficiently advanced to indicate a
+progress towards more perfect creations. Such is the picture which
+the artist has attempted to portray.</p>
+
+<p>The elaborate and highly valuable &#8220;Thesaurus Siluricus&#8221; contains
+the names of 8,997 species of fossil remains, but it probably does not
+tell us of one-tenth part of the Silurian life still lying buried in rocks
+of that age in various parts of the world. A rich field is here offered
+to the geological explorer.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Lower Silurian.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The Silurian rocks have been estimated by Sir Roderick Murchison
+to occupy, altogether, an area of about 7,600 square miles in
+England and Wales, 18,420 square miles in Scotland, and nearly
+7,000 square miles in Ireland. Thus, as regards the British Isles,
+the Silurian rocks rise to the surface over nearly 33,000 square miles.</p>
+
+<p>The Silurian rocks have been traced from Cumberland to the
+Land&#8217;s End, at the southern extremity of England. They lie at the
+base of the southern Highlands of Scotland, from the North Channel to
+the North Sea, and they range along the entire western coast of that
+country. In a westerly direction they extended to the sea, where the
+mountains of Wales&mdash;the Alps of the great chain&mdash;would stand out in
+bold relief, some of them facing the sea, others in detached groups;
+some clothed with a stunted vegetation, others naked and desolate;
+all of them wild and picturesque. But an interest surpassing all
+others belongs to these mountains. They are amongst the most
+ancient sedimentary rocks which exist on our globe, a page of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+book in which is written the history of the antiquities of Great
+Britain&mdash;in fine, of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In Shropshire and Wales three zones of Silurian life have been
+established. In rocks of three different ages <i>Graptolites</i> have left the
+trace of their existence. Another fossil characteristic of these ancient
+rocks is the <i>Lingula</i>. This shell is horny
+or slightly calcareous, which has probably
+been one cause of its preservation. The
+family to which the Lingula belongs is
+so abundant in the rocks of the Welsh
+mountains, that Sir R. Murchison has used
+it to designate a geological era. These
+Lingula-flags mark the beginning of the
+first Silurian strata.</p>
+
+<p>In the Lower Llandovery beds, which
+mark the close of the period, other fossils
+present themselves, thus greatly augmenting
+the forms of life in the Lower Silurian rocks.
+These are c&#339;lenterata, articulata, and mollusca.
+They mark, however, only a very
+ephemeral passage over the globe, and
+soon disappear altogether.</p>
+
+<p>The vertebrated animals are only represented
+by rare Fishes, and it is only on
+reaching the Upper Ludlow rocks, and
+specially in those beds which pass upward
+into the Old Red Sandstone, that the remains
+have been found of fishes&mdash;the most
+ancient beings of their class.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a>
+<img src="images/illo117.png" alt="Fig. 20" width="150" height="418" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 20.&mdash;Ogygia Guettardi. Natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The class of Crustaceans, of which the
+lobster, shrimp, and the crab of our days
+are the representatives, was that which
+predominated in this epoch of animal
+life. Their forms were most singular, and
+different from those of all existing Crustaceans.
+They consisted mainly of the
+<i>Trilobites</i>, a family which became entirely
+extinct at the close of the Carboniferous epoch, but in whose nicely-jointed
+shell the armourer of the middle ages might have found all
+his contrivances anticipated, with not a few besides which he has
+failed to discover. The head presents, in general, the form of an
+oval buckler; the body is composed of a series of articulations, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+rings, as represented in <a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>; the anterior portion carrying the
+eyes, which in some are reticulated, like those of many insects (<a href="#Fig_18">Figs.
+18</a> and <a href="#Fig_19">19</a>); the mouth was placed forward and beneath the head.
+Many of these Crustaceans could roll themselves into balls, like the
+wood-louse (<a href="#Fig_23">Figs. 23</a> and <a href="#Fig_25">25</a>). They swam on their backs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a>
+<img src="images/illo118a.png" alt="Fig. 21" width="350" height="334" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 21.&mdash;Lituites cornu-arietis.
+One-third natural size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a>
+<img src="images/illo118b.png" alt="Fig. 22" width="400" height="273" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;Hemicosmites pyriformis.
+One-third natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>During the middle and later Silurian ages, whole rocks were
+formed almost exclusively of their remains; during the Devonian
+period they seem to have gradually died out, almost disappearing
+in the Carboniferous age, and being only represented by one doubtful
+species in the Permian rocks of North America. The Trilobites are
+unique as a family, marking with certainty the rocks in which they
+occur; &#8220;and yet,&#8221; says Hugh Miller, &#8220;how admirably do they exhibit
+the articulated type of being, and illustrate that unity of design which
+pervades all Nature, amid its endless diversity!&#8221; Among other
+beings which have left their traces in the Silurian strata is <i>Nereites
+Cambriensis</i>, a species of annelide, whose articulations are very
+distinctly marked in the ancient rocks.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Trilobites, many orders of Mollusca were numerously
+represented in the Silurian seas. As Sir R. Murchison has observed,
+no zoological feature in the Upper Silurian rocks is more striking
+than the great increase and profusion of Cephalopods, many of them
+of great size, which appear in strata of the age immediately antecedent
+to the dawn of vertebrated life. Among the Cephalopods we
+have <i>Gyroceras</i> and <i>Lituites cornu-arietis</i> (<a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>), whose living representatives
+are the Nautilus and Cuttlefish of every sea. The genus
+<i>Bellerophon</i> (<a href="#Fig_54">Figs. 54</a> and <a href="#Fig_56">56</a>), with many others, represented the<span
+class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+Gasteropods, and like the living carinaria sailed freely over the sea by
+means of its fleshy parts. The Gasteropods, with the Lamellibranchs,
+of which the Oyster is a living type, and the Brachiopods, whose
+congeners may still be detected in the <i>Terebratula</i> of our Highland
+lochs and bays, and the <i>Lingul&aelig;</i> of the southern hemisphere, were
+all then represented. The Lamellibranchiata are without a head,
+and almost entirely destitute of power of locomotion. Among the
+Echinodermata we may cite the <i>Hemiscosmites</i>, of which <i>H. pyriformis</i>
+(<a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>) may be considered an example.</p>
+
+<p>The rocks of the Lower Silurian age in France are found in Languedoc,
+in the environs of Neffiez and of B&eacute;darrieux. They occupy,
+also, great part of Brittany. They occur in Bohemia, also in Spain,
+Russia, and in the New World. Limestones, sandstones, and schists
+(slates of Angers) form the chief part of this series. The Cambrian
+slates are largely represented in Canada and the United States.</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" style="max-width: 90%;" summary="Table page 109">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="center"><span class="smcap">Lower Silurian Group.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">Formation.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Prevailing Rocks.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Thickness.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Fossils.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Lower Llandovery</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Hard sandstones, conglomerates, and flaggy shaly beds</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">600 to 1,000</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Pentamerus lens.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Caradoc or Bala</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Shelly sandstones, shales, and slaty beds, with grits, conglomerates, and occasional calcareous bands
+(Bala limestone)</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">12,000</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Brachiopods; Lamellibranchs; Pteropods; Cystideans; Graptolites; Trilobites.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Llandeilo Flags</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Dark-grey flagstones, occasionally calcareous sandstones, with black slates, containing Graptolites</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1">1,000 to 1,500</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl1">Trilobites (<a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a>); Graptolites; Heteropods; large Cephalopods.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Lower Llandeilo Tremadoc Slates</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Dark-grey and ferruginous slates, sandy shales, and bluish flags, with occasional beds of pisolitic
+iron-ore</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Lingula Flags</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Black and dark shaly, grey and brown slaty flagstones and sandstones, with siliceous grits and quartzites</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">6,000</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Trilobites (Olenus, Conocoryphe, Paradoxides, <a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>); Brachiopods; Cystideans.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="center"><span class="smcap">Cambrian Group.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padr1">Cambrian</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Llanberis slates, with sandy strata</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">3,000</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Annelides.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Harlech grits</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">6,000</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Oldhamia.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="center"><span class="smcap">Laurentian Group.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Upper Laurentian</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Stratified, highly-crystalline, and felspathic rocks</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">12,060</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Eozoon.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Lower Laurentian</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Gneiss, quartzite, hornblende and mica-schists</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">18,000</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">None.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Upper Silurian Period.</span></h4>
+
+<table class="fsize80" style="max-width: 90%;" summary="Table page 110">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="center"><span class="smcap">Upper Silurian Group.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">Lithological Characters.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">Thickness.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">Fossils.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padr1">Ludlow Rocks</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Passage Beds, Tile-stones, and Downton sandstones, at the base of the bone-bed</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr4">80</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Sea-weeds, Lingul&aelig;, Mollusca.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Micaceous, yellowish and grey, sandy mudstone</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr4">700</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Crustacea and Fish-remains.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Argillaceous (Aymestry) limestone</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr4">50</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Crinoids.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Argillaceous Shale with impure limestones</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr4">1000</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Mollusca of many genera.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padr1">Wenlock Rocks</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Argillaceous or semi-crystalline limestone</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr4">3000</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Mollusca of many genera.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Argillaceous shales, in places slaty</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Echinodermata; Actinozoa; Trilobites.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Woolhope Limestone and occasional bands of argillaceous nodules</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Graptolites.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Upper Llandovery Rocks</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Grey and yellowish sandstones (occasionally conglomerates) with bands of limestone</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr4">800</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Pentamerus oblongus, Rhynchonella, Orthides, &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Among the fossils of this period may be remarked a number of
+Trilobites, which then attained their greatest development. Among
+others, <i>Calymene Blumenbachii</i> (<a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a>), some <i>Cephalopoda</i>, and <i>Brachiopoda</i>,
+among which last may be named <i>Pentamerus Knightii</i>, <i>Orthis</i>, &amp;c.,
+and some Corals, as <i>Halysites catenularius</i> (<a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>), or the chain coral.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a>
+<img src="images/illo120.png" alt="Fig. 23" width="250" height="219" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 23.&mdash;Calymene
+Blumenbachii partially
+rolled up.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Trilobites, we have already said, were able to coil themselves
+into a ball, like the wood-louse, doubtless as a means of defence. In
+<a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a>, one of these creatures, <i>Calymene Blumenbachii</i>,
+is represented in that form, coiled upon itself.
+(See also <i>Ill&aelig;nus Barriensis</i>, <a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Crustaceans of a very strange form, and in no
+respects resembling the Trilobites, have been met
+with in the Silurian rocks of England and America&mdash;the
+<i>Pterygotus</i> (<a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a>) and the <i>Eurypterus</i>, (<a href="#Fig_24">Fig.
+24</a>). They are supposed to have been the inhabitants
+of fresh water. They were called &#8220;Seraphim&#8221;
+by the Scotch quarrymen, from the winged form and
+feather-like ornamentation upon the thoracic appendage, the part most
+usually met with. Agassiz figured them in his work on the &#8216;Fossil
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone,&#8217; but, subsequently recognising
+their crustacean character, removed them from the Class of Fishes,
+and placed them with the <i>P&#339;cilipod Crustacea</i>. The <i>Eurypterid&aelig;</i>
+and <i>Pterygoti</i> in England almost exclusively belong to the passage
+beds&mdash;the Downton sandstone and the Upper Ludlow rocks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a>
+<img src="images/illo121.png" alt="Fig. 24" width="450" height="422" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 24.&mdash;Eurypterus remipes. Natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the marine plants which have been found in the rocks
+corresponding with this sub-period are some species of Alg&aelig;, and
+others belonging to the Lycopodiace&aelig;, which become still more
+abundant in the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous Periods.
+<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a> represents some examples of the impressions they have left.</p>
+
+<p>The seas were, evidently, abundantly inhabited at the end of the
+Upper Silurian period, for naturalists have examined nearly 1,500
+species belonging to these beds, and the number of British species,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+classified and arranged for public inspection in our museums cannot
+be much short of that number.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a>
+<img src="images/illo122.png" alt="Fig. 25" width="350" height="247" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 25.&mdash;Ill&aelig;nus Barriensis.&mdash;Dudley, Walsall.</p></div>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the Upper Silurian sub-period, the argillaceous
+beds pass upwards into more sandy and shore-like deposits,
+in which the most ancient known fossil Fishes occur, and then usher
+us into the first great ichthyic period of the Old Red Sandstone, or
+Devonian, so well marked by its fossil fishes in Britain, Russia, and
+North America. The so-called fish-bones have been the subject of
+considerable doubt. Between the Upper Ludlow rocks opposite Downton
+Castle and the next overlying stratum, there occurs a thin bed of
+soft earthy shale, and fine, soft, yellowish greenstone, immediately
+overlying the Ludlow rock: just below this a remarkable fish-deposit
+occurs, called the Ludlow bone-bed, because the bones of animals
+are found in this stratum in great quantities. Old Drayton treats
+these bones as a great marvel:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i12">&#8220;With strange and sundry tales<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of all their wondrous things; and not the least in Wales,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of that prodigious spring (him neighbouring as he past),<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That little fishes&#8217; bones continually doth cast.&#8221;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 18em;"><span class="smcap fsize80">Polyolbion.</span></p>
+
+<p>Above the yellow beds, or Downton sandstone, as they are called,
+organic remains are extensively diffused through the argillaceous
+strata, which have yielded fragments of fishes&#8217; bones (being the earliest
+trace yet found of vertebrate life), with seeds and land-plants, the latter
+clearly indicating the neighbourhood of land, and the poverty of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+numbers and the small size of the shells, a change of condition in the
+nature of the waters in which they lived. &#8220;It was the central part
+only,&#8221; says Sir R. Murchison, &#8220;of this band, or a ginger-bread-coloured
+layer of a thickness of three or four inches, and dwindling
+away to a quarter of an inch, exhibiting, when my attention was first
+directed to it, a matted mass of bony fragments, for the most part of
+small size and of very peculiar character. Some of the fragments of
+fish are of a mahogany hue, but others of so brilliant a black that
+when first discovered they conveyed the impression that the bed
+was a heap of broken beetles.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a>
+<img src="images/illo123a.png" alt="Fig. 26" width="300" height="396" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 26.&mdash;Halysites catenularius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a>
+<img src="images/illo123b.png" alt="Fig. 27" width="300" height="441" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 27.&mdash;Pterygotus bilobatus.</p></div>
+
+<p>The fragments thus discovered were, after examination on the spot,
+supposed to be those of fishes, but, upon further investigation, many of
+them were found to belong to Crustaceans. The ichthyic nature of
+some of them is, however, now well established.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a>
+<img src="images/illo124.png" alt="Fig. 28" width="500" height="356" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 28.&mdash;Plants of the Pal&aelig;ozoic Epoch.&mdash;1 and 2, Alg&aelig;; 3 and 4, Lycopods.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>Silurian Rocks are found in France in the departments of La
+Manche, Calvados, and of the Sarthe, and in Languedoc the Silurian
+formation has occupied the attention of Messrs. Graff and Fournet,
+who have traced along the base of the Espinouse, the green, primordial
+chlorite-schists, surmounted by clay-slates, which become more
+and more pure as the distance from the masses of granite and gneiss
+increases, and the valley of the Jour is approached. Upon these last
+the Silurian system rests, sinking towards the plain under Secondary
+and Tertiary formations. In Great Britain, Silurian strata are found
+enormously developed in the West and South Highlands of Scotland,
+on the western slopes of the Pennine chain and the mountains of
+Wales, and in the adjoining counties of Shropshire&mdash;their most
+typical region&mdash;and Worcestershire. In Spain; in Germany (on the
+banks of the Rhine); in Bohemia&mdash;where, also, they are largely
+developed, especially in the neighbourhood of Prague&mdash;in Sweden,
+where they compose the entire island of Gothland; in Norway; in
+Russia, especially in the Ural Mountains; and in America, in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+neighbourhood of New York, and half way across the continent&mdash;in
+all these countries they are more or less developed.</p>
+
+<p>We may add, as a general characteristic of the Silurian system as
+a whole, that of all formations it is the most disturbed. In the
+countries where it prevails, it only appears as fragments which have
+escaped destruction amid the numerous changes that have affected
+it during the earlier ages of the world. The beds, originally horizontal,
+are turned up, contorted, folded over, and sometimes become
+even vertical, as in the slates of Angers, Llanberis, and Ireleth.
+D&#8217;Orbigny found the Silurian beds with their fossils in the American
+Andes, at the height of 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. What
+vast upheavals must have been necessary to elevate these fossils to
+such a height!</p>
+
+<p>In the Silurian period the sea still occupied the earth almost
+entirely; it covered the greater part of Europe: all the area comprised
+between Spain and the Ural was under water. In France only
+two islands had emerged from the primordial ocean. One of them was
+formed of the granitic rocks of what are now Brittany and La Vend&eacute;e;
+the other constituted the great central plateau, and consisted of the
+same rocks. The northern parts of Norway, Sweden, and of Russian
+Lapland formed a vast continental surface. In America the emerged
+lands were more extensive. In North America an island extended
+over eighteen degrees of latitude, in the part now called New Britain.
+In South America, in the Pacific, Chili formed one elongated island.
+Upon the Atlantic, a portion of Brazil, to the extent of twenty degrees
+of latitude, was raised above water. Finally, in the equatorial regions,
+Guiana formed a later island in the vast ocean which still covered
+most other parts of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>There is, perhaps, no scene of greater geological confusion than
+that presented by the western flanks of the Pennine chain. A line
+drawn longitudinally from about three degrees west of Greenwich,
+would include on its western side Cross Fell, in Cumberland, and the
+greater part of the Silurian rocks belonging to the Cambrian system,
+in which the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks are now well determined;
+while the upper series are so metamorphosed by eruptive
+granite and the effects of denudation, as to be scarcely recognisable.
+&#8220;With the rare exception of a seaweed and a zoophyte,&#8221; says the
+author of &#8216;Siluria,&#8217; &#8220;not a trace of a fossil has been detected in the
+thousands of feet of strata, with interpolated igneous matter, which
+intervene between the slates of Skiddaw and the Coniston limestone,
+with its overlying flags; at that zone only do we begin to find anything
+like a fauna: here, judging from its fossils, we find representations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+of the Caradoc and Bala rocks.&#8221; This much-disturbed district
+Professor Sedgwick, after several years devoted to its study, has
+attempted to reconstruct, the following being a brief summary of his
+arguments. The region consists of:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>I. Beds of mudstone and sandstone, deposited in an ancient sea,
+apparently without the calcareous matter necessary to the existence
+of shells and corals, and with numerous traces of organic forms of
+Silurian age&mdash;these were the elements of the Skiddaw slates.</p>
+
+<p>II. Plutonic rocks were, for many ages, poured out among the
+aqueous sedimentary deposits; the beds were broken up and re-cemented&mdash;plutonic
+silt and other finely comminuted matter were
+deposited along with the igneous rocks: the process was again and
+again repeated, till a deep sea was filled up with a formation many
+thousands of feet thick by the materials forming the middle Cambrian
+rocks.</p>
+
+<p>III. A period of comparative repose followed. Beds of shells
+and bands of coral were formed upon the more ancient rocks, interrupted
+with beds of sand and mud; processes many times repeated:
+and thus, in a long succession of ages, were the deposits of the upper
+series completed.</p>
+
+<p>IV. Towards the end of the period, mountain-masses and eruptive
+rocks were pushed up through the older deposits. After many
+revolutions, all the divisions of the slate-series were upheaved and
+contorted by movements which did not affect the newer formations.</p>
+
+<p>V. The conglomerates of the Old Red Sandstone were now
+spread out by the beating of an ancient surf, continued through many
+ages, against the upheaved and broken slates.</p>
+
+<p>VI. Another period of comparative repose followed: the coral-reefs
+of the mountain limestone, and the whole carboniferous series,
+were formed, but not without any oscillations between the land and
+sea-levels.</p>
+
+<p>VII. An age of disruption and violence succeeded, marked by
+the discordant position of the rocks, and by the conglomerate of the
+New Red Sandstone. At the beginning of this period the great
+north and south &#8220;Craven fault,&#8221; which rent off the eastern calcareous
+mountains from the old slates, was formed. Soon afterwards the disruption
+of the great &#8220;Pennine fault,&#8221; which ranges from the foot of
+Stanmore to the coast of North Cumberland, occurred, lifting up the
+terrace of Cross Fell above the plain of the Eden. About the same
+time some of the north and south fissures, which now form the
+valleys leading into Morecambe Bay, may have been formed.</p>
+
+<p>VIII. The more tranquil period of the New Red Sandstone<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+now dawns, but here our facts fail us on the skirts of the Lake
+Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>IX. Thousands of ages rolled away during the Secondary and
+Tertiary periods, in which we can trace no movement. But the
+powers of Nature are never still: during this age of apparent repose
+many a fissure may have started into an open chasm, many a valley
+been scooped out upon the lines of &#8220;fault.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>X. Close to the historic times we have evidence of new disruptions
+and violence, and of vast changes of level between land and sea.
+Ancient valleys probably opened out anew or extended, and fresh
+ones formed in the changes of the oceanic level. Cracks among the
+strata may now have become open fissures, vertical escarpments
+formed by unequal elevations along the lines of fault; and subsidence
+may have given rise to many of the tarns and lakes of the
+district.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the picture which one of our most eminent geologists
+gives as the probable process by which this region has attained its
+present appearance, after he had devoted years of study and observation
+to its peculiarities; and his description of one spot applies in its
+general scope to the whole district. At the close of the Silurian
+period our island was probably an archipelago, ranging over ten
+degrees of latitude, like many of the island groups now found in the
+great Pacific Ocean; the old gneissic hills of the western coast of
+Scotland, culminating in the granite range of Ben Nevis, and stretching
+to the southern Grampians, forming the nucleus of one island
+group; the south Highlands of Scotland, ranging from the Lammermoor
+hills, another; the Pennine chain and the Malvern hills, the
+third, and most easterly group; the Shropshire and Welsh mountains,
+a fourth; and Devon and Cornwall stretching far to the south and
+west. The basis of the calculation being, that every spot of this island
+lying now at a lower elevation than 800 feet above the sea, was
+under water at the close of the Silurian period, except in those
+instances where depression by subsidence has since occurred.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, another element to be considered, which cannot
+be better stated than in the picturesque language of M. Esquiros,
+an eminent French writer, who has given much attention to British
+geology. &#8220;The Silurian mountains,&#8221; he says, &#8220;ruins in themselves,
+contain other ruins. In the bosom of the Longmynd rocks, geologists
+discover conglomerates of rounded stones which bear no resemblance
+to any rocks now near them. These stones consequently prove the
+existence of rocks more ancient still; they are fragments of other
+mountains, of other shores, perhaps even of continents, broken up,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+destroyed, and crumbled by earlier seas. There is, then, little hope
+of one discovering the origin of life on the globe, since this page of
+the Genesis of the facts has been torn. For some years geologists
+loved to rest their eyes, in this long night of ages, upon an ideal
+limit beyond which plants and animals would begin to appear. Now,
+this line of demarcation between the rocks which are without vestiges
+of organised beings, and those which contain fossils, is nearly effaced
+among the surrounding ruins. On the horizon of the primitive world
+we see vaguely indicated a series of other worlds which have altogether
+disappeared; perhaps it is necessary to resign ourselves to the
+fact that the dawn of life is lost in this silent epoch, where age
+succeeds age, till they are clothed in the garb of eternity. The river
+of creation is like the Nile, which, as Bossuet says, hides its head&mdash;a
+figure of speech which time has falsified&mdash;but the endless speculations
+opened up by these and similar considerations led Lyell to say,
+&#8216;Here I am almost prepared to believe in the ancient existence of
+the Atlantis of Plato.&#8217;&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_29" id="Fig_29"></a>
+<img src="images/illo128.png" alt="Fig. 29" width="450" height="277" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;Ischadites K&#339;nigii. Upper Ludlow Rocks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="indented fsize80"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;For accurate representations
+of the typical fossils of the Pal&aelig;ozoic
+strata of Britain, the reader may consult, with advantage, the carefully executed
+&#8220;Figures of Characteristic British Fossils,&#8221; by W. H. Baily, F.G.S. (Van Voorst).</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></p>
+
+<h3>OLD RED SANDSTONE AND DEVONIAN PERIOD.</h3>
+
+<p>Another great period in the Earth&#8217;s history opens on us&mdash;the
+Devonian or &#8220;Old Red Sandstone,&#8221; so called, because the formation
+is very clearly displayed over a great extent of country in the county
+of Devon. The name was first proposed by Murchison and Sedgwick,
+in 1837, for these strata, which had previously been referred to the
+&#8220;transition&#8221; or Silurian series.</p>
+
+<p>The circumstances which marked the passage of the uppermost
+Silurian rocks into Old Red Sandstone seem to have been:&mdash;First, a
+shallowing of the sea, followed by a gradual alteration in the physical
+geography of the district, so that the area became changed into a
+series of mingled fresh and brackish lagoons, which, finally, by continued
+terrestrial changes, were converted into a great fresh-water lake;
+or, if we take the whole of Britain and lands beyond, into a series of
+lakes.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Godwin Austen has, also, stated his opinion that the Old Red
+Sandstone, as distinct from the Devonian rocks, was of lacustrine
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>The absence of marine shells helps to this conclusion, and the
+nearest living analogues of some of the fishes are found in the fresh
+water of Africa and North America. Even the occurrence in the
+Devonian rocks of Devonshire and Russia of some Old Red Sandstone
+fishes along with marine shells, merely proves that some of them were
+fitted to live in either fresh or salt water, like various existing fishes.
+At the present day animals that are commonly supposed to be
+essentially marine, are occasionally found inhabiting fresh water, as is
+the case in some of the lakes of Sweden, where it is said marine
+crustacea are found. Mr. Alexander Murray also states that in the
+inland fresh-water lakes of Newfoundland seals are common, living<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+there without even visiting the sea. And the same is the case in Lake
+Baikal, in Central Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The red colour of the Old Red Sandstone of England and Scotland,
+and the total absence of fossils, except in the very uppermost
+beds, are considered by Professor Ramsay to indicate that the strata
+were deposited in inland waters. These fossils are terrestrial ferns,
+<i>Adiantites</i> (Pecopteris) <i>Hibernicus</i>, and a fresh-water shell, <i>Anodon
+Jukesii</i>, together with the fish <i>Glyptolepis</i>.<a name="FNanchor_41"
+id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>The rocks deposited during the Devonian period exhibit some
+species of animals and plants of a much more complex organisation
+than those which had previously made their appearance. We have
+seen, during the Silurian epoch, organisms appearing of very simple
+type; namely, zoophytes, articulated and molluscous animals, with
+alg&aelig; and lycopods, among plants. We shall see, as the globe grows
+older, that organisation becomes more complex. Vertebrated animals,
+represented by numerous Fishes, succeed Zoophytes, Trilobites, and
+Molluscs. Soon afterwards Reptiles appear, then Birds and Mammals;
+until the time comes when man, His supreme and last work, issues
+from the hands of the Creator, to be king of all the earth&mdash;man, who
+has for the sign of his superiority, intelligence&mdash;that celestial gift, the
+emanation from God.</p>
+
+<p>Vast inland seas, or lakes covered with a few islets, form the ideal
+of the Old Red Sandstone period. Upon the rocks of these islets the
+mollusca and articulata of the period exhibit themselves, as represented
+on the opposite page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX.</a></span>). Stranded on the shore we
+see armour-coated Fishes of strange forms. A group of plants (<i>Asterophyllites</i>)
+covers one of the islets, associated with plants nearly herbaceous,
+resembling mosses, though the true mosses did not appear
+till a much later period. <i>Encrinites</i> and <i>Lituites</i> occupy the rocks in
+the foreground of the left hand.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation is still simple in its development, for forest-trees
+seem altogether wanting. The Asterophyllites, with tall and slender
+stems, rise singly to a considerable height. Cryptogams, of which our
+mushrooms convey some idea, would form the chief part of this
+primitive vegetation; but in consequence of the softness of their
+tissues, their want of consistence, and the absence of much woody
+fibre, these earlier plants have come down to us only in a fragmentary
+state.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_IX" id="Plate_IX"></a>
+<img src="images/illo131.png" alt="Plate IX" width="600" height="388" />
+<p class="caption">IX.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Devonian Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>The plants belonging to the Devonian period differ much from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+the vegetation of the present day. They resembled both mosses and
+lycopods, which are flowerless cryptogamic plants of a low organisation.
+The Lycopods are herbaceous plants, playing only a secondary
+part in the vegetation of the globe; but in the earlier ages of organic
+creation they were the predominant forms in the vegetable kingdom,
+both as to individual size and the number and variety of their
+species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a>
+<img src="images/illo133.png" alt="Fig. 30" width="450" height="374" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Plants of the Devonian Epoch. 1. Alg&aelig;. 2. Zostera. 3. Psilophyton, natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the woodcut (<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>) we have represented three species of
+aquatic plants belonging to the Devonian period; they are&mdash;1,
+<i>Fucoids</i> (or <i>Alg&aelig;</i>); 2, <i>Zostera</i>; 3, <i>Psilophyton</i>. The Fucoid closely
+resembles its modern ally; but with the first indications of terrestrial
+vegetation we pass from the <i>Thallogens</i>, to which the <i>Alg&aelig;</i> belong
+(plants of simple organisation, without flower or stem), to the <i>Acrogens</i>,
+which throw out their leaves and branches at the extremity, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+bear in the axils of their leaves minute circular cases, which form
+the receptacles of their spore-like seeds. &#8220;If we stand,&#8221; says
+Hugh Miller, &#8220;on the outer edge of one of those iron-bound
+shores of the Western Highlands, where rock and skerries are
+crowned with sea-weeds; the long cylindrical lines of <i>chorda-filum</i>,
+many feet in length, lying aslant in the tideway; long shaggy
+bunches of <i>Fucus serratus</i> and <i>F. nodosus</i> drooping from the sides of
+the rock; the flat ledges bristling with the stiff cartilaginous many-cleft
+fronds of at least two species of <i>Chondrus</i>; now, in the thickly-spread
+Fucoids of this Highland scene we have a not very improbable representation
+of the Thallogenous vegetation. If we add to this rocky
+tract, so rich in Fucoids, a submarine meadow of pale shelly sand,
+covered by a deep-green swathe of <i>Zoster&aelig;</i>, with jointed root and slim
+flowers, unfurnished with petals, it would be more representative still.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Let us now take a glance at the animals belonging to this period.</p>
+
+<p>The class of Fishes seem to have held the first rank and importance
+in the Old Red Sandstone <i>fauna</i>; but their structure was very
+different from that of existing fishes: they were provided with a
+sort of cuirass, and from the nature of the scales were called <i>Ganoid</i>
+fishes. Numerous fragments of these curious fishes are now found
+in geological collections; they are of strange forms, some being completely
+covered with a cuirass of many pieces, and others furnished
+with wing-like pectoral fins, as in <i>Pterichthys</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Let any one picture to himself the surprise he would feel should
+he, on taking his first lesson in geology, and on first breaking a stone&mdash;a
+pebble, for instance, exhibiting every external sign of a water-worn
+surface&mdash;find, to appropriate Archdeacon Paley&#8217;s illustration,
+a watch, or any other delicate piece of mechanism, in its centre.
+Now, this, thirty years ago, is exactly the kind of surprise that Hugh
+Miller experienced in the sandstone quarry opened in a lofty wall
+of cliff overhanging the northern shore of the Moray Frith. He had
+picked up a nodular mass of blue Lias-limestone, which he laid open
+by a stroke of the hammer, when, behold! an exquisitely shaped Ammonite
+was displayed before him. It is not surprising that henceforth
+the half-mason, half-sailor, and poet, became a geologist. He sought
+for information, and found it; he found that the rocks among which
+he laboured swarmed with the relics of a former age. He pursued
+his investigations, and found, while working in this zone of strata all
+around the coast, that a certain class of fossils abounded; but that in
+a higher zone these familiar forms disappeared, and others made their
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p>He read and learned that in other lands&mdash;lands of more
+recent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+formation&mdash;strange forms of animal life had been discovered; forms
+which in their turn had disappeared, to be succeeded by others, more
+in accordance with beings now living. He came to know that he was
+surrounded, in his native mountains, by the sedimentary deposits of
+other ages; he became alive to the fact that these grand mountain
+ranges had been built up grain by grain in the bed of the ocean, and
+the mountains had been subsequently raised to their present level by
+the upheaval of one part of its bed, or by the subsidence of another.
+The young geologist now ceased to wonder that each bed, or series
+of beds, should contain in its bosom records of its own epoch; it
+seemed to him as if it had been the object of the Creator to furnish
+the inquirer with records of His wisdom and power, which could not
+be misinterpreted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a>
+<img src="images/illo135.png" alt="Fig. 31" width="450" height="346" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 31.&mdash;Fishes of the Devonian Epoch. 1. Coccosteus, one-third natural size. 2. Pterichthys,
+one-fourth natural size. 3. Cephalaspis, one-fourth natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the Fishes of Old Red Sandstone, the <i>Coccosteus</i> (<a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>,
+No. 1) was only partially cased in a defensive armour; the upper part of
+the body down to the fins was defended by scales. <i>Pterichthys</i> (No. 2),
+a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+strange form, with a very small head, furnished with two powerful
+paddles, or arms, like wings, and a mouth placed far behind the nose,
+was entirely covered with scales. The <i>Cephalaspis</i> (No. 3), which has a
+considerable outward resemblance to some fishes of the present time,
+was nevertheless mail-clad, only on the anterior part of the body.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a>
+<img src="images/illo136.png" alt="Fig. 32" width="450" height="365" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 32.&mdash;Fishes of the Devonian epoch. 1. Acanthodes. 2. Climatius. 3. Diplacanthus.</p></div>
+
+<p>Other fishes were provided with no such cuirass, properly so
+called, but were protected by strong resisting scales, enveloping the
+whole body. Such were the <i>Acanthodes</i> (1), the <i>Climatius</i> (2), and
+the <i>Diplacanthus</i> (3), represented in <a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Among the organic beings of the Devonian rocks we find worm-like
+animals, such as the <i>Annelides</i>, protected by an external shell, and
+which at the present day are probably represented by the <i>Serpul&aelig;</i>.
+Among Crustaceans the <i>Trilobites</i> are still somewhat numerous,
+especially in the middle rocks of the period. We also find there
+many different groups of Mollusca, of which the <i>Brachiopoda</i> form
+more than one-half. We may say of this period that it is the reign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+of Brachiopoda; in it they assumed extraordinary forms, and the
+number of their species was very great. Among the most curious we
+may instance the enormous <i>Stringocephalus Burtini</i>, <i>Davidsonia
+Verneuilli</i>, <i>Uncites gryphus</i>, and <i>Calceola Sandalina</i>, shells of singular
+and fantastic shape, differing entirely from all known forms. Amongst
+the most characteristic of these Mollusca, <i>Atrypa reticularis</i> (<a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33</a>)
+holds the first rank, with <i>Spirifera concentrica</i>, <i>Lept&aelig;na Murchisoni</i>,
+and <i>Productus subaculeatus</i>. Among the Cephalopoda we have
+<i>Clymenia Sedgwickii</i> (<a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34</a>), including the <i>Goniatites</i>, illustrating
+the Ammonites, which so distinctly characterise the Secondary epoch,
+but which were only foreshadowed in the Devonian period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a>
+<img src="images/illo137a.png" alt="Fig. 33" width="300" height="444" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 33.&mdash;Atrypa reticularis.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the Radiata of this epoch, the order Crinoidea are abundantly
+represented. We give as an example <i>Cupressocrinus crassus</i>
+(<a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>). The Encrinites, under which name the whole of these
+animals are sometimes included, lived attached to rocky places and
+in deep water, as they now do in the Caribbean sea.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a>
+<img src="images/illo137b.png" alt="Fig. 34" width="400" height="359" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 34.&mdash;Clymenia Sedgwickii.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Encrinites, as we have seen, were represented during the
+Silurian period in a simple genus, <i>Hemicosmites</i>, but they greatly increased
+in numbers in the seas of the Devonian period. They
+diminish in numbers, as we retire from that geological age; until
+those forms, which were so numerous and varied in the earliest seas,
+are now only represented by two genera.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>The Old Red Sandstone rocks are composed of schists, sandstone,
+and limestones. The line of demarcation between the Silurian rocks
+and those which succeed them may be followed, in many places, by
+the eye; but, on a closer examination,
+the exact limits of the two
+systems become more difficult to fix.
+The beds of the one system pass
+into the other by a gradual passage,
+for Nature rarely admits of violent
+contrasts, and shows few sudden
+transitions. By-and-by, however,
+the change becomes very decided,
+and the contrast between the dark
+grey masses at the base and the
+superincumbent yellow and red
+rocks become sufficiently striking.
+In fact, the uppermost beds of the
+Silurian rocks are the passage-beds
+of the overlying system, consisting
+of flagstones, occasionally reddish,
+and called in some districts &#8220;tile-stones.&#8221;
+Over these lie the Old
+Red Sandstone conglomerate, the
+Caithness flags, and the great superincumbent
+mass which forms
+the upper portion of the system.
+Though less abrupt than the eruptive and Silurian mountains, the
+Old Red Sandstone scenery is, nevertheless, distinguished by its
+imposing outline, assuming bold and lofty escarpments in the Vans
+of Brecon, in Grongar Hill, near Caermarthen, and in the Black
+Mountain of Monmouthshire, in the centre of a landscape which,
+wood, rock, and river combine to render perfect. But it is in the
+north of Scotland where this rock assumes its grandest aspect,
+wrapping its mantle round the loftiest mountains, and rising out of
+the sea in rugged and fantastic masses, as far north as the Orkneys.
+In Devon and Cornwall, where the rocks are of a calcareous, and
+sometimes schistose or slaty character, they are sufficiently extensive
+to have given a name to the series, which is recognised all over
+the world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a>
+<img src="images/illo138.png" alt="Fig. 35" width="300" height="434" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 35.&mdash;Cupressocrinus crassus.</p></div>
+
+<p>In Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Shropshire, Gloucestershire,
+and South Wales, the Old Red Sandstone is largely developed, and
+sometimes attains the thickness of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet, divided
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+into: 1. Conglomerate; 2. Brown stone, with <i>Eurypterus</i>; 3. Marl and
+cornstones, with irregular courses of concrete limestone, in which are
+spines of Fishes and remains of <i>Cephalaspis</i> and <i>Pteraspis</i>; 4. Thin
+olive-coloured shales and sandstone, intercalated with beds of red marl,
+containing <i>Cephalaspis</i> and <i>Auchenaspis</i>. In Scotland, south of the
+Grampians, a yellow sandstone occupies the base of the system; conglomerate,
+red shales, sandstone and cornstones, containing <i>Holoptychius</i>
+and <i>Cephalaspis</i>, and the Arbroath paving-stone, containing
+what Agassiz recognised as a huge Crustacean.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a>
+<img src="images/illo139.png" alt="Fig. 36" width="250" height="229" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 36.&mdash;Trinucleus
+Lloydii.
+(Llandeilo Flags.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Some of the phenomena connected with the older rocks of
+Devonshire are difficult to unravel. The Devonian, it
+is now understood, is the equivalent, in another area, of
+the Old Red Sandstone, and in Cornwall and Devonshire
+lie directly on the Silurian strata, while elsewhere
+the fossils of the Upper Silurian are almost identical
+with those in the Devonian beds. The late Professor
+Jukes, with some other geologists, was of opinion that
+the Devonian rocks of Devonshire only represented
+the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland and South Wales in part; the
+Upper Devonian rocks lying between the acknowledged Old Red
+Sandstone and the Culm-measures being the representatives of the
+lower carboniferous rocks of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Etheridge, on the other hand, in an elaborate memoir upon
+the same subject, has endeavoured to prove that the Devonian and
+Old Red Sandstone, though contemporaneous in point of time, were
+deposited in different areas and under widely different conditions&mdash;the
+one strictly marine, the other altogether fresh-water&mdash;or, perhaps,
+partly fresh-water and partly estuarine. This supposition is strongly
+supported by his researches into the mollusca of the Devonian
+system, and also by the fish-remains of the Devonian and Old Red
+Sandstone of Scotland and the West of England and Wales.<a name="FNanchor_42"
+id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The
+difficulty of drawing a sharply-defined line of demarcation between
+different systems is sufficient to dispel the idea which has sometimes
+been entertained that special <i>faun&aelig;</i> were created and annihilated in
+the mass at the close of each epoch. There was no close: each
+epoch disappears or merges into that which succeeds it, and with it
+the animals belonging to it, much as we have seen them disappear
+from our own fauna almost within recent times.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></p>
+<h3>CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD.</h3>
+
+<p>In the history of our globe the Carboniferous period succeeds to the
+Devonian. It is in the formations of this latter epoch that we find the
+fossil fuel which has done so much to enrich and civilise the world in
+our own age. This period divides itself into two great sub-periods:
+1. The <i>Coal-measures</i>; and 2. The <i>Carboniferous Limestone</i>. The
+first, a period which gave rise to the great deposits of coal; the
+second, to most important marine deposits, most frequently underlying
+the coal-fields in England, Belgium, France, and America.</p>
+
+<p>The limestone-mountains which form the base of the whole system,
+attain in places, according to Professor Phillips, a thickness of 2,500
+feet. They are of marine origin, as is apparent by the multitude of
+fossils they contain of Zoophytes, Radiata, Cephalopoda, and Fishes.
+But the chief characteristic of this epoch is its strictly terrestrial flora&mdash;remains
+of plants now become as common as they were rare in all
+previous formations, announcing a great increase of dry land. In
+older geological times the present site of our island was covered by
+a sea of unlimited extent; we now approach a time when it was a
+forest, or, rather, an innumerable group of islands, and marshes
+covered with forests, which spread over the surface of the clusters of
+islands which thickly studded the sea of the period.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a>
+<img src="images/illo141.png" alt="Fig. 37" width="350" height="529" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 37.&mdash;Ferns restored. 1 and 2. Arborescent Ferns. 3 and 4. Herbaceous Ferns.</p></div>
+
+<p>The monuments of this era of profuse vegetation reveal themselves
+in the precious Coal-measures of England and Scotland. These give us
+some idea of the rich verdure which covered the surface of the earth,
+newly risen from the bosom of its parent waves. It was the paradise
+of terrestrial vegetation. The grand <i>Sigillaria</i>, the <i>Stigmaria</i>, and
+other fern-like plants, were especially typical of this age, and formed
+the woods, which were left to grow undisturbed; for as yet no living
+Mammals seem to have appeared; everything indicates a uniformly
+warm, humid temperature, the only climate in which the gigantic ferns
+of the Coal-measures could have attained their magnitude. In <a href="#Fig_37">Fig. 37</a>
+the reader has a restoration of the arborescent and herbaceous Ferns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+of the period. Conifers have been found of this period with concentric
+rings, but these rings are more slightly marked than in existing
+trees of the same family, from which it is reasonable to assume that
+the seasonal changes were less marked than they are with us.</p>
+
+<p>Everything announces that the time occupied in the deposition of
+the Carboniferous Limestone was one of vast duration. Professor
+Phillips calculates that, at the ordinary rate of progress, it would
+require 122,400 years to produce only sixty feet of coal. Geologists
+believe, moreover, that the upper coal-measures, where bed has been
+deposited upon bed, for ages upon ages, were accumulated under
+conditions of comparative tranquillity, but that the end of this period was
+marked by violent convulsions&mdash;by ruptures of the terrestrial crust,
+when the carboniferous rocks were upturned, contorted, dislocated
+by faults, and subsequently partially denuded, and thus appear now
+in depressions or basin-shaped concavities; and that upon this deranged
+and disturbed foundation a fourth geological system, called
+Permian, was constructed.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental character of the period we are about to study is
+the immense development of a vegetation which then covered much
+of the globe. The great thickness of the rocks which now represent
+the period in question, the variety of changes which are observed in
+these rocks wherever they are met with, lead to the conclusion that
+this phase in the Earth&#8217;s history involved a long succession of time.</p>
+
+<p>Coal, as we shall find, is composed of the mineralised remains of
+the vegetation which flourished in remote ages of the world. Buried
+under an enormous thickness of rocks, it has been preserved to our
+days, after being modified in its inward nature and external aspect.
+Having lost a portion of its elementary constituents, it has become
+transformed into a species of carbon, impregnated with those bituminous
+substances which are the ordinary products of the slow decomposition
+of vegetable matter.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, coal, which supplies our manufactures and our furnaces,
+which is the fundamental agent of our productive and economic
+industry&mdash;the coal which warms our houses and furnishes the gas
+which lights our streets and dwellings&mdash;is the substance of the plants
+which formed the forests, the vegetation, and the marshes of the
+ancient world, at a period too distant for human chronology to calculate
+with anything like precision. We shall not say&mdash;with some persons,
+who believe that all in Nature was made with reference to man, and
+who thus form a very imperfect idea of the vast immensity of creation&mdash;that
+the vegetables of the ancient world have lived and multiplied
+only, some day, to prepare for man the agents of his economic and
+industrial occupations. We shall rather direct the attention of our
+young readers to the powers of modern science, which can thus, after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+such a prodigious interval of time, trace the precise origin, and state
+with the utmost exactness, the genera and species of plants, of which
+there are now no identical representatives existing on the face of the
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>Let us pause for a moment, and consider the general characters
+which belonged to our planet during the Carboniferous period.
+Heat&mdash;though not necessarily excessive heat&mdash;and extreme humidity
+were then the attributes of its atmosphere. The modern allies of the
+species which formed its vegetation are now only found under the
+burning latitudes of the tropics; and the enormous dimensions in
+which we find them in the fossil state prove, on the other hand, that
+the atmosphere was saturated with moisture. Dr. Livingstone tells
+us that continual rains, added to intense heat, are the climatic
+characteristic of Equatorial Africa, where the vigorous and tufted
+vegetation flourishes which is so delightful to the eye.</p>
+
+<p>It is a remarkable circumstance that conditions of equable and
+warm climate, combined with humidity, do not seem to have been
+limited to any one part of the globe, but the temperature of the whole
+globe seems to have been nearly the same in very different latitudes.
+From the Equatorial regions up to Melville Island, in the Arctic
+Ocean, where in our days eternal frost prevails&mdash;from Spitzbergen to
+the centre of Africa, the carboniferous flora is identically the same.
+When nearly the same plants are found in Greenland and Guinea;
+when the same species, now extinct, are met with of equal development
+at the equator as at the pole, we cannot but admit that at this epoch
+the temperature of the globe was nearly alike everywhere. What we
+now call <i>climate</i> was unknown in these geological times. There seems
+to have been then only one climate over the whole globe. It was
+at a subsequent period, that is, in later Tertiary times, that the cold
+began to make itself felt at the terrestrial poles. Whence, then, proceeded
+this general superficial warmth, which we now regard with so
+much surprise? It was a consequence of the greater or nearer influence
+of the interior heat of the globe. The earth was still so hot in
+itself, that the heat which reached it from the sun may have been
+inappreciable.</p>
+
+<p>Another hypothesis, which has been advanced with much less certainty
+than the preceding, relates to the chemical composition of the
+air during the Carboniferous period. Seeing the enormous mass of
+vegetation which then covered the globe, and extended from one pole
+to the other; considering, also, the great proportion of carbon and
+hydrogen which exists in the bituminous matter of coal, it has been
+thought, and not without reason, that the atmosphere of the period<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+might be richer in carbonic acid than the atmosphere of the present
+day. It has even been thought that the small number of (especially
+air-breathing) animals, which then lived, might be accounted for by
+the presence of a greater proportion of carbonic acid gas in the
+atmosphere than is the case in our own times. This, however, is
+pure assumption, totally deficient in proof. Nothing proves that the
+atmosphere of the period in question was richer in carbonic acid than
+is the case now. Since we are only able, then, to offer vague conjectures
+on this subject, we cannot profess with any confidence to entertain
+the opinion that the atmospheric air of the Carboniferous period
+contained more carbonic acid gas than that which we now breathe.
+What we can remark, with certainty, as a striking characteristic of
+the vegetation of the globe during this phase of its history, was the
+prodigious development which it assumed. The Ferns, which in our
+days and in our climate, are most commonly only small perennial
+plants, in the Carboniferous age sometimes presented themselves
+under lofty and even magnificent forms.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"><a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a>
+<img src="images/illo145.png" alt="Fig. 38" width="275" height="565" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;Calamite restored. Thirty to forty feet high.</p></div>
+
+<p>Every one knows those marsh-plants with hollow, channelled, and
+articulated cylindrical stems; whose joints are furnished with a membranous,
+denticulated sheath, and which bear the vulgar name of
+&#8220;mare&#8217;s-tail;&#8221; their fructification forming a sort of catkin composed
+of many rings of scales, carrying on their lower surface sacs full of
+<i>spores</i> or seeds. These humble <i>Equiseta</i> were represented during
+the Coal-period by herbaceous trees from twenty to thirty feet
+high and four to six inches in diameter. Their trunks, channelled
+longitudinally, and divided transversely by lines of articulation, have
+been preserved to us: they bear the name of <i>Calamites</i>. The
+engraving (<a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a>) represents one of these gigantic mare&#8217;s-tails, or
+Calamites, of the Coal-period, restored under the directions of M.
+Eugene Deslongchamps. It is represented with its fronds of leaves,
+and its organs of fructification. They seem to have grown by means
+of an underground stem, while new buds issued from the ground at
+intervals, as represented in the engraving.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Lycopods</i> of our age are humble plants, scarcely a yard in
+height, and most commonly creepers; but the Lycopodiace&aelig; of the
+ancient world were trees of eighty or ninety feet in height. It was
+the <i>Lepidodendrons</i> which filled the forests. Their leaves were sometimes
+twenty inches long, and their trunks a yard in diameter. Such
+are the dimensions of some specimens of <i>Lepidodendron carinatum</i> which
+have been found. Another Lycopod of this period, the <i>Lomatophloyos
+crassicaule</i>, attained dimensions still more colossal. The <i>Sigillarias</i>
+sometimes exceeded 100 feet in height. Herbaceous Ferns were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+also exceedingly
+abundant, and grew
+beneath the shade
+of these gigantic
+trees. It was the
+combination of
+these lofty trees with
+such shrubs (if we
+may so call them),
+which formed the
+forests of the Carboniferous
+period.
+The trunks of two of
+the gigantic trees,
+which flourished in
+the forests of the Carboniferous
+period,
+are represented in
+<a href="#Fig_39">Figs. 39</a> and <a href="#Fig_40">40</a>, reduced
+respectively
+to one-fifth and one-tenth
+the natural
+size.</p>
+
+<p>What could be
+more surprising
+than the aspect of
+this exuberant vegetation!&mdash;these
+immense Sigillarias,
+which reigned over
+the forest! these
+Lepidodendrons,
+with flexible and
+slender stems! these
+Lomatophloyos,
+which present themselves
+as <i>herbaceous</i>
+trees of gigantic
+height, furnished
+with verdant leaflets!
+these Calamites,
+forty feet high!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+these elegant arborescent Ferns, with airy foliage, as finely cut as the
+most delicate lace! Nothing at the present day can convey to us an
+idea of the prodigious and immense extent of never-changing verdure
+which clothed the earth, from pole to pole, under the high temperature
+which everywhere prevailed over the whole terrestrial globe.
+In the depths of these inextricable forests parasitic plants were
+suspended from the trunks of the great trees, in tufts or garlands,
+like the wild vines of our tropical forests. They were nearly all pretty,
+fern-like plants&mdash;<i>Sphenopteris</i>, <i>Hymenophyllites</i>, &amp;c.; they attached
+themselves to the stems of the great trees, like the orchids and
+<i>Bromeliace&aelig;</i> of our times.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_39" id="Fig_39"></a>
+<img src="images/illo146a.png" alt="Fig. 39" width="300" height="497" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 39.&mdash;Trunk of Calamites. One-fifth
+natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The margin of the waters would also be covered with various
+plants with light and whorled leaves, belonging, perhaps, to the
+Dicotyledons; <i>Annularia fertilis</i>, <i>Sphenophyllites</i>, and <i>Asterophyllites</i>.</p>
+
+<p>How this vegetation, so imposing, both on account of the dimensions
+of the individual trees and the immense space which they occupied,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+so splendid in its aspect, and yet so simple in its organisation,
+must have differed from that which now embellishes the earth and
+charms our eyes! It certainly possessed the advantage of size and rapid
+growth; but how poor it was in species&mdash;how uniform in appearance!
+No flowers yet adorned the foliage or varied the tints of the forests.
+Eternal verdure clothed the branches of the Ferns, the Lycopods,
+and Equiseta, which composed to a great extent the vegetation of the
+age. The forests presented an innumerable collection of individuals,
+but very few species, and all belonging to the lower types of vegetation.
+No fruit appeared fit for nourishment; none would seem to have
+been on the branches. Suffice it to say that few terrestrial animals
+seem to have existed yet; animal life was apparently almost wholly
+confined to the sea, while the vegetable kingdom occupied the land,
+which at a later period was more thickly inhabited by air-breathing
+animals. Probably a few winged insects (some coleoptera, orthoptera,
+and neuroptera) gave animation to the air while exhibiting their
+variegated colours; and it was not impossible but that many pulmoniferous
+mollusca (such as land-snails) lived at the same time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_40" id="Fig_40"></a>
+<img src="images/illo146b.png" alt="Fig. 40" width="300" height="461" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 40.&mdash;Trunk of Sigillaria. One-tenth
+natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>But, we might ask, for what eyes, for whose thoughts, for whose
+wants, did the solitary forests grow? For whom these majestic and
+extensive shades? For whom these sublime sights? What mysterious
+beings contemplated these marvels? A question which cannot be
+solved, and one before which we are overwhelmed, and our powerless
+reason is silent; its solution rests with Him who said, &#8220;Before the
+world was, I am!&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation which covered the numerous islands of the Carboniferous
+sea consisted, then, of Ferns, of Equisetace&aelig;, of Lycopodiace&aelig;,
+and dicotyledonous Gymnosperms. The Annularia and Sigillari&aelig;
+belong to families of the last-named class, which are now completely
+extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_41" id="Fig_41"></a>
+<img src="images/illo148a.png" alt="Fig. 41" width="350" height="450" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 41.&mdash;Sigillaria l&aelig;vigata. One-third natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Annulari&aelig;</i> were small plants which floated on the surface of
+fresh-water lakes and ponds; their leaves were verticillate, that is,
+arranged in a great number of whorls, at each articulation of the stem
+with the branches. The <i>Sigillari&aelig;</i> were, on the contrary, great trees,
+consisting of a simple trunk, surmounted with a bunch or panicle
+of slender drooping leaves, with the bark often channelled, and
+displaying impressions or scars of the old leaves, which, from their
+resemblance to a seal, <i>sigillum</i>, gave origin to their name. <a href="#Fig_41">Fig. 41</a>
+represents the bark of one of these Sigillari&aelig;, which is often met
+with in coal-mines.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_42" id="Fig_42"></a>
+<img src="images/illo148b.png" alt="Fig. 42" width="350" height="204" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 42.&mdash;Stigmaria. One-tenth natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Stigmari&aelig;</i> (<a href="#Fig_42">Fig. 42</a>), according to pal&aelig;ontologists, were roots
+of Sigillari&aelig;, with a subterranean fructification; all that is known
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+them is the long roots which carry the reproductive organs, and in
+some cases are as much as sixteen feet long. These were suspected by
+Brongniart, on botanical grounds, to be the roots of Sigillaria, and
+recent discoveries have confirmed this impression. Sir Charles Lyell,
+in company with Dr. Dawson, examined several erect <i>Sigillari&aelig;</i> in
+the sea-cliffs of the South Joggins in Nova Scotia, and found that
+from the lower extremities of the trunk they sent out <i>Stigmari&aelig;</i> as
+roots, which divided into four parts, and these again threw out eight
+continuations, each of which again divided into pairs. Twenty-one
+specimens of Sigillaria have been described by Dr. Dawson from the
+Coal-measures of Nova Scotia; but the differences in the markings
+in different parts of the same tree are so great, that Dr. Dawson
+regards the greater part of the recognised species of <i>Sigillari&aelig;</i> as
+merely provisional.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>Two other gigantic trees grew in the forests of this period: these
+were <i>Lepidodendron carinatum</i> and <i>Lomatophloyos crassicaule</i>, both
+belonging to the family of Lycopodiace&aelig;, which now includes only
+very small species. The trunk of the Lomatophloyos threw out
+numerous branches, which terminated in thick tufts of linear and
+fleshy leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_43" id="Fig_43"></a>
+<img src="images/illo149.png" alt="Fig. 43" width="250" height="445" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Lepidodendron Sternbergii.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Lepidodendrons</i>, of which there are about forty known
+species, have cylindrical bifurcated branches; that is, the branches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+were evolved in pairs, or were <i>dichotomous</i> to the top. The extremities
+of the branches were terminated by a fructification in the
+form of a cone, formed of linear scales, to which the name of
+<i>Lepidostrobus</i> (<a href="#Fig_45">Fig. 45</a>) has been given. Nevertheless, many of these
+branches were sterile, and terminated simply in fronds (elongated
+leaves). In many of the coal-fields fossil cones have been
+found, to which this name has been
+given by earlier pal&aelig;ontologists.
+They sometimes form the nucleus
+of nodular, concretionary balls of
+clay-ironstone, and are well preserved,
+having a conical axis,
+surrounded by scales compactly
+imbricated. The opinion of
+Brongniart is now generally
+adopted, that they are the fruit
+of the Lepidodendron. At Coalbrookdale,
+and elsewhere, these
+have been found as terminal tips
+of a branch of a well-characterised
+Lepidodendron. Both Hooker
+and Brongniart place them with
+the Lycopods, having cones with
+similar spores and sporangia, like
+that family. Most of them were
+large trees. One tree of <i>L. Sternbergii</i>,
+nearly fifty feet long, was
+found in the Jarrow Colliery, near
+Newcastle, lying in the shale
+parallel to the plane of stratification.
+Fragments of others found
+in the same shale indicated, by
+the size of the rhomboidal scars
+which covered them, a still greater
+size. Lepidodendron Sternbergii (<a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a>) is represented as it is
+found beneath the shales in the collieries of Swina, in Bohemia.
+<a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a> represents a portion of a branch of <i>L. elegans</i> furnished with
+leaves. M. Eugene Deslongchamps has drawn the restoration of
+the Lepidodendron Sternbergii, represented in <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>, which is
+shown entire in <a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44</a>, with its stem, its branches, fronds, and
+organs of fructification. The Ferns composed a great part of the
+vegetation of the Coal-measure period.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a>
+<img src="images/illo150.png" alt="Fig. 44" width="300" height="584" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;Lepidodendron Sternbergii restored. Forty feet high.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>The Ferns differ chiefly in some of the details of the leaf.
+<i>Pecopteris</i>, for instance (<a href="#Fig_48">Fig. 48</a>), have the leaves once, twice, or thrice
+pinnatifid with the leaflets adhering either by their whole base or
+by the centre only; the midrib running through to the point.
+<i>Neuropteris</i> (<a href="#Fig_49">Fig. 49</a>) has leaves divided like Pecopteris, but the
+midrib does not reach the apex of the leaflets, but divides right and
+left into veins. <i>Odontopteris</i> (<a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>) has pinnatifid leaves, like the
+last, but its leaflets adhere by their whole base to the stalk. <i>Lonchopteris</i>
+(<a href="#Fig_50">Fig. 50</a>) has the leaves several times pinnatifid, the leaflets
+more or less united to one another, and the veins reticulated.
+Among the most numerous species of forms of the Coal-measure
+period was <i>Sphenopteris artemisi&aelig;folia</i> (<a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 52</a>), of which a magnified
+leaf is represented. Sphenopteris has twice or thrice pinnatifid
+leaves, the leaflets narrow at the base, and the veins generally
+arranged as if they radiated from the base; the leaflets are frequently
+wedge-shaped.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_45" id="Fig_45"></a>
+<img src="images/illo151a.png" alt="Fig. 45" width="150" height="444" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 45.&mdash;Lepidostrobus variabilis.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_46" id="Fig_46"></a>
+<img src="images/illo151b.png" alt="Fig. 46" width="350" height="392" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 46.&mdash;Lepidodendron elegans.</p></div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Carboniferous Limestone. (Sub-period.)</span></h4>
+
+<p>The seas of this epoch included an immense number of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+Zoophytes, nearly 400 species of Mollusca, and a few Crustaceans
+and Fishes. Among the Fishes, <i>Psammodus</i> and <i>Coccosteus</i>,
+whose massive teeth inserted in the palate were suitable for grinding;
+and the <i>Holoptychius</i> and <i>Megalichthys</i>, are the most important. The
+Mollusca are chiefly Brachiopods
+of great size. The Product&aelig;
+attained here exceptional
+development, <i>Producta Martini</i>
+(<a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53</a>), <i>P. semi-reticulata</i> and
+<i>P. gigantea</i>, being the most remarkable.
+Spirifers, also, were
+equally abundant, as <i>Spirifera
+trigonalis</i> and <i>S. glabra</i>. In
+<i>Terebratula hastata</i> the coloured
+bands, which adorned the shell
+of the living animal, have been
+preserved to us. The <i>Bellerophon</i>,
+whose convoluted shell
+in some respects resembles the
+Nautilus of our present seas,
+but without its chambered shell,
+were then represented by many
+species, among others by <i>Bellerophon
+costatus</i> (<a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54</a>), and
+<i>B. hiulcus</i> (<a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a>). Again,
+among the Cephalopods, we
+find the <i>Orthoceras</i> (<a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a>),
+which resembled a straight
+Nautilus; and Goniatites (<i>Goniatites
+evolutus</i>, <a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a>), a chambered
+shell allied to the Ammonite,
+which appeared in great
+numbers during the Secondary
+epoch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_47" id="Fig_47"></a>
+<img src="images/illo152.png" alt="Fig. 47" width="300" height="575" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 47.&mdash;Lepidodendron Sternbergii.</p></div>
+
+<p>Crustaceans are rare in the
+Carboniferous Limestone strata;
+the genus Phillipsia is the last of the Trilobites, all of which became
+extinct at the close of this period. As to the Zoophytes, they consist
+chiefly of Crinoids and Corals. The Crinoids were represented by
+the genera <i>Platycrinus</i> and <i>Cyathocrinus</i>. We also have in these
+rocks many Polyzoa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_48" id="Fig_48"></a>
+<img src="images/illo153a.png" alt="Fig. 48" width="300" height="488" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 48.&mdash;Pecopteris lonchitica, a little magnified.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_49" id="Fig_49"></a>
+<img src="images/illo153b.png" alt="Fig. 49" width="300" height="494" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 49.&mdash;Neuropteris gigantea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_50" id="Fig_50"></a>
+<img src="images/illo154a.png" alt="Fig. 50" width="400" height="408" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 50.&mdash;Lonchopteris Bricii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_51" id="Fig_51"></a>
+<img src="images/illo154b.png" alt="Fig. 51" width="250" height="477" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 51.&mdash;Odontopteris Brardii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_52" id="Fig_52"></a>
+<img src="images/illo154c.png" alt="Fig. 52" width="300" height="461" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 52.&mdash;Sphenopteris artemisi&aelig;folia, magnified.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the corals of the period, we may include the genera<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+<i>Lithostrotion</i> and <i>Lonsdalea</i>, of which <i>Lithostrotion basaltiforme</i>
+(<a href="#Fig_58">Fig. 58</a>), and <i>Lonsdalea floriformis</i> (<a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59</a>), are respectively the
+representatives, with <i>Amplexus corallo&iuml;des</i>. Among the Polyzoa are
+the genera <i>Fenestrella</i> and <i>Polypora</i>. Lastly, to these we may add a
+group of animals which will play a very important part and become
+abundantly represented in the beds of later geological periods, but
+which already abounded in the seas of the Carboniferous period. We
+speak of the <i>Foraminifera</i> (<a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a>), microscopic animals, which
+clustered either in one body, or divided into segments, and covered
+with a calcareous, many-chambered shell, as in <a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a>, <i>Fusulina
+cylindrica</i>. These little creatures, which, during the Jurassic and
+Cretaceous periods, formed enormous banks and entire masses of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a></span>
+rock, began to make their appearance in the period which now
+engages our attention.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_53" id="Fig_53"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155a.png" alt="Fig. 53" width="150" height="116" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 53.&mdash;Producta Martini.
+One-third nat. size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_54" id="Fig_54"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155b.png" alt="Fig. 54" width="150" height="140" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 54.&mdash;Bellerophon costatus.
+Half nat. size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_55" id="Fig_55"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155c.png" alt="Fig. 55" width="150" height="165" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 55.&mdash;Goniatites evolutus.
+Nat. size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_56" id="Fig_56"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155d.png" alt="Fig. 56" width="350" height="138" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 56.&mdash;Bellerophon hiulcus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_57" id="Fig_57"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155e.png" alt="Fig. 57" width="150" height="327" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 57.&mdash;Orthoceras laterale.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_58" id="Fig_58"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155f.png" alt="Fig. 58" width="200" height="342" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 58.&mdash;Lithostrotion basaltiforme.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_59" id="Fig_59"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155g.png" alt="Fig. 59" width="200" height="394" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 59.&mdash;Lonsdalea floriformis.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>The
+plate opposite (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_X">Plate X.</a></span>) is a representation of an ideal
+aquarium, in which some of the more prominent species, which
+inhabited the seas during the period of the Carboniferous Limestone,
+are represented. On the right is a tribe of corals, with reflections
+of dazzling white: the species represented are, nearest the edge,
+the <i>Lasmocyathus</i>, the <i>Ch&aelig;tetes</i>, and the <i>Ptylopora</i>. The Mollusc
+which occupies the extremity of the elongated and conical tube in the
+shape of a sabre is an <i>Aploceras</i>. It seems to prepare the way for
+the Ammonite; for if this elongated shell were coiled round itself it
+would resemble the Ammonite and Nautilus. In the centre of the
+foreground we have <i>Bellerophon hiulcus</i> (<a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a>), the <i>Nautilus
+Koninckii</i>, and a <i>Producta</i>, with the numerous spines which surround
+the shell. (See <a href="#Fig_62">Fig. 62</a>.)</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_X" id="Plate_X"></a>
+<img src="images/illo157.png" alt="Plate X" width="600" height="386" />
+<p class="caption">X.&mdash;Ideal view of marine life in the Carboniferous Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the left are other corals: the <i>Cyathophyllum</i> with straight
+cylindrical stems; some Encrinites (<i>Cyathocrinus</i> and <i>Platycrinus</i>)
+wound round the trunk of a tree, or with their flexible stem floating
+in the water. Some Fishes, <i>Amblypterus</i>, move about amongst these
+creatures, the greater number of which are immovably attached, like
+plants, to the rock on which they grow.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, this <a href="#Plate_X">engraving</a> shows us a series of islets,
+rising out of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+a tranquil sea. One of these is occupied by a forest, in which a
+distant view is presented of the general forms of the grand vegetation
+of the period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_60" id="Fig_60"></a>
+<img src="images/illo156a.png" alt="Fig. 60" width="200" height="361" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 60.&mdash;Foraminifera of the Mountain
+Limestone, forming the centre
+of an oolitic grain. Power 120.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_61" id="Fig_61"></a>
+<img src="images/illo156b.png" alt="Fig. 61" width="450" height="345" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 61.&mdash;Foraminifera of the Chalk,
+obtained by brushing it in water.
+Power 120.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_62" id="Fig_62"></a>
+<img src="images/illo159.png" alt="Fig. 62" width="600" height="201" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 62.&mdash;Producta horrida. Half natural size.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>It is of importance to know the rocks formed by marine deposits
+during the era of the Carboniferous Limestone, inasmuch as they
+include coal, though in much smaller quantities than in the succeeding
+sub-period of the true coal-deposit. They consist essentially of a
+compact limestone, of a greyish-blue, and even black colour. The
+blow of the hammer causes them to exhale a somewhat fetid odour,
+which is owing to decomposed organic matter&mdash;the modified substance
+of the molluscs and zoophytes&mdash;of which it is to so great an extent
+composed, and whose remains are still easily recognised.</p>
+
+<p>In the north of England, and many other parts of the British
+Islands, the Carboniferous Limestone forms, as we have seen, lofty
+mountain-masses, to which the term <i>Mountain Limestone</i> is sometimes
+applied.</p>
+
+<p>In Derbyshire the formation constitutes rugged, lofty, and fantastically-shaped
+mountains, whose summits mingle with the clouds,
+while its picturesque character appears here, as well as farther north,
+in the <i>dales</i> or valleys, where rich meadows, through which the
+mountain streams force their way, seem to be closed abruptly by
+masses of rock, rising above them like the grey ruins of some ancient
+tower; while the mountain bases are pierced with caverns, and their
+sides covered with mosses and ferns, for the growth of which the
+limestone is particularly favourable.</p>
+
+<p>The formation is <i>metalliferous</i>, and yields rich veins of lead-ore in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+Derbyshire, Cumberland, and other counties of Great Britain. The
+rock is found in Russia, in the north of France, and in Belgium,
+where it furnishes the common marbles, known as Flanders marble
+(<i>Marbre de Flandres</i> and <i>M. de petit granit</i>). These marbles are also
+quarried in other localities, such as Regneville (La Manche), either
+for the manufacture of lime or for ornamental stonework; one of
+the varieties quarried at Regneville, being black, with large yellow
+veins, is very pretty.</p>
+
+<p>In France, the <i>Carboniferous Limestone</i>, with its sandstones and
+conglomerates, schists and limestones, is largely developed in the
+Vosges, in the Lyonnais, and in Languedoc, often in contact with
+syenites and porphyries, and other igneous rocks, by which it has been
+penetrated and disturbed, and even <i>metamorphosed</i> in many ways,
+by reason of the various kinds of rocks of which it is composed. In
+the United States the Carboniferous Limestone formation occupies a
+somewhat grand position in the rear of the Alleghanies. It is also
+found forming considerable ranges in our Australian colonies.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of their age, as compared with the Secondary and
+Tertiary limestones, the Carboniferous rocks are generally more
+marked and varied in character. The valley of the Meuse, from
+Namur to Chockier, above Li&egrave;ge, is cut out of this formation; and
+many of our readers will remember with delight the picturesque
+character of the scenery, especially that of the left bank of the celebrated
+river in question.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Coal Measures. (Sub-period.)</span></h4>
+
+<p>This terrestrial period is characterised, in a remarkable manner,
+by the abundance and strangeness of the vegetation which then
+covered the islands and continents of the whole globe. Upon all
+points of the earth, as we have said, this flora presented a striking
+uniformity. In comparing it with the vegetation of the present day,
+the learned French botanist, M. Brongniart, who has given particular
+attention to the flora of the Coal-measures, has arrived at the conclusion
+that it presented considerable analogy with that of the islands
+of the equatorial and torrid zone, in which a maritime climate and
+elevated temperature exist in the highest degree. It is believed that
+islands were very numerous at this period; that, in short, the dry
+land formed a sort of vast archipelago upon the general ocean, of no
+great depth, the islands being connected together and formed into
+continents as they gradually emerged from the ocean.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>This flora, then, consists of great trees, and also of many smaller
+plants, which would form a close, thick turf, or sod, when partially
+buried in marshes of almost unlimited extent. M. Brongniart indicates,
+as characterising the period, 500 species of plants belonging to families
+which we have already seen making their first appearance in the
+Devonian period, but which now attain a prodigious development.
+The ordinary dicotyledons and monocotyledons&mdash;that is, plants having
+seeds with two lobes in germinating, and plants having one seed-lobe&mdash;are
+almost entirely absent; the cryptogamic, or flowerless plants,
+predominate; especially Ferns, Lycopodiace&aelig; and Equisetace&aelig;&mdash;but
+of forms insulated and actually extinct in these same families. A few
+dicotyledonous gymnosperms, or naked-seed plants forming genera
+of Conifers, have completely disappeared, not only from the present
+flora, but since the close of the period under consideration, there
+being no trace of them in the succeeding Permian flora. Such is a
+general view of the features most characteristic of the Coal period, and
+of the Primary epoch in general. It differs, altogether and absolutely,
+from that of the present day; the climatic condition of these remote
+ages of the globe, however, enables us to comprehend the characteristics
+which distinguish its vegetation. A damp atmosphere, of an
+equable rather than an intense heat like that of the tropics, a soft
+light veiled by permanent fogs, were favourable to the growth of this
+peculiar vegetation, of which we search in vain for anything strictly
+analogous in our own days. The nearest approach to the climate
+and vegetation proper to the geological period which now occupies
+our attention, would probably be found in certain islands, or on the
+littoral of the Pacific Ocean&mdash;the island of Chlo&euml;, for example, where
+it rains during 300 days in the year, and where the light of the sun is
+shut out by perpetual fogs; where arborescent Ferns form forests,
+beneath whose shade grow herbaceous Ferns, which rise three feet
+and upwards above a marshy soil; which gives shelter also to a mass
+of cryptogamic plants, greatly resembling, in its main features, the
+flora of the Coal-measures. This flora was, as we have said, uniform
+and poor in its botanic genera, compared to the abundance and
+variety of the flora of the present time; but the few families of plants,
+which existed then, included many more species than are now produced
+in the same countries. The fossil Ferns of the coal-series in
+Europe, for instance, comprehend about 300 species, while all Europe
+now only produces fifty. The gymnosperms, which now muster only
+twenty-five species in Europe, then numbered more than 120.</p>
+
+<p>It will simplify the classification of the flora of the Carboniferous
+epoch if we give a tabular arrangement adopted by the best authorities:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" style="max-width: 90%;" summary="Table p 152">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Dr. Lindley.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Brongniart.</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">I.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Thallogens</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Cryptogamous Amphigens, or Cellular Cryptogams</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Lichens, Sea-weeds, Fungi.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">II.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Acrogens</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Cryptogamous Acrogens</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Club-mosses, Equiseta, Ferns, Lycopods, Lepidodendra.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">III.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Gymnogens</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Dicotyledonous Gymnosperms</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Conifers and Cycads.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">IV.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Exogens</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Dicotyledonous Angiosperms</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Composit&aelig;, Leguminos&aelig;, Umbellifer&aelig;, Crucifer&aelig;, Heaths. All European except Conifers.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">V.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Endogens</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Monocotyledons</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Palms, Lilies, Aloes, Rushes, Grasses.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Calamites are among the most abundant fossil plants of the
+Carboniferous period, and occur also in the Devonian. They are
+preserved as striated, jointed, cylindrical, or compressed stems, with
+fluted channels or furrows at their sides, and sometimes surrounded
+by a bituminous coating, the remains of a cortical integument. They
+were originally hollow, but the cavity is usually filled up with a substance
+into which they themselves have been converted. They were
+divided into joints or segments, and when broken across at their
+articulations they show a number of stri&aelig;, originating in the furrows
+of the sides, and turning inwards towards the centre of the stem. It
+is not known whether this structure was connected with an imperfect
+diaphragm stretched across the hollow of the stem at each joint, or
+merely represented the ends of woody plates of which the solid part
+of the stem is composed. Their extremities have been discovered to
+taper gradually to a point, as represented in <i>C. cann&aelig;formis</i> (<a href="#Fig_64">Fig. 64</a>),
+or to end abruptly, the intervals becoming shorter and smaller. The
+obtuse point is now found to be the root. Calamites are regarded as
+Equisetaceous plants; later botanists consider that they belong to an
+extinct family of plants. <i>Sigillari&aelig;</i> are the most abundant of all
+plants in the coal formation, and were those principally concerned in
+the accumulation of the mineral fuel of the Coal-measures. Not a
+mine is opened, nor a heap of shale thrown out, but there occur fragments
+of its stem, marked externally with small rounded impressions,
+and in the centre slight tubercles, with a quincuncial arrangement.
+From the tubercles arise long ribbon-shaped bodies, which have been
+traced in some instances to the length of twenty feet.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"><a name="Fig_63" id="Fig_63"></a>
+<img src="images/illo163.png" alt="Fig. 63" width="370" height="600" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 63.&mdash;Sphenophyllum restored.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>In the family of the Sigillarias we have already presented the bark
+of <i><a href="#Fig_41">S. l&aelig;vigata</a></i>, at page 138; on page 157 we give a drawing of the
+bark of <i>S. reniformis</i>, one-third the natural size (<a href="#Fig_65">Fig. 65</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;"><a name="Fig_64" id="Fig_64"></a>
+<img src="images/illo164.png" alt="Fig. 64" width="254" height="600" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 64.&mdash;Calamites cann&aelig;formis.
+One-third natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the family of the Asterophyllites, the leaf of <i>A. foliosa</i> (<a href="#Fig_66">Fig. 66</a>);
+and the foliage of <i>Annularia orifolia</i> (<a href="#Fig_67">Fig. 67</a>) are remarkable. In
+addition to these, we present,
+in <a href="#Fig_63">Fig. 63</a>, a restoration of
+one of these Asterophyllites,
+the <i>Sphenophyllum</i>, after M.
+Eugene Deslongchamps. This
+herbaceous tree, like the
+Calamites, would present the
+appearance of an immense
+asparagus, twenty-five to thirty
+feet high. It is represented
+here with its branches and
+<i>fronds</i>, which bear some resemblance
+to the leaves of the
+ginkgo. The bud, as represented
+in the figure, is terminal,
+and not axillary, as in some
+of the Calamites.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;"><a name="Fig_65" id="Fig_65"></a>
+<img src="images/illo167a.png" alt="Fig. 65" width="282" height="450" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 65.&mdash;Sigillaria reniformis.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a></p>
+
+<p>If, during the Coal-period,
+the vegetable kingdom had
+reached its maximum, the
+animal kingdom, on the contrary,
+was poorly represented.
+Some remains have been
+found, both in America and
+Germany, consisting of portions
+of the skeleton and the
+impressions of the footsteps of
+a Reptile, which has received
+the name of Archegosaurus.
+In <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a> is represented the
+head and neck of <i>Archegosaurus
+minor</i>, found in 1847
+in the coal-basin of Saarbruck
+between Strasbourg and Tr&egrave;ves.
+Among the animals of this
+period we find a few Fishes,
+analogous to those of the
+Devonian formation. These
+are the <i>Holoptychius</i> and <i>Megalichthys</i>,
+having jaw-bones<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+armed with enormous teeth. Scales of <i>Pygopterus</i> have been found in
+the Northumberland Coal-shale at Newsham Colliery, and also in the
+Staffordshire Coal-shale.
+Some winged insects
+would probably join this
+slender group of living
+beings. It may then be
+said with truth that the
+immense forests and
+marshy plains, crowded
+with trees, shrubs, and
+herbaceous plants, which
+formed on the innumerable
+isles of the period a thick
+and tufted sward, were almost
+destitute of animals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_66" id="Fig_66"></a>
+<img src="images/illo167b.png" alt="Fig. 66" width="300" height="187" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 66.&mdash;Asterophyllites foliosa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XI" id="Plate_XI"></a>
+<img src="images/illo166.png" alt="Plate XI" width="600" height="384" />
+<p class="caption">XI.&mdash;Ideal view of a marshy forest of the Coal Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the opposite page
+(<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XI">Pl. XI.</a></span>) M. Riou has attempted,
+under the directions
+of M. Deslongchamps,
+to reproduce the aspect of
+Nature during the period.
+A marsh and forest of the
+Coal-period are here represented,
+with a short
+and thick vegetation, a
+sort of grass composed of
+herbaceous Fern and
+mare&#8217;s-tail. Several trees
+of forest-height raise their
+heads above this lacustrine
+vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>On the left are seen the
+naked trunk of a <i>Lepidodendron</i>
+and a <i>Sigillaria</i>,
+an arborescent Fern rising
+between the two trunks.
+At the foot of these great
+trees an herbaceous Fern
+and a <i>Stigmaria</i> appear,
+whose long ramification
+of roots, provided with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+reproductive spores, extend to the water. On the right is the naked
+trunk of another <i>Sigillaria</i>, a
+tree whose foliage is altogether
+unknown, a <i>Sphenophyllum</i>,
+and a <i>Conifer</i>. It
+is difficult to describe with
+precision the species of this
+last family, the impressions
+of which are, nevertheless,
+very abundant in the Coal-measures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_67" id="Fig_67"></a>
+<img src="images/illo168a.png" alt="Fig. 67" width="300" height="245" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 67.&mdash;Annularia orifolia.</p></div>
+
+<p>In front of this group we
+see two trunks broken and
+overthrown. These are a
+<i>Lepidodendron</i> and <i>Sigillaria</i>,
+mingling with a heap of vegetable
+d&eacute;bris in course of
+decomposition, from which a
+rich humus will be formed,
+upon which new generations
+of plants will soon develop
+themselves. Some herbaceous
+Ferns and buds of
+<i>Calamites</i> rise out of the
+waters of the marsh.</p>
+
+<p>A few Fishes belonging to
+the period swim on the surface
+of the water, and the
+aquatic reptile <i>Archegosaurus</i>
+shows its long and pointed
+head&mdash;the only part of the
+animal which has hitherto
+been discovered (<a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>). A
+<i>Stigmaria</i> extends its roots
+into the water, and the pretty
+<i>Asterophyllites</i>, with its finely-cut
+stems, rises above it in
+the foreground.</p>
+
+<p>A forest, composed of
+<i>Lepidodendra</i> and <i>Calamites</i>,
+forms the background to the
+picture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_68" id="Fig_68"></a>
+<img src="images/illo168b.png" alt="Fig. 68" width="300" height="471" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 68.&mdash;Head and neck of Archegosaurus minor.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Formation of Beds of Coal.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Coal, as we have said, is only the result of a partial decomposition
+of the plants which covered the earth during a geological period of
+immense duration. No one, now, has any doubt that this is its origin.
+In coal-mines it is not unusual to find fragments of the very plants
+whose trunks and leaves characterise the Coal-measures, or Carboniferous
+era. Immense trunks of trees have also been met with in
+the middle of a seam of coal. In the coal-mines of Treuil,<a name="FNanchor_44"
+id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> at
+St. Etienne, for instance, vertical trunks of fossil trees, resembling
+bamboos or large Equiseta, are not only mixed with the coal, but
+stand erect, traversing the overlying beds of micaceous sandstone in
+the manner represented in the engraving, which has been reproduced
+from a drawing by M. Ad. Brongniart (<a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_69" id="Fig_69"></a>
+<img src="images/illo170.png" alt="Fig. 69" width="400" height="402" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 69.&mdash;Treuil coal-mine, at St. Etienne.</p></div>
+
+<p>In England it is the same; entire trees are found lying across the
+coal-beds. Sir Charles Lyell tells us<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45"
+class="fnanchor">[45]</a> that in Parkfield Colliery,
+South Staffordshire, there was discovered in 1854, upon a surface of
+about a quarter of an acre, a bed of coal which has furnished as many
+as seventy-three stumps of trees with their roots attached, some of the
+former measuring more than eight feet in circumference; their roots
+formed part of a seam of coal ten inches thick, resting on a layer of
+clay two inches thick, under which was a second forest resting on
+a band of coal from two to five feet thick. Underneath this, again,
+was a third forest, with large stumps of <i>Lepidodendra</i>, <i>Calamites</i>, and
+other trees.<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the lofty cliffs of the South Joggins, in the Bay of Fundy, in
+Nova Scotia, Sir Charles Lyell found in one portion of the coal-field
+1,500 feet thick, as many as sixty-eight different surfaces, presenting
+evident traces of as many old soils of forests, where the trunks of the
+trees were still furnished with roots.<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>We will endeavour to establish here the true geological origin of
+coal, in order that no doubt may exist in the minds of our readers
+on a subject of such importance. In order to explain the presence
+of coal in the depths of the earth, there are only two possible
+hypotheses. This vegetable d&eacute;bris may either result from the
+burying of plants brought from afar and transported by river or
+maritime currents, forming immense rafts, which may have grounded
+in different places and been covered subsequently by sedimentary
+deposits; or the trees may have grown on the spot where they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+perished, and where they are now found. Let us examine each of
+these theories.</p>
+
+<p>Can the coal-beds result from the transport by water, and burial
+underground, of immense rafts formed of the trunks of trees? The
+hypothesis has against it the enormous height which must be conceded
+to the raft, in order to form coal-seams as thick as some of
+those which are worked in our collieries. If we take into consideration
+the specific gravity of wood, and the amount of carbon it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+contains, we find that the coal-deposits can only be about seven-hundredths
+of the volume of the original wood and other vegetable
+materials from which they are formed. If we take into account, besides,
+the numerous voids necessarily arising from the loose packing
+of the materials forming the supposed raft, as compared with the
+compactness of coal, this may fairly be reduced to five-hundredths.
+A bed of coal, for instance, sixteen feet thick, would have required a
+raft 310 feet high for its formation. These accumulations of wood
+could never have arranged themselves with sufficient regularity to
+form those well-stratified coal-beds, maintaining a uniform thickness
+over many miles, and that are seen in most coal-fields to lie one
+above another in succession, separated by beds of sandstone or
+shale. And even admitting the possibility of a slow and gradual
+accumulation of vegetable d&eacute;bris, like that which reaches the mouth
+of a river, would not the plants in that case be buried in great quantities
+of mud and earth? Now, in most of our coal-beds the proportion
+of earthy matter does not exceed fifteen per cent. of the
+entire mass. If we bear in mind, finally, the remarkable parallelism
+existing in the stratification of the coal-formation, and the state of
+preservation in which the impressions of the most delicate vegetable
+forms are discovered, it will, we think, be proved to demonstration,
+that those coal-seams have been formed in perfect tranquillity. We
+are, then, forced to the conclusion that coal results from the
+mineralisation of plants which has taken place on the spot; that is
+to say, in the very place where the plants lived and died.</p>
+
+<p>It was suggested long ago by Bakewell, from the occurrence of
+the same peculiar kind of fireclay under each bed of coal, that it
+was the soil proper for the production of those plants from which
+coal has been formed.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>It has, also, been pointed out by Sir William Logan, as the result of
+his observations in the South Wales coal-field, and afterwards by Sir
+Henry De la Beche, and subsequently confirmed by the observations
+of Sir Charles Lyell in America, that not only in this country, but in
+the coal-fields of Nova Scotia, the United States, &amp;c., every layer of
+true coal is co-extensive with and invariably underlaid by a marked
+stratum of arenaceous clay of greater or less thickness, which, from its
+position relatively to the coal has been long known to coal-miners,
+among other terms, by the name of <i>under-clay</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The clay-beds, &#8220;which vary in thickness from a few inches to more
+than ten feet, are penetrated in all directions by a confused and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+tangled collection of the roots and leaves, as they may be, of the
+<i>Stigmaria ficoides</i>, these being frequently traceable to the main stem
+(<i>Sigillaria</i>), which varies in diameter from about two inches to half a
+foot. The main stems are noticed as occurring nearer the top than
+the bottom of the bed, as usually of considerable length, the leaves or
+roots radiating from them in a tortuous irregular course to considerable
+distances, and as so mingled with the under-clay that it is not
+possible to cut out a cubic foot of it which does not contain portions
+of the plant.&#8221; (Logan &#8220;On the Characters of the Beds of Clay immediately
+below the Coal-seams of South Wales,&#8221; Geol. Transactions,
+Second Series, vol. vi., pp. 491-2. An account of these beds had previously
+been published by Mr. Logan in the Annual Report of the
+Royal Institution of South Wales for 1839.)</p>
+
+<p>From the circumstance of the main stem of the Sigillaria, of which
+the <i>Stigmaria ficoides</i> have been traced to be merely a continuation,
+it was inferred by the above-mentioned authors, and has subsequently
+been generally recognised as probably the truth, that the roots found
+in the underclay are merely those of the plant (<i>Sigillaria</i>), the stem of
+which is met with in the overlying coal-beds&mdash;in fact, that the <i>Stigmaria
+ficoides</i> is only the root of the <i>Sigillaria</i>, and not a distinct
+plant, as was once supposed to be the case.</p>
+
+<p>This being granted, it is a natural inference to suppose that the
+present indurated under-clay is only another condition of that soft,
+silty soil, or of that finely levigated muddy sediment&mdash;most likely of
+still and shallow water&mdash;in which the vegetation grew, the remains of
+which were afterwards carbonised and converted into coal.<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>In order thoroughly to comprehend the phenomena of the transformation
+into coal of the forests and of the herbaceous plants which
+filled the marshes and swamps of the ancient world, there is another
+consideration to be presented. During the coal-period, the terrestrial
+crust was subjected to alternate movements of elevation and depression
+of the internal liquid mass, under the impulse of the solar and
+lunar attractions to which they would be subject, as our seas are now,
+giving rise to a sort of subterranean tide, operating at intervals, more
+or less widely apart, upon the weaker parts of the crust, and producing
+considerable subsidences of the ground. It might, perhaps, happen
+that, in consequence of a subsidence produced in such a manner, the
+vegetation of the coal-period would be submerged, and the shrubs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+and plants which covered the surface of the earth would finally
+become buried under water. After this submergence new forests
+sprung up in the same place. Owing to another submergence, the
+second forests were depressed in their turn, and again covered by
+water. It is probably by a series of repetitions of this double phenomenon&mdash;this
+submergence of whole regions of forest, and the
+development upon the same site of new growths of vegetation&mdash;that
+the enormous accumulations of semi-decomposed plants, which constitute
+the Coal-measures, have been formed in a long series of ages.</p>
+
+<p>But, has coal been produced from the larger plants only&mdash;for
+example, from the great forest-trees of the period, such as the
+Lepidodendra, Sigillari&aelig;, Calamites, and Sphenophylla? That is
+scarcely probable, for many coal-deposits contain no vestiges of the
+great trees of the period, but only of Ferns and other herbaceous plants
+of small size. It is, therefore, presumable that the larger vegetation has
+been almost unconnected with the formation of coal, or, at least, that
+it has played a minor part in its production. In all probability there
+existed in the coal-period, as at the present time, two distinct kinds
+of vegetation: one formed of lofty forest-trees, growing on the higher
+grounds; the other, herbaceous and aquatic plants, growing on
+marshy plains. It is the latter kind of vegetation, probably, which
+has mostly furnished the material for the coal; in the same way that
+marsh-plants have, during historic times and up to the present day,
+supplied our existing peat, which may be regarded as a sort of contemporaneous
+incipient coal.</p>
+
+<p>To what modification has the vegetation of the ancient world
+been subjected to attain that carbonised state, which constitutes coal?
+The submerged plants would, at first, be a light, spongy mass, in all
+respects resembling the peat-moss of our moors and marshes. While
+under water, and afterwards, when covered with sediment, these
+vegetable masses underwent a partial decomposition&mdash;a moist, putrefactive
+fermentation, accompanied by the production of much
+carburetted hydrogen and carbonic acid gas. In this way, the
+hydrogen escaping in the form of carburetted hydrogen, and the
+oxygen in the form of carbonic acid gas, the carbon became more
+concentrated, and coal was ultimately formed. This emission of carburetted
+hydrogen gas would, probably, continue after the peat-beds
+were buried beneath the strata which were deposited and accumulated
+upon them. The mere weight and pressure of the superincumbent
+mass, continued at an increasing ratio during a long series of ages,
+have given to the coal its density and compact state.</p>
+
+<p>The heat emanating from the interior of the globe would, also,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+exercise a great influence upon the final result. It is to these two
+causes&mdash;that is to say, to pressure and to the central heat&mdash;that we
+may attribute the differences which exist in the mineral characters of
+various kinds of coal. The inferior beds are <i>drier</i> and more compact
+than the upper ones; or less bituminous, because their mineralisation
+has been completed under the influence of a higher temperature, and
+at the same time under a greater pressure.</p>
+
+<p>An experiment, attempted for the first time in 1833, at Sain-Bel,
+afterwards repeated by M. Cagniard de la Tour, and completed at
+Saint-Etienne by M. Baroulier in 1858, fully demonstrates the process
+by which coal was formed. These gentlemen succeeded in producing
+a very compact coal artificially, by subjecting wood and other vegetable
+substances to the double influence of heat and pressure combined.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus employed for this experiment by M. Baroulier, at
+Saint-Etienne, allowed the exposure of the strongly compressed
+vegetable matter enveloped in moist clay, to the influence of a long-continued
+temperature of from 200&deg; to 300&deg; Centigrade. This
+apparatus, without being absolutely closed, offered obstacles to the
+escape of gases or vapours in such a manner that the decomposition
+of the organic matters took place in the medium saturated with
+moisture, and under a pressure which prevented the escape of the
+elements of which it was composed. By placing in these conditions
+the sawdust of various kinds of wood, products were obtained
+which resembled in many respects, sometimes brilliant shining coal,
+and at others a dull coal. These differences, moreover, varied with
+the conditions of the experiment and the nature of the wood employed;
+thus explaining the striped appearance of coal when composed
+alternately of shining and dull veins.</p>
+
+<p>When the stems and leaves of ferns are compressed between beds
+of clay or pozzuolana, they are decomposed by the pressure only, and
+form on these blocks a carbonaceous layer, and impressions bearing
+a close resemblance to those which blocks of coal frequently exhibit.
+These last-mentioned experiments, which were first made by Dr.
+Tyndall, leave no room for doubt that coal has been formed from
+the plants of the ancient world.</p>
+
+<p>Passing from these speculations to the Coal-measures:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>This formation is composed of a succession of beds, of various
+thicknesses, consisting of sandstones or gritstones, of clays and shales,
+sometimes so bituminous as to be inflammable&mdash;and passing, in short,
+into an imperfect kind of <i>coal</i>. These rocks are interstratified with
+each other in such a manner that they may consist of many alterations.
+Carbonate of protoxide of iron (clay-ironstone) may also be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+considered a constituent of this formation; its extensive dissemination
+in connection with coal in some parts of Great Britain has
+been of immense advantage to the ironworks of this country, in many
+parts of which blast-furnaces for the manufacture of iron rise by
+hundreds alongside of the coal-pits from which they are fed. In
+France, as is frequently the case in England, this argillaceous iron-ore
+only occurs in nodules or lenticular masses, much interrupted; so that
+it becomes necessary in that country, as in this, to find other ores of
+iron to supply the wants of the foundries. <a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a> gives an idea of
+the ordinary arrangement of the coal-beds, one of which is seen interstratified
+between two parallel and nearly horizontal beds of argillaceous
+shale, containing nodules of clay iron-ore&mdash;a disposition very
+common in English collieries. The coal-basin of Aveyron, in France,
+presents an analogous mode of occurrence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_70" id="Fig_70"></a>
+<img src="images/illo175.png" alt="Fig. 70" width="500" height="289" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 70.&mdash;Stratification of coal-beds.</p></div>
+
+<p>The frequent presence of carbonate of iron in the coal-measures
+is a most fortunate circumstance for mining industry. When the
+miner finds, in the same spot, the ore of iron and the fuel required
+for smelting it, arrangements for working them can be established
+under the most favourable conditions. Such is the case in the coal-fields
+of Great Britain, and also in France to a less extent&mdash;that
+is to say, only at Saint-Etienne and Alais.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>The extent of the Coal-measures, in various parts of the world,
+may be briefly and approximately stated as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 166-1">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="center fsize125">ESTIMATED AREA OF THE COAL-MEASURES<br />OF THE WORLD.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">Square Miles.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">United States</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">220,166</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">420,166</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="left padr1">Lignites and inferior Coals</td>
+<td class="right padr1">200,000</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">British Possessions in North America</td>
+<td class="right">2,200</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">Great Britain</td>
+<td class="right">3,000</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">France</td>
+<td class="right">2,000</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">Belgium</td>
+<td class="right">468</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">Rhenish Prussia and Saarbr&uuml;ck</td>
+<td class="right">1,550</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">Westphalia</td>
+<td class="right">400</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">Bohemia</td>
+<td class="right">620</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">Saxony</td>
+<td class="right">66</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">The Asturias, in Spain</td>
+<td class="right">310</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">Russia</td>
+<td class="right">11,000</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padr1">Islands of the Pacific and Indian Ocean</td>
+<td class="right">Unknown.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The American continent, then, contains much more extensive
+coal-fields than Europe; it possesses very nearly two square miles of
+coal-fields for every five miles of its surface; but it must be added
+that these immense fields of coal have not, hitherto, been productive
+in proportion to their extent. The following Table represents the
+annual produce of the collieries of America and Europe:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 166-2">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Tons.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">British Islands</td>
+<td class="center padl3 padr3">(in 1870)</td>
+<td class="right">110,431,192</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">United States</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14,593,659</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Belgium</td>
+<td class="center padl3 padr3">(in 1870)</td>
+<td class="right">13,697,118</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">France</td>
+<td class="center padl3 padr3">(in 1864)</td>
+<td class="right">10,000,000</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl3">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl3 padr3">(in 1866)</td>
+<td class="right">11,807,142</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Prussia</td>
+<td class="center padl3 padr3">(in 1864)</td>
+<td class="right">21,197,266</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Nassau</td>
+<td class="center padl3 padr3">(in 1864)</td>
+<td class="right">2,345,459</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Netherlands</td>
+<td class="center padl3 padr3">(in 1864)</td>
+<td class="right">24,815</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Austria</td>
+<td class="center padl3 padr3">(in 1864)</td>
+<td class="right">4,589,014</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Spain</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">500,000</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>We thus see that the United States holds a secondary place as
+a coal-producing country; raising one-eleventh part of the out-put
+of the whole of Europe, and about one-eighth part of the quantity
+produced by Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>The Coal-measures of England and Scotland cover a large area;
+and attempts have been made to estimate the quantity of fuel they
+contain. The estimate made by the Royal Commission on the
+coal in the United Kingdom may be considered as the nearest; and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+in this Report, lately published, it is stated that in the ascertained
+coal-fields of the United Kingdom there is an aggregate quantity of
+146,480,000,000 tons of coal, which may be reasonably expected
+to be available for use. In the coal-field of South Wales, ascertained
+by actual measurement to attain the extraordinary thickness of 11,000
+feet of Coal-measures, there are 100 different seams of coal,
+affording an aggregate thickness of 120 feet, mostly in thin beds, but
+varying from six inches to more than ten feet. Professor J. Phillips
+estimates the thickness of the coal-bearing strata of the north of
+England at 3,000 feet; but these, in common with all other coal-fields,
+contain, along with many beds of the mineral in a more or less pure
+state, interstratified beds of sandstones, shales, and limestone; the
+real coal-seams, to the number of twenty or thirty, not exceeding
+sixty feet in thickness in the aggregate. The Scottish Coal-measures
+have a thickness of 3,000 feet, with similar intercalations of other
+carboniferous rocks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_71" id="Fig_71"></a>
+<img src="images/illo177.png" alt="Fig. 71" width="500" height="240" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 71.&mdash;Contortions of Coal-beds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a name="Fig_72" id="Fig_72"></a>
+<img src="images/illo178.png" alt="Fig. 72" width="330" height="500" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 72.&mdash;Cycas circinalis (living form).</p></div>
+
+<p>The coal-basin of Belgium and of the north of France forms a
+nearly continuous zone from Li&eacute;ge, Namur, Charleroi, and Mons, to
+Valenciennes, Douai, and B&eacute;thune. The beds of coal there are from
+fifty to one hundred and ten in number, and their thickness varies
+from ten inches to six feet. Some coal-fields which are situated
+beneath the Secondary formations of the centre and south of France<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+possess beds fewer in number, but individually thicker and less
+regularly stratified. The two basins of the Sa&ocirc;ne-et-Loire, the
+principal mines of which are at Creuzot, Blanzy, Montchanin, and
+Epinac, only contain ten beds; but some of these (as at Montchanin)
+attain 30, 100, and even 130 feet in thickness. The coal-basin of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+the Loire is that which contains the greatest total thickness of coal-beds:
+the seams there are twenty-five in number. After those of the
+North&mdash;of the Sa&ocirc;ne-et-Loire and of the Loire&mdash;the principal basins
+in France are those of the Allier, where very important beds are
+worked at Commentry and Bezenet; the basin of Brassac, which
+commences at the confluence of the Allier and the Alagnon; the
+basin of the Aveyron, known by the collieries of Decazeville and
+Aubin; the basin of the Gard, and of Grand&#8217;-Combe. Besides
+these principal basins, there are a great many others of scarcely less
+importance, which yield annually to France from six to seven million
+tons of coal.</p>
+
+<p>The seams of coal are rarely found in the horizontal position in
+which their original formation took place. They have been since
+much crumpled and distorted, forced into basin-shaped cavities, with
+minor undulations, and affected by numerous flexures and other disturbances.
+They are frequently found broken up and distorted by
+faults, and even folded back on themselves into zigzag forms, as
+represented in the engraving (<a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>, p. 167), which is a mode of
+occurrence common in all the Coal-measures of Somersetshire and in
+the basins of Belgium and the north of France. Vertical pits, sunk
+on coal which has been subjected to this kind of contortion and
+disturbance, sometimes traverse the same beds many times.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></p>
+
+<h3>PERMIAN PERIOD.</h3>
+
+<p>The name &#8220;Permian&#8221; was proposed by Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
+in the year 1841, for certain deposits which are now known to terminate
+upwards the great primeval or Pal&aelig;ozoic Series.<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>This natural group consists, in descending order, in Germany, of
+the Zechstein, the Kupfer-schiefer, Roth-liegende, &amp;c. In England
+it is usually divided into Magnesian Limestone or Zechstein, with
+subordinate Marl-slate or Kupfer-schiefer, and Rothliegende. The
+chief calcareous member of this group of strata is termed in Germany
+the &#8220;Zechstein,&#8221; in England the &#8220;Magnesian Limestone;&#8221;
+but, as magnesian limestones have been produced at many geological
+periods, and as the German Zechstein is only a part of a group, the
+other members of which are known as &#8220;Kupfer-schiefer&#8221; (&#8220;copper-slate&#8221;),
+&#8220;Roth-todt-liegende&#8221; (the &#8220;Lower New Red&#8221; of English
+geologists), &amp;c., it was manifest that a single name for the whole
+was much needed. Finding, in his examination of Russia in Europe,
+that this group was a great and united physical series of marls, limestones,
+sandstones, and conglomerates, occupying a region much
+larger than France, and of which the Government of Perm formed
+a central part, Sir Roderick proposed that the name of Permian,
+now in general use, should be thereto applied.</p>
+
+<p>Extended researches have shown, from the character of its embedded
+organic remains, that it is closely allied to, but distinct from,
+the carboniferous strata below it, and is entirely distinct from the
+overlying Trias, or New Red Sandstone, which forms the base of the
+great series of the Secondary rocks.</p>
+
+<p>Geology is, however, not only indebted to Sir Roderick Murchison
+for this classification and nomenclature, but also to him,
+in conjunction with Professor Sedgwick, for the name &#8220;<i>Devonian</i>,&#8221;
+as an equivalent to &#8220;Old Red Sandstone;&#8221; whilst every geologist
+knows that Sir R. Murchison is the sole author of the <span class="smcap">Silurian
+System</span>.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XII" id="Plate_XII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo182.png" alt="Plate XII" width="600" height="376" />
+<p class="caption">XII.&mdash;Ideal landscape of the Permian Period.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>The Permian rocks have of late years assumed great interest,
+particularly in England, in consequence of the evidence their correct
+determination affords with regard to the probable extent, beneath
+them, of the coal-bearing strata which they overlie and conceal;
+thus tending to throw a light upon the duration of our coal-fields, one
+of the most important questions of the day in connection with our
+industrial resources and national prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>On the opposite page an ideal view of the earth during the Permian
+period is represented (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XII">Pl. XII.</a></span>). In the background, on the right,
+is seen a series of syenitic and porphyritic domes, recently thrown
+up; while a mass of steam and vapour rises in columns from the
+midst of the sea, resulting from the heat given out by the porphyries
+and syenites. Having attained a certain height in the cooler atmosphere,
+the columns of steam become condensed and fall in torrents
+of rain. The evaporation of water in such vast masses being
+necessarily accompanied by an enormous disengagement of electricity,
+this imposing scene of the primitive world is illuminated by
+brilliant flashes of lightning, accompanied by reverberating peals of
+thunder. In the foreground, on the right, rise groups of Tree-ferns,
+Lepidodendra, and Walchias, of the preceding period. On the sea-shore,
+and left exposed by the retiring tide, are Molluscs and
+Zoophytes peculiar to the period, such as <i>Producta</i>, <i>Spirifera</i>, and
+<i>Encrinites</i>; pretty plants&mdash;the <i>Asterophyllites</i>&mdash;which we have
+noticed in our description of the Carboniferous age, are growing at
+the water&#8217;s edge, not far from the shore.</p>
+
+<p>During the Permian period the species of plants and animals were
+nearly the same as those already described as belonging to the Carboniferous
+period. Footprints of reptilian animals have been found
+in the Permian beds near Kenilworth, in the red sandstones of that
+age in the Vale of Eden, and in the sandstones of Corncockle Moor,
+and other parts of Dumfriesshire. These footprints, together with
+the occurrence of current-markings or ripplings, sun-cracks, and the
+pittings of rain-drops impressed on the surfaces of the beds, indicate
+that they were made upon damp surfaces, which afterwards became
+dried by the sun before the flooded waters covered them with fresh
+deposits of sediment, in the way that now happens during variations
+of the seasons in many salt lakes.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> M. Ad. Brongniart has described
+the forms of the Permian flora as being intermediate between those
+of the Carboniferous period and of that which succeeds it.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>Although the Permian flora indicates a climate similar to that
+which prevailed during the Carboniferous period, it has been pointed
+out by Professor Ramsay, as long ago as 1855, that the Permian
+breccia of Shropshire, Worcestershire, &amp;c., affords strong proofs of
+being the result of direct glacial action, and of the consequent existence
+at the period of glaciers and icebergs.</p>
+
+<p>That such a state of things is not inconsistent with the prevalence
+of a moist, equable, and temperate climate, necessary for the preservation
+of a luxuriant flora like that of the period in question, is
+shown in New Zealand; where, with a climate and vegetation
+approximating to those of the Carboniferous period, there are also
+glaciers at the present day in the southern island.</p>
+
+<p>Professor King has published a valuable memoir on the Permian
+fossils of England, in the Proceedings of the Pal&aelig;ontographical
+Society, in which the following Table is given (in descending order) of
+the Permian system of the North of England, as compared with that
+of Thuringia:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" style="max-width: 90%;" summary="Table p 174">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">North of England.</span><a name="Table174" id="Table174"></a></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Thuringia.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Mineral Character.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">1.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Crystalline, earthy, compact, and oolitic limestones</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">1.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Stinkstein</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">1.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Oolitic limestones.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">2.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Brecciated and pseudo-brecciated limestones</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">2.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Rauchwacke</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">2.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Conglomerates.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">3.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Fossiliferous limestone</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">3.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Zechstein, or Dolomit-Zechstein</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">3.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Marlstones.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">4.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Compact limestone</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">4.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Zechstein</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">4.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Magnesian limestones.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">5.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Marl-slate</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">5.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Mergel-Schiefer or Kupferschiefer</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">5.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Red and green grits with copper-ore.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">6.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower sandstones, and sands of various colours</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">6.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Todteliegende</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">6.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">White limestone with gypsum and white salt.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>At the base of the system lies a band of <i>lower sandstone</i> (<a href="#Table174">No. 6</a>)
+of various colours, separating the Magnesian Limestone from the coal
+in Yorkshire and Durham; sometimes associated with red marl and
+gypsum, but with the same obscure relations in all these beds which
+usually attend the close of one series and the commencement of
+another; the imbedded plants being, in some cases, stated to be
+identical with those of the Carboniferous series. In Thuringia the
+<i>Rothliegende</i>, or <i>red-lyer</i>, a great deposit of red sandstone and conglomerate,
+associated with porphyry, basaltic trap, and amygdaloid,
+lies at the base of the system. Among the fossils of this age are the
+silicified trunks of Tree-ferns (<i>Psaronius</i>), the bark of which is
+surrounded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+by dense masses of air-roots, which often double or quadruple
+the diameter of the original stem; in this respect bearing a
+strong resemblance to the living arborescent ferns of New Zealand.</p>
+
+<p>The marl-slate (<a href="#Table174">No. 5</a>) consists of hard calcareous shales, marl-slates,
+and thin-bedded limestone, the whole nearly thirty feet thick
+in Durham, and yielding many fine specimens of Ganoid and Placoid
+fishes&mdash;<i>Pal&aelig;oniscus</i>, <i>Pygopterus</i>, <i>C&#339;lacanthus</i>, and <i>Platysomus</i>&mdash;genera
+which all belong to the Carboniferous system, and which Professor
+King thinks probably lived at no great distance from the shore; but
+the Permian species of the marl-slate of England are identical with
+those of the copper-slate of Thuringia. Agassiz was the first to point
+out a remarkable peculiarity in the forms of the fishes which lived
+before and after this period. In most living fishes the trunk seems
+to terminate in the middle of the root of the tail, whose free margin
+is &#8220;homocercal&#8221; (even-tail), that is, either rounded, or, if forked,
+divided into two equal lobes. In Pal&aelig;oniscus, and most Pal&aelig;ozoic
+fishes, the axis of the body is continued into the upper lobe of the
+tail, which is thus rendered unsymmetrical, as in the living sharks
+and sturgeons. The latter form, which Agassiz termed &#8220;heterocercal&#8221;
+(unequal-tail) is only in a very general way distinctive of
+Pal&aelig;ozoic fishes, since this asymmetry exists, though in a minor
+degree, in many living genera besides those just mentioned. The
+compact limestone (<a href="#Table174">No. 4</a>) is rich in Polyzoa. The fossiliferous limestone
+(<a href="#Table174">No. 3</a>), Mr. King considers, is a deep-water formation, from
+the numerous Polyzoa which it contains. One of these, <i>Fenestella
+retiformis</i>, found in the Permian rocks of England and Germany,
+sometimes measures eight inches in width.</p>
+
+<p>Many species of Mollusca, and especially Brachiopoda, appear
+in the Permian seas of this age, <i>Spirifera</i> and <i>Producta</i> being the
+most characteristic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_73" id="Fig_73"></a>
+<img src="images/illo186a.png" alt="Fig. 73" width="250" height="283" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 73.&mdash;Strophalosia Morrisiana.</p></div>
+
+<p>Other shells now occur, which have not been observed in strata
+newer than the Permian. <i>Strophalosia</i> (<a href="#Fig_73">Fig. 73</a>) is abundantly represented
+in the Permian rocks of Germany, Russia, and England, and
+much more sparingly in the yellow magnesian limestone, accompanied
+by <i>Spirifera undulata</i>, &amp;c. <i>S. Schlotheimii</i> is widely disseminated
+both in England, Germany, and Russia, with <i>Lingula
+Credneri</i>, and other Pal&aelig;ozoic Brachiopoda. Here also we note the
+first appearance of the Oyster, but still in small numbers. <i>Fenestella</i>
+represents the Polyzoa. <i>Schizodus</i> has been found by Mr. Binney in
+the Upper Red Permian Marls of Manchester; but no shells of any
+kind have hitherto been met with in the Rothliegende of Lancashire,
+or in the Vale of Eden.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>The brecciated limestone (<a href="#Table174">No. 2</a>) and the concretionary masses
+(<a href="#Table174">No. 1</a>) overlying it (although Professor King has attempted
+to separate them) are considered by Professor Sedgwick as different
+forms of the same rock. They contain no foreign elements, but seem
+to be composed of fragments of the underlying limestone, <a href="#Table174">No. 3</a>.
+Some of the angular masses at Tynemouth cliff
+are two feet in diameter, and none of them are
+water-worn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_74" id="Fig_74"></a>
+<img src="images/illo186b.png" alt="Fig. 74" width="250" height="303" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 74.&mdash;Cyrtoceras depressum.</p></div>
+
+<p>The crystalline or concretionary limestone
+(<a href="#Table174">No. 1</a>) formation is seen upon the coast of Durham
+and Yorkshire, between the Wear and the Tees;
+and Mr. King thinks that the character of the
+shells and the absence of corals indicate a deposit
+formed in shallow water.</p>
+
+<p>The plants also found in some of the Permian
+strata indicate the neighbourhood of land. These
+are land species, and chiefly of genera common
+in the Coal-measures. Fragments of supposed
+coniferous wood (generally silicified) are occasionally
+met with in the Permian red beds of many
+parts of England.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 125px;"><a name="Fig_75" id="Fig_75"></a>
+<img src="images/illo186c.png" alt="Fig. 75" width="101" height="300" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 75.&mdash;Walchia Schlotheimii.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the Ferns characteristic of the period
+may be mentioned <i>Sphenopteris dichotoma</i> and <i><a href="#Fig_52">S.
+Artemisi&aelig;folia</a></i>; <i><a href="#Fig_48">Pecopteris lonchitica</a></i> and <i><a href="#Fig_49">Neuropteris
+gigantea</a></i>, figured on pp. 143, 144. &#8220;If we are,&#8221;
+says Lyell, &#8220;to draw a line between the Secondary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+and Primary fossiliferous strata, it must be run through the middle of
+what was once called the &#8216;New Red.&#8217; The inferior half of this group
+will rank as Primary or Pal&aelig;ozoic, while its upper member will form
+the base of the Secondary or Mesozoic series.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Among the <i>Equiseta</i>
+of the Permian formation of Saxony, Colonel Von Gutbier found
+<i>Calamites gigas</i> and sixty species
+of fossil plants, most of them
+Ferns, forty of which have not
+been found elsewhere. Among
+these are several species of <i>Walchia</i>,
+a genus of Conifers, of which
+an example is given in <a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In their stems, leaves, and cones,
+they bear some resemblance to the <i>Araucarias</i>, which have been
+introduced from North America into our pleasure-grounds during the
+last half-century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_76" id="Fig_76"></a>
+<img src="images/illo187.png" alt="Fig. 76" width="300" height="88" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 76.&mdash;Trigonocarpum N&ouml;ggerathii.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the genera enumerated by Colonel Von Gutbier are some
+fruits called <i>Cardiocarpon</i>, and <i>Asterophyllites</i> and <i>Annularia</i>, so
+characteristic of the Carboniferous age. The Lepidodendron is
+also common to the Permian rocks of Saxony, Russia, and Thuringia;
+also the <i>N&ouml;ggerathia</i>, a family of large trees, intermediate
+between Cycads (<a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>) and the Conifers. The fruit of one of
+these is represented in <a href="#Fig_76">Fig 76</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Permian Rocks.</span>&mdash;We now give a sketch of the physiognomy of
+the earth in Permian times. Of what do the beds consist? What is
+the extent, and what is the mineralogical constitution of the rocks
+deposited in the seas of the period? The Permian formation
+consists of three members, which are in descending order&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Upper Permian sandstone, or Gr&egrave;s des Vosges; 2. Magnesian
+Limestone, or Zechstein; 3. Lower Red Sandstone, Marl-slate or
+Kupferschiefer, and Rothliegende.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>gr&egrave;s des Vosges</i>, usually of a red colour, and from 300 to 450
+feet thick, composes all the southern part of the Vosges Mountains,
+where it forms frequent level summits, which are evidences of an
+ancient plain that has been acted on by running water. It only
+contains a few vegetable remains.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Magnesian Limestone</i>, Pierre de mine, or Zechstein, so called
+in consequence of the numerous metalliferous deposits met with in its
+diverse beds, presents in France only a few insignificant fragments;
+but in Germany and England it attains the thickness of 450 feet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+It is composed of a diversified mass of Magnesian Limestone, generally
+of a yellow colour, but sometimes red and brown, and bituminous
+clay, the last black and fetid. The subordinate rocks consist of
+marl, gypsum, and inflammable bituminous schists. The beds of marl
+slate are remarkable for the numbers of peculiar fossil fishes which
+they contain; and from the occurrence of small proportions of argentiferous
+grey copper-ore, met with in the bituminous shales which are
+worked in the district of Mansfeld, in Thuringia&mdash;the latter are called
+<i>Kupferschiefer</i> in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Lower Red Sandstone</i>, which attains a thickness of from 300 to
+600 feet, is found over great part of Germany, in the Vosges, and in
+England. Its fossil remains are few and rare; they include silicified
+trunks of Conifers, some impressions of Ferns, and Calamites.</p>
+
+<p>In England the Permian strata, to a great extent, consist of red
+sandstones and marls; and the Magnesian Limestone of the northern
+counties is also, though to a less degree, associated with red marls.</p>
+
+<p>In Lancashire thin beds of Magnesian Limestone are interstratified
+with red marls in the upper Permian strata, beneath which there are
+soft Red Sandstones, estimated by Mr. Hull to be about 1,500 feet
+thick. These are supposed to represent the Rothliegende, and no
+shells of any kind have been found in them. The upper Permian
+beds, however, contain a few Magnesian Limestone species, such as
+<i>Gervillia antiqua</i>, <i>Pleurophorus costatus</i>, <i>Schizodus obscurus</i>, and some
+others, but all small and dwarfed.</p>
+
+<p>The coal-fields of North and South Staffordshire, Tamworth, Coalbrook
+Dale, and of the Forest of Wyre, are partly bordered by
+Permian rocks, which lie unconformably on the Coal-measures; as
+is the case, also, in the immediate neighbourhood of Manchester,
+where they skirt the borders of the main coal-field, and consist of
+the Lower Red Sandstone, resting unconformably on different parts
+of the Coal-measures, and overlaid by the pebble-beds of the Trias.</p>
+
+<p>At Stockport the Permian strata are stated by Mr. Hull to be
+more than 1,500 feet thick.</p>
+
+<p>In Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire, the Permian strata
+are stated by Mr. Aveline to be divided into two chief groups: the
+Roth-liegende, of no great thickness, and the Magnesian Limestone
+series; the latter being the largest and most important member of the
+Permian series in the northern counties of England. The Magnesian
+Limestone consists there of two great bands, separated by marls and
+sandstone, and quarried for building and for lime. In Derbyshire and
+Yorkshire the magnesian limestone, under the name of Dolomite,
+forms an excellent building-stone, which has been used in the construction
+of the Houses of Parliament.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>In the midland counties and on the borders of Wales, the Permian
+section is different from that of Nottinghamshire and the North of
+England. The Magnesian Limestones are absent, and the rocks consist
+principally of dark-red marl, brown and red sandstones, and
+calcareous conglomerates and breccias, which are almost entirely
+unfossiliferous. In Warwickshire, where they rest conformably on
+the Coal-measures, they occupy a very considerable tract of country,
+and are of very great thickness, being estimated by Mr. Howell to
+be 2,000 feet thick.</p>
+
+<p>In the east of England the Magnesian Limestone contains a
+numerous marine fauna, but much restricted when compared with
+that of the Carboniferous period. The shells of the former are all
+small and dwarfed in size when compared with their congeners of
+Carboniferous times, when such there are, and in this respect, and
+the small number of genera, they resemble the living mollusca of
+the still less numerous fauna of the Caspian Sea.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the poverty and small size of the mollusca, the later
+strata of the true Magnesian Limestone seem to afford strong indications
+that they may have been deposited in a great inland salt-lake
+subject to evaporation.</p>
+
+<p>The absence of fossils in much of the formation may be partly
+accounted for by its deposition in great measure from solution, and
+the uncongenial nature of the waters of a salt-lake may account for
+the poverty-stricken character of the whole molluscan fauna.</p>
+
+<p>The red colouring-matter of the Permian sandstones and marls is
+considered, by Professor Ramsay, to be due to carbonate of iron
+introduced into the waters, and afterwards precipitated as peroxide
+through the oxidising action of the air and the escape of the carbonic
+acid which held it in solution. This circumstance of the red colour
+of the Permian beds affords an indication that the red Permian strata
+were deposited in inland waters unconnected with the main ocean,
+which waters may have been salt or fresh as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The Magnesian Limestone series of the east of England may,
+possibly, have been connected directly with an open sea at the commencement
+of the deposition of these strata, whatever its subsequent
+history may have been; for the fish of the marl strata have generically
+strong affinities with those of Carboniferous age, some of which
+were truly marine, while others certainly penetrated shallow lagoons
+bordered by peaty flats.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>There is indisputable evidence that the Permian ocean covered
+an immense area of the globe. In the Permian period this ocean
+extended from Ireland to the Ural mountains, and probably to Spitzbergen,
+with its northern boundary defined by the Carboniferous,
+Devonian, Silurian, and Igneous regions of Scotland, Scandinavia,
+and Northern Russia; and its southern boundaries apparently
+stretching far into the south of Europe (King). The chain of the
+Vosges, stretching across Rhenish Bavaria, the Grand Duchy of
+Baden, as far as Saxony and Silesia, would be under water. They
+would communicate with the ocean, which covered all the midland
+and western counties of England and part of Russia. In other parts
+of Europe the continent has varied very little since the preceding
+Devonian and Carboniferous ages. In France the central plateaux
+would form a great island, which extended towards the south,
+probably as far as the foot of the Pyrenees; another island would
+consist of the mass of Brittany. In Russia the continent would have
+extended itself considerably towards the east; finally, it is probable
+that, at the end of the Carboniferous period, the Belgian continent
+would stretch from the Departments of the Pas-de-Calais and Du
+Nord, in France, and would extend up to and beyond the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>In England, the Silurian archipelago, now filled up and occupied
+by deposits of the Devonian and Carboniferous systems, would be
+covered with carboniferous vegetation; dry land would now extend,
+almost without interruption, from Cape Wrath to the Land&#8217;s End;
+but, on its eastern shore, the great mass of the region now lying less
+than three degrees west of Greenwich would, in a general sense, be
+under water, or form islands rising out of the sea. Alphonse Esquiros
+thus eloquently closes the chapter of his work in which he treats of
+this formation in England: &#8220;We have seen seas, vast watery deserts,
+become populated; we have seen the birth of the first land and its
+increase; ages succeeding each other, and Nature in its progress
+advancing among ruins; the ancient inhabitants of the sea, or at
+least their spoils, have been raised to the summit of lofty mountains.
+In the midst of these vast cemeteries of the primitive world we have
+met with the remains of millions of beings; entire species sacrificed
+to the development of life. Here terminates the first mass of facts
+constituting the infancy of the British Islands. But great changes are
+still to produce themselves on this portion of the earth&#8217;s surface.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Having thus described the <i>Primary Epoch</i>, it may be useful,
+before entering on what is termed by geologists the <i>Secondary Epoch</i>, to
+glance backwards at the facts which we have had under consideration.</p>
+
+<p>In this Primary period plants and animals appear for the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+time upon the surface of the cooling globe. We have said that the seas
+of the epoch were then dominated by the fishes known as <i>Ganoids</i>
+(from &#947;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#962;, <i>glitter</i>), from the brilliant polish of the enamelled
+scales which covered their bodies, sometimes in a very complicated
+and fantastic manner; the <i>Trilobites</i> are curious Crustaceans, which
+appear and altogether disappear in the Primary epoch; an immense
+quantity of Mollusca, Cephalopoda, and Brachiopoda; the <i>Encrinites</i>,
+animals of curious organisation, which form
+some of the most graceful ornaments of
+our Pal&aelig;ontological collections.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_77" id="Fig_77"></a>
+<img src="images/illo191a.png" alt="Fig. 77" width="250" height="222" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 77.&mdash;Lithostrotion.
+(Fossil Coral.)</p></div>
+
+<p>But, among all these beings, those
+which prevailed&mdash;those which were truly
+the kings of the organic world&mdash;were the
+Fishes, and, above all, the <i>Ganoids</i>, which
+have left no animated being behind them
+of similar organisation. Furnished with
+a sort of defensive armour, they seem to
+have received from Nature this means of
+protection to ensure their existence, and
+permit them to triumph over all the influences which threatened
+them with destruction in the seas of the ancient world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_78" id="Fig_78"></a>
+<img src="images/illo191b.png" alt="Fig. 78" width="400" height="134" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 78.&mdash;Rhyncholites, upper, side, and internal views. 1, Side view (Muschelkalk of Luneville);
+2, Upper view (same locality); 3, Upper view (Lias of Lyme Regis); 4, Calcareous point
+of an under mandible, internal view, from Luneville. (Buckland.)</p></div>
+
+<p>In the Primary epoch the living creation was in its infancy. No
+Mammals then roamed the forests; no bird had yet displayed its
+wings. Without Mammals, therefore, there was no maternal instinct;
+none of the soft affections which are, with animals, as it were, the
+precursors of intelligence. Without birds, also, there could be no
+songs in the air. Fishes, Mollusca, and Crustacea silently ploughed
+their way in the depths of the sea, and the immovable Crinoid lived
+there. On the land we only find a few marsh-frequenting Reptiles, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+small size&mdash;forerunners of those monstrous Saurians which make their
+appearance in the Secondary epoch.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation of the Primary epoch is chiefly of inferior organisation.
+With a few plants of a higher order, that is to say, Dicotyledons,
+Calamites, Sigillarias, it was the Cryptogamia (also several
+species of Ferns, the Lepidodendra, Lycopodiace&aelig;, and the Equisetace&aelig;,
+and some doubtfully allied forms, termed N&ouml;ggerathia), then
+at their maximum of development, which formed the great mass of
+the vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Let us also consider, in this short analysis, that during the epoch
+under consideration, what we call <i>climate</i> may not have existed. The
+same animals and the same plants then lived in the polar regions as
+at the equator. Since we find, in the Primary formations of the icy
+regions of Spitzbergen and Melville Islands, nearly the same fossils
+which we meet with in these same rocks in the torrid zone, we must
+conclude that the temperature at this epoch was uniform all over the
+globe, and that the heat of the earth itself was sufficiently high to
+render inappreciable the calorific influence of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>During this same period the progressive cooling of the earth
+occasioned frequent ruptures and dislocations of the ground; the terrestrial
+crust, in opening, afforded a passage for the rocks called
+<i>igneous</i>, such as granite, afterwards to the porphyries and syenites,
+which poured slowly through these immense fissures, and formed
+mountains of granite and porphyry, or simple clefts, which subsequently
+became filled with oxides and metallic sulphides, forming
+what are now designated metallic veins. The great mountain-range
+of Ben Nevis offers a striking example of the first of these phenomena;
+through the granite base a distinct natural section can be
+traced of porphyry ejected through the granite, and of syenite through
+the porphyry. These geological commotions (which occasioned, not
+over the whole extent of the earth, but only in certain places, great
+movements of the surface) would appear to have been more frequent at
+the close of the Primary epoch; during the interval which forms the
+passage between the Primary and Secondary epochs; that is to say,
+between the Permian and the Triassic periods. The phenomena of
+eruptions, and the character of the rocks called eruptive, are treated
+of in a former chapter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_79" id="Fig_79"></a>
+<img src="images/illo193.png" alt="Fig. 79" width="350" height="518" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 79.
+<i>a</i>, Pentacrinites Briareus, reduced; <i>b</i>, the same from the Lias of Lyme Regis; natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The convulsions and disturbances by which the surface of the
+earth was agitated did not extend, let it be noted, over the whole of
+its circumference; the effects were partial and local. It would, then, be
+wrong to affirm, as is asserted by many modern geologists, that the
+dislocations of the crust and the agitations of the surface of the globe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+extended to both hemispheres, resulting in the destruction of all living
+creatures. The Fauna and Flora of the Permian period did not
+differ essentially from the Fauna and Flora of the Coal-measures,
+which shows that no general revolution occurred to disturb the entire
+globe between these two epochs. Here, then, as in all analogous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+cases, it is unnecessary to recur to any general cataclysm to explain
+the passage from one epoch to another. Have we not, almost in our
+our own day, seen certain species of animals die out and disappear,
+without the least geological revolution? Without speaking of the
+Beaver, which abounded two centuries ago on the banks of the
+Rh&ocirc;ne, and in the C&eacute;vennes, which still lived at Paris in the little
+river Bi&egrave;vre in the middle ages, its existence being now unknown
+in these latitudes, although it is still found in America and other
+countries, we could cite many examples of animals which have
+become extinct in times by no means remote from our own. Such
+are the <i>Dinornis</i> and the <i>Epyornis</i>, colossal birds of New Zealand
+and Madagascar, and the <i>Dodo</i>, which lived in the Isle of France in
+1626. <i>Ursus spel&aelig;us</i>, <i>Cervus Megaceros</i>, <i>Bos primigenius</i>, are species
+of Bear, Deer, and Ox
+which were contemporary
+with man, but have now
+become extinct. In France
+we no longer know the
+gigantic wood-stag, figured
+by the Romans on their
+monuments, and which
+they had brought from
+England for the fine quality
+of its flesh. The Erymanthean
+boar, so widely
+dispersed during the
+ancient historical period,
+no longer exists among our living races, any more than the Crocodiles
+<i>lacunosus</i> and <i>laciniatus</i> found by Geoffroy St.-Hilaire in
+the catacombs of ancient Egypt. Many races of animals figured in
+the mosaics of Palestrina, engraved and painted along with species
+now actually existing, are no longer found living in our days any
+more than are the Lions with curly manes, which formerly existed
+in Syria, and perhaps even in Thessaly and the northern parts of
+Greece. From what happens in our own time, we may infer what
+has taken place in times antecedent to the appearance of man; and
+the idea of successive cataclysms of the globe, must be restrained
+within bounds. Must we imagine a series of geological revolutions
+to account for the disappearance of animals which have evidently
+become extinct in a natural way? What has come to pass in our
+days, it is reasonable to conclude, may have taken place in the times
+anterior to the appearance of man.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_80" id="Fig_80"></a>
+<img src="images/illo194.png" alt="Fig. 80" width="350" height="207" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 80.&mdash;Terebellaria ramosissima.
+(Recent Coral.)</p></div>
+
+<hr class="footnote" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., vol.
+xxiii., p. 556.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> &#8220;On the Red Rocks of
+England,&#8221; by A. C. Ramsay. <i>Quart. Jour. Geol.
+Soc.</i>, vol. xxvii., p. 250.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc</i>.,
+vol. iii., p. 159.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> &#8220;The Flora and Fauna of
+the Silurian Period,&#8221; by John T. Bigsby, M.A.,
+F.G.S. 4to, 1868.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Ibid, p. vi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> &#8220;Siluria,&#8221; p. 148.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> &#8220;On the Red Rocks of
+England,&#8221; by A. C. Ramsay. <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>,
+vol. xxvii., p. 243.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> &#8220;On the Red Rocks of
+England,&#8221; by A. C. Ramsay. <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>,
+vol. xxvii., p. 247.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> For fuller
+details on this subject, see J. B. Jukes&#8217; &#8220;Manual of Geology,&#8221;
+3rd ed., p. 762. Also, R. Etheridge, <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. 23, p. 251.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>Quart. Jour. Geol.
+Soc.</i>, vol. xxii., p. 129.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of
+Geology,&#8221; p. 480.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Ibid, p. 479.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Ibid, p. 479.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Ibid, p. 483.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> &#8220;Introduction to
+Geology,&#8221; by Robert Bakewell, 5th ed., p. 179. 1838.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> For the opinions respecting
+the <i>Stigmaria ficoides</i>, see a Memoir on &#8220;The
+Formation of the Rocks in South Wales and South-Western England,&#8221; by Sir
+Henry T. De la Beche, F.R.S., in the &#8220;Memoirs of the Geological Survey of
+Great Britain,&#8221; vol. i., p. 149.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> See &#8220;Siluria,&#8221; p.
+14. <i>Philosophical Mag.</i>, 3rd series, vol. xix., p. 419.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> A. C. Ramsay, &#8220;On the
+Red Rocks of England.&#8221; <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>,
+vol. xxvii., p. 246.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of
+Geology,&#8221; p. 456.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> &#8220;On the Red Rocks of
+England,&#8221; by A. C. Ramsay. <i>Quart. Jour. Geol.
+Soc.</i>, vol. xxvii., p. 246.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></p>
+<h2>SECONDARY EPOCH.</h2>
+
+<p>During the <i>Primary Epoch</i> our globe would appear to have been
+chiefly appropriated to beings which lived in the waters&mdash;above all,
+to the Crustaceans and Fishes; during the <i>Secondary Epoch</i> Reptiles
+seem to have been its prevailing inhabitants. Animals of this class
+assumed astonishing dimensions, and would seem to have multiplied
+in a most singular manner; they were, apparently, the kings of the
+earth. At the same time, however, that the animal kingdom thus
+developed itself, the vegetation lost much of its importance.</p>
+
+<p>Geologists have agreed among themselves to divide the Secondary
+epoch into three periods: 1, the <i>Cretaceous</i>; 2, the <i>Jurassic</i>; 3, the
+<i>Triassic</i>&mdash;a division which it is convenient to adopt.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Triassic, or New Red Period.</span></h3>
+
+<p>This period has received the name of Triassic because the rocks
+of which it is composed, which are more fully developed in Germany
+than either in England or France, were called the Trias (or Triple
+Group), by German writers, from its division into three groups, as
+follows, in descending order:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" style="max-width: 90%;" summary="Table p 185">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center"><span class="smcap">England.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center"><span class="smcap">France.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center"><span class="smcap">Germany.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Saliferous and gypseous shales and sandstone</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Marnes iris&eacute;es</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Keuper. <span class="padl3">1,000 feet.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Wanting</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Muschelkalk or Calcaire coquillier</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Muschelkalk. <span class="padl3">600 feet.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Sandstone and quartzose conglomerate</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Gr&egrave;s bigarr&eacute;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Bunter-Sandstein. <span class="padl3">1,500 ft.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The following has been shown by Mr. Ed. Hull to be the general
+succession of the Triassic formation in the midland and north-western
+counties of England, where it attains its greatest vertical
+development, thinning away in the direction of the mouth of the
+Thames:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" style="max-width: 90%;" summary="Table p 186">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bb">Foreign Equivalents.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="11" class="center padl1 padr1">TRIASSIC<br />SERIES.</td>
+<td rowspan="11" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="11" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">New Red Marl.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Red and grey shales and marls, sometimes micaceous, with beds of rock-salt and gypsum, containing
+<i>Estheria</i> and <i>Foraminifera</i> (Chellaston).</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Keuper.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1">Marnes iris&eacute;es.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Lower Keuper Sandstone.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Thinly-laminated micaceous sandstones and marls (waterstones); passing downwards into white, brown,
+or reddish sandstone, with a base of calcareous conglomerate or breccia.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Letten Kohle (?)</td>
+<td class="left top padl3">&#8222;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Wanting in England.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">...</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Muschelkalk.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1">Calcaire coquillier.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Upper Mottled Sandstone.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Soft, bright-red and variegated sandstone (without pebbles).</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl1 padr1">Bunter Sandstein.</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl1">Gr&egrave;s bigarr&eacute;, or Gr&egrave;s des Vosges (in part).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Pebble Beds.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Harder reddish-brown sandstones with quartzose pebbles, passing into conglomerate; with a base of
+calcareous breccia.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Lower Mottled Sandstone.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Soft bright-red and variegated sandstone (without pebbles).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="5" class="center padl1 padr1">PERMIAN<br />SERIES.</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Upper Permian.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Red marls, with thin-bedded fossiliferous limestones (Manchester).</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Zechstein.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Lower</span></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Red and variegated sandstone (Collyhurst, Manchester) represented by [...].</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Rothe-todte-liegende.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1">Gr&egrave;s des Vosges (in part).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Reddish-brown and purple sandstones and marls, with calcareous conglomerates and trappoid breccia.
+(Central counties).</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">New Red Sandstone.</span></h4>
+
+<p>In this new phase of the revolutions of the globe, the animated
+beings on its surface differ much from those which belonged to the
+Primary epoch. The curious Crustaceans which we have described
+under the name of <i>Trilobites</i> have disappeared; the molluscous
+Cephalopods and Brachiopods are here few in number, as are the
+Ganoid and Placoid Fishes, whose existence also seems to have
+terminated during this period, and vegetation has undergone analogous
+changes. The cryptogamic plants, which reached their maximum
+in the Primary epoch, become now less numerous, while the
+Conifers experienced a certain extension. Some kinds of terrestrial
+animals have disappeared, but they are replaced by genera as
+numerous as new. For the first time the Turtle appears in the
+bosom of the sea, and on the borders of lakes. The Saurian reptiles
+acquire a great development; they prepare the way for those enormous
+Saurians, which appear in the following period, whose skeletons
+present such vast proportions, and such a strange aspect, as to strike
+with astonishment all who contemplate their gigantic, and, so to speak,
+awe-inspiring remains.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Variegated Sandstone</i>, or Bunter, contains many vegetable,
+but few animal, remains, although we constantly find imprints of the
+footsteps of the Labyrinthodon.</p>
+
+<p>The lowest Bunter formation shows itself in France, in the
+Pyrenees, around the central plateau in the Var, and upon both
+flanks of the Vosges mountains. It is represented in south-western
+and central Germany, in Belgium, in Switzerland, in Sardinia, in
+Spain, in Poland, in the Tyrol, in Bohemia, in Moravia, and in Russia.
+M. D&#8217;Orbigny states, from his own observation, that it covers vast
+surfaces in the mountainous regions of Bolivia, in South America. It
+is recognised in the United States, in Columbia, in the Great Antilles,
+and in Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>The Bunter in France is reduced to the variegated sandstone,
+except around the Vosges, in the Var, and the Black Forest, where it
+is accompanied by the Muschelkalk. In Germany it furnishes
+building-stone of excellent quality; many great edifices, in particular
+the cathedrals, so much admired on the Rhine&mdash;such, for example,
+as those of Strasbourg and Fribourg&mdash;are constructed of this stone,
+the sombre tints of which singularly relieve the grandeur and majesty
+of the Gothic architecture. Whole cities in Germany are built of the
+brownish-red stones drawn from its mottled sandstone quarries. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+England, in Scotland, and in Ireland this formation extends from
+north to south through the whole length of the country. &#8220;This old
+land,&#8221; says Professor Ramsay,<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> &#8220;consisted in great part of what we
+now know as Wales, and the adjacent counties of Hereford, Monmouth,
+and Shropshire; of part of Devon and Cornwall, Cumberland,
+the Pennine chain, and all the mountainous parts of Scotland.
+Around old Wales, and part of Cumberland, and probably all round
+and over great part of Devon and Cornwall, the New Red Sandstone
+was deposited. Part, at least, of this oldest of the Secondary rocks
+was formed of the material of the older Pal&aelig;ozoic strata, that had then
+risen above the surface of the water. The New Red Sandstone series
+consists in its lower members of beds of red sandstone and conglomerate,
+more than 1,000 feet thick, and above them are placed red
+and green marls, chiefly red, which in Germany are called the Keuper
+strata, and in England the New Red Marl. These formations
+range from the mouth of the Mersey, round the borders of Wales,
+to the estuary of the Severn, eastwards into Warwickshire, and
+thence northwards into Yorkshire and Northumberland, along the
+eastern border of the Magnesian Limestone. They also form the
+bottom of the valley of the Eden, and skirt Cumberland on the west;
+in the centre of England the unequal hardness of its sub-divisions
+sometimes giving rise to minor escarpments, overlooking plains and
+undulating grounds of softer strata.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Different members of the group rest in England, in some region
+or other,&#8221; says Lyell, &#8220;on almost every principal member of the
+Pal&aelig;ozoic series, on Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous,
+and Permian rocks; and there is evidence everywhere of disturbance,
+contortion, partial upheaval into land, and vast denudations which
+the older rocks underwent before and during the deposition of the
+successive strata of the New Red Sandstone group.&#8221; (&#8220;Elements of
+Geology,&#8221; p. 439.)</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Muschelkalk</i> consists of beds of compact limestone, often
+greyish, sometimes black, alternating with marl and clay, and commonly
+containing such numbers of shells that the name of shelly
+limestone (<i>Muschelkalk</i>) has been given to the formation by the
+Germans. The beds are sometimes magnesian, especially in the
+lower strata, which contain deposits of gypsum and rock-salt.</p>
+
+<p>The seas of this sub-period, which is named after the innumerable
+masses of shells inclosed in the rocks which it represents, included,
+besides great numbers of Mollusca, Saurian Reptiles of twelve different<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+genera, some Turtles, and six new genera of Fishes clothed with a
+cuirass. Let us pause at the Mollusca which peopled the Triassic
+seas.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_81" id="Fig_81"></a>
+<img src="images/illo199.png" alt="Fig. 81" width="250" height="315" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 81.&mdash;Ceratites nodosus.
+(Muschelkalk.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the shells characteristic of the Muschelkalk period, we
+mention <i>Natica Gaillardoti</i>, <i>Rostellaria antiqua</i>, <i>Lima striata</i>, <i>Avicula
+socialis</i>, <i>Terebratula vulgaris</i>, <i>Turbonilla dubia</i>, <i>Myophoria vulgaris</i>,
+<i>Nautilus hexagonalis</i>, and <i>Ceratites nodosus</i>. The <i>Ceratites</i>, of which
+a species is here represented (<a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>), form a genus closely allied to
+the <i>Ammonites</i>, which seem to have
+played such an important part in the
+ancient seas, but which have no existence
+in those of our era, either in
+species or even in genus. This Ceratite
+is found in the Muschelkalk of
+Germany, a formation which has no
+equivalent in England, but which is a
+compact greyish limestone underlying
+the saliferous rocks in Germany, and
+including beds of dolomite with gypsum
+and rock-salt.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Mytilus</i> or <i>Mussel</i>, which properly
+belonged to this age, are acephalous
+(or headless) Molluscs with
+elongated triangular shells, of which
+there are many species found in our
+existing seas. <i>Lima</i>, <i>Myophoria</i>, <i>Posidonia</i>,
+and <i>Avicula</i>, are acephalous
+Molluscs of the same period. The two genera <i>Natica</i> and <i>Rostellaria</i>
+belong to the Gasteropoda, and are abundant in the Muschelkalk
+in France, Germany, and Poland.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_82" id="Fig_82"></a>
+<img src="images/illo200.png" alt="Fig. 82" width="100" height="396" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 82.&mdash;Encrinus
+liliiformis.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the Echinoderms belonging to this period may be mentioned
+<i>Encrinus moniliformis</i> and <i>E. liliiformis</i>, or <i>lily encrinite</i>
+(<a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82</a>), whose remains, constituting in some localities whole beds
+of rock, show the slow progress with which this zoophyte formed beds
+of limestone in the clear seas of the period. To these may be added,
+among the Mollusca, <i>Avicula subcostata</i> and <i>Myophoria vulgaris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Muschelkalk are found the skull and teeth of <i>Placodus
+gigas</i>, a reptile which was originally placed by Agassiz among the class
+of Fishes; but more perfect specimens have satisfied Professor Owen
+that it was a Saurian Reptile.</p>
+
+<p>It may be added, that the presence of a few genera, peculiar to
+the Primary epoch, which entirely disappeared during the sub-period,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+and the appearance for the first time of some other animals peculiar
+to the Jurassic period, give to the Muschelkalk fauna the appearance
+of being one of passage from one period to the other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_83" id="Fig_83"></a>
+<img src="images/illo203.png" alt="Fig. 83" width="400" height="325" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 83.&mdash;Labyrinthodon restored. One-twentieth natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The seas, then, contained a few Reptiles,
+probably inhabitants of the banks of rivers, as
+<i>Phytosaurus</i>, <i>Capitosaurus</i>, &amp;c., and sundry Fishes,
+as <i>Sph&#339;rodus</i> and <i>Pycnodus</i>. In this sub-period
+we shall say nothing of the Land-Turtles, which
+for the first time now appear; but, we should
+note, that at the Bunter period a gigantic Reptile
+appears, on which the opinions of geologists were
+for a long while at variance. In the argillaceous
+rocks of the Muschelkalk period imprints of the
+foot of some animal were discovered in the sandstones
+of Storeton Hill, in Cheshire, and in the
+New Red Sandstone of parts of Warwickshire,
+as well as in Thuringia, and Hesseburg in Saxony,
+which very much resembled the impression that
+might be made in soft clay by the outstretched
+fingers and thumb of a human hand. These
+traces were made by a species of Reptile furnished
+with four feet, the two fore-feet being much broader
+than the hinder two. The head, pelvis, and scapula
+only of this strange-looking animal have been
+found, but these are considered to have belonged
+to a gigantic air-breathing reptile closely connected
+with the Batrachians. It is thought that
+the head was not naked, but protected by a bony
+cushion; that its jaws were armed with conical
+teeth, of great strength and of a complicated structure.
+This curious and uncouth-looking creature,
+of which the woodcut <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a> is a restoration,
+has been named the <i>Cheirotherium</i>, or <i>Labyrinthodon</i>,
+from the complicated arrangement of the
+cementing layer of the teeth. (See also <a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>, p. 12.)</p>
+
+<p>Another Reptile of great dimensions&mdash;which would seem to have
+been intended to prepare the way for the appearance of the enormous
+Saurians which present themselves in the Jurassic period&mdash;was the
+<i>Nothosaurus</i>, a species of marine Crocodile, of which a restoration
+has been attempted in <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XIII">Plate XIII.</a></span> opposite.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XIII" id="Plate_XIII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo201.png" alt="Plate XIII" width="600" height="393" />
+<p class="caption">XIII.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Muschelkalk Sub-period.</p></div>
+
+<p>It has been supposed, from certain impressions which appear in
+the Keuper sandstones of the Connecticut river in North America,<span
+class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a></span>
+that Birds made their appearance in the period which now occupies
+us; the flags on which these occur by thousands show the tracks of
+an animal of great size (some 20 inches long and 4<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> feet apart),
+presenting the impression of three toes, like some of the Struthionid&aelig;
+or Ostriches, accompanied by raindrops. No remains of the skeletons
+of birds have been met with in rocks of this period, and the footprints
+in question are all that can be alleged in support of the
+hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>M. Ad. Brongniart places the commencement of dicotyledonous
+gymnosperm plants in this age. The characteristics of this Flora
+consist in numerous Ferns, constituting genera now extinct, such as
+<i>Anomopteris</i> and <i>Crematopteris</i>. The true <i>Equiseta</i> are rare in it. The
+Calamites, or, rather, the <i>Calamodendra</i>, abound. The gymnosperms
+are represented by the genera <i>Conifer</i>, <i>Voltzia</i>, and <i>Haidingera</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+of which both species and individuals are very numerous in the
+formation of this period.</p>
+
+<p>Among the species of plants which characterise this formation, we
+may mention <i>Neuropteris elegans</i>, <i>Calamites arenaceus</i>, <i>Voltzia heterophylla</i>,
+<i>Haidingera speciosa</i>. The <i>Haidingera</i>, belonging to the
+tribe of <i>Abietin&aelig;</i>, were plants with large leaves, analogous to those
+of our <i>Damara</i>, growing close together, and nearly imbricated, as
+in the <i>Araucaria</i>. Their fruit, which are cones with rounded scales,
+are imbricated, and have only a single seed, thus bearing out the
+strong resemblance which has been traced between these fossil plants,
+and the Damara.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_84" id="Fig_84"></a>
+<img src="images/illo205.png" alt="Fig. 84" width="300" height="433" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 84.&mdash;Branch and cone of Voltzia restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Voltzias</i> (<a href="#Fig_84">Fig. 84</a>), which seem to have formed the greater
+part of the forests were a genus of Cupressinace&aelig;, now extinct,
+which are well characterised among the fossil Conifers of the period.
+The alternate spiral leaves, forming five to eight rows sessile, that is,
+sitting close to the branch and drooping, have much in them analogous
+to the <i>Cryptomerias</i>. Their fruit was an oblong cone with scales,
+loosely imbricated, cuneiform or wedge-shaped, and, commonly,
+composed of from three to five obtuse lobes. In <a href="#Fig_84">Fig. 84</a> we have a
+part of the stem, a branch with leaves and cone. In his &#8220;Botanic
+Geography,&#8221; M. Lecoq thus describes the vegetation of the ancient
+world in the first period of the Triassic age: &#8220;While the variegated
+sandstone and mottled clays were being slowly deposited in regular
+beds by the waters, magnificent Ferns still exhibited their light and
+elegantly-carved leaves. Divers <i>Protopteris</i> and majestic <i>Neuropteris</i>
+associated themselves in extensive forests, where vegetated also the
+<i>Crematopteris typica</i> of Schimper, the <i>Anomopteris Mongeotii</i> of Brongniart,
+and the pretty <i>Trichomanites myriophyllum</i> (G&ouml;ppert). The Conifers
+of this epoch attain a very considerable development, and would
+form graceful forests of green trees. Elegant monocotyledons, representing
+the forms of tropical countries, seem to show themselves for
+the first time, the <i>Yuccites Vogesiacus</i> of Schimper constituted groups
+at once thickly serried and of great extent.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A family, hitherto doubtful, appears under the elegant form of
+<i>Nilssonia Hogardi</i>, Schimp.; <i>Ctenis Hogardi</i>, Brongn. It is still
+seen in the <i>Zamites Vogesiacus</i>, Schimp.; and the group of the
+Cycads sharing at once in the organisation of the Conifers and the
+elegance of the Palms, now decorate the earth, which reveals in these
+new forms its vast fecundity. (See <a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, p. 168.)</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Of the herbaceous plants which formed the undergrowth of the
+forests, or which luxuriated in its cool marshes, the most remarkable is
+the <i>&AElig;theophyllum speciosum</i>, Schimp. Their organisation approximates<span
+class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a></span>
+to the Lycopodiace&aelig; and Thyphace&aelig;, the <i>&AElig;theophyllum stipulare</i>,
+Brongn., and the curious <i>Schizoneura paradoxa</i>, Schimp. Thus we
+can trace the commencement of the reign of the Dicotyledons with
+naked seeds, which afterwards become so widely disseminated, in a
+few Angiosperms, composed principally of two families, the Conifers
+and Cycadeace&aelig;, still represented in the existing vegetation. The
+former, very abundant at first, associated themselves with the cellular
+Cryptogams, which still abound, although they are decreasing, then
+with the Cycadeace&aelig;, which present themselves slowly, but will soon
+be observed to take a large part in the brilliant harmonies of the
+vegetable kingdom.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The engraving at page 191 (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XIII">Plate XIII.</a></span>) gives an idealised
+picture of the plants and animals of the period. The reader must
+imagine himself transported to the shores of the Muschelkalk sea at
+a moment when its waves are agitated by a violent but passing storm.
+The reflux of the tide exposes some of the aquatic animals of the
+period. Some fine Encrinites are seen, with their long flexible
+stems, and a few Mytili and Terebratul&aelig;. The Reptile which
+occupies the rocks, and prepares to throw itself on its prey, is the
+<i>Nothosaurus</i>. Not far from it are other reptiles, its congeners, but of
+a smaller species. Upon the dune on the shore is a fine group of
+the trees of the period, that is, of <i>Haidingeras</i>, with large trunks,
+with drooping branches and foliage, of which the cedars of our
+own age give some idea. The elegant <i>Voltzias</i> are seen in the
+second plane of this curtain of verdure. The Reptiles which lived in
+these primitive forests, and which would give to it so strange a character,
+are represented by the <i>Labyrinthodon</i>, which descends
+towards the sea on the right, leaving upon the sandy shore those
+curious tracks which have been so wonderfully preserved to our
+days.</p>
+
+<p>The footprints of the reptilian animals of this period prove that
+they walked over moist surfaces; and, if these surfaces had been
+simply left by a retiring tide, they would generally have been obliterated
+by the returning flood, in the same manner that is seen every
+day on our own sandy shores. It seems more likely that the surfaces,
+on which fossil footprints are now found, were left bare by the summer
+evaporation of a lake; that these surfaces were afterwards dried by
+the sun, and the footprints hardened, so as to ensure their preservation,
+before the rising waters brought by flooded muddy rivers again
+submerged the low flat shores and deposited new layers of salt, just
+as they do at the present day round the Dead Sea and the Salt Lake
+of Utah.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XIV" id="Plate_XIV"></a>
+<img src="images/illo208.png" alt="Plate XIV" width="600" height="395" />
+<p class="caption">XIV.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Keuper Sub-period.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Keuper Sub-period.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The formation which characterises the Keuper, or saliferous
+period, is of moderate extent, and derives the latter name from the
+salt deposits it contains.</p>
+
+<p>These rocks consist of a vast number of argillaceous and marly
+beds, variously coloured, but chiefly red, with tints of yellow and
+green. These are the colours which gave the name of <i>variegatea</i>
+(Poikilitic) to the series. The beds of red marl often alternate with
+sandstones, which are also variegated in colour. As subordinate
+rocks, we find in this formation some deposits of a poor pyritic coal
+and of gypsum. But what especially characterises the formation are
+the important deposits of rock-salt which are included in it. The
+saliferous beds, often twenty-five to forty feet thick, alternate with
+beds of clay, the whole attaining a thickness of 160 yards. In Germany
+in W&uuml;rtemberg, in France at Vic, at Dieuze, and at Ch&acirc;teau-Salins,
+the rock-salt of the saliferous formation has become an
+important branch of industry. In the Jura, salt is extracted from
+the water charged with chlorides, which issues from this formation.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these deposits are situated at great depths, and cannot be
+reached without very considerable labour. The salt-mines of Wieliczka,
+in Poland, for example, can be procured on the surface, or by
+galleries of little depth, because the deposit belongs to the Tertiary
+period; but the deposits of salt, in the Triassic age, lie so much
+deeper, as to be only approachable by a regular process of mining by
+galleries, and the ordinary mode of reaching the salt is by digging
+pits, which are afterwards filled with water. This water, charged
+with the salt, is then pumped up into troughs, where it is evaporated,
+and the crystallised mineral obtained.</p>
+
+<p>What is the origin of the great deposits of marine salt which occur
+in this formation, and which always alternate with thin beds of clay
+or marl? We can only attribute them to the evaporation of vast
+quantities of sea-water introduced into depressions, cavities, or gulfs,
+which the sandy dunes afterwards separated from the great open sea.
+In <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XIV">Plate XIV.</a></span> an attempt is made to represent the natural fact, which
+must have been of frequent recurrence during the saliferous period,
+to form the considerable masses of rock-salt which are now found in
+the rocks of the period. On the right is the sea, with a dune of
+considerable extent, separating it from a tranquil basin of smooth
+water. At intervals, and from various causes, the sea, clearing the
+dune, enters and fills the basin. We may even suppose that a gulf<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+exists here which, at one time, communicated with the sea; the winds
+having raised this sandy dune, the gulf becomes transformed, by degrees,
+into a basin or back-water, closed on all sides. However that may
+be, it is pretty certain that if the waters of the sea were once shut up
+in this basin, with an argillaceous bottom and without any opening,
+evaporation from the effects of solar heat would take place, and a bed
+of salt would be the result of this evaporation, mixed with other
+mineral salts which accompany chloride of sodium in sea-water, such
+as sulphate of magnesia, chloride of potassium, &amp;c. This bed of salt,
+left by the evaporation of the water, would soon receive an argillaceous
+covering from the clay and silt suspended in the muddy
+water of the basin, thus forming a first alternation of salt and of
+clay or marl. The sea making fresh breaches across the barriers,
+the same process took place with a similar result, until the basin was
+filled up. By the regular and tranquil repetition of this phenomenon,
+continued during a long succession of ages, this abundant deposit
+of rock-salt has been formed, which occupies so important a position
+in the Secondary rocks.</p>
+
+<p>There is in the delta of the Indus a singular region, called the
+Runn of Cutch, which extends over an area of 7,000 square
+miles, which is neither land nor sea, but is under water during the
+monsoons, and in the dry season is incrusted, here and there, with
+salt about an inch thick, the result of evaporation. Dry land has
+been largely increased here, during the present century, by subsidence
+of the waters and upheavals by earthquakes. &#8220;That successive
+layers of salt may have been thrown down one upon the other
+on many thousand square miles, in such a region, is undeniable,&#8221;
+says Lyell. &#8220;The supply of brine from the ocean is as inexhaustible
+as the supply of heat from the sun. The only assumption required
+to enable us to explain the great thickness of salt in such an area, is
+the continuance for an indefinite period of a subsidence, the country
+preserving all the time a general approach to horizontally.&#8221; The
+observations of Mr. Darwin on the atolls of the Pacific, prove that
+such a continuous subsidence is probable. Hugh Miller, after ably
+discussing various spots of earth where, as in the Runn of Cutch,
+evaporation and deposit take place, adds: &#8220;If we suppose that,
+instead of a barrier of lava, sand-bars were raised by the surf on a
+flat arenaceous coast, during a slow and equable sinking of the surface,
+the waters of the outer gulf might occasionally topple over the
+bar and supply a fresh brine when the first stock had been exhausted
+by evaporation.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Professor Ramsay has pointed out that both the sandstones and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+marls of the Triassic epoch were formed in lakes. In the latter part
+of this epoch, he is of opinion, that the Keuper marls of the British
+Isles were deposited in a large lake, or lakes, which were fresh or
+brackish at first, but afterwards salt and without outlets to the sea;
+and that the same was occasionally the case with regard to other
+portions of northern Europe and its adjoining seas.</p>
+
+<p>By the silting up of such lakes with sediment, and the gradual
+evaporation of their waters under favourable conditions, such as
+increased heat and diminished rainfall&mdash;where the lakes might cease
+to have an outflow into the sea and the loss of water by evaporation
+would exceed the amount flowing into them&mdash;the salt or salts contained
+in solution would, by degrees, become concentrated and finally
+precipitated. In this way the great deposits of rock-salt and gypsum,
+common in the Keuper formation, may be accounted for.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently, by increase of rainfall or decrease of heat, and
+sinking of the district, the waters became comparatively less salt
+again; and a recurrence of such conditions lasted until the close of
+the Keuper period, when a partial influx of the sea took place, and
+the Rh&aelig;tic beds of England were deposited.</p>
+
+<p>The red colour of the New Red Sandstones and marls is caused by
+peroxide of iron, which may also have been carried into the lakes in
+solution, as a carbonate, and afterwards converted into peroxide by
+contact with air, and precipitated as a thin pellicle upon the sedimentary
+grains of sandy mud, of which the Triassic beds more or less
+consist. Professor Ramsay further considers that all the red-coloured
+strata of England, including the Permian, Old Red Sandstone, and
+even the Old Cambrian formation, were deposited in lakes or inland
+waters.<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>There is little to be said of the animals which belong to the
+Saliferous period. They are nearly the same as those of the Muschelkalk,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_85" id="Fig_85"></a>
+<img src="images/illo212.png" alt="Fig. 85" width="400" height="195" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 85.&mdash;Pecten orbicularis.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the most abundant of the shells belonging to the upper
+Trias, in all the countries where it has been examined, are the <i>Avicula,
+Cardium</i>, and <i>Pecten</i>, one of which is given in <a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>. Foraminifera
+are numerous in the Keuper marls. The remains of land-plants, and
+the peculiarities of some of the reptiles of the Keuper period, tend to
+confirm the opinion of Professor Ramsay, that the strata were
+deposited in inland salt-lakes.</p>
+
+<p>In the Keuper period the islands and continents presented few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+mountains; they were intersected here and there by large lakes, with
+flat and uniform banks. The vegetation on their shores was very
+abundant, and we possess its remains in great numbers. The Keuper
+Flora was very analogous to those of the Lias and Oolite, and consisted
+of Ferns, Equisetace&aelig;, Cycads, Conifers, and a few plants,
+which M. Ad. Brongniart classes among the dubious monocotyledons.
+Among the Ferns may be quoted many species of <i>Sphenopteris</i> or
+<i>Pecopteris</i>. Among them, <i>Pecopteris Stuttgartiensis</i>, a tree with
+channelled trunk, which rises to a considerable height without throwing
+out branches, and terminates in a crown of leaves finely cut and
+with long petioles; the <i>Equisetites columnaris</i>, a great Equisetum
+analogous to the horse-tails of our age, but of infinitely larger dimensions,
+its long fluted trunk, surmounted by an elongated fructification,
+towering over all the other trees of the marshy soil.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Pterophyllum J&auml;geri</i> and <i>P. M&uuml;nsteri</i> represented the Cycads,
+the <i>Taxodites M&uuml;nsterianus</i> represented the Conifers, and, finally,
+the trunk of the Calamites was covered with a creeping plant, having
+elliptical leaves, with a re-curving nervature borne upon its long
+petioles, and the fruit disposed in bunches; this is the <i>Preissleria
+antiqua</i>, a doubtful monocotyledon, according to Brongniart, but M.
+Unger places it in the family of <i>Smilax</i>, of which it will thus be the
+earliest representative. The same botanist classes with the canes a
+marsh-plant very common in this period, the <i>Pal&aelig;oxyris M&uuml;nsteri</i>,
+which Brongniart classes with the <i>Preissleria</i> among his doubtful
+Monocotyledons.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation of the latter part of the Triassic period is thus
+characterised by Lecoq, in his &#8220;Botanical Geography&#8221;: &#8220;The cellular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+<i>Cryptogame&aelig;</i> predominate in this as they do in the Carboniferous
+epoch, but the species have changed, and many of the genera also are
+different; the <i>Cladephlebis</i>, the <i>Sphenopteris</i>, the <i>Coniopteris</i>, and
+<i>Pecopteris</i> predominate over the others in the number of species.
+The Equisetace&aelig; are more developed than in any other formation.
+One of the finest species, the <i>Calamites arenaceus</i> of Brongniart,
+must have formed great forests. The fluted trunks resemble immense
+columns, terminating at the summit in leafy branches, disposed in
+graceful verticillated tufts, foreshadowing the elegant forms of <i>Equisetum
+sylvaticum</i>. Growing alongside of these were a curious Equisetum
+and singular Equisetites, a species of which last, <i>E. columnaris</i>,
+raised its herbaceous stem, with its sterile articulations, to a great
+height.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;What a singular aspect these ancient rocks would present, if we
+add to them the forest-trees <i>Pterophyllum</i> and the <i>Zamites</i> of the fine
+family of Cycadeace&aelig;, and the Conifers, which seem to have made
+their appearance in the humid soil at the same time!</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is during this epoch, while yet under the reign of the
+dicotyledonous angiosperms, that we discover the first true monocotyledons.
+The <i>Preissleria antiqua</i>, with its long petals, drooping
+and creeping round the old trunks, its bunches of bright-coloured
+berries like the <i>Smilax</i> of our own age, to which family it appears to
+have belonged. Besides, the Triassic marshes gave birth to tufts of
+<i>Pal&aelig;oxyris M&uuml;nsteri</i>, a cane-like species of the Gramine&aelig;, which, in
+all probability, cheered the otherwise gloomy shore.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;During this long period the earth preserved its primitive vegetation;
+new forms are slowly introduced, and they multiply slowly.
+But if our present types of vegetation are deficient in these distant
+epochs, we ought to recognise also that the plants which in our days
+represent the vegetation of the primitive world are often shorn of their
+grandeur. Our Equisetace&aelig; and Lycopodiace&aelig; are but poor representatives
+of the Lepidodendrons; the Calamites and Asterophyllites
+had already run their race before the epoch of which we write.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The principal features of Triassic vegetation are represented in
+<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XIV">Plate XIV.</a></span>, page 198. On the cliff, on the left of the ideal landscape,
+the graceful stems and lofty trees are groups of <i>Calamites
+arenaceus</i>; below are the great &#8220;horse-tails&#8221; of the epoch, <i>Equisetum
+columnare</i>, a slender tapering species, of soft and pulpy consistence,
+which, rising erect, would give a peculiar physiognomy to the
+solitary shore.</p>
+
+<p>The Keuper formation presents itself in Europe at many points,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+and it is not difficult to trace its course. In France it appears in the
+department of the Indre, of the Cher, of the Allier, of the Ni&egrave;vre, of
+the Sa&ocirc;ne-et-Loire; upon the western slopes of the Jura its outliers
+crop out near Poligny and Salins, upon the western slopes of the
+Vosges; in the Doubs it shows itself; then it skirts the Muschelkalk
+area in the Haute-Marne; in the Vosges it assumes large proportions
+in the Meurthe at Luneville and Dieuze; in the Moselle it extends
+northward to Bouzonville; and on the Rhine to the east of Luxembourg
+as far as Dockendorf. Some traces of it show themselves
+upon the eastern slopes of the Vosges, on the lower Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>It appears again in Switzerland and in Germany, in the canton of
+Basle, in Argovia, in the Grand Duchy of W&uuml;rtemberg, in the Tyrol,
+and in Austria, where it gives its name to the city of Salzburg.</p>
+
+<p>In the British Islands the Keuper formation commences in the
+eastern parts of Devonshire, and a band, more or less regular, extends
+into Somersetshire, through Gloucestershire, Worcestershire,
+Warwick, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, to the banks of the Tees,
+in Yorkshire, with a bed, independent of all the others in Cheshire,
+which extends into Lancashire. &#8220;At Nantwich, in the upper Trias
+of Cheshire,&#8221; Sir Charles Lyell states, &#8220;two beds of salt, in great part
+unmixed with earthy matter, attain the thickness of 90 or 100 feet.
+The upper surface of the highest bed is very uneven, forming cones
+and irregular figures. Between the two masses there intervenes a bed
+of indurated clay traversed by veins of salt. The highest bed thins
+off towards the south-west, losing fifteen feet of its thickness in the
+course of a mile, according to Mr. Ormerod. The horizontal extent
+of these beds is not exactly known, but the area containing saliferous
+clay and sandstones is supposed to exceed 150 miles in diameter,
+while the total thickness of the Trias in the same region is estimated
+by Mr. Ormerod at 1,700 feet. Ripple-marked sandstones and the
+footprints of animals are observed at so many levels, that we may
+safely assume the whole area to have undergone a slow and gradual
+depression during the formation of the New Red Sandstone.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Not to mention the importance of salt as a source of health, it is
+in Great Britain, and, indeed, all over the world where the saliferous
+rocks exist, a most important branch of industry. The quantity of the
+mineral produced in England, from all sources, is between 5,000 and
+6,000 tons annually, and the population engaged in producing the mineral,
+from sources supposed to be inexhaustible, is upwards of 12,000.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_86" id="Fig_86"></a>
+<img src="images/illo215a.png" alt="Fig. 86" width="250" height="299" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 86.&mdash;Productus Martini.</p></div>
+
+<p>The lower Keuper sandstones, which lie at the base of the series
+of red marls, frequently give rise to springs, and are in consequence
+called &#8220;water-stones,&#8221; in Lancashire and Cheshire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="Fig_87" id="Fig_87"></a>
+<img src="images/illo215b.png" alt="Fig. 87" width="550" height="293" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 87.&mdash;Patella vulgata.<br />
+(Living.)</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>If the Keuper formation is poor in organic remains in France, it
+is by no means so on the other side of the Alps. In the Tyrol, and
+in the remarkable beds of Saint Cassian, Aussec, and Hallstadt, the
+rocks are made up of an immense number of marine fossils, among
+them Cephalopods, Ceratites, and Ammonites of peculiar form. The
+Orthoceras, which we have seen abounding in the Silurian period,
+and continued during the deposit of the Devonian and Carboniferous
+periods, appears here for the last time. We still find here a
+great number of Gasteropods and of Lamellibranchs of the most
+varied form. Sea Urchins&mdash;corals of elegant form&mdash;appear to have
+occupied, on the other side of the Alps, the same seas which in
+France and Germany seem to have been nearly destitute of animals.
+Some beds are literally formed of accumulated shells belonging to
+the genus <i>Avicula</i>; but these last-mentioned deposits are to be
+considered as more properly belonging to the Rh&aelig;tic or Penarth
+strata, into which the New Red or Keuper Marl gradually passes
+upwards, and which are more fully described at <a href="#Page_207">page 207</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In following the grand mountainous slopes of the Alps and Carpathians
+we discover the saliferous rocks by this remarkable accumulation
+of Avicul&aelig;. The same facies presents itself under identical
+conditions in Syria, in India, in New Caledonia, in New Zealand,
+and in Australia. It is not the least curious part of this period, that
+it presents, on one side of the site of the Alps, which were not yet
+raised, an immense accumulation of sediment, charged with gypsum,
+rock-salt, &amp;c., without organic remains; while beyond, a region presents
+itself equally remarkable for the extraordinary accumulation of
+the remains of marine Mollusca. Among these were <i>Myophoria
+lineata</i>, which is often confounded with Trigonia, and <i>Stellispongia
+variabilis</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>France at this period was still the skeleton of what it has since
+become. A map of that country represents the metamorphic rocks
+occupying the site of the Alps, the C&eacute;vennes, and the Puy-de-D&ocirc;me,
+the country round Nantes, and the Islands of Brittany. The Primary
+rocks reach the foot of the Pyrenees, the Cotentin, the Vosges, and
+the Eifel Mountains. Some bands of coal stretch away from Valenciennes
+to the Rhine, and on the north of the Vosges, these mountains
+themselves being chiefly composed of Triassic rocks.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></p>
+
+<h3>RH&AElig;TIC, OR PENARTH SUB-PERIOD.</h3>
+
+<p>The attention of geologists has been directed within the last few
+years, more especially, to a series of deposits which intervene between
+the New Red Marl of the Trias, and the blue argillaceous limestones
+and shales of the Lower Lias. The first-mentioned beds, although
+they attain no great thickness in this country, nevertheless form a
+well-defined and persistent zone of strata between the unfossiliferous
+Triassic marls and the lower Liassic limestone with <i>Ostrea Liassica</i>
+and <i>Ammonites planorbis</i>, <i>A. angulatus</i> and <i>A. Bucklandi</i>; being
+everywhere characterised by the presence of the same groups of
+organic remains, and the same general lithological character of the
+beds. These last may be described as consisting of three sub-divisions,
+the lowermost composed of alternations of marls, clays, and
+marly limestones in the lower part, forming a gradual passage downwards
+into the New Red Marls upon which they repose. 2. A middle
+group of black, thinly laminated or paper-like shales, with thin layers
+of indurated limestone, and crowded in places with <i>Pecten Valoniensis</i>,
+<i>Cardium Rh&aelig;ticum</i>, <i>Avicula contorta</i>, and other characteristic shells,
+as well as by the presence, nearly always, of a remarkable bed, which
+is commonly known as the &#8220;Bone-bed.&#8221; This thin band of stone,
+which is so well known at Aust, Axmouth, Westbury-on-Severn, and
+elsewhere, is a brecciated or conglomerated band of variable thickness
+which, sometimes a sandstone and sometimes a limestone, is
+always more or less composed of the teeth, scales, and bones of
+numerous genera of Fishes and Saurians, together with their fossilised
+excrement, which will be more fully and subsequently described under
+the name of Coprolites, under the Liassic period.</p>
+
+<p>The molar tooth of a small predaceous fossil mammal of the
+Microlestes family (&#956;&#953;&#954;&#961;&#959;&#962;, <i>little</i>; &#955;&#951;&#963;&#964;&#951;&#962;, <i>beast</i>), whose nearest living
+representative appears to be some of the Hypsiprymnid&aelig; or Kangaroo
+Rats, has been found by Mr. Dawkins in some grey marls
+underlying the bone-bed on the sea-shore at Watchett, in Somersetshire;
+affording the earliest known trace of a fossil mammal in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+Secondary rocks. Several small teeth belonging to the genus Microlestes
+have also been discovered by Mr. Charles Moore in a breccia
+of Rh&aelig;tic age, filling a fissure traversing Carboniferous Limestone
+near Frome; and in addition to the discovery of the remains of
+Microlestes, those of a mammal more closely allied to the Marsupials
+than any other order, have been met with at Diegerloch, south-east of
+Stuttgart, in a remarkable bone-breccia, which also yielded coprolites
+and numerous traces of fishes and reptiles.</p>
+
+<p>The uppermost sub-division includes certain beds of white and
+cream-coloured limestone, resembling in appearance the smooth
+fracture and closeness of texture of the lithographic limestone of
+Solenhofen, and which, known to geologists and quarrymen under the
+name &#8220;white lias,&#8221; given to it by Dr. William Smith, was formerly
+always considered to belong to, and was included in, the Lias proper.
+The most remarkable bed in this zone is one of only a few inches
+in thickness, but it has long been known to collectors, and sought
+after under the name of Cotham Marble or Landscape Stone, the latter
+name having reference to the curious dendritic markings which make
+their appearance on breaking the stone at right angles to its bedding,
+bearing a singular resemblance to a landscape with trees, water, &amp;c.;
+while the first name is that derived from its occurrence abundantly
+at Cotham, in the suburbs of Bristol, where the stone was originally
+found and noticed.</p>
+
+<p>This band of stone is interesting in another respect, because it
+sometimes shows by its uneven, eroded, and water-worn upper surface,
+that an interval took place soon after it had been deposited, when
+the newly-formed stone became partially dissolved, eroded, or worn
+away by water, before the stratum next in succession was deposited
+upon it. The same phenomenon is displayed, in a more marked
+degree, in the uppermost limestone or &#8220;white lias&#8221; bed of the series,
+which not only shows an eroded surface, but the holes made by
+boring Molluscs, exactly as is produced at the present day by the
+same class of animals, which excavate holes in the rocks between
+high and low-water marks, to serve for their dwelling-places, and as
+a protection from the waves to their somewhat delicate shells.</p>
+
+<p>The &#8220;White Lias&#8221; of Smith is the equivalent of the Koessen
+beds which immediately underlie the Lower Lias of the Swabian
+Jura, and have been traced for a hundred miles, from Geneva to the
+environs of Vienna; and, also, of the Upper St. Cassian beds, which
+are so called from their occurrence at St. Cassian in the Austrian
+Alps.</p>
+
+<p>The general character of the series of strata just described, is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+of a deposit formed in tolerably shallow water. In the Alps of Lombardy
+and the Tyrol, in Luxembourg, in France, and, in fact,
+throughout nearly the whole of Europe, they form a sort of fringe in
+the margin of the Triassic sea; and, although of comparatively inconsiderable
+thickness in England, they become highly developed in
+Lombardy, &amp;c., to an enormous thickness, and constitute the great
+mass of the Rh&aelig;tian Alps and a considerable part of the well-known
+beds of St. Cassian, and Hallstadt in the Austrian Alps. (See
+<a href="#Page_205">page 205</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The Rh&aelig;tic beds of Europe were, as a whole, formed under very
+different conditions in different areas. The thickness of the strata
+and the large and well-developed fauna (chiefly Mollusca) indicate
+that the Rh&aelig;tic strata of Lombardy, and other parts of the south and
+east of Europe, were deposited in a broad open ocean. On the
+other hand, the comparatively thin beds of this age in England and
+north-western Europe, the fauna of which, besides being poor in
+genera and species, consists of small and dwarfed forms, point to the
+conclusion that they were in great part deposited in shallow seas and
+in estuaries, or in lagoons, or in occasional salt lakes, under conditions
+which lasted for a long period.<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the importance they assume in Lombardy (the
+ancient Rh&aelig;tia), the name &#8220;Rh&aelig;tic Beds&#8221; has been given to these
+strata by Mr. Charles Moore; Dr. Thomas Wright has proposed the
+designation &#8220;Avicula Contorta Zone,&#8221; from the plentiful occurrence
+of that shell in the black shales forming the well-marked middle zone,
+and which is everywhere present where this group of beds is found;
+Jules Martin and others have proposed the term &#8220;Infra-lias,&#8221; or &#8220;Infra-liassic
+strata;&#8221; while the name &#8220;Penarth Beds&#8221; has been assigned to
+these deposits in this country by Mr. H. W. Bristow, at the suggestion
+of Sir Roderick Murchison, in consequence of their conspicuous
+appearance and well-exposed sections in the bold headlands and
+cliffs of that locality, in the British Channel, west of Cardiff.</p>
+
+<p>A fuller description of these beds will be found in the Reports of
+the Bath Meeting of the British Association (1864), by Mr. Bristow;
+also in communications to the <i>Geological Magazine</i>, for 1864, by
+MM. Bristow and Dawkins;<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> in papers read before the Geological
+Society by Dr. Thomas Wright,<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Mr. Charles Moore,<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> and Mr.
+Ralph Tate,<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> as printed in their <i>Quarterly Journal</i>; and by Mr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+Etheridge, in the Transactions of the Cotteswold Natural History
+Club for 1865-66. The limits of the Penarth Beds have also been
+lately accurately laid down by Mr. Bristow in the map of the Geological
+Survey over the district comprised between Bath, Bristol, and
+the Severn; and elaborately detailed typical sections of most of the
+localities in England, where these beds occur, have been constructed
+by MM. Bristow, Etheridge, and Woodward, of the Geological Survey
+of Great Britain, which, when published, will greatly add to our
+knowledge of this remarkable and interesting series of deposits.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></p>
+
+<h3>JURASSIC PERIOD.</h3>
+
+<p>This period, one of the most important in the physical history of the
+globe, has received its name from the Jura mountains in France, the
+Jura range being composed of the rocks deposited in the seas of the
+period. In the term Jurassic, the formations designated as the
+&#8220;Oolite&#8221; and &#8220;Lias&#8221; are included, both being found in the Jura
+mountains. The Jurassic period presents a very striking assemblage
+of characteristics, both in its vegetation and in the animal remains
+which belong to it; many genera of animals existing in the preceding
+age have disappeared, new genera have replaced them, comprising
+a very specially organised group, containing not less than 4,000
+species.</p>
+
+<p>The Jurassic period is sub-divided into two sub-periods: those of
+the <i>Lias</i> and the <i>Oolite</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">The Lias</span></h4>
+
+<p>is an English provincial name given to an argillaceous limestone,
+which, with marl and clay, forms the base of the Jurassic formation,
+and passes almost imperceptibly into the Lower Oolite in some places,
+where the Marlstone of the Lias partakes of the mineral character, as
+well as the fossil remains of the Lower Oolite; and it is sometimes
+treated of as belonging to that formation. &#8220;Nevertheless, the Lias
+may be traced throughout a great part of Europe as a separate and
+independent group, of considerable thickness, varying from 500 to
+1,000 feet, containing many peculiar fossils, and having a very uniform
+lithological aspect.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> The rocks which represent the Liassic
+period form the base of the Jurassic system, and have a mean thickness
+of about 1,200 feet. In the inferior part we find argillaceous
+sandstones, which are called the sandstones of the Lias, and comprehend
+the greater part of the <i>Quadersandstein</i>, or building-stone of the
+Germans, above which comes compact limestone, argillaceous, bluish,
+and yellowish; finally, the formation terminates in the marlstones
+which are sometimes sandy, and occasionally bituminous.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>The Lias, in England, is generally in three groups: 1, the upper,
+clays and shales, underlying sands; 2, the middle, lias or marlstone;
+and 3, the lower, clays and limestone; but these have been again sub-divided&mdash;the
+last into six zones, each marked by its own peculiar
+species of Ammonites; the second into three zones; the third consists
+of clay, shale, and argillaceous limestone. For the purposes of description
+we shall, therefore, divide the Lias into these three groups:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Upper Lias Clay</i>, consists of blue clay, or shale, containing
+nodular bands of claystones at the base, crowded with <i>Ammonites
+serpentinus</i>, <i>A. bifrons</i>, <i>Belemnites</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Middle Lias</i>, commonly known as the Marlstone, is
+surmounted by a bed of oolitic ironstone, largely worked in Leicestershire
+and in the north of England as a valuable ore of iron. The
+underlying marls and sands, the latter of which become somewhat
+argillaceous below, form beds from 200 to 300 feet thick in Dorsetshire
+and Gloucestershire; the fossils are <i>Ammonites margaritaceus</i>,
+<i>A. spinatus</i>, <i>Belemnites tripartitus</i>. The upper rock-beds, especially
+the bed of ironstone on the top, is generally remarkably rich in fossils.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_88" id="Fig_88"></a>
+<img src="images/illo222.png" alt="Fig. 88" width="300" height="231" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 88.&mdash;Gryph&aelig;a incurva.</p></div>
+
+<p>3. <i>Lower Lias</i> (averaging from 600 to 900 feet in thickness)
+consists, in the lower part,
+of thin layers of bluish
+argillaceous limestone,
+alternating with shales
+and clays; the whole
+overlaid by the blue
+clay of which the lower
+member of the Liassic
+group usually consists.
+This member of the
+series is well developed
+in Yorkshire, at Lyme
+Regis and Charmouth
+in Dorsetshire, and
+generally over the South-West
+and Midland
+Counties of England.
+<i>Gryph&aelig;a incurva</i> (<a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>), with sandy bands, occurs at the base, in
+addition to which we find <i>Ammonites planorbis Bucklandi</i>, <i>A. Ostrea
+liassica</i>, <i>Lima gigantea</i>, <i>Ammonites Bucklandi</i>, &amp;c., in the lower limestones
+and shales.</p>
+
+<p>Above the clay are yellow sands from 100 to 200 feet thick, underlying
+the limestone of the Inferior Oolite. These sands were, until lately,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+considered to belong to the latter formation&mdash;as they undoubtedly do
+physically&mdash;until they were shown, by Dr. Thomas Wright, of Cheltenham,
+to be more nearly allied, by their fossils, to the Lias below than
+to the Inferior Oolite above, into which they form the passage-beds.</p>
+
+<p>In France the Lias abounds in the Calvados, in Burgundy, Lorraine,
+Normandy, and the Lyonnais. In the Vosges and Luxembourg,
+M. Elie de Beaumont states that the Lias containing
+<i>Gryph&aelig;a incurva</i> and <i>Lima gigantea</i>, and some other marine fossils,
+becomes arenaceous; and around the Harz mountains, in Westphalia
+and Bavaria, in its lower parts the formation is sandy, and is
+sometimes a good building-stone.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In England the Lias constitutes,&#8221; says Professor Ramsay, &#8220;a
+well-defined belt of strata, running continuously from Lyme Regis,
+on the south-west, through the whole of England, to Yorkshire on
+the north-east, and is an extensive series of alternating beds of clay,
+shale, and limestone, with occasional layers of jet in the upper part.
+The unequal hardness of the clays and limestones of the Liassic
+strata causes some of its members to stand out in the distinct minor
+escarpments, often facing the west and north-west. The Marlstone
+forms the most prominent of these, and overlooks the broad meadows
+of the lower Lias-clay, that form much of the centre of England.&#8221;
+In Scotland there are few traces of the Lias. Zoophytes, Mollusca,
+and Fishes of a peculiar organisation, but, above all, Reptiles of
+extraordinary size and structure gave to the sea of the Liassic period
+an interest and features quite peculiar. Well might Cuvier exclaim,
+when the drawings of the Plesiosaurus were sent to him: &#8220;Truly
+this is altogether the most monstrous animal that has yet been dug out
+of the ruins of a former world!&#8221; In the whole of the English Lias
+there are about 243 genera, and 467 species of fossils. The whole
+series has been divided into zones characterised by particular
+Ammonites, which are found to be limited to them, at least locally.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_89" id="Fig_89"></a>
+<img src="images/illo224.png" alt="Fig. 89" width="350" height="478" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 89.&mdash;Pentacrinites Briareus. Half natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the Echinodermata belonging to the Lias we may cite
+<i>Asterias lumbricalis</i> and <i>Pal&aelig;ocoma Furstembergii</i>, which constitutes a
+genus not dissimilar to the star-fishes, of which its radiated form
+reminds us. The Pentacrinites, of which <i>Pentacrinites Briareus</i> is a
+type, ornaments many collections by its elegant form, and is represented
+in <a href="#Fig_79">Figs. 79</a> and <a href="#Fig_89">89</a>. It belongs to the order of Crinoidea,
+which is represented at the present time by a single living species,
+<i>Pentacrinus caput-Medus&aelig;</i>, one of the rare and delicate Zoophytes
+of the Caribbean sea.</p>
+
+<p>Oysters (<i>Ostrea</i>) made their appearance in the Muschelkalk of
+the last period, but only in a small number of species; they increased
+greatly in importance in the Liassic seas.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>The <i>Ammonites</i>, a curious genus of Cephalopoda, which made their
+first appearance in small numbers towards the close of the preceding
+Triassic period, become quite special in the Secondary epoch, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+the close of which they disappear altogether. They were very
+abundant in the Jurassic period, and, as we have already said, each
+zone is characterised by its peculiar species. The name is taken
+from the resemblance of the shell to the ram&#8217;s-horn ornaments which
+decorated the front of the temple of Jupiter Ammon and the bas-reliefs
+and statues of that pagan deity. They were Cephalopodous
+Mollusca with circular shells, rolled upon themselves symmetrically
+in the same plane, and divided into a series of chambers. The
+animal only occupied the outer chamber of the shell; all the others
+were empty. A siphon or tube issuing
+from the first chamber traversed all the
+others in succession, as is seen in all
+the Ammonites and Nautili. This tube
+enabled the animal to rise to the surface,
+or to sink to the bottom, for
+the Ammonite could fill the chambers
+with water at pleasure, or empty them,
+thus rendering itself lighter or heavier as
+occasion required. The Nautilus of our
+seas is provided with the same curious
+organisation, and reminds us forcibly of
+the Ammonites of geological times.</p>
+
+<p>Shells are the only traces which remain of the Ammonites. We
+have no exact knowledge of the animal which occupied and built
+them. The attempt at restoration, as exhibited in <a href="#Fig_91">Fig. 91</a>, will probably
+convey a fair idea of the Ammonite when living. We assume
+that it resembled the Nautilus of modern times. What a curious aspect
+these early seas must have presented, covered by myriads of these
+Molluscs of all sizes, swimming about in eager pursuit of their prey!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_90" id="Fig_90"></a>
+<img src="images/illo225.png" alt="Fig. 90" width="300" height="242" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 90.&mdash;Ammonites Turneri,
+from the Lower Lias.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Ammonites of the Jurassic age present themselves in a great
+variety of forms and sizes; some of them of great beauty. <i>Ammonites
+bifrons</i>, <i>A. Noditianus</i>, <i>A. bisulcatus</i>, <i>A. Turneri</i> (<a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90</a>), and
+<i>A. margaritatus</i>, are forms characteristic of the Lias.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_91" id="Fig_91"></a>
+<img src="images/illo226a.png" alt="Fig. 91" width="350" height="319" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 91.&mdash;Ammonite restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Belemnites</i>, molluscous Cephalopods of a very curious organisation,
+appeared in great numbers, and for the first time, in the
+Jurassic seas. Of this Mollusc we only possess the fossilised internal
+&#8220;bone,&#8221; analogous to that of the modern cuttle-fish and the calamary
+of the present seas. This simple relic is very far from giving us
+an exact idea of what the animal was to which the name of
+Belemnite has been given (from &#914;&#949;&#955;&#949;&#956;&#957;&#959;&#957;, <i>a dart</i>) from their supposed
+resemblance to the head of a javelin. The slender cylindrical bone, the
+only vestige remaining to us, was merely the internal skeleton of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+animal. When first discovered they were called, by the vulgar,
+&#8220;Thunder-stones&#8221; and &#8220;Ladies&#8217; fingers.&#8221; They were, at last,
+inferred to be the shelly processes of some sort of ancient cuttle-fish.
+Unlike the Ammonite, which floated on the surface and
+sunk to the bottom at pleasure, the Belemnite, it has been thought,
+swam nearer the bottom of the sea, and seized its prey from below.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_92" id="Fig_92"></a>
+<img src="images/illo226b.png" alt="Fig. 92" width="500" height="254" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 92.&mdash;Belemnite restored.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>In <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a> is given a restoration of the living Belemnite, by Dr.
+Buckland and Professor Owen, in which the terminal part of the
+animal is marked in a slightly darker tint, to indicate the place of
+the bone which alone represents in our days this fossilised being. A
+sufficiently exact idea of this Mollusc may be arrived at from the
+existing cuttle-fish. Like the cuttle-fish, the Belemnite secreted
+a black liquid, a sort of ink or sepia; and the bag containing the
+ink has frequently been found in a fossilised state, with the ink
+dried up, and elaborate drawings have been made with this fossil
+pigment.</p>
+
+<p>The beaks, or horny mandibles of the mouth, which the Belemnite
+possessed in common with the other naked Cephalopoda,
+are represented in <a href="#Fig_78">Fig. 78</a>, p. 181.</p>
+
+<p>As Sir H. De la Beche has pointed out, the destruction
+of the animals whose remains are known to us by
+the name of Belemnites was exceedingly great when the
+upper part of the Lias of Lyme Regis was deposited.
+Multitudes seem to have perished almost simultaneously,
+and millions are entombed in a bed beneath Golden
+Cap, a lofty cliff between Lyme Regis and Bridport
+Harbour, as well as in the upper Lias generally.<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the Belemnites characteristic of the Liassic
+period may be cited <i>B. acutus</i> (<a href="#Fig_93">Fig. 93</a>), <i>B. pistiliformis</i>,
+and <i>B. sulcatus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_93" id="Fig_93"></a>
+<img src="images/illo227.png" alt="Fig. 93" width="100" height="422" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 93.&mdash;Belemnites
+acutus.</p></div>
+
+<p>The seas of the period contained a great number
+of the fishes called <i>Ganoids</i>; which are so called from
+the splendour of the hard and enamelled scales, which
+formed a sort of defensive armour to protect their bodies.
+<i>Lepidotus gigas</i> was a fish of great size belonging to this
+age. A smaller fish was the <i>Tetragonolepis</i>, or <i>&AElig;chmodus
+Buchii</i>. The <i>Acrodus nobilis</i>, of which the teeth are
+still preserved, and popularly known by the name of
+<i>fossil leeches</i>, was a fish of which an entire skeleton has
+never been met with. Neither are we better informed
+as to the <i>Hybodus reticulatus</i>. The bony spines, which form the
+anterior part of the dorsal fin of this fish, had long been an object of
+curiosity to geologists, under the general name of <i>Ichthyodorulites</i>,
+before they were known to be fragments of the fin of the <i>Hybodus</i>.
+The Ichthyodorulites were supposed by some naturalists to be the
+jaw of some animal&mdash;by others, weapons like those of the living<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+<i>Balistes</i> or <i>Silurus</i>;
+but Agassiz has
+shown them to be
+neither the one nor
+the other, but bony
+spines on the fin, like
+those of the living
+genera of <i>Cestracions</i>
+and <i>Chim&aelig;ras</i>, in both of which the
+concave face is armed with small spines
+like those of the <i>Hybodus</i>. The spines
+were simply imbedded in the flesh, and
+attached to it by strong muscles. &#8220;They
+served,&#8221; says Dr. Buckland, &#8220;as in the
+<i>Chim&aelig;ra</i>, to raise and depress the fin,
+their action resembling that of a movable
+mast lowering backward.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_94" id="Fig_94"></a>
+<img src="images/illo228.png" alt="Fig. 94" width="600" height="308" />
+<p class="caption" style="margin-top: -100px;">Fig. 94.&mdash;Ichthyosaurus communis.</p></div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 100px;">Let us hasten to say, however, that
+these are not the beings that characterised
+the age, and were the salient
+features of the generation of animals
+which existed during the Jurassic period.
+These distinguishing features are found
+in the enormous reptiles with lizard&#8217;s
+head, crocodile&#8217;s conical teeth, the trunk
+and tail of a quadruped, whale-like
+paddles, and the double-concave vertebr&aelig;
+of fishes; and this strange form,
+on such a gigantic scale that even
+their inanimate remains are examined
+with a curiosity not unmixed with awe.
+The country round Lyme Regis, in
+Dorsetshire, has long been celebrated
+for the curious fossils discovered in its
+quarries, and preserved in the muddy
+accumulations of the sea of the Liassic
+period. The country is hilly&mdash;&#8220;up
+one hill and down another,&#8221; is a pretty
+correct provincial description of the
+walk from Bridport to Lyme Regis&mdash;where
+some of the most frightful creatures
+the living world has probably ever<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+beheld, sleep the sleep of stones. The quarries of Lyme Regis form
+the cemetery of the Ichthyosauri; the sepulchre where lie interred
+these dragons of the ancient seas.</p>
+
+<p>In 1811 a country girl, who made her precarious living by picking
+up fossils for which the neighbourhood was famous, was pursuing
+her avocation, hammer in hand, when she perceived some bones projecting
+a little out of the cliff. Finding, on examination, that it was
+part of a large skeleton, she cleared away the rubbish, and laid bare the
+whole creature imbedded in the block of stone. She hired workmen
+to dig out the block of Lias in which it was buried. In this manner
+was the first of these monsters brought to light: &#8220;a monster some
+thirty feet long, with jaws nearly a fathom in length, and huge
+saucer-eyes; which have since been found so perfect, that the petrified
+lenses have been split off and used as magnifiers,&#8221; as a writer
+in <i>All the Year Round</i> assures us.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_95" id="Fig_95"></a>
+<img src="images/illo229.png" alt="Fig. 95" width="500" height="176" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 95.&mdash;Head of Ichthyosaurus platydon.</p></div>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a> the head of <i>I. platydon</i> is represented. As in the
+Saurians, the openings of the nostrils are situated near the anterior
+angle of the orbits of the eyes, while those of the Crocodile are near
+the snout; but, on the other hand, in its osteology and its mode of
+dentition it nearly resembles the Crocodile; the teeth are pointed and
+conical&mdash;not, however, set in deep or separate sockets, but only
+implanted in a long and deep continuous groove hollowed in the
+bones of the jaw. These strong jaws have an enormous opening;
+for, in some instances, they have been found eight feet in length and
+armed with 160 teeth. Let us add that teeth lost through the voracity
+of the animal, or in contests with other animals, could be renewed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+many times; for, at the inner side of the base of every old tooth,
+there is always the bony germ of a new one.</p>
+
+<p>The eyes of this marine monster were much larger than those of
+any animal now living; in volume they frequently exceed the human
+head, and their structure was one of their most remarkable peculiarities.
+In front of the sclerotic coat or capsule of the eye there is an
+annular series of thin bony plates, surrounding the pupil. This structure,
+which is now only met with in the eyes of certain turtles,
+tortoises, and lizards, and in those of many birds, could be used so as
+to increase or diminish the curvature of the transparent cornea, and
+thus increase or diminish the magnifying power, according to the
+requirements of the animal&mdash;performing the office, in short, of a
+telescope or microscope at pleasure. The eyes of the Ichthyosaurus
+were, then, an optical apparatus of wonderful power and of singular
+perfection, enabling the animal, by their power of adaptation and
+intensity of vision, to see its prey far and near, and to pursue it in
+the darkness and in the depths of the sea. The curious arrangement
+of bony plates we have described furnished, besides, to its globular
+eye, the power necessary to bear the pressure of a considerable weight
+of water, as well as the violence of the waves, when the animal came
+to the surface to breathe, and raised its head above the waves. This
+magnificent specimen of the fish-lizard, or Ichthyosaurus, as it was
+named by Dr. Ure, now forms part of the treasures of the British
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p>At no period in the earth&#8217;s history have Reptiles occupied so
+important a place as they did in the Jurassic period. Nature seems
+to have wished to bring this class of animals to the highest state of
+development. The great Reptiles of the Lias are as complicated in
+their structure as the Mammals which appeared at a later period.
+They probably lived, for the most part, by fishing in shallow creeks and
+bays defended from heavy breakers, or in the open sea; but they seem
+to have sought the shore from time to time; they crawled along the
+beach, covered with a soft skin, perhaps not unlike some of our
+Cetace&aelig;. The Ichthyosaurus, from its form and strength, may have
+braved the waves of the sea as the porpoise does now. Its destructiveness
+and voracity must have been prodigious, for Dr. Buckland
+describes a specimen which had between its ribs, in the place where
+the stomach might be supposed to have been placed, the skeleton of
+a smaller one&mdash;a proof that this monster, not content with preying on
+its weaker neighbours, was in the habit of devouring its own kind.
+In the same waters lived the Plesiosaurus, with long neck and form
+more strange than that of the Ichthyosaurus; and these potentates of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+the seas were warmed by the same sun and tenanted the same banks,
+in the midst of a vegetation not unlike that which the climate of
+Africa now produces.</p>
+
+<p>The great Saurians in the Lias of Lyme Regis seem to have
+suffered a somewhat sudden death, partly in consequence of a series
+of small catastrophes suddenly destroying the animals then existing
+in particular spots. &#8220;In general the bones are not scattered about,
+and in a detached state, as would happen if the dead animal had
+descended to the bottom of the sea, to be decomposed, or devoured
+piecemeal, as, indeed, might also happen if the creature floated for a
+time on the surface, one animal devouring one part, and another
+carrying off a different portion; on the contrary, the bones of the
+skeleton, though frequently compressed, as must arise from the enormous
+pressure to which they have so long been subjected, are
+tolerably connected, frequently in perfect, or nearly perfect, order, as
+if prepared by the anatomist. The skin, moreover, may sometimes
+be traced, and the compressed contents of the intestines may at times
+be also observed&mdash;all tending to show that the animals were suddenly
+destroyed, and as suddenly preserved.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<p>These strange and gigantic Saurians seem almost to disappear
+during the succeeding geological periods; for, although they have
+been discovered as low down as the Trias in Germany, and as high
+up as the Chalk in England, they only appear as stragglers in these
+epochs; so, too, the Reptiles, the existing Saurians are, as it were,
+only the shadowy, feeble representatives of these powerful races of the
+ancient world.</p>
+
+<p>Confining ourselves to well-established facts, we shall consider in
+some detail the best known of these fossil reptiles&mdash;the <i>Ichthyosaurus</i>,
+<i>Plesiosaurus</i>, and <i>Pterodactyle</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The extraordinary creature which bears the name of <i>Ichthyosaurus</i>
+(from the Greek words &#921;&#967;&#952;&#965;&#962; &#963;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;, signifying fish-lizard), presents
+certain dispositions and organic arrangements which are met with
+dispersed in certain classes of animals now living, but they never seem
+to be again reunited in any single individual. It possesses, as Cuvier
+says, the snout of a dolphin, the head of a lizard, the jaws and teeth
+of a crocodile, the vertebr&aelig; of a fish, the head and sternum of a
+lizard, the paddles like those of a whale, and the trunk and tail of a
+quadruped.</p>
+
+<p>Bayle appears to have furnished the best idea of the Ichthyosaurus
+by describing it as the Whale of the Saurians&mdash;the Cetacean of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+primitive seas. It was, in fact,
+an animal exclusively marine;
+which, on shore, would rest
+motionless like an inert mass.
+Its whale-like paddles, and fish-like
+vertebr&aelig;, the length of the
+tail and other parts of its structure,
+prove that its habits were
+aquatic; as the remains of fishes
+and reptiles, and the form of its
+teeth, show that it was carnivorous.
+Like the Whale, also,
+the Ichthyosaurus breathed atmospheric
+air; so that it was
+under the necessity of coming
+frequently to the surface of the
+water, like that inhabitant of the
+deep. We can even believe, with
+Bayle, that it was provided, like
+the Whale, with vents or blowers,
+through which it ejected, in
+columns into the air, the water
+it had swallowed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_96" id="Fig_96"></a>
+<img src="images/illo232.png" alt="Fig. 96" width="600" height="208" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 96.&mdash;Ichthyosaurus platydon.</p></div>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the Ichthyosaurus
+varied with the species, of
+which five are known and described.
+These are <i>Ichthyosaurus
+communis</i>, <i>I. platydon</i>, <i>I. intermedius</i>,
+<i>I. tenuirostris</i>, and <i>I.
+Cuvierii</i>, the largest being more
+than thirty feet in length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_97" id="Fig_97"></a>
+<img src="images/illo233a.png" alt="Fig. 97" width="350" height="106" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 97.&mdash;Lower jaw of Ichthyosaurus. (Dr. Buckland.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The short, thick neck of the
+Ichthyosaurus supported a capacious
+head, and was continued
+backwards, from behind the eyes,
+in a column composed of more
+than a hundred vertebr&aelig;. The
+animal being adapted, like the
+whale, for rapid movement
+through the water, its vertebr&aelig;
+had none of the invariable solidity
+of those of the Lizard or Crocodile,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+but rather the structure and lightness of those of Fishes.
+The section of these vertebr&aelig; presents two hollow cones, connected
+only by their summits to the centre of the vertebr&aelig;, which would
+permit of the utmost flexibility of movement. The ribs extended
+along the entire length of the vertebral column, from the head to the
+pelvis. The bones of the sternum, or that part of the frame which
+supported the paddles, present the same combinations with those of
+the sternum in the Ornithorhynchus, or Duck-billed Platypus, of New
+Holland, an animal which presents the singular combination of a
+mammalian furred quadruped having the bill of a duck and webbed
+feet; which dived to the bottom of the water in search of its food,
+and returned to the surface to breathe the air. In this phenomenon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+of living Nature the Creator seems to have repeated, in our days, the
+organic arrangements which he had originally provided for the
+Ichthyosaurus.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the animal should be able to move with rapidity in
+the water, both its anterior and posterior members were converted
+into fins or paddles. The anterior fins were half as large again as
+the posterior. In some species each paddle was made up of nearly
+a hundred bones, of polygonal form, and disposed in series representing
+the phalanges of the fingers. This hand, jointed at the arm, bears
+resemblance, in osteological construction, to the paddles, without
+distinct fingers, of the Porpoise and the Whale. A specimen of
+the posterior fin of <i>I. communis</i>, discovered at Barrow-on-Soar, in
+Leicestershire, in 1840, by Sir Philip Egerton, exhibited on its
+posterior margin the remains of cartilaginous rays, which bifurcated
+as they approached the edge, like those in the fins of a fish. &#8220;It
+had previously been supposed,&#8221; says Professor Owen, &#8220;that the
+locomotive organs were enveloped, while living, in a smooth integument,
+like that of the turtle and porpoise, which has no other support
+than is afforded by the bones and ligaments within; but it now
+appears that the fin was much larger, expanding far beyond the
+osseous frame-work, and deviating widely in its fish-like rays from the
+ordinary reptilian type.&#8221; The Professor believes that, besides the
+fore-paddles, these stiff-necked Saurians were furnished at the end of
+the tail with a fin to assist them in turning, not placed horizontally, as
+in the whale, but vertically, forming a powerful instrument of progression
+and motion. It is obvious that the Ichthyosaurus was an
+animal powerfully armed for offence and defence. We cannot say,
+with certainty, whether the skin was smooth, like that of the whale
+or lizard, or covered with scales, like the great reptiles of our own
+age. Nevertheless, as the scales of the Fishes and the cuirass and
+horny armour of other Reptiles of the Lias are preserved, and as no
+such defensive scales have been found belonging to the Ichthyosaurus,
+it is probable that the skin was naked and smooth. The
+tail, composed of from eighty to eighty-five vertebr&aelig;, was provided
+with large and long paddles, arranged vertically as in the Whale.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_98" id="Fig_98"></a>
+<img src="images/illo233b.png" alt="Fig. 98" width="500" height="253" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 98.&mdash;Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus.<br />
+Containing teeth and bones of Fishes in a coprolitic form. One-fifteenth natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is curious to see to what a degree of perfection has been carried,
+in our days, the knowledge of the antediluvian animals, their
+habits, and their economy. <a href="#Fig_98">Fig. 98</a> represents the skeleton of an
+Ichthyosaurus found in the Lias of Lyme Regis, which still retains in
+its abdominal cavity coprolites, that is to say, the residue of digestion.
+The soft parts of the intestinal canal have disappeared, but the <i>f&aelig;ces</i>
+themselves are preserved, and their examination informs us as to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+alimentary regimen of this animal which has perished from the earth
+many thousands, perhaps millions, of years. Mary Anning, to whom
+we owe many of the discoveries made in the neighbourhood of
+Lyme Regis, her native place, had in her collection an enormous
+coprolite of the Ichthyosaurus. This coprolite (<a href="#Fig_99">Fig. 99</a>) contained
+some bones and scales of Fishes,
+and of divers Reptiles, well
+enough preserved to have their
+species identified. It only remains
+to be added that, among
+the bones, those of the Ichthyosaurus
+were often found,
+especially those of young individuals.
+The presence of the
+undigested remains of vertebr&aelig;
+and other bones of animals of its
+own species in the coprolites of
+the Ichthyosaurus proves, as we
+have already had occasion to
+remark, that this great Saurian
+must have been a most voracious
+monster, since it habitually devoured
+not only fish, but individuals
+of its own race&mdash;the
+smaller becoming the prey of
+the larger. The structure of the
+jaw of the Ichthyosaurus leads
+us to believe that the animal
+swallowed its prey without dividing
+it. Its stomach and intestines
+must, then, have formed
+a sort of pouch of great volume,
+filling entirely the abdominal
+cavity, and corresponding in
+extent to the great development
+of the teeth and jaws.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_99" id="Fig_99"></a>
+<img src="images/illo235a.png" alt="Fig. 99" width="350" height="239" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 99.&mdash;Coprolite, enclosing bones of small
+Ichthyosaurus.</p></div>
+
+<p>The perfection with which
+its contents have been preserved in the fossilised coprolites, furnishes
+indirect proofs that the intestinal canal of the Ichthyosaurus resembled
+closely that of the shark and the dog-fish&mdash;fishes essentially voracious
+and destructive, which have the intestinal canal spirally convoluted, an
+arrangement which is exactly that indicated in some of the coprolites<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+of the Ichthyosaurus, as is evident from the impressions which the
+folds of the intestine have left on the coprolite, of which <a href="#Fig_100">Fig. 100</a> is
+a representation. In the cliffs near Lyme Regis coprolites are abundant
+in the Liassic formation, and have been found disseminated
+through the shales and limestones along many miles of that coast.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;"><a name="Fig_100" id="Fig_100"></a>
+<img src="images/illo235b.png" alt="Fig. 100" width="175" height="392" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 100.&mdash;Coprolite of Ichthyosaurus.</p></div>
+
+<p>What an admirable privilege of science, which is able, by an
+examination of the simplest parts in the organisation of beings which
+lived ages ago, to give to our minds such solid teachings and such
+true enjoyments! &#8220;When we discover,&#8221; says Dr. Buckland, &#8220;in
+the body of an Ichthyosaurus the food which it has engulfed an
+instant before its death, when the intervals between its sides present
+themselves still filled with the remains of fishes which it had swallowed
+some ten thousand years ago, or a time even twice as great,
+all these immense intervals vanish, time disappears, and we find
+ourselves, so to speak, thrown into immediate contact with events
+which took place in epochs immeasurably distant, as if we occupied
+ourselves with the affairs of the previous day.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_101" id="Fig_101"></a>
+<img src="images/illo236.png" alt="Fig. 101" width="450" height="313" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 101.&mdash;Skull of Plesiosaurus restored. (Conybeare.)<br />
+<i>a</i>, profile; <i>b</i>, seen from above.</p></div>
+
+<p>The name of <i>Plesiosaurus</i> (from the Greek words &#960;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#962;, <i>near</i>,
+and &#963;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;, <i>lizard</i>) reminds us that this animal, though presenting
+many peculiarities of general structure, is allied by its organisation to
+the Saurian or Lizard family, and, consequently, to the Ichthyosaurus.</p>
+
+<p>The Plesiosaurus presents, in its organic structure, the most curious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+assemblage we have met with among the
+organic vestiges of the ancient world.
+The Plesiosaurus was a marine, air-breathing,
+carnivorous reptile, combining
+the characters of the head of a
+Lizard, the teeth of a Crocodile, a neck
+of excessive length resembling that of a
+Swan, the ribs of a Chameleon, a body
+of moderate size, and a very short tail,
+and, finally, four paddles resembling
+those of a Whale. Let us bestow a
+glance upon the remains of this strange
+animal which the earth has revealed,
+and which science has restored to us.</p>
+
+<p>The head of the Plesiosaurus presents
+a combination of the characters
+belonging to the Ichthyosaurus, the
+Crocodile, and the Lizard. Its enormously
+long neck comprises a greater
+number of vertebr&aelig; than the neck of
+either the Camel, the Giraffe, or even
+the Swan, which of all the feathered
+race has the longest neck in comparison
+to the rest of the body. And it is to
+be remarked, that, contrary to what obtains
+in the Mammals, where the vertebr&aelig;
+of the neck are always seven,
+the vertebr&aelig; in birds increase in number
+with the length of the neck.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_102" id="Fig_102"></a>
+<img src="images/illo237.png" alt="Fig. 102" width="600" height="142" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 102.&mdash;Skeleton of Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus restored. (Conybeare principally.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The body is cylindrical and rounded,
+like that of the great marine Turtles.
+It was, doubtless, naked, <i>i.e.</i>, not protected
+with the scales or carapace with
+which some authors have invested it;
+for no traces of such coverings have
+been found near any of the skeletons
+which have been hitherto discovered.
+The dorsal vertebr&aelig; are attached to
+each other by nearly plane surfaces
+like those of terrestrial quadrupeds, a
+mode of arrangement which must have
+deprived the whole of its vertebral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+column of much of its flexibility. Each pair of ribs surrounded
+the body with a complete girdle, formed of five pieces, as in the
+Chameleon and Iguana; whence, no doubt, as with the Chameleon,
+great facilities existed for the contraction and dilatation of the lungs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_103" id="Fig_103"></a>
+<img src="images/illo238.png" alt="Fig. 103" width="250" height="387" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 103.&mdash;Sternum and pelvis of Plesiosaurus.
+Pub., pubis; Isch., ischium;
+Il., ilium.</p></div>
+
+<p>The breast, the pelvis, and the bones of the anterior and posterior
+extremities furnished an apparatus
+which permitted the Plesiosaurus, like
+the Ichthyosaurus and existing Cetaceans,
+to sink in the water and return
+to the surface at pleasure (<a href="#Fig_103">Fig. 103</a>).
+Prof. Owen, in his &#8220;Report on British
+Reptiles,&#8221; characterises them as air-breathing
+and cold-blooded animals;
+the proof that they respired atmospheric
+air immediately, being found in
+the position and structure of the nasal
+passages, and the bony mechanism of the
+thoracic duct and abdominal cavity. In
+the first, the size and position of the external
+nostrils (<a href="#Fig_102">Fig. 102</a>), combined with
+the structure of the paddles, indicate
+a striking analogy between the extinct
+Saurians and the Cetaceans, offering,
+as the Professor observes, &#8220;a beautiful
+example of the adaptation of structure
+to the peculiar exigencies of species.&#8221;
+While the evidence that they were
+cold-blooded animals is found in the
+flexible or unanchylosed condition of the osseous pieces of the occiput
+and other cranial bones of the lower jaw, and of the vertebral column;
+from which the Professor draws the conclusion that the heart was
+adapted for transmitting a part only of the blood through the
+respiratory organs; the absence of the ball-and-socket articulations
+of the bones of the vertebr&aelig;, the position of the nostrils near the
+summit of the head, the numerous short and flat digital bones, which
+must have been enveloped in a simple undivided integumentary
+sheath, forming in both fore and hind extremities a paddle closely
+resembling that of the living Cetacea. The paddles are larger and
+more powerful than those of the Ichthyosaurus, to compensate for
+the slight assistance the animal derived from the tail. The latter&mdash;shorter,
+as compared with the length of the rest of the body, than in
+the Ichthyosaurus&mdash;was more calculated to act the part of a rudder,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+in directing the course of the animal through the water, than as a
+powerful organ of propulsion.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the strange combinations of form and structure in the
+Plesiosaurus and Ichthyosaurus&mdash;genera of animals whose remains
+have, after an interment extending to unknown thousands of years,
+been revealed to light and submitted to examination; nay, rebuilt,
+bone by bone, until we have the complete skeletons before us, and
+the habits of the animals described, as if they had been observed in
+life. Conybeare thus speaks of the supposed habits of these extinct
+forms, which he had built up from scanty materials: &#8220;That the Plesiosaurus
+was aquatic is evident from the form of its paddles; that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+was marine is equally so, from the remains with which it is universally
+associated; that it may have occasionally visited the shore, the
+resemblance of its extremities to the turtle may lead us to conjecture;
+its motion, however, must have been very awkward on land; its long
+neck must have impeded its progress through the water, presenting
+a striking contrast to the organisation which so admirably fits the
+Ichthyosaurus for cutting through the waves. May it not, therefore,
+be concluded that it swam on or near the surface, arching back its
+long neck like the swan, and occasionally darting it down at the fish
+which happened to float within its reach? It may, perhaps, have
+lurked in shallow water along the coasts, concealed among the sea-weeds,
+and, raising its nostrils to the surface from a considerable
+depth, may have found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous
+enemies, while the length and flexibility of its neck may have compensated
+for the want of strength in its jaws, and incapacity for swift
+motion through the water, by the suddenness and agility of the
+attack they enabled it to make on every animal fitted to become its
+prey.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_104" id="Fig_104"></a>
+<img src="images/illo239.png" alt="Fig. 104" width="400" height="370" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 104.&mdash;Remains of Plesiosaurus macrocephalus. One-twelfth natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Plesiosaurus was first described by the Rev. W. D. Conybeare
+and Sir Henry De la Beche, in the &#8220;Geological Society&#8217;s
+Transactions&#8221; for 1821, and a restoration of <i>P. dolichodeirus</i>, the
+most common of these fossils, appeared in the same work for 1824.
+The first specimen was discovered, as the Ichthyosaurus had been
+previously, in the Lias of Lyme Regis; since then other individuals
+and species have been found in the same geological formation in
+various parts of England, Ireland, France, and Germany, and with
+such variations of structure that Professor Owen has felt himself
+justified in recording sixteen distinct species, of which we have
+represented <i>P. dolichodeirus</i> (<a href="#Fig_102">Fig. 102</a>), as restored by Conybeare,
+and <i>P. macrocephalus</i> (<a href="#Fig_104">Fig. 104</a>), with its skeleton, as moulded from
+the limestone of Lyme Regis, which has been placed in the Pal&aelig;ontological
+Gallery of the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XV" id="Plate_XV"></a>
+<img src="images/illo241.png" alt="Plate XV" width="600" height="391" />
+<p class="caption">XV.&mdash;Ideal scene of the Lias with Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Plesiosaurus was scarcely so large as the Ichthyosaurus.
+The specimen of <i>I. platydon</i> in the British Museum probably belonged
+to an animal four-and-twenty feet long, and some are said to indicate
+thirty feet, while there are species of Plesiosauri measuring eighteen
+and twenty, the largest known specimen of <i>Plesiosaurus Cramptoni</i>
+found in the lias of Yorkshire, and now in the Museum of the Royal
+Society of Dublin, being twenty-two feet four inches in length. On
+the opposite page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XV">Plate XV.</a></span>) an attempt is made to represent
+these grand reptiles of the Lias in their native element, and as
+they lived.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>Cuvier says of the Plesiosaurus, &#8220;that it presents the most monstrous
+assemblage of characteristics that has been met with among
+the races of the ancient world.&#8221; This expression should not be understood
+in a literal sense; there are no monsters in Nature; in no
+living creature are the laws of organisation ever positively infringed;
+and it is more in accordance with the general perfection of creation
+to see in an organisation so special, in a structure which differs so
+notably from that of the animals of our own days, the simple development
+of a type, and sometimes also the introduction of beings,
+and successive changes in their structure. We shall see, in examining
+the curious series of animals of the ancient world, that the organisation
+and physiological functions go on improving unceasingly, and
+that each of the extinct genera which preceded the appearance of
+man, present, for each organ, modifications which always tend towards
+greater perfection. The fins of the fishes of Devonian seas become
+the paddles of the Ichthyosauri and of the Plesiosauri; these, in their
+turn, become the membranous foot of the Pterodactyle, and, finally,
+the wing of the bird. Afterwards comes the articulated fore-foot of
+the terrestrial mammalia, which, after attaining remarkable perfection
+in the hand of the ape, becomes, finally, the arm and hand of man,
+an instrument of wonderful delicacy and power, belonging to an
+enlightened being gifted with the divine attribute of reason! Let us,
+then, dismiss any idea of monstrosity with regard to these antediluvian
+animals; let us learn, on the contrary, to recognise, with admiration,
+the divine proofs of design which they display, and in their organisation
+to see only the handiwork of the Creator.</p>
+
+<p>Another strange inhabitant of the ancient world, the <i>Pterodactylus</i>
+(from &#960;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#957;, <i>a wing</i>, and &#948;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;, <i>a finger</i>), discovered in 1828, made
+Cuvier pronounce it to be incontestably the most extraordinary of all
+the extinct animals which had come under his consideration; and such
+as, if we saw them restored to life, would appear most strange and
+dissimilar to anything that now exists. In size and general form, and
+in the disposition and character of its wings, this fossil genus, according
+to Cuvier, somewhat resembled our modern bats and vampyres,
+but had its beak elongated like the bill of a woodcock, and armed
+with teeth like the snout of a crocodile; its vertebr&aelig;, ribs, pelvis,
+legs, and feet resembled those of a lizard; its three anterior fingers
+terminated in long hooked claws like that on the fore-finger of the
+bat; and over its body was a covering, neither composed of feathers
+as in the bird, nor of hair as in the bat, but probably a naked skin; in
+short, it was a monster resembling nothing that has ever been heard
+of upon earth, except the dragons of romance and heraldry. Moreover,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+it was probably noctivagous and insectivorous, and in both
+these points resembled the bat; but differed from it in having the
+most important bones in its body constructed after the manner of
+those of reptiles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_105" id="Fig_105"></a>
+<img src="images/illo244.png" alt="Fig. 105" width="350" height="536" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 105.&mdash;Pterodactylus crassirostris.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>&#8220;Thus, like Milton&#8217;s fiend, all-qualified for all services and all
+elements, the creature was a fit companion for the kindred reptiles
+that swarmed in the seas, or crawled on the shores, of a turbulent
+planet:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&#8220;The Fiend,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">O&#8217;er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And sinks, or swims, or wades, or creeps, or flies.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="fsize80" style="margin-left: 17em;"><i>Paradise Lost</i>, Book II., line 947.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;With flocks of such-like creatures flying in the air, and shoals
+of Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri swarming in the ocean, and gigantic
+Crocodiles and Tortoises
+crawling on the
+shores of prim&aelig;val
+lakes and rivers&mdash;air,
+sea, and land must
+have been strangely
+tenanted in these
+early periods of our
+infant world.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>The strange structure
+of this animal
+gave rise to most
+contradictory opinions
+from the earlier
+naturalists. One
+supposed it to be a
+bird, another a bat,
+and others a flying
+reptile. Cuvier was
+the first to detect the
+truth, and to prove, from its organisation, that the animal was a
+Saurian. &#8220;Behold,&#8221; he says, &#8220;an animal which in its osteology,
+from its teeth to the end of its claws, presents all the characters
+of the Saurians; nor can we doubt that their characteristics existed
+in its integuments and softer parts, in its scales, its circulation, its
+generative organs: it was at the same time provided with the means
+of flight; but when stationary it could not have made much use of its
+anterior extremities, even if it did not keep them always folded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+as birds fold their wings. It might, it is true, use its small
+anterior fingers to suspend itself from the branches of trees; but
+when at rest it must have been generally on its hind feet, like the
+birds again, and like them it must have carried its neck half-erect
+and curved backwards, so that its enormous head should not disturb
+its equilibrium.&#8221; This diversity of opinion need not very much surprise
+us after all, for, with the body and tail of an ordinary mammal,
+it had the form of a bird in its head and the length of its neck, of
+the bat in the structure and proportion of its wings, and of a reptile
+in the smallness of its head and in its beak, armed with at least
+sixty equal sharp-pointed teeth, differing little in form and size.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_106" id="Fig_106"></a>
+<img src="images/illo245.png" alt="Fig. 106" width="350" height="313" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 106.&mdash;Pterodactylus brevirostris.</p></div>
+
+<p>Dr. Buckland describes eight distinct species, varying in size from
+a snipe to a cormorant. Of these, <i>P. crassirostris</i> (<a href="#Fig_105">Fig. 105</a>) and
+<i>P. brevirostris</i> (<a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106</a>), were both discovered in the Lias of
+Solenhofen. <i>P. macronyx</i> belongs to the Lias of Lyme Regis.</p>
+
+<p>The Pterodactyle was, then, a reptile provided with wings somewhat
+resembling those of Bats, and formed, as in that Mammal, of a
+membrane which connected the body with the excessively elongated
+phalanges of the fourth finger, which served to expand the membrane
+that answered the purposes of a wing. The Pterodactyle of the
+Liassic period was, as we have seen, an animal of small size; the
+largest species in the older Lias beds did not exceed ten or twelve
+inches in length, or the size of a raven, while the later forms found
+fossil in the Greensand and Wealden beds must have measured
+more than sixteen feet between the tips of the expanded wings. On
+the other hand, its head was of enormous dimensions compared
+with the rest of the body. We cannot admit, therefore, that this
+animal could really fly, and, like a bird, beat the air. The membranous
+appendage which connected its long finger with its body
+was rather a parachute than a wing. It served to moderate the
+velocity of its descent when it dropped on its prey from a height.
+Essentially a climber, it could only raise itself by climbing up tall
+trees or rocks, after the manner of lizards, and throw itself thence to
+the ground, or upon the lower branches, by making use of its natural
+parachute.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary position of the Pterodactyle was probably upon its
+two hind feet, the lower extremities being adapted for standing and
+moving on the ground, after the manner of birds. Habitually, perhaps,
+it perched on trees; it could creep, or climb along rocks and
+cliffs, or suspend itself from trees, with the assistance of its claws and
+feet, after the manner of existing Bats. It is even probable, Dr. Buckland
+thought, that it had the power of swimming and diving, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+common to reptiles, and possessed by the Vampyre Bat of the island
+of Bonin. It is believed that the smaller species lived upon insects,
+and the larger preyed upon fishes, upon which it could throw itself
+like the sea-gull.</p>
+
+<p>The most startling feature in the organisation of this animal is
+the strange combination of two powerful wings attached to the body
+of a reptile. The imagination of the poets long dwelt on such a
+combination; the <i>Dragon</i> was a creation of their fancy, and it
+played a great part in fable and in pagan mythology. The Dragon,
+or flying reptile, breathing fire and poisoning the air with his fiery
+breath, had, according to the fable, disputed with man the possession
+of the earth. Gods and demigods claimed, among their most famous
+exploits, the glory of having vanquished this powerful and redoubtable
+monster.</p>
+
+<p>Among the animals of our epoch, only a single reptile is found
+provided with wings, or digital appendages analogous to the membranous
+wings of the bats, and which can be compared to the Pterodactyle.
+This is called the <i>Dragon</i>, one of the Draconid&aelig;, a family of
+Saurians, which has been described by Daudin, as distinguished by
+the first six ribs, instead of hooping round the abdomen, extending
+in nearly a straight line, and sustaining a prolongation of skin which
+forms a sort of wing analogous to that of the Pterodactyle. Independent
+of the four feet, this wing sustains the animal, like a parachute,
+as it leaps from branch to branch; but the creature has no
+power to beat the air with it as birds do when flying. This reptile
+lives in the forests of the hottest parts of Africa, and in some isles of
+the Indian Ocean, especially in Sumatra and Java. The only known
+species is that figured at page 238 (<a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107</a>), which comes from the
+East Indies.</p>
+
+<p>What a strange population was that which occupied the earth at
+this stage of its history, when the waters were filled with creatures so
+extraordinary as those whose history we have traced! Plesiosauri
+and Ichthyosauri filled the seas, upon the surface of which floated
+innumerable Ammonites in light skiffs, some of them as large as a
+good-sized cart-wheel, while gigantic Turtles and Crocodiles crawled
+on the banks of the rivers and lakes. Only one genus of Mammals
+had yet appeared, but no birds; nothing broke the silence of the air,
+if we except the breathing of the terrestrial reptiles and the flight of
+winged insects.</p>
+
+<p>The earth cooled progressively up to the Jurassic period, the
+rains lost their continuity and abundance, and the pressure of the
+atmosphere sensibly diminished. All these circumstances favoured<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+the appearance and the multiplication of innumerable species of
+animals, whose singular forms then showed themselves on the earth.
+We can scarcely imagine the prodigious quantity of Molluscs and
+Zoophytes whose remains lie buried in the Jurassic rocks, forming
+entire strata of immense thickness and extent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_107" id="Fig_107"></a>
+<img src="images/illo248.png" alt="Fig. 107" width="350" height="391" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 107.&mdash;Draco volans.</p></div>
+
+<p>The same circumstances concurred to favour the production of
+plants. If the shores and seas of the period received such a terrible
+aspect from the formidable animals we have described, the vegetation
+which covered the land had also its peculiar character and
+appearance. Nothing that we know of in the existing scenery of the
+globe surpasses the rich vegetation which decorated the continents
+of the Jurassic period. A temperature still of great elevation, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+humid atmosphere, and, we have no reason to doubt, a brilliant sun,
+promoted the growth of a luxuriant vegetation, such as some of the
+tropical islands, with their burning temperature and maritime climate,
+can only give us an idea of, while it recalls some of the Jurassic
+types of vegetation. The elegant Voltzias of the Trias had disappeared,
+but the Horse-tails (<i>Equiseta</i>) remained, whose slender and
+delicate stems rose erect in the air with their graceful panicles; the
+gigantic rushes also remained; and though the tree-ferns had lost
+their enormous dimensions of the Carboniferous age, they still preserved
+their fine and delicately-cut leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Alongside these vegetable families, which passed upwards from
+the preceding age, an entire family&mdash;the Cycads (<a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, p. 168)&mdash;appear
+for the first time. They soon became numerous in genera,
+such as Zamites, Pterophyllum (Williamsonia), and Nilssonia. Among
+the species which characterise this age, we may cite the following,
+arranging them in families:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 239">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">FERNS.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">CYCADS.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">CONIFERS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Odontopteris cycadea.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Zamites distans.</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Taxodites.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Taumopteris Munsteri.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Zamites heterophyllus.</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Pinites.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Camptopteris crenata.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Zamites gracilis.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Pterophyllum dubium.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Nilssonia contigua.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Nilssonia elegantissima.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Nilssonia Sternbergii.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The <i>Zamites</i> seem to be forerunners of the Palms, which make
+their appearance in the following epoch; they were trees of elegant
+appearance, closely resembling the existing Zamias, which are trees
+of tropical America, and especially of the West India Islands; they
+were so numerous in species and in individuals that they seem to
+have formed, of themselves alone, one half of the forests during the
+period which engages our attention. The number of their fossilised
+species exceeds that of the living species. The trunk of the Zamites,
+simple and covered with scars left by the old leaves, supports a thick
+crown of leaves more than six feet in length, disposed in fan-like
+shape, arising from a common centre.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Pterophyllum</i> (Williamsonia), formed great trees, of considerable
+elevation, and covered with large pinnated leaves from top
+to bottom. Their leaves, thin and membranous, were furnished with
+leaflets truncated at the summit and traversed by fine nervures, not
+convergent, but abutting on the terminal truncated edge.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Nilssonia</i>, finally, were Cycadeace&aelig; resembling the Pterophyllum,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+but with thick and coriaceous leaves, and short leaflets contiguous
+to, and in part attached to the base; they were obtuse or
+nearly truncated at the summit, and would present nervures arched
+or confluent towards that summit.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_108" id="Fig_108"></a>
+<img src="images/illo250.png" alt="Fig. 108" width="350" height="312" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 108.&mdash;Millepora alcicornis.<br />(Recent Coral.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The essential characters of the vegetation during the Liassic sub-period
+were:&mdash;1. The great predominance of the Cycadeace&aelig;, thus
+continuing the development which commenced in the previous
+period, expanding into numerous genera belonging both to this
+family and that of the <i>Zamites</i> and <i>Nilssonia</i>; 2. The existence
+among the Ferns of many genera with reticulated veins or nervures,
+and under forms of little variation, which scarcely show themselves in
+the more ancient formations.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XVI" id="Plate_XVI"></a>
+<img src="images/illo251.png" alt="Plate XVI" width="600" height="391" />
+<p class="caption">XVI.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Liassic Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the opposite page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XVI">Plate XVI.</a></span>) is an ideal landscape of the
+Liassic period; the trees and shrubs characteristic of the age are the
+elegant Pterophyllum, which appears in the extreme left of the
+picture, and the Zamites, which are recognisable by their thick and
+low trunk and fan-like tuft of foliage. The large horsetail, or
+Equisetum of this epoch, mingles with the great Tree-ferns and the
+Cypress, a Conifer allied to those of our own age. Among animals,
+we see the Pterodactyle specially represented. One of these reptiles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+is seen in a state of repose, resting on its hind feet. The other is
+represented, not flying, after the manner of a bird, but throwing itself
+from a rock in order to seize upon a winged insect, the dragon-fly
+(<i>Libellula</i>), the remains of which have been discovered, associated
+with the bones of the Pterodactyle, in the lithographic limestone of
+Pappenheim and Solenhofen.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Oolitic Sub-period.</span></h4>
+
+<p>This period is so named because many of the limestones entering
+into the composition of the formations it comprises, consist almost
+entirely of an aggregation of rounded concretionary grains resembling,
+in outward appearance, the roe or eggs of fishes, and each of which
+contains a nucleus of sand, around which concentric layers of calcareous
+matter have accumulated; whence the name, from &#969;&#959;&#957;, <i>egg</i>,
+and &#955;&#953;&#952;&#959;&#962;, <i>stone</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Oolite series is usually subdivided into three sections, the
+<i>Lower</i>, <i>Middle</i>, and <i>Upper Oolite</i>. These rocks form in England a
+band some thirty miles broad, ranging across the country from Yorkshire,
+in the north-east, to Dorset, in the south-west, but with a great
+diversity of mineral character, which has led to a further subdivision
+of the series, founded on the existence of particular strata in the
+central and south-western counties:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 241">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Upper.</span></td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Middle.</span></td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Lower.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">1. Purbeck Beds.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">1. Coral Rag.</td>
+<td class="padl1">1. Cornbrash.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">2. Portland Stone and Sand.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">2. Oxford Clay.</td>
+<td class="padl1">2. Great Oolite &amp; Forest Marble.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">3. Kimeridge Clay.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="padl1">3. Stonesfield Slate.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="padl1">4. Fuller&#8217;s Earth.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="padl1">5. Inferior Oolite.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The alternations of clay and masses of limestone in the Liassic
+and Oolite formations impart some marked features to the outline of
+the scenery both of France and England: forming broad valleys,
+separated from each other by ranges of limestone hills of more or less
+elevation. In France, the Jura mountains are composed of the
+latter; in England, the slopes of this formation are more gentle&mdash;the
+valleys are intersected by brooks, and clothed with a rich vegetation;
+it forms what is called a tame landscape, as compared with the
+wilder grandeur of the Primary rocks&mdash;it pleases more than it surprises.
+It yields materials also, more useful than some of the older
+formations, numerous quarries being met with which furnish excellent
+building-materials, especially around Bath, where the stone, when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+first quarried, is soft and easily worked, but
+becomes harder on exposure to the air.</p>
+
+<p>The annexed section (<a href="#Fig_109">Fig. 109</a>) will give
+some idea of the configuration which the
+stratification assumes, such as may be observed
+in proceeding from the north-west
+to the south-east, from Caermarthenshire
+to the banks of the Ouse.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"><a name="Fig_109" id="Fig_109"></a>
+<img src="images/illo255.png" alt="Fig. 109" width="700" height="103" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 109.&mdash;General view of the succession of British strata, with the elevations they reach above the
+level of the sea.<br />
+<i>G</i>, Granitic rocks; <i>a</i>, Gneiss; <i>b</i>, Mica-schist; <i>c</i>, Skiddaw or Cumbrian Slates; <i>d</i>, Snowdon rocks; <i>e</i>, Plynlymmon rocks; <i>f</i>, Silurian rocks; <i>g</i>, Old
+Red Sandstone; <i>h</i>, Carboniferous Limestone; <i>i</i>, Millstone Grit; <i>k</i>, Coal-measures; <i>l</i>, Magnesian Limestone; <i>m</i>, New Red Sandstone; <i>n</i>, Lias;
+<i>o</i>, Lower, Middle, and Upper Oolites; <i>p</i>, Greensand; <i>q</i>, Chalk; <i>r</i>, Tertiary strata.</p></div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Lower Oolite Fauna.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The most salient and characteristic
+feature of this age is, undoubtedly, the appearance
+of animals belonging to the class
+of Mammals. But the organisation, quite
+special, of the first of the Mammalia will
+certainly be a matter of astonishment to the
+reader, and must satisfy him that Nature proceeded
+in the creation of animals by successive
+steps, by transitions which, in an almost
+imperceptible manner, connect the beings
+of one age with others more complicated in
+their organisation. The first Mammals which
+appeared upon the earth, for example,
+did not enjoy all the organic attributes
+belonging to the more recent creations of
+the class. In the latter the young are
+brought forth living, and not from eggs,
+like Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes. But the
+former belonged to that order of animals
+quite special, and never numerous, the
+young of which are transferred in a half-developed
+state, from the body of the
+mother to an external pouch in which they
+remain until they become perfected; in
+short, to marsupial animals. The mother
+nurses her young during a certain time in a
+sort of pouch external to the body, in the
+neighbourhood of the abdomen, and provided
+with teats to which the young adhere.
+After a more or less prolonged sojourn in
+this pouch, the young animal, when sufficiently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+matured and strong enough to battle with the world, emerges
+from its warm retreat, and enters fully into life and light; the process
+being a sort of middle course between oviparous generation, in which
+the animals are hatched from eggs after exclusion from the mother&#8217;s
+body, like Birds; and viviparous, in which the animals are brought
+forth alive, as in the ordinary Mammals.</p>
+
+<p>In standard works on natural history the animals under consideration
+are classed as <i>mammiferous Didelph&aelig;</i>. They are brought forth in
+an imperfect state, and during their transitional condition are suckled
+in a pouch supported by bones called <i>marsupial</i>, which are attached
+by their extremities to the pelvis, and serve to support the marsupium,
+whence the animals provided with these provisions for bringing up
+their progeny are called <i>Marsupial Mammals</i>. The Opossum, Kangaroo,
+and Ornithorhynchus are existing representatives of this group.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_110" id="Fig_110"></a>
+<img src="images/illo256a.png" alt="Fig. 110" width="350" height="129" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 110.&mdash;Jaw of Thylacotherium Prevostii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_111" id="Fig_111"></a>
+<img src="images/illo256b.png" alt="Fig. 111" width="300" height="124" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 111.&mdash;Jaw of Phascolotherium.</p></div>
+
+<p>The name of <i>Thylacotherium</i>, or <i>Amphitherium</i>, or <i>Phascolotherium</i>,
+is given to the first of these marsupial Mammals which made
+their appearance, whose remains have been discovered in the Lower
+Oolite, and in one of its higher stages, namely, that called the <i>Great
+Oolite</i>. <a href="#Fig_110">Fig. 110</a> represents the jaw of the first of these animals, and
+<a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 111</a> the other&mdash;both of the natural size. These jaw-bones
+represent all that has been found belonging to these early marsupial
+animals; and Baron Cuvier and Professor Owen have both decided
+as to their origin. The first was found in the Stonesfield quarries.
+The Phascolotherium, also a Stonesfield fossil, was the ornament of
+Mr. Broderip&#8217;s collection. The animals which lived on the land
+during the Lower Oolitic period would be nearly the same with
+those of the Liassic. The insects were, perhaps, more numerous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_112" id="Fig_112"></a>
+<img src="images/illo257a.png" alt="Fig. 112" width="200" height="240" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 112.&mdash;Ammonites
+Herveyii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_113" id="Fig_113"></a>
+<img src="images/illo257b.png" alt="Fig. 113" width="150" height="246" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 113.&mdash;Terebratula digona.</p></div>
+
+<p>The marine fauna included Reptiles, Fishes, Molluscs, and
+Zoophytes. Among the first were the Pterodactyle, and a great
+Saurian, the Teleosaurus, belonging to a family which made its
+appearance in this age, and which reappears in the following epoch.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+Among the Fishes, the Ganoids and Ophiopsis predominate. Among
+the Ammonites, <i>Ammonites Humphriesianus</i>, <i>A. Herveyii</i> (<a href="#Fig_112">Fig. 112</a>),
+<i>A. Brongniarti</i>, <i>Nautilus lineatus</i>, and many other representatives of
+the cephalopodous Mollusca. Among
+the Brachiopods are <i>Terebratula digona</i>
+(<a href="#Fig_113">Fig. 113</a>) and <i>T. spinosa</i>. Among
+the Gasteropoda the <i>Pleurotomaria
+conoidea</i> is remarkable from its elegant
+shape and markings, and very unlike
+any of the living <i>Pleurotoma</i> as represented
+by <i>P. Babylonia</i> (<a href="#Fig_114">Fig. 114</a>).
+<i>Ostrea Marshii</i> and <i>Lima proboscidea</i>,
+which belong to the Acephala, are
+fossil Mollusca of this epoch, to which
+also belong <i>Entalophora cellarioides</i>, <i>Eschara Ranviliana</i>, <i>Bidiastopora
+cervicornis</i>; elegant and characteristic molluscous Polyzoa.
+We give a representation of two living species, as exhibiting the
+form of these curious beings. (<a href="#Fig_115">Figs. 115</a> and <a href="#Fig_116">116</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_114" id="Fig_114"></a>
+<img src="images/illo257c.png" alt="Fig. 114" width="350" height="399" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 114.&mdash;Pleurotoma Babylonia. (Recent.)</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>The Echinoderms and Polyps appear in great numbers in the
+deposits of the Lower Oolite: <i>Apiocrinus elegans</i>, <i>Hyboclypus
+gibberulus</i>, <i>Dysaster Endesii</i> represent the first; <i>Montlivaltia caryophyllata</i>,
+<i>Anabacia orbulites</i>, <i>Cryptoc&#339;nia bacciformis</i>, and <i>Eunomia
+radiata</i> represent the second.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_115" id="Fig_115"></a>
+<img src="images/illo258a.png" alt="Fig. 115" width="200" height="393" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 115.&mdash;Adeona folifera.<br />
+(Recent Polyzoa.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_116" id="Fig_116"></a>
+<img src="images/illo258b.png" alt="Fig. 116" width="300" height="334" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 116.&mdash;Cellaria loriculata.<br />
+(Recent Polyzoa.)</p></div>
+
+<p>This last and most remarkable species of Zoophyte presents itself
+in great masses many yards in circumference, and necessitates a long
+period of time for its production. This assemblage of little creatures
+living under the waters but only at a small depth beneath the surface,
+as Mr. Darwin has demonstrated, has nevertheless produced banks, or
+rather islets, of considerable extent, which at one time constituted
+veritable reefs rising out of the ocean. These reefs were principally
+constructed in the Jurassic period, and their extreme abundance is
+one of the characteristics of this geological age. The same phenomenon
+continues in our day, but by the agency of a new race of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+zoophytes, which carry on their operations, preparing a new continent,
+probably, in the <i>atolls</i> of the Pacific Ocean. (See <a href="#Fig_108">Fig. 108</a>, p. 240.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_117" id="Fig_117"></a>
+<img src="images/illo259.png" alt="Fig. 117" width="350" height="540" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 117.<br />
+1, Otopteris dubia; 2, Otopteris obtusa; 3, Otopteris acuminata; 4, Otopteris cuneata.</p></div>
+
+<p>The flora of the epoch was very rich. The Ferns continue to
+exist, but their size and bearing were sensibly inferior to what they
+had been in the preceding period. Among them Otopteris, distinguished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+for its simply pinnated leaves, whose leaflets are auriculate
+at the base: of the five species, 1, <i>O. dubia</i>; and 2, <i>O. obtusa</i>; and
+3, <i>O. acuminata</i>; and 4, <i>O. cuneata</i> (<a href="#Fig_117">Fig. 117</a>), are from the Oolite.
+In addition to these we may name <i>Coniopteris Murrayana</i>, <i>Pecopteris
+Desnoyersii, Pachypteris lanceolata</i>, and <i>Phlebopteris Phillipsii</i>; and
+among the Lycopods, <i>Lycopodus falcatus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation of this epoch has a peculiar facies, from the
+presence of the family of the Pandanace&aelig;, or screw-pines, so remarkable
+for their a&euml;rial roots, and for the magnificent tuft of leaves which
+terminates their branches. Neither the leaves nor the roots of these
+plants have, however, been found in the fossil state, but we possess
+specimens of their large and spherical fruit, which leave no room for
+doubt as to the nature of the entire plant.</p>
+
+<p>The Cycads were still represented by the <i>Zamias</i>, and by many
+species of Pterophyllum. The Conifers, that grand family of recent
+times, to which the pines, firs, and other trees of our northern
+forests belong, began to occupy an important part in the world&#8217;s
+vegetation from this epoch. The earliest Conifers belonged to the
+genera <i>Thuites</i>, <i>Taxites</i>, and <i>Brachyphyllum</i>. The <i>Thuites</i> were true
+<i>Thuyas</i>, evergreen trees of the present epoch, with compressed
+branches, small imbricated and serrated leaves, somewhat resembling
+those of the Cypress, but distinguished by many points of special
+organisation. The <i>Taxites</i> have been referred, with some doubts, to
+the Yews. Finally, the <i>Brachyphyllum</i> were trees which, according
+to the characteristics of their vegetation, seem to have approached
+nearly to two existing genera, the <i>Arthotaxis</i> of Tasmania, and the
+<i>Weddringtonias</i> of South Africa. The leaves of the Brachyphyllum
+are short and fleshy, with a large and rhomboidal base.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Lower Oolite Rocks.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The formation which represents the Lower Oolite, and which in
+England attains an average thickness of from 500 to 600 feet, forms
+a very complex system of stratification, which includes the two
+formations, <i>Bajocien</i> and <i>Bathonian</i>, adopted by M. D&#8217;Orbigny and
+his followers. The lowest beds of the <i>Inferior Oolite</i> occur in
+Normandy, in the Lower Alps (Basses-Alpes), in the neighbourhoods of
+Lyons and Neuchatel. They are remarkable near Bayeux for the
+variety and beauty of their fossils: the rocks are composed principally
+of limestones&mdash;yellowish-brown, or red, charged with hydrated
+oxide of iron, often oolitic, and reposing on calcareous sands. These<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+deposits are surmounted by alternate layers of clay and marl, blue
+or yellow&mdash;the well-known <i>Fuller&#8217;s Earth</i>, which is so called from its
+use in the manufacture of woollen fabrics to extract the grease
+from the wool. The second series of the Lower Oolite, which
+attains a thickness of from 150 to 200 feet on the coast of Normandy,
+and is well developed in the neighbourhood of Caen and in the
+Jura, has been divided, in Britain, into four formations, in an
+ascending scale:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Great</i> or <i>Bath Oolite</i>, which consists principally of a
+very characteristic, fine-grained, white, soft, and well-developed oolitic
+limestone, at Bath, and also at Caen in Normandy. At the base of
+the Great Oolite the Stonesfield beds occur, in which were found the
+bones of the marsupial Mammals, to which we have already alluded;
+and along with them bones of Reptiles, principally Pterodactyles,
+together with some finely-preserved fossil plants, fruits, and
+insects.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Bradford Clay</i>, which is a bluish marl, containing many fine
+Encrinites (commonly called stone-lilies), but which had only a local
+existence, appearing to be almost entirely confined to this formation.
+&#8220;In this case, however,&#8221; says Lyell, &#8220;it appears that the solid upper
+surface of the &#8216;Great Oolite&#8217; had supported, for a time, a thick
+submarine forest of these beautiful Zoophytes, until the clear and
+still water was invaded with a current charged with mud, which threw
+down the stone-lilies, and broke most of their stems short off near
+the point of attachment. The stumps still remain in their original
+position.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>
+See Fig. 1, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XIX">Plate XIX.</a></span>, p. 261. (Bradford, or Pear,
+Encrinite.)</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Forest Marble</i>, which consists of an argillaceous shelly limestone,
+abounding in marine fossils, and sandy and quartzose marls, is
+quarried in the forest of Wichwood, in Wiltshire, and in the counties
+of Dorset, Wilts, and Somerset.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Cornbrash</i> (wheat-lands) consists of beds of rubbly cream-coloured
+limestone, which forms a soil particularly favourable to the
+cultivation of cereals; hence its name.<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Lower Oolite ranges across the greater part of England, but
+&#8220;attains its maximum development near Cheltenham, where it can
+be subdivided, at least, into three parts. Passing north, the two
+lower divisions, each more or less characterised by its own fossils,
+disappear, and the Ragstone north-east of Cheltenham lies directly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+upon the Lias; apparently as conformably as if it formed its true and
+immediate successor, while at Dundry the equivalents of the upper
+freestones and ragstones (the lower beds being absent) lie directly on
+the exceedingly thin sands, which there overlie the Lower Lias. In
+Dorsetshire, on the coast, the series is again perfect, though thin.
+Near Chipping Norton, in Oxfordshire, the Inferior Oolite disappears
+altogether, and the Great Oolite, having first overlapped the Fullers&#8217;
+Earth, passes across the Inferior Oolite, and in its turn seems to lie
+on the Upper Lias with a regularity as perfect as if no formation in
+the neighbourhood came between them. In Yorkshire the changed
+type of the Inferior Oolite, the prevalence of sands, land-plants, and
+beds of coal, occur in such a manner as to leave no doubt of the
+presence of terrestrial surfaces on which the plants grew, and all
+these phenomena lead to the conclusion that various and considerable
+oscillations of level took place in the British area during the deposition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+of the strata, both of the Inferior Oolite and of the formations
+which immediately succeed it.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_118" id="Fig_118"></a>
+<img src="images/illo262.png" alt="Fig. 118" width="400" height="373" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 118.&mdash;Meandrina D&aelig;dal&aelig;a.<br />
+<i>a</i>, entire figure, reduced; <i>b</i>, portion, natural size.<br />
+(Recent Coral.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The Inferior Oolite here alluded to is a thin bed of calcareous
+freestone, resting on, and sometimes replaced by yellow sand, which
+constitutes the passage-beds from the Liassic series. The Fullers&#8217;
+Earth clay lies between the limestones of the Inferior and Great
+Oolite, at the base of which last lies the Stonesfield slate&mdash;a slightly
+oolitic, shelly limestone, or flaggy and fissile sandstone, some six
+feet thick, rich in organic remains, and ranging through Oxfordshire
+towards the north-east, into Northamptonshire and Yorkshire. At
+Colley Weston, in Northamptonshire, fossils of <i>Pecopteris polypodioides</i>
+are found. In the Great Oolite formation, near Bath, are
+many corals, among which the <i>Eunomia radiata</i> is very conspicuous.
+The fossil is not unlike the existing brain-coral of the tropical seas
+(<a href="#Fig_118">Fig. 118</a>). The work of this coral seems to have been suddenly stopped
+by &#8220;an invasion,&#8221; says Lyell, &#8220;of argillaceous matter, which probably
+put a sudden stop to the growth of Bradford Encrinites, and led to
+their preservation in marine strata.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> The Cornbrash is, in general, a
+cream-coloured limestone, about forty feet thick, in the south-west of
+England, and occupying a considerable area in Dorsetshire and North
+Wilts, as at Cricklade, Malmesbury, and Chippenham, in the latter
+county. <i>Terebratula obovata</i> is its characteristic shell, and <i>Nucleolites
+clunicularis</i>, <i>Lima gibbosa</i>, and <i>Avicula echinata</i> occur constantly in
+great numbers. Wherever it occurs the Cornbrash affords a rich and
+fertile soil, well adapted for the growth of wheat, while the Forest
+Marble, as a soil, is generally poor. The Cornbrash passes downwards
+into the Forest Marble, and sometimes, as at Bradford, near
+Bath, is replaced by clay. This clay, called the Bradford clay, is
+almost wholly confined to the county of Wilts. <i>Terebratula decussata</i>
+is one of the most characteristic fossils, but the most common is the
+Apiocrinites or pear-shaped encrinite, whose remains in this clay are so
+perfectly preserved that the most minute articulations are often found
+in their natural positions. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XIX">Plate XIX.</a></span>, p. 261 (Fig. 1), represents an
+adult attached by a solid base to the rocky bottom on which it grew,
+whilst the smaller individuals show the Encrinite in its young state&mdash;one
+with arms expanded, the other with them closed. Ripple-marked
+slabs of fissile Forest Marble are used as a roofing-slate, and
+may be traced over a broad band of country in Wiltshire and
+Gloucestershire, separated from each other by thin seams of clay, in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+which the undulating ridges of the sand are preserved, and even
+the footmarks of small Crustaceans are still visible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XVII" id="Plate_XVII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo265.png" alt="Plate XVII" width="600" height="383" />
+<p class="caption">XVII.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Lower Oolite Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the opposite page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XVII">Plate XVII.</a></span>) is represented an ideal landscape
+of the period of the Lower Oolite. On the shore are types of
+the vegetation of the period. The <i>Zamites</i>, with large trunk covered
+with fan-like leaves, resembled in form and bearing the existing
+Zamias of tropical regions; a <i>Pterophyllum</i>, with its stem covered
+from base to summit with its finely-cut feathery leaves; Conifers
+closely resembling our Cypress, and an arborescent Fern. What distinguishes
+this sub-period from that of the Lias is a group of magnificent
+trees, <i>Pandanus</i>, remarkable for their a&euml;rial roots, their long
+leaves, and globular fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Upon one of the trees of this group the artist has placed the
+<i>Phascolotherium</i>, not very unlike to our Opossum. It was amongst
+the first of the Mammalia which appeared in the ancient world.
+The artist has here enlarged the dimensions of the animal in order to
+show its form. Let the reader reduce it in imagination one-sixth,
+for it was not larger than an ordinary-sized cat.</p>
+
+<p>A Crocodile and the fleshless skeleton of the Ichthyosaurus
+remind us that Reptiles still occupied an important place in the
+animal creation. A few Insects, especially Dragon-flies, fly about in
+the air. Ammonites float on the surface of the waves, and the
+terrible Plesiosaurus, like a gigantic swan, swims about in the sea.
+The circular reef of coral, the work of ancient Polyps, foreshadows
+the atolls of the great ocean, for it was during the Jurassic period
+that the Polyps of the ancient world were most active in the production
+of coral-reefs and islets.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Middle Oolite.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The terrestrial flora of this age was composed of Ferns, Cycads,
+and Conifers. The first represented by the <i>Pachypteris microphylla</i>,
+the second by <i>Zamites Moreana</i>. <i>Brachyphyllum Moreanum</i> and
+<i>B. majus</i> appear to have been the Conifers most characteristic of the
+period; fruits have also been found in the rocks of the period,
+which appear to belong to Palms, but this point is still obscure
+and doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous vestiges of the fauna which animated the period are
+also revealed in the rocks of this age. Certain hemipterous insects
+appear on the earth for the first time, and the Bees among the
+Hymenoptera, Butterflies among the Lepidoptera, and Dragon-flies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+among the Neuroptera. In the bosom of the ocean, or upon its
+banks, roamed the <i>Ichthyosaurus</i>, <i>Ceteosaurus</i>, <i>Pterodactylus crassirostris</i>,
+and the <i>Geosaurus</i>; the latter being very imperfectly known.</p>
+
+<p>The Ceteosaurus whose bones have been discovered in the upper
+beds of the Great Oolite at Enslow Rocks, at the Kirtlington Railway
+Station, north of Oxford, and some other places, was a species of
+Crocodile nearly resembling the modern Gavial or Crocodile of the
+Ganges. This huge whale-like reptile has been described by Professor
+John Phillips as unmatched in size and strength by any of the
+largest inhabitants of the Mesozoic land or sea&mdash;perhaps the largest
+animal that ever walked upon the earth. A full-grown Ceteosaurus
+must have been <i>at least</i> fifty feet long, ten feet high, and of a proportionate
+bulk. In its habits it was, probably, a marsh-loving or river-side
+animal, dwelling amidst filicene, cycadaceous, and coniferous
+shrubs and trees full of insects and small mammalia. The one small
+and imperfect tooth which has been found resembles that of
+Iguanodon more than of any other reptile; and it seems probable
+that the Ceteosaurus was nourished by vegetable food, which abounded
+in the vicinity of its haunts, and was not obliged to contend with the
+Megalosaurus for a scanty supply of more stimulating diet.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_119" id="Fig_119"></a>
+<img src="images/illo270.png" alt="Fig. 119" width="450" height="240" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 119.&mdash;Ramphorynchus restored. One-quarter natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>Another reptile allied to the Pterodactyle lived in this epoch&mdash;the
+<i>Ramphorynchus</i>, distinguished from the Pterodactyle by a long tail. The
+imprints which this curious animal has left upon the sandstone of the
+period are impressions of its feet and the linear furrow made by its tail.
+Like the Pterodactyle, the Ramphorynchus, which was about the size
+of a crow, could not precisely fly, but, aided by the wing (a sort of
+natural parachute formed by the membrane connecting the fingers
+with the body), it could throw itself from a height upon its prey.
+<a href="#Fig_119">Fig. 119</a> represents a restoration of this animal. The footprints in the
+soil are in imitation of those which accompany the remains of the
+Ramphorynchus in the Oolitic rocks, and they show the imprints of
+the anterior and posterior feet and also the marks made by the tail.</p>
+
+<p>This tail was very long, far surpassing in length the rest of the
+vertebral column, and consisting of more than thirty vertebr&aelig;&mdash;which
+were at first short, but rapidly elongate, retain their length for a considerable
+distance, and then gradually diminish in size.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XVIII" id="Plate_XVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo269.png" alt="Plate XVIII" width="600" height="386" />
+<p class="caption">XVIII.&mdash;Ideal landscape of the Middle Oolitic Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>Another genus of Reptiles appears in the Middle Oolite, of which
+we have had a glimpse in the Lias and Great Oolite of the preceding
+section. This is the <i>Teleosaurus</i>, which the recent investigations of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+M. E. Deslongchamps allow of re-construction. The Teleosaurus
+enables us to form a pretty exact idea of these Crocodiles of the
+ancient seas&mdash;these cuirassed Reptiles, which the German geologist
+Cotta describes as &#8220;the great barons of the kingdom of Neptune,
+armed to the teeth, and clothed in an impenetrable panoply; the
+true filibusters of the primitive seas.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Teleosaurus resembled the Gavials of India. The former
+inhabited the banks of rivers, perhaps the sea itself; they were
+longer, more slender, and more active than the living species; they
+were about thirty feet in length, of which the head may be from three
+to four feet, with their enormous jaws sometimes with an opening of
+six feet, through which they could engulf, in the depths of their
+enormous throat, animals of considerable size.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Teleosaurus cadomensis</i> is represented on the opposite page
+(<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XVIII">Plate XVIII.</a></span>), after the sketch of M. E. Deslongchamps, carrying
+from the sea in its mouth a <i>Geoteuthis</i>, a species of Calamary of the
+Oolitic epoch. This creature was coated with a cuirass both on the
+back and belly. In order to show this peculiarity, a living individual
+is represented on the shore, and a dead one is floating on its back in
+shallow water, leaving the ventral cuirass exposed.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the <i>Teleosaurus cadomensis</i> in the engraving, another
+Saurian, the <i>Hyl&aelig;osaurus</i>, is represented, which makes its appearance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+in the Cretaceous epoch. We have here adopted the restoration
+which has been so ably executed by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, at
+the Crystal Palace, Sydenham.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_120" id="Fig_120"></a>
+<img src="images/illo271a.png" alt="Fig. 120" width="250" height="324" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 120.&mdash;Eryon arctiformis.</p></div>
+
+<p>Besides the numerous Fishes with which the Oolitic seas swarmed,
+they contained some Crustaceans, Cirripedes, and various genera of
+Mollusca and Zoophytes. <i>Eryon arctiformis</i>, represented in <a href="#Fig_119">Fig. 119</a>,
+belongs to the class of Crustaceans, of which the spiny lobster is the
+type. Among the Mollusca were some Ammonites, Belemnites, and
+Oysters, of which many hundred species have been described. Of
+these we may mention <i>Ammonites refractus, A. Jason and A. cordatus,
+Ostrea dilatata, Terebratula diphya, Diceras arietena, Belemnites hastatus</i>,
+and <i>B. Puzosianus</i>. In some of the finely-laminated clays the
+Ammonites are very perfect, but somewhat compressed, with the outer
+lip or margin of the aperture entire (<a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120</a>). Similar prolongations
+have been noticed in Belemnites found by Dr. Mantell in the Oxford
+Clay, near Chippenham.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_121" id="Fig_121"></a>
+<img src="images/illo271b.png" alt="Fig. 121" width="250" height="294" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 121.&mdash;Perfect Ammonite.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Plate_XIX" id="Plate_XIX"></a>
+<img src="images/illo272.png" alt="Plate XIX" width="450" height="624" />
+<p class="caption"><span style="margin-left: 30px;">XIX.&mdash;Fig. 1.&mdash;Apiocrinites rotundus.</span>
+<span style="margin-left: 55px;">Fig. 2.&mdash;Encrinus liliiformis.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>Among the Echinoderms, <i>Cidaris glandiferus</i>, <i>Apiocrinus Roissyanus</i>,
+and <i>A. rotundus</i>, the graceful <i>Saccocoma pectinata</i>, <i>Millericrinus
+nodotianus</i>, <i>Comatula costata</i>, and <i>Hemicidaris crenularis</i> may be mentioned;
+<i>Apiocrinites rotundus</i>, figured in <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XIX">Plate XIX.</a></span>, is a reduced
+restoration: 1, being expanded; <i>a</i>, closed; 3, a cross section of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+upper extremity of the pear-shaped head; 4, a vertical section
+showing the enlargement of the alimentary canal, with the hollow
+lenticular spaces which descend through the axis of the column,
+forming the joints, and giving elasticity and flexure to the whole stem,
+without risk of dislocation. <i>A. rotundus</i> is found at Bradford in
+Wiltshire, Abbotsbury in Dorset, at Soissons, and Rochelle. This
+species&mdash;known as the Bradford Pear-Encrinite&mdash;is only found in the
+strata mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The Corals of this epoch occur in great abundance. We have
+already remarked that these aggregations of Polyps are often met
+with at a great depth in the strata. These small calcareous structures
+have been formed in the ancient seas, and the same phenomenon is
+extending the terrestrial surface in our days in the seas of Oceania,
+where reefs and atolls of coral are rising by slow and imperceptible
+steps, but with no less certainty. Although their mode of production
+must always remain to some extent a mystery, the investigations of
+M. Lamaroux, Mr. Charles Darwin, and M. D&#8217;Orbigny have gone a
+long way towards explaining their operations; for the Zoophyte in
+action is an aggregation of these minute Polyps. Describing what he
+believes to be a sea-pen, a Zoophyte allied to <i>Virgularia Patagonia</i>,
+Mr. Darwin says: &#8220;It consists of a thin, straight, fleshy stem, with
+alternate rows of polypi on each side, and surrounding an elastic
+stony axis. The stem at one extremity is truncate, but at the other
+is terminated by a vermiform fleshy appendage. The stony axis
+which gives strength to the stem, may be traced at this extremity into
+a mere vessel filled with granular matter. At low water hundreds of
+these zoophytes might be seen, projecting like stubble, with the truncate
+end upwards, a few inches above the surface of the muddy sand. When
+touched or pulled, they drew themselves in suddenly, with force, so
+as nearly or quite to disappear. By this action, the highly-elastic
+axis must be bent at the lower extremity, where it is naturally slightly
+curved; and I imagine it is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte
+is enabled to rise again through the mud. Each polypus, though
+closely united to its brethren, has a distinct mouth, body, and tentacula.
+Of these polypi, in a large specimen there must be many
+thousands. Yet we see that they act by one movement; that they
+have one central axis, connected with a system of obscure circulation.&#8221;
+Such is the brief account given by a very acute observer of
+these singular beings. They secrete the calcareous matter held in
+solution in the oceanic waters, and produce the wonderful structures
+we have now under consideration; and these calcareous banks have
+been in course of formation during many geological ages. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+just reach the level of the waters, for the polyps perish as soon as
+they are so far above the surface that neither the waves nor the flow
+of the tides can reach them. In the Oolitic rocks these banks
+are frequently found from twelve to fifteen feet thick, and many
+leagues in length, and preserving, for the most part, the relative
+positions which they occupied in the sea while in course of
+formation.</p>
+
+<p>The rocks which now represent the Middle Oolitic Period are
+usually divided into the <i>Oxford Clay</i>, the lower member of which is
+an arenaceous limestone, known as the <i>Kellaways Rock</i>, which in
+Wiltshire and other parts of the south-west of England attains a
+thickness of eight or ten feet, with the impressions of numerous
+Ammonites, and other shells. In Yorkshire, around Scarborough, it
+reaches the thickness of thirty feet; and forms well-developed beds of
+bluish-black marl in the department of Calvados, in France. It is
+the base of this clay which forms the soil (<i>Argile de Dives</i>) of the
+valley of the Auge, renowned for its rich pasturages and magnificent
+cattle. The same beds form the base of the oddly-shaped but fine
+rocks of La Manche, which are popularly known as the <i>Vaches Noires</i>
+(or black cows)&mdash;a locality celebrated, also, for its fine Ammonites
+transformed into pyrites.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Oxford Clay</i> constitutes the base of the hills in the neighbourhood
+of Oxford, forming a bed of clay sometimes more than 600
+feet thick. It is found well-developed in France, at Trouville, in
+the department of the Calvados; and at Neuvisy, in the department
+of the Ardennes, where it attains a thickness of about 300 feet. It
+is a bluish, sometimes whitish limestone (often argillaceous), and
+bluish marl. The <i>Gryph&aelig;a dilatata</i> is the most common fossil in
+the Oxford Clay. The <i>Coral Rag</i> is so called from the fact that the
+limestone of which it is chiefly composed consists, in part, of an
+aggregation of considerable masses of petrified Corals; not unlike
+those now existing in the Pacific Ocean, supposing them to be
+covered up for ages and fossilised. This coral stratum extends
+through the hills of Berkshire and North Wilts, and it occurs again
+near Scarborough. In the counties of Dorset, Bedford, Buckingham,
+and Cambridge, and some other parts of England, the limestone of
+the Coral Rag disappears and is replaced by clay&mdash;in which case the
+Oxford Clay is overlaid directly by the Kimeridge Clay. In France
+it is found in the departments of the Meuse, of the Yonne, of the
+Ain, of the Charente Inf&eacute;rieure. In the Alps the <i>Diceras limestone</i>
+is regarded, by most geologists, as coeval with the English
+Coral Rag.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Upper Oolite.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Some marsupial Mammals have left their remains in the Upper
+Oolite as in the Lower. They belong to the genus <i>Sphalacotherium</i>.
+Besides the Plesiosauri and Teleosauri, there still lived in the maritime
+regions a Crocodile, the <i>Macrorhynchus</i>; and the monstrous
+<i>P&#339;cilopleuron</i>, with sharp cutting teeth, one of the most formidable
+animals of this epoch; the <i>Hyl&aelig;osaurus</i>, <i>Cetiosaurus</i>, <i>Stenosaurus</i>, and
+<i>Streptospondylus</i>, and among the Turtles, the <i>Emys</i> and <i>Platemys</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+As in the Lower Oolite, so also in the Upper, Insects similar to
+those by which we are surrounded, pursued their flight in the
+meadows and hovered over the surface of the water. Of these,
+however, too little is known for us to give any very precise indication
+on the subject of their special organisation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_122" id="Fig_122"></a>
+<img src="images/illo276.png" alt="Fig. 122" width="400" height="536" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 122.&mdash;Bird of Solenhofen (Arch&aelig;opteryx).</p></div>
+
+<p>The most remarkable fact relating to this period is the appearance
+of the first bird. Hitherto the Mammals, and of these only imperfectly-organised
+species, namely, the Marsupials, have alone appeared.
+It is interesting to witness birds appearing immediately after. In
+the quarries of lithographic stone at Solenhofen, the remains of a
+bird, with feet and feathers, have been found, but without the head.
+These curious remains are represented in <a href="#Fig_122">Fig. 122</a>, in the position
+in which they were discovered. The bird is usually designated the
+Bird of Solenhofen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_123" id="Fig_123"></a>
+<img src="images/illo277.png" alt="Fig. 123" width="250" height="116" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 123.<br />
+Shell of Physa fontinalis.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Oolitic seas of this series contained Fishes belonging to the
+genera <i>Asteracanthus</i>, <i>Strephodes</i>, <i>Lepidotus</i>, and <i>Microdon</i>. The
+Cephalopodous Mollusca were not numerous, the predominating
+genera belonging to the Lamellibranchs
+and to the Gasteropods, which lived on
+the shore. The reef-making Madrepores
+or Corals were more numerous. A few
+Zoophytes in the fossil state testify to the
+existence of these extraordinary animals.
+The fossils characteristic of the fauna of
+the period include <i>Ammonites decipiens</i> and
+<i>A. giganteus</i>, <i>Natica elegans</i> and <i>hemispherica</i>, <i>Ostrea deltoidea</i> and <i>O.
+virgula</i>, <i>Trigonia gibbosa</i>, <i>Pholadomya multicostata</i> and <i>P. acuticostata</i>,
+<i>Terebratula subsella</i>, and <i>Hemicidaris Purbeckensis</i>. Some <i>Fishes</i>, <i>Turtles</i>,
+<i>Paludina</i>, <i>Physa</i> (<a href="#Fig_123">Fig. 123</a>), <i>Unio</i>, <i>Planorbis</i> (<a href="#Fig_201">Fig. 201</a>), and the
+little crustacean bivalves, the Cypris, constituted the fresh-water fauna
+of the period.</p>
+
+<p>The terrestrial flora of the period consisted of Ferns, Cycadeace&aelig;,
+and Conifers; in the ponds and swamps some Zoster&aelig;. The
+<i>Zoster&aelig;</i> are monocotyledonous plants of the family of the Na&iuml;dace&aelig;,
+which grow in the sandy mud of maritime regions, forming there, with
+their long, narrow, and ribbon-like leaves, vast prairies of the most
+beautiful green. At low tides these masses of verdure appear somewhat
+exposed. They would form a retreat for a great number of
+marine animals, and afford nourishment to others.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p class='pagenum' style="margin-top: -1em;"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XX" id="Plate_XX"></a>
+<img src="images/illo278.jpg" alt="Plate XX" width="600" height="386" />
+<p class="caption">XX.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Upper Oolitic Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the opposite page an ideal landscape of the period (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XX">Plate XX.</a></span>)
+represents some of the features of the Upper Oolite, especially the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+vegetation of the Jurassic period. The <i>Sphenophyllum</i>, among the
+Tree-ferns, is predominant in this vegetation; some <i>Pandanas</i>, a few
+<i>Zamites</i>, and many <i>Conifers</i>, but we perceive no Palms. A coral islet
+rises out of the sea, having somewhat of the form of the <i>atolls</i> of
+Oceania, indicating the importance these formations assumed in the
+Jurassic period. The animals represented are the <i>Crocodileimus</i> of
+Jourdan, the <i>Ramphorynchus</i>, with the imprints which characterise its
+footsteps, and some of the invertebrated animals of the period, as the
+<i>Asteria</i>, <i>Comatula</i>, <i>Hemicidaris</i>, <i>Pteroceras</i>. Aloft in the air floats the
+bird of Solenhofen, the <i>Arch&aelig;opteryx</i>, which has been re-constructed
+from the skeleton, with the exception of the head, which remains
+undiscovered.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The rocks which represent the Upper Oolite are usually divided
+into two series: 1. The <i>Purbeck Beds</i>; 2. The <i>Portland Stone
+and Sand</i>; and 3. The <i>Kimeridge Clay</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Kimeridge Clay</i>, which in many respects bears a remarkable
+resemblance to the Oxford Clay, is composed of blue or yellowish
+argillaceous beds, which occur in the state of clay and shale (containing
+locally beds of bituminous schist, sometimes forming a sort of
+earthy impure coal), and several hundred feet in thickness. These
+beds are well developed at Kimeridge, in Dorsetshire, whence the
+clay takes its name. In some parts of Wiltshire the beds of
+bituminous matter have a shaly appearance, but there is an absence
+of the impressions of plants which usually accompany the bitumen,
+derived from the decomposition of plants. These rocks, with their
+characteristic fossils, <i>Cardium striatulum</i> and <i>Ostrea deltoidea</i>, are
+found throughout England: in France, at Tonnerre, Dept. Yonne;
+at Havre; at Honfleur; at Mauvage; in the department of the
+Meuse it is so rich in shells of <i>Ostrea deltoidea</i> and <i>O. virgula</i>, that,
+&#8220;near Clermont in Argonne, a few leagues from St. Menehould,&#8221;
+says Lyell,<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> &#8220;where these indurated marls crop out from beneath the
+Gault, I have seen them (<i>Gryph&aelig;a virgula</i>) on decomposing leave the
+surface of every ploughed field literally strewed over with this fossil
+oyster.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The second section of this series consists of the oolitic limestone of
+Portland, which is quarried in the Isle of Portland and in the cliffs of
+the Isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire, and also at Chilmark in the Vale
+of Wardour, in Wiltshire. In France, the Portland beds are found
+near Boulogne, at Cirey-le-Ch&acirc;teau, Auxerre, and Gray (Haute Sa&ocirc;ne).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>The Isle,
+or rather peninsula of Portland,<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> off the Dorsetshire
+coast, rises considerably above the sea-level, presenting on the side of
+the port a bold line of cliffs, connected with the mainland by the
+Chesil bank,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> an extraordinary formation, consisting of a beach of
+shingle and pebbles loosely piled on the blue Kimeridge clay, and
+stretching ten miles westward along the coast. The quarries are
+chiefly situated in the northerly part of the island. The story told of
+this remarkable island is an epitome of the revolutions the surface of
+the earth has undergone. The slaty Purbeck beds which overlie
+the Portland stone are of a dark-yellowish colour; they are burnt in
+the neighbourhood for lime. The next bed is of a whiter and more
+lively colour. It is the stone of which the portico of St. Paul&#8217;s and
+many of the houses of London, built in Queen Anne&#8217;s time, were
+constructed. The building-stone contains fossils exclusively marine.
+Upon this stratum rests a bed of limestone formed in lacustrine
+waters. Finally, upon this bed rests another deposit of a substance
+which consists of very well-preserved vegetable earth or <i>humus</i>, quite
+analogous to our vegetable soil, of the thickness of from fifteen to
+eighteen inches, and of a blackish colour; it contains a strong proportion
+of carbonaceous earth; it abounds in the silicified remains of
+Conifers and other plants, analogous to the <i>Zamia</i> and <i>Cycas</i>&mdash;this
+soil is known as the &#8220;dirt-bed.&#8221; The trunks of great numbers of
+silicified trees and tropical plants are found here erect, their roots
+fixed in the soil, and of species differing from any of our forest trees.
+&#8220;The ruins of a forest upon the ruins of a sea,&#8221; says Esquiros, &#8220;the
+trunks of these trees were petrified while still growing. The region
+now occupied by the narrow channel and its environs had been at
+first a sea, in whose bed the Oolitic deposits which now form the
+Portland stone accumulated: the bed of the sea gradually rose and
+emerged from the waves. Upon the land thus rescued from the
+deep, plants began to grow; they now constitute with their ruins the
+soil of the dirt-bed. This soil, with its forest of trees, was afterwards
+plunged again into the waters&mdash;not the bitter waters of the ocean, but
+in the fresh waters of a lake formed at the mouth of some great river.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Time passed on, however; a calcareous sediment brought from
+the interior by the waters, formed a layer of mud over the dirt-bed;
+finally, the whole region was covered by a succession of calcareous
+deposits, until the day when the Isle of Portland was again revealed
+to light. &#8220;From the facts observed,&#8221; says Lyell, &#8220;we may infer:&mdash;1.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+That those beds of the Upper Oolite, called the Portland, which
+are full of marine shells, were overspread with fluviatile mud,
+which became dry land, and covered with a forest, throughout a
+portion of space now occupied by the south of England, the climate
+being such as to admit of the growth of the <i>Zamia</i> and <i>Cycas</i>. 2.
+This land at length sank down and was submerged with its forest
+beneath a body of fresh water from which sediment was thrown down
+enveloping fluviatile shells. 3. The regular and uniform preservation
+of this thin bed of black earth over a distance of many miles, shows
+that the change from dry land to the state of a fresh-water lake, or
+estuary, was not accompanied by any violent denudation or rush of
+water, since the loose black earth, together with the trees which lay
+prostrate on its surface, must inevitably have been swept away had
+any such violent catastrophe taken place.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_124" id="Fig_124"></a>
+<img src="images/illo282.png" alt="Fig. 124" width="350" height="231" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 124.&mdash;Geological humus. <i>a</i>, Fresh-water calcareous
+slate (Purbeck); <i>b</i>, Dirt-bed, with roots and
+stems of trees; <i>c</i>, Fresh-water beds; <i>d</i>, Portland Stone.</p></div>
+
+<p>The soil known as the <i>dirt-bed</i> is nearly horizontal in the Isle of
+Portland; but we discover it again not far from there in the sea-cliffs
+of the Isle of Purbeck, having
+an inclination of 45&deg;, where
+the trunks continue perfectly
+parallel among themselves,
+affording a fine example of a
+change in the position of
+beds originally horizontal.
+<a href="#Fig_124">Fig. 124</a> represents this
+species of geological <i>humus</i>.
+&#8220;Each <i>dirt-bed</i>&#8221; says Sir
+Charles Lyell, &#8220;may, no
+doubt, be the memorial of
+many thousand years or centuries,
+because we find that
+two or three feet of vegetable
+soil is the only monument which many a tropical forest has left of its
+existence ever since the ground on which it now stands was first
+covered with its shade.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+<p>This bed of vegetable soil is, then, near the summit of that long
+and complicated series of beds which constitute the Jurassic period;
+these ruins, still vegetable, remind us forcibly of the coal-beds, for
+they are nothing else than a less advanced state of that kind of
+vegetable fossilisation which was perfected on such an immense scale,
+and during an infinite length of time in the coal period.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>The Purbeck beds, which are sometimes subdivided into Lower,
+Middle, and Upper, are mostly fresh-water formations, intimately
+connected with the Upper Portland beds. But there they begin and
+end, being scarcely recognisable except in Dorsetshire, in the sea-cliffs
+of which they were first studied. They are finely exposed
+in Durdlestone Bay, near Swanage, and at Lulworth Cove, on the
+same coast. The <i>lower beds</i> consist of a purely fresh-water marl, eighty
+feet thick, containing shells of <i>Cypris</i>, <i>Limn&aelig;a</i>, and some <i>Serpul&aelig;</i> in
+a bed of marl of brackish-water origin, and some <i>Cypris</i>-bearing
+shales, strangely broken up at the west end of the Isle of Purbeck.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Middle series</i> consists of twelve feet of marine strata known as
+the &#8220;cinder-beds,&#8221; formed of a vast accumulation of <i>Ostrea distorta</i>,
+resting on fresh-water strata full of <i>Cypris fasciculata</i>, <i>Planorbis</i>, and
+<i>Limn&aelig;a</i>, by which this strata has been identified as far inland as the
+vale of Wardour in Wiltshire. Above the cinder-beds are shales and
+limestones, partly of fresh-water and partly of brackish-water origin,
+in which are Fishes, many species of Lepidotus, and the crocodilian
+reptile, <i>Macrorhynchus</i>. On this rests a purely marine deposit, with
+<i>Pecten</i>, <i>Avicula</i>, &amp;c. Above, again, are brackish beds with <i>Cyrena</i>,
+overlying which is thirty feet of fresh-water limestone, with <i>Fishes</i>,
+<i>Turtles</i>, and <i>Cyprides</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>upper beds</i> are purely fresh-water strata, about fifty feet thick,
+containing <i>Paludina</i>, <i>Physa</i>, <i>Limn&aelig;a</i>, all very abundant. In these
+beds the Purbeck marble, formerly much used in the ornamental
+architecture of the old English cathedrals, was formerly quarried.
+(See <a href="#Note274">Note</a>, page 274.)</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>A few words may be added, in explanation of the term <i>oolite</i>,
+applied to this sub-period of the Jurassic formation. In a great
+number of rocks of this series the elements are neither crystalline nor
+amorphous&mdash;they are, as we have already said, oolitic; that is to say,
+the mass has the form of the roe of certain fishes. The question
+naturally enough arises, Whence this singular oolitic structure assumed
+by the components of certain rocks? It is asserted that the grinding
+action of the sea acting upon the precipitated limestone produces
+rounded forms analogous to grains of sand. This hypothesis may
+be well founded in some cases. The marine sediments which are
+deposited in some of the warm bays of Teneriffe are found to take
+the spheroidal granulated form of the oolite. But these local facts
+cannot be made to apply to the whole extent of the oolitic formations.
+We must, therefore, look further for an explanation of the phenomena.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>It is admitted that if the cascades of Tivoli, for example, can give
+birth to the oolitic grains, the same thing happens in the quietest
+basins, that in stalactite-caverns oolitic grains develop themselves,
+which afterwards, becoming cemented together from the continued,
+but very slow, affluence of the calcareous waters, give rise to certain
+kinds of oolitic rocks.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it is known that nodules, more or less large,
+develop themselves in marls in consequence of the concentration of
+the calcareous elements, without the possibility of any wearing action
+of water. Now, as there exists every gradation of size between the
+smallest oolitic grains and the largest concretions, it is reasonable to
+suppose that the oolites are equally the product of concentration.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, from research to research, it is found that perfectly
+constituted oolites&mdash;that is to say, concentric layers, as in the
+Jurassic limestone&mdash;develop themselves in vegetable earth in places
+where the effects of water in motion is not more admissible than in
+the preceding instances.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we arrive at the conclusion, that if Nature sometimes forms
+crystals with perfect terminations in magmas in the course of solidification,
+she gives rise also to spheroidal forms surrounding various
+centres, which sometimes originate spontaneously, and in other cases
+are accumulated round the d&eacute;bris of fossils, or even mere grains of
+sand. Nevertheless, all mineral substances are not alike calculated
+to produce oolitic rocks; putting aside some particular cases, this
+property is confined to limestone and oxide of iron.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>With regard to the distribution of the Jurassic formation on the
+terrestrial globe, it may be stated that the Cotteswold Hills in
+England, and in France the Jura mountains, are almost entirely composed
+of these rocks, the several series of beds being all represented
+in them&mdash;this circumstance, in fact, induced Von Humboldt to name
+the formation after this latter range. The Upper Lias also exists in
+the Pyrenees and in the Alps; in Spain; in many parts of Northern
+Italy; in Russia, especially in the government of Moscow, and in
+the Crimea; but it is in Germany where it occupies the most important
+place. A thin bed of oolitic limestone presents, at Solenhofen
+in Bavaria, a geological repository of great celebrity, containing
+fossil Plants, Fishes, Insects, Crustaceans, with some Pterodactyles,
+admirably preserved; it yielded also some of the earliest of the
+feathered race. The fine quarries of lithographic stone at Pappenheim,
+so celebrated all over Europe, belong to the Jurassic
+formation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>It has recently been announced that these rocks have been found
+in India; they contribute largely to the formation of the main mass
+of the Himalayas, and to the chain of the Andes in South America;
+finally, from recent investigations, they seem to be present in New
+Zealand.</p>
+
+<p>In England the Lias constitutes a well-defined belt about thirty
+miles broad, extending from Dorsetshire, in the south, to Yorkshire,
+in the north, formed of alternate beds of clay, shales, and limestone
+(with layers of jet), on the coast near Whitby. It is rich, as we have
+seen, in ancient life, and that in the strongest forms imaginable.
+From the unequal hardness of the rocks it comprises, it stands out
+boldly in some of the minor ranges of hills, adding greatly to the
+picturesque beauty of the scenery in the centre of the country. In
+Scotland the formation occupies a very limited space.</p>
+
+<p>A map of the country at the close of the Jurassic period would
+probably show double the extent of dry land in the British Islands,
+compared with what it displayed as an island in the primordial ocean;
+but Devon and Cornwall had long risen from the sea, and it is probable
+that the Jurassic beds of Dorsetshire and France were connected
+by a tongue of land running from Cherbourg to the Liassic beds of
+Dorsetshire, and that Boulogne, still an island, was similarly connected
+with the Weald.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_125" id="Fig_125"></a>
+<img src="images/illo285.png" alt="Fig. 125" width="350" height="249" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 125.&mdash;Crioceras Duvallii, Sowerby.<br />
+A non-involuted Ammonite.<br />
+(Neocomian.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="indented fsize80"><p><a name="Note274" id="Note274"></a><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;Sections of the Purbeck
+strata of Dorsetshire have been constructed by
+Mr. Bristow, from actual measurement, in the several localities in the Isle of
+Purbeck, where they are most clearly and instructively displayed.</p>
+
+<p>These sections, published by the Geological Survey, show in detail the beds
+in their regular and natural order of succession, with the thickness, mineral
+character, and contents, as well as the fossils, of each separate bed.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></p>
+
+<h3>THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD.</h3>
+
+<p>The name <i>Cretaceous</i> (from <i>creta</i>, chalk) is given to this epoch in the
+history of our globe because the rocks deposited by the sea, towards
+its close, are almost entirely composed of chalk (carbonate of lime).</p>
+
+<p>Carbonate of lime, however, does not now appear for the first
+time as a part of the earth&#8217;s crust; we have already seen limestone
+occurring, among the terrestrial materials, from the Silurian period;
+the Jurassic formation is largely composed of carbonate of lime in
+many of its beds, which are enormous in number as well as extent; it
+appears, therefore, that in the period called <i>Cretaceous</i> by geologists,
+carbonate of lime was no new substance in the constitution of the
+globe. If geologists have been led to give this name to the period, it
+is because it accords better than any other with the characteristics of
+the period; with the vast accumulations of chalky or earthy limestone
+in the Paris basin, and the beds of so-called Greensand, and Chalk of
+the same age, so largely developed in England.</p>
+
+<p>We have already endeavoured to establish the origin of lime, in
+speaking of the Silurian and Devonian periods, but it may be useful to
+recapitulate the explanation here, even at the risk of repeating ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>We have said that lime was, in all probability, introduced to the
+globe by thermal waters flowing abundantly through the fissures, dislocations,
+and fractures in the ground, which were themselves caused
+by the gradual cooling of the globe; the central nucleus being the
+grand reservoir and source of the materials which form the solid
+crust. In the same manner, therefore, as the several eruptive substances&mdash;such
+as granites, porphyries, trachytes, basalts, and lava&mdash;have
+been ejected, so have thermal waters charged with carbonate
+of lime, and often accompanied by silica, found their way to the
+surface in great abundance, through the fissures, fractures, and dislocations
+in the crust of the earth. We need only mention here the
+Iceland geysers, the springs of Plombi&egrave;res, and the well-known
+thermal springs of Bath and elsewhere in this country.</p>
+
+<p>But how comes lime in a state of bicarbonate, dissolved in these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+thermal waters, to form rocks? That is what we propose to
+explain.</p>
+
+<p>During the primary geological periods, thermal waters, as they
+reached the surface, were discharged into the sea and united themselves
+with the waves of the vast primordial ocean, and the waters of
+the sea became sensibly calcareous&mdash;they contained, it is believed,
+from one to two per cent. of lime. The innumerable animals, especially
+Zoophytes, and Mollusca with solid shells, with which the
+ancient seas swarmed, secreted this lime, out of which they built up
+their mineral dwelling&mdash;or shell. In this liquid and chemically
+calcareous medium, the Foraminifera and Polyps of all forms swarmed,
+forming an innumerable population. Now what became of the bodies
+of these creatures after death? They were of all sizes, but chiefly
+microscopic; that is, so small as to be individually all but invisible to
+the naked eye. The perishable animal matter disappeared in the
+bosom of the waters by decomposition, but there still remained behind
+the indestructible inorganic matter, that is to say, the carbonate of
+lime forming their testaceous covering; these calcareous deposits
+accumulating in thick beds at the bottom of the sea, became compacted
+into a solid mass, and formed a series of continuous beds
+superimposed on each other. These, increasing imperceptibly in the
+course of ages, ultimately formed the rocks of the <i>Cretaceous</i> period,
+which we have now under consideration.</p>
+
+<p>These statements are not, as the reader might conceive from their
+nature, a romantic conception invented to please the imagination of
+those in search of a system&mdash;the time is past when geology should be
+regarded as the romance of Nature&mdash;nor has what we advance at all
+the character of an arbitrary conception. One is no doubt struck
+with surprise on learning, for the first time, that all the limestone rocks,
+all the calcareous stones employed in the construction of our dwellings,
+our cities, our castles and cathedrals, were deposited in the seas
+of an earlier world, and are only composed of an aggregation of
+shells of Mollusca, or fragments of the testaceous coverings of Foraminifera
+and other Zoophytes&mdash;nay, that they were secreted from
+the water itself, and then assimilated by these minute creatures, and
+that this would appear to have been the great object of their creation
+in such myriads. Whoever will take the trouble to observe, and
+reflect on what he observes, will find all his doubts vanish. If
+chalk be examined with a microscope, it will be found to be composed
+of the remains of numerous Zoophytes, of minute and divers
+kinds of shells, and, above all, of Foraminifera, so small that their
+very minuteness seems to have rendered them indestructible. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+hundred and fifty of these small beings placed end to end, in a
+line, will only occupy the space of about one-twelfth part of an
+inch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_126" id="Fig_126"></a>
+<p class="caption">Chalk under the Microscope.</p>
+<img src="images/illo288.png" alt="Fig. 126" width="450" height="450" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 126.&mdash;Chalk of Meudon (magnified).</p></div>
+
+<p>Much of this curious information was unknown, or at least only
+suspected, when Ehrenberg began his microscopical investigations.
+From small samples of chalk reduced to powder, placed upon the
+object-glass, and examined under the microscope, Ehrenberg prepared
+the designs which we reproduce from his learned micrographical
+work, in which some of the elegant forms discovered in the Chalk
+are illustrated, greatly magnified. <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a> represents the chalk of
+Meudon, in France, in which ammonite-like forms of Foraminifera
+and others, equally beautiful, appear. <a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>, from the chalk
+of Gravesend, contains similar objects. <a href="#Fig_128">Fig. 128</a> is an example<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+of chalk from the island of Mo&euml;n, in Denmark; and <a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a>, that
+which is found in the Tertiary rocks of Cattolica, in Sicily. In all
+these the shells of Ammonites appear, with clusters of round Foraminifera
+and other Zoophytes. In two of these engravings (<a href="#Fig_126">Figs.
+126</a> and <a href="#Fig_128">128</a>), the chalk is represented in two modes&mdash;in the upper
+half, by transparency or transmitted light; in the lower half, the mass
+is exhibited by superficial or reflected light.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_127" id="Fig_127"></a>
+<p class="caption">Chalk under the Microscope.</p>
+<img src="images/illo289.png" alt="Fig. 127" width="450" height="451" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 127.&mdash;Chalk of Gravesend. (After Ehrenberg).&mdash;Magnified.</p></div>
+
+<p>Observation, then, establishes the truth of the explanation we have
+given concerning the formation of the chalky or Cretaceous rocks;
+but the question still remains&mdash;How did these rocks, originally
+deposited in the sea, become elevated into hills of great height, with
+bold escarpments, like those known in England as the North and
+South Downs? The answer to this involves the consideration of
+other questions which have, at present, scarcely got beyond hypothesis.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_128" id="Fig_128"></a>
+<p class="caption">Chalk under the Microscope.</p>
+<img src="images/illo290.png" alt="Fig. 128" width="450" height="450" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 128.&mdash;Chalk of the Isle of Mo&euml;n, Denmark.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>During and after the deposition of the Portland and Purbeck beds,
+the entire Oolite Series, in the south and centre of England and
+other regions, was raised above the sea-level and became dry land.
+Above these Purbeck beds, as Professor Ramsay tells us [in the
+district known as the Weald], &#8220;we have a series of beds of clays,
+sandstones, and shelly limestones, indicating by their fossils that they
+were deposited in an estuary where fresh water and occasionally
+brackish water and marine conditions prevailed. The Wealden and
+Purbeck beds indeed represent the delta of an immense river which
+in size may have rivalled the Ganges, Mississippi, Amazon, &amp;c.,
+and whose waters carried down to its mouth the remains of land-plants,
+small Mammals, and great terrestrial Reptiles, and mingled
+them with the remains of Fishes, Molluscs, and other forms native to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>
+its waters. I do not say that this immense river was formed or
+supplied by the drainage of what we now call Great Britain&mdash;I do
+not indeed know where this continent lay, but I do know that
+England formed a part of it, and that in size it must have been
+larger than Europe, and was probably as large as Asia, or the great
+continent of America.&#8221; Speaking of the geographical extent of the
+Wealden, Sir Charles Lyell says: &#8220;It cannot be accurately laid
+down, because so much of it is concealed beneath the newer marine
+formations. It has been traced about 200 miles from west to east;
+from the coast of Dorsetshire to near Boulogne, in France; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+nearly 200 miles from north-west to south-east, from Surrey and
+Hampshire to Beauvais, in France;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> but he expresses doubt,
+supposing the formation to have been continuous, if the two areas
+were contemporaneous, the region having undergone frequent changes,
+the great estuary having altered its form, and even shifted its place.
+Speaking of a hypothetical continent, Sir Charles Lyell says: &#8220;If it
+be asked where the continent was placed from the ruins of which the
+Wealden strata were derived, and by the drainage of which a great
+river was fed, we are half tempted to speculate on the former
+existence of the Atlantis of Plato. The story of the submergence of
+an ancient continent, however fabulous in history, must have been
+true again and again as a geological event.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_129" id="Fig_129"></a>
+<p class="caption">Chalk under the Microscope.</p>
+<img src="images/illo291.png" alt="Fig. 129" width="450" height="455" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 129.&mdash;Chalk of Cattolica, Sicily (magnified).</p></div>
+
+<p>The proof that the Wealden series were accumulated under fresh-water
+conditions and as a river deposit<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> lies partly in the nature of the
+strata, but chiefly in the nature of the organic remains. The fish give no
+positive proof, but a number of Crocodilian reptiles give more conclusive
+evidence, together with the shells, most of them being of fresh-water
+origin, such as Paludina, Planorbis, Lymn&aelig;a, Physa, and such like,
+which are found living in many ponds and rivers of the present day.
+Now and then we find bands of marine remains, not mixed with fresh-water
+deposits, but interstratified with them; showing that at times
+the mouth and delta of the river had sunk a little, and that it had
+been invaded by the sea; then by gradual change it was lifted up,
+and became an extensive fresh-water area. This episode at last comes
+to an end by the complete submergence of the Wealden area; and
+upon these fresh-water strata a set of marine sands and clays, and
+upon these again thick beds of pure white earthy limestone of the
+Cretaceous period were deposited. The lowest of these formations
+is known as the Lower Greensand; then followed the clays of the
+Gault, which were succeeded by the Upper Greensand. Then,
+resting upon the Upper Greensand, comes the vast mass of Chalk
+which in England consists of soft white earthy limestone, containing,
+in the upper part, numerous bands of interstratified flints, which were
+mostly sponges originally, that have since become silicified and
+converted into flint. The strata of chalk where thickest are from
+1,000 to 1,200 feet in thickness. Their upheaval into dry land brought
+this epoch to an end; the conditions which had contributed to its
+formation ceased in our area, and as the uppermost member of the
+Secondary rocks, it closes the record of Mesozoic times in England.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>Let us add, to remove any remaining doubts, that in the basin of
+a modern European sea&mdash;the Baltic&mdash;a curious assemblage of phenomena,
+bearing on the question, is now in operation. The bed and
+coast-line of the Baltic continue slowly but unceasingly to rise, and
+have done so for several centuries, in consequence of the constant
+deposit which takes place of calcareous shells, added to the natural
+accumulations of sand and mud. The Baltic Sea will certainly be
+filled up in time by these deposits, and this modern phenomenon,
+which we find in progress, so to speak, brings directly under our observation
+an explanation of the manner in which the cretaceous rocks
+were produced in the ancient world, more especially when taken
+in connection with another branch of the same subject to which
+Sir Charles Lyell called attention, in an address to the Geological
+Society. It appears that just as the northern part of the Scandinavian
+continent is now rising, and while the middle part south of
+Stockholm remains unmoved, the southern extremity in Scania is
+sinking, or at least has sunk, within the historic period; from which
+he argues that there may have been a slow upheaval in one region,
+while the adjoining one was stationary, or in course of submergence.</p>
+
+<p>After these explanations as to the manner in which the cretaceous
+rocks were formed, let us examine into the state of animal and vegetable
+life during this important period in the earth&#8217;s history.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetable kingdom of this period forms an introduction to the
+vegetation of the present time. Placed at the close of the Secondary
+epoch, this vegetation prepares us for transition, as it were, to the
+vegetation of the Tertiary epoch, which, as we shall see, has a great
+affinity with that of our own times.</p>
+
+<p>The landscapes of the ancient world have hitherto shown us some
+species of plants of forms strange and little known, which are now
+extinct. But during the period whose history we are tracing, the
+vegetable kingdom begins to fashion itself in a less mysterious
+manner; Palms appear, and among the regular species we recognise
+some which differ little from those of the tropics of our days. The
+dicotyledons increase slightly in number amid Ferns and Cycads,
+which have lost much of their importance in numbers and size; we
+observe an obvious increase in the dicotyledons of our own temperate
+climate, such as the alder, the wych-elm, the maple, and the
+walnut, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;As we retire from the times of the primitive creation,&#8221; says
+Lecoq, &#8220;and slowly approach those of our own epoch, the sediments
+seem to withdraw themselves from the polar regions and
+restrict themselves to the temperate or equatorial zones. The great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+beds of sand and limestone, which constitute the Cretaceous formation,
+announce a state of things very different from that of the preceding
+ages. The seasons are no longer marked by indications of
+central heat; zones of latitude already show signs of their existence.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Hitherto two classes of vegetation predominated: the cellular
+<i>Cryptogams</i> at first, the dicotyledonous <i>Gymnosperms</i> afterwards; and
+in the epoch which we have reached&mdash;the transition epoch of vegetation&mdash;the
+two classes which have reigned heretofore become
+enfeebled, and a third, the dicotyledonous <i>Angiosperms</i>, timidly take
+possession of the earth&mdash;they consist at first of a small number of
+species, and occupy only a small part of the soil, of which they afterwards
+take their full share; and in the succeeding periods, as in our
+own times, we shall see that their reign is firmly established; during
+the Cretaceous period, in short, we witness the appearance of the first
+dicotyledonous <i>Angiosperms</i>. Some arborescent Ferns still maintain
+their position, and the elegant <i>Protopteris Singeri</i>, Preissl., and P.
+<i>Buvigneri</i>, Brongn., still unfold their light fronds to the winds of this
+period. Some <i>Pecopteri</i>, differing from the Wealden species, live
+along with them. Some <i>Zamites</i>, <i>Cycads</i>, and <i>Zamiostrobi</i> announce
+that in the Cretaceous period the temperature was still high. New
+Palms show themselves, and, among others, <i>Flabellaria cham&aelig;ropifolia</i>
+is especially remarkable for the majestic crown at its summit.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The <i>Conifers</i> have endured better than the <i>Cycade&aelig;</i>; they
+formed then, as now, great forests, where <i>Damarites</i>, <i>Cunninghamias</i>,
+<i>Araucarias</i>, <i>Eleoxylons</i>, <i>Abietites</i>, and <i>Pinites</i> remind us of numerous
+forms still existing, but dispersed all over the earth.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;From this epoch date the <i>Comptonias</i>, attributed to the Myricace&aelig;;
+<i>Almites Friesii</i>, Nils., which we consider as one of the Betulace&aelig;;
+<i>Carpinites arenaceus</i>, G&#339;p., which is one of the Cupulifer&aelig;;
+the <i>Salicites</i>, which are represented to us by the arborescent willows;
+the Acerin&aelig; would have their <i>Acerites cretace&aelig;</i>, Nils., and the
+Juglandit&aelig;, the <i>Juglandites elegans</i>, G&#339;p. But the most interesting
+botanical event of this period is the appearance of the <i>Credneria</i>,
+with its triple-veined leaves, of which no less than eight species have
+been found and described, but whose place in the systems of classification
+still remains uncertain. The <i>Crednerias</i>, like the <i>Salicites</i>,
+were certainly trees, as were most of the species of this remote
+epoch.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In the following illustration are represented two of the Palms
+belonging to the Cretaceous period, restored from the imprints and
+fragments of the fossil remains left by the trunk and branches in the
+rocks of the period (<a href="#Fig_130">Fig. 130</a>.)</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_130" id="Fig_130"></a>
+<img src="images/illo295.png" alt="Fig. 130" width="350" height="504" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 130.&mdash;Fossil Palms restored.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>But if the vegetation of the Cretaceous period exhibits sensible
+signs of approximation to that of our present era, we cannot say the
+same of the animal creation. The time has not yet come when
+Mammals analogous to those of our epoch gave animation to the
+forests, plains, and shores of the ancient world; even the Marsupial
+Mammals, which made their appearance in the Liassic and Oolitic
+formations, no longer exist, so far as is known, and no others of the
+class have taken their place. No climbing Opossum, with its young
+ones, appears among the leaves of the Zamites. The earth appears
+to be still tenanted by Reptiles, which alone break the solitudes
+of the woods and the silence of the valleys. The Reptiles, which
+seem to have swarmed in the seas of the Jurassic period, partook
+of the crocodilian organisation, and those of this period seem to bear
+more resemblance to the Lizards of our day. In this period the
+remains of certain forms indicate that they stood on higher legs; they no
+longer creep on the earth, and this is apparently the only approximation
+which seems to connect them more closely with higher forms.</p>
+
+<p>It is not without surprise that we advert to the immense development,
+the extraordinary dimensions which the Saurian family attained
+at this epoch. These animals which, in our days, rarely exceed a
+yard or so in length, attained in the Cretaceous period as much as
+twenty. The marine lizard, which we notice under the name of
+<i>Mosasaurus</i>, was then the scourge of the seas, playing the part of
+the Ichthyosauri of the Jurassic period; for, from the age of the
+Lias to that of the Chalk, the Ichthyosauri, the Plesiosauri, and
+the Teleosauri were, judging from their organisation, the tyrants of
+the waters. They appear to have become extinct at the close of
+the Cretaceous period, and to give place to the <i>Mosasaurus</i>, to whom
+fell the formidable task of keeping within proper limits the exuberant
+production of the various tribes of Fishes and Crustaceans which
+inhabited the seas. This creature was first discovered in the celebrated
+rocks of St. Peter&#8217;s Mount at Maestricht, on the banks of the
+Meuse. The skull alone was about four feet in length, while the
+entire skeleton of <i>Iguanodon Mantelli</i>, discovered by Dr. Mantell in
+the Wealden strata, has since been met with in the Hastings beds
+of Tilgate Forest, measuring, as Professor Owen estimates, between
+fifty and sixty feet in length. These enormous Saurians disappear
+in their turn, to be replaced in the seas of the Tertiary epoch by the
+Cetaceans; and henceforth animal life begins to assume, more and
+more, the appearance it presents in the actually existing creation.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing the great extent of the seas of the Cretaceous period,
+Fishes were necessarily numerous. The pike, salmon, and dory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+tribes, analogous to those of our days, lived in the seas of this
+period; they fled before the sharks and voracious dog-fishes, which
+now appeared in great numbers, after just showing themselves in the
+Oolitic period.</p>
+
+<p>The sea was still full of Polyps, Sea-urchins, Crustaceans of
+various kinds, and many genera of Mollusca different from those of
+the Jurassic period; alongside of gigantic Lizards are whole piles of
+animalcul&aelig;&mdash;those Foraminifera whose remains are scattered in
+infinite profusion in the Chalk, over an enormous area and of immense
+thickness. The calcareous remains of these little beings, incalculable
+in number, have indeed covered, in all probability, a great part of
+the terrestrial surface. It will give a sufficient idea of the importance
+of the Cretaceous period in connection with these organisms
+to state that, in the rocks of the period, 268 genera of animals,
+hitherto unknown, and more than 5,000 species of special living
+beings have been found; the thickness of the rocks formed during
+the period being enormous. Where is the geologist who will venture
+to estimate the time occupied in creating and destroying the animated
+masses of which this formation is at once both the cemetery
+and the monument? For the purposes of description it will
+be convenient to divide the Cretaceous series into lower and upper,
+according to their relative ages and their peculiar fossils.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">The Lower Cretaceous Period.</span></h4>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 286-1">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">English equivalents.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1">French classification.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Lower Greensand, upper part.</td>
+<td class="left padl1">&Eacute;tage</td>
+<td class="left">Aptien st.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Lower Greensand, lower part.</td>
+<td class="center">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="left">N&eacute;ocomien sup&eacute;rieur.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Weald clay and Hastings sands.</td>
+<td class="center">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="left">N&eacute;ocomien inf&eacute;rieur.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The Lower Wealden or Hastings Sand consists of sand, sandstone,
+and calciferous grit, clay, and shale, the argillaceous strata predominating.
+This part of the Wealden consists, in descending
+order, of:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 286-2">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="right">Feet.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Tunbridge Wells sand&mdash;Sandstone and loam</td>
+<td class="right">150</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Wadhurst clay&mdash;Blue and brown shale and clay, with a little calc grit</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Ashdown sands&mdash;Hard sand, with beds of calc grit</td>
+<td class="right">160</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1">Ashburnham sands&mdash;Mottled, white, and red clay and sandstone</td>
+<td class="right">330</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The Hastings sand has a hard bed of white sand in its upper part, whose
+steep natural cliffs produce the picturesque scenery of the &#8220;High
+rocks&#8221; of Hastings in Sussex.</p>
+
+<p>Calcareous sandstone and grit, in which Dr. Mantell found the
+remains of the <i>Iguanodon</i> and <i>Hyl&aelig;osaurus</i>, form an upper member<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+of the Tunbridge Wells Sand. The formation extends over Hanover
+and Westphalia; the Wealden of these countries, according to Dr.
+Dunker and Von Meyer, corresponding in their fossils and mineral
+characters with those of the English series. So that &#8220;we can
+scarcely hesitate,&#8221; says Lyell, &#8220;to refer the whole to one great
+delta.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p>The overlying Weald clay crops out from beneath the Lower
+Greensand in various parts of Kent and Sussex, and again in the
+Isle of Wight, and in the Isle of Purbeck, where it reappears at the
+base of the chalk.</p>
+
+<p>The upper division (or the Weald clay) is, as we have said, of
+purely fresh-water origin, and is supposed to have been the estuary
+of some vast river which, like the African Quorra, may have formed a
+delta some hundreds of miles broad, as suggested by Dr. Dunker
+and Von Meyer.</p>
+
+<p>The Lower Greensand is known, also, as the <i>N&eacute;ocomien</i>, after
+Neocomium, the Latin name of the city of Neufchatel, in Switzerland,
+where this formation is largely developed, and where, also, it was first
+recognised and established as a distinct formation. Dr. Fitton, in
+his excellent monograph of the Lower Cretaceous formations, gives
+the following descending succession of rocks as observable in many
+parts of Kent:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 287">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Feet.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">1.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Sand, white, yellowish, or brown, with concretions of limestone and chert</td>
+<td class="right">70</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">2.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Sand, with green matter</td>
+<td class="right">70 to 100</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">3.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Calcareous stone, called Kentish rag</td>
+<td class="right">60 to 80</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>These divisions, which are traceable more or less from the
+southern part of the Isle of Wight to Hythe in Kent, present considerable
+variations. At Atherfield, where sixty-three distinct strata,
+measuring 843 feet, have been noticed, the limestone is wholly
+wanting, and some fossils range through the whole series, while
+others are confined to particular divisions; but Prof. E. Forbes states,
+that when the same conditions are repeated in overlying strata the
+same species reappear; but that changes of depth, or of the mineral
+nature of the sea-bottom, the presence or absence of lime or of
+peroxide of iron, the occurrence of a muddy, sandy, or gravelly
+bottom, are marked by the absence of certain species, and the predominance
+of others.<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_131" id="Fig_131"></a>
+<img src="images/illo299a.png" alt="Fig. 131" width="400" height="240" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 131.&mdash;Perna Mulleti. One-quarter natural size.<br />
+<i>a</i>, exterior; <i>b</i>, part of the upper hinge.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the marine fauna of the N&eacute;ocomian series the following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
+are the principal. Among the <i>Acephala</i>, one of the largest and most
+abundant shells of the lower N&eacute;ocomian, as displayed in the Atherfield
+section, is the large <i>Perna Mulleti</i> (<a href="#Fig_131">Fig. 131</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Scaphites</i> have a singular boat-shaped form, wound with
+contiguous whorls in one part, which is detached at the last chamber,
+and projects in a more or less elongated condition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_132" id="Fig_132"></a>
+<img src="images/illo299b.png" alt="Fig. 132" width="400" height="149" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 132.&mdash;Hamites. One-third natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Hamites</i>, <i>Crioceras</i>, and <i>Ancyloceras</i> have club-like terminations at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>
+both extremities; they may almost be considered as non-involuted
+Ammonites with the spiral evolutions disconnected or partially
+unrolled, as in the engraving (<a href="#Fig_125">Figs. 125</a> and <a href="#Fig_132">132</a>). <i>Ancyloceras
+Matheronianus</i> seems to have had spines projecting from the ridge
+of each of the convolutions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_133" id="Fig_133"></a>
+<img src="images/illo300a.png" alt="Fig. 133" width="250" height="454" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 133.&mdash;Shell of Turritella terebra.<br />
+(Living form.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Toxoceras</i> had the shell also curved, and not spiral.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Baculites</i> had the shell differing from all Cephalopods, inasmuch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>
+as it was elongated, conical, perfectly straight, sometimes very
+slender, and tapering to a point.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_134" id="Fig_134"></a>
+<img src="images/illo300b.png" alt="Fig. 134" width="200" height="305" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 134.&mdash;Turrillites costatus.<br />
+(Chalk.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Turrilites</i> have the shell regular, spiral, and <i>sinistral</i>; that
+is, turning to the left in an oblique spiral of contiguous whorls. The
+engraving will convey the idea of their form (<a href="#Fig_134">Fig. 134</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_135" id="Fig_135"></a>
+<img src="images/illo301a.png" alt="Fig. 135" width="200" height="230" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 135&mdash;Terebrirostra lyra.<br />
+<i>a</i>, back view; <i>b</i>, side view.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among others, as examples of form, we append <a href="#Fig_133">Figs. 133</a>, <a href="#Fig_135">135</a>, <a href="#Fig_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_136" id="Fig_136"></a>
+<img src="images/illo301b.png" alt="Fig. 136" width="200" height="175" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 136.&mdash;Terebratula deformis.</p></div>
+
+<p>This analysis of the marine fauna belonging to the N&eacute;ocomian
+formation might be carried much further, did space permit, or did it
+promise to be useful; but, without illustration, any further merely
+verbal description would be almost valueless.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous Reptiles, a few Birds, among which are some &#8220;Waders,&#8221;
+belong to the genera of <i>Pal&aelig;ornis</i> or <i>Cimoliornis</i>; new Molluscs in
+considerable quantities, and some extremely varied Zoophytes, constitute
+the rich fauna of the Lower Chalk. A glance at the more
+important of these animals, which we only know in a few mutilated
+fragments, is all our space allows; they are true medals of the history
+of our globe, medals, it is true, half effaced by time, but which
+consecrate the memory of departed ages.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1832 Dr. Mantell added to the wonderful discoveries
+he had made in the Weald of Sussex, that of the great Lizard-of-the-woods,
+the <i>hyl&aelig;osaurus</i> (&#8017;&#955;&#951;, <i>wood</i>, &#963;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;, <i>lizard</i>). This discovery
+was made in Tilgate forest, near Cuckfield, and the animal appears to
+have been from twenty to thirty feet in length. The osteological
+characters presented by the remains of the Hyl&aelig;osaurus are described
+by Dr. Mantell as affording another example of the blending
+of the Crocodilian with the Lacertian type of structure; for we have,
+in the pectoral arch, the scapula or omoplate of a crocodile associated
+with the coracoid of a lizard. Another remarkable feature
+in these fossils is the presence of the large angular bones or spines,
+which, there is reason to infer, constituted a serrated crest along the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>
+middle of the back; and the numerous small oval dermal bones
+which appear to have been arranged in longitudinal series along
+each side of the dorsal fringe.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Megalosaurus</i>, the earliest appearance of which is among the
+more ancient beds of the Liassic and Oolitic series, is again found at
+the base of the Cretaceous rocks. It was, as we have seen, an enormous
+lizard, borne upon slightly raised feet; its length exceeded forty feet,
+and in bulk it was equal to an elephant seven feet high.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_137" id="Fig_137"></a>
+<img src="images/illo302a.png" alt="Fig. 137" width="400" height="188" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 137.&mdash;Lower Jaw of the Megalosaurus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_138" id="Fig_138"></a>
+<img src="images/illo302b.png" alt="Fig. 138" width="150" height="422" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 138.&mdash;Tooth
+of Megalosaurus.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Megalosaurus found in the ferruginous sands of Cuckfield,
+in Sussex, in the upper beds of the Hastings Sands, must have been
+at least sixty or seventy feet long. Cuvier considered that it partook
+both of the structure of the Iguana and the Monitors, the latter of which
+belong to the Lacertian Reptiles which haunt the banks of the Nile
+and tropical India. The Megalosaurus was probably an amphibious
+Saurian. The complicated structure and marvellous arrangement of
+the teeth prove that it was essentially carnivorous. It fed probably
+on other Reptiles of moderate size, such as the Crocodiles and
+Turtles which are found in a fossil state in the same beds. The jaw
+represented in <a href="#Fig_137">Fig. 137</a> is the most important fragment of the animal
+we possess. It is the lower jaw, and supports many teeth: it shows
+that the head terminated in a straight muzzle, thin and flat on the
+sides, like that of the <i>Gavial</i>, the Crocodile of India. The teeth of
+the Megalosaurus were in perfect accord with the destructive functions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
+with which this formidable creature was endowed. They partake at
+once of the nature of a knife, sabre, and saw. Vertical at their junction
+with the jaw, they assume, with the increased age of the animal, a
+backward curve, giving them the form of a gardener&#8217;s pruning-knife
+(<a href="#Fig_138">Fig. 138</a>; also <i>c.</i> <a href="#Fig_179">Fig. 179</a>). After mentioning some other particulars,
+respecting the teeth, Buckland says: &#8220;With teeth constructed so as
+to cut with the whole of their concave edge, each movement of the
+jaws produced the combined effect of a knife and a saw, at the same
+time that the point made a first incision like that made by a point
+of a double-cutting sword. The backward curvature taken by the
+teeth at their full growth renders the escape of the prey when once
+seized impossible. We find here, then, the same arrangements which
+enable mankind to put in operation many of the instruments which
+they employ.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_139" id="Fig_139"></a>
+<img src="images/illo303a.png" alt="Fig. 139" width="300" height="349" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 139.&mdash;Nasal Horn of Iguanodon.<br />
+Two-thirds natural size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_140" id="Fig_140"></a>
+<img src="images/illo303b.png" alt="Fig. 140" width="300" height="410" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 140.&mdash;Ammonites rostratus.<br />
+(Upper Greensand.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Iguanodon</i>, signifying <i>Iguana-toothed</i> (from the Greek word,
+&#959;&#948;&#959;&#965;&#962;, <i>tooth</i>), was more gigantic still than the Megalosaurus; one of the
+most colossal, indeed, of all the Saurians of the ancient world which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>
+research has yet exposed to the light of day. Professor Owen and
+Dr. Mantell were not agreed as to the form of the tail; the former
+gentleman assigning it a short tail, which would affect Dr. Mantell&#8217;s
+estimate of its probable length of fifty or sixty feet; the largest thigh-bone
+yet found measures four feet eight inches in length. The form
+and disposition of the feet, added to the existence of a bony horn
+(<a href="#Fig_139">Fig. 139</a>), on the upper part of the muzzle or snout, almost identifies
+it as a species with the existing Iguanas, the only Reptile which is
+known to be provided with such a horn upon the nose; there is,
+therefore, no doubt as to the resemblance between these two animals;
+but while the largest of living Iguanas scarcely exceeds a yard in
+length, its fossil congener was probably fifteen or sixteen times that
+length. It is difficult to resist the feeling of astonishment, not to say
+incredulity, which creeps over one while contemplating so striking
+a disproportion as that which subsists between this being of the
+ancient world and its ally of the new.</p>
+
+<p>The Iguanodon carried, as we have said, a horn on its muzzle;
+the bone of its thigh, as we have seen, surpassed that of the Elephant
+in size; the form of the bone and feet demonstrates that it was
+formed for terrestrial locomotion; and its dental system shows that
+it was herbivorous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_141" id="Fig_141"></a>
+<img src="images/illo304.png" alt="Fig. 141" width="400" height="289" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 141.&mdash;Teeth of Iguanodon.<br />
+<i>a</i>, young tooth; <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, teeth further advanced, and worn.<br />
+(Wealden.)</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>The teeth (<a href="#Fig_141">Fig. 141</a>), which are the most important and characteristic
+organs of the whole animal, are imbedded laterally in
+grooves, or sockets, in the dentary bone; there are three or four
+sockets of successional teeth on the inner side of the base of the old
+teeth. The place thus occupied by the edges of the teeth, their
+trenchant and saw-like form, their mode of curvature, the points
+where they become broader or narrower which turn them into a
+species of nippers or scissors&mdash;are all suitable for cutting and
+tearing the tough vegetable substances which are also found
+among the remains buried with this colossal reptile, a restoration of
+which is represented in <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXI">Plate XXI.</a></span>, p. 296.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_142" id="Fig_142"></a>
+<img src="images/illo305.png" alt="Fig. 142" width="400" height="340" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 142.&mdash;Fishes of the Cretaceous period.<br />
+1, Beryx Lewesiensis; 2, Osmeroides Mantelli.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Cretaceous seas contained great numbers of Fishes, among
+which some were remarkable for their strange forms. The <i>Beryx
+Lewesiensis</i> (1), and the <i>Osmeroides Mantelli</i> (2) (<a href="#Fig_142">Fig. 142</a>), are
+restorations of these two species as they are supposed to have been
+in life. The <i>Odontaspis</i> is a new genus of Fishes which may be
+mentioned. <i>Ammonites rostratus</i> (<a href="#Fig_140">Fig. 140</a>), and <i>Exogyra conica</i>
+(<a href="#Fig_147">Fig. 147</a>), are common shells in the Upper Greensand.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXI" id="Plate_XXI"></a>
+<img src="images/illo307.png" alt="Plate XXI" width="600" height="378" />
+<p class="caption">XXI.&mdash;Ideal scene in the Lower Cretaceous Period, with Iguanodon and Megalosaurus.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>The seas of the Lower Cretaceous period were remarkable in
+a zoological point of view for the great number of species and the
+multiplicity of generic forms of molluscous Cephalopods. The
+Ammonites assume quite gigantic dimensions; and we find among
+them new species distinguished by their furrowed transverse spaces,
+as in the <i>Hamites</i> (<a href="#Fig_132">Fig. 132</a>). Some of the <i>Ancyloceras</i> attained the
+magnitude of six feet, and other genera, as the <i>Scaphites</i>, the
+<i>Toxoceras</i>, the <i>Crioceras</i> (<a href="#Fig_125">Fig. 125</a>), and other Mollusca, unknown till
+this period, appeared now. Many Echinoderms, or sea-urchins, and
+Zoophytes, have enriched these rocks with their animal remains, and
+would give its seas a condition quite peculiar.</p>
+
+<p>On the opposite page an ideal landscape of the period is represented
+(<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXI">Plate XXI.</a></span>), in which the Iguanodon and Megalosaurus
+struggle for the mastery in the centre of a forest, which enables us
+also to convey some idea of the vegetation of the period. Here we
+note a vegetation at once exotic and temperate&mdash;a flora like that of
+the tropics, and also resembling our own. On the left we observe
+a group of trees, which resemble the dicotyledonous plants of our
+forests. The elegant <i>Credneria</i> is there, whose botanical place is
+still doubtful, for its fruit has not been found, although it is believed
+to have belonged to plants with two seed-leaves, or dicotyledonous,
+and the arborescent Amentace&aelig;. An entire group of trees, composed
+of Ferns and Zamites, are in the background; in the extreme
+distance are some Palms. We also recognise in the picture the
+alder, the wych-elm, the maple, and the walnut-tree, or at least
+species analogous to these.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The N&eacute;ocomian beds in France are found in Champagne, in the
+departments of the Aube, the Yonne, the Haute-Alps, &amp;c. They
+are largely developed in Switzerland at Neufchatel, and in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>1. The Lower N&eacute;ocomian consists of marls and greyish clay,
+alternating with thin beds of grey limestone. It is very thick, and
+occurs at Neufchatel and in the Dr&ocirc;me. The fossils are <i>Spatangus
+retusus</i>, <i>Crioceras</i> (<a href="#Fig_125">Fig. 125</a>), <i>Ammonites Asterianus</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Orgonian</i> (the limestone of Orgon). This group exists, also,
+at Aix-les-Bains in Savoy, at Grenoble, and generally in the thick,
+white, calcareous beds which form the precipices of the Dr&ocirc;me.
+The fossils <i>Chama ammonia</i>, <i>Pigaulus</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Aptien</i> (or Greensand) consists generally of marls and
+clay. In France it is found in the department of Vaucluse, at Apt
+(whence the name Aptien), in the department of the Yonne, and in
+the Haute-Marne. Fossils, <i>Ancyloceras Matheronianus</i>, <i>Ostrea aquila</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
+and <i>Plicatula placunea</i>. These beds consist here of greyish clay,
+which is used for making tiles; there of bluish argillaceous limestone,
+in black or brownish flags. In the Isle of Wight it becomes a fine
+sandstone, greyish and slightly argillaceous, which at Havre, and in
+some parts of the country of Bray, become well-developed ferruginous
+sandstones.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_143" id="Fig_143"></a>
+<img src="images/illo309a.png" alt="Fig. 143" width="300" height="241" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 143.&mdash;Cypris spinigera.</p></div>
+
+<p>We have noted that the Lower N&eacute;ocomian formation, although a
+marine deposit, is in some respects the equivalent of the <i>Weald Clay</i>,
+a fresh-water formation of considerable importance on account of its
+fossils. We have seen that it was either formed at the mouth of a
+great river, or the river was sufficiently powerful for the fresh-water
+current to be carried out to sea, carrying with it some animals,
+forming a fluviatile, or lacustrine fauna, on a small scale. These
+were small Crustaceans of the genus <i>Cypris</i>, with some molluscous
+Gasteropoda of the genera <i>Melania</i>, <i>Paludina</i>, and acephalous
+Mollusca of the five genera <i>Cyrena</i>, <i>Unio</i>, <i>Mytilus</i>, <i>Cyclas</i>, and <i>Ostrea</i>.
+Of these, <i>Cypris spinigera</i> (<a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a>) and <i>Cypris Valdensis</i> (<a href="#Fig_144">Fig. 144</a>)
+may be considered as among the most characteristic fossils of this
+local fauna.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_144" id="Fig_144"></a>
+<img src="images/illo309b.png" alt="Fig. 144" width="300" height="240" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 144.&mdash;Cypris Valdensis.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Cretaceous series is not interesting for its fossils alone; it
+presents also an interesting subject for study in a mineralogical point
+of view. The white Chalk, examined under the microscope by
+Ehrenberg, shows a curious globiform structure. The green part of
+its sandstone and limestone constitutes very singular compounds.
+According to the result of Berthier&#8217;s analysis, we must consider them
+as silicates of iron. The iron shows itself here not in beds, as in
+the Jurassic rocks, but in masses, in a species of pocket in the
+Orgonian beds. They are usually hydrates in the state of hematites,
+accompanied by quantities of ochre so abundant that they are
+frequently unworkable. In the south of France these veins were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>
+mined to a great depth by the ancient monks, who were the metallurgists
+of their age. But for the artist the important Orgonian beds
+possess a special interest; their admirable vertical fractures, their
+erect perpendicular peaks, each surpassing the other in boldness,
+form his finest studies. In the Var, the defiles of V&eacute;subia, of the
+Esteron, and Tin&eacute;a, are jammed up between walls of peaks, for
+many hundreds of yards, between which there is scarcely room for
+a narrow road by the side of the roaring torrent. &#8220;In the Dr&ocirc;me,&#8221;
+says Fournet, &#8220;the entrance to the beautiful valley of the Vercors is
+closed during a part of the year, because, in order to enter, it is
+necessary to cross the two gullies, the <i>Great</i> and <i>Little Goulet</i>,
+through which the waters escape from the valley. Even during the
+dry season, he who would enter the gorge must take a foot-bath.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This state of things could not last; and in 1848 it was curious
+to see miners suspended on the sides of one of these lateral precipices,
+some 450 feet above the torrent, and about an equal distance below
+the summit of the Chalk. There they began to excavate cavities or
+niches in the face of the rock, all placed on the same level, and
+successively enlarged. These were united together in such a manner
+as to form a road practicable for carriages; now through a gallery,
+now covered by a corbelling, to look over which affords a succession
+of surprises to the traveller.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This is not all,&#8221; adds M. Fournet: &#8220;he who traverses the high
+plateaux of the country finds at every step deep diggings in the soil,
+designated pits or <i>scialets</i>, the oldest of which have their sides
+clothed with a curious vegetation, in which the <i>Aucolin</i> predominates;
+shelter is found in these pits from the cutting winds which rage so
+furiously in these elevated regions. Others form a kind of cavern, in
+which a temperature obtains sufficient to freeze water even in the
+middle of summer. These cavities form natural <i>glaciers</i>, which we
+again find upon some of the table-lands of the Jura.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The cracks and crevasses of the limestone receive the waters
+produced by falling rain and melted snow; true to the laws of all
+fluid bodies, they filter through the rocks until they reach the lower
+and impervious marly beds, where they form sheets of water, which
+in course of time find some outlet through which they discharge
+themselves. In this manner subterranean galleries, sometimes of
+great extent, are formed, in which are assembled all the marvels
+which crumbling stalactites, stalagmites, placid lakes, and headlong
+torrents can produce; finally, these waters, forcing their way through
+the external orifices, give rise to those fine cascades which, with the
+first gushing torrent, form an actual river.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>The <i>Albien</i> of Alc. D&#8217;Orbigny, which Lyell considers to be the
+equivalent of the <i>Gault</i>, French authors treat as the &#8220;<i>glauconie</i>&#8221; formation,
+the name being drawn from a rock composed of chalk with
+greenish grains of <i>glauconite</i>, or silicate of iron, which is often mixed
+with the limestone of this formation. The fossils by which it is identified
+are very varied. Among its numerous types, we find Crustaceans
+belonging to the genera <i>Arcania</i> and <i>Corystes</i>; many new Mollusca,
+<i>Buccinum</i>, <i>Solen</i>, <i>Pterodonta</i>, <i>Voluta</i>, <i>Chama</i>, &amp;c.; great numbers of
+molluscous Brachiopods, forming highly-developed submarine strata;
+some Echinoderms, unknown up to this period, and especially a great
+number of Zoophytes; some Foraminifera, and many Polyzoa
+(Bryozoa). The glauconitic formation consists of two groups of
+strata: the <i>Gault</i> Clay and the <i>glauconitic</i> chalk, or Upper Greensand
+and Chloritic Marl.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Upper Cretaceous Period.</span></h4>
+
+<p>During this phase of the terrestrial evolutions, the continents, to
+judge from the fossilised wood which we meet with in the rocks
+which now represent it, would be covered with a very rich vegetation,
+nearly identical, indeed, with that which we have described in the
+preceding sub-period; according to Adolphe Brongniart, the &#8220;age
+of angiosperms&#8221; had fairly set in; the Cretaceous flora displays, he
+considers, a transitional character from the Secondary to the Tertiary
+vegetation; that the line between the gymnosperms, or naked-seeded
+plants, and the angiosperms, having their seeds enclosed in seed-vessels,
+runs between the Upper and Lower Cretaceous formations.
+&#8220;We can now affirm,&#8221; says Lyell, &#8220;that these Aix-la-Chapelle
+plants, called Credneria, flourished before the rich reptilian fauna of
+the secondary rocks had ceased to exist. The Ichthyosaurus,
+Pterodactyle, and Mosasaurus were of coeval date with the oak, the
+walnut, and the fig.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>The terrestrial fauna, consisting of some new Reptiles haunting
+the banks of rivers, and Birds of the genus Snipe, have certainly
+only reached us in small numbers. The remains of the marine fauna
+are, on the contrary, sufficiently numerous and well preserved to give
+us a great idea of its riches, and to enable us to assign to it a
+characteristic facies.</p>
+
+<p>The sea of the Upper Cretaceous period bristled with numerous
+submarine reefs, occupying a vast extent of its bed&mdash;reefs formed of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>
+Rudistes (Lamarck), and of immense quantities of various kinds of
+corals which are everywhere associated with them. The Polyps, in
+short, attain here one of the principal epochs of their existence, and
+present a remarkable development of forms; the same occurs with the
+Polyzoa (Bryozoa) and Amorphozoa; while, on the contrary, the
+reign of the Cephalopods seems to end. Beautiful types of these
+ancient reefs have been revealed to us, and we discover that they
+have been formed under the influence of submarine currents, which
+accumulated masses of these animals at certain points. Nothing is
+more curious than this assemblage of <i>Rudistes</i>&mdash;still standing erect,
+isolated or in groups&mdash;as may be seen, for instance, at the summit of
+the mountains of the <i>Cornes</i> in the Corbi&egrave;res, upon the banks of the
+pond of Berre in Provence, and in the environs of Martigues, at
+La Cadi&egrave;re, at Figui&egrave;res, and particularly above Beausset, near
+Toulon.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It seems,&#8221; says Alcide D&#8217;Orbigny, &#8220;as if the sea had retired in
+order to show us, still intact, the submarine fauna of this period, such
+as it was when in life. There are here enormous groups of <i>Hippurites</i>
+in their places, surrounded by Polyps, Echinoderms, and Molluscs,
+which lived in union in these animal colonies, analogous to those
+which still exist in the coral-reefs of the Antilles and Oceania. In
+order that these groups should have been preserved intact, they must
+first have been covered suddenly by sediment, which, being removed
+by the action of the atmosphere, reveals to us, in their most secret
+details, this Nature of the past.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In the Jurassic period we have already met with these isles or
+reefs formed by the accumulation of Coral and other Zoophytes; they
+even constituted, at that period, an entire formation called the <i>Coral-rag</i>.
+The same phenomenon, reproduced in the Cretaceous seas,
+gave rise to similar calcareous formations. We need not repeat what
+we have said already on this subject when describing the Jurassic
+period. The coral or madrepore isles of the Jurassic epoch and the
+reefs of Rudistes and Hippurites of the Cretaceous period have the
+same origin, and the <i>atolls</i> of Oceania are reproductions in our own
+day of precisely similar phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>The invertebrate animals which characterise the Cretaceous age
+are among</p>
+
+<div class="indented">
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Cephalopoda.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Nautilus subl&aelig;vigatus</i> and <i>N. Danicus; Ammonites rostratus; Belemnitella
+mucronata.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Gasteropoda.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Voluta elongata; Phorus canaliculatus; Nerinea bisulcata; Pleurotomaria
+Fleuriausa</i>, and <i>P. Santonensis; Natica supracretacea.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Acephala.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Trigonia scabra; Inoceramus problematicus</i> and <i>I. Lamarckii; Clavigella
+cretacea; Pholadomya &aelig;quivalvis; Spondylus spinosus; Ostrea
+vesicularis; Ostrea larva; Janira quadricostata; Arca Gravesii;
+Hippurites Toucasianus</i> and <i>H. organisans; Caprina Aguilloni;
+Radiolites radiosus</i>, and <i>R. acuticostus.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Brachiopoda.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Crania Ignabergensis; Terebratula obesa.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Polyzoa (Bryozoa) and Eschinodemata.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Reticulipora obliqua; Ananchytes ovatus; Micraster cor-anguinum,
+Hemiaster bucardium</i> and <i>H. Fourneli; Galerites albogalerus;
+Cidaris Forchammeri; Pal&aelig;ocoma Furstembergii.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">1. <span class="smcap">Polypi</span>; 2. <span class="smcap">Foraminifera</span>; 3. <span class="smcap">Amorphozoa</span>.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Cycollites elliptica; Thecosmilia rudis; Enalloc&#339;nia ramosa;
+Meandrina Pyrenaica; Synhelia Sharpeana</i>. 2. <i>Orbitoides media;
+Lituola nautiloidea; Flabellina rugosa</i>. 3. <i>Coscinopora cupuliformis;
+Camerospongia fungiformis</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the numerous beings which inhabited the Upper Cretaceous
+seas there is one which, by its organisation, its proportions, and
+the despotic empire which it would exercise in the bosom of the
+waters, is certainly most worthy of our attention. We speak of the
+<i>Mosasaurus</i>, which was long known as the great animal of <i>Maestricht</i>,
+because its remains were found near that city in the most modern of
+the Cretaceous deposits.</p>
+
+<p>In 1780 a discovery was made in the quarries of Saint Peter&#8217;s
+Rocks, near Maestricht, of the head of a great Saurian, which may
+now be seen in the Museum of Natural History in Paris. This discovery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span>
+baffled all the science of the naturalists, at a period when the
+knowledge of these ancient beings was still in its infancy. One saw
+in it the head of a Crocodile; another, that of a Whale; memoirs
+and monographs rained down, without throwing much light on the
+subject. It required all the efforts of Adrian Camper, joined to those
+of the immortal Cuvier, to assign its true zoological place to the
+Maestricht animal. The controversy over this fine fossil engaged
+the attention of the learned for the remainder of the last century and
+far into the present.</p>
+
+<p>Maestricht is a city of the Netherlands, built on the banks of the
+Meuse. At the gates of this city, in the hills which skirt the left or
+western bank of the river, there rises a solid mass of cretaceous formation
+known as Saint Peter&#8217;s Rocks. In composition these beds
+correspond with the Meudon chalk beds, and they contain similar
+fossils. The quarries are about 100 feet deep, consisting in the upper
+part of twenty feet abounding in corals and Polyzoa, succeeded by
+fifty feet of soft yellowish limestone, furnishing a fine building stone,
+which has been quarried from time immemorial, and extends up to
+the environs of Li&egrave;ge; this is succeeded by a few inches of greenish
+soil with Encrinites, and then by a very white chalk with layers of
+flints. The quarry is filled with marine fossils, often of great size.</p>
+
+<p>These fossil remains, naturally enough, attracted the attention of
+the curious, and led many to visit the quarries; but of all the discoveries
+which attracted attention the greatest interest attached to
+the gigantic animal under consideration. Among those interested by
+the discovery of these strange vestiges was an officer of the garrison
+of Maestricht, named Drouin. He purchased the bones of the
+workmen as the pick disengaged them from the rock, and concluded
+by forming a collection in Maestricht, which was spoken of with
+admiration. In 1766, the trustees of the British Museum, hearing of
+this curiosity, purchased it, and had it removed to London. Incited
+by the example of Drouin, Hoffmann, the surgeon of the garrison,
+set about forming a similar collection, and his collection soon exceeded
+that of Drouin&#8217;s Museum in riches. It was in 1780 that he
+purchased of the quarrymen the magnificent fossil head, exceeding
+six feet in length, which has since so exercised the sagacity of
+naturalists.</p>
+
+<p>Hoffman did not long enjoy the fruits of his precious prize, however;
+the chapter of the church of Maestricht claimed, with more or
+less foundation, certain rights of property; and in spite of all protest,
+the head of the <i>Crocodile of Maestricht</i>, as it was already called,
+passed into the hands of the Dean of the Chapter, named Goddin,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+who enjoyed the possession of his antediluvian trophy until an
+unforeseen incident changed the aspect of things. This incident
+was nothing less than the bombardment and surrender of Maestricht
+to the Army of the North under Kleber, in 1794.</p>
+
+<p>The Army of the North did not enter upon a campaign to obtain
+the crania of Crocodiles, but it had on its staff a savant who was
+devoted to such pacific conquests. Faujas de Saint-Fond, who was
+the predecessor of Cordier in the Zoological Chair of the Jardin des
+Plantes, was attached to the Army of the North as Scientific Commissioner;
+and it is suspected that, in soliciting this mission, our
+naturalist had in his eye the already famous head of the Crocodile of
+the Meuse. However that may be, Maestricht fell into the hands of
+the French, and Faujas eagerly claimed the famous fossil for the
+French nation, which was packed with the care due to a relic numbering
+so many thousands of ages, and dispatched to the Museum of
+Natural History in Paris. On its arrival, Faujas undertook a labour
+which, as he thought, was to cover him with glory. He commenced
+the publication of a work entitled &#8220;The Mountain of Saint Peter of
+Maestricht,&#8221; describing all the fossil objects found in the Dutch quarry
+there, especially the <i>Great Animal</i> of Maestricht. He endeavoured
+to prove that this animal was a Crocodile.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately for the glory of Faujas, a Dutch savant had devoted
+himself to the same study. Adrian Camper was the son of a great
+anatomist of Leyden, Pierre Camper, who had purchased of the
+heirs of the surgeon Hoffman some parts of the skeleton of the
+animal found in the quarry of Saint Peter. He had even published
+in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> of London, as early as 1786, a
+memoir, in which the animal is classed as a Whale. At the death of
+his father, Adrian Camper re-examined the skeleton, and in a work
+which Cuvier quotes with admiration, he fixed the ideas which were
+until then floating about. He proved that the bones belonged neither
+to a Fish, nor a Whale, nor to a Crocodile, but rather to a particular
+genus of Saurian Reptiles, or marine lizards, closely resembling in
+many important structural characters, existing Monitors and Iguanas,
+and peculiar to rocks of the Cretaceous period, both in Europe and
+America. Long before Faujas had finished the publication of his work
+on <i>La Montagne de Saint-Pierre</i> that of Adrian Camper had appeared,
+and totally changed the ideas of the world on this subject. It did not,
+however, hinder Faujas from continuing to call his animal the Crocodile
+of Maestricht. He even announced, some time after, that Adrian
+Camper was also of his opinion. &#8220;Nevertheless,&#8221; says Cuvier, &#8220;it
+is as far from the Crocodile as it is from the Iguana; and these two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>
+animals differ as much from each other in their teeth, bones, and
+viscera, as the ape differs from the cat, or the elephant from the
+horse.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_145" id="Fig_145"></a>
+<img src="images/illo316.png" alt="Fig. 145" width="350" height="355" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 145.<br /><i>a</i>, skull of Monitor Niloticus; <i>b</i>, under-jaw of same.</p></div>
+
+<p>The masterly memoir of Cuvier, while confirming all the views of
+Camper, has restored the individuality of this surprising being, which
+has since received the name of Mosasaurus, that is to say, Saurian or
+Lizard of the Meuse. It
+appears, from the researches
+of Camper and Cuvier, that
+this reptile of the ancient
+world formed an intermediate
+genus between the
+group of the Lacertilia,
+which comprehends the
+Monitors (represented in
+<a href="#Fig_145">Fig. 145</a>), and the ordinary
+Lizards; and the Lacertilia,
+whose palates are armed
+with teeth, a group which
+embraces the <i>Iguana</i> and
+the <i>Anolis</i>. In respect to
+the Crocodiles, the Mosasaurus
+resembles them in so
+far as they all belong to the
+same class of Reptiles.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of a lizard,
+adapted for living and
+moving with rapidity at the bottom of the water, is not readily
+conceived; but a careful study of the skeleton of the Mosasaurus
+reveals to us the secret of this anatomical mechanism. The vertebr&aelig;
+of the animal are concave in front and convex behind; they
+are attached by means of orbicular or arched articulations, which
+permitted it to execute easily movements of flexion in any direction.
+From the middle of the back to the extremity of the tail
+these vertebr&aelig; are deficient in the articular processes which support
+and strengthen the trunk of terrestrial vertebrated animals: they
+resemble in this respect the vertebr&aelig; of the Dolphins; an organisation
+necessary to render swimming easy. The tail, compressed
+laterally at the same time that it was thick in a vertical direction,
+constituted a straight rudder, short, solid, and of great power.
+An arched bone was firmly attached to the body of each caudal
+vertebra in the same manner as in Fishes, for the purpose of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
+giving increased power to the tail; finally, the extremities of the
+animal could scarcely be called feet, but rather paddles, like those
+of the Ichthyosaurus, the Plesiosaurus, and the Whale. We see
+in <a href="#Fig_146">Fig. 146</a> that the jaws are armed with numerous teeth, fixed in
+their sockets by an osseous base, both large and solid. Moreover,
+an altogether peculiar dental system occupies the vault of the palate,
+as in the case of certain Serpents and Fishes, where the teeth are
+directed backwards, like the barb of a hook, thus opposing themselves
+to the escape of prey. Such a disposition of the teeth
+sufficiently proves the destructive character of this Saurian.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_146" id="Fig_146"></a>
+<img src="images/illo317.png" alt="Fig. 146" width="450" height="246" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 146.&mdash;Head of Mosasaurus Camperi.</p></div>
+
+<p>The dimensions of this aquatic lizard, estimated at twenty-four feet,
+are calculated to excite surprise. But, as we have already seen, the
+Ichthyosauri and Teleosauri were of great dimensions, as were also
+the Iguanodon and Megalosaurus, which were ten times the size of
+living Iguanas. In all these colossal forms we can only see a difference
+of dimensions, the aggrandisement of a type; the laws which affected
+the organisation of all these beings remain unchanged, they were not
+errors of Nature&mdash;<i>monstrosities</i>, as we are sometimes tempted to call
+them&mdash;but simply types, uniform in their structure, and adapted by
+their dimensions to the physical conditions with which God had
+surrounded them.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXII" id="Plate_XXII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo318.jpg" alt="Plate XXII" width="600" height="385" />
+<p class="caption">XXII.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Cretaceous Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXII">Plate XXII.</a></span> is represented an ideal view of the earth during
+the <i>Upper Cretaceous</i> period. In the sea swims the Mosasaurus;
+Molluscs, Zoophytes, and other animals peculiar to the period are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span>
+seen on the shore. The vegetation seems to approach that of our
+days; it consists of Ferns and Cycade&aelig; (Pterophyllums), mingled
+with Palms, Willows, and some dicotyledons of species analogous to
+those of our present epoch. Alg&aelig;, then very abundant, composed
+the vegetation of the sea-shore.</p>
+
+<p>We have said that the terrestrial flora of the Upper Cretaceous
+period was nearly identical with that of the Lower. The marine flora
+of these two epochs included some Alg&aelig;, Conferv&aelig;, and Na&iuml;ad&aelig;,
+among which may be noted the following species: <i>Confervites fasciculatus</i>,
+<i>Chondrites Mantelli</i>, <i>Sargassites Hynghianus</i>. Among the
+Na&iuml;ad&aelig;, <i>Zosterites Orbigniana</i>, <i>Z. lineata</i>, and several others.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Conferv&aelig;</i> are fossils which may be referred, but with some
+doubt, to the filamentous Alg&aelig;, which comprehend the great group of
+the Conferv&aelig;. These plants were formed of simple or branching
+filaments, diversely crossing each other; or subdivided, and presenting
+traces of transverse partitions.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Chondrites</i> are, perhaps, fossil Alg&aelig;, with thick, smooth
+branching fronds, pinnatifid, or divided into pairs, with smooth
+cylindrical divisions, and resembling <i>Chondrus</i>, <i>Dumontia</i>, and
+<i>Halymenia</i> among living genera.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Sargassites</i>, finally, have been vaguely referred to the genus
+<i>Sargassum</i>, so abundant in tropical seas. These Alg&aelig; are distinguished
+by a filiform, branched, or ramose stem, bearing foliaceous
+appendages, regular, often petiolate, and altogether like leaves, and
+globular vesicles, supported by a small stalk.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The rocks which actually represent the <i>Upper Cretaceous period</i>
+divide themselves naturally into six series; but British and French
+geologists make some distinction: the former dividing them into 1,
+<i>Maestricht</i> and <i>Faxoe</i> beds, said not to occur in England; 2, <i>White
+Chalk</i>, with <i>flints</i>; 3, <i>White Chalk</i>, without <i>flint</i>s; 4, <i>Chalk Marl</i>;
+5, <i>Upper Greensand</i>; and 6, <i>Gault</i>. The latter four are divided by
+foreign geologists into 1, <i>Turonian</i>; 2, <i>Senonian</i>; 3, <i>Danian</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Gault</i> is the lowest member of the Upper Cretaceous group.
+It consists of a bluish-black clay mixed with greensand, which
+underlies the Upper Greensand. Near Cambridge, where the Gault
+is about 200 feet thick, a layer of shells, bones, and nodules, called
+the &#8220;Coprolite Bed,&#8221; from nine inches to a foot thick, represents the
+Upper Greensand, and rests on the top of the Gault Clay. These
+nodules and fossils are extensively worked on account of the phosphatic
+matter they contain, and when ground and converted into superphosphate
+of lime they furnish a very valuable agricultural manure.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>
+The Gault attains a thickness of about 100 feet on the south-east
+coast of England. It extends into Devonshire, Mr. Sharpe considering
+the Black Down beds of that country as its equivalents. It
+shows itself in the Departments of the Pas-de-Calais, the Ardennes,
+the Meuse, the Aube, the Yonne, the Ain, the Calvados, and the
+Seine-Inf&eacute;rieure. It presents very many distinct mineral forms,
+among which two predominate: green sandstone and blackish or
+grey clays. It is important to know this formation, for it is at this
+level that the Artesian waters flow in the wells of Passy and
+Grenelle, near Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>glaucous</i> chalk, or Upper Greensand, which is represented
+typically in the departments of the Sarthe, of the Charente-Inf&eacute;rieure,
+of the Yonne and the Var, is composed of quartzose sand, clay,
+sandstone, and limestone. In this formation, at the mouth of the
+Charente, we find a remarkable bed, which has been described as a
+submarine forest. It consists of large trees with their branches imbedded
+horizontally in vegetable matter, containing kidney-shaped
+nodules of amber, or fossilised resin.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Turonian</i> beds are so named because the province of
+Touraine, between Saumur and Montrichard, possesses the best-developed
+type of this strata. The mineralogical composition of the
+beds is a fine and grey marly chalk, as at Vitry-le-Fran&ccedil;ois; of a pure
+white chalk, with a very fine grain, slightly argillaceous, and poor in
+fossils, in the Departments of the Yonne, the Aube, and the Seine-Inf&eacute;rieure;
+granular tufaceous chalk, white or yellowish, mixed with
+spangles of mica, and containing Ammonites, in Touraine and a part
+of the Department of the Sarthe; white, grey, yellow, or bluish limestone,
+inclosing Hippurites and Radiolites. In England the Lower
+Chalk passes also into Chalk Marl, with Ammonites, and then into
+beds known as the Upper Greensand, containing green particles of
+glauconite, mixed, in Hampshire and Surrey, with much calcareous
+matter. In the Isle of Wight this formation attains a thickness of 100
+feet. The <i>Senonian</i> beds take their name from the ancient <i>Senones</i>.
+The city of Sens is in the centre of the best-characterised portion of
+this formation; Epernay, Meudon, Sens, Vend&ocirc;me, Royau, Cognac,
+Saintes, are the typical regions of the formation in France. In the
+Paris basin, inclusive of the Tours beds, it attains a thickness of
+upwards of 1,500 feet, as was proved by the samples brought up,
+during the sinking of the Artesian well, at Grenelle, by the borings.</p>
+
+<p>In its geographical distribution the Chalk has an immense range;
+fine Chalk of nearly similar aspect and composition being met with
+in all directions over hundreds of miles, alternating in its lower beds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>
+with layers of flints. In England the higher beds usually consist of a
+pure-white calcareous mass, generally too soft for building-stone, but
+sometimes passing into a solid rock.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Danian</i> beds, which occupy the summit of the scale in the
+Cretaceous formation, are finely developed at Maestricht, on the
+Meuse; and in the Island of Zeeland, belonging to Denmark; where
+they are represented by a slightly yellowish, compact limestone,
+quarried for the construction of the city of Faxoe. It is slightly
+represented in the Paris basin at Meudon, and Laversines, in the
+Department of the Oise, by a white and often rubbly limestone
+known as <i>pisolitic limestone</i>. In this formation <i>Ammonites Danicus</i>
+is found. The yellowish sandy limestone of Maestricht is referred to
+the <i>Danian</i> type. Besides Molluscs, Polyps, and Polyzoa (Bryozoa),
+this limestone contains remains of Fishes, Turtles, and Crocodiles.
+But what has rendered this rock so celebrated was that it contained
+the remains of the <i>great animal of M&aelig;stricht</i>, the M&aelig;sasaurus.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the geological period, whose natural physiognomy
+we have thus traced, Europe was still far from displaying the configuration
+which it now presents. A map of the period would represent
+the great basin of Paris (with the exception of a zone of Chalk), the
+whole of Switzerland, the greater part of Spain and Italy, the whole
+of Belgium, Holland, Prussia, Hungary, Wallachia, and Northern
+Russia, as one vast sheet of water. A band of Jurassic rocks still
+connected France and England at Cherbourg&mdash;which disappeared
+at a later period, and caused the separation of the British Islands
+from what is now France.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_147" id="Fig_147"></a>
+<img src="images/illo322.png" alt="Fig. 147" width="450" height="183" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 147.&mdash;Exogym conica. Upper Greensand and Gault, from Blackdown Hill.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="footnote" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> &#8220;The Physical Geography and Geology of Great Britain,&#8221; 2nd ed., p. 60.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> A. C. Ramsay, <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. 27, p. 191.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> See A. C. Ramsay, &#8220;On the Physical Relations of the New Red Marl,
+Rh&aelig;tic Beds, and Lower Lias,&#8221; <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. 27, p. 189.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. xx., p. 396.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Ibid, vol. xvii., p. 483.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Ibid, vol. xvi., p. 374.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Ibid, vol. xx., p. 103.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Lyell, &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 413.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> De la Beche&#8217;s &#8220;Geological Manual,&#8221; 3rd ed., p. 447.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> &#8220;Geological Manual,&#8221; by H. T. De la Beche, 3rd ed., p. 346.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Professor Buckland on the Pterodactylus. &#8220;Trans. Geol. Soc.,&#8221; 2nd series,
+vol. iii., p. 217.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 399.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> See Bristow in Descriptive Catalogue of Rocks, in <i>Mus. Pract. Geol.</i>, p. 134.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> President&#8217;s Address, by Professor A. C. Ramsay. <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>,
+1864, vol. xx., p. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 400.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> For a full account of the Ceteosaurus, see &#8220;The Geology of the Thames
+Valley,&#8221; by Prof. John Phillips, F.R.S. 1871.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 393.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> For details respecting these strata the reader may consult, with advantage, the
+useful handbook to the geology of Weymouth and Portland, by Robert Damon.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> See Bristow and Whitaker &#8220;On the Chesil Bank,&#8221; <i>Geol. Mag.</i>, vol. vi., p. 433.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 389.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Ibid, p. 391.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 349.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Ibid, p. 350.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> &#8220;The Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain,&#8221; by A. C.
+Ramsay, F.R.S., p. 64.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Lyell&#8217;s &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 349.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Ibid, p. 340.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Lyell&#8217;s &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 333.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></p>
+<h2>TERTIARY PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p>A new organic creation makes its appearance in the Tertiary period;
+nearly all the animal life is changed, and what is most remarkable in
+this new development is the appearance, in larger numbers, of the
+great class of Mammifera.</p>
+
+<p>During the Primary period, Crustaceans and Fishes predominated
+in the animal kingdom; in the Secondary period the earth was
+assigned to Reptiles; but during the Tertiary period the Mammals
+were kings of the earth; nor do these animals appear in small
+number, or at distant intervals of time; great numbers of these
+beings appear to have lived on the earth, and at the same moment;
+many of them being, so to say, unknown and undescribed.</p>
+
+<p>If we except the Marsupials, the first created Mammals would
+appear to have been the Pachyderms, to which the Elephant belongs.
+This order of animals long held the first rank; it was almost the only
+representative of the Mammal during the first of the three periods
+which constitute the Tertiary epoch. In the second and third periods
+Mammals appear of species which have now become extinct, and which
+were alike curious from their enormous proportions, and from the
+singularity of their structure. Of the species which appeared during
+the latter part of the epoch, the greater number still exist. Among the
+new Reptiles, some Salamanders, as large as Crocodiles, and not very
+distinct from existing forms, are added to the animal creation during
+the three periods of the Tertiary epoch. Chelonians were abundant
+within the British area during the older epoch. During the same
+epoch Birds are present, but in much fewer numbers than the
+Mammalia; here songsters, there birds of prey, in other cases domestic&mdash;or,
+rather, some appear to wait the yoke and domestication from
+man, the future supreme lord of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The seas were inhabited by a considerable number of beings of
+all classes, and nearly as varied as those now living; but we no
+longer find in the Tertiary seas those Ammonites, Belemnites, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span>
+Hippurites which peopled the seas and multiplied with such astonishing
+profusion during the Secondary period. Henceforth the testaceous
+Mollusca approximate in their forms to those of the present time.
+The older and newer Tertiary Series contain few peculiar genera.
+But genera now found in warmer climates were greatly developed
+within the British area during the earlier Tertiary times, and <i>species</i>
+of cold climates mark the close of the later Tertiaries.</p>
+
+<p>What occurs to us, however, as most remarkable in the Tertiary
+epoch is the prodigious increase of animal life; it seems as if it had
+then attained its fullest extension. Swarms of testaceous Mollusca of
+microscopic proportions&mdash;Foraminifera and Nummulites&mdash;must have
+inhabited the seas, crowding together in ranks so serried that the
+agglomerated remains of their shells form, in some places, beds
+hundreds of feet thick. It is the most extraordinary display which
+has appeared in the whole range of creation.</p>
+
+<p>Vegetation during the Tertiary period presents well-defined characteristics.
+The Tertiary flora approaches, and is sometimes nearly
+identical with, that of our days. The class of dicotyledons shows
+itself there in its fullest development; it is the epoch of flowers.
+The surface of the earth is embellished by the variegated colours of
+the flowers and fruits which succeed them. The white spikes of the
+Gramine&aelig; display themselves upon the verdant meadows without
+limit; they seem provocative of the increase of Insects, which now
+singularly multiply. In the woods crowded with flowering trees, with
+rounded tops, like our oak and birch, Birds become more numerous.
+The atmosphere, purified and disembarrassed of the veil of vapour
+which has hitherto pervaded it, now permits animals with such
+delicate pulmonary organs to live and multiply their race.</p>
+
+<p>During the Tertiary period the influence of the central heat may
+have ceased to make itself felt, in consequence of the increased
+thickness of the terrestrial crust. By the influence of the solar heat,
+climates would be developed in the various latitudes; the temperature
+of the earth would still be nearly that of our present tropics, and
+at this epoch, also, cold would begin to make itself felt at the poles.</p>
+
+<p>Abundant rains would, however, continue to pour upon the earth
+enormous quantities of water, which would give rise to important
+rivers; new lacustrine deposits of fresh water were formed in great
+numbers; and rivers, by means of their alluvial deposits, began to
+form new land. It is, in short, during the Tertiary epoch that we
+trace an alternate succession of beds containing organic beings of
+marine origin, with others peculiar to fresh water. It is at the end of
+this period that continents and seas take their respective places as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span>
+we now see them, and that the surface of the earth received its
+present form.</p>
+
+<p>The Tertiary epoch, or series, embraces three very distinct
+periods, to which the names of <i>Eocene</i>, <i>Miocene</i>, and <i>Pliocene</i> have
+been given by Sir Charles Lyell. The etymology of these names is
+derived&mdash;Eocene, from the Greek &#951;&#969;&#962;, <i>dawn</i>, and &#954;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#962;, <i>recent</i>; Miocene,
+from &#956;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#957;, <i>less</i>, &#954;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#962;, <i>recent</i>; and Pliocene, from &#960;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#957;, <i>more</i>, &#954;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#962;,
+<i>recent</i>; by which it is simply meant to express, that each of these
+periods contains a minor or greater proportion of recent species (of
+Testacea), or is more or less remote from the dawn of life and from
+the present time;<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> the expressions are in one sense forced and
+incorrect, but usage has consecrated them, and they have obtained
+universal currency in geological language, from their convenience and
+utility.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_148" id="Fig_148"></a>
+<img src="images/illo325.png" alt="Fig. 148" width="400" height="164" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 148.&mdash;Trigonia margaritacea. (Living form.)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></p>
+
+<h4>THE EOCENE PERIOD.</h4>
+
+<p>During this period <i>terra firma</i> has vastly gained upon the domain of
+the sea; furrowed with streams and rivers, and here and there with
+great lakes and ponds, the landscape of this period presented the
+same curious mixture which we have noted in the preceding age,
+that is to say, a combination of the vegetation of the primitive ages
+with one analogous to that of our own times. Alongside the
+birch, the walnut, the oak, the elm, and the alder, rise lofty palm-trees,
+of species now extinct, such as <i>Flabellaria</i> and <i>Palmacites</i>;
+with many evergreen trees (Conifers), for the most part belonging to
+genera still existing, as the <i>firs</i>, the <i>pines</i>, the <i>yews</i>, the <i>cypresses</i>, the
+<i>junipers</i>, and the <i>thuyas</i> or tree of life.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Cupanioides</i>, among the Sapindace&aelig;; the <i>Cucumites</i>, among
+the Cucurbitace&aelig; (species analogous to our bryony), climb the
+trunks of great trees, and hang in festoons of aerial garlands from
+their branches.</p>
+
+<p>The Ferns were still represented by the genera <i>Pecopteris</i>,
+by the <i>T&aelig;niopteris</i>, <i>Asplenium</i>, <i>Polypodium</i>. Of the mosses, some
+<i>Hepaticas</i> formed a humble but elegant and lively vegetation alongside
+the terrestrial and frequently ligneous plants which we have
+noted. <i>Equiseta</i> and <i>Char&aelig;</i> would still grow in marshy places and
+on the borders of rivers and ponds.</p>
+
+<p>It is not without some surprise that we observe here certain
+plants of our own epoch, which seem to have had the privilege of
+ornamenting the greater watercourses. Among these we may
+mention the Water Caltrop, <i>Trapa natans</i>, whose fine rosettes of
+green and dentated leaves float so gracefully in ornamental ponds,
+supported by their spindle-shaped petioles, its fruit a hard coriaceous
+nut, with four horny spines, known in France as <i>water-chestnuts</i>,
+which enclose a farinaceous grain not unpleasant to the taste; the
+pond-weed, <i>Potamogeton</i>, whose leaves form thick tufts of green,
+affording food and shelter to the fishes; <i>Nympheace&aelig;</i>, which spread
+beside their large round and hollow leaves, so admirably adapted for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>
+floating on the water, now the deep-yellow flowers of the <i>Nenuphar</i>
+now the pure white flowers of the <i>Nymph&aelig;a</i>. Listen to Lecoq, as
+he describes the vegetation of the period:&mdash;&#8220;The Lower Tertiary
+period,&#8221; he says, &#8220;constantly reminds us of the tropical landscapes of
+the present epoch, in localities where water and heat together
+impress on vegetation a power and majesty unknown in our climates.
+The Alg&aelig;, which have already been observed in the marine waters at
+the close of the Cretaceous period, represented themselves under
+still more varied forms, in the earlier Tertiary deposits, when they
+have been formed in the sea. Hepaticas and Mosses grew in the
+more humid places; many pretty Ferns, as <i>Pecopteris</i>, <i>T&aelig;niopteris</i>,
+and the <i>Equisetum stellare</i> (Pomel) vegetated in cool and humid
+places. The fresh waters are crowded with <i>Naiades</i>, <i>Chara</i>, <i>Potamogeton</i>,
+<i>Caulinites</i>, with <i>Zosterites</i>, and with <i>Halochloris</i>. Their
+leaves, floating or submerged, like those of our aquatic plants, concealed
+legions of Molluscs whose remains have also reached us.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Great numbers of Conifers lived during this period. M. Brongniart
+enumerates forty-one different species, which, for the most part,
+remind us of living forms with which we are familiar&mdash;of Pines,
+Cypresses, Thuyas, Junipers, Firs, Yews, and Ephedra. Palms mingled
+with these groups of evergreen trees; the <i>Flabellaria Parisiensis</i> of
+Brongniart, <i>F. raphifolia</i> of Sternberg, <i>F. maxima</i> of Unger; and
+some <i>Palmacites</i>, raised their widely-spreading crowns near the
+magnificent <i>Hightea</i>; Malvace&aelig;, or <i>Mallows</i>, doubtless arborescent,
+as many among them, natives of very hot climates, are in our days.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Creeping plants, such as the <i>Cucumites variabilis</i> (Brongn.), and
+the numerous species of <i>Cupanio&iuml;des</i>&mdash;the one belonging to the
+Cucurbitace&aelig;, and the other to the Sapindace&aelig;&mdash;twined their slender
+stems round the trunks, doubtless ligneous, of various Leguminace&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The family of Betulace&aelig; of the order Cupulifer&aelig; show the form,
+then new, of <i>Quercus</i>, the Oak; the Juglande&aelig;, and Ulmace&aelig; mingle
+with the Proteace&aelig;, now limited to the southern hemisphere. <i>Dermatophyllites</i>,
+preserved in amber, seem to have belonged to the family of
+the Ericine&aelig;, and <i>Tropa Arctur&aelig;</i> of Unger, of the group &#338;nothere&aelig;,
+floated on the shallow waters in which grew the <i>Chara</i> and the
+<i>Potamogeton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This numerous flora comprises more than 200 known species,
+of which 143 belonged to the Dicotyledons, thirty-three to the
+Monocotyledons, and thirty-three to the Cryptogams.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Trees predominate here as in the preceding period, but the
+great numbers of aquatic plants of the period are quite in accordance
+with the geological facts, which show that the continents and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span>
+islands were intersected by extensive lakes and inland seas, while
+vast marine bays and arms of the sea penetrated deeply into the
+land.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_149" id="Fig_149"></a>
+<img src="images/illo328.png" alt="Fig. 149" width="350" height="360" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 149.&mdash;Branch of Eucalyptus restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is moreover a peculiarity of this period that the whole of
+Europe comprehended a great number of those plants which are now
+confined to Australasia, and which give so strange an aspect to that
+country, which seems, in its vegetation, as in its animals, to have
+preserved in its warm latitudes the last vestiges of the organic
+creations peculiar to the primitive world. As a type of dicotyledonous
+trees of the epoch, we present here a restored branch of
+<i>Eucalyptus</i> (<a href="#Fig_149">Fig. 149</a>), with its flowers. All the family of the Proteace&aelig;,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>
+which comprehends the <i>Banksia</i>, the <i>Hakea</i>, the <i>Gerilea
+protea</i>, existed in Europe during the Tertiary period. The family of
+Mimosas, comprising the <i>Acacia</i> and <i>Inga</i>, which in our age are only
+natives of the southern hemisphere, abounded in Europe during the
+same geological period. A branch of <i>Banksia</i>, with its fructification,
+taken from impressions discovered in rocks of the period, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span>
+represented in <a href="#Fig_150">Fig. 150</a>&mdash;it is different from any species of Banksia
+living in our days.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_150" id="Fig_150"></a>
+<img src="images/illo329.png" alt="Fig. 150" width="400" height="448" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 150.&mdash;Fruit-branch of Banksia restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Insects, and Molluscs, form
+the terrestrial fauna of the Eocene period. In the waters of the
+lakes, whose surfaces are deeply ploughed by the passage of large
+Pelicans, lived Molluscs of varied forms, as <i>Physa</i>, <i>Limn&aelig;a</i>, <i>Planorbis</i>;
+and Turtles swam about, as <i>Trionyx</i> and the <i>Emides</i>. Snipes
+made their retreat among the reeds which grew on the shore;
+sea-gulls skimmed the surface of the waters or ran upon the sands;
+owls hid themselves in the cavernous trunks of old trees; gigantic
+buzzards hovered in the air, watching for their prey; while heavy
+crocodiles slowly dragged their unwieldy bodies through the high
+marshy grasses. All these terrestrial animals have been discovered
+in England or in France, alongside the overthrown trunks of palm-trees.
+The temperature of these countries was then much higher
+than it is now. The Mammals which lived under the latitudes of
+Paris and London are only found now in the warmest countries of
+the globe.</p>
+
+<p>The Pachyderms (from the Greek &#960;&#945;&#967;&#965;&#962;, <i>thick</i>, &#948;&#949;&#961;&#956;&#945;, <i>skin</i>) seem
+to have been amongst the earliest Mammals which appeared in the
+Eocene period, and they held the first rank from their importance in
+number of species as well as in size. Let us pause an instant over
+these Pachyderms. Their predominance over other fossil Mammals,
+which exceed considerably the number now living, is a fact much
+insisted on by Cuvier. Among them were a great number of intermediate
+forms, which we seek for in vain in existing genera. In
+fact, the Pachyderms are separated, in our days, by intervals of
+greater extent than we find in any other mammalian genera; and it is
+very curious to discover among the animals of the ancient world the
+broken link which connects the chain of these beings, which have
+for their great tomb the plaster-quarries of Paris, Montmartre and
+Pantin being their latest refuge.</p>
+
+<p>Each block taken from those quarries encloses some fragment of
+a bone of these Mammals; and how many millions of these bones
+had been destroyed before attention was directed to the subject!
+The <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i> and the <i>Anoplotherium</i> were the first of these
+animals which Cuvier restored; and subsequent discoveries of other
+fragments of the same animals have only served to confirm what the
+genius of the great naturalist divined. His studies in the quarries of
+Montmartre gave the signal, as they became the model, for similar
+researches and restorations of the animals of the ancient world, all
+over Europe&mdash;researches which, in our age, have drawn geology<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span>
+from the state of infancy in which it languished, in spite of the magnificent
+and persevering labours of Steno, Werner, Hutton, and
+Saussure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_151" id="Fig_151"></a>
+<img src="images/illo331.png" alt="Fig. 151" width="400" height="309" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 151.&mdash;Pal&aelig;otherium magnum restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i>, <i>Anoplotherium</i>, and <i>Xiphodon</i> were herbivorous
+animals, which must have lived in great herds. They appear to have
+been intermediate, according to their organisation, between the
+Rhinoceros, the Horse, and the Tapir. There seem to have existed
+many species of them, of very different sizes. After the labours
+of Cuvier, nothing is easier than to represent the <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i> as it
+lived: the nose terminating in a muscular fleshy trunk, or rather
+snout, somewhat like that of the Tapir; the eye small, and displaying
+little intelligence; the head enormously large; the body squat, thick,
+and short; the legs short and very stout; the feet supported by three
+toes, enclosed in a hoof; the size, that of a large horse. Such was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span>
+the great Pal&aelig;otherium, peaceful flocks of which must have inhabited
+the valleys of the plateau which surrounds the ancient basin of
+Paris; in the lacustrine formations of Orleans and Argenton; in the
+Tertiary formations of Issil and Puy-en-Velay, in the department of
+the Gironde; in the Tertiary formations near Rome; and in the
+beds of limestone<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> at the quarries of Binsted, in the Isle of Wight.
+<a href="#Fig_151">Fig. 151</a> represents the great Pal&aelig;otherium, after the design, in outline,
+given by Cuvier in his work on <i>fossil bones</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_152" id="Fig_152"></a>
+<img src="images/illo332.png" alt="Fig. 152" width="450" height="305" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 152.&mdash;Skull of Pal&aelig;otherium magnum.</p></div>
+
+<p>The discovery and re-arrangement of these and other forms, now
+swept from the face of the globe, are the noblest triumphs of the great
+French zoologist, who gathered them, as we have seen, from heaps of
+confused fragments, huddled together pell-mell, comprising the bones
+of a great many species of animals of a former age of the world, all unknown
+within the historic period. The generic characters of Pal&aelig;otherium
+give them forty-four teeth, namely, twelve <i>molars</i>, two <i>canines</i>,
+and twenty-eight others, three toes, a short proboscis, for the attachment
+of which the bones of the nose were shortened, as represented
+in <a href="#Fig_153">Fig. 153</a>, leaving a deep notch below them. The molar teeth
+bear considerable resemblance to those of the Rhinoceros. In the
+structure of that part of the skull intended to support the short<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span>
+proboscis, and in the feet,
+the animal seems to have
+resembled the Tapir.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_153" id="Fig_153"></a>
+<img src="images/illo333.png" alt="Fig. 153" width="600" height="241" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 153.&mdash;Skeletons of the Pal&aelig;otherium magnum (<i>a</i>) and minimum (<i>b</i>) restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>The geological place of
+the extinct Pal&aelig;otherium
+seems to have been in the
+first great fresh-water formation
+of the Eocene period,
+where it is chiefly found
+with its allies, of which
+several species have been
+found and identified by
+Cuvier. Dr. Buckland is
+not singular in thinking
+that they lived and
+died on the margins of
+lakes and rivers, as the
+Rhinoceros and Tapir do
+now. He is also of opinion
+that some retired into the
+water to die, and that the
+dead carcases of others
+may have been drifted into
+the deeper parts in seasons
+of flood.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i> varied
+greatly in size, some species
+being as large as the Rhinoceros,
+while others ranged
+between the size of the
+Horse and that of a Hog
+or a Roe. The smaller
+Pal&aelig;otherium resembled
+the Tapir. Less in size
+than a Goat, with slim and
+light legs, it must have been
+very common in the north
+of France, where it would
+browse on the grass of the wild prairies. Another species, the
+<i>P. minimum</i>, scarcely exceeded the Hare in size, and it probably
+had all the lightness and agility of that animal. It lived among the
+bushy thickets of the environs of Paris, in Auvergne, and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>All these animals lived upon seeds and fruits, on the green twigs,
+or subterranean stems, and the succulent roots of the plants of the
+period. They generally frequented the neighbourhood of fresh water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_154" id="Fig_154"></a>
+<img src="images/illo334.png" alt="Fig. 154" width="450" height="276" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 154.&mdash;Anoplotherium commune. One-twentieth natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Anoplotherium</i> (from &#945;&#957;&#959;&#960;&#955;&#959;&#962;, <i>defenceless</i>, &#952;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;, <i>animal</i>), had
+the posterior molar teeth analogous to those of the Rhinoceros, the
+feet terminating in two great toes, forming an equally divided hoof,
+like that of the Ox and other Ruminants, and the tarsus of the toes
+nearly like those of the Camel. It was about the size of the Ass;
+its head was light; but what would distinguish it most must have been
+an enormous tail of at least three feet in length, and very thick at its
+junction with the body. This tail evidently served it as a rudder and
+propeller when swimming in the lakes or rivers, which it frequented,
+not to seize fish (for it was strictly herbivorous), but in search of roots
+and stems of succulent aquatic plants. &#8220;Judging from its habits of
+swimming and diving,&#8221; says Cuvier, &#8220;the Anoplotherium would have
+the hair smooth, like the otter; perhaps its skin was even half naked.
+It is not likely either that it had long ears, which would be inconvenient
+in its aquatic kind of life; and I am inclined to think that,
+in this respect, it resembled the Hippopotamus and other quadrupeds
+which frequent the water much.&#8221; To this description Cuvier had
+nothing more to add. His memoir upon the <i>pachydermatous fossils</i>
+of Montmartre is accompanied by a design in outline of <i>Anoplotherium
+commune</i>, which has been closely followed in <a href="#Fig_154">Fig. 154</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span>There were species of Anoplotherium of very small size. <i>A. leporinum</i>
+(or the Hare-Anoplotherium), whose feet are evidently adapted
+for speed; <i>A. minimum</i> and <i>A. obliquum</i> were of still smaller dimensions;
+the last, especially, scarcely exceeded the size of a rat. Like
+the Water-rats, this species inhabited the banks of brooks and small
+rivers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_155" id="Fig_155"></a>
+<img src="images/illo335.png" alt="Fig. 155" width="450" height="283" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 155.&mdash;Xiphodon gracile.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Xiphodon</i> was about three feet in height at the withers, and
+generally about the size of the Chamois, but lighter in form, and
+with a smaller head. In proportion as the appearance of the <i>Anoplotherium
+commune</i> was heavy and sluggish, so was that of <i>Xiphodon
+gracile</i> graceful and active; light and agile as the Gazelle or the
+Goat, it would rapidly run round the marshes and ponds, depasturing
+on the aromatic herbs of the dry lands, or browsing on the sprouts
+of the young shrubs. &#8220;Its course,&#8221; says Cuvier, in the memoir
+already quoted, &#8220;was not embarrassed by a long tail; but, like all
+active herbivorous animals, it was probably timid, and with large and
+very mobile ears, like those of the stag, announcing the slightest
+approach of danger. Neither is there any doubt that its body was
+covered with short smooth hair; and consequently we only require
+to know its colour in order to paint it as it formerly existed in this
+country, where it has been dug up after so many ages.&#8221; <a href="#Fig_155">Fig. 155</a> is
+a reproduction from the design in outline with which Cuvier accompanied
+the description of this animal, which he classes with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>
+Anoplotherium, and which has received in our days the name of
+<i>Xiphodon gracile</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The gypsum-quarries of the environs of Paris include, moreover,
+the remains of other Pachyderms: the <i>Ch&aelig;ropotamus</i>, or River-hog
+(from &#967;&#959;&#953;&#961;&#959;&#962; &#960;&#959;&#964;&#945;&#956;&#959;&#962;), which has some analogy with the living Pecari,
+though much larger; the <i>Adapis</i>, which reminds us, in its form, of the
+Hedgehog, of which, however, it was three times the size. It seems
+to have been a link between the Pachyderms and the Insectivorous
+Carnivora. The <i>Lophiodon</i>, the size of which varied with the species,
+from that of the Rabbit to that of the Rhinoceros, was still more
+closely allied to the Tapir than to the Anoplotherium; it is found in
+the lower beds of the gypseous formation, that is to say in the
+&#8220;Calcaire Grossier.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A Parisian geologist, M. Desnoyers, librarian of the Museum of
+Natural History there, has discovered in the gypseous beds of the valley
+of Montmorency, and elsewhere in the neighbourhood of Paris, as at
+Pantin, Clichy, and Dammartin, the imprints of the footsteps of some
+Mammals, of which there seems to be some question, especially with
+regard to the Anoplotherium and Pal&aelig;otherium. Footprints of
+Turtles, Birds, and even of Carnivora, sometimes accompany these
+curious traces, which have a sort of almond-shape more or less lobed,
+according to the divisions of the hoof of the animal, and which recall
+to mind completely, in their mode of production and preservation,
+those imprints of the steps of the Labyrinthodon which have been
+mentioned as occurring in rocks of the Triassic period. This discovery
+is interesting, as it furnishes a means of comparison between
+the imprints and the animals which have produced them. It brings
+into view, as it were, the material traces left in their walks upon the
+soil by animals now annihilated, but who once occupied the
+mysterious sites of an earlier world. (See <a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>, p. 12.)</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to picture in imagination the vast pasturages of the
+Tertiary period swarming with Herbivora of all sizes. The country
+now surrounding the city of Paris belongs to the period in question,
+and not far from its gates, the woods and plains were crowded with
+&#8220;game&#8221; of which the Parisian sportsman little dreams, but which
+would nevertheless singularly animate the earth at this distant epoch.
+The absence of great Carnivora explains the rapid increase of the
+agile and graceful denizens of the wood, whose race seems to have
+been so multiplied then, but which was ultimately annihilated by the
+ferocious beasts of prey which afterwards made their appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The same novelty, riches, and variety which distinguished the
+Mammals of the Tertiary period extended to other classes of animals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
+The class of Birds, of which we can only name the most remarkable,
+was represented by the curious fossil known as the &#8220;<i>Bird of Montmartre</i>.&#8221;
+The bones of other birds have been obtained from
+Hordwell, as well as the remains of quadrupeds. Among the latter
+the <i>Hy&aelig;nodon</i>, supposed to be the oldest known example of a true
+carnivorous animal in the series of British fossils, and the fossil Bat
+known as the <i>Vespertilio
+Parisiensis</i>.
+Among Reptiles the
+Crocodile, which
+bears the name of Isle
+of Wight Alligator,
+<i>Crocodilus Toliapicus</i>.
+Among the Turtles
+the <i>Trionyx</i>, of which
+there is a fine specimen
+in the Museum
+of Natural History
+in Paris (<a href="#Fig_156">Fig. 156</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_156" id="Fig_156"></a>
+<img src="images/illo337.png" alt="Fig. 156" width="300" height="320" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 156.&mdash;Trionyx, or Turtle, of the Tertiary period.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the class
+Fishes we now see
+the <i>Pleuronectes</i>, or
+flat-fish, of which
+<i>Platax altissimus</i> and
+<i>Rhombus minimus</i> are
+well-known examples.
+Among the Crustaceans
+we see the
+earliest crabs. At
+the same time multitudes
+of new Mollusca make their appearance: <i>Oliva</i>, <i>Triton</i>, <i>Cassis</i>,
+<i>Harpa</i>, <i>Crepidula</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXIII" id="Plate_XXIII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo339.jpg" alt="Plate XXIII" width="600" height="386" />
+<p class="caption">XXIII.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Eocene Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>The hitherto unknown forms of <i>Schizaster</i> are remarkable among
+Echinoderms; the Zoophytes are also abundant, especially the
+<i>Foraminifera</i>, which seem to make up by their numbers for their
+deficiency in size. It was in this period, in the bosom of its seas,
+and far from shore, that the <i>Nummulites</i> existed, whose calcareous
+envelopes play such a considerable part as the elements of some of
+the Tertiary formations. The shelly agglomerates of these Protozoan
+Rhizopods constitute now very important rocks. The Nummulitic
+limestone forms, in the chain of the Pyrenees, entire mountains of
+great height; in Egypt it forms strata of considerable extent, and it is of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span>
+these rocks that the ancient pyramids were built. What an enormous
+time must have been necessary to convert the remains of these little
+shells into beds many hundreds of feet thick! The <i>Miliola</i> were
+also so abundant in the Eocene seas as to constitute the greater part of
+calcareous rocks<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> out of which Paris has been built. Agglomerated in
+this manner, these little shells form the continuous beds of limestone
+which are quarried for building purposes in the environs of Paris,
+at Gentilly, Vaugirard, and Ch&acirc;tillon.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>On the opposite page we present, in <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXIII">Plate XXIII.</a></span>, an imaginary
+landscape of the Eocene period. We remark amongst its vegetation
+a mixture of fossil species with others belonging to the present time.
+The Alders, the Wych-elms, and the Cypresses, mingle with <i>Flabellaria</i>;
+the Palms of extinct species. A great Bird&mdash;a wader, the
+<i>Tantalus</i>&mdash;occupies the projecting point of a rock on the right; the
+Turtle (<i>Trionyx</i>), floats on the river, in the midst of Nymph&aelig;as,
+Nenuphars, and other aquatic plants; whilst a herd of Pal&aelig;otheria,
+Anoplotheria, and Xiphodon peacefully browse the grass of the
+natural meadows of this peaceful oasis.</p>
+
+<p>With a general resemblance in their fossils, nothing can be more
+dissimilar, on the whole, than the lithological or mineral characters of
+the Eocene deposits of France and England; &#8220;those of our own
+island,&#8221; says Lyell,<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> &#8220;being almost exclusively of mechanical origin&mdash;accumulations
+of mud, sand, and pebbles; while in the neighbourhood
+of Paris we find a great succession of strata composed of
+limestones, some of them siliceous, and of crystalline gypsum and
+siliceous sandstone, and sometimes of pure flint used for millstones.
+Hence it is by no means an easy task to institute an exact comparison
+between the various members of the English and French
+series. It is clear that, on the sites both of Paris and London, a
+continual change was going on in the fauna and flora by the coming
+in of new species and the dying out of others; and contemporaneous
+changes of geographical conditions were also in progress in consequence
+of the rising and sinking of the land and bottom of the sea.
+A particular subdivision, therefore, of time was occasionally represented
+in one area by land, in another by an estuary, in a third by
+sea; and even where the conditions were in both areas of a marine
+character, there was often shallow water in one, and deep sea in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>
+another, producing a want of agreement in the state of animal life.&#8221;
+The Eocene rocks, as developed in France and England, may be
+tabulated as follows, in descending order:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" style="max-width: 90%;" summary="Table p 330">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">English.</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">French.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padr1">Upper<br />Eocene.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Hempstead beds.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Fluvio-<br />marine<br />series.</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Calcaire de la Beauce. Gr&egrave;s de Fontainebleau.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Bembridge beds.</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Calcaire silicieux or Calcaire Lacustre Moyen.<br />Gypseous series of Montmartre.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padr1">Middle<br />Eocene.</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Osborne beds.<br />Headon beds.</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Gr&egrave;s de Beauchamp and Calcaire Marin.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Bagshot sand.</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Upper Sables Moyens.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Barton clay.<br />Bracklesham beds.</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Middle<br />Bagshot.</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Lower Sables Moyens,<br />Lower Calcaire Grossier,<br />and Glauconie Grossi&egrave;re.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Bagshot beds.</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Lits coquilli&egrave;res.<br />Glauconie Moyenne.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padr1">Lower Eocene.</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">London clay.</td>
+<td colspan="5" >&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Wanting.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Woolwich and Reading beds, or Plastic clay.</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8211;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8211;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Argile Plastique.<br />Glauconie Inf&eacute;rieure.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Oldhaven beds.</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Thanet sands.</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Sables Inf&eacute;rieurs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The Woolwich and Reading Beds, or the Plastic Clay of older
+writers, consists of extensive beds of sand with occasional beds of
+potter&#8217;s clay, which lie at the base of the Tertiary formation in both
+England and France. Generally variegated, sometimes grey or white,
+it is employed as a potter&#8217;s earth in the manufacture of delf-ware.</p>
+
+<p>In England the red-mottled clay of the Woolwich and Reading
+Beds in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight is often seen in contact
+with the chalk; but in the south-eastern part of the London
+basin, Mr. Prestwich shows that the Thanet Sand (consisting of a
+base of fine, light-coloured sand, mixed with more or less argillaceous
+matter) intervenes between the Chalk and the Oldhaven Beds, or
+in their absence the Woolwich and Reading beds, which lie below
+the London Clay. The Thanet Sands derive their name from their
+occurrence in the Isle of Thanet, in Kent, in the eastern part of
+which county they attain their greatest development. Under London
+and its southern suburbs the Thanet sand is from thirteen to forty-four<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span>
+feet thick, but it becomes thinner in a westerly direction, and does
+not occur beyond Ealing.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Woolwich and Reading beds in the Hampshire basin rest
+immediately on the Chalk, and separate it from the overlying London
+Clay, as may be seen in the fine exposure of the Tertiary strata
+in Alum Bay, at the western extremity of the Isle of Wight, and
+in Studland Bay, on the western side of the Isle of Purbeck, in
+Dorsetshire.</p>
+
+<p>In the London basin the Woolwich and Reading beds also rest
+on the Chalk, where the Thanet Sands are absent, as is the case, for
+the most part, over the area west of Ealing and Leatherhead.</p>
+
+<p>The beds in question are very variable in character, but may be
+generally described as irregular alternations of clays and sands&mdash;the
+former mostly red, mottled with white, and from their plastic nature
+suitable for the purposes of the potter; the latter also of various
+colours, but sometimes pure white, and sometimes containing pebbles
+of flint.</p>
+
+<p>The Woolwich and Reading beds are called after the localities
+of the same names; they are fifty feet thick at Woolwich, and from
+sixty to seventy feet at Reading.</p>
+
+<p>The Oldhaven beds (so termed by Mr. W. Whitaker from
+their development at the place of the same name in Kent) are a
+local deposit, occurring beneath the London Clay on the south side
+of the London basin, from Croydon eastward, at the most eastern part
+of Surrey, and through Kent&mdash;in the north-western corner of which
+county they form some comparatively broad tracts. The beds consist
+of rounded flint pebbles, in a fine sandy base, or of fine light-coloured
+sand, and are from eighty to ninety feet thick under London.</p>
+
+<p>The London Clay, which has a breadth of twenty miles or more
+about London, consists of tenacious brown and bluish-grey clay, with
+layers of the nodular concretions, called Septaria, which are well
+known on the Essex and Hampshire coasts, where they are collected
+for making Roman cement. The London Clay has a maximum
+thickness of nearly 500 feet. The fossils of the London Clay are of
+marine genera, and very plentiful in some districts. Taken altogether
+they seem to indicate a moderate, rather than a tropical
+climate, although the Flora is, as far as can be judged, certainly
+tropical in its affinities.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> The number of species of extinct Turtles
+obtained from the Isle of Sheppey alone, is stated by Prof. Agassiz<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span>
+to exceed that of all the species of Chelone now known to exist
+throughout the globe. Above this great bed lie the Bracklesham
+and Bagshot beds, which consist of light-yellow sand with an intermediate
+layer of dark-green and brown clay, over which lie the
+Barton Clay (in the Hampshire basin) and the white Upper Bagshot
+Sands, which are succeeded by the Fluvio-marine series comprising
+the Headon, Bembridge, and Hempstead series, and consisting of
+limestones, clays, and marls, of marine, brackish, and fresh-water
+origin.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> For fuller accounts of the Tertiary strata of England, the
+reader is recommended to the numerous excellent memoirs of Mr.
+Prestwich, to the memoir &#8220;On the Tertiary Fluvio-marine Formations
+of the Isle of Wight,&#8221; by Professor Edward Forbes, and to the
+memoir &#8220;On the Geology of the London Basin,&#8221; by Mr. W. Whitaker.</p>
+
+<p>At the base of the <i>Argile Plastique</i> of France is a conglomerate
+of chalk and of divers calcareous substances, in which have been
+found at Bas-Meudon some remains of Reptiles, Turtles, Crocodiles,
+Mammals, and, more lately, those of a large Bird, exceeding the
+Ostrich in size, the <i>Gastornis</i>, which Professor Owen classes among
+the wading rather than among aquatic birds. In the Soissonnais there
+is found, at the same horizon, a great mass of lignite, enclosing some
+shells and bones of the most ancient Pachyderm yet discovered, the
+<i>Coryphodon</i>, which resembles at once both the Anoplotherium and
+the Pig. The <i>Sables Inf&eacute;rieurs</i>, or Bracheux Sands, form a marine
+bed of great thickness near Beauvais; they are principally sands, but
+include beds of calciferous clay and banks of shelly sandstone, and
+are considered to be older than the plastic clay and lignite, and to
+correspond with the Thanet Sands of England. They are rich in
+shells, including many Nummulites. At La F&egrave;re, in the Department
+of the Aisne, a fossil skull of <i>Arctocyon prim&aelig;vus</i>, supposed to be
+related both to the Bear and to the Kinkajou, and to be the oldest
+known Tertiary Mammal, was found in a deposit of this age. This
+series seems to have been formed chiefly in fresh water.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Calcaire grossier</i>, consisting of marine limestones of various
+kinds, and with a coarse, sometimes compact, grain, is suitable for
+mason-work. These deposits, which form the most characteristic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span>
+member of the Paris basin, naturally divide themselves into three
+groups of strata, characterised, the first, by <i>Nummulites</i>; the second
+by <i>Miliolites</i>; and the third or upper beds by <i>Cerithia</i>. The beds
+are also sometimes named Nummulite limestone, Miliolite limestone,
+and Cerithium limestone. Above these a great mass, generally sandy,
+is developed. It is marine at the base, and there are indications
+of brackish water in its upper parts; it is called Beauchamp Sandstone,
+or Sables Moyens (<i>Gr&egrave;s de Beauchamp</i>). These sands are
+very rich in shells. The <i>siliceous limestone</i>, or lower travertin, is
+a compact siliceous limestone extending over a wide area, and
+resembles a precipitate from mineral waters. The <i>gypseous</i> formation
+consists of a long series of marly and argillaceous beds, of
+a greyish, green, or white colour, in the intervals between which a
+thick deposit of gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is intercalated. This
+gypsum bed is found in its greatest thickness in France at Montmartre
+and Pantin near Paris. The formation of this gypsum is
+probably due to the action of free sulphuric acid upon the carbonate
+of lime of the formation; the sulphuric acid itself being produced by
+the transformation of the gaseous masses of sulphuretted hydrogen
+emanating from volcanic vents, into that acid, by the action of air
+and water. It was, as we have already said, in the gypsum-quarries
+of Montmartre that the numerous bones of Pal&aelig;otherium and
+Anoplotherium were found. It is exclusively at this horizon that we
+find the remains of these animals, which seem to have been preceded
+by the <i>Coryphodon</i>, and afterwards by the <i>Lophiodon</i>; the order of
+succession in the appearance of these animals is now perfectly
+established. It may be added that round Paris the Eocene formation,
+from its lowest beds to the highest, is composed of beds of plastic
+clay, of the <i>Calcaire grossier</i> with its <i>Nummulites</i>, <i>Miliolites</i>, and <i>Alveolites</i>,
+followed by the gypseous formation; the series terminating in
+the Fontainebleau Sandstone, remarkable for its thickness and also
+for its fine scenery, as well as for its usefulness in furnishing
+paving-stone for the capital. In Provence the same series of rocks
+are continued, and attain an enormous thickness. This upper part
+of the Eocene deposit is entirely of lacustrine formation. Grignon
+has procured from a single spot, where they were embedded in a
+calcareous sand, no less than 400 fossils, chiefly formed of comminuted
+shells, in which, however, were well-preserved species both
+of marine, terrestrial, and fresh-water shells. Of the Paris basin, Sir
+Charles Lyell says: &#8220;Nothing is more striking in this assemblage of
+fossil testacea than the great proportion of species referable to the
+genus <i>Cerithium</i>. There occur no less than 137 species of this genus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span>
+in the Paris basin, and almost all of them in the <i>Calcaire grossier</i>.
+Most of the living <i>Cerithia</i> (<a href="#Fig_157">Figs. 157</a> and <a href="#Fig_168">168</a>) inhabit the sea near
+the mouths of rivers, where the waters are brackish; so that their
+abundance in the marine strata now under consideration is in harmony
+with the hypothesis that the Paris basin formed a gulf into
+which several rivers flowed.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_157" id="Fig_157"></a>
+<img src="images/illo346.png" alt="Fig. 157" width="400" height="266" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 157.&mdash;Cerithium telescopium.<br />
+(Living form.)</p></div>
+
+<p>To give the reader some idea of the formation, first come the
+limestones and lower marls, which contain fine lignite or wood-coal
+produced from vegetable matter buried in moist earth, and excluded
+from all access of air, a material which is worked in some parts of
+the south of France as actively as a coal-mine. In these lignites
+<i>Anodon</i> and other fresh-water shells are found.</p>
+
+<p>From the base of Sainte-Victoire to the other side of Aix, we
+trace a conglomerate characterised by its red colour, but which dies
+away in its prolongation westward. This conglomerate contains land-snails
+(<i>Helix</i>) of various sizes, mixed with fresh-water shells. Upon
+this conglomerate, comprising therein the marls, rests a thick deposit
+of limestone with the gypsum of Aix and Manosque, which is believed
+to correspond with that of Paris. Some of the beds are remarkably
+rich in sulphur. The calcareous marly lamin&aelig; which accompany
+the gypsum of Aix contain Insects of various kinds, and Fishes resembling
+<i>Lebias cephalotes</i>. Finally, the whole terminates at Manosque
+in a fresh series of marls and sandstones, alternating with beds of
+limestone with <i>Limn&aelig;a</i> and <i>Planorbis</i>. At the base of this series are
+found three or four beds of lignite more inflammable than coal,
+which also give out a very sulphurous oil. We may form some
+estimate of the thickness of this last stage, if we add that, above the
+beds of fusible lignite, we may reckon sixty others of dry lignite,
+some of them capable of being very profitably worked if this part of
+Provence were provided with more convenient roads.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The Nummulitic formation, with its characteristic fossils,&#8221; says
+Lyell,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> &#8220;plays a far more conspicuous part than any other Tertiary
+group in the solid framework of the earth&#8217;s crust, whether in Europe,
+Asia, or Africa. It often attains a thickness of many thousand feet,
+and extends from the Alps to the Carpathians, and is in full force in
+the north of Africa, as, for example, in Algeria and Morocco. It has
+been traced from Egypt, where it was largely quarried of old for the
+building of the Pyramids, into Asia Minor, and across Persia, by
+Bagdad, to the mouth of the Indus. It occurs not only in Cutch,
+but in the mountain ranges which separate Scinde from Persia, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span>
+which form the passes leading to Caboul; and it has been followed
+still further eastward into India, as far as eastern Bengal and the
+frontiers of China.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;When we have once arrived at the conclusion,&#8221; he adds, &#8220;that
+the Nummulitic formation occupies a middle place in the Eocene
+series, we are struck with the comparatively modern date to which
+some of the greatest revolutions in the physical geography of Europe,
+Asia, and northern Africa must be referred. All the mountain chains,
+such as the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians, and Himalayas, into the
+composition of whose central and loftiest parts the Nummulitic strata
+enter bodily, could have had no existence till after the Middle
+Eocene period.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Eocene strata, Professor Ramsay thinks, extended in their
+day <i>much further</i> west, &#8220;because,&#8221; he says, &#8220;here, at the extreme
+edge of the chalk escarpments, you find outlying fragments of them,&#8221;
+from which he argues that they were originally deposited all over the
+Chalk as far as these points, but being formed of soft strata they
+were &#8220;denuded&#8221; backwards.</p>
+
+<p>The Beloptera represented in <a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a> are curious Belemnite-like
+organisms, occurring in Tertiary strata, and evidently the internal
+bone of a Cephalopod, having a wing-like projection or process on
+each side. As a genus it holds a place intermediate between the
+Cuttle-fish and the Belemnite.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></p>
+
+<h4>THE MIOCENE PERIOD.</h4>
+
+<p>The Miocene formation is not present in England; unless we
+suppose, with Sir Charles Lyell, that it is represented by the Hempstead
+beds of the Isle of Wight.</p>
+
+<p>It is on the European continent that we find the most striking
+characteristics of the Miocene period. In our own islands traces of
+it are few and far between. In the Island of Mull certain beds of
+shale, interstratified with basalt and volcanic ash, are described by
+the Duke of Argyll as of Miocene date;<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and Miocene clay is found
+interstratified with bands of imperfect coal at Bovey Tracey. The vegetation
+which distinguished the period is a mixture of the vegetable
+forms peculiar to the burning climate of the present tropical Africa,
+with such as now grow in temperate Europe, such as Palms, Bamboos,
+various kinds of Laurels, Combretace&aelig; (Terminalia), with the
+grand Leguminales of warm countries (as <i>Phaseolites</i>, <i>Erythrina</i>,
+<i>Bauhinia</i>, <i>Mimosites</i>, <i>Acacia</i>); Apocyne&aelig; analogous to the genera of
+our tropical regions; a <i>Rubiacea</i> altogether tropical (<i>Steinhauera</i>)
+mingle with some Maples, Walnut-trees, Beeches, Elms, Oaks, and
+Wych-elms, genera now confined to temperate and even cold
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these, there were, during the Miocene period, mosses,
+mushrooms, charas, fig-trees, plane-trees, poplars, and evergreens.
+&#8220;During the second period of the Tertiary epoch,&#8221; says Lecoq,
+&#8220;the Alg&aelig; and marine Monocotyledons were less abundant than in
+the preceding age; the Ferns also diminished, the mass of Conifers
+were reduced, and the Palms multiplied in species. Some of those
+cited in the preceding period seem still to belong to this, and the
+magnificent <i>Flabellaria</i>, with the fine <i>Ph&#339;nicites</i>, which we see now
+for the first time, gave animation to the landscape. Among the
+Conifers some new genera appear; among them we distinguish
+<i>Podocarpens</i>, a southern form of vegetation of the present age.
+Almost all the arborescent families have their representatives in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span>
+forests of this period, where for the first time types so different are
+united. The waters are covered with <i>Nymph&aelig;a Arithn&aelig;a</i> (Brongniart);
+and with <i>Myriophyllites capillifolius</i> (Unger); <i>Culmites animalis</i>
+(Brongniart); and <i>C. G&#339;pperti</i> (Munster), spring up in profusion
+upon their banks, and the grand <i>Bambusinites sepultana</i> throws the
+shadow of its long articulated stem across them. Some analogous
+species occupy the banks of the great rivers of the New World;
+one Umbellifera is even indicated, by Unger, in the <i>Pimpinellites
+zizioides</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Of this period date some beds of lignite resulting from the
+accumulation, for ages, of all these different trees. It seems that
+arborescent vegetation had then attained its apogee. Some <i>Smilacites</i>
+interlaced like the wild vines with these grand plants, which fell on
+the ground where they grew, from decay; some parts of the earth,
+even now, exhibit these grand scenes of vegetation. They have been
+described by travellers who have traversed the tropical regions, where
+Nature often displays the utmost luxury, under the screen of clouds
+which does not allow the rays of the sun to reach the earth. M.
+D&#8217;Orbigny cites an interesting instance which is much to the point.
+&#8220;I have reached a zone,&#8221; he says (speaking of Rio Chapura in South
+America), &#8220;where it rains regularly all the year round. We can
+scarcely perceive the rays of the sun, at intervals, through the screen
+of clouds which almost constantly veils it. This circumstance, added
+to the heat, gives an extraordinary development to the vegetation.
+The wild vines fall on all sides, in garlands, from the loftiest branches
+of trees whose summits are lost in the clouds.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The fossil species of this period, to the number of 133, begin to
+resemble those which enrich our landscapes. Already tropical plants
+are associated with the vegetables of temperate climates; but they
+are not yet the same as existing species. Oaks grow side by side
+with Palms, the Birch with Bamboos, Elms with Laurels, the Maples
+are united to the Combretace&aelig;, to the Leguminales, and to the
+tropical Rubiace&aelig;. The forms of the species, belonging to temperate
+climates, are rather American than European.</p>
+
+<p>The luxuriance and diversity of the Miocene flora has been
+employed by a German savant in identifying and classifying the
+Middle Tertiary or Miocene strata of Switzerland. We are indebted
+to Professor Heer, of Zurich, for the restoration of more than 900
+species of plants, which he classified and illustrated in his &#8220;Flora
+Tertiaria Helveti&aelig;.&#8221; In order to appreciate the value of the
+learned Professor&#8217;s undertaking, it is only necessary to remark that,
+where Cuvier had to study the position and character of a bone, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>
+botanist had to study the outline, nervation, and microscopic structure
+of a leaf. Like the great French naturalist, he had to construct
+a new science at the very outset of his great work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_158" id="Fig_158"></a>
+<img src="images/illo349.png" alt="Fig. 158" width="250" height="488" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 158.&mdash;Andrias Scheuchzeri.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Miocene formations of Switzerland are called <i>Molasse</i> (from
+the French <i>mol</i>, soft), a term
+which is applied to a <i>soft</i>,
+incoherent, greenish sandstone,
+occupying the country
+between the Alps and the
+Jura, and they may be divided
+into lower, middle, and upper
+Miocene; the middle one is
+marine, the other two being
+fresh-water formations. The
+upper fresh-water Molasse is
+best seen at &#338;ningen, in the
+Rhine valley, where, according
+to Sir Roderick Murchison, it
+ranges ten miles east and west
+from Berlingen, on the right
+bank, to Waugen and to
+&#338;ningen, near Stein, on the
+left bank. In this formation
+Professor Heer enumerates
+twenty-one beds. No. 1, a
+bluish-grey marl seven feet
+thick, without organic remains,
+resting on No. 2, limestone,
+with fossil plants, including
+leaves of poplar, cinnamon,
+and pond-weed (<i>Potamogeton</i>).
+No. 3, bituminous rock, with <i>Mastodon
+angustidens</i>. No. 5,
+two or three inches thick, containing
+fossil Fishes. No. 9,
+the stone in which the skeleton
+of the great Salamander
+<i>Andrias Scheuchzeri</i> (<a href="#Fig_158">Fig. 158</a>)
+was found. Below this, other
+strata with Fishes, Tortoises, the great Salamander, as before, with
+fresh-water Mussels, and plants. In No. 16, Sir R. Murchison
+obtained the fossil fox of &#338;ningen, <i>Galacynus &#338;ningensis</i> (Owen).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>
+In these beds Professor Heer had, as early as 1859, determined 475
+species of fossil plants, and 900 insects.</p>
+
+<p>The plants of the Swiss Miocene period have been obtained from
+a country not one-fifth the size of Switzerland, yet such an abundance
+of species, which Heer reckons at 3,000, does not exist in any area
+of equal extent in Europe. It exceeds in variety, he considers,
+after making every allowance for all not having existed at the same
+time, and from other considerations, the Southern American forests,
+and rivals such tropical countries as Jamaica and Brazil. European
+plants occupy a secondary place, while the evergreen Oaks, Maples,
+Poplars, and Plane-trees, Robinias, and Taxodiums of America and
+the smaller Atlantic islands, occupy such an important place in the
+fossil flora that Unger was induced to suggest the hypothesis, that, in
+the Miocene period the present basin of the Atlantic was dry land&mdash;and
+this hypothesis has been ably advocated by Heer.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The terrestrial animals which lived in the Miocene period were
+Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles. Many new Mammals had appeared
+since the preceding period; among others, Apes, Cheiropteras
+(Bats), Carnivora, Marsupials, Rodents, Dogs. Among the first
+we find <i>Pithecus antiquus</i> and <i>Mesopithecus</i>; the Bats, Dogs, and
+Coati inhabited Brazil and Guiana; the Rats North America; the
+Genettes, the Marmots, the Squirrels, and Opossums having some
+affinity to the Opossums of America. Thrushes, Sparrows, Storks,
+Flamingoes, and Crows, represent the class Birds. Among the Reptiles
+appear several Snakes, Frogs, and Salamanders. The lakes
+and rivers were inhabited by Perches and Shad. But it is among the
+Mammals that we must seek for the most interesting species of
+animals of this period. They are both numerous and remarkable
+for their dimensions and peculiarities of form; but the species which
+appeared in the Miocene period, as in those which preceded it, are
+now only known by their fossil remains and bones.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Dinotherium</i> (<a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a>), one of the most remarkable of these
+animals, is the largest terrestrial Mammal which has ever lived.
+For a long time we possessed only very imperfect portions of the
+skeleton of this animal, upon the evidence of which Cuvier was
+induced erroneously to place it among the Tapirs. The discovery of
+a lower jaw, nearly perfect, armed with defensive tusks descending
+from its lower jaw, demonstrated that this hitherto mysterious animal
+was the type of an altogether new and singular genus. Nevertheless,
+as it was known that there were some animals of the ancient world in
+which both jaws were armed, it was thought for some time that such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>
+was the case with the Dinotherium. But in 1836, a head, nearly
+entire, was found in the already celebrated beds at Eppelsheim, in the
+Grand Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt. In 1837 this fine fragment was
+carried to Paris, and exposed to public view. It was nearly a yard
+and a half long, and above a yard wide. The defences, it was found,
+were enormous, and were carried at the anterior extremity of the
+lower maxillary bone, and much curved inwards, as in the Morse.
+The molar teeth were in many respects analogous to those of the
+Tapir, and the great suborbital apertures, joined to the form of the
+nasal bone, rendered the existence of a proboscis or trunk very probable.
+But the most remarkable bone belonging to the Dinotherium
+which has yet been found is an omoplate or scapula, which by
+its form reminds us of that of the Mole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_159" id="Fig_159"></a>
+<img src="images/illo351.png" alt="Fig. 159" width="450" height="335" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 159.&mdash;Dinotherium.</p></div>
+
+<p>This colossus of the ancient world, respecting which there has
+been so much argument, somewhat approaches the Mastodon; it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span>
+seems to announce the appearance of the Elephant; but its dimensions
+were infinitely greater than those of existing Elephants, and
+superior even to those of the Mastodon and of the Mammoth, both
+fossil Elephants, the remains of which we shall have to describe
+presently.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_160" id="Fig_160"></a>
+<img src="images/illo352.png" alt="Fig. 160" width="450" height="183" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 160.&mdash;Teeth of Mastodon.</p></div>
+
+<p>From its kind of life, and its frugal regimen, this Pachyderm
+scarcely merited the formidable name of Dinotherium which has been
+bestowed on it by naturalists (from &#948;&#949;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#962;, <i>terrible</i>, &#952;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;, <i>animal</i>).
+Its size was, no doubt, frightful enough, but its habits seem to have
+been peaceful. It is supposed to have inhabited fresh-water lakes,
+or the mouths of great rivers and the marshes bordering their banks
+by preference. Herbivorous, like the Elephant, it employed its
+proboscis probably in seizing the plants which hung suspended over
+the waters, or floated on their surface. We know that the elephants
+are very partial to the roots of herbaceous plants which grow in
+flooded plains. The Dinotherium appears to have been organised to
+satisfy the same tastes. With the powerful natural mattock which
+Nature had supplied him for penetrating the soil, he would be able
+to tear from the bed of the river, or lake, feculent roots like those of
+the Nymph&aelig;a, or even much harder ones, for which the mode of
+articulation of the jaws, and the powerful muscles intended to move
+them, as well as the large surface of the teeth, so well calculated for
+grinding, were evidently intended (<a href="#Fig_160">Fig. 160</a>).</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The <i>Mastodon</i> was, to all appearance, very nearly of the size and
+form of our Elephant&mdash;his body, however, being somewhat longer,
+while his limbs, on the contrary, were a little thicker. He had
+tusks, and very probably a trunk, and is chiefly distinguished from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>
+existing Elephant by the form of his molar teeth, which form the most
+distinctive character in his organisation. These teeth are nearly
+rectangular, and present on the surface of their crown great conical
+tuberosities, with rounded points disposed in pairs to the number of
+four or five, according to the species. Their form is very distinct,
+and may be easily recognised. They do not bear any resemblance
+to those of the carnivora, but are like those of herbivorous animals,
+and particularly those of the Hippopotamus. The molar teeth are
+at first sharp and pointed, but when the conical points are ground
+down by mastication, they assume the appearance presented in
+<a href="#Fig_161">Fig. 161</a>. When, from continued grinding, the conical teat-like points
+are more deeply worn, they begin to
+assume the appearance shown in
+<a href="#Fig_160">Fig. 160</a>. In <a href="#Fig_162">Fig. 162</a> we represent
+the head and lower jaw of the
+Miocene Mastodon; from which it
+will appear that the animal had two
+projecting tusks in the lower jaw,
+corresponding with two of much
+larger dimensions which projected
+from the upper jaw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_161" id="Fig_161"></a>
+<img src="images/illo353.png" alt="Fig. 161" width="350" height="318" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 161.&mdash;Molar teeth of Mastodon, worn.</p></div>
+
+<p>It was only towards the middle
+of the last century that the Mastodon
+first attracted attention in Europe.
+About the year 1705, it is true,
+some bones of this animal had been
+found at Albany, now the capital of New York, but the discovery
+attracted little attention. In 1739, a French officer, M. de Longueil,
+traversed the virgin forests bordering the great river Ohio, in order to
+reach the great river Mississippi, and the savages who escorted him
+accidentally discovered on the borders of a marsh various bones,
+some of which seemed to be those of unknown animals. In this turfy
+marsh, which the natives designated the Great Salt Lake, in consequence
+of the many streams charged with salt which lose themselves in
+it, herds of wild ruminants still seek its banks, attracted by the salt&mdash;for
+which they have a great fondness&mdash;such being the reason probably
+which had caused the accumulation, at this point, of the remains of so
+large a number of quadrupeds belonging to these remote ages in
+the history of the globe. M. de Longueil carried some of these bones
+with him, and, on his return to France, he presented them to
+Daubenton and Buffon; they consisted of a femur, one extremity of
+a tusk, and three molar teeth. Daubenton, after mature examination,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>
+declared the teeth to be those of a Hippopotamus; the tusk and the
+gigantic femur, according to his report, belonged to an Elephant; so
+that they were not even considered to be parts of one and the same
+animal. Buffon did not share this opinion, and he was not long in
+converting Daubenton, as well as other French naturalists, to his
+views. Buffon declared that the bones belonged to an Elephant,
+whose race had lived only in the primitive ages of the globe. It was
+then, only, that the fundamental notion of extinct species of animals,
+exclusively peculiar to
+ancient ages of the
+world, began to be
+entertained for the
+first time by naturalists&mdash;a
+notion which laid
+dormant during nearly
+a century, before it
+bore the admirable
+fruits which have
+since so enriched the
+natural sciences and
+philosophy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_162" id="Fig_162"></a>
+<img src="images/illo354.png" alt="Fig. 162" width="400" height="398" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 162.&mdash;Head of the Mastodon of the Miocene period.<br />
+A, B, the whole head; C, lower jaw.</p></div>
+
+<p>Buffon gave the
+fossil the name of the
+<i>Animal or Elephant of
+the Ohio</i>, but he deceived
+himself as to
+its size, believing it to
+be from six to eight
+times the size of our
+existing Elephant; an
+estimate which he was
+led to make by an erroneous notion with regard to the number of
+the Elephant&#8217;s teeth. The <i>Animal of the Ohio</i> had only four molars,
+while Buffon imagined that it might have as many as sixteen, confounding
+the germs, or supplementary teeth, which exist in the young
+animal, with the permanent teeth of the adult individual. In reality,
+however, the Mastodon was not much larger than the existing species
+of African Elephant.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of this animal had produced a great impression in
+Europe. Becoming masters of Canada by the peace of 1763, the
+English sought eagerly for more of these precious remains. The
+geographer Croghan traversed anew the region of the Great Salt Lake,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span>
+pointed out by De Longueil, and found there some bones of the same
+nature. In 1767 he forwarded many cases to London, addressing
+them to divers naturalists. Collinson, among others, the friend and
+correspondent of Franklin, who had his share in this consignment,
+took the opportunity of sending a molar tooth to Buffon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_163" id="Fig_163"></a>
+<img src="images/illo355.png" alt="Fig. 163" width="450" height="323" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 163.&mdash;Skeleton of Mastodon giganteus.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>It was not, however, till 1801 that the remains of the perfect
+skeleton were discovered. An American naturalist, named Peale, was
+fortunate enough to get together two nearly complete skeletons of
+this important animal. Having been apprised that many large bones
+had been found in the marly clay on the banks of the Hudson, near
+Newburg, in the State of New York, Mr. Peale proceeded to that
+locality. In the spring of 1801 a considerable part of one skeleton
+was found by the farmer who had dug it out of the ground, but,
+unfortunately, it was much mutilated by his awkwardness, and by the
+precipitancy of the workmen. Having purchased these fragments,
+Mr. Peale sent them on to Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_164" id="Fig_164"></a>
+<img src="images/illo356.png" alt="Fig. 164" width="450" height="351" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 164.&mdash;Mastodon restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>In a marsh, situated five leagues west of the Hudson, the same
+gentleman discovered, six months after, a second skeleton of the
+Mastodon, consisting of a perfect jaw and a great number of bones.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span>
+With the bones thus collected, the naturalist managed to construct
+two nearly complete skeletons. One of these still remains in the
+Museum of Philadelphia; the other was sent to London, where it
+was exhibited publicly.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_165" id="Fig_165"></a>
+<img src="images/illo357.png" alt="Fig. 165" width="350" height="309" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 165.&mdash;Molar tooth of Mastodon.</p></div>
+
+<p>Discoveries nearly analogous to these followed, the most curious
+of which was made in this manner by Mr. Barton, a Professor of the
+University of Pennsylvania. At a depth of six feet in the ground, and
+under a great bank of chalk, bones of the Mastodon were found
+sufficient to form a
+skeleton. One of the
+teeth found weighed
+about seventeen pounds
+(<a href="#Fig_165">Fig. 165</a>); but the circumstance
+which made
+this discovery the more
+remarkable was, that in
+the middle of the bones,
+and enveloped in a kind
+of sac which was probably
+the stomach of
+the animal, a mass of
+vegetable matter was
+discovered, partly
+bruised, and composed
+of small leaves and
+branches, among which
+a species of rush has
+been recognised which is yet common in Virginia. We cannot
+doubt that these were the undigested remains of the food, which
+the animal had browsed on just before its death.</p>
+
+<p>The aboriginal natives of North America called the Mastodon
+the <i>father of the ox</i>. A French officer named Fabri wrote thus to
+Buffon in 1748. The natives of Canada and Louisiana, where these
+remains are abundant, speak of the Mastodon as a fantastic creature
+which mingles in all their traditions and in their ancient national
+songs. Here is one of these songs, which Fabri heard in Canada:
+&#8220;When the great <i>Manitou</i> descended to the earth, in order to satisfy
+himself that the creatures he had created were happy, he interrogated
+all the animals. The bison replied that he would be quite contented
+with his fate in the grassy meadows, where the grass reached his
+belly, if he were not also compelled to keep his eyes constantly
+turned towards the mountains to catch the first sight of the <i>father of</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span>
+<i>oxen</i>, as he descended, with fury, to devour him and his companions.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Cheyenne Indians have a tradition that these great animals
+lived in former times, conjointly with a race of men whose size was
+proportionate to their own, but that the <i>Great Being</i> destroyed both
+by repeated strokes of his terrible thunderbolts.</p>
+
+<p>The native Indians of Virginia had another legend. As these
+gigantic Elephants destroyed all other animals specially created to
+supply the wants of the Indians, God, the thunderer, destroyed them;
+a single one only succeeded in escaping. It was &#8220;the great male,
+which presented its head to the thunderbolts and shook them off as
+they fell; but being at length wounded in the side, he took to flight
+towards the great lakes, where he remains hidden to this day.&#8221; All
+these simple fictions prove, at least, that the Mastodon has lived
+upon the earth at some not very distant period. We shall see, in
+fact, that it was contemporaneous with the Mammoth, which, it is now
+supposed, may have been co-existent with the earlier races of mankind,
+or only preceded a little the appearance of man.</p>
+
+<p>Buffon, as we have said, gave to this great fossil animal the name
+of the Elephant of the Ohio; it has also been called the Mammoth of
+the Ohio. In England it was received with astonishment. Dr.
+Hunter showed clearly enough, from the thigh-bone and the teeth,
+that it was no Elephant; but having heard of the existence of the
+Siberian Mammoth, he at once came to the conclusion that they
+were bones of that animal. He then declared the teeth to be carnivorous,
+and the idea of a <i>carnivorous elephant</i> became one of the
+wonders of the day. Cuvier at once dissipated the clouds of doubt
+which surrounded the subject, pointing out the osteological differences
+between the several species, and giving to the American animal the
+appropriate name of Mastodon (from &#956;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#962;, <i>a teat</i>, and &#959;&#948;&#959;&#965;&#962;, <i>a
+tooth</i>), or teat-like-toothed animal.</p>
+
+<p>Many bones of the Mastodon have been found in America since
+that time, but remains are rarely met with in Europe, except as
+fragments&mdash;as the portion of a jaw-bone discovered in the Red
+Crag near Norwich, which Professor Owen has named <i>Mastodon
+angustidens</i>. It was even thought, for a long time, with Cuvier, that
+the Mastodon belonged exclusively to the New World; but the discovery
+of many of the bones mixed with those of the Mammoth,
+(<i>Elephas primigenius</i>) has dispelled that opinion. Bones of Mastodon
+have been found in great numbers in the Val d&#8217;Arno. In 1858 a
+magnificent skeleton was discovered at Turin.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the teeth of the Mastodon shows that it fed, like the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span>
+Elephant, on the roots and succulent parts of vegetables; and this is
+confirmed by the curious discovery made in America by Barton. It
+lived, no doubt, on the banks of rivers and on moist and marshy
+lands. Besides the great Mastodon of which we have spoken, there
+existed a Mastodon one-third smaller than the Elephant, and which
+inhabited nearly all Europe.</p>
+
+<p>There are some curious historical facts in connection with the
+remains of the Mastodon which ought not to be passed over in
+silence. On the 11th of January, 1613, the workmen in a sand-pit
+situated near the Castle of Chaumont, in Dauphiny, between the
+cities of Montricourt and Saint-Antoine, on the left bank of the
+Rh&ocirc;ne, found some bones, many of which were broken up by them.
+These bones belonged to some great fossil Mammal, but the existence
+of such animals was at that time wholly unknown. Informed of
+the discovery, a country surgeon named Mazuyer purchased the
+bones, and gave out that he had himself discovered them in a tomb,
+thirty feet long by fifteen broad, built of bricks, upon which he found
+the inscription <span class="smcap">Teutobocchus Rex</span>. He added that, in the same
+tomb, he found half a hundred medals bearing the effigy of Marius.
+This Teutobocchus was a barbarian king, who invaded Gaul at the
+head of the Cimbri, and who was vanquished near <i>Aqu&aelig; Sexti&aelig;</i> (Aix
+in Provence) by Marius, who carried him to Rome to grace his
+triumphal procession. In the notice which he published in confirmation
+of this story, Mazuyer reminded the public that, according to
+the testimony of Roman authors, the head of the Teuton king exceeded
+in dimensions all the trophies borne upon the lances in the
+triumph. The skeleton which he exhibited was five-and-twenty feet
+in length and ten broad.</p>
+
+<p>Mazuyer showed the skeleton of the pretended Teutobocchus
+in all the cities of France and Germany, and also to Louis XIII.,
+who took great interest in contemplating this marvel. It gave rise
+to a long controversy, or rather an interminable dispute, in which the
+anatomist Riolan distinguished himself&mdash;arguing against Habicot, a
+physician, whose name is all but forgotten. Riolan attempted to
+prove that the bones of the pretended king were those of an
+Elephant. Numerous pamphlets were exchanged by the two adversaries,
+in support of their respective opinions. We learn also from
+Gassendi, that a Jesuit of Tournon, named Jacques Tissot, was the
+author of the notice published by Mazuyer. Gassendi also proves
+that the pretended medals of Marius were forgeries, on the ground
+that they bore Gothic characters. It seems very strange that these
+bones, which are still preserved in the cases of the Museum of Natural<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span>
+History in Paris, where anybody may see them, should ever have
+been mistaken, for a single moment, for human remains. The
+skeleton of Teutobocchus remained at Bordeaux till 1832, when it
+was sent to the Museum of Natural History in Paris, where M. de
+Blainville declared that it belonged to a Mastodon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_166" id="Fig_166"></a>
+<img src="images/illo360a.png" alt="Fig. 166" width="450" height="271" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 166.&mdash;Skeleton of Mesopithecus.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Apes made their appearance at this period. In the ossiferous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span>
+beds of Sansan M. Lartet discovered the <i>Dryopithecus</i>, as well as
+<i>Pithecus antiquus</i>, but only in imperfect fragments. M. Albert
+Gaudry was more fortunate: in the Miocene rocks of Pikermi, in
+Greece, he discovered the entire skeleton of <i>Mesopithecus</i>, which we
+present here (<a href="#Fig_166">Fig. 166</a>), together with the same animal restored
+(<a href="#Fig_167">Fig. 167</a>). In its general organisation it resembles the dog-faced
+baboon or ape, a piece of information which has guided the artist
+in the restoration of the animal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_167" id="Fig_167"></a>
+<img src="images/illo360b.png" alt="Fig. 167" width="500" height="308" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 167.&mdash;Mesopithecus restored. One-fifth natural size.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The seas of the Miocene period were inhabited by great numbers
+of beings altogether unknown in earlier formations; we may mention
+no less than ninety marine genera which appear here for the first
+time, and some of which have lived down to our epoch. Among
+these, the molluscous Gasteropods, such as <i>Conus</i>, <i>Turbinella</i>, <i>Ranella</i>,
+<i>Murex</i> (<a href="#Fig_169">Fig. 169</a>), and <i>Dolium</i> are the most abundant; with many
+Lamellibranchiata.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_168" id="Fig_168"></a>
+<img src="images/illo361a.png" alt="Fig. 168" width="125" height="371" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 168.&mdash;Cerithium plicatum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_169" id="Fig_169"></a>
+<img src="images/illo361b.png" alt="Fig. 169" width="200" height="313" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 169.&mdash;Murex Turonensis.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_170" id="Fig_170"></a>
+<img src="images/illo361c.png" alt="Fig. 170" width="200" height="421" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 170.&mdash;Ostrea longirostris. One quarter natural size.<br />
+Living form.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Foraminifera are also represented by new genera, among
+which are the Bolivina, Polystomella, and Dentritina.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXIV" id="Plate_XXIV"></a>
+<img src="images/illo363.png" alt="Plate XXIV" width="600" height="392" />
+<p class="caption">XXIV.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Miocene Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>Finally, the Crustaceans include the genera <i>Pagurus</i> (or the
+Hermit crabs); <i>Astacus</i>. (the lobster); and <i>Portunus</i> (or paddling
+crabs). Of the first, it is doubtful if any fossil species have been
+found; of the last, species have been discovered bearing some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>
+resemblance to <i>Podophthalmus vigil</i>, as <i>P. Defrancii</i>, which only
+differs from it in the absence of the sharp spines which terminate the
+lateral angles of the carapace in the former; while <i>Portunus leucodon</i>
+(Desmarest) bears some analogy to Lupea.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_171" id="Fig_171"></a>
+<img src="images/illo364.png" alt="Fig. 171" width="400" height="354" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 171.&mdash;Podophthalmus vigil.</p></div>
+
+<p>An ideal landscape of the Miocene period, which is given
+on the opposite page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXIV">Plate XXIV.</a></span>), represents the Dinotherium
+lying in the marshy grass, the Rhinoceros, the Mastodon, and an Ape
+of great size, the <i>Dryopithecus</i>, hanging from the branches of a tree.
+The products of the vegetable kingdom are, for the greater part,
+analogous to those of the present time. They are remarkable for their
+abundance, and for their graceful and serried vegetation; and still
+remind us in some respects, of the vegetation of the Carboniferous
+period. It is, in fact, a continuation of the characteristics of that
+period, and from the same cause, namely, the submersion of land
+under marshy waters, which has given birth to a sort of coal which is
+often found in the Miocene formation, and which we call <i>lignite</i>.
+This imperfect coal does not quite resemble that of the Carboniferous,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
+or true Coal-measure period, because it is of much more
+recent date, and because it has not been subjected to the same
+internal heat, accompanied by the same pressure of superincumbent
+strata, which produced the older coal-beds of the Primary epoch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_172" id="Fig_172"></a>
+<img src="images/illo365.png" alt="Fig. 172" width="400" height="395" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 172.&mdash;Lupea pelagica.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>lignites</i>, which we find in the Miocene, as in the Eocene
+period, constitute, however, a combustible which is worked and
+utilised in many countries, especially in Germany, where it is made
+in many places to serve in place of coal. These beds sometimes
+attain a thickness of above twenty yards, but in the environs of Paris
+they form beds of a few inches only, which alternate with clays and
+sands. We cannot doubt that lignites, like true coal, are the remains
+of the buried forests of an ancient world; in fact, the substance of
+the woods of our forests, often in a state perfectly recognisable, is
+frequently found in the lignite beds; and the studies of modern
+botanists have demonstrated, that the species of which the lignites<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span>
+are formed, belong to a vegetation closely resembling that of Europe
+in the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Another very curious substance is found with the lignite&mdash;yellow
+amber. It is the mineralised resin, which flowed from certain extinct
+pine-trees of the Tertiary epoch; the waves of the Baltic Sea, washing
+the amber out of the deposits of sand and clay in which it lies
+buried, this substance, being very little heavier than water, is thrown
+by the waves upon the shore. For ages the Baltic coast has supplied
+commerce with amber. The Ph&#339;nicians ascended its banks to
+collect this beautiful fossil resin, which is now chiefly found between
+Dantzic and Memel, where it is a government monopoly in the
+hands of contractors, who are protected by a law making it theft
+to gather or conceal it.</p>
+
+<p>Amber,<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> while it has lost none of its former commercial value,
+is, besides, of much pal&aelig;ontological interest; fossil insects, and
+other extraneous bodies, are often found enclosed in the nodules,
+where they have been preserved in all their original colouring and
+integrity of form. As the poet says&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i00">&#8220;The things themselves are neither rich nor rare,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The wonder&#8217;s how the devil they got there.&#8221;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The natural aromatic qualities of the amber combined with exclusion
+of air, &amp;c., have embalmed them, and thus transmitted to our times
+the smaller beings and the most delicate organisms of earlier ages.</p>
+
+<p>The Miocene rocks, of marine origin, are very imperfectly represented
+in the Paris basin, and their composition changes with the
+localities. They are divided into two groups of beds: 1. <i>Molasse</i>,
+or soft clay; 2. <i>Faluns</i>, or shelly marl.</p>
+
+<p>In the Paris basin the <i>Molasse</i> presents, at its base, quartzose sands
+of great thickness, sometimes pure, sometimes a little argillaceous or
+micaceous. They include beds of sandstone (with some limestone),
+which are worked in the quarries of Fontainebleau, d&#8217;Orsay, and
+Montmorency, for paving-stone for the streets of Paris and the neighbouring
+towns. This last formation is altogether marine. To these
+sands and sandstones succeeds a fresh-water deposit, formed of a
+whitish and partly siliceous limestone, which forms the ground of the
+plateau of La Beauce, between the valleys of the Seine and the Loire:
+this is called the <i>Calcaire de la Beauce</i>. It is there mixed with a reddish
+and more or less sandy clay, containing small blocks of burrh-stone
+used for millstones, easily recognised by their yellow-ochreous colour,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>
+and the numerous cavities or hollows with which their texture is
+honeycombed.</p>
+
+<p>This grit, or <i>silex meulier</i>, is much used in Paris for the arches of
+cellars, underground conduits, sewers, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Faluns</i> in the Paris basin consist of divers beds formed of
+shells and Corals, almost entirely broken up. In many parts of the
+country, and especially in the environs of Tours and Bordeaux, they
+are dug out for manuring the land. To the Falun series belong the
+fresh-water marl, limestone, and sand, which composed the celebrated
+mound of Sansan, near Auch, in the Department of Gers, in which
+M. Lartet found a considerable number of bones of Turtles, Birds,
+and especially Mammals, such as <i>Mastodon</i> and <i>Dinotherium</i>, together
+with a species of long-armed ape, which he named <i>Pithecus
+antiquus</i>, from the circumstance of its affording the earliest instance
+of the discovery of the remains of the quadrumana, or monkey-tribe,
+in Europe. Isolated masses of Faluns occur, also, near the mouth
+of the Loire and to the south of Tours, and in Brittany.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_173" id="Fig_173"></a>
+<img src="images/illo367.png" alt="Fig. 173" width="200" height="321" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 173.&mdash;Caryophylla cyathus.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></p>
+
+<h4>PLIOCENE PERIOD.</h4>
+
+<p>This last period of the Tertiary epoch was marked, in some parts
+of Europe, by great movements of the terrestrial crust, always due to
+the same cause&mdash;namely, the continual and gradual cooling of the
+globe. This leads us to recall what we have repeatedly stated, that
+this cooling, during which the outer zone of the fluid mass passed to
+the solid state, produced irregularities and inequalities in the external
+surface, sometimes accompanied by fractures through which the semi-fluid
+or pasty matter poured itself; leading afterwards to the upheaval
+of mountain ranges through these gaping chasms. Thus,
+during the Pliocene period, many mountains and mountain-chains
+were formed in Europe by basaltic and volcanic eruptions. These
+upheavals were preceded by sudden and irregular movements of the
+elastic mass of the crust&mdash;by earthquakes, in short&mdash;phenomena
+which have been already sufficiently explained.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>In order to understand the nature of the vegetation of the period,
+as compared with that with which we are familiar, let us listen to
+M. Lecoq: &#8220;Arrived, finally,&#8221; says that author, &#8220;at the last period
+which preceded our own epoch&mdash;the epoch in which the temperate
+zones were still embellished by tropical forms of vegetation, which
+were, however, slowly declining, driven out as it were by a cooling
+climate and by the invasion of more vigorous species&mdash;great terrestrial
+commotions took place: mountains are covered with eternal
+snow; continents now take their present forms; but many great
+lakes, now dried up, still existed; great rivers flowed majestically
+through smiling countries, whose surface man had not yet come
+to modify.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Two hundred and twelve species compose this rich flora, in
+which the Ferns of the earlier ages of the world are scarcely indicated,
+where the Palms seem to have quite disappeared, and we see
+forms much more like those which are constantly under our observation.
+The <i>Culmites arundinaceus</i> (Unger) abounds near the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>
+water, where also grows the <i>Cyperites tertiarius</i> (Unger), where floats
+<i>Dotamogeton geniculatus</i> (Braun), and where we see submerged <i>Isoctites
+Brunnii</i> (Unger). Great Conifers still form the forests. This fine
+family has, as we have seen, passed through every epoch, and still
+presents us with its elegant forms and persistent evergreen foliage;
+<i>Taxodites</i>, <i>Thuyoxylum</i>, <i>Abietites</i>, <i>Pinites</i>, <i>Eleoxylon</i>, and <i>Taxites</i>
+being still the forms most abundant in these old natural forests.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The predominating character of this period is the abundance
+of the group of the Amentace&aelig;; whilst the Conifers are thirty-two in
+number, of the other we reckon fifty-two species, among which are
+many European genera, such as <i>Alnus</i>; <i>Quercus</i>, the oak; <i>Salix</i>, the
+willow; <i>Fagus</i>, the beech; <i>Betula</i>, the birch, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The following families constitute the arborescent flora of the
+period besides those already mentioned:&mdash;Balsaminace&aelig;, Laurace&aelig;,
+Thymel&aelig;ace&aelig;, Santalace&aelig;, Cornace&aelig;, Myrtace&aelig;, Calycanthace&aelig;,
+Pomace&aelig;, Rosace&aelig;, Amygdale&aelig;, Leguminos&aelig;, Anacardiace&aelig;, Juglandace&aelig;,
+Rhamnace&aelig;, Celastrinace&aelig;, Sapindace&aelig;, Meliace&aelig;, Acerace&aelig;,
+Tiliace&aelig;, Magnoliace&aelig;, Capparidace&aelig;, Sapoteace&aelig;, Styracace&aelig;,
+Oleace&aelig;, Juncace&aelig;, Ericace&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In all these families great numbers of European genera are
+found, often even more abundant in species than now. Thus, as
+Brongniart observes, in this flora we reckon fourteen species of Maple;
+three species of Oak; and these species proceed from two or three
+very circumscribed localities, which would not probably, at the present
+time, represent in a radius of several leagues more than three or
+four species of these genera.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>An important difference distinguishes the Pliocene flora, as compared
+with those of preceding epochs, it is the absence of the family
+of Palms in the European flora, as noted by Lecoq, which forms such
+an essential botanical feature in the Miocene period. We mention
+this, because, in spite of the general analogy which exists between
+the vegetation of the Pliocene period and that of temperate regions
+in the present day, it does not appear that there is a single species
+of the former period absolutely identical with any one now growing
+in Europe. Thus, the European vegetation, even at the most recent
+geological epoch, differs specifically from the vegetation of our age,
+although a general resemblance is observable between the two.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_174" id="Fig_174"></a>
+<img src="images/illo370.png" alt="Fig. 174" width="500" height="280" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 174.&mdash;Skeleton of the Mastodon of Turin.</p></div>
+
+<p>The terrestrial animals of the Pliocene period present us with a
+great number of creatures alike remarkable from their proportions
+and from their structure. The Mammals and the batrachian Reptiles
+are alike deserving of our attention in this epoch. Among the former
+the Mastodon, which makes its first appearance in the Miocene<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>
+formations, continues to be found, but becomes extinct apparently
+before we reach the upper beds. Others present themselves of
+genera totally unknown till now, some of them, such as the <i>Hippopotamus</i>,
+the <i>Camel</i>, the <i>Horse</i>, the <i>Ox</i>, and the <i>Deer</i>, surviving to the
+present day. The fossil horse, of all animals, is perhaps that which
+presents the greatest resemblance
+to existing
+individuals; but it was
+small, not exceeding the
+ass in size.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Mastodon</i>, which
+we have considered in
+our description of the preceding
+period, still existed
+in Pliocene times; in
+<a href="#Fig_174">Fig. 174</a> the species living
+in this latter age is represented&mdash;it
+is called the
+Mastodon of Turin. As
+we see, it has only two
+projecting tusks or defences
+in the upper jaw,
+instead of four, like the
+American species, which
+is described in <a href="#Page_343">page 343</a>.
+Other species belonging
+to this period are not uncommon;
+the portion of
+an upper jaw-bone with
+a tooth which was found
+in the Norwich Crag at Postwick, near Norwich, Dr. Falconer has shown
+to be a Pliocene species, first observed in Auvergne, and named by
+Messrs. Croizet and Jobert, its discoverers, <i>Mastodon Arvernensis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Hippopotamus</i>, <i>Tapir</i>, and <i>Camel</i>, which appear during the
+Pliocene period, present no peculiar characteristics to arrest our
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>The Apes begin to abound in species; the Stags were already
+numerous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_175" id="Fig_175"></a>
+<img src="images/illo371.png" alt="Fig. 175" width="350" height="429" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 175.&mdash;Head of Rhinoceros tichorhinus, partly restored
+under the direction of Eugene Deslongchamps.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Rhinoceros</i>, which made its appearance in the Miocene period,
+appears in greater numbers in the Pliocene deposits. The species
+peculiar to the Tertiary epoch is <i>R. tichorhinus</i>, which is descriptive
+of the bony partition which separated its two nostrils, an anatomical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span>
+arrangement which is not found in our existing species. Two horns
+surmount the nose of this animal, as represented in <a href="#Fig_175">Fig. 175</a>. Two
+living species, namely, the Rhinoceros of Africa and Sumatra, have
+two horns, but they are much smaller than those of <i>R. tichorhinus</i>.
+The existing Indian Rhinoceros has only one horn.</p>
+
+<p>The body of <i>R. tichorhinus</i> was covered with very thick hair, and
+its skin was without the rough and callous scales which we remark on
+the skin of the living African species.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporaneously with this gigantic species there existed a
+dwarf species about the size of our Hog; and along with it several
+intermediate species, whose bones are found in sufficient numbers to
+enable us to reconstruct the skeleton. The curvature of the nasal
+bone of the fossil Rhinoceros and its gigantic horn have given rise to
+many tales and popular legends. The famous bird, the <i>Roc</i>, which
+played so great a part in the fabulous myths of the people of Asia,
+originated in the discovery in the bosom of the earth of the cranium
+and horns of a fossil Rhinoceros. The famous dragons of western
+tradition have a similar origin.</p>
+
+<p>In the city of Klagenfurth, in Carinthia, is a fountain on which is
+sculptured the head of a monstrous dragon with six feet, and a head
+surmounted by a stout horn. According to the popular tradition still
+prevalent at Klagenfurth, this dragon lived in a cave, whence it
+issued from time to time to frighten and ravage the country. A bold
+cavalier kills the dragon, paying with his life for this proof of his
+courage. It is the same legend which is current in every country, from
+that of the valiant St. George and the Dragon and of St. Martha,
+who nearly about the same age conquered the fabulous <i>Tarasque</i> of
+the city of Languedoc, which bears the name of Tarascon.</p>
+
+<p>But at Klagenfurth the popular legend has happily found a
+mouth-piece&mdash;the head of the pretended dragon, killed by the
+valorous knight, is preserved in the H&ocirc;tel de Ville, and this head has
+furnished the sculptor for his fountain with a model for the head of
+his statue. Herr Unger, of Vienna, recognised at a glance the cranium
+of the fossil Rhinoceros; its discovery in some cave had probably
+originated the fable of the knight and the dragon. And all legends
+are capable of some such explanation when we can trace them back
+to their sources, and reason upon the circumstances on which they are
+founded.</p>
+
+<p>The traveller Pallas gives a very interesting account of a <i>Rhinoceros
+tichorhinus</i> which he saw, with his own eyes, taken out of the ice
+in which its skin, hair, and flesh had been preserved. It was in
+December, 1771, that the body of the Rhinoceros was observed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span>
+buried in the frozen sand upon the banks of the Viloui, a river which
+discharges itself into the Lena below Yakutsk, in Siberia, in 64&deg; north
+latitude. &#8220;I ought to speak,&#8221; the learned naturalist says, &#8220;of an
+interesting discovery which I owe to the Chevalier de Bril. Some
+Yakouts hunting this winter near the Viloui found the body of a large
+unknown animal. The Sieur Ivan Argounof, inspector of the Zimovic,
+had sent on to Irkutsk the head and a fore and hind foot of the animal,
+all very well preserved.&#8221; The Sieur Argounof, in his report, states
+that the animal was half buried in the sand; it measured as it lay
+three ells and three-quarters Russian in length, and he estimated its
+height at three and a half; the animal, still retaining its flesh, was
+covered with skin which resembled tanned leather; but it was so
+decomposed that he could only remove the fore and hind foot and the
+head, which he sent to Irkutsk, where Pallas saw them. &#8220;They
+appeared to me at first glance,&#8221; he says, &#8220;to belong to a Rhinoceros;
+the head especially was quite recognisable, since it was covered with
+its leathery skin, and the skin had preserved all its external characters,
+and many short hairs. The eyelids had even escaped total decay, and
+in the cranium here and there, under the skin, I perceived some matter
+which was evidently the remains of putrefied flesh. I also remarked
+in the feet the remains of the tendons and cartilages where the skin
+had been removed. The head was without its horn, and the feet
+without hoofs. The place of the horn, and the raised skin which had
+surrounded it, and the division which existed in both the hind and
+fore feet, were evident proofs of its being a Rhinoceros. In a dissertation
+addressed to the Academy of St. Petersburg, I have given a full
+account of this singular discovery. I give there reasons which prove
+that a Rhinoceros had penetrated nearly to the Lena, in the most
+northern regions, and which have led to the discovery of the remains
+of other strange animals in Siberia. I shall confine myself here to a
+description of the country where these curious remains were found,
+and to the cause of their long preservation.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The country watered by the Viloui is mountainous; all the
+stratification of these mountains is horizontal. The beds consist of
+selenitic and calcareous schists and beds of clay, mixed with numerous
+beds of pyrites. On the banks of the Viloui we meet with coal much
+broken; probably coal-beds exist higher up near to the river. The
+brook Kemtendo&iuml; skirts a mountain entirely formed of selenite or
+crystallised sulphate of lime and of rock-salt, and this mountain of
+alabaster is more than 300 versts (about 200 miles), in ascending the
+Viloui, from the place where the Rhinoceros was found. Opposite
+to the place we see, near the river, a low hill, about a hundred feet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span>
+high, which, though sandy, contains some beds of millstone. The
+body of the Rhinoceros had been buried in coarse gravelly sand near
+this hill, and the nature of the soil, which is always frozen, had preserved
+it. The soil near the Viloui never thaws to a great depth, for,
+although the rays of the sun soften the soil to the depth of two yards
+in the more elevated sandy places, in the valleys, where the soil is
+half sand and half clay, it remains frozen at the end of summer half
+an ell below the surface. Without this intense cold the skin of the
+animal and many parts of it would long since have perished. The
+animal could only have been transported from some southern country
+to the frozen north at the epoch of the Deluge, for the most ancient
+chronicles speak of no changes of the globe more recent, to which we
+could attribute the deposit of these remains and of the bones of
+elephants which are found dispersed all over Siberia.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this extract the author refers to a memoir previously published
+by himself, in the &#8220;Commentarii&#8221; of the Academy of St. Petersburg.
+This memoir, written in Latin, and entitled &#8220;Upon some Animals of
+Siberia,&#8221; has never been translated. After some general considerations,
+the author thus relates the circumstances attending the discovery
+of the fossil Rhinoceros, with some official documents affirming
+their correctness, and the manner in which the facts were brought
+under his notice by the Governor of Irkutsk, General Bril: &#8220;The
+skin and tendons of the head and feet still preserved considerable
+flexibility, imbued as it were with humidity from the earth; but the
+flesh exhaled a fetid ammoniacal odour, resembling that of a latrine.
+Compelled to cross the Ba&iuml;kal Lake before the ice broke up, I could
+neither draw up a sufficiently careful description nor make sketches
+of the parts of the animal; but I made them place the remains, without
+leaving Irkutsk, upon a furnace, with orders that after my departure
+they should be dried by slow degrees and with the greatest care,
+continuing the process for some time, because the viscous matter
+which incessantly oozed out could only be dissipated by great heat.
+It happened, unfortunately, that during the operation the posterior
+part of the upper thigh and the foot were burnt in the overheated
+furnace, and they were thrown away; the head and the extremity of
+the hind foot only remained intact and undamaged by the process of
+drying. The odour of the softer parts, which still contained viscous
+matter in their interior, was changed by the desiccation into one
+resembling that of flesh decomposed in the sun.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The Rhinoceros to which the members belonged was neither
+large for its species nor advanced in age, as the bones of the head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span>
+attest, yet it was evidently an adult from the comparison made of the
+size of the cranium as compared with that of others of the same
+species more aged, which were afterwards found in a fossil state in
+divers parts of Siberia. The entire length of the head from the
+upper part of the nape of the neck to the extremity of the denuded
+bone of the jaw was thirty inches; the horns were not with the head,
+but we could still see evident vestiges of two horns, the nasal and
+frontal. The front, unequal and a little protuberant between the
+orbits, and of a rhomboidal egg-shape, is deficient in the skin, and
+only covered by a light horny membrane, bristling with straight hairs
+as hard as horn.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The skin which covers the greater part of the head is in the
+dried state, a tenacious, fibrous substance, like curried leather, of a
+brownish-black on the outside and white in the inside; when burnt,
+it had the odour of common leather; the mouth, in the place where
+the lips should have been soft and fleshy, was putrid and much
+lacerated; the extremities of the maxillary bone were bare. Upon
+the left side, which had probably been longest exposed to the air,
+the skin was here and there decomposed and rubbed on the surface;
+nevertheless, the greater part of the mouth was so well preserved on
+the right side that the pores, or little holes from which doubtless the
+hairs had fallen, were still visible all over that side, and even in front.
+In the right side of the jaw there were still in certain places
+numerous hairs grouped in tufts, for the most part rubbed down to
+the roots, and here and there of two or three lines still retaining their
+full length. They stand erect, are stiff, and of an ashy colour, but
+with one or two black, and a little stiffer than the others, in each bunch.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;What was most astonishing, however, was the fact that the skin
+which covered the orbits of the eyes, and formed the eyelids, was
+so well preserved and so healthy that the openings of the eyelids
+could be seen, though deformed and scarcely penetrable to the
+finger; the skin which surrounded the orbits, though desiccated,
+formed circular furrows. The cavities of the eyes were filled with
+matter, either argillaceous or animal, such as still occupied a part of
+the cavity of the cranium. Under the skin the fibres and tendons
+still remained, and above all the remains of the temporal muscles;
+finally, in the throat hung some great bundles of muscular fibres.
+The denuded bones were young and less solid than in other fossil
+crania of the same species. The bone which gave support to the
+nasal horn was not yet attached to the <i>vomer</i>; it was unprovided
+with articulations like the processes of the young bones. The
+extremities of the jaws preserved no vestige either of teeth or sockets,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span>
+but they were covered here and there with the remains of the
+integument. The first molar was distant about four inches from the
+extreme edge of the jaw.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The foot which remains to me, and which, if I am not mistaken,
+belongs to the left hind limb, has not only preserved its skin quite
+intact and furnished with hairs, or their roots, as well as the tendons
+and ligaments of the heel in all their strength, but also the skin
+itself quite whole as far as the bend in the knee. The place of the
+muscles was filled with black mud. The extremity of the foot is
+cloven into three angles, the bony parts of which, with the periosteum,
+still remain here and there; the horny hoofs had been detached.
+The hairs adhering in many places to the skin were from one to
+three lines in length, tolerably stiff and ash-coloured. What remains
+of it proves that the foot was covered with bunches of hair, which
+hung down.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We have never, so far as I know, observed so much hair on any
+rhinoceros which has been brought to Europe in our times, as appears
+to have been presented by the head and feet we have described. I
+leave you then to decide if our rhinoceros of the Lena was born or
+not in the temperate climate of Central Asia. In fact, the rhinoceros,
+as I gather from the relations of travellers, belongs to the forests of
+Northern India; and it is likely enough that these animals differ in
+a more hairy skin from those which live in the burning zones of
+Africa, just in the same way that other animals of a hotter climate are
+less warmly covered than those of the same genera in temperate
+countries.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of all fossil ruminants one of the largest and most singular is
+the <i>Sivatherium</i>, whose remains have been found in the valley of
+Murkunda, in the Sewalik branch of the Sub-Himalayan Mountains.
+Its name is taken from that of Siva, the Indian deity worshipped in
+that part of India.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Sivatherium giganteum</i> had a body as bulky as that of an ox,
+and bore a sort of resemblance to the living Elk. It combined in
+itself the characteristics of different kinds of Herbivores, at the same
+time that it was marked by individual peculiarities. The massive head
+possessed four deciduous, hollow horns, like the Prongbuck; two front
+ones conical, smooth, and rapidly rising to a point, and two hinder ones
+of larger size, and branched, projected forward above the eyes.<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> Thus
+it differed from the deer, whose solid horns annually drop off, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span>
+from the antelope tribe, sheep and oxen, whose hollow horns are persistent,
+and resembled only one living ruminant, the prongbuck, in
+having had hollow horns subject to shedding. <a href="#Fig_176">Fig. 176</a> is a representation
+of the <i>Sivatherium</i> restored, in so far, at least, as it is
+possible to do so in the case of an animal of which only the cranium
+and a few other bones have been discovered.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_176" id="Fig_176"></a>
+<img src="images/illo377.png" alt="Fig. 176" width="450" height="355" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 176.&mdash;Sivatherium restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>As if to rival these gigantic Mammals, great numbers of Reptiles
+seem to have lived in the Pliocene period, although they are no
+longer of the same importance as in the Secondary epoch. Only
+one of these, however, need occupy our attention, it is the <i>Salamander</i>.
+The living Salamanders are amphibious Batrachians, with
+smooth skins, and rarely attaining the length of twenty inches. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
+Salamander of the Tertiary epoch had the dimensions of a Crocodile;
+and its discovery opens a pregnant page in the history of geology.
+The skeleton of this Reptile was long considered to be that of a
+human victim of the deluge, and was spoken of as &#8220;<i>homo diluvii
+testis</i>.&#8221; It required all the efforts of Camper and Cuvier to eradicate
+this error from the minds of the learned, and probably in the minds
+of the vulgar it survived them both.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the left bank of the Rhine, not far from Constance, a little
+above Stein, and near the village of &#338;ningen, in Switzerland, there
+are some fine quarries of schistose limestone. In consequence of
+their varied products these quarries have often been described by
+naturalists; they are of Tertiary age, and were visited, among others,
+by Horace de Saussure, by whom they are described in the third
+volume of his &#8220;Voyage dans les Alpes.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In 1725, a large block of stone was found, incrusted in which a
+skeleton was discovered, remarkably well preserved; and Scheuchzer,
+a Swiss naturalist of some celebrity, who added to his scientific pursuits
+the study of theology, was called upon to give his opinion as to
+the nature of this relic of ancient times. He thought he recognised
+in the skeleton that of a man. In 1726 he published a description
+of these fossil remains in the &#8220;Philosophical Transactions&#8221; of
+London; and in 1731 he made it the subject of a special dissertation,
+entitled &#8220;<i>Homo diluvii testis</i>&#8221;&mdash;Man, a witness of the Deluge. This
+dissertation was accompanied by an engraving of the skeleton.
+Scheuchzer returned to the subject in another of his works, &#8220;Physica
+Sacra,&#8221; saying: &#8220;It is certain that this schist contains the half, or
+nearly so, of the skeleton of a man; that the substance even of the
+bones, and, what is more, of the flesh and of parts still softer than
+the flesh, are there incorporated in the stone; in a word, it is one of
+the rarest relics which we have of that accursed race which was
+buried under the waters. The figure shows us the contour of the
+frontal bone, the orbits with the openings which give passage to the
+great nerves of the fifth pair. We see there the remains of the
+brain, of the sphenoidal bone, of the roots of the nose, a notable
+fragment of the maxillary bone, and some vestiges of the liver.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>And our pious author exclaims, this time taking the lyrical form&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i00">&#8220;Betr&uuml;btes Beinger&uuml;st von einem altem S&uuml;nder<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Erweiche, Stein, das Herz der neuen Bosheitskinder!&#8221;<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i00">&#8220;O deplorable skeleton of an accursed ancient,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mayst thou soften the hearts of the late children of wickedness!&#8221;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The reader has before him the fossil of the &#338;ningen schist <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>(<a href="#Fig_177">Fig.
+177</a>). It is obviously impossible
+to see in this skeleton what the
+enthusiastic savant wished to perceive.
+And we can form an idea
+from this instance, of the errors
+to which a preconceived idea,
+blindly followed, may sometimes
+lead. How a naturalist of such
+eminence as Scheuchzer could
+have perceived in this enormous
+head, and in these upper members,
+the least resemblance to
+the osseous parts of a man is
+incomprehensible!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_177" id="Fig_177"></a>
+<img src="images/illo379.png" alt="Fig. 177" width="600" height="183" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 177.&mdash;Andrias Scheuchzeri.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Pre-Adamite &#8220;witness of
+the deluge&#8221; made a great noise
+in Germany, and no one there
+dared to dispute the opinion of
+the Swiss naturalist, under his
+double authority of theologian
+and savant. This, probably, is the
+reason why Gesner in his &#8220;Trait&eacute;
+des P&eacute;trifactions,&#8221; published in
+1758, describes with admiration
+the fossil of &#338;ningen, which he
+attributes, with Scheuchzer, to
+the <i>antediluvian man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Pierre Camper alone dared
+to oppose this opinion, which
+was then universally professed
+throughout Germany. He went
+to &#338;ningen in 1787 to examine
+the celebrated fossil animal; he
+had no difficulty in detecting
+the error into which Scheuchzer
+had fallen. He recognised at
+once that it was a Reptile; but
+he deceived himself, nevertheless,
+as to the family to which
+it belonged; he took it for a
+Saurian. &#8220;A petrified lizard,&#8221;
+Camper wrote; &#8220;could it possibly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span>
+pass for a man?&#8221; It was left to Cuvier to place in its true family the
+fossil of &#338;ningen; in a memoir on the subject he demonstrated
+that this skeleton belonged to one of the amphibious batrachians
+called Salamanders. &#8220;Take,&#8221; he says in his memoir, &#8220;a skeleton
+of a Salamander and place it alongside the fossil, without allowing
+yourself to be misled by the difference of size, just as you could
+easily do in comparing a drawing of the salamander of the natural
+size with one of the fossil reduced to a sixteenth part of its dimensions,
+and everything will be explained in the clearest manner.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I am even persuaded,&#8221; adds the great naturalist, in a subsequent
+edition of this memoir, &#8220;that, if we could re-arrange the fossil and
+look closer into the details, we should find still more numerous
+proofs in the articular faces of the vertebr&aelig;, in those of the jaws, in
+the vestiges of very small teeth, and even in the labyrinth of the ear.&#8221;
+And he invited the proprietors or depositaries of the precious fossil
+to proceed to such an examination. Cuvier had the gratification of
+making, personally, the investigation he suggested. Finding himself
+at Haarlem, he asked permission of the Director of the Museum to
+examine the stone which contained the supposed fossil man. The
+operation was carried on in the presence of the director and another
+naturalist. A drawing of the skeleton of a Salamander was placed
+near the fossil by Cuvier, who had the satisfaction of recognising, as
+the stone was chipped away under the chisel, each of the bones,
+announced by the drawing, as they made their appearance. In the
+natural sciences there are few instances of such triumphant results&mdash;few
+demonstrations so satisfactory as this, of the certitude of the
+methods of observation and induction on which pal&aelig;ontology is
+based.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>During the Pliocene period Birds of very numerous species, and
+which still exist, gave animation to the vast solitudes which man had
+not yet occupied. Vultures and Eagles, among the rapacious birds;
+and among other genera of birds, gulls, swallows, pies, parroquets,
+pheasants, jungle-fowl, ducks, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>In the marine Pliocene fauna we see, for the first time, aquatic
+Mammals or Cetaceans&mdash;the <i>Dolphin</i> and <i>Bal&aelig;na</i> belonging to the
+period. Very little, however, is known of the fossil species belonging
+to the two genera. Some bones of Dolphins, found in
+different parts of France, apprise us, however, that the ancient
+species differed from those of our days. The same remark may be
+made respecting the Narwhal. This Cetacean, so remarkable for its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span>
+long tusk, or tooth, in the form of a horn, has at all times been an
+object of curiosity.</p>
+
+<p>The Whales, whose remains are found in the Pliocene rocks,
+differ little from those now living. But the observations geologists
+have been able to make upon these gigantic remains of the ancient
+world are too few to allow of any very precise conclusion. It is
+certain, however, that the fossil differs from the existing Whale in
+certain characters drawn from the bones of the cranium. The
+discovery of an enormous fragment of a fossil Whale, made at Paris
+in 1779, in the cellar of a wine-merchant in the Rue Dauphine, created
+a great sensation. Science pronounced, without much hesitation,
+on the true origin of these remains; but the public had some difficulty
+in comprehending the existence of a whale in the Rue Dauphine. It
+was in digging some holes in his cellars that the wine-merchant made
+this interesting discovery. His workmen found, under the pick, an
+enormous piece of bone buried in a yellow clay. Its complete
+extraction caused him a great deal of labour, and presented many
+difficulties. Little interested in making further discoveries, our
+wine-merchant contented himself with raising, with the help of a
+chisel, a portion of the monstrous bone. The piece thus detached
+weighed 227 pounds. It was exhibited in the wine-shop, where
+large numbers of the curious went to see it. Lamanon, a naturalist
+of that day, who examined it, conjectured that the bone belonged to
+the head of a whale. As to the bone itself, it was purchased for the
+Teyler Museum, at Haarlem, where it still remains.</p>
+
+<p>There exists in the Museum of Natural History in Paris only a
+copy of the bone of the whale of the Rue Dauphine, which received
+the name of <i>Bal&aelig;nodon Lamanoni</i>. The examination of this figure
+by Cuvier led him to recognise it as a bone belonging to one of the
+antediluvian Bal&aelig;n&aelig;, which differed not only from the living species,
+but from all others known up to this time.</p>
+
+<p>Since the days of Lamanon, other bones of Bal&aelig;na have been
+discovered in the soil in different countries, but the study of these
+fossils has always left something to be desired. In 1806 a fossil
+Bal&aelig;na was disinterred at Monte-Pulgnasco by M. Cortesi. Another
+skeleton, seventy-two feet long, was found on the banks of the river
+Forth, near Alloa, in Scotland. In 1816 many bones of this animal
+were discovered in a little valley formed by a brook running into
+the Chiavana, one of the affluents of the Po.</p>
+
+<p>Cuvier has established, among the cetacean fossils, a particular
+genus, which he designates under the name of <i>Ziphius</i>. The animals
+to which he gave the name, however, are not identical either with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span>
+the Whales (<i>Bal&aelig;n&aelig;</i>), the Cachelots or Sperm Whales, or with the
+Hyperoodons. They hold, in the order of Cetaceans, the place that
+the Pal&aelig;otherium and Anoplotherium occupy among the Pachyderms,
+or that which the Megatherium and Megalonyx occupy in the order
+of the Edentates. The <i>Ziphius</i> still lives in the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_178" id="Fig_178"></a>
+<img src="images/illo382.png" alt="Fig. 178" width="350" height="496" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 178.&mdash;Pecten Jacob&aelig;us.<br />
+(Living species.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The genera of Mollusca, which distinguish this period from all
+others, are very numerous. They include the Cardium, Panop&aelig;a,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span>
+Pecten (<a href="#Fig_178">Fig. 178</a>), Fusus, Murex, Cypr&aelig;a, Voluta, Chenopus, Buccinum,
+Nassa, and many others.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The <i>Pliocene</i> series prevails over Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex,
+where it is popularly known as the Crag. In Essex it rests directly
+on the London Clay. Near Norwich it rests on the Chalk.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Pliocene rocks</i> are divided into lower and upper. The <i>Older
+Pliocene</i> comprises the White or Coralline Crag, including the Red
+Crag of Suffolk, containing marine shells, of which sixty per cent.
+are of extinct species. The <i>Newer Pliocene</i> is represented by the
+Fluvio-marine or Norwich Crag, which last, according to the Rev.
+Osmond Fisher, is overlaid by Chillesford clay, a very variable and
+more arctic deposit, often passing suddenly into sands without a
+trace of clay.</p>
+
+<p>The Norfolk Forest Bed rests upon the Chillesford clay, when
+that is not denuded.</p>
+
+<p>A ferruginous bed, rich in mammalian remains, and known as the
+Elephant bed, overlies the Forest Bed, of which it is considered by
+the Rev. John Gunn to be an upper division.</p>
+
+<p>The Crag, divided into three portions, is a local deposit of limited
+extent. It consists of variable beds of sand, gravel, and marl; sometimes
+it is a shelly ferruginous grit, as the Red Crag; at others a soft
+calcareous rock made up of shells and bryozoa, as the Coralline Crag.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Coralline Crag</i>, of very limited extent in this country, ranges
+over about twenty miles between the rivers Stour and Alde, with a
+breadth of three or four. It consists of two divisions&mdash;an upper
+one, formed chiefly of the remains of Bryozoa, and a lower one of
+light-coloured sands, with a profusion of shells. The upper division
+is about thirty-six feet thick at Sudbourne in Suffolk, where it consists
+of a series of beds almost entirely composed of comminuted shells
+and remains of Bryozoa, forming a soft building-stone. The lower
+division is about forty-seven feet thick at Sutton; making the total
+thickness of the Coralline Crag about eighty-three feet.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Coralline Crag Mollusca belong to living species; they
+are supposed to indicate an equable climate free from intense cold&mdash;an
+inference rendered more probable by the prevalence of northern
+forms of shells, such as <i>Glycimeris</i>, <i>Cyprina</i>, and <i>Astarte</i>. The late
+Professor Edward Forbes, to whom science is indebted for so many
+philosophical deductions, points out some remarkable inferences
+drawn from the fauna of the Pliocene seas.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> It appears that in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span>
+glacial period, which we shall shortly have under consideration, many
+shells, previously established in the temperate zone, retreated southwards,
+to avoid an uncongenial climate. The Professor gives a list
+of fifty which inhabited the British seas while the Coralline and Red
+Crag were forming, but which are all wanting in the glacial deposits;<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>
+from which he infers that they migrated at the approach of the glacial
+period, and returned again northwards, when the temperate climate
+was restored.<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Upper or Mammaliferous (or Norwich) Crag, of which
+there is a good exposure in a pit near the asylum at Thorpe, bones
+of Mammalia are found with existing species of shells. The greater
+number of the Mammalian remains have been supposed, until lately,
+to be extraneous fossils; but they are now considered by Mr.
+Prestwich as truly contemporaneous. The peculiar mixture of
+southern forms of life with others of a more northern type lead to
+the inference that, at this early period, a lowering of temperature
+began gradually to set in from the period of the Coralline Crag to
+that of the Forest Bed, which marks the commencement of the
+Glacial Period.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction between the Mammaliferous Crag of Norwich
+and the Red Crag of Suffolk is purely pal&aelig;ontological, no case of
+superposition having yet been discovered, and they are now generally
+considered as contemporaneous. Two Proboscidians abundant during
+the Crag period were the <i>Mastodon Arvernensis</i> and the <i>Elephas
+meridionalis</i>. In the Red Crag the Mastodon is stated by the Rev.
+John Gunn to be more abundant than the Elephant, while in the
+Norwich beds their proportions are nearly equal.</p>
+
+<p>At or near the base of the Red Crag there is a remarkable
+accumulation, varying in thickness from a few inches to two feet, of
+bones, teeth, and phosphatic nodules (called coprolites), which are
+worked for making superphosphate of lime for agricultural manure.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign equivalents of the older Pliocene are found in the
+<i>sub-Apennine strata</i>. These rocks are sufficiently remarkable in the
+county of Suffolk, where they consist of a series of marine beds of
+quartzose sand, coloured red by ferruginous matter.</p>
+
+<p>At the foot of the Apennine chain, which forms the backbone, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span>
+it were, of Italy, throwing out many spurs, the formations on either
+side, and on both sides of the Adriatic, are Tertiary strata; they form
+in many cases, low hills lying between the Apennines of Secondary
+formation and the sea, the strata generally being a light-brown or
+bluish marl covered with yellow calcareous sand and gravel, with
+some fossil shells, which, according to Brocchi, are found all over
+Italy. But this wide range includes some older Tertiary formations,
+as in the strata of the Superga near Turin, which are Miocene.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Antwerp</i> Crag, which is of the same age with the Red and
+Coralline Crag of Suffolk, forms great accumulations upon divers
+points of Europe: at Antwerp in Belgium, at Carentan and Perpignan,
+and, we believe, in the basin of the Rh&ocirc;ne, in France. The
+thickest deposits of this rock consist of clay and sand, alternating with
+marl and arenaceous limestone. These constitute the sub-Apennine
+hills, alluded to above as extending on both slopes of the Apennines.
+This deposit occupies the Upper Val d&#8217;Arno, above Florence. Its
+presence is recognised over a great part of Australia. Finally, the
+seven hills of Rome are composed, in part, of marine Tertiary rocks
+belonging to the Pliocene period.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXV" id="Plate_XXV"></a>
+<img src="images/illo386.png" alt="Plate XXV" width="600" height="388" />
+<p class="caption">XXV.&mdash;Ideal Landscape of the Pliocene Period.</p></div>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXV">Plate XXV.</a></span> an ideal landscape of the Pliocene period is
+given under European latitudes. In the background of the picture,
+a mountain, recently thrown up, reminds us that the period was one
+of frequent convulsions, in which the land was disturbed and upheaved,
+and mountains and mountain-ranges made their appearance. The
+vegetation is nearly identical with the present. We see assembled
+in the foreground the more important animals of the period&mdash;the
+fossil species, as well as those which have survived to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the Pliocene period, and in consequence of the
+deposits left by the seas of the Tertiary epoch, the continent of
+Europe was nearly what it is now; few permanent changes have
+occurred since to disturb its general outline. Although the point does
+not admit of actual proof, there is strong presumptive evidence that
+in this period, or in that immediately subsequent to it, the entire
+European area, with some trifling exceptions, including the Alps and
+Apennines, emerged from the deep. In Sicily, Newer Pliocene rocks,
+covering nearly half the surface of the island, have been raised from
+2,000 to 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. Fossil shells have
+been observed at the height of 8,000 feet in the Pyrenees; and, as if
+to fix the date of upheaval, there are great masses of granite which
+have penetrated the Lias and the Chalk. Fossil shells of the period
+are also found at a height of 10,000 feet in the Alps, at 13,000 feet
+in the Andes, and at 18,000 feet in the Himalayas.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span>In the mountainous regions of the Alps it is always difficult to
+determine the age of beds, in consequence of the disturbed state of
+the strata; for instance, the lofty chain of the Swiss Jura consists of
+many parallel ridges, with intervening longitudinal valleys; the ridges
+formed of contorted fossiliferous strata, which are extensive in proportion
+to the number and thickness of the formations which have
+been exposed on upheaval. The proofs which these regions offer of
+comparatively recent elevation are numerous. In the central Alps,
+Cretaceous, Oolitic, Liassic, and Eocene strata are found at the
+loftiest summits, passing insensibly into metamorphic rocks of granular
+limestone, and into talcose and mica-schists. In the eastern parts of
+the chain the older fossiliferous rocks are recognised in similar positions,
+presenting signs of intense Plutonic action. Oolitic and Cretaceous
+strata have been raised 12,000 feet, Eocene 10,000, and
+Miocene 4,000 and 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. Equally
+striking proofs of recent elevation exist in the Apennines; the celebrated
+Carrara marble, once supposed&mdash;from its crystalline texture and
+the absence of fossils, and from its resting&mdash;1. on talcose schists, 2. on
+quartz and gneiss&mdash;to be very ancient, now turns out to be an altered
+limestone of the Oolitic series, and the underlying crystalline rocks
+to be metamorphosed Secondary sandstones and shales. Had all
+these rocks undergone complete metamorphism, another page in the
+earth&#8217;s history would have been obscured. As it is, the proofs of
+what we state are found in the gradual approach of the rocks to their
+unaltered condition as the distance from the intrusive rock increases.
+This intrusive rock, however, does not always reach the surface, but
+it exists below at no great depth, and is observed piercing through
+the talcose gneiss, and passing up into Secondary strata.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of this epoch, therefore, there is every probability
+that Europe and Asia had pretty nearly attained their present general
+configuration.</p>
+
+<hr class="footnote" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Lyell&#8217;s &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 187.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> This limestone belongs to the Bembridge beds, and forms part of the Fluvio-marine
+series. See &#8220;Survey Memoir on the Geology of the Isle of Wight,&#8221; by
+H. W. Bristow.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Similar beds of Miliolite limestone are found in the Middle Bagshot beds on
+the coast of Sussex, off Selsey&mdash;the only instance in England of the occurrence of
+such calcareous deposits of Middle Eocene age.&mdash;H. W. B.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 292.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> &#8220;Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. The Geology of
+Middlesex, &amp;c.;&#8221; by W. Whitaker, p. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Prestwich. <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. x., p. 448.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Detailed sections of the whole of the Tertiary strata of the Isle of Wight
+have been constructed by Mr. H. W. Bristow from actual measurement of the
+beds in their regular order of succession, as displayed at Hempstead, Whitecliff
+Bay, Colwell and Tolland&#8217;s Bays, Headon Hill, and Alum Bay. These sections,
+published by the Geological Survey of Great Britain, show the thickness, mineral
+character, and organic remains found in each stratum, and are accompanied by a
+pamphlet in explanation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 300.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Ibid., p. 305.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> <i>Quarterly Journal of Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. vii., p. 89.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> See Bristow&#8217;s &#8220;Glossary of Mineralogy,&#8221; p. 11.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> &#8220;Pallas&#8217;s Voyage,&#8221; vol. iv., pp. 130-134.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> &#8220;Commentarii Academi&aelig; Petersburgic&aelig;,&#8221; p. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Dr. James Murie, <i>Geological Magazine</i>, vol. viii., p. 438.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Edward Forbes in &#8220;Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain,&#8221;
+vol. i., p. 336.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> For full information on these deposits the reader is referred to the
+&#8220;Memoirs on the Structure of the Crag-beds of Norfolk and Suffolk,&#8221; by
+J. Prestwich, F.R.S., in the <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. xxvii., pp. 115, 325,
+and 452 (1871). Also to the many Papers by the Messrs. Searles Wood published
+in the <i>Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>, the <i>Ann. Nat. Hist.</i>, the <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Lyell&#8217;s &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 203.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></p>
+<h2>QUATERNARY EPOCH.</h2>
+
+<p>The Quaternary epoch of the history of our globe commences at
+the close of the Tertiary epoch, and brings the narrative of its revolutions
+down to our own times.</p>
+
+<p>The tranquillity of the globe was only disturbed during this era
+by certain cataclysms whose sphere was limited and local, and by
+an interval of cold of very extended duration; the <i>deluges</i> and
+the <i>glacial</i> period&mdash;these are the two most remarkable peculiarities
+which distinguished this epoch. But the fact which predominates in
+the Quaternary epoch, and distinguishes it from all other phases of
+the earth&#8217;s history is the appearance of man, the culminating and
+supreme work of the Creator of the universe.</p>
+
+<p>In this last phase of the history of the earth geology recognises
+three chronological divisions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="indented"><p>1. The European Deluges.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Glacial Period.</p>
+
+<p>3. The creation of man and subsequent Asiatic Deluge.</p></div>
+
+<p>Before describing the three orders of events which occurred in
+the Quaternary epoch, we shall present a brief sketch of the organic
+kingdoms of Nature, namely, of the animals and vegetables which
+flourished at this date, and the new formations which arose. Lyell,
+and some other geologists, designate this the <span class="smcap">Post-Tertiary Epoch</span>,
+which they divide into two subordinate groups.&mdash;1. <i>The Post-Pliocene
+Period</i>; 2. <i>The Recent or Pleistocene Period.</i></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Post-Pliocene Period.</span></h3>
+
+<p>In the days of Cuvier the Tertiary formations were considered as
+a mere chaos of superficial deposits, having no distinct relations to
+each other. It was reserved for the English geologists, with Sir
+Charles Lyell at their head, to throw light upon this obscure page of
+the earth&#8217;s history; from the study of fossils, science has not only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span>
+re-animated the animals, it has re-constructed the theatre of their
+existence. We see the British Islands now a straggling archipelago,
+and then the mouth of a vast river, of which the continent is
+lost; for, says Professor Ramsay, &#8220;We are not of necessity to consider
+Great Britain as having always been an island; it is an accident
+that it is an island now, and it has been an island many times
+before.&#8221; In the Tertiary epoch we see it surrounded, then, by
+shallow seas swarming with numerous forms of animal life; islands
+covered with bushy Palms; banks on which Turtles basked in the
+sun; vast basins of fresh or brackish water, in which the tide made
+itself felt, and which abounded with various species of sharks; rivers
+in which Crocodiles increased and multiplied; woods which sheltered
+numerous Mammals and some Serpents of large size; fresh-water
+lakes which received the spoils of numerous shells. Dry land had
+increased immensely. Groups of ancient isles we have seen united
+and become continents, with lakes, bays, and perhaps inland seas.
+Gigantic Elephants, vastly larger than any now existing, close the
+epoch, and probably usher in the succeeding one; for we are not to
+suppose any sudden break to distinguish one period from another in
+Nature, although it is convenient to arrange them so for the purposes
+of description. If we may judge from their remains, these animals
+must have existed in great numbers, for it is stated that on the coast
+of Norfolk alone the fishermen, in trawling for oysters, dredged up
+between 1820 and 1833, no less than 2,000 molar teeth of Elephants.
+If we consider how slowly these animals multiply, these quarries of
+ivory, as we may call them, must have required many centuries for
+their production and accumulation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_179" id="Fig_179"></a>
+<img src="images/illo391.png" alt="Fig. 179" width="300" height="483" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 179.&mdash;<i>a</i>, Tooth of Machairodus, imperfect below, natural size; <i>b</i>, outline of cast of tooth,
+perfect, half natural size; <i>c</i>, tooth of Megalosaurus, natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The same lakes and rivers were at this time occupied, also, by the
+Hippopotamus, as large and as formidably armed as that now inhabiting
+the African solitudes; also the two-horned Rhinoceros;
+and three species of Bos, one of which was hairy and bore a mane.
+Some Deer of gigantic size, as compared with living species, bounded
+over the plains. In the same savannahs lived the Reindeer, the Stag,
+a Horse of small size, the Ass, the Bear, and the Roe, for Mammals
+had succeeded the Ichthyosauri of a former age. Nevertheless, the
+epoch had its tyrants also. A Lion, as large as the largest of the
+Lions of Africa, hunted its prey in the British jungles. Another
+animal of the feline race, the <i>Machairodus</i> (<a href="#Fig_179">Fig. 179</a>), was probably
+the most ferocious and destructive of Carnivora; bands of Hy&aelig;nas
+and a terrible Bear, surpassing in size that of the Rocky Mountains,
+had established themselves in the caverns; two species of Beaver
+made their appearance on the scene.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span>The finding of the remains of most of these animals in caverns
+was perhaps among the most interesting discoveries of geology. The
+discovery was first made in the celebrated Kirkdale Cave in Yorkshire,
+which has been described by Dr. Buckland; and afterwards at
+Kent&#8217;s Hole, near Torquay. This latter pleasant Devonshire town<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span>
+is built in a creek, shut out from exposure on all sides except the
+south. In this creek, hollowed out of the rocks, is the great fissure
+or cavern known as Kent&#8217;s Hole; like that of Kirkdale, it has been
+under water, from whence, after a longer or shorter interval, it
+emerged, but remained entirely closed till the moment when chance
+led to its discovery. The principal cavern is 600 feet in length,
+with many crevices or fissures of smaller extent traversing the rock in
+various directions. A bed of hard stalagmite of very ancient formation,
+which has been again covered with a thin layer of soil, forms the
+floor of the cavern, which is a red sandy clay. From this bed of
+red loam or clay was disinterred a mass of fossil bones belonging
+to extinct species of Bear, Lion, Rhinoceros, Reindeer, Beaver, and
+Hy&aelig;na.</p>
+
+<p>Such an assemblage gave rise to all sorts of conjectures. It was
+generally thought that the dwelling of some beasts of prey had been
+discovered, which had dragged the carcases of elephants, deer, and
+others into these caves, to devour them at leisure. Others asked if,
+in some cases, instinct did not impel sick animals, or animals broken
+down by old age, to seek such places for the purpose of dying in
+quiet; while others, again, suggested that these bones might have
+been engulfed pell-mell in the hole during some ancient inundation.
+However that may be, the remains discovered in these caves show
+that all these Mammals existed at the close of the Tertiary epoch,
+and that they all lived in England. What were the causes which led
+to their extinction?</p>
+
+<p>It was the opinion of Cuvier and the early geologists that the
+ancient species were destroyed in some great and sudden catastrophe,
+from which none made their escape. But recent geologists trace
+their extinction to slow, successive, and determinative action due to
+local causes, the chief one being the gradual lowering of the temperature.
+We have seen that at the beginning of the Tertiary epoch,
+in the older Eocene age, palms, cocoa-nuts, and acacias, resembling
+those now met with in countries more favoured by the sun, grew in
+our island. The Miocene flora presents indications of a climate still
+warm, but less tropical; and the Pliocene period, which follows,
+contains remains which announce an approach to our present
+climate. In following the vegetable productions of the Tertiary
+epoch, the botanist meets with the floras of Africa, South America,
+and Australia, and finally settles in the flora of temperate Europe.
+Many circumstances demonstrate this decreasing temperature, until
+we arrive at what geologists call the <i>glacial period</i>&mdash;one of the winters
+of the ancient world.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span>But before entering on the evidences which exist of the glacial
+era we shall glance at the picture presented by the animals of the
+period; the vegetable products we need not dwell on&mdash;it is, in fact,
+that of our own era, the flora of temperate regions in our own epoch.
+The same remark would apply to the animals, but for some signal
+exceptions. In this epoch Man appears, and some of the Mammals of
+the last epoch, but of larger dimensions, have long disappeared.
+The more remarkable of these extinct animals we shall describe, as
+we have those belonging to anterior ages. They are not numerous;
+those of our hemisphere being the Mammoth, <i>Elephas primigenius</i>;
+the Bear, <i>Ursus spel&aelig;us</i>; gigantic Lion, <i>Felis spel&aelig;a</i>; Hy&aelig;na,
+<i>Hy&aelig;na spel&aelig;a</i>; Ox, <i>Bison priscus</i>, <i>Bos primigenius</i>; the gigantic
+Stag, <i>Cervus megaceros</i>; to which we may add the <i>Dinornis</i> and
+<i>Epiornis</i>, among birds. In America there existed in the Quaternary
+epoch some Edentates of colossal dimensions and of very peculiar
+structure, these were <i>Megatherium</i>, <i>Megalonyx</i>, and <i>Mylodon</i>; we
+shall pass these animals in review, beginning with those of our own
+hemisphere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_180" id="Fig_180"></a>
+<img src="images/illo394.png" alt="Fig. 180" width="500" height="322" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 180.&mdash;Skeleton of the Mammoth, Elephas primigenius.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Mammoth, the skeleton of which is represented in <a href="#Fig_180">Fig. 180</a>,
+surpassed the largest existing Elephants of the tropics in size, for it
+was from sixteen to eighteen feet in height. The teeth, and the size
+of the monstrous tusks, much curved, and with a spiral turn outwards,
+and which were from ten to fifteen feet in length, serve to distinguish
+the Mammoth from the two Elephants living at the present
+day, the African and the Indian. The form of its teeth permits of
+its being distinguished from its ally, the Mastodon; for while the
+teeth of the latter have rough mammillations on their surface, those
+of the Mammoth, like those of the living Indian Elephant, have a
+broad united surface, with regular furrowed lines of large curvature.
+The teeth of the Mammoth are four in number, like the Elephants,
+two in each jaw when the animal is adult, its head is elongated, its
+forehead concave, its jaws curved and truncated in front. It has
+been an easy task, as we shall see, to recognise the general form and
+structure of the Mammoth, even to its skin. We know beyond a
+doubt that it was thickly covered with long shaggy hair, and that a
+copious mane floated upon its neck and along its back; its trunk
+resembled that of the Indian Elephant; its body was heavy, with a
+tail naked to the end, which was covered with thick tufty hair, and
+its legs were comparatively shorter than those of the latter animal,
+many of the habits of which it nevertheless possessed. Blumenbach
+gave it the specific name of <i>Elephas primigenius</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_181" id="Fig_181"></a>
+<img src="images/illo395.png" alt="Fig. 181" width="400" height="162" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 181.&mdash;Tooth of the Mammoth.</p></div>
+
+<p>In all ages, and in almost all countries, chance discoveries have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span>
+been made of fossil bones of elephants in the soil. Pliny has
+transmitted to us a tradition, recorded by the historian Theophrastus,
+who wrote 320 years before Jesus Christ, of the existence of
+bones of fossil ivory in the soil of Greece, that the bones were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span>
+sometimes transformed into stones. &#8220;These bones,&#8221; the historian
+gravely tells us, &#8220;were both black and white, and born of the earth.&#8221;
+Some of the elephant&#8217;s bones having a slight resemblance to those of
+man, they have often been mistaken for human bones. In the earlier
+historic times these great bones, accidentally disinterred, have passed
+as having belonged to some hero or demigod; at a later period they
+were thought to be the bones of giants. We have already spoken of the
+mistake made by the Greeks in taking the patella of a fossil elephant
+for the knee-bone of Ajax; in the same manner the bones revealed
+by an earthquake, and attributed by Pliny to a giant, belonged, no
+doubt, to a fossil elephant. To a similar origin we may assign the
+pretended body of Orestes, thirteen feet in length, which was discovered
+at Tegea by the Spartans; those of Asterius, the son of Ajax,
+discovered in the Isle of Ladea, of ten cubits in length (about eighteen
+feet), according to Pausanius; finally, such were the great bones found
+in the Isle of Rhodes, of which Phlegon of Tralles speaks in his
+&#8220;Mundus Subterraneus.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>We might fill volumes with the history of the remains of pretended
+giants found in ancient tombs. The books, in fact, which
+exist, formed a voluminous literature in the middle ages&mdash;entitled
+<i>Gigantology</i>. All the facts, more or less real, true or imaginative,
+may be explained by the accidental discovery of the bones of some
+of these gigantic animals. We find in works on Gigantology, the
+history of a pretended giant, discovered in the 4th century, at
+Trapani in Sicily, of which Boccaccio speaks, and which may be taken
+for Polyphemus; of another, found in the 16th century, according to
+Fasellus, near Palermo; others, according to the same author, at
+Melilli between Leontium and Syracuse, Calatrasi and Petralia, at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span>
+each of which places the bones of supposed giants were disinterred.
+P. Kircher speaks of three other giants being found in Sicily, of
+which only the teeth remained perfect.</p>
+
+<p>In 1577, a storm having uprooted an oak near the cloisters of
+Reyden, in the Canton of Lucerne, in Switzerland, some large bones
+were exposed to view. Seven years after, the celebrated physician
+and Professor at Basle, Felix Pl&auml;ten, being at Lucerne, examined
+these bones, and declared they could only be those of a giant. The
+Council of Lucerne consented to send the bones to Basle for more
+minute examination, and Pl&auml;ten thought himself justified in attributing
+to the giant a height of nineteen feet. He designed a human
+skeleton on this scale, and returned the bones with the drawing to
+Lucerne. In 1706 there only remained of these bones a portion of
+the scapula and a fragment of the wrist bone; the anatomist Blumenbach,
+who saw them at the beginning of the century, easily
+recognised in them the bones of an Elephant. Let us not omit to
+add, as a complement to this story, that since the sixteenth century,
+the inhabitants of Lucerne have adopted the image of this fabulous
+giant as the supporter of the city arms.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish history preserves many stories of giants. The supposed
+tooth of St. Christopher, shown at Valence, in the church
+dedicated to the saint, was certainly the molar tooth of a fossil
+Elephant; and in 1789, the canons of St. Vincent carried through
+the streets in public procession, to procure rain, the pretended
+arm of a saint, which was nothing more than the femur of an
+Elephant.</p>
+
+<p>In France, in the reign of Charles VII. (1456), some of these
+bones of imaginary giants appeared in the bed of the Rh&ocirc;ne. A
+repetition of the phenomenon occurred near Saint-Peirat, opposite
+Valence, when the Dauphin, afterwards Louis XI., then residing at
+the latter place, caused the bones to be gathered together and sent
+to Bourges, where they long remained objects of public curiosity in
+the interior of the Sainte-Chapelle. In 1564 a similar discovery took
+place in the same neighbourhood. Two peasants observed on the
+banks of the Rh&ocirc;ne, along a slope, some great bones sticking out of
+the ground. They carried them to the neighbouring village, where
+they were examined by Cassanion, who lived at Valence. It was no
+doubt apropos to this that Cassanion wrote his treatise &#8220;De Gigantibus.&#8221;
+The description given by the author of a tooth sufficed,
+according to Cuvier, to prove that it belonged to an Elephant; it
+was a foot in length, and weighed eight pounds. It was also on the
+banks of the Rh&ocirc;ne, but in Dauphiny, as we have seen, that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span>
+skeleton of the famous Teutobocchus, of which we have spoken in a
+previous chapter, was found.</p>
+
+<p>In 1663 Otto de Guericke, the illustrious inventor of the air-pump,
+witnessed the discovery of the bones of an Elephant, buried in the
+shelly limestone, or Muschelkalk. Along with it were found its
+enormous tusks, which should have sufficed to establish its zoological
+origin. Nevertheless they were taken for horns, and the illustrious
+Leibnitz composed, out of the remains, a strange animal, carrying a
+horn in the middle of its forehead, and in each jaw a dozen molar
+teeth a foot long. Having fabricated this fantastic animal, Leibnitz
+named it also&mdash;he called it the <i>fossil unicorn</i>. In his &#8220;Protog&aelig;a,&#8221; a
+work remarkable besides as the first attempt at a theory of the earth,
+Leibnitz gave the description and a drawing of this imaginary animal.
+During more than thirty years the unicorn of Leibnitz was universally
+accepted throughout Germany; and nothing less than the discovery
+of the entire skeleton of the Mammoth in the valley of the Unstrut
+was required to produce a change of opinion. This skeleton was at
+once recognised by Tinzel, librarian to the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, as
+that of an Elephant, and was established as such; not, however,
+without a keen controversy with adversaries of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>In 1700 a soldier of W&uuml;rtemberg accidentally observed some
+bones showing themselves projecting out of the earth, in an argillaceous
+soil, near the city of Canstadt, not far from the banks of the
+Necker. Having addressed a report to the reigning Duke, the latter
+caused the place to be excavated, which occupied nearly six months.
+A veritable cemetery of elephants was discovered, in which were not
+less than sixty tusks. Those which were entire were preserved; the
+fragments were abandoned to the court physician, and they became
+a mere vulgar medicine. In the last century the fossil bones of
+bears, which were abundant in Germany, were administered in that
+country medicinally, as an absorbent, astringent, and sudorific. It
+was then called by the German doctors the <i>Ebur fossile</i>, or <i>Unicornu
+fossile</i>, <i>Licorn fossil</i>. The magnificent tusks of the Mammoth found
+at Canstadt helped to combat fever and colic. What an intelligent
+man this court physician of W&uuml;rtemberg must have been!</p>
+
+<p>Numerous discoveries like those we have quoted distinguished the
+18th century; but the progress of science has now rendered such
+mistakes as we have had to relate impossible. These bones were at
+length universally recognised as belonging to an Elephant, but erudition
+now intervened, and helped to obscure a subject which was
+otherwise perfectly clear. Some learned pedant declared that the
+bones found in Italy and France were the remains of the Elephants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span>
+which Hannibal brought from Carthage with the army in his expedition
+against the Romans. The part of France where the most
+ancient bones of these Elephants were found is in the environs of the
+Rh&ocirc;ne, and consequently on the route of the Carthaginian general,
+and this consideration appeared to these terrible savants to be a particularly
+triumphant answer to the naturalist&#8217;s reasoning. Again, at
+a later period, Domitius &AElig;nobarbus conducted the Carthaginian
+armies, which were followed by a number of Elephants, armed for
+war. Cuvier scarcely took the trouble to refute this insignificant
+objection. It is merely necessary to read, in his learned dissertation,
+of the number of elephants which could remain to Hannibal when
+he had entered Gaul.</p>
+
+<p>But the best reply that can be made to this strange objection
+raised by the learned, is to show how extensively these fossil bones
+of Elephants are scattered, not in Europe only, but over the world&mdash;there
+are few regions of the globe in which their remains are not
+found. In the north of Europe, in Scandinavia, in Ireland, in Belgium,
+in Germany, in Central Europe, in Poland, in Middle Russia,
+in South Russia, in Greece, in Italy, in Africa, in Asia, and, as we
+have seen, in England. In the New World remains of the Mammoth
+are also met with. What is most singular is that these remains exist
+more especially in great numbers in the north of Europe, in the
+frozen regions of Siberia&mdash;regions altogether uninhabitable for the
+Elephant in our days. &#8220;There is not,&#8221; says Pallas, &#8220;in all Asiatic
+Russia, from the Don to the extremity of the promontory of Tchutchis,
+a stream or river, especially of those which flow in the plains, on the
+banks of which some bones of Elephants and other animals foreign
+to the climate have not been found. But in the more elevated regions,
+the primitive and schistose chains, they are wanting, as are marine
+petrifactions. But in the lower slopes and in the great muddy and
+sandy plains, above all, in places which are swept by rivers and
+brooks, they are always found, which proves that we should not the
+less find them throughout the whole extent of the country if we had
+the same means of searching for them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Every year in the season when thaw takes place, the vast rivers
+which descend to the Frozen Ocean in the north of Siberia sweep
+down with their waters numerous portions of the banks, and expose
+to view bones buried in the soil and in the excavations left by the
+rushing waters. Cuvier gives a long list of places in Russia in which
+interesting discoveries have been made of Elephants&#8217; bones; and it is
+certainly curious that the more we advance towards the north in
+Russia the more numerous and extensive do the bone depositories<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span>
+become. In spite of the oft-repeated and undoubted testimony of
+numerous travellers, we can scarcely credit the statements made
+respecting some of the islands of the glacial sea near the poles,
+situated opposite the mouth of the Lena and of the Indighirka.
+Here, for example, is an extract from &#8220;Billing&#8217;s Voyage&#8221; concerning
+these isles: &#8220;The whole island (which is about thirty-three leagues
+in length), except three or four small rocky mountains, is a mixture
+of ice and sand; and as the shores fall, from the heat of the sun&#8217;s
+thawing them, the tusks and bones of the mammont are found in
+great abundance. To use Chvoinoff&#8217;s own expression, the island is
+formed of the bones of this extraordinary animal, mixed with the
+horns and heads of the buffalo, or something like it, and some horns
+of the rhinoceros.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>New Siberia and the L&auml;chow Islands off the mouth of the river
+Lena, are, for the most part, only an agglomeration of sand, ice, and
+Elephants&#8217; teeth. At every tempest the sea casts ashore new quantities
+of mammoths&#8217; tusks, and the inhabitants of Siberia carry on a
+profitable commerce in this fossil ivory. Every year, during the
+summer, innumerable fishermen&#8217;s barks direct their course towards
+this <i>isle of bones</i>; and, during winter, immense caravans take the
+same route, all the convoys drawn by dogs, returning charged with
+the tusks of the Mammoth, each weighing from 150 to 200 pounds.
+The fossil ivory thus withdrawn from the frozen north is imported
+into China and Europe, where it is employed for the same purposes
+as ordinary ivory, which is furnished, as we know, by the existing
+Elephant and Hippopotamus of Africa and Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Isle of Bones</i> has served as a quarry of this valuable material,
+for export to China, for 500 years; and it has been exported to
+Europe for upwards of 100. But the supply from these strange
+diggings apparently remains practically undiminished. What a
+number of accumulated generations of these bones and tusks does
+not this profusion imply!</p>
+
+<p>It was in Siberia that the fossil Elephant received the name of the
+<i>Mammoth</i>, and its tusks that of <i>mammoth horns</i>. The celebrated
+Russian savant, Pallas, who gave the first systematic description of
+the Mammoth, asserts that the name is derived from the word <i>mama</i>,
+which in the Tartar idiom signifies the <i>earth</i>. According to others,
+the name is derived from <i>behemoth</i>, mentioned in the Book of Job;
+or from the epithet <i>mahemoth</i>, which the Arabs add to the word &#8220;elephant,&#8221;
+to designate one of unusual size. A curious circumstance
+enough is, that this same legend of an animal living exclusively under
+ground, exists amongst the Chinese. They call it <i>tien-schu</i>, and we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span>
+read, in the great Chinese work on natural history, which was
+written in the sixteenth century: &#8220;The animal named <i>tien-schu</i>, of
+which we have already spoken in the ancient work upon the ceremonial
+entitled &#8220;Lyki&#8221; (a work of the fifth century before Jesus
+Christ), is called also <i>tyn-schu</i> or <i>yn-schu</i>, that is to say, <i>the mouse
+which hides itself</i>. It always lives in subterranean caverns; it resembles
+a mouse, but is of the size of a buffalo or ox. It has no
+tail; its colour is dark; it is very strong, and excavates caverns in
+places full of rocks, and forests.&#8221; Another writer, quoting the same
+passage, thus expresses himself: &#8220;The <i>tyn-schu</i> haunts obscure and
+unfrequented places. It dies as soon as it is exposed to the rays of
+the sun or moon; its feet are short in proportion to its size, which
+causes it to walk badly. Its tail is a Chinese ell in length. Its eyes
+are small, and its neck short. It is very stupid and sluggish. When
+the inundations of the river <i>Tamschuann-tuy</i> took place (in 1571), a
+great many tyn-schu appeared in the plain; it fed on the roots of the
+plant <i>fu-kia</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The existence in Russia of the bones and tusks of the Mammoth
+is sufficiently confirmed by the following extract from an old Russian
+traveller, Ysbrants Ides, who, in 1692, was sent by Peter the Great
+as ambassador to the Emperor of China. In the extract which
+follows, we remark the very surprising fact of the discovery of a head
+and foot of the Mammoth which had been preserved in ice with all
+the flesh. &#8220;Amongst the hills which are situate north-east of the
+river Kata,&#8221; says the traveller, &#8220;the Mammuts&#8217; tongues and legs are
+found, as they are also particularly on the shores of the river Jenize,
+Trugan, Mongamsea, Lena, and near Jakutskoi, even as far as the
+Frozen Ocean. In the spring, when the ice of this river breaks, it is
+driven in such vast quantities and with such force by the high
+swollen waters, that it frequently carries very high banks before it,
+and breaks off the tops of hills, which, falling down, discover these
+animals whole, or their teeth only, almost frozen to the earth, which
+thaw by degrees. I had a person with me who had annually gone
+out in search of these bones; he told it to me as a real truth, that
+he and his companions found the head of one of these animals,
+which was discovered by the fall of such a frozen piece of earth.
+As soon as he opened it, he found the greatest part of the flesh
+rotten, but it was not without difficulty that they broke out his teeth,
+which were placed in the fore-part of his mouth, as those of the
+Elephants are; they also took some bones out of his head, and
+afterwards came to his fore-foot, which they cut off, and carried part
+of it to the city of Trugan, the circumference of it being as large as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span>
+that of the waist of an ordinary man. The bones of the head
+appeared somewhat red, as though they were tinctured with blood.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Concerning this animal there are very different reports. The
+heathens of Jakuti, Tungusi, and Ostiacki, say that they continually,
+or at least, by reason of the very hard frosts, mostly live under
+ground, where they go backwards and forwards; to confirm which
+they tell us, that they have often seen the earth heaved up when one
+of these beasts was upon the march, and after he was passed, the
+place sink in, and thereby make a deep pit. They further believe,
+that if this animal comes so near to the surface of the frozen earth as
+to smell the air, he immediately dies, which they say is the reason
+that several of them are found dead on the high banks of the river,
+where they unawares came out of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This is the opinion of the Infidels concerning these beasts,
+which are never seen.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But the old Siberian Russians affirm, that the Mammuth is very
+like the Elephant, with this difference only, that the teeth of the
+former are firmer, and not so straight as those of the latter. They
+also are of opinion that there were Elephants in this country before
+the Deluge, when this climate was warmer, and that their drowned
+bodies, floating on the surface of the water of that flood, were at
+last washed and forced into subterranean cavities; but that after
+this universal deluge, the air, which before was warm, was changed
+to cold, and that these bones have lain frozen in the earth ever
+since, and so are preserved from putrefaction till they thaw, and
+come to light, which is no very unreasonable conjecture, though it
+is not absolutely necessary that this climate should have been warmer
+before the Flood, since the carcases of the drowned elephants were very
+likely to float from other places several hundred miles distant to this
+country in the great deluge which covered the surface of the whole
+earth. Some of these teeth, which doubtless have lain the whole
+summer on the shore, are entirely black and broken, and can never
+be restored to their former condition. But those which are found in
+good case, are as good as ivory, and are accordingly transported to
+all parts of Muscovy, where they are used to make combs, and all
+other such-like things, instead of ivory.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The above-mentioned person also told me that he once found
+two teeth in one head that weighed above twelve Russian pounds,
+which amount to four hundred German pounds; so that these animals
+must of necessity be very large, though a great many lesser
+teeth are found. By all that I could gather from the heathens, no
+person ever saw one of these beasts alive, or can give any account of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span>
+its shape; so that all we heard said on this subject arises from bare
+conjecture only.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is possible this recital may seem suspicious to some readers.
+We have ourselves felt some difficulty in believing that this head and
+foot were taken from the ice, with the flesh and skin, when we consider
+that the animal to which they belonged has been extinct
+probably more than ten thousand years. But the assertion of
+Ysbrants Ides is confirmed by respectable testimony of more recent
+date. In 1800, a Russian naturalist, Gabriel Sarytschew, travelled
+in northern Siberia. Having arrived in the neighbourhood of the
+Frozen Ocean, he found upon the banks of the Alas&#339;ia, which discharges
+itself into this sea, the entire body of a Mammoth enveloped
+in a mass of ice. The body was in a complete state of preservation,
+for the permanent contact of the ice had kept out the air and prevented
+decomposition. It is well known that at zero and below it,
+animal substances will not putrefy, so that in our households we can
+preserve all kinds of animal food as long as we can surround them
+with ice; and this is precisely what happened to the Mammoth
+found by Gabriel Sarytschew in the ice of the Alas&#339;ia. The rolling
+waters had disengaged the mass of ice which had imprisoned the
+monstrous pachyderm for thousands of years. The body, in a complete
+state of preservation and covered with its flesh as well as its
+entire hide, to which long hairs adhered in certain places, found
+itself, again, nearly erect on its four feet.</p>
+
+<p>The Russian naturalist Adams, in 1806, made a discovery quite
+as extraordinary as the preceding. We borrow his account from a
+paper by Dr. Tilesius in the &#8220;Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of
+Sciences of St. Petersburg&#8221; (vol. v.). In 1799, a Tungusian chief,
+Ossip Schumachoff, while seeking for mammoth-horns on the banks
+of the lake Oncoul, perceived among the blocks of ice a shapeless
+mass, not at all resembling the large pieces of floating wood which
+are commonly found there. The following year he noticed that
+this mass was more disengaged from the blocks of ice, and had two
+projecting parts, but he was still unable to make out what it could
+be. Towards the end of the following summer one entire side of
+the animal and one of his tusks were quite free from the ice. But
+the succeeding summer of 1802, which was less warm and more
+windy than common, caused the Mammoth to remain buried in the
+ice, which had scarcely melted at all. At length, towards the end
+of the fifth year (1803), the ice between the earth and the Mammoth
+having melted faster than the rest, the plane of its support became
+inclined; and this enormous mass fell by its own weight on a bank<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span>
+of sand. In the month of March, 1804, Schumachoff cut off the
+horns (the tusks), which he exchanged with the merchant Bultenof
+for goods of the value of fifty roubles (not quite eight pounds
+sterling). It was not till two years after this that Mr. Adams, of the
+St. Petersburg Academy, who was travelling with Count Golovkin,
+sent by the Czar of Russia on an embassy to China, having been
+told at Jakutsk of the discovery of an animal of extraordinary
+magnitude on the shores of the Frozen Ocean, near the mouth of the
+river Lena, betook himself to the place. He found the Mammoth
+still in the same place, but altogether mutilated. The Jakoutskis of
+the neighbourhood had cut off the flesh, with which they fed their
+dogs; wild beasts, such as white bears, wolves, wolverines, and
+foxes, had also fed upon it, and traces of their footsteps were seen
+around. The skeleton, almost entirely cleared of its flesh, remained
+whole, with the exception of one fore-leg. The spine of the back,
+one scapula, the pelvis, and the other three limbs were still held
+together by the ligaments and by parts of the skin; the other scapula
+was found not far off. The head was covered with a dry skin; one
+of the ears was furnished with a tuft of hairs; the balls of the eyes
+were still distinguishable; the brain still occupied the cranium, but
+seemed dried up; the point of the lower lip had been gnawed and
+the upper lip had been destroyed so as to expose the teeth; the
+neck was furnished with a long flowing mane; the skin, of a dark-grey
+colour, covered with black hairs and a reddish wool, was so
+heavy that ten persons found great difficulty in transporting it to the
+shore. There was collected, according to Mr. Adams, more than
+thirty-six pounds&#8217; weight of hair and wool which the white bears had
+trod into the ground, while devouring the flesh. This Mammoth
+was a male so fat and well fed, according to the assertion of the
+Tungusian chief, that its belly hung down below the joints of its
+knees. Its tusks were nine feet six inches in length, measured along
+the curve, and its head without the tusks weighed 414 pounds
+avoirdupois.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Adams took every care to collect all that remained of this
+unique specimen of an ancient creation, and forwarded the parts to
+St. Petersburg, a distance of 11,000 versts (7,330 miles). He succeeded
+in re-purchasing what he believed to be the tusks at Jakutsk,
+and the Emperor of Russia, who became the owner of this precious
+relic, paid him 8,000 roubles. The skeleton is deposited in the
+Museum of the Academy of St. Petersburg, and the skin still remains
+attached to the head and the feet. &#8220;We have yet to find,&#8221; says
+Cuvier, &#8220;any individual equal to it.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXVI" id="Plate_XXVI"></a>
+<img src="images/illo405.png" alt="Plate XXVI" width="600" height="392" />
+<p class="caption">XXVI.&mdash;Skeleton of the Mammoth in the St. Petersburg Museum.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span>Beside the skeleton of this famous Mammoth there is placed
+that of an Indian Elephant, and another Elephant with skin and hair,
+in order that the visitor may have a proper appreciation of the vast
+proportions of the Mammoth, as compared with them. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXVI">Plate XXVI.</a></span>,
+on the opposite page, represents the saloon of the Museum of St.
+Petersburg, which contains these three interesting remains.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_182" id="Fig_182"></a>
+<img src="images/illo406.png" alt="Fig. 182" width="450" height="353" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 182.&mdash;Mammoth restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>In 1860 a great number of bones of the Mammoth, with remains
+of Hy&aelig;na, Horse, Reindeer, Rhinoceros-megarhinus, and Bison,
+were found in Belgium in digging a canal at Lierre, in the province
+of Antwerp. An entire skeleton of a young Mammoth, eleven feet
+six inches high (to the shoulder), has been reconstructed from these
+remains by M. Dupont, and is now placed in the Royal Museum of
+Natural History in Brussels.<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span>We cannot doubt, after such testimony, of the existence in the
+frozen north, of the almost entire remains of the Mammoth. The
+animals seem to have perished suddenly; enveloped in ice at the
+moment of their death, their bodies have been preserved from decomposition
+by the continued action of the cold. If we suppose
+that one of those animals had sunk into a marsh which froze soon
+afterwards, or had fallen accidentally into the crevasse of some glacier,
+it would be easy for us to understand how its body, buried
+immediately under eternal ice, had remained there for thousands of
+years without undergoing decomposition.</p>
+
+<p>In Cuvier&#8217;s great work on <i>fossil bones</i>, he gives a long and minute
+enumeration of the various regions of Germany, France, Italy, and
+other countries, which have furnished in our days bones or tusks of
+the Mammoth. We venture to quote two of these descriptions:&mdash;&#8220;In
+October, 1816,&#8221; he says, &#8220;there was discovered at Seilberg,
+near Canstadt, in W&uuml;rtemberg, near which some remarkable discoveries
+were made in 1700, a very remarkable deposit, which the
+king, Frederick I., caused to be excavated, and its contents collected
+with the greatest care. We are even assured that the visit which the
+prince, in his ardour for all that was great, paid to this spot, aggravated
+the malady of which he died a few days after. An officer,
+Herr Natter, commenced some excavations, and in four-and-twenty
+hours discovered twenty-one teeth or fragments of teeth of elephant,
+mixed with a great number of bones. The king having ordered him
+to continue the excavations, on the second day they came upon a
+group of thirteen tusks heaped close upon each other, and along with
+them some molar teeth, lying as if they had been packed artificially.
+It was on this discovery that the king caused himself to be transported
+thither, and ordered all the surrounding soil to be dug up, and every
+object to be carefully preserved in its original position. The largest
+of the tusks, though it had lost its points and its roots, was still eight
+feet long and one foot in diameter. Many isolated tusks were also
+found, with a quantity of molar teeth, from two inches to a foot in
+length, some still adhering to the jaws. All these fragments were
+better preserved than those of 1700, which was attributed to the
+depth of the bed, and, perhaps, to the nature of the soil. The tusks
+were generally much curved. In the same deposit some bones of
+Horses and Stags were found, together with a quantity of teeth of the
+Rhinoceros, and others which were thought to belong to a Bear, and
+one specimen which was attributed to the Tapir. The place where
+this discovery was made is named Seilberg; it is about 600 paces
+from the city of Canstadt, but on the opposite side of the Necker.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span>&#8220;All the great river basins of Germany have, like those of the
+Necker, yielded fossil bones of the Elephant; those especially
+abutting on the Rhine are too numerous to be mentioned, nor is
+Canstadt the only place in the valley of the Necker where they are
+found.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>But of all parts of Europe, that in which they are found in
+greatest numbers is the valley of the Upper Arno. We find there
+a perfect cemetery of Elephants. These bones were at one time so
+common in this valley, that the peasantry employed them, indiscriminately
+with stones, in constructing walls and houses. Since
+they have learned their value, however, they reserve them for sale to
+travellers.</p>
+
+<p>The bones and tusks of the Mammoth are met with in America
+as well as in the Old World, scattered through Canada, Oregon, and
+the Northern States as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. Cuvier
+enumerates several places on that continent where their remains are
+met with, mingled with those of the Mastodon. The Russian
+Lieutenant Kotzebue found them on the north coast of America, in
+the cliffs of frozen mud in Eschsholtz Bay, within Behring&#8217;s Strait,
+and in other distant parts of the shores of the Arctic Seas, where
+they were so common that the sailors burnt many pieces in their
+fires.</p>
+
+<p>It is very strange that the East Indies, that is, one of the only two
+regions which is now the home of the Elephant, should be almost the
+only country in which the fossil bones of these animals have not been
+discovered. In short, from the preceding enumeration, it appears
+that, during the geological period whose history we are recording
+the gigantic Mammoth inhabited most regions of the globe. Now-a-days,
+the only climates which are suited for the existing race of
+Elephants are those of Africa and India, that is to say, tropical
+countries; from which we must draw the conclusions to which so
+many other inferences lead, that, at the epoch in which these animals
+lived, the temperature of the earth was much higher than in our
+days; or, more probably, the extinct race of Elephants must have
+been adapted for living in a colder climate than that which they now
+require.</p>
+
+<p>Among the antediluvian Carnivora, one of the most formidable
+seems to have been the <i>Ursus spel&aelig;us</i>, or Cave-bear (<a href="#Fig_183">Fig. 183</a>).
+This species must have been a fifth, if not a fourth, larger than the
+Brown Bear of our days. It was also more squat: some of the
+skeletons we possess are from nine to ten feet long, and only about
+six feet high. The <i>U. spel&aelig;us</i> abounded in England, France, Belgium,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span>
+and Germany; and so extensively in the latter country, that the
+teeth of the antediluvian Bear, as we have already stated, formed for
+a long time part of its materia medica, under the name of <i>fossil
+licorn</i>. <a href="#Fig_183">Fig. 183</a> represents the skull of the Cave-bear.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_183" id="Fig_183"></a>
+<img src="images/illo409.png" alt="Fig. 183" width="450" height="238" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 183.&mdash;Head of Ursus spel&aelig;us.</p></div>
+
+<p>At the same time with the <i>Ursus spel&aelig;us</i> another Carnivore, the
+<i>Felis spel&aelig;us</i>, or Cave-lion, lived in Europe. This animal is specifically
+identical with the living Lion of Asia and Africa: but since in
+these early times he had not to contend with the hunter for food, he
+was, on the whole, considerably larger than any Lion now existing
+on the earth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_184" id="Fig_184"></a>
+<img src="images/illo410.png" alt="Fig. 184" width="450" height="261" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 184.&mdash;Head of Hy&aelig;na spel&aelig;a.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Hy&aelig;nas of our age consist of two species, the striped and the
+spotted Hy&aelig;nas. The last presents considerable conformity in its
+structure with that of the Post-pliocene period, which Cuvier designates
+under the name of the fossil Spotted Hy&aelig;na. It seems to
+have been only a little larger than the existing species. <a href="#Fig_184">Fig. 184</a>
+represents the head of the <i>Hy&aelig;na spel&aelig;a</i>, whose remains, with those
+of others, were found in the caves of Kirkdale and Kent&#8217;s Hole; the
+remains of about 300 being found in the former. Dr. Buckland satisfied
+himself, from the quantity of their dung, that the Hy&aelig;nas had
+lived there. In the cave were found remains of the ox, young
+elephant, rhinoceros, horse, bear, wolf, hare, water-rat, and several
+birds. All the bones present an appearance of having been broken
+and gnawed by the teeth of the Hy&aelig;nas, and they occur confusedly
+mixed in loam or mud, or dispersed through the crust of stalagmite
+which covered the contents of the cave.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span>The Horse dates from the Quaternary epoch, if not from the last
+period of the Tertiary epoch. Its remains are found in the same
+rocks with those of the Mammoth and the Rhinoceros. It is distinguished
+from our existing Horse only by its size, which was
+smaller&mdash;its remains abound in the Post-pliocene rocks, not only in
+Europe, but in America; so that an aboriginal Horse existed in the
+New World long before it was carried thither by the Spaniards, although
+we know that it was unknown at the date of their arrival. &#8220;Certainly
+it is a marvellous fact in the history of the Mammalia, that in
+South America, a native horse should have lived and disappeared,
+to be succeeded in after ages by the countless herds descended from
+the few introduced with the Spanish colonists!&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Oxen of the period, if not identical with, were at least very
+near to our living species. There were three species: the <i>Bison
+priscus</i>, <i>B. primigenius</i>, and <i>B. Pallasii</i>; the first with slender legs,
+with convex frontal, broader than it was high, and differing but
+slightly from the <i>Aurochs</i>, except in being taller and by having larger
+horns. The remains of <i>Bison priscus</i> are found in England, France,
+Italy, Germany, Russia, and America. <i>Bison primigenius</i> was,
+according to Cuvier, the source of our domestic cattle. The <i>Bos
+Pallasii</i> is found in America and in Siberia, and resembles in many
+respects the Musk-ox of Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Where these great Mammals are found we generally discover the
+fossil remains of several species of Deer. The pal&aelig;ontological<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span>
+question as regards these animals is very obscure, and it is often
+difficult to determine whether the remains belong to an extinct or an
+existing species. This doubt does not extend, however, to the
+gigantic forest-stag, <i>Cervus megaceros</i>, one of the most magnificent of
+the antediluvian animals, whose remains are still frequently found in
+Ireland in the neighbourhood of Dublin; more rarely in France,
+Germany, Poland, and Italy. Intermediate between the Fallow-deer
+and the Elk, the <i>Cervus megaceros</i> partakes of the Elk in its general
+proportions and in the form of its cranium, but it approaches the
+Fallow-deer in its size and in the disposition of its horns. These
+magnificent appendages, however, while they decorated the head of
+the animal and gave a most imposing appearance to it, must have
+sadly impeded its progress through the thick and tangled forests of
+the ancient world. The length of these horns was between nine and
+ten feet; and they were so divergent that, measured from one
+extremity to the other, they occupied a space of between three and
+four yards.</p>
+
+<p>The skeleton of the <i>Cervus megaceros</i> is found in the deposits of
+calcareous tufa, which underlie the immense peat moss of Ireland;
+sometimes in the turf itself, as near the Curragh in Kildare; in which
+position they sometimes occur in little mounds piled up in a small
+space, and nearly always in the same attitude, the head aloft, the
+neck stretched out, the horns reversed and thrown downwards towards
+the back, as if the animal, suddenly immersed into marshy ground,
+had been under the necessity of throwing up its head in search of
+respirable air. In the Geological Cabinet of the Sorbonne, at Paris,
+there is a magnificent skeleton of <i>Cervus megaceros</i>; another belongs
+to the College of Surgeons in London; and there is a third at
+Vienna.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The most remarkable creatures of the period, however, were the
+great Edentates&mdash;the Glyptodon, the gigantic Megatherium, the
+Mylodon and the Megalonyx. The order of Edentates is more particularly
+characterised by the absence of teeth in the fore part of the
+mouth. The masticating apparatus of the Edentates consists only of
+molars, the incisors and canine teeth being, with a few exceptions,
+absent altogether, as the animals composing this order feed chiefly
+on insects or the tender leaves of plants. The Armadillo, Anteater
+and Pangolin, are the living examples of the order. We may
+add, as still further characteristics, largely developed claws at the
+extremities of the toes. The order seems thus to establish itself as a
+zoological link in the chain between the hoofed Mammals and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span>
+ungulated animals, or those armed with claws. All these animals are
+peculiar to the continent of America.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Glyptodon</i>, which appears during the Quaternary period,
+belonged to the family of Armadilloes, and their most remarkable
+feature was the presence of a hard, scaly shell, or coat of mail six
+feet in length, and composed of numerous segments, which covered
+the entire upper service of the animal from the head to the tail.
+It was, in short, a mammiferous animal, which appears to have
+been enclosed in a shell like that of a Turtle; it resembled in
+many respects the <i>Dasypus</i> or Anteater, and had sixteen teeth
+in each jaw. These teeth were channelled laterally with two broad
+and deep grooves, which divided the surface of the molars into
+three parts, whence it was named the Glyptodon. The hind
+feet were broad and massive, and evidently designed to support a
+vast incumbent mass; it presented phalanges armed with short
+thick and depressed nails or claws. The animal was, as we have
+said, enveloped in, and protected by, a cuirass, or solid carapace,
+composed of plates which, seen from beneath, appeared to be
+hexagonal and united by denticulated sutures: above they represented
+double rosettes. The habitat of <i>Glyptodon clavipes</i> was the pampas
+of Buenos Ayres, and the banks of an affluent of the Rio Santo,
+near Monte Video; specimens have been found not less than nine
+feet in length.</p>
+
+<p>The tesselated carapace of the Glyptodon was long thought to
+belong to the Megatherium; but Professor Owen shows, from the
+anatomical structure of the two animals, that the cuirass belonged to
+one of them only, namely, the Glyptodon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_185" id="Fig_185"></a>
+<img src="images/illo413.png" alt="Fig. 185" width="450" height="315" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 185.&mdash;Schistopleuron typus. One-twentieth natural size.</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>Schistopleuron</i> does not differ essentially from the Glyptodon,
+but is supposed to have been a different species of the same genus;
+the chief difference between the two animals being in the structure of
+the tail, which is massive in the first and in the other composed of
+half a score of rings. In other respects the organisation and habits
+are similar, both being herbivorous, and feeding on roots and vegetables.
+<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a> represents the <i>Schistopleuron typus</i> restored, and as
+it appeared when alive.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the fossil Tortoises discovered in the sub-Himalayan
+beds possessed a carapace twelve feet long by six feet in breadth,
+which must have corresponded to an animal from eighteen to twenty
+feet in length; and the bones of the legs were as massive as those of
+the Rhinoceros.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Megatherium</i>, or Animal of Paraguay, as it was called, is, at
+first view, the oddest and most remarkable animal we have yet had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span>
+under consideration, where all have been, according to our notions,
+strange, extraordinary, and formidable. The animal creation still
+goes on as if&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&#8220;Nature made them and then broke the die.&#8221;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXVII" id="Plate_XXVII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo414.png" alt="Plate XXVII" width="600" height="329" />
+<p class="caption">XXVII.&mdash;Skeleton of the Megatherium (Clift).</p></div>
+
+<p>If we cast a glance at the skeleton figured on the opposite page
+(<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXVII">Plate XXVII.</a></span>), which was found in Paraguay, at Buenos Ayres, in
+1788, and which is now placed, in a perfect state of preservation, in
+the Museum of Natural History in Madrid, it is impossible to avoid
+being struck with its unusually heavy form, at once awkward as a whole,
+and ponderous in most of its parts. It is allied to the existing genus
+of Sloths, which Buffon tells us is &#8220;of all the animal creation that
+which has received the most vicious organisation&mdash;a being to which
+Nature has forbidden all enjoyment; which has only been created for
+hardships and misery.&#8221; This notion of the romantic Buffon is, however,
+altogether incorrect. An attentive examination of the <i>Animal of</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span>
+<i>Paraguay</i> shows that its organisation cannot be considered either odd
+or awkward when viewed in connection with its mode of life and
+individual habits. The special organisation which renders the movements
+of the Sloths so sluggish, and apparently so painful on level
+ground, gives them, on the other hand, marvellous assistance when
+they live in trees, the leaves of which constitute their exclusive food.
+In the same manner, if we consider that the <i>Megatherium</i> was created
+to burrow in the earth and feed upon the roots of trees and shrubs,
+every organ of its heavy frame would appear to be perfectly appropriate
+to its kind of life, and well adapted to the special purpose
+which was assigned to it by the Creator. We ought to place the
+Megatherium between the Sloths and the Anteaters. Like the first, it
+usually fed on the branches and leaves of trees; like the latter, it
+burrowed deep in the soil, finding there both food and shelter. It
+was as large as an Elephant or Rhinoceros of the largest species.
+Its body measured twelve or thirteen feet in length, and it was between
+five and six feet high. The engraving on page 403 (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXVII">Plate
+XXVII.</a></span>) will convey, more accurately than any mere verbal description,
+an idea of the form and proportions of the animal.</p>
+
+<p>The English reader is chiefly indebted to the zeal and energy of
+Sir Woodbine Parish for the materials from which our naturalists
+have been enabled to re-construct the history of the Megatherium.
+The remains collected by him were found in the river Salado, which
+runs through the flat alluvial plains called Pampas to the south of the
+city of Buenos Ayres. A succession of three unusually dry seasons
+had lowered the waters to such a degree as to expose part of the pelvis
+to view, as the skeleton stood upright in the mud forming the bed
+of the river. Further inquiries led to the discovery of the remains
+of two other skeletons near the place where the first had been
+found; and with them an immense shell or carapace was met with,
+most of the bones associated with which crumbled to pieces on exposure
+to the air. The osseous structure of this enormous animal,
+as furnished by Mr. Clift, an eminent anatomist of the day, and
+under whose superintendence the skeleton was drawn, must have
+exceeded fourteen feet in length, and upwards of eight feet in height.
+The deeply shaded parts of the figure show the portions which are
+deficient in the Madrid skeleton.</p>
+
+<p>Cuvier pointed out that the skull very much resembled that of the
+Sloths, but that the rest of the skeleton bore relationship, partly to
+the Sloths, and partly to the Anteaters.</p>
+
+<p>The large bones, which descend from the zygomatic arch along
+the cheek-bones, would furnish a powerful means of attaching the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span>
+motor muscles of the jaws. The anterior part of the muzzle is
+fully developed, and riddled with holes for the passage of the nerves
+and vessels which must have been there, not for a trunk, which
+would have been useless to an animal furnished with a very long
+neck, but for a snout analogous to that of the Tapir.</p>
+
+<p>The jaw and dental apparatus cannot be exactly stated, because
+the number of teeth in the lower jaw is not known. The upper jaw,
+Professor Owen has shown, contained five molars on each side; and
+from comparison and analogy with the <i>Scelidotherium</i> it may be conjectured
+that the <i>Megatherium</i> had four on each side of the lower jaw.
+Being without incisors or canines, the structure of its eighteen molars
+proves that it was not carnivorous: they each resemble the composite
+molars of the Elephant.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_186" id="Fig_186"></a>
+<img src="images/illo417.png" alt="Fig. 186" width="400" height="443" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 186.&mdash;Skeleton of Megatherium foreshortened.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span>The vertebr&aelig; of the neck (as exhibited in the foreshortened figure
+(<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>), taken from the work of Pander and D&#8217;Alton, and showing
+nearly a front view of the head), as well as the anterior and posterior
+extremities of the Madrid skeleton, although powerful, are not to be
+compared in dimensions to those of the other extremity of the body;
+for the head seems to have been relatively light and defenceless.
+The lumbar vertebr&aelig; increase in a degree corresponding to the
+enormous enlargement of the pelvis and the posterior members.
+The vertebr&aelig; of the tail are enormous, as is seen in <a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>,
+which represents the bones of the pelvis and hind foot, discovered by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span>
+Sir Woodbine Parish, and now in the Museum of the College of
+Surgeons. If we add to these osseous organs the muscles, tendons,
+and integuments which covered them, we must admit that the tail of
+the <i>Megatherium</i> could not be less than two feet in diameter. It is
+probable that, like the Armadillo, it employed the tail to assist in
+supporting the enormous weight of its body; it would also be a
+formidable defensive organ when employed, as is the case with the
+Pangolins and Crocodiles. The fore-feet would be about three feet
+long and one foot broad. They would form a powerful implement
+for excavating the earth, to the greatest depths at which the roots of
+vegetables penetrate. The fore-feet rested on the ground to their
+full length. Thus solidly supported by the two hind-feet and the tail,
+and in advance by one of the fore-feet, the animal could employ the
+fore-foot left at liberty in clearing away the earth, in digging up the
+roots of trees, or in tearing down the branches; the toes of the fore-feet
+were, for this purpose, furnished with large and powerful claws,
+which lie at an oblique angle relatively to the ground, much like the
+burrowing talons of the mole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig_187" id="Fig_187"></a>
+<img src="images/illo418.png" alt="Fig. 187" width="350" height="550" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 187.&mdash;Bones of the pelvis of the Megatherium.</p></div>
+
+<p>The solidity and size of the pelvis must have been enormous; its
+immense iliac bones are nearly at right angles with the vertebral
+column; their external edges are distant more than a yard and a half
+from each other when the animal is standing. The femur is three
+times the thickness of the thigh-bone of the Elephant, and the many
+peculiarities of structure in this bone appear to have been intended
+to give solidity to the whole frame, by means of its short and massive
+proportions. The two bones of the leg are, like the femur, short,
+thick, and solid; presenting proportions which we only meet with in
+the Armadilloes and Anteaters; burrowing animals with which, as we
+have said, its two extremities seem to connect it.</p>
+
+<p>The anatomical organisation of these members denotes heavy,
+slow, and powerful locomotion, but solid and admirable combinations
+for supporting the weight of an enormous sedentary creature;
+a sort of excavating machine, slow of motion but of incalculable
+power for its own purposes. In short, the <i>Megatherium</i> exceeded
+in dimensions all existing Edentates. It had the head and shoulders
+of the Sloth, the feet and legs combined the characteristics of the
+Anteaters and Sloths, of enormous size, since it was at least twelve
+feet long when full grown, its feet armed with gigantic claws, and its
+tail at once a means of supporting its huge body and an instrument
+of defence. An animal built with such massive proportions could
+evidently neither creep nor run; its walk would be excessively slow.
+But what necessity was there for rapid movement in a being only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span>
+occupied in burrowing under the earth, seeking for roots, and which
+would consequently rarely change its place? What need had it of
+agility to fly from its enemies, when it could overthrow the Crocodile
+with a sweep of its tail? Secure from the attacks of other animals,
+this robust herbivorous creature, of which <a href="#Fig_188">Figure 188</a> is a restoration,
+must have lived peacefully and respected in the solitary pampas
+of America.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_188" id="Fig_188"></a>
+<img src="images/illo420.png" alt="Fig. 188" width="450" height="408" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 188.&mdash;Megatherium restored.</p></div>
+
+<p>The immediate cause of the extinction of the Megatherium is,
+probably, to be found in causes which are still in operation in South
+America. The period between the years 1827 and 1830 is called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span>
+the &#8220;gran seco,&#8221; or the great drought, in South America; and
+according to Darwin, the loss of cattle in the province of Buenos
+Ayres alone was calculated at 1,000,000 head. One proprietor at San
+Pedro, in the middle of the finest pasture-country, had lost 20,000
+cattle previously to those years. &#8220;I was informed by an eyewitness,&#8221;
+he adds, &#8220;that the cattle, in herds of thousands, rushed into
+the Parana, and, being exhausted by hunger, they were unable to
+crawl up the muddy banks, and thus were drowned. The arm of the
+river which runs by San Pedro was so full of putrid carcases, that
+the master of a vessel told me that the smell rendered it quite
+impassable. All the small rivers became highly saline, and this
+caused the death of vast numbers in particular spots; for when
+an animal drinks of such water it does not recover. Azara describes
+the fury of the wild horses on a similar occasion: rushing into the
+marshes, those which arrived first being overwhelmed and crushed
+by those which followed.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> The upright position in which the
+various specimens of Megatheria were found indicates some such
+cause of death; as if the ponderous animal, approaching the banks
+of the river, when shrunk within its banks, had been bogged in soft
+mud, sufficiently adhesive to hold it there till it perished.</p>
+
+<p>Like the Megatherium, the <i>Mylodon</i> closely resembled the Sloth,
+and it belonged exclusively to the New World. Smaller than the
+Megatherium, it differed from it chiefly in the form of the teeth.
+These organs presented only molars with smooth surfaces, indicating
+that the animal fed on vegetables, probably the leaves and tender
+buds of trees. As the Mylodon presents at once hoofs and claws
+on each foot, it has been thought that it formed the link between the
+hoofed, or ungulated animals and the Edentates. Three species are
+known, which lived in the pampas of Buenos Ayres.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of some hints given by the illustrious Washington,
+Mr. Jefferson, one of his successors as President of the United
+States, discovered, in a cavern of Western Virginia, the bones of a
+species of gigantic Sloth, which he pronounced to be the remains of
+some carnivorous animal. They consisted of a femur, a humerus, an
+ulna, and three claws, with half a dozen other bones of the foot.
+These bones Mr. Jefferson believed to be analogous to those of the
+lion. Cuvier saw at once the true analogies of the animal. The
+bones were the remains of a species of gigantic Sloth; the complete
+skeleton of which was subsequently discovered in the Mississippi, in
+such a perfect state of preservation that the cartilages, still adhering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span>
+to the bones, were not decomposed. Jefferson called this species the
+<i>Megalonyx</i>. It resembled in many respects the Sloth. Its size was
+that of the largest ox; the muzzle was pointed; the jaws were armed
+with cylindrical teeth; the anterior limbs much longer than the posterior;
+the articulation of the foot oblique to the leg; two great toes,
+short, and armed with long and very powerful claws; the index finger
+more slender, and armed also with a less powerful claw; the tail
+strong and solid: such were the salient points of the organisation of
+the <i>Megalonyx</i>, whose form was a little slighter than that of the
+<i>Megatherium</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_189" id="Fig_189"></a>
+<img src="images/illo422.png" alt="Fig. 189" width="450" height="451" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 189.&mdash;Mylodon robustus.</p></div>
+
+<p>The country in which the Megatherium has been found is described
+by Mr. Darwin as belonging to the great Pampean formation, which
+consists partly of a reddish clay and in part of a highly calcareous
+marly rock. Near the coast there are some plains formed from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span>
+wreck of the upper plain, and from mud, gravel, and sand thrown up
+by the sea during the slow elevation of the land, as shown by the
+raised beds of recent shells. At Punta Alta there is a highly-interesting
+section of one of the later-formed
+little plains, in which many remains of
+these gigantic land-animals have been
+found. These were, says Mr. Darwin:&mdash;&#8220;First,
+parts of three heads and other
+bones of the Megatherium, the huge
+dimensions of which are expressed by
+its name. Secondly, the <i>Megalonyx</i>, a
+great allied animal. Thirdly, the
+<i>Scelidotherium</i>, also an allied animal,
+of which I obtained a nearly perfect
+skeleton: it must have been as large
+as a rhinoceros; in the structure of
+its head it comes, according to Professor
+Owen, nearest to the Cape
+Anteater, but in some other respects
+it approaches to the Armadilloes.
+Fourthly, the <i>Mylodon Darwinii</i>, a
+closely related genus, of little inferior
+size. Fifthly, another gigantic edental
+quadruped. Sixthly, a large animal
+with an osseous coat, in compartments,
+very like that of an armadillo.
+Seventhly, an extinct kind of horse.
+Eighthly, a tooth of a pachydermatous
+animal, probably the same with the Macrauchenia, a huge beast with
+a long neck like a camel. Lastly, the Toxodon, perhaps one of the
+strangest animals ever discovered; in size it equalled an Elephant or
+Megatherium, but the structure of its teeth, as Professor Owen states,
+proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the Gnawers, the
+order which, at the present day, includes most of the smallest
+quadrupeds; in many details it is allied to the pachydermata; judging
+from the position of its eyes, ears, and nostrils, it was probably aquatic,
+like the Dugong and Manatee, to which it is allied. How wonderfully
+are the different orders&mdash;at the present time so well separated&mdash;blended
+together in different points in the structure of the Toxodon!&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_190" id="Fig_190"></a>
+<img src="images/illo423.png" alt="Fig. 190" width="250" height="446" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 190.&mdash;Lower jaw of the Mylodon.</p></div>
+
+<p>The remains on which our knowledge of the <i>Scelidotherium</i> is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span>
+founded include the cranium, which is nearly entire, with the teeth
+and part of the os hyoides, seven cervical, eight dorsal, and five
+sacral vertebr&aelig;, both the scapul&aelig;, and some other bones. The
+remains of the cranium indicate that its general form was an elongated
+slender compressed cone, beginning behind by a flattened vertical
+base, expanding slightly to the cheek-bone, and thence contracting
+to the anterior extremity. All these parts were discovered in their
+natural relative positions, indicating, as Mr. Darwin observes, that
+the gravelly formation in which they were discovered had not been
+disturbed since its deposition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_191" id="Fig_191"></a>
+<img src="images/illo424.png" alt="Fig. 191" width="500" height="238" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 191.&mdash;Skull of Scelidotherium.</p></div>
+
+<p>The lower jaw-bone of <i>Mylodon</i>, which Mr. Darwin discovered
+at the base of the cliff called Punta Alta, in Northern Patagonia,
+had the teeth entire on both sides; they are implanted in deep
+sockets, and only about one-sixth of the last molar projects above the
+alveolus, but the proportion of the exposed part increases gradually
+in the inner teeth (<a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>).</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The habits of life of these Megatheroid animals were a complete
+puzzle to naturalists, until Professor Owen solved the problem
+with remarkable ingenuity. The teeth indicate, by their simple
+structure, that these Megatheroid animals lived on vegetable food, and
+probably on the leaves and small twigs of trees; their ponderous
+forms and great strong curved claws seem so little adapted for
+locomotion, that some eminent naturalists have actually believed
+that, like the Sloths, to which they are intimately related, they subsisted
+by climbing back downwards, on trees, and feeding on the
+leaves. It was a bold, not to say preposterous idea to conceive
+even antediluvian trees with branches strong enough to bear
+animals as large as elephants. Professor Owen, with far more probability,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span>
+believes that, instead of climbing on the trees, they pulled
+the branches down to them, and tore up the smaller ones by the
+roots, and so fed on the leaves. The colossal breadth and weight
+of their hinder quarters, which can hardly be imagined without
+having been seen, become, on this view, of obvious service instead
+of being an encumbrance; their apparent clumsiness disappears.
+With their great tails and their huge heels firmly fixed like a tripod
+in the ground, they could freely exert the full force of their most
+powerful arms and great claws. The <i>Mylodon</i>, moreover, was furnished
+with a long extensile tongue, like that of the giraffe, which by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415"></a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416"></a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span>
+one of those beautiful provisions of Nature, thus reaches, with the
+aid of its long neck, its leafy food.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXVIII" id="Plate_XXVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo427.jpg" alt="Plate XXVIII" width="600" height="393" />
+<p class="caption">XXVIII.&mdash;Ideal European Landscape in the Quaternary Epoch.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_192" id="Fig_192"></a>
+<img src="images/illo425.png" alt="Fig. 192" width="300" height="448" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 192.&mdash;Dinornis, and Bos.</p></div>
+
+<p>Two gigantic birds seem to have lived in New Zealand during
+the Quaternary epoch. The <i>Dinornis</i>, which, if we may judge from
+the <i>tibia</i>, which is upwards of three feet long, and from its eggs,
+which are much larger than those of the Ostrich, must have been of
+most extraordinary size for a bird. In <a href="#Fig_192">Fig. 192</a> an attempt is made
+to restore this fearfully great bird, the <i>Dinornis</i>. As to the <i>Epiornis</i>,
+its eggs only have been found.</p>
+
+<p>On the opposite page (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXVIII">Plate XXVIII.</a></span>) an attempt is made to
+represent the appearance of Europe during the epoch we have under
+consideration. The Bear is seated at the mouth of its den&mdash;the
+cave (thus reminding us of the origin of its name of <i>Ursus spel&aelig;us</i>),
+where it gnaws the bones of the Elephant. Above the cavern the
+<i>Hy&aelig;na spel&aelig;a</i> looks out, with savage eye, for the moment when it
+will be prudent to dispute possession of these remains with its formidable
+rival. The great Wood-stag, with other great animals of the
+epoch, occupies the farthest shore of a small lake, where some small
+hills rise out of a valley crowned with the trees and shrubs of the
+period. Mountains, recently upheaved, rise on the distant horizon,
+covered with a mantle of frozen snow, reminding us that the glacial
+period is approaching, and has already begun to manifest itself.</p>
+
+<p>All these fossil bones, belonging to the great Mammalia which we
+have been describing, are found in the Quaternary formation; but the
+most abundant of all are those of the Elephant and the Horse. The
+extreme profusion of the bones of the Mammoth, crowded into the
+more recently formed deposits of the globe, is only surpassed by the
+prodigious quantity of the bones of the Horse which are buried in the
+same beds. The singular abundance of the remains of these two
+animals proves that, during the Quaternary epoch, the earth gave
+nourishment to immense herds of the Horse and the Elephant. It is
+probable that from one pole to the other, from the equator to the two
+extremities of the axis of the globe, the earth must have formed a vast
+and boundless prairie, while an immense carpet of verdure covered
+its whole surface; and such abundant pastures would be absolutely
+necessary to sustain these prodigious numbers of herbivorous animals
+of great size.</p>
+
+<p>The mind can scarcely realise the immense and verdant plains of
+this earlier world, animated by the presence of an infinity of such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span>
+inhabitants. In its burning temperature, Pachyderms of monstrous
+forms, but of peaceful habits, traversed the tall vegetation, composed
+of grasses of all sorts. Deer of gigantic size, their heads ornamented
+with enormous horns, escorted the heavy herds of the Mammoth;
+while the Horse, small in size and compact of form, galloped and
+frisked round these magnificent horizons of verdure which no human
+eye had yet contemplated.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, all was not quiet and tranquil in the landscapes of the
+ancient world. Voracious and formidable carnivorous animals waged
+a bloody war on the inoffensive herds. The Tiger, the Lion, and the
+ferocious Hy&aelig;na; the Bear, and the Jackal, there selected their prey.
+On the opposite page an endeavour is made to represent the great
+animals among the Edentates which inhabited the American plains
+during the Quaternary epoch (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXIX">Plate XXIX</a></span>). We observe there
+the Glyptodon, the Megatherium, the Mylodon, and, along with them,
+the Mastodon. A small Ape (the Orthopithecus), which first appeared
+in the Miocene period, occupies the branch of a tree in the landscape.
+The vegetation is that of tropical America at the present time.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The deposits of this age, which are of later date than the Crag,
+and of earlier date than the Boulder Clay, with its fragments of rocks
+frequently transported from great distances, are classed under the
+term &#8220;pre-glacial.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>After the deposition of the Forest Bed, which is seen overlying
+the Crag for miles between high and low-water mark, on the shore
+west of Cromer, in Norfolk, there was a general reduction of temperature,
+and a period of intense cold, known as the &#8220;glacial period,&#8221;
+seems to have set in, during which a great part of what is now the
+British Islands was covered with a thick coating of ice, and probably
+united with the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>At this time England south of the Bristol Channel (the estuary of
+the Severn), and the Thames, appears to have been above water.
+The northern part of the country, and the high-ground generally of
+Britain and Ireland were covered with gliding glaciers, by whose
+grinding action the whole surface became moulded and worn into its
+present shape, while the floating icebergs which broke off at the sea-side
+from these glaciers, conveyed away and dropped on the bed of
+the sea those fragments of rocks and the gravel and other earthy
+materials which are now generally recognised as glacial accumulations.</p>
+
+<p>In all directions, however, proofs are being gradually obtained
+that, about this period, movements of submersion under the sea were
+in progress, all north of the Thames.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXIX" id="Plate_XXIX"></a>
+<img src="images/illo430.png" alt="Plate XXIX" width="600" height="390" />
+<p class="caption">XXIX.&mdash;Ideal American Landscape in the Quaternary Epoch.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span>Ramsay points out indications, first of an intensely cold period,
+when land was much more elevated than it is now; then of submergence
+beneath the sea; and, lastly, re-elevation attended by glacial
+action. &#8220;When we speak of the vegetation and quadrupeds of
+Cromer Forest being pre-glacial,&#8221; says Lyell, &#8220;we merely mean
+that their formation preceded the era of the general submergence of
+the British Isles beneath the waters of the glacial sea. The successive
+deposits seen in direct superposition on the Norfolk coast,&#8221; adds Sir
+Charles, &#8220;imply at first the prevalence over a wide area of the Newer
+Pliocene Sea. Afterwards, the bed of the sea was converted into
+dry land, and underwent several oscillations of level, so as to be,
+first, dry land supporting a forest; then an estuary; then again
+land; and, finally, a sea near the mouth of a river, till the downward
+movement became so great as to convert the whole area into a sea
+of considerable depth, in which much floating ice, carrying mud,
+sand, and boulders melted, letting its burthen fall to the bottom.
+Finally, over the till with boulders stratified drift was formed; after
+which, but not until the total subsidence amounted to more than 400
+feet, an upward movement began, which re-elevated the whole
+country, so that the lowest of the terrestrial formations, or the forest
+bed, was brought up to nearly its pristine level, in such a manner
+as to be exposed at a low tide. Both the descending and ascending
+movement seem to have been very gradual.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_193" id="Fig_193"></a>
+<img src="images/illo432.png" alt="Fig. 193" width="400" height="329" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 193.&mdash;Pal&aelig;ophognos Gesneri. Fossil Toad.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></p>
+
+<h3>EUROPEAN DELUGES.</h3>
+
+<p>The Tertiary formations, in many parts of Europe, of more or less
+extent, are covered by an accumulation of heterogeneous deposits,
+filling up the valleys, and composed of very various materials, consisting
+mostly of fragments of the neighbouring rocks. The
+erosions which we remark at the bottoms of the hills, and which
+have greatly enlarged already existing valleys; the mounds of gravel
+accumulated at one point, and which is formed of rolled materials,
+that is to say, of fragments of rocks worn smooth and round by continual
+friction during a long period, in which they have been transported
+from one point to another&mdash;all these signs indicate that these
+denudations of the soil, these displacements and transport of very
+heavy bodies to great distances, are due to the violent and sudden
+action of large currents of water. An immense wave has been
+thrown suddenly on the surface of the earth, making great ravages in
+its passage, furrowing the earth and driving before it d&eacute;bris of all
+sorts in its disorderly course. Geologists give the name of <i>diluvium</i>
+to a formation thus removed and scattered, which, from its heterogeneous
+nature, brings under our eyes, as it were, the rapid passage
+of an impetuous torrent&mdash;a phenomenon which is commonly designated
+as a <i>deluge</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To what cause are we to attribute these sudden and apparently temporary
+invasions of the earth&#8217;s surface by rapid currents of water? In
+all probability to the upheaval of some vast extent of dry land, to the
+formation of some mountain or mountain-range in the neighbourhood
+of the sea, or even in the bed of the sea itself. The land suddenly
+elevated by an upward movement of the terrestrial crust, or by the
+formation of ridges and furrows at the surface, has, by its reaction,
+violently agitated the waters, that is to say, the more mobile portion of
+the globe. By this new impulse the waters have been thrown with great
+violence over the earth, inundating the plains and valleys, and for the
+moment covering the soil with their furious waves, mingled with the
+earth, sand, and mud, of which the devastated districts have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span>
+denuded by their abrupt invasion. The phenomenon has been
+sudden but brief, like the upheaval of the mountain or chain of mountains,
+which is presumed to have been the cause of it; but it was
+often repeated: witness the valleys which occur in every country,
+especially those in the neighbourhood of Lyons and of the Durance.
+These strata indicate as many successive deposits. Besides this, the
+displacement of blocks of minerals from their normal position is
+proof, now perfectly recognisable, of this great phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p>There have been, doubtless, during the epochs anterior to the
+Quaternary period of which we write, many deluges such as we are
+considering. Mountains and chains of mountains, through all the
+ages we have been describing, were formed by upheaval of the crust
+into ridges, where it was too elastic or too thick to be fractured.
+Each of these subterranean commotions would be provocative of
+momentary irruptions of the waves.</p>
+
+<p>But the visible testimony to this phenomenon&mdash;the living proofs
+of this denudation, of this tearing away of the soil, are found nowhere
+so strikingly as in the beds superimposed, far and near, upon
+the Tertiary formations, and which bear the geological name of
+<i>diluvium</i>. This term was long employed to designate what is now
+better known as the &#8220;boulder&#8221; formation, a glacial deposit which is
+abundant in Europe north of the 50th, and in America north of the
+40th, parallel, and re-appearing again in the southern hemisphere;
+but altogether absent in tropical regions. It consists of sand and
+clay, sometimes stratified, mixed with rounded and angular fragments
+of rock, generally derived from the same district; and their origin
+has generally been ascribed to a series of diluvial waves raised by
+hurricanes, earthquakes, or the sudden upheaval of land from the
+bed of the sea, which had swept over continents, carrying with them
+vast masses of mud and heavy stones, and forcing these stones over
+rocky surfaces so as to polish and impress them with furrows and
+stri&aelig;. Other circumstances occurred, however, to establish a connection
+between this formation and the glacial drift. The size and
+number of the erratic blocks increase as we travel towards the Arctic
+regions; some intimate association exists, therefore, between this
+formation and the accumulations of ice and snow which characterise
+the approaching glacial period.</p>
+
+<p>As we have already stated at the beginning of this chapter, there
+is very distinct evidence of two successive deluges in our hemisphere
+during the Quaternary epoch. The two may be distinguished as
+the <i>European Deluge</i> and the <i>Asiatic</i>. The two European deluges
+occurred prior to the appearance of man; the Asiatic deluge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span>
+happened after that event; and the human race, then in the early
+days of its existence, certainly suffered from this cataclysm. In the
+present chapter we confine ourselves to the two cataclysms which
+overwhelmed Europe in the Quaternary epoch.</p>
+
+<p>The first occurred in the north of Europe, where it was produced
+by the upheaval of the mountains of Norway. Commencing in
+Scandinavia, the wave spread and carried its ravages into those
+regions which now constitute Sweden, Norway, European Russia,
+and the north of Germany, sweeping before it all the loose soil on the
+surface, and covering the whole of Scandinavia&mdash;all the plains and
+valleys of Northern Europe&mdash;with a mantle of transported soil. As the
+regions in the midst of which this great mountainous upheaval
+occurred&mdash;as the seas surrounding these vast spaces were partly
+frozen and covered with ice, from their elevation and neighbourhood
+to the pole&mdash;the wave which swept these countries carried along with
+it enormous masses of ice. The shock, produced by the collision of
+these several solid blocks of frozen water, would only contribute to
+increase the extent and intensity of the ravages occasioned by this
+violent cataclysm, which is represented in <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXX">Plate XXX</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXX" id="Plate_XXX"></a>
+<img src="images/illo436.png" alt="Plate XXX" width="600" height="393" />
+<p class="caption">XXX.&mdash;Deluge of the North of Europe.</p></div>
+
+<p>The physical proof of this <i>deluge of the north of Europe</i> exists in
+the accumulation of unstratified deposits which covers all the plains and
+low grounds of Northern Europe. On and in this deposit are found
+numerous blocks which have received the characteristic and significant
+name of erratic blocks, and which are frequently of considerable
+size. These become more characteristic as we ascend to
+higher latitudes, as in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, the southern
+borders of the Baltic, and in the British Islands generally, in all of
+which countries deposits of marine fossil shells occur, which prove
+the submergence of large areas of Scandinavia, of the British Isles,
+and other regions during parts of the glacial period. Some of these
+rocks, characterised as <i>erratic</i>, are of very considerable volume; such,
+for instance, is the granite block which forms the pedestal of the
+statue of Peter the Great at St. Petersburg. This block was found
+in the interior of Russia, where the whole formation is <i>Permian</i>, and
+its presence there can only be explained by supposing it to have been
+transported by some vast iceberg, carried by a diluvial current.
+This hypothesis alone enables us to account for another block of
+granite, weighing about 340 tons, which was found on the sandy
+plains in the north of Prussia, an immense model of which was made
+for the Berlin Museum. The last of these erratic blocks deposited in
+Germany covers the grave of King Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden,
+killed at the battle of Lutzen, in 1632. He was interred beneath the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span>
+rock. Another similar block has been raised in Germany into a
+monument to the geologist Leopold von Buch.</p>
+
+<p>These erratic blocks which are met with in the plains of Russia,
+Poland, and Prussia, and in the eastern parts of England, are composed
+of rocks entirely foreign to the region where they are found.
+They belong to the primary rocks of Norway; they have been
+transported to their present sites, protected by a covering of ice, by
+the waters of the northern deluge. How vast must have been the
+impulsive force which could carry such enormous masses across the
+Baltic, and so far inland as the places where they have been deposited
+for the surprise of the geologist or the contemplation of the thoughtful!</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The second European deluge is supposed to have been the result
+of the formation and upheaval of the Alps. It has filled with d&eacute;bris
+and transported material the valleys of France, Germany, and Italy
+over a circumference which has the Alps for its centre. The proofs
+of a great convulsion at a comparatively recent geological date are
+numerous. The Alps may be from eighty to 100 miles across, and
+the probabilities are that their existence is due, as Sir Charles Lyell
+supposes, to a succession of unequal movements of upheaval and
+subsidence; that the Alpine region had been exposed for countless
+ages to the action of rain and rivers, and that the larger valleys were
+of pre-glacial times, is highly probable. In the eastern part of the
+chain some of the Primary fossiliferous rocks, as well as Oolitic and
+Cretaceous rocks, and even Tertiary deposits, are observable; but in
+the central Alps these disappear, and more recent rocks, in some
+places even Eocene strata, graduate into metamorphic rocks, in which
+Oolitic, Cretaceous, and Eocene strata have been altered into granular
+marble, gneiss, and other metamorphic schists; showing that eruptions
+continued after the deposit of the Middle Eocene formations.
+Again, in the Swiss and Savoy Alps, Oolitic and Cretaceous formations
+have been elevated to the height of 12,000 feet, and Eocene strata
+10,000 feet above the level of the sea; while in the Rothal, in the
+Bernese Alps, occurs a mass of gneiss 1,000 feet thick between two
+strata containing Oolitic fossils.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these proofs of recent upheaval, we can trace effects of two
+different kinds, resulting from the powerful action of masses of water
+violently displaced by this gigantic upheaval. At first broad tracks
+have been hollowed out by the diluvial waves, which have, at these
+points, formed deep valleys. Afterwards these valleys have been
+filled up by materials derived from the mountain and transported into
+the valley, these materials consisting of rounded pebbles, argillaceous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span>
+and sandy mud, generally calcareous and ferriferous. This double
+effect is exhibited, with more or less distinctness, in all the great
+valleys of the centre and south of France. The valley of the
+Garonne is, in respect to these phenomena, classic ground, as it
+were.</p>
+
+<p>As we leave the little city of Muret, three successive levels will
+be observed on the left bank of the Garonne. The lowest of the
+three is that of the valley, properly so called; while the loftiest
+corresponds to the plateau of Saint-Gaudens. These three levels
+are distinctly marked in the Toulousean country, which illustrates
+the diluvial phenomena in a remarkable fashion. The city of
+Toulouse reposes upon a slight eminence of diluvial formation. The
+flat diluvial plateau contrasts strongly with the rounded hills of
+Gascony and Languedoc. They are essentially constituted of a bed
+of gravel, formed of rounded or oval pebbles, and again covered
+with sandy and earthy deposits. The pebbles are principally quartzose,
+brown or black externally, mixed with portions of hard &#8220;Old Red&#8221;
+and New Red Sandstone. The soft earth which accompanies the
+pebbles and gravel is a mixture of argillaceous sand of a red or
+yellow colour, caused by the oxide of iron which enters into its
+composition. In the valley, properly so called, we find the pebbles
+again associated with other minerals which are rare at the higher
+levels. Some teeth of the Mammoth, and <i>Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>, have
+been found at several points on the borders of this valley.</p>
+
+<p>The small valleys, tributary to the principal valley, would appear
+to have been excavated secondarily, partly out of diluvial deposits,
+and their alluvium, essentially earthy, has been formed at the
+expense of the Tertiary formation, and even of the diluvium itself.
+Among other celebrated sites, the diluvial formation is largely
+developed in Sicily. The ancient temple of the Parthenon at
+Athens is built on an eminence formed of diluvial earth.</p>
+
+<p>In the valley of the Rhine, in Alsace, and in many isolated parts
+of Europe, a particular sort of <i>diluvium</i> forms thick beds; it consists
+of a yellowish-grey mud, composed of argillaceous matter mixed with
+carbonate of lime, quartzose and micaceous sand, and oxide of iron.
+This mud, termed by geologists <i>loess</i>, attains in some places considerable
+thickness. It is recognisable in the neighbourhood of Paris.
+It rises a little both on the right and left, above the base of the
+mountains of the Black Forest and of the Vosges; and forms thick
+beds on the banks of the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>The fossils contained in diluvial deposits consist, generally, of
+terrestrial, lacustrine, or fluviatile shells, for the most part belonging<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span>
+to species still living. In parts of the valley of the Rhine, between
+Bingen and Basle, the fluviatile loam or loess, now under
+consideration, is seen forming hills several hundred feet thick, and
+containing, here and there, throughout that thickness, land and fresh-water
+shells; from which it seems necessary to suppose, according to
+Lyell, first, a time when the loess was slowly accumulated, then a
+later period, when large portions of it were removed&mdash;and followed
+by movements of oscillation, consisting, first, of a general depression,
+and then of a gradual re-elevation of the land.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>We have already noticed the caverns in which such extraordinary
+accumulations of animal remains were discovered: it will not be out
+of place to give here a r&eacute;sum&eacute; of the state of our knowledge concerning
+<i>bone-caves</i> and <i>bone-breccias</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>bone-caves</i> are not simply cavities hollowed out of the rock;
+they generally consist of numerous chambers or caverns communicating
+with each other by narrow passages (often of considerable
+length) which can only be traversed by creeping. One in Mexico
+extends several leagues. Perhaps the most remarkable in Europe is
+that of Gailenreuth in Franconia. The Harz mountains contain
+many fine caverns; among others, those of Scharrfeld and <i>Baumann&#8217;s
+Hohl</i>, in which many bones of Hy&aelig;na, Bears, and Lions have been
+found together. The <i>Kirkdale Cave</i>, so well known from the description
+given of it by Dr. Buckland, lying about twenty-five miles north-north-east
+of York, was the burial-place, as we have stated, of at
+least 300 Hy&aelig;nas belonging to individuals of different ages; besides
+containing some other remains, mostly teeth (those of the Hy&aelig;na
+excepted) belonging to ruminating animals. Buckland states that
+the bones of all the other animals, those of the Hy&aelig;nas not excepted,
+were gnawed. He also noticed a partial polish and wearing away to
+a considerable depth of one side of many of the best preserved
+specimens of teeth and bones, which can only be accounted for
+by referring the partial destruction to the continual treading of the
+Hy&aelig;nas, and the rubbing of their skin on the side that lay uppermost
+at the bottom of the den.</p>
+
+<p>From these facts it would appear probable that the Cave at
+Kirkdale was, &#8220;during a long succession of years, inhabited as a den
+by Hy&aelig;nas, and that they dragged into its recesses the other animal
+bodies, whose remains are found mixed indiscriminately with their
+own.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> This conjecture is made almost certain by the discovery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span>
+made by Dr. Buckland of many coprolites of animals that had fed on
+bones, as well as traces of the frequent passage of these animals to
+or from the entrance of the cavern or den. A modern naturalist
+visiting the Cavern of Adelsberg, in Carniola, traversed a series of
+chambers extending over three leagues in the same direction, and
+was only stopped in his subterranean discoveries by coming to a lake
+which occupied its entire breadth.</p>
+
+<p>The interior walls of the bone-caves are, in general, rounded off,
+and furrowed, presenting many traces of the erosive action of water,
+characteristics which frequently escape observation because the walls
+are covered with the calcareous deposit called <i>stalactite</i> or <i>stalagmite</i>&mdash;that
+is, with carbonate of lime, resulting from the deposition left
+by infiltrating water, through the overlying limestone, into the interior
+of the cavern. The formation of the stalactite, with which many of
+the bones were incrusted in the Cave of Gailenreuth, is thus described
+by Liebig. The limestone over the cavern is covered with a rich
+soil, in which the vegetable matter is continually decaying. This
+mould, or humus, being acted on by moisture and air, evolves carbonic
+acid, which is dissolved by rain. The rain-water thus impregnated,
+permeating the porous limestone, dissolves a portion of it, and
+afterwards, when the excess of carbonic acid evaporates in the
+caverns, parts with the calcareous matter, and forms <i>stalactite</i>&mdash;the
+stalactites being the pendent masses of carbonate of lime, which hang
+in picturesque forms either in continuous sheets, giving the cave and
+its sides the appearance of being hung with drapery, or like icicles
+suspended from the roof of the cave, through which the water percolates;
+while those formed on the surface of the floor form <i>stalagmite</i>.
+These calcareous products ornament the walls of these gloomy caverns
+in a most brilliant and picturesque manner.</p>
+
+<p>Under a covering of stalagmite, the floor of the cave frequently
+presents deposits of mud and gravel. It is in excavating this
+soil that the bones of antediluvian animals, mixed with shells,
+fragments of rocks, and rolled pebbles, are discovered. The distribution
+of these bones in the middle of the gravelly argillaceous mud
+is as irregular as possible. The skeletons are rarely entire; the
+bones do not even occur in their natural positions. The bones of
+small Rodents are found accumulated in the crania of great Carnivora.
+The teeth of Bears, Hy&aelig;nas, and Rhinoceros are cemented with
+the jaw-bones of Ruminants. The bones are very often polished
+and rounded, as if they had been transported from great distances;
+others are fissured; others, nevertheless, are scarcely altered. Their
+state of preservation varies with their position in the cave.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span>The bones most frequently found in caves are those of the Carnivora
+of the Quaternary epoch: the Bear, Hy&aelig;na, the Lion, and
+Tiger. The animals of the plain, and notably the great Pachyderms&mdash;the
+Mammoth and Rhinoceros&mdash;are only very rarely met with, and
+always in small numbers. From the cavern of Gailenreuth more than
+a thousand skeletons have been taken, of which 800 belonged to the
+large <i>Ursus spel&aelig;us</i>, and sixty to the smaller species, with 200
+Hy&aelig;nas, Wolves, Lions, and Gluttons. A jaw of the Glutton has
+lately been found by Mr. T. McK. Hughes in a cave in the Mountain
+Limestone at Plas Heaton, associated with Wolf, Bison, Reindeer,
+Horse, and Cave Bear; proving that the Glutton, which at the
+present day inhabits Siberia and the inclement northern regions of
+Europe, inhabited Great Britain during the Pleistocene or Quaternary
+Period. In the Kirkdale cave the remains, as we have seen,
+included those of not less than 300 Hy&aelig;nas of all ages. Dr. Buckland
+concludes, from these circumstances, that the Hy&aelig;nas alone
+made this their den, and that the bones of other animals accumulated
+there had been carried thither by them as their prey; it is, however,
+now admitted that this part of the English geologist&#8217;s conclusions do
+not apply to the contents of all bone-caves. In some instances the
+bones of the Mammals are broken and worn as with a long transport,
+<i>rolled</i>, according to the technical geological expression, and finally
+cemented in the same mud, together with fragments of the rocks
+of the neighbourhood. Besides bones of Hy&aelig;nas, are found not
+only the bones of inoffensive herbivora, but remains of Lions and
+Bears.</p>
+
+<p>We ought to note, in order to make this explanation complete,
+that some geologists consider that these caves served as a refuge for
+sick and wounded animals. It is certain that we see, in our own
+days, some animals, when attacked by sickness, seek refuge in the
+fissures of rocks, or in the hollows of trunks of trees, where they
+die; to this natural impulse it may, probably, be ascribed that the
+skeletons of animals are so rarely found in forests or plains. We may
+conclude, then, that besides the more general mode in which these
+caverns were filled with bones, the two other causes which we have
+enumerated may have been in operation; that is to say, they were
+the habitual sojourn of carnivorous and destructive animals, and they
+became the retreat of sick animals on some particular occasions.</p>
+
+<p>What was the origin of these caves? How have these immense
+excavations been produced? Nearly all these caves occur in limestone
+rocks, particularly in the Jurassic and Carboniferous formations,
+which present many vast subterranean caverns. At the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span>
+time some fine caves exist in the Silurian formation, such as the <i>Grotto
+des Demoiselles</i> (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>) near Ganges, of H&eacute;rault. It should be
+added, in order to complete the explanation of the cave formations,
+that the greater part of these vast internal excavations have been
+chiefly caused by subterranean watercourses, which have eroded
+and washed away a portion of the walls, and in this manner greatly
+enlarged their original dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>But there are other modes than the above of accounting, in a more
+satisfactory manner, for the existence of these caves. According to Sir
+Charles Lyell, there was a time when (as now) limestone rocks were dissolved,
+and when the carbonate of lime was carried away gradually
+by springs from the interior of the earth; that another era occurred, when
+engulfed rivers or occasional floods swept organic and inorganic d&eacute;bris
+into the subterranean hollows previously formed; finally, there were
+changes, in which engulfed rivers were turned into new channels, and
+springs dried up, after which the cave-mud, breccia, gravel, and fossil
+bones were left in the position in which they are now discovered. &#8220;We
+know,&#8221; says that eminent geologist,<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> &#8220;that in every limestone district
+the rain-water is <i>soft</i>, or free from earthy ingredients, when it
+falls upon the soil, and when it enters the rocks below; whereas it is
+<i>hard</i>, or charged with carbonate of lime, when it issues again to the
+surface in springs. The rain derives some of its carbonic acid from
+the air, but more from the decay of vegetable matter in the soil
+through which it percolates; and by the excess of this acid, limestone
+is dissolved, and the water becomes charged with carbonate of lime.
+The mass of solid matter silently and unceasingly subtracted in this
+way from the rocks in every century is considerable, and must in the
+course of thousands of years be so vast, that the space it once occupied
+may well be expressed by a long suite of caverns.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The most celebrated of these bone-caves are those of Gailenreuth,
+in Franconia; of Nabenstein, and of Brumberg, in the same country;
+the caves on the banks of the Meuse, near Li&egrave;ge, of which the late
+Dr. Schmerling examined forty; of Yorkshire, Devonshire, Somersetshire,
+and Derbyshire, in England; also several in Sicily, at Palermo,
+and Syracuse; in France at H&eacute;rault, in the C&eacute;vennes, and Franche
+Comt&eacute;; and in the New World, in Kentucky and Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>ossiferous breccia</i> differs from the bone-caves only in form.
+The most remarkable of them are seen at Cette, Antibes, and Nice,
+on the shores of Italy; and in the isles of Corsica, Malta, and Sardinia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_194" id="Fig_194"></a>
+<img src="images/illo444.png" alt="Fig. 194" width="450" height="505" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 194.&mdash;Grotto des Demoiselles, H&eacute;rault.</p></div>
+
+<p>Nearly the same bones are found in the <i>breccia</i> which we find in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span>
+the caves; the chief difference being that fossils of the Ruminants are
+there in greater abundance. The proportions of bones to the fragments
+of stone and cement vary considerably in different localities.
+In the <i>breccia</i> of Cagliari, where the remains of Ruminants are less
+abundant than at Gibraltar and Nice, the bones, which are those of
+the small Rodents, are, so to speak, more abundant than the mud in
+which they are embedded. We find, there, also, three or four species
+of Birds which belong to Thrushes and Larks. In the <i>breccia</i> at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span>
+Nice the remains of some great Carnivora are found, among which
+are recognised two species of Lion and Panther. In the Grotto di
+San-Ciro, in the Monte Griffone, about six miles from Palermo, in
+Sicily, Dr. Falconer collected remains of two species of Hippopotamus
+and bones of <i>Elephas antiquus</i>, Bos, Stag, Pig, Bear,
+Dog, and a large <i>Felis</i>, some of which indicated a Pliocene age.
+Like many others, this cave contains a thick mass of bone-breccia on
+its floor, the bones of which have long been known, and were formerly
+supposed to be those of giants; while Prof. Ferrara suggested
+that the Elephants&#8217; bones were due to the Carthaginian elephants
+imported into Sicily for purposes of sport.<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the <i>breccia</i> is not confined to Europe. We meet with it in all
+parts of the globe; and recent discoveries in Australia indicate a formation
+corresponding exactly to the <i>ossiferous breccia</i> of the Mediterranean,
+in which an ochreous-reddish cement binds together fragments
+of rocks and bones, among which we find four species of Kangaroos.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_195" id="Fig_195"></a>
+<img src="images/illo445.png" alt="Fig. 195" width="500" height="206" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 195.&mdash;Beloptera Sepioidea.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></p>
+
+<h3>GLACIAL PERIOD.</h3>
+
+<p>The two cataclysms, of which we have spoken, surprised Europe at
+the moment of the development of an important creation. The
+whole scope of animated Nature, the evolution of animals, was
+suddenly arrested in that part of our hemisphere over which these
+gigantic convulsions spread, followed by the brief but sudden submersion
+of entire continents. Organic life had scarcely recovered
+from the violent shock, when a second, and perhaps severer blow
+assailed it. The northern and central parts of Europe, the vast
+countries which extend from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean and
+the Danube, were visited by a period of sudden and severe cold:
+the temperature of the polar regions seized them. The plains of
+Europe, but now ornamented by the luxurious vegetation developed
+by the heat of a burning climate, the boundless pastures on which
+herds of great Elephants, the active Horse, the robust Hippopotamus,
+and great Carnivorous animals grazed and roamed, became covered
+with a mantle of ice and snow.</p>
+
+<p>To what cause are we to attribute a phenomenon so unforeseen,
+and exercising itself with such intensity? In the present state of
+our knowledge no certain explanation of the event can be given.
+Did the central planet, the sun, which was long supposed to distribute
+light and heat to the earth, lose during this period its calorific
+powers? This explanation is insufficient, since at this period the
+solar heat is not supposed to have greatly influenced the earth&#8217;s
+temperature. Were the marine currents, such as the <i>Gulf Stream</i>,
+which carries the Atlantic Ocean towards the north and west of
+Europe, warming and raising its temperature, suddenly turned in the
+contrary direction? No such hypothesis is sufficient to explain
+either the cataclysms or the glacial phenomena; and we need not
+hesitate to confess our ignorance of this strange, this mysterious,
+episode in the history of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>There have been attempts, and very ingenious ones too, to explain
+these phenomena, of which we shall give a brief summary,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span>
+without committing ourselves to any further opinion, using for that
+purpose the information contained in M. Ch. Martins&#8217; excellent
+work. &#8220;The most violent convulsions of the solid and liquid elements,&#8221;
+says this able writer, &#8220;appear to have been themselves only
+the effects due to a cause much more powerful than the mere expansion
+of the pyrosphere; and it is necessary to recur, in order to
+explain them, to some new and bolder hypothesis than has yet been
+hazarded. Some philosophers have belief in an astronomical revolution
+which may have overtaken our globe in the first age of its
+formation, and have modified its position in relation to the sun.
+They admit that the poles have not always been as they are now, and
+that some terrible shock displaced them, changing at the same time
+the inclination of the axis of the rotation of the earth.&#8221; This hypothesis,
+which is nearly the same as that propounded by the Danish
+geologist, Klee, has been ably developed by M. de Boucheporn.
+According to this writer, many multiplied shocks, caused by the
+violent contact of the earth with comets, produced the elevation of
+mountains, the displacement of seas, and perturbations of climate&mdash;phenomena
+which he ascribes to the sudden disturbance of the
+parallelism of the axis of rotation. The antediluvian equator,
+according to him, makes a right angle with the existing equator.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Quite recently,&#8221; adds M. Martins, &#8220;a learned French mathematician,
+M. J. Adh&eacute;mar, has taken up the same idea; but, dismissing
+the more problematical elements of the concussion with comets as
+untenable, he seeks to explain the deluges by the laws of gravitation
+and celestial mechanics, and his theory has been supported by very
+competent writers. It is this: We know that our planet is influenced
+by two essential movements&mdash;one of rotation on its axis,
+which it accomplishes in twenty-four hours; the other of translation,
+which it accomplishes in a little more than 365<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub> days. But besides
+these great and perceptible movements, the earth has a third, and
+even a fourth movement, with one of which we need not occupy
+ourselves; it is that designated <i>nutation</i> by astronomers. It changes
+periodically, but within very restricted limits, the inclination of the
+terrestrial axis to the plane of the ecliptic by a slight oscillation, the
+duration of which is only eighteen hours, and its influence upon the
+relative length of day and night almost inappreciable. The other
+movement is that on which M. Adh&eacute;mar&#8217;s theory is founded.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We know that the curve described by the earth in its annual
+revolution round the sun is not a circle, but an ellipse; that is, a
+slightly elongated circle, sometimes called a circle of two centres, one
+of which is occupied by the sun. This curve is called the ecliptic.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span>
+We know, also, that, in its movement of translation, the earth
+preserves such a position that its axis of rotation is intercepted, at its
+centre, by the plane of the ecliptic. But in place of being perpendicular,
+or at right angles with this plane, it crosses it obliquely in
+such a manner as to form on one side an angle of one-fourth, and on
+the other an angle of three-fourths of a right angle. This inclination
+is only altered in an insignificant degree by the movement of <i>nutation</i>.
+I need scarcely add that the earth, in its annual revolution,
+occupies periodically four principal positions on the ecliptic, which
+mark the limits of the four seasons. When its centre is at the
+extremity most remote from the sun, or <i>aphelion</i>, it is the summer
+solstice for the northern hemisphere. When its centre is at the
+other extremity, or <i>perihelion</i>, the same hemisphere is at the winter
+solstice. The two intermediate points mark the equinoxes of spring
+and autumn. The great circle of separation of light and shade
+passes, then, precisely through the poles, the day and night are equal,
+and the line of intersection of the plane of the equator and
+that of the ecliptic make part of the vector ray from the centre
+of the sun to the centre of the earth&mdash;what we call the <i>equinoctial
+line</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Thus placed, it is evident that if the terrestrial axis remained
+always parallel to itself, the equinoctial line would always pass
+through the same point on the surface of the globe. But it is not
+absolutely thus. The parallelism of the axis of the earth is changed
+slowly, very slowly, by a movement which Arago ingeniously
+compares to the varying inclination of a top when about to cease
+spinning. This movement has the effect of making the equinoctial
+points on the surface of the earth retrograde towards the east from
+year to year, in such a manner that at the end of 25,800 years
+according to some astronomers, but 21,000 years according to
+Adh&eacute;mar, the equinoctial point has literally made a circuit of the
+globe, and has returned to the same position which it occupied at the
+beginning of this immense period, which has been called the &#8216;<i>great
+year</i>.&#8217; It is this retrograde evolution, in which the terrestrial axis
+describes round its own centre that revolution round a double conic
+surface, which is known as the <i>precession of the equinoxes</i>. It was
+observed 2,000 years ago by Hipparchus; its cause was discovered
+by Newton; and its complete evolution explained by D&#8217;Alembert
+and Laplace.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Now, we know that the consequence of the inclination of the
+terrestrial axis with the plane of the ecliptic is&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;1. That the seasons are inverse to the two hemispheres&mdash;that is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span>
+to say, the northern hemisphere enjoys its spring and summer, while
+the southern hemisphere passes through autumn and winter.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;2. When the earth approaches nearest to the sun, our hemisphere
+has its autumn and winter; and the regions near the pole, receiving
+none of the solar rays, are plunged into darkness, approaching that of
+night, during six months of the year.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;3. When the earth is most distant from the sun, when much the
+greater half of the ecliptic intervenes between it and the focus of light
+and heat, the pole, being then turned towards this focus, constantly
+receives its rays, and the rest of the northern hemisphere enjoys its
+long days of spring and summer.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Bearing in mind that, in going from the equinox of spring to the
+autumnal equinox of our hemisphere, the earth traverses a much
+longer curve than it does on its return; bearing in mind, also, the
+accelerated movement it experiences in its approach to the sun from
+the attraction, which increases in inverse proportion to the square of
+its distance, we arrive at the conclusion that our summer should be
+longer and our winter shorter than the summer and winter of our
+antipodes; and this is <i>actually</i> the case by about eight days.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I say <i>actually</i>, because, if we now look at the effects of the precession
+of the equinoxes, we shall see that in a time equal to half of
+the <i>grand year</i>, whether it be 12,900 or 10,500 years, the conditions
+will be reversed; the terrestrial axis, and consequently the poles,
+will have accomplished the half of their bi-conical revolution round
+the centre of the earth. It will then be the northern hemisphere
+which will have the summers shorter and the winters longer, and the
+southern hemisphere exactly the reverse. In the year 1248 before
+the Christian era, according to M. Adh&eacute;mar, the north pole attained
+its maximum summer duration. Since then&mdash;that is to say for the last
+3,112 years&mdash;it has begun to decrease, and this will continue to the
+year 7388 of our era before it attains its maximum winter duration.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;But the reader may ask, fatigued perhaps by these abstract
+considerations, What is there here in common with the deluges?</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The <i>grand year</i> is here divided, for each hemisphere, into two
+great seasons, which De Jouvencel calls the great summer and
+winter, which will each, according to M. Adh&eacute;mar, be 10,500
+years.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;During the whole of this period one of the poles has constantly
+had shorter winters and longer summers than the other. It follows
+that the pole which experiences the long winter undergoes a gradual
+and continuous cooling, in consequence of which the quantities of ice
+and snow, which melt during the summer, are more than compensated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span>
+by those which are again produced in the winter. The ice and
+snow go on accumulating from year to year, and finish at the end of
+the period by forming, at the coldest pole, a sort of crust or cap, vast,
+thick, and heavy enough to modify the spheroidal form of the earth.
+This modification, as a necessary consequence, produces a notable
+displacement of the centre of gravity, or&mdash;for it amounts to the same
+thing&mdash;of the centre of attraction, round which all the watery masses
+tend to restore it. The south pole, as we have seen, finished its <i>great
+winter</i> in 1248 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> The accumulated ice then added itself to the
+snow, and the snow to the ice, at the south pole, towards which the
+watery masses all tended until they covered nearly the whole of the
+southern hemisphere. But since that date of 1248, our <i>great winter</i>
+has been in progress. Our pole, in its turn, goes on getting cooler
+continually; ice is being heaped upon snow, and snow upon ice, and
+in 7,388 years the centre of gravity of the earth will return to its
+normal position, which is the geometrical centre of the spheroid.
+Following the immutable laws of central attraction, the southern
+waters accruing from the melted ice and snow of the south pole will
+return to invade and overwhelm once more the continents of the
+northern hemisphere, giving rise to new continents, in all probability,
+in the southern hemisphere.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Such is a brief statement of the hypothesis which Adh&eacute;mar has
+very ingeniously worked out. How far it explains the mysterious
+phenomena which we have under consideration we shall not attempt
+to say, our concern being with the effects. Does the evidence of
+upward and downward movements of the surface in Tertiary times
+explain the great change? For if the cooling which preceded and
+succeeded the two European deluges still remains an unsolved
+problem, its effects are perfectly appreciable. The intense cold
+which visited the northern and central parts of Europe resulted in
+the annihilation of organic life in those countries. All the watercourses,
+the rivers and streams, the seas and lakes, were frozen. As
+Agassiz says in his first work on &#8220;Glaciers&#8221;: &#8220;A vast mantle of ice
+and snow covered the plains, the valleys, and the seas. All the
+springs were dried up; the rivers ceased to flow. To the movements
+of a numerous and animated creation succeeded the silence of death.&#8221;
+Great numbers of animals perished from cold. The Elephant and
+Rhinoceros perished by thousands in the midst of their grazing
+grounds, which became transformed into fields of ice and snow.
+It is then that these two species disappeared, and seem to have
+been effaced from creation. Other animals were overwhelmed,
+without their race having been always entirely annihilated. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span>
+sun, which lately lighted up the verdant plains, as it dawned upon
+these frozen steppes, was only saluted by the whistling of the north
+winds, and the horrible rending of the crevasses, which opened up on
+all sides under the heat of its rays, acting upon the immense glacier
+which formed the sepulchre of many animated beings.</p>
+
+<p>How can we accept the idea that the plains, but yesterday smiling
+and fertile, were formerly covered, and that for a very long period,
+with an immense sheet of ice and snow? To satisfy the reader that
+the proof of this can be established on sufficient evidence, it is necessary
+to direct his attention to certain parts of Europe. It is essential
+to visit, at least in idea, a country where <i>glacial phenomena</i> still exist,
+and to prove that the phenomena, now confined to those countries,
+were spread, during geological times, over spaces infinitely vaster.
+We shall choose for our illustration, and as an example, the glaciers
+of the Alps. We shall show that the glaciers of Switzerland and
+Savoy have not always been restricted to their present limits; that
+they are, so to speak, only miniature resemblances of the gigantic
+glaciers of times past; and that they formerly extended over all the
+great plains which extend from the foot of the chain of the Alps.</p>
+
+<p>To establish these proofs we must enter upon some consideration
+of existing glaciers, upon their mode of formation, and their peculiar
+phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>The snow which, during the whole year, falls upon the mountains,
+does not melt, but maintains its solid state, when the elevation
+exceeds the height of 9,000 feet or thereabouts. Where the snow
+accumulates to a great thickness, in the valleys, or in the deep
+fissures in the ground, it hardens under the influence of the pressure
+resulting from the incumbent weight. But it always happens that a
+certain quantity of water, resulting from the momentary thawing of
+the superficial portions, traverses its substance, and this forms a
+crystalline mass of ice, with a granular structure, which the Swiss
+naturalists designate <i>n&eacute;v&eacute;</i>. From the successive melting and freezing
+caused by the heat by day and the cold by night, and the infiltration
+of air and water into its interstices, the <i>n&eacute;v&eacute;</i> is slowly transformed into
+a homogeneous azure mass of ice, full of an infinite number of little
+air-bubbles&mdash;this was what was formerly called <i>glace bulleuse</i> (bubble-ice).
+Finally, these masses, becoming completely frozen, water
+replaces the bubbles of air. Then the transformation is complete;
+the ice is homogeneous, and presents those beautiful azure tints so
+much admired by the tourist who traverses the magnificent glaciers of
+Switzerland and Savoy.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the origin of, and such is the mode in which the glaciers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span>
+of the Alps are formed. An important property of glaciers remains to
+be pointed out. They have a general movement of translation in the
+direction of their slope, under the influence of which they make a
+certain yearly progress downward, according to the angle of the slope.
+The glacier of the Aar, for example, advances at the rate of about
+250 feet each year.</p>
+
+<p>Under the joint influence of the slope, the weight of the frozen
+mass, and the melting of the parts which touch the earth, the glacier
+thus always tends downwards; but from the effects of a more genial
+temperature, the lower extremity melting rapidly, has a tendency to
+recede. It is the difference between these two actions which constitutes
+the real progressive movement of the glacier.</p>
+
+<p>The friction exercised by the glacier upon the bottom and sides
+of the valley, ought necessarily to leave its traces on the rocks with
+which it may happen to be in contact. Over all the places where a
+glacier has passed, in fact, we remark that the rocks are polished,
+levelled, rounded, and, as it is termed, <i>moutonn&eacute;es</i>. These rocks
+present, besides, striations or scratches, running in the direction of
+the motion of the glacier, which have been produced by hard and
+angular fragments of stones imbedded in the ice, and which leave
+their marks on the hardest rocks under the irresistible pressure of the
+heavy-descending mass of ice. In a work of great merit, which we
+have before quoted, M. Charles Martins explains the physical
+mechanism by which granite rocks borne onwards in the progressive
+movements of a glacier, have scratched, scored, and rounded the softer
+rocks which the glacier has encountered in its descent. &#8220;The friction,&#8221;
+says M. Martins, &#8220;which the glacier exercises upon the bottom and upon
+the walls, is too considerable not to leave its traces upon the rocks with
+which it may be in contact; but its action varies according to the
+mineralogical nature of the rocks, and the configuration of the ground
+they cover. If we penetrate between the soil and the bottom of the
+glacier, taking advantage of the ice-caverns which sometimes open at
+its edge or extremity, we creep over a bed of pebbles and fine sand
+saturated with water. If we remove this bed, we soon perceive that
+the underlying rock is levelled, polished, ground down by friction,
+and covered with rectilinear stri&aelig;, resembling sometimes small
+grooves, more frequently perfectly straight scratches, as though they
+had been produced by means of a graver, or even a very fine needle.
+The mechanism by which these stri&aelig; have been produced is that
+which industry employs to polish stones and metals. We rub the
+metallic surface with a fine powder called <i>emery</i>, until we give it a
+brilliancy which proceeds from the reflection of the light from an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span>
+infinity of minute stri&aelig;. The bed of pebbles and mud, interposed
+between the glacier and the subjacent rock, here represents the emery.
+The rock is the metallic surface, and the mass of the glacier which
+presses on and displaces the mud in its descent towards the plain,
+represents the hand of the polisher. These stri&aelig; always follow the
+direction of the glacier; but as it is sometimes subject to small lateral
+deviations, the stri&aelig; sometimes cross, forming very small angles with
+one another. If we examine the rocks by the side of a glacier, we
+find similar stri&aelig; engraved on them where they have been in contact
+with the frozen mass. I have often broken the ice where it thus
+pressed upon the rock, and have found under it polished surfaces,
+covered with striations. The pebbles and grains of sand which had
+engraved them were still encased in the ice, fixed like the diamond
+of the glazier at the end of the instrument with which he marks his
+glass.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The sharpness and depth of the stri&aelig; or scratches depend on
+many circumstances: if the rock acted upon is calcareous, and the
+emery is represented by pebbles and sand derived from harder
+rocks, such as gneiss, granite, or protogine, the scratches are very
+marked. This we can verify at the foot of the glaciers of Rosenlaui,
+and of the Grindenwald in the Canton of Berne. On the contrary,
+if the rock is gneissic, granitic, or serpentinous, that is to say, very
+hard, the scratches will be less deep and less marked, as may be seen
+in the glaciers of the Aar, of Zermatt, and Chamounix. The polish
+will be the same in both cases, and it is often as perfect as in marble
+polished for architectural purposes.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The scratches engraved upon the rocks which confine these
+glaciers are generally horizontal or parallel to the surface. Sometimes,
+owing to the contractions of the valley, these stri&aelig; are nearly
+vertical. This, however, need not surprise us. Forced onwards by
+the superincumbent weight, the glacier squeezes itself through the
+narrow part, its bulk expanding upwards, in which case the flanks of
+the mountain which barred its passage are marked vertically. This
+is admirably seen near the Ch&acirc;lets of Stieregg, a narrow defile which
+the lower glacier of the Grindenwald has to clear before it discharges
+itself into the valley of the same name. Upon the right
+bank of the glacier the scratches are inclined at an angle of 45&deg; to
+the horizon. Upon the left bank the glacier rises sometimes quite
+up to the neighbouring forest, carrying with it great clods of earth
+charged with rhododendrons and clumps of alder, birches, and firs.
+The more tender or foliated rocks were broken up and demolished
+by the prodigious force of the glacier; the harder rocks offered more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span>
+resistance, but their surface is planed down, polished, and striated,
+testifying to the enormous pressure which they had to undergo. In
+the same manner the glacier of the Aar, at the foot of the promontory
+on which M. Agassiz&#8217; tent was erected, is polished to a great height,
+and on the face, turned towards the upper part of the valley, I have
+observed scratches inclined 64&deg;. The ice, erect against this escarpment,
+seemed to wish to scale it, but the granite rock held fast, and
+the glacier was compelled to pass round it slowly.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In recapitulation, the considerable pressure of a glacier, joined
+to its movement of progression, acts at once upon the bottom and
+flanks of the valley which it traverses: it polishes all the rocks
+which may be too hard to be demolished by it, and frequently impresses
+upon them a peculiar and characteristic form. In destroying
+all the asperities and inequalities of these rocks, it levels their surfaces
+and rounds them on the sides pointing up the stream, whilst in
+the opposite direction, or down the stream, they sometimes preserve
+their abrupt, unequal, and rugged surface. We must comprehend,
+in short, that the force of the glacier acts principally on the side
+which is towards the circle whence it descends, in the same way
+that the piles of a bridge are more damaged up-stream, than down, by
+the icebergs which the river brings down during the winter. Seen
+from a distance, a group of rocks thus rounded and polished
+reminds us of the appearance of a flock of sheep: hence the name
+<i>roches moutonn&eacute;es</i> given them by the Swiss naturalists.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Another phenomenon which plays an important part in existing
+glaciers, and in those, also, which formerly covered Switzerland, is
+found in the fragments of rock, often of enormous size, which have
+been transported and deposited during their movement of progression.</p>
+
+<p>The peaks of the Alps are exposed to continual degradations.
+Formed of granitic rocks&mdash;rocks eminently alterable under the action
+of air and water, they become disintegrated and often fall in fragments
+more or less voluminous. &#8220;The masses of snow,&#8221; continues
+Martins, &#8220;which hang upon the Alps during winter, the rain which
+infiltrates between their beds during summer, the sudden action of
+torrents of water, and more slowly, but yet more powerfully, the
+chemical affinities, degrade, disintegrate, and decompose the hardest
+rocks. The d&eacute;bris thus produced falls from the summits into the
+circles occupied by the glaciers with a great crash, accompanied by
+frightful noises and great clouds of dust. Even in the middle of
+summer I have seen these avalanches of stone precipitated from the
+highest ridges of the Schreckhorn, forming upon the immaculate snow
+a long black train, consisting of enormous blocks and an immense<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span>
+number of smaller fragments. In the spring a rapid thawing of the
+winter snows often causes accidental torrents of extreme violence.
+If the melting is slow, water insinuates itself into the smallest fissures
+of the rocks, freezes there, and rends asunder the most refractory
+masses. The blocks detached from the mountains are sometimes of
+gigantic dimensions: we have found them sixty feet in length, and
+those measuring thirty feet each way are by no means rare in the
+Alps.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus, the action of aqueous infiltrations followed by frost, the
+chemical decomposition which granite undergoes under the influence
+of a moist atmosphere, degrade and disintegrate the rocks which
+constitute the mountains enclosing the glacier. Blocks, sometimes
+of very considerable dimensions, often fall at the foot of these mountains
+on to the surface of the glacier. Were it immovable the d&eacute;bris
+would accumulate at its base, and would form there a mass of ruins
+heaped up without order. But the slow progression, the continuous
+displacement of the glacier, lead, in the distribution of these blocks,
+to a certain kind of arrangement: the blocks falling upon its surface
+participate in its movement, and advance with it. But other downfalls
+take place daily, and the new d&eacute;bris following the first, the whole
+form a line along the outer edge of the glacier. These regular trains
+of rocks bear the name of &#8220;<i>moraines</i>.&#8221; When the rocks fall from two
+mountains, and on each edge of the glacier, and two parallel lines of
+d&eacute;bris are formed, they are called <i>lateral moraines</i>. There are also
+<i>median moraines</i>, which are formed when two glaciers are confluent,
+in such a manner that the <i>lateral moraine</i>, on the right of the one,
+trends towards the left-hand one of the other. Finally, those moraines
+are <i>frontal</i>, or <i>terminal</i>, which repose, not upon the glacier, but at its
+point of termination in the valleys, and which are due to the accumulation
+of blocks fallen from the terminal escarpments of glaciers there
+arrested by some obstacle. In <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXXI">Plate XXXI.</a></span> we have represented an
+actual Swiss glacier, in which are united the physical and geological
+peculiarities belonging to these enormous masses of frozen water:
+the moraines here are <i>lateral</i>, that is to say, formed of a double line
+of d&eacute;bris.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXXI" id="Plate_XXXI"></a>
+<img src="images/illo456.png" alt="Plate XXXI" width="600" height="382" />
+<p class="caption">XXXI.&mdash;Glaciers of Switzerland.</p></div>
+
+<p>Transported slowly on the surface of the glacier, all the blocks
+from the mountain preserve their original forms unaltered; the sharpness
+of their edges is never altered by their gentle transport and
+almost imperceptible motion. Atmospheric agency only can affect
+or destroy these rocks when formed of hard resisting material. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span>
+then remain nearly of the same form and volume they had when they
+fell on the surface of the glacier; but it is otherwise with blocks and
+fragments enclosed between the rock and the glacier, whether it be
+at the bottom or between the glacier and its lateral walls. Some of
+these, under the powerful and continuous action of this gigantic
+grinding process, will be reduced to an impalpable mud, others are
+worn into facets, while others are rounded, presenting a multitude of
+scratches crossing each other in all directions. These scratched
+pebbles are of great importance in studying the extent of ancient
+glaciers; they testify, on the spot, to the existence of pre-existing
+glaciers which shaped, ground, and striated the pebbles, which water
+does not; on the contrary, in the latter, they become polished and
+rounded, and even natural striations are effaced.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, huge blocks transported to great distances from their true
+geological beds, that is, <i>erratic blocks</i>, to use the proper technical
+term, rounded (<i>moutonn&eacute;es</i>), polished, and scratched surfaces, <i>moraines</i>;
+finally, pebbles, ground, polished, rounded, or worn into smooth
+surfaces, are all physical effects of glaciers in motion, and their
+presence alone affords sufficient proof to the naturalist that a glacier
+formerly existed in the locality where he finds them. The reader
+will now comprehend how it is possible to recognise, in our days, the
+existence of ancient glaciers in different parts of the world. Above
+all, wherever we may find both <i>erratic blocks</i> and <i>moraines</i>, and
+observe, at the same time, indications of rocks having been polished
+and striated in the same direction, we may pronounce with certainty
+as to the existence of a glacier during geological times. Let us take
+some instances.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_196" id="Fig_196"></a>
+<img src="images/illo459.png" alt="Fig. 196" width="450" height="408" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 196.&mdash;Erratic Blocks in the Alps.</p></div>
+
+<p>At Pravolta, in the Alps, going towards <i>Monte Santo-Primo</i>,
+upon a calcareous rock, we find the mass of granite represented in
+<a href="#Fig_196">Fig. 196</a>. This erratic block exists, with thousands of others, on the
+slopes of the mountain. It is about fifty feet long, nearly forty feet
+broad, and five-and-twenty in height; and all its edges and angles
+are perfect. Some parallel stri&aelig; occur along the neighbouring rocks.
+All this clearly demonstrates that a glacier existed, in former times,
+in this part of the Alps, where none appear at the present time. It
+is a glacier, then, which has transported and deposited here this
+enormous block, weighing nearly 2,000 tons.</p>
+
+<p>In the Jura Mountains, on the hill of Fourvi&egrave;res, a limestone
+eminence at Lyons, blocks of granite are found, evidently derived
+from the Alps, and transported there by the Swiss glaciers. The
+particular mode of transport is represented theoretically in <a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>.
+A represents, for example, the summit of the Alps, B the Jura<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span>
+Mountains, or the hill of Fourvi&egrave;res, at Lyons. At the glacial period,
+the glacier A B C extended from the Alps to the mountain B. The
+granitic d&eacute;bris, which was detached from the summit of the Alpine
+mountains, fell on the surface of the glacier. The movement of
+progression of this glacier transported these blocks as far as the
+summit B. At a later period the temperature of the globe was raised,
+and when the ice had melted, the blocks, D E, were quietly deposited
+on the spots where they are now found, without having sustained
+the slightest shock or injury in this singular mode of transport.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_197" id="Fig_197"></a>
+<img src="images/illo460.png" alt="Fig. 197" width="600" height="244" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 197.&mdash;Transported blocks.</p></div>
+
+<p>Every day traces, more or less recognisable, are found on the Alps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span>
+of ancient glaciers far distant from their existing limits. Heaps of
+d&eacute;bris, of all sizes, comprehending blocks with sharp-pointed angles,
+are found in the Swiss plains and valleys. <i>Blocs perch&eacute;s</i> (Perched
+blocks), as in <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXXI">Pl. XXXI.</a></span>, are often seen perched upon points of the
+Alps situated far above existing glaciers, or dispersed over the plain
+which separates the Alps from the Jura, or even preserving an incredible
+equilibrium, when their great mass is taken into consideration,
+at considerable heights on the eastern flank of this chain of
+mountains. It is by the aid of these indications that the geologist
+has been able to trace to extremely remote distances signs of the
+former existence of the ancient glaciers of the Alps, to follow them in
+their course, and fix their point of origin, and where they terminated.
+Thus the humble Mount Sion, a gently-swelling hill situated to the
+north of Geneva, was the point at which three great ancient
+glaciers had their confluence&mdash;the glacier of the Rh&ocirc;ne, which filled
+all the basin of Lake Leman, or Lake of Geneva; that of the Is&egrave;re,
+which issued from the Annecy and Bourget Lakes; and that of the
+Arve, which had its source in the valley of Chamounix, all converged
+at this point. According to M. G. de Mortillet, who has carefully
+studied this geological question, the extent and situation of these
+ancient glaciers of the Alps were as follows:&mdash;Upon its northern
+flank the <i>glacier of the Rhine</i> occupied all the basin of Lake Constance,
+and extended to the borders of Germany; that of the <i>Linth</i>, which
+was arrested at the extremity of the Lake of Zurich&mdash;this city is built
+upon its terminal moraine&mdash;that of the <i>Reus</i>, which covered the lake
+of the four cantons with blocks torn from the peaks of Saint-Gothard;&mdash;that
+of the <i>Aar</i>, the last moraines of which crown the hills in the
+environs of Berne;&mdash;those of the <i>Arve</i> and the <i>Is&egrave;re</i>, which, as we
+have said, debouched from Lake Annecy and Lake Bourget respectively;&mdash;that
+of the <i>Rh&ocirc;ne</i>, the most important of all. It is this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span>
+glacier which has deposited upon the flanks of the Jura, at the height
+of 3,400 feet above the level of the sea, the great <i>erratic blocks</i> already
+described. This mighty glacier of the Rh&ocirc;ne had its origin in all the
+lateral valleys formed by the two parallel chains of the Valais. It
+filled all the Valais, and extended into the plain, lying between the
+Alps and the Jura, from Fort de L&#8217;&Eacute;cluse, near the fall of the Rh&ocirc;ne,
+up to the neighbourhood of Aarau.</p>
+
+<p>The fragments of rocks transported by the ice-sea which occupied
+all the Swiss plain follow, in northerly direction, the course of the
+valley of the Rhine. On the other hand, the glacier of the Rh&ocirc;ne,
+after reaching the plain of Switzerland, turned off obliquely towards
+the south, received the glacier of the Arve, then that of the Is&egrave;re,
+passed between the Jura and the mountains of the Grande-Chartreuse,
+spread over La Bresse, then nearly all Dauphiny, and terminated in
+the neighbourhood of Lyons.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the southern flank of the Alps, the ancient glaciers, according
+to M. de Mortillet&#8217;s map, occupied all the great valleys from
+that of the Dora, on the west, to that of the Tagliamento, on the
+east. &#8220;The glacier of the <i>Dora</i>&#8221; says de Mortillet, whose text we
+greatly abridge, &#8220;debouched into the valley of the Po, close to Turin.
+That of the <i>Dora-Balt&eacute;a</i> entered the plain of Ivr&eacute;a, where it has left
+a magnificent semicircle of hills, which formed its terminal moraine.
+That of the <i>Toce</i> discharged itself into Lake Maggiore, against the
+glacier of the Tessin, and then threw itself into the valley of Lake
+Orta, at the southern extremity of which its terminal moraines were
+situated. That of the Tessin filled the basin of Lake Maggiore, and
+established itself between Lugano and Var&egrave;se. That of the <i>Adda</i>
+filled the basin of Lake Como, and established itself between Mendrizio
+and Lecco, thus describing a vast semicircle. That of the
+<i>Oglio</i> terminated a little beyond Lake Iseo. That of the <i>Adige</i>,
+finding no passage through the narrow valley of Roveredo, where
+the valley became very narrow, took another course, and filled the
+immense valley of the Lake of Garda. At Novi it has left a magnificent
+moraine, of which Dante speaks in his &#8216;Inferno.&#8217; That of
+the <i>Brenta</i> extended over the plain of that commune. The <i>Drave</i>
+and the <i>Tagliamento</i> had also their glaciers. Finally, glaciers occupied
+all the valleys of the Austrian and Bavarian Alps.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>
+
+<p>Similar traces of the existence of ancient glaciers occur in many
+other European countries. In the Pyrenees, in Corsica, the Vosges,
+the Jura, &amp;c., extensive ranges of country have been covered, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span>
+geological times, by these vast plains of ice. The glacier of the
+Moselle was the most considerable of the glaciers of the Vosges,
+receiving numerous affluents; its lowest frontal moraine, which is
+situated below Remiremont, could not be less than a mile and a
+quarter in length.</p>
+
+<p>But the phenomenon of the glacial extension which we have
+examined in the Alps was not confined to Central Europe. The
+same traces of their ancient existence are observed in all the north
+of Europe, in Russia, Iceland, Norway, Prussia, the British Islands,
+part of Germany, in the north, and even in some parts of the south,
+of Spain. In England, <i>erratic</i> blocks of granite are found which were
+derived from the mountains of Norway. It is evident that these
+blocks were borne by a glacier which extended from the north pole
+to England. In this manner they crossed the Baltic and the North
+Seas. In Prussia similar traces are observable.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, during the Quaternary epoch, glaciers which are now
+limited to the Polar regions, or to mountainous countries of considerable
+altitude, extended very far beyond their present known limits;
+and, taken in connection with the deluge of the north, and the vast
+amount of organic life which they destroyed, they form, perhaps, the
+most striking and mysterious of all geological phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>M. Edouard Collomb, to whom we owe much of our knowledge
+of ancient glaciers, furnishes the following note explanatory of a map
+of Ancient Glaciers which he has prepared:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The area occupied by the ancient Quaternary glaciers may be
+divided into two orographical regions:&mdash;1. The region of the north,
+from lat. 52&deg; or 55&deg; up to the North Pole. 2. The region of Central
+Europe and part of the south.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The region of the north which has been covered by the ancient
+glaciers comprehends all the Scandinavian peninsula, Sweden, Norway,
+and a part of Western Russia, extending from the Niemen on the
+north in a curve which passed near the sources of the Dnieper and
+the Volga, and thence took a direction towards the shores of the
+glacial ocean. This region comprehends Iceland, Scotland, Ireland,
+the isles dependent on them, and, finally, a great part of England.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This region is bounded, on all its sides, by a wide zone from
+2&deg; to 5&deg; in breadth, over which is recognised the existence of erratic
+blocks of the north: it includes the middle region of Russia in Europe,
+Poland, a part of Prussia, and Denmark; losing itself in Holland
+on the Zuider Zee, it cut into the northern part of England, and we
+find a shred of it in France, upon the borders of the Cotentin.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The ancient glaciers of Central Europe consisted, first, of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span>
+grand masses of the Alps. Stretching to the west and to the north,
+they extended to the valley of the Rh&ocirc;ne as far as Lyons, then
+crossing the summit-level of the Jura, they passed near Basle, covering
+Lake Constance, and stretching beyond into Bavaria and Austria.
+Upon the southern slopes of the Alps, they turned round the summit
+of the Adriatic, passed near to Udinet, covered Peschiera, Solferino,
+Como, Var&egrave;se, and Ivr&eacute;a, extended to near Turin, and terminated in
+the valley of the Stura, near the Col de Tenda.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the Pyrenees, the ancient glaciers have occupied all the
+principal valleys of this chain, both on the French and Spanish sides,
+especially the valleys of the centre, which comprehend those of
+Luchon, Aude, Bar&eacute;ges, Cauterets, and Ossun. In the Cantabrian
+chain, an extension of the Pyrenees, the existence of ancient glaciers
+has also been recognised.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the Vosges and the Black Forest they covered all the
+southern parts of these mountains. In the Vosges, the principal
+traces are found in the valleys of Saint-Amarin, Giromagny, Munster,
+the Moselle, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the Carpathians and the Caucasus the existence of ancient
+glaciers of great extent has also been observed.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the Sierra Nevada, in the south of Spain, mountains upwards
+of 11,000 feet high, the valleys which descend from the Picacho de
+Veleta and Mulhacen have been covered with ancient glaciers during
+the Quaternary epoch.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>There is no reason to doubt that at this epoch all the British
+islands, at least all north of the Thames, were covered by glaciers in
+their higher parts. &#8220;Those,&#8221; says Professor Ramsay, &#8220;who know the
+Highlands of Scotland, will remember that, though the weather has
+had a powerful influence upon them, rendering them in places rugged,
+jagged, and cliffy, yet, notwithstanding, their general outlines are often
+remarkably rounded and flowing; and when the valleys are examined
+in detail, you find in their bottoms and on the sides of the hills that
+the mammillated structure prevails. This rounded form is known, by
+those who study glaciers, by the name of <i>roches moutonn&eacute;es</i>, given to
+them by the Swiss writers. These mammillated forms are exceedingly
+common in many British valleys, and not only so, but the very
+same kind of grooving and striation, so characteristic of the rocks in
+the Swiss valleys, also marks those of the Highlands of Scotland, of
+Cumberland, and Wales. Considering all these things, geologists,
+led by Agassiz some five or six and twenty years ago, have by degrees
+come to the conclusion, that a very large part of our island was,
+during the glacial period, covered, or nearly covered, with a thick<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span>
+coating of ice in the same way that the north of Greenland is at
+present; and that by the long-continued grinding power of a great
+glacier, or set of glaciers nearly universal over the northern half of our
+country, and the high ground of Wales, the whole surface became
+moulded by ice.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Whoever traverses England, observing its features with attention,
+will remark in certain places traces of the action of ice in this
+era. Some of the mountains present on one side a naked rock, and
+on the other a gentle slope, smiling and verdant, giving a character
+more or less abrupt, bold, and striking, to the landscape. Considerable
+portions of dry land were formerly covered by a bluish clay, which
+contained many fragments of rock or &#8220;boulders&#8221; torn from the old
+Cumbrian mountains; from the Pennine chain; from the moraines
+of the north of England; and from the Chalk hills&mdash;hence called
+&#8220;boulder&#8221; clay&mdash;present themselves here and there, broken, worn,
+and ground up by the action of water and ice. These erratic blocks
+or &#8220;boulders&#8221; have clearly been detached from the parent rock by
+violence, and often transported to considerable distances. They have
+been carried, not only across plains, but over the tops of mountains;
+some of them being found 130 miles from the parent rocks. We
+even find, as already hinted, some rocks of which no prototypes have
+been found nearer than Norway. There is, then, little room for
+doubting the fact of an extensive system of glaciers having covered
+the land, although the proofs have only been gathered laboriously
+and by slow degrees in a long series of years. In 1840 Agassiz visited
+Scotland, and his eye, accustomed to glaciers in his native mountains,
+speedily detected their signs. Dr. Buckland became a zealous advocate
+of the same views. North Wales was soon recognised as an independent
+centre of a system which radiated from lofty Snowdon,
+through seven valleys, carrying with them large stones and grooving
+the rocks in their passage. In the pass of Llanberis there are all the
+common proofs of the valley having been filled with glacier ice. &#8220;When
+the country was under water,&#8221; says Professor Ramsay, &#8220;the drift was
+deposited which more or less filled up many of the Welsh valleys.
+When the land had risen again to a considerable height, the glaciers
+increased in size: although they never reached the immense magnitude
+which they attained in the earlier portion of the icy epoch. Still they
+became so large that such a valley as the Pass of Llanberis was a
+second time occupied by ice, which ploughed out the drift that more or
+less covered the valley. By degrees, however, as we approach nearer
+our own days, the climate slowly ameliorated, and the glaciers began to
+decline, till, growing less and less, they crept up and up; and here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span>
+and there, as they died away, they left their terminal and lateral
+moraines still as well defined in some cases as moraines in lands
+where glaciers now exist. Frequently, too, masses of stone, that floated
+on the surface of the ice, were left perched upon the rounded <i>roches
+moutonn&eacute;es</i>, in a manner somewhat puzzling to those who are not
+geologists.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In short, they were let down upon the surface of these rocks so
+quietly and so softly, that there they will lie, until an earthquake
+shakes them down, or until the wasting of the rock on which they
+rest precipitates them to a lower level.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It was the opinion of Agassiz, after visiting Scotland, that the
+Grampians had been covered by a vast thickness of ice, whence
+erratic blocks had been dispersed in all directions as from a centre;
+other geologists after a time adopted the opinion&mdash;Mr. Robert
+Chambers going so far as to maintain, in 1848, that Scotland had
+been at one time moulded by ice. Mr. T. F. Jamieson followed in
+the same track, adducing many new facts to prove that the Grampians
+once sent down glaciers in all directions towards the sea. &#8220;The
+glacial grooves,&#8221; he says, &#8220;radiate outward from the central heights
+towards all points of the compass, although they do not strictly
+conform to the actual shape and contour of the minor valleys and
+ridges.&#8221; But the most interesting part of Mr. Jamieson&#8217;s investigations
+is undoubtedly the ingenious manner in which he has worked
+out Agassiz&#8217; assertion that Glenroy, whose remarkable &#8220;<i>Parallel
+Roads</i>&#8221; have puzzled so many investigators, was once the basin of a
+frozen lake.</p>
+
+<p>Glenroy is one of the many romantic glens of Lochaber, at the
+head of the Spey, near to the Great Glen, or the valley of the Caledonian
+Canal, which stretches obliquely across the country in a northwesterly
+direction from Loch Linnh&egrave; to Loch Ness, leaving Loch
+Arkaig, Loch Aich, Glen Garry, and many a highland loch besides,
+on the left, and Glen Spean, in which Loch Treig, running due north
+and south, has its mouth, on the south. Glenroy opens into it
+from the north, while Glen Gluoy opens into the Great Glen opposite
+Loch Arkaig. Mr. Jamieson commenced his investigations at the
+mouth of Loch Arkaig, which is about a mile from the lake itself.
+Here he found the gneiss ground down as if by ice coming from the
+east. On the hill, north of the lake, the gneiss, though much worn
+and weathered, still exhibited well-marked stri&aelig;, directed up and
+down the valley. Other markings showed that the Glen Arkaig
+glacier not only blocked up Glen Gluoy, but the mouth of Glen
+Spean, which lies two miles or so north of it on the opposite side.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span>At Brackletter, on the south side of Glen Spean, near its junction
+with Glen Lochy, glacial scores pointing more nearly due west, but
+slightly inclining to the north, were observed, as if caused by the
+pressure of ice from Glen Lui. The south side of Glen Spean, from
+its mouth to Loch Treig, is bounded by lofty hills&mdash;an extension of
+Ben Nevis, the highest of these peaks exceeding 3,000 feet. Numerous
+gullies intersect their flanks, and the largest of these, Corry N&#8217;Eoin,
+presents a series of rocky amphitheatres, or rather large caldrons,
+whose walls have been ground down by long-continued glacial action:
+the quartz-veins are all shorn down to the level of the gneiss, and
+streaked with fine scratches, pointing down the hollows and far up the
+rocks on either side. During all these operations the great valley
+was probably filled up with ice, which would close Glen Gluoy and
+Glen Spean, and might also close the lowest of the lines in Glenroy.
+But how about the middle and upper lines?</p>
+
+<p>A glacier crossing from Loch Treig, and protruding across Glen
+Spean, would cut off Glens Glaibu and Makoul, when the water in
+Glenroy could only escape over the Col into Strathspey, when the
+first level would be marked.</p>
+
+<p>Now let the Glen Treig glacier shrink a little, so as to let out
+water to the level of the second line by the outline at Makoul, and
+the theory is complete. When the first and greatest glacier gave way,
+Glenroy would be nearly in its present state.</p>
+
+<p>The glacier, on issuing from the gorge at the end of Loch Treig,
+would dilate immensely, the right flank spreading over a rough
+expanse of syenite, the neighbouring hills being mica-schists, with
+veins of porphyry. Now the syenite breaks into large cuboidal blocks
+of immense size. These have been swept before the advancing
+glacier along with other d&eacute;bris, and deposited in a semicircle of
+mounds having a sweep of several miles, forming circular bands which
+mark the edges of the glacier as it shrunk from time to time under
+the influence of a milder climate.</p>
+
+<p>This moraine, which was all that was wanting to complete the
+theory laid down by Agassiz, is found on the pony-road leading from
+the mouth of Loch Treig towards Badenoch. A mile or so brings the
+traveller to the summit-level of the road, and beyond the hill a low
+moor stretches away to the bottom of the plain. Here, slanting
+across the slope of the hill towards Loch Treig, two lines of moraine
+stretch across the road. At first they consist of mica-schists and bits
+of porphyry, but blocks of syenite soon become intermingled. Outside
+these are older hillocks, rising in some places sixty and seventy
+feet high, forming narrow steep-sided mounds, with blocks fourteen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span>
+feet in length sticking out of the surface, mixed with fragments of
+mica-schist and gneiss. The inner moraine consists, almost wholly, of
+large blocks of syenite, five, ten, fifteen, and five-and-twenty feet long.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_198" id="Fig_198"></a>
+<img src="images/illo467.png" alt="Fig. 198" width="450" height="289" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 198.&mdash;Parallel roads of Glenroy; from a sketch by Professor J. Phillips.</p></div>
+
+<p>The present aspect of Glenroy is that of an upper and lower glen
+opening up from the larger Glen Spean. The head-waters of Lochaber<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span>
+gather in a wild mountain tract, near the source of the Spey. The
+upper glen is an oval valley, four miles long, by about one broad,
+bounded on each side by high mountains, which throw off two
+streams dividing the mica-schist from the gneissic systems; the
+former predominating on the west side, and the latter on the east.
+The united streams flow to the south-west for two miles, when the
+valley contracts to a rocky gorge which separates the upper from the
+lower glen. Passing from the upper to the lower glen, a line is
+observed to pass from near the junction of the two streams, on a
+level with a flat rock at the gorge, and also with the uppermost of the
+three lines of terraces in the lower glen. This line girdles the sides
+of the hills right and left, with a seemingly higher sweep, and is followed
+by two other perfectly parallel and continuous lines till Glenroy
+expands into Glen Spean, which crosses its mouth and enters the
+great glen a little south of Loch Lochy. At the point, however,
+where Glenroy enters Glen Spean, the two upper terraces cease,
+while the lower of the three appears on the north and south side of
+Glen Spean, as far as the pass of Glen Muckal, and southward a little
+way up the Gubban river and round the head of Loch Treig.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland, and in Northern England and Wales, there is distinct
+evidence that the Glacial Epoch commenced with an era of continental
+ice, the land being but slightly lower than at present, and possibly at
+the same level, during which period the Scottish hills received their
+rounded outlines, and scratched and smoothed rock-surfaces; and the
+plains and valleys became filled with the stiff clay, with angular
+scratched stones, known as the &#8220;Till,&#8221; which deposit is believed by
+Messrs. Geikie, Jamieson, and Croll to be a <i>moraine profonde</i>, the
+product of a vast ice-sheet.</p>
+
+<p>In Wales, Professor Ramsay has described the whole of the
+valleys of the Snowdonian range as filled with enormous glaciers, the
+level of the surface of the ice filling the Pass of Llanberis, rising 500
+feet above the present watershed at Gorphwysfa. In the Lake District
+of Cumberland and Westmorland, Mr. De Rance has shown that
+a vast series of glaciers, or small ice-sheets, filled all the valleys,
+radiating out in all directions from the larger mountains, which
+formed centres of dispersion, the ice actually pushing over many of
+the lesser watersheds, and scooping out the great rock-basins in
+which lie the lakes Windermere, Ullswater, Thirlmere, Coniston
+Water, and Wastwater, the bottoms of which are nearly all below
+the sea-level. The whole of this district, he has shown, experienced
+a second glaciation, after the period of great submergence, in which
+valley-glaciers scooped out the marine drift, and left their <i>moraines</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span>
+in the Liza, Langdale, and other valleys, and high up in the hills, as
+at Harrison&#8217;s Stickle, where a tarn has been formed by a little
+<i>moraine</i>, acting as a dam, as shown by Professor Hull.</p>
+
+<p>In Wales, also, valley-glaciers existed after the submergence beneath
+the Glacial sea. Thus in Cwm-llafar, under the brow of
+Carnedd Dafydd, and Carnedd Llewelyn, Professor Ramsay has
+shown that a narrow glacier, about two miles in length, has ploughed
+out a long narrow hollow in the drift (which &#8220;forms a succession of
+terraces, the result of marine denudation, during pauses in the re-elevation
+of its submersion) to a depth of more than 2,000 feet.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p>
+
+<p>The proofs of this great submergence, succeeding the era of
+&#8220;land-ice,&#8221; are constantly accumulating. Since 1863, when Professor
+Hull first divided the thick glacial deposits of Eastern Lancashire
+and Cheshire into an Upper Boulder Clay, and Lower Boulder Clay
+divided by a Middle Sand and Gravel, the whole of which are of
+marine origin, these subdivisions have been found to hold good, by
+himself and Mr. A. H. Green, over 600 square miles of country
+around Manchester, Bolton, and Congleton; by Mr. De Rance over
+another 600 square miles, around Liverpool, Preston, Blackpool,
+Blackburn, and Lancaster, and also in the low country lying between
+the Cumberland and Welsh mountains and the sea.</p>
+
+<p>In Ireland, also, the same triplex arrangement appears to exist.
+Professors Harkness and Hull have identified the &#8220;Limestone and
+Manure Gravels&#8221; of the central plain, as referable to the &#8220;Middle
+Sand and Gravel,&#8221; and the &#8220;Lower Boulder Clay&#8221; rests on a glaciated
+rock-surface along the coasts of Antrim and Down, and is overlain
+by sand, which, in 1832, was discovered by Dr. Scouler to be shell-bearing.
+At Kingstown the three deposits are seen resting on a
+moutonn&eacute;ed surface of granite, scored from the N.N.W.</p>
+
+<p>In Lancashire and on the coast of North Wales, between Llandudno
+and Rhyl, Mr. De Rance has shown that these deposits often
+lie upon the denuded and eroded surface of another clay, of older
+date, which he believes to be the product of land-ice, the remnant of
+the <i>moraine profonde</i>, and the equivalent of the Scotch &#8220;Till.&#8221; He also
+shows that the Lower Boulder Clay never rises above an elevation of
+fifty or eighty feet above the sea-level; and that the Middle Sand and
+Shingle rests directly upon the rock, or on the surface of this old Till.</p>
+
+<p>Near Manchester the Lower Boulder Clay occasionally rests upon
+an old bed of sand and gravel. It is extremely local, but its presence
+has been recorded in several sections by Mr. Edward Binney, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span>
+was the first to show, in 1842,<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> that the Lancashire Boulder Clays
+were formed in the sea, and that the erratic pebbles and boulders,
+mainly derived from the Cumberland Lake Districts, were brought
+south by means of floating ice.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the erratic pebbles and boulders in the Lancashire clays
+are more or less scratched and scored, many of them (though quite
+rounded) in so many directions that Mr. De Rance believes the Cumberland
+and Westmoreland hills to have been surrounded by an ice-belt,
+which, occasionally thawing during summer or warm episodes,
+admitted &#8220;breaker action&#8221; on the gradually subsiding coast, wearing
+the fragments of rocks brought down by rivers or by glaciers into
+pebbles that, with the return of the cold, became covered with the
+&#8220;ice-belt,&#8221; which, lifted by the tides, rolled and dinted the pebbles
+one against another, and gradually allowed them to be impressed into
+its mass, with which they eventually floated away.</p>
+
+<p>The Middle Sands and Shingles in England have also afforded a
+great number of shells of mollusca. At Macclesfield they have been
+described by Messrs. Prestwich and Darbishire as occurring at an
+elevation of 1,100 to 1,200 feet above the level of the sea.<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among other proofs of glacial action and submersion in Wales
+may be mentioned the case of Moel Tryfaen, a hill 1,400 feet high,
+lying to the westward of Caernarvon Bay, and six or seven miles
+from Caernarvon. Mr. Joshua Trimmer had observed stratified
+drift near the summit of this mountain, from which he obtained some
+marine shells; but doubts were entertained as to their age until 1863,
+when a deep and extensive cutting was made in search of slates. In
+this cutting a stratified mass of loose sand and gravel was laid open
+near the summit, thirty-five feet thick, containing shells, some entire,
+but mostly in fragments. Sir Charles Lyell examined the cutting,
+and obtained twenty species of shells, and in the lower beds of the
+drift, &#8220;large heavy boulders of far-transported rocks, glacially polished
+and scratched on more than one side:&#8221; underneath the whole, the
+edges of vertical slates were exposed to view, exhibiting &#8220;unequivocal
+marks of prolonged glaciation.&#8221; The shells belonged to species still
+living in British or more northern seas.</p>
+
+<p>From the gravels of the Severn Valley, described by Mr. Maw,
+thirty-five forms of mollusca have been identified by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span>
+In the Shingle beds of Leyland, Euxton, Chorley, Preston, Lancaster,
+and Blackpool,<a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> Mr. De Rance has obtained nearly thirty species.</p>
+
+<p>In Eastern Yorkshire, Mr. Searles V. Wood, Jun., has divided the
+glacial deposits into &#8220;Purple Clay without Chalk,&#8221; &#8220;Purple Clay with
+Chalk,&#8221; and &#8220;Chalky Clay,&#8221; the whole being later than his &#8220;Middle
+Glacial Sands and Gravel,&#8221; which, in East Anglia, are overlain by the
+&#8220;Chalky Clay,&#8221; and rest unconformably upon the &#8220;Contorted Drift&#8221;
+of Norfolk, the Cromer Till, and the Forest Bed. His three Yorkshire
+clays are, however, considered by most northern geologists to be the
+representatives of the &#8220;Upper Boulder Clay&#8221; west of the Pennine
+Chain, the &#8220;Chalky Clay&#8221; having been formed before the country
+had sufficiently subsided to allow the sandstones and marls, furnishing
+the red colouring matter, to have suffered denudation; while the
+&#8220;Purple Clay without Chalk, and with Shap Granite,&#8221; was deposited
+when all the chalk was mainly beneath the sea, and the granite from
+Shap Fell, which had been broken up by breaker-action during the
+Middle Sand era, was floated across the passes of the Pennine Chain
+and southwards and northwards. A solitary pebble of Shap granite
+has been found by Mr. De Rance at Hoylake, in Cheshire; and many
+of Criffel Granite, in that county, and on the coast of North Wales,
+by Mr. Mackintosh, who has also traced the flow of this granite in
+the low country lying north and south of the Cumberland mountains.</p>
+
+<p>At Bridlington, in Yorkshire, occurs a deposit at the base of the
+&#8220;Purple Clay,&#8221; with a truly Arctic fauna. Out of seventy forms of
+mollusca recorded by Mr. S. V. Wood, Jun., nineteen are unknown to the
+Crag&mdash;of these thirteen are purely arctic, and two not known as living.</p>
+
+<p>Shells have been found in the Upper Boulder Clay of Lancashire,
+at Hollingworth Reservoir, near Mottram, by Messrs. Binney, Bateman,
+and Prestwich, at an elevation of 568 feet above the sea, consisting
+of <i>Fusus Bamffius</i>, <i>Purpura lapillus</i>, <i>Turritilla terebra</i>, and
+<i>Cardium edule</i>. The clay is described by Mr. Binney as sandy, and
+brown-coloured, with pebbles of granite and greenstone, some
+rounded and some angular. All the above shells, as well as <i>Tellina
+Balthica</i>, have been found in the Upper Clay of Preston, Garstang,
+Blackpool, and Llandudno, by Mr. De Rance, who has also found
+all the above species (with the exception of <i>Fusus</i>), as well as <i>Psammobia
+ferroensis</i>, and the siliceous spicul&aelig; of marine sponges, in
+the Lower Boulder Clay of West Lancashire. He has described
+the ordinary red Boulder Clay of Lancashire as extending continuously
+through Cheshire and Staffordshire into Warwickshire,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span>
+gradually becoming less red and more chalky, everywhere overlying
+intermittent sheets of &#8220;sands and shingle-beds,&#8221; one of which
+is particularly well seen at Leamington and Warwick, where it
+contains Pectens from the Crag, <i>Gryph&aelig;a</i> from the Lias, and chalk
+fossils and flints. The latter have also been found by Mr. Lucy
+in the neighbourhood of Mount Sorrel, associated with bits of the
+Coral Rag of Yorkshire. The gravels of Leicester, Market Harborough,
+and Lutterworth were long ago described by the Rev. W. D.
+Conybeare as affording &#8220;specimens of the organic remains of most
+of the Secondary Strata in England.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Rev. O. Fisher, F.G.S., has paid much attention to the superficial
+covering usually described as &#8220;heading,&#8221; or &#8220;drift,&#8221; as well as
+to the contour of the surface, in districts composed of the softer strata,
+and has published his views in various papers in the <i>Journal of the
+Geological Society</i> and in the <i>Geological Magazine</i>. He thinks that
+the contour of the surface cannot be ascribed entirely to the action of rain
+and rivers, but that the changes in the ancient contour since produced
+by those changes can be easily distinguished. He finds the covering
+beds to consist of two members&mdash;a lower one, entirely destitute of
+organic remains, and generally unstratified, which has often been
+forcibly indented into the bed beneath it, sometimes exhibiting
+slickenside at the junction.</p>
+
+<p>There is evidence of this lower member having been pushed or
+dragged over the surface, from higher to lower levels, in a plastic condition;
+on which account he has named it &#8220;The Trail.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The upper member of the covering beds consists of soil derived
+from the lower one, by weathering. It contains, here and there, the
+remains of the land-shells which lived in the locality at a period antecedent
+to cultivation. It is &#8220;The Warp&#8221; of Mr. Trimmer.</p>
+
+<p>Neither of these accumulations occur on low flats, where the surface
+has been modified since the recent period. They both alike pass below
+high-water mark, and have been noticed beneath estuarine deposits.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Fisher is of opinion that land-ice has been instrumental in
+forming the contour of the surface, and that the trail is the remnant of
+its <i>moraine profonde</i>. And he has given reasons<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> for believing that
+the climate of those latitudes may have been sufficiently rigorous for
+that result about 100,000 years ago. He attributes the formation of
+the superficial covering of Warp to a period of much rainfall and
+severe winter-frosts, after the ice-sheet had disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The phenomena which so powerfully affected our hemisphere
+present themselves, in a much grander manner, in the New World.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span>
+The glacier-system appears to have taken in America the same
+gigantic proportions which other objects assume there. Nor is it
+necessary, in order to explain the permanent existence of this icy
+mantle in temperate climates, to infer the prevalence of any very
+extraordinary degree of cold. On this subject M. Ch. Martins thus
+expresses himself: &#8220;The mean temperature of Geneva is 9&deg; 5 Cent.
+Upon the surrounding mountains the limit of perpetual snow is found
+at 8,800 feet above the level of the sea. The great glaciers of the
+valley of Chamounix descend 5,000 feet below this line. Thus
+situated, let us suppose that the mean temperature of Geneva was
+lowered only 4&deg;, and the average became 5&deg; 5; the decrease of
+temperature with the height being 1&deg; c. for every 600 feet, the limit of
+perpetual snow would be lowered by 2,437 feet, and would be 6,363
+feet above the level of the sea. We can readily admit that the
+glaciers of Chamounix would descend below this new limit, to an
+extent at least equal to that which exists between their present limit
+and their lower extremity. Now, in reality, the foot of these glaciers
+is 5,000 feet above the ocean; with a climate 4&deg; colder, it would be
+2,437 feet lower; that is to say, at the level of the Swiss plain.
+Thus, the lowering of the line of perpetual snow to this extent would
+suffice to bring the glacier of the Arve to the environs of Geneva....
+Of the climate which has favoured the prodigious development
+of glaciers we have a pretty correct idea; it is that of Upsala,
+Stockholm, Christiana, and part of North America, in the State of
+New York.... To diminish by four degrees the mean temperature
+of a country in order to explain one of the grandest revolutions
+of the globe, is to venture on an hypothesis not bolder than
+geology has sometimes permitted to itself.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<p>In proving that glaciers covered part of Europe during a certain
+period, that they extended from the North Pole to Northern Italy
+and the Danube, we have sufficiently established the reality of this
+<i>glacial period</i>, which we must consider as a curious episode, as well as
+certain, in the history of the earth. Such masses of ice could only
+have covered the earth when the temperature of the air was lowered
+at least some degrees below zero. But organic life is incompatible
+with such a temperature; and to this cause must we attribute the
+disappearance of certain species of animals and plants&mdash;in particular,
+the Rhinoceros and the Elephant&mdash;which, before this sudden and
+extraordinary cooling of the globe, appear to have limited themselves,
+in immense herds, to Northern Europe, and chiefly to Siberia,
+where their remains have been found in such prodigious quantities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span>
+Cuvier says, speaking of the bodies of the quadrupeds which the ice
+had seized, and in which they have been preserved, with their hair,
+flesh, and skin, up to our own times: &#8220;If they had not been frozen
+as soon as killed, putrefaction would have decomposed them; and,
+on the other hand, this eternal frost could not have previously prevailed
+in the place where they died; for they could not have lived in
+such a temperature. It was, therefore, at the same instant when
+these animals perished that the country they inhabited was rendered
+glacial. These events must have been sudden, instantaneous, and
+without any gradation.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_199" id="Fig_199"></a>
+<img src="images/illo474.png" alt="Fig. 199" width="400" height="195" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 199.&mdash;Fissurella nembosa.<br />
+(Living shell.)</p></div>
+
+<p>How can we explain the <i>glacial period</i>? We have explained M. Adh&eacute;mar&#8217;s
+hypothesis, to which it may be objected that the cold of the glacial
+period was so general throughout the Polar and temperate regions on
+both sides of the equator, that mere local changes in the external configuration
+of our planet and displacement of the centre of gravity scarcely
+afford adequate causes for so great a revolution in temperature. Sir
+Charles Lyell, speculating upon the suggestion of Ritter and the discovery
+of marine shells spread far and wide over the Sahara Desert by Messrs.
+Escher von der Linth, Desor, and Martins&mdash;which seem to prove
+that the African Desert has been under water at a very recent period&mdash;infers
+that the Desert of Sahara constituted formerly a wide marine
+area, stretching several hundred miles north and south, and east and
+west. &#8220;From this area,&#8221; he adds, &#8220;the south wind must formerly
+have absorbed moisture, and must
+have been still further cooled and
+saturated with aqueous vapour as
+it passed over the Mediterranean.
+When at length it reached the
+Alps, and, striking them, was
+driven into the higher and more
+rarefied regions of the atmosphere,
+it would part with its watery
+burthen in the form of snow; so
+that the same a&euml;rial current which, under the name of the F&ouml;hn, or
+Sirocco, now plays a leading part with its hot and dry breath, sometimes,
+even in the depth of winter, in melting the snow and checking the growth
+of glaciers, must, at the period alluded to, have been the principal
+feeder of Alpine snow and ice.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> Nevertheless, we repeat, no explanation
+presents itself which can be considered conclusive; and in
+science we should never be afraid to say, <i>I do not know</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></p>
+
+<h3>CREATION OF MAN AND THE ASIATIC DELUGE.</h3>
+
+<p>It was only after the glacial period, when the earth had resumed its
+normal temperature, that man was created. Whence came he?</p>
+
+<p>He came from whence originated the first blade of grass which
+grew upon the burning rocks of the Silurian seas; from whence proceeded
+the different races of animals which have successively replaced
+each other upon the globe, gradually, but unceasingly, rising in the
+scale of perfection. He emanated from the supreme will of the
+Author of the worlds which constitute the universe.</p>
+
+<p>The earth has passed through many phases since the time when&mdash;in
+the words of the Sacred Record&mdash;&#8220;the earth was without
+form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.
+And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.&#8221; We have
+considered all these phases; we have seen the globe floating in space
+in a state of gaseous nebulosity, condensing into liquidity, and
+beginning to solidify at the surface. We have pictured the internal
+agitations, the disturbances, the partial dislocations to which the
+earth has been subjected, almost without interruption, while it could not,
+as yet, resist the force of the waves of the fiery sea imprisoned within
+its fragile crust. We have seen this envelope acquiring solidity, and
+the geological cataclysms losing their intensity and frequency in
+proportion as this solid crust increased in thickness. We have
+looked on, so to speak, while the work of organic creation was proceeding.
+We have seen life making its appearance upon the globe;
+and the first plants and animals springing into existence. We have
+seen this organic creation multiplying, becoming more complex, and
+constantly made more perfect with each advance in the progressive
+phases of the history of the earth. We now arrive at the greatest
+event of this history, at the crowning of the edifice, <i>si parva licet
+componere magnis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the Tertiary epoch, the continents and seas
+assumed the respective limits which they now present. The disturbances
+of the ground, the fractures of the earth&#8217;s crust, and the volcanic
+eruptions which are the consequence of them, only occurred at rare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span>
+intervals, occasioning only local and restricted disasters. The rivers
+and their affluents flowed between tranquil banks. Animated Nature
+is that of our own days. An abundant vegetation, diversified by the
+existence of a climate which has now been acquired, embellishes the
+earth. A multitude of animals inhabit the waters, the dry land, and
+the air. Nevertheless, creation has not yet achieved its greatest
+work&mdash;a being capable of comprehending these marvels and of
+admiring the sublime work&mdash;a soul is wanting to adore and give
+thanks to the Creator.</p>
+
+<p>God created man.</p>
+
+<p>What is man?</p>
+
+<p>We might say that man is an intelligent and moral being; but
+this would give a very imperfect idea of his nature. Franklin says
+that man is one that can make tools! This is to reproduce a portion
+of the first proposition, while depreciating it. Aristotle calls man the
+&#8220;wise being,&#8221; &#950;&#969;&#959;&#957; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#957;. Linn&aelig;us, in his &#8220;System of Nature,&#8221;
+after having applied to man the epithet of wise (<i>homo sapiens</i>) writes
+after this generic title these profound words: <i>Nosce te ipsum</i>. The
+French naturalist and philosopher, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,
+says, &#8220;The plant <i>lives</i>, the animal <i>lives and feels</i>, man <i>lives, feels, and
+thinks</i>&#8221;&mdash;a sentiment which Voltaire had already expressed. &#8220;The
+Eternal Maker,&#8221; says the philosopher of Ferney, &#8220;has given to man
+organisation, sentiment, and intelligence; to the animals sentiment,
+and what we call instinct; to vegetables organisation alone. His
+power then acts continually upon these three kingdoms.&#8221; It is
+probably the animal which is here depreciated. The animal on
+many occasions undoubtedly thinks, reasons, deliberates with itself,
+and acts in virtue of a decision maturely weighed; it is not then
+reduced to mere sensation.</p>
+
+<p>To define exactly the human being, we believe that it is necessary
+to characterise the nature and extent of his intelligence. In certain
+cases the intelligence of the animal approaches nearly to that of man,
+but the latter is endowed with a certain faculty which belongs to him
+exclusively; in creating him, God has added an entirely new step in
+the ascending scale of animated beings. This faculty, peculiar to the
+human race, is <i>abstraction</i>. We will say, then, that man is an
+<i>intelligent</i> being, gifted with the faculty of comprehending the <i>abstract</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is by this faculty that man is raised to a pre-eminent degree of
+material and moral power. By it he has subdued the earth to his
+empire, and by it also his mind rises to the most sublime contemplations.
+Thanks to this faculty, man has conceived the ideal, and
+realised poesy. He has conceived the infinite, and created mathematics.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span>
+Such is the distinction which separates the human race so
+widely from the animals&mdash;which makes him a creation apart and
+absolutely new upon the globe. A being capable of comprehending
+the ideal and the infinite, of creating poetry and algebra, such is
+man! To invent and understand this formula&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="formula">(<i>a</i> + <i>b</i>)<sup>2</sup> = <i>a</i><sup>2</sup> + 2<i>ab</i> + <i>b</i><sup>2</sup>,</p>
+
+<p>or the algebraic idea of negative quantities, this belongs to man. It
+is the greatest privilege of the human being to express and comprehend
+thoughts like the following:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">J&#8217;&eacute;tais seul pr&egrave;s des flots, par une nuit d&#8217;&eacute;toiles,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Pas un nuage aux cieux, sur les mers pas de voiles,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mes yeux plongeaient plus loin que le monde r&eacute;el,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Et les vents et les mers, et toute la nature<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Semblaient interroger dans un confus murmure,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">Les flots des mers, les feux du ciel.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Et les &eacute;toiles d&#8217;or, l&eacute;gions infinies,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&Agrave; voix haute, &agrave; voix basse, avec mille harmonies<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Disaient, en inclinant leur couronne de feu;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Et les flots bleus, que rien ne gouverne et n&#8217;arr&ecirc;te:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Disaient, en recourbant l&#8217;&eacute;cume de leur cr&ecirc;te:<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">&#8220;C&#8217;est le Seigneur, le Seigneur Dieu!&#8221;*<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15em;"><span class="smcap">Victor Hugo</span>, <i>les Orientales</i>.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i00">* Alone with the waves, on a starry night,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">My thoughts far away in the infinite;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">On the sea not a sail, not a cloud in the sky,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the wind and the waves with sweet lullaby<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Seem to question in murmurs of mystery,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">The fires of heaven, the waves of the sea.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And the golden stars of the heavens rose higher,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Harmoniously blending their crowns of fire,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the waves which no ruling hand may know,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&#8216;Midst a thousand murmurs, now high, now low,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sing, while curving their foaming crests to the sea,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">&#8220;It is the Lord God! It is He.&#8221;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The &#8220;M&eacute;canique C&eacute;leste&#8221; of Laplace, the &#8220;Principia&#8221; of
+Newton, Milton&#8217;s &#8220;Paradise Lost,&#8221; the &#8220;Orientales&#8221; by Victor Hugo&mdash;are
+the fruits of the <i>faculty of abstraction</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXXII" id="Plate_XXXII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo479.png" alt="Plate XXXII" width="600" height="374" />
+<p class="caption">XXXII.&mdash;Appearance of Man.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the year 1800, a being, half savage, who lived in the woods,
+clambered up the trees, slept upon dried leaves, and fled on the
+approach of men, was brought to a physician named Pinel. Some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span>
+sportsmen had found him; he had no voice, and was devoid of
+intelligence; he was known as the little savage of Aveyron. The
+Parisian <i>savants</i> for a long time disputed over this strange individual.
+Was it an ape?&mdash;was it a wild man?</p>
+
+<p>The learned Dr. Itard has published an interesting history of the
+savage of Aveyron. &#8220;He would sometimes descend,&#8221; he writes, &#8220;into
+the garden of the deaf and dumb, and seat himself upon the edge of
+the fountain, preserving his balance by rocking himself to and fro;
+after a time his body became quite still, and his face assumed an expression
+of profound melancholy. He would remain thus for hours&mdash;regarding
+attentively the surface of the water&mdash;upon which he
+would, from time to time, throw blades of grass and dried leaves. At
+night, when the clear moonlight penetrated into the chamber he
+occupied, he rarely failed to rise and place himself at the window,
+where he would remain part of the night, erect, motionless, his neck
+stretched out, his eyes fixed upon the landscape lit up by the moon,
+lost in a sort of ecstasy of contemplation.&#8221; This being was, undoubtedly,
+a man. No ape ever exhibited such signs of intelligence,
+such dreamy manifestations, vague conceptions of the ideal&mdash;in
+other words, that faculty of <i>abstraction</i> which belongs to humanity
+alone. In order worthily to introduce the new inhabitant who comes
+to fill the earth with his presence&mdash;who brings with him intelligence
+to comprehend, to admire, to subdue, and to rule the creation
+(<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXXII">Pl. XXXII.</a></span>), we require nothing more than the grand and simple
+language of Moses, whom Bossuet calls &#8220;the most ancient of historians,
+the most sublime of philosophers, the wisest of legislators.&#8221;
+Let us listen to the words of the inspired writer: &#8220;And
+God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let
+them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of
+the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every
+creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in
+his <i>own</i> image, in the image of God created he him; male and
+female created he them.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;And God saw everything that he had made, and, behold, <i>it was</i>
+very good.&#8221;</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>Volumes have been written upon the question of the unity of the
+human race; that is, whether there were many centres of the creation
+of man, or whether our race is derived solely from the Adam of
+Scripture. We think, with many naturalists, that the stock of
+humanity is unique, and that the different human races, the negroes,
+and the yellow race, are only the result of the influence of climate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span>
+upon organisation. We consider the human race as having appeared
+for the first time (the mode of his creation being veiled in Divine
+mystery, eternally impenetrable to us) in the rich plains of Asia, on
+the smiling banks of the Euphrates, as the traditions of the most
+ancient races teach us. It is there, where Nature is so rich and
+vigorous, in the brilliant climate and under the radiant sky of Asia,
+in the shade of its luxuriant masses of verdure and its mild and perfumed
+atmosphere, that man loves to represent to himself the father
+of his race as issuing from the hand of his Creator.</p>
+
+<p>We are, it will be seen, far from sharing the opinion of those
+naturalists who represent man, at the beginning of the existence of
+his species, as a sort of ape, of hideous face, degraded mien, and
+covered with hair, inhabiting caves like the bears and lions, and participating
+in the brutal instincts of those savage animals.<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> There
+is no doubt that early man passed through a period in which he
+had to contend for his existence with ferocious beasts, and to live in
+a primitive state in the woods or savannahs, where Providence had
+placed him. But this period of probation came to an end, and man,
+an eminently social being, by combining in groups, animated by the
+same interests and the same desires, soon found means to intimidate
+the animals, to triumph over the elements, to protect himself from
+the innumerable perils which surrounded him, and to subdue to his
+rule the other inhabitants of the earth. &#8220;The first men,&#8221; says
+Buffon, &#8220;witnesses of the convulsive movements of the earth, still
+recent and frequent, having only the mountains for refuge from the
+inundations; and often driven from this asylum by volcanoes and
+earthquakes, which trembled under their feet; uneducated, naked,
+and exposed to the elements, victims to the fury of ferocious animals,
+whose prey they were certain to become; impressed also with a
+common sentiment of gloomy terror, and urged by necessity, would
+they not unite, first, to defend themselves by numbers, and then to
+assist each other by working in concert, to make habitations and
+arms? They began by shaping into the forms of hatchets these hard
+flints, the Jade, and other stones, which were supposed to have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span>
+formed by thunder and fallen from the clouds, but which are, nevertheless,
+only the first examples of man&#8217;s art in a pure state of Nature.
+He will soon draw fire from these same flints, by striking them against
+each other; he will seize the flames of the burning volcano, or profit
+by the fire of the red-hot lava to light his fire of brushwood in the
+forest; and by the help of this powerful element he cleanses, purifies,
+and renders wholesome the place he selects for his habitation. With
+his hatchet of stone he chops wood, fells trees, shapes timber, and
+puts it together, fashions instruments of warfare and the most necessary
+tools and implements; and after having furnished themselves
+with clubs and other weighty and defensive arms, did not these first
+men find means to make lighter weapons to reach the swift-footed
+stag from afar? A tendon of an animal, a fibre of the aloe-leaf, or
+the supple bark of some ligneous plant, would serve as a cord to
+bring together the two extremities of an elastic branch of yew, forming
+a bow; and small flints, shaped to a point, arm the arrow. They
+will soon have snares, rafts, and canoes; they will form themselves
+into communities composed of a few families, or rather of relations
+sprung from the same family, as is still the case with some savage
+tribes, who have their game, fish, and fruits in common. But in all
+those countries whose area is limited by water, or surrounded by high
+mountains, these small nations, becoming too numerous, have been
+in time forced to parcel out the land between them; and from that
+moment the earth has become the domain of man; he has taken
+possession of it by his labour, he has cultivated it, and attachment to
+the soil follows the very first act of possession; the private interest
+makes part of the national interest; order, civilisation, and laws
+succeed, and society acquires force and consistency.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> We love to
+quote the sentiments of a great writer&mdash;but how much more eloquent
+would the words of the naturalist have been, if he had added to his own
+grand eloquence of language, the knowledge which science has placed
+within reach of the writers of the present time&mdash;- if he could have
+painted man in the early days of his creation, in presence of the
+immense animal population which then occupied the earth, and
+fighting with the wild beasts which filled the forests of the ancient
+world! Man, comparatively very weak in organisation, destitute
+of natural weapons of attack or defence, incapable of rising into the
+air like the birds, or living under water like the fishes and some reptiles,
+might seem doomed to speedy destruction. But he was marked
+on the forehead with the Divine seal. Thanks to the superior gift of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span>
+an exceptional intelligence, this being, in appearance so helpless, has
+by degrees swept the most ferocious of its occupants from the earth,
+leaving those only who cater to his wants or desires, or by whose aid
+he changes the primitive aspects of whole continents.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>The antiquity of man is a question which has largely engaged the
+attention of geologists, and many ingenious arguments have been
+hazarded, tending to prove that the human race and the great
+extinct Mammalia were contemporaneous. The circumstances
+bearing on the question are usually ranged under three series of facts:
+1. The Cave-deposits; 2. Peat and shell mounds; 3. Lacustrine
+habitations, or Lake dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>We have already briefly touched upon the Cave-deposits. In the
+Kirkdale Cave no remains or other traces of man&#8217;s presence seem to
+have been discovered. But in Kent&#8217;s Hole, an unequal deposit of
+loam and clay, along with broken bones much gnawed, and the teeth
+of both extinct and living Mammals, implements evidently fashioned
+by the human hand were found in the following order: in the upper
+part of the clay, artificially-shaped flints; on the clay rested a layer
+of stalagmite, in which streaks of burnt charcoal occurred, and
+charred bones of existing species of animals. Above the stalagmite
+a stone hatchet, or celt, made of syenite, of more finished appearance,
+was met with, with articles of bone, round pieces of blue slate and
+sandstone-grit, pieces of pottery, a number of shells of the mussel,
+limpet, and oyster, and other remains, Celtic, British, and Roman, of
+very early date; the lower deposits are those with which we are here
+more particularly concerned. The Rev. J. MacEnery, the gentleman
+who explored and described them, ascertained that the flint-instruments
+occupied a uniform situation intermediate between the
+stalagmite and the upper surface of the loam, forming a connecting link
+between both; and his opinion was that the epoch of the introduction
+of the knives must be dated antecedently to the formation of the
+stalagmite, from the era of the quiescent settlement of the mud.
+From this view it would follow that the cave was visited posteriorly
+to the introduction and subsidence of the loam, and before the formation
+of the new super-stratum of stalagmite, by men who entered
+the cave and disturbed the original deposit. Although flints have
+been found in the loam underlying the regular crust of stalagmite,
+mingled confusedly with the bones, and unconnected with the evidence
+of the visits of man&mdash;such as the excavation of ovens or pits&mdash;Dr.
+Buckland refused his belief to the statement that the flint-implements
+were found beneath the stalagmite, and always contended that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span>
+they were the work of men of a more recent period, who had broken
+up the sparry floor. The doctor supposed that the ancient Britons
+had scooped out ovens in the stalagmite, and that through them
+the knives got admission to the underlying loam, and that in this
+confused state the several materials were cemented together.</p>
+
+<p>In 1858 Dr. Falconer heard of the newly-discovered cave at
+Brixham, on the opposite side of the bay to Torquay, and he took
+steps to prevent any doubts being entertained with regard to its contents.
+This cave was composed of several passages, with four
+entrances, formerly blocked up with breccia and earthy matter; the
+main opening being ascertained by Mr. Bristow to be seventy-eight
+feet above the valley, and ninety-five feet above the sea, the cave
+itself being in some places eight feet wide. The contents of the cave
+were covered with a layer of stalagmite, from one to fifteen inches
+thick, on the top of which were found the horns of a Reindeer;
+under the stalagmite came reddish loam or cave-earth, with pebbles
+and some angular stones, from two to thirteen feet thick, containing
+the bones of Elephants, Rhinoceros, Bears, Hy&aelig;nas, Felis, Reindeer,
+Horses, Oxen, and several Rodents; and, lastly, a layer of
+gravel, and rounded pebbles without fossils, underlaid the cave-earth
+and formed the lowest deposit.</p>
+
+<p>In these beds no human bones were found, but in almost every
+part of the bone-bed were flint-knives, one of the most perfect being
+found thirteen feet down in the bone-bed, at its lowest part. The
+most remarkable fact in connection with this cave was the discovery
+of an entire left hind-leg of the Cave-bear lying in close proximity
+to this knife; &#8220;not washed in a fossil state out of an older alluvium,
+and swept afterwards into this cave, so as to be mingled with the
+flint implements, but having been introduced when clothed in its
+flesh.&#8221; The implement and the Bear&#8217;s leg were evidently deposited
+about the same time, and it only required some approximative estimate
+of the date of this deposit, to settle the question of the antiquity
+of man, at least in an affirmative sense.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. H. W. Bristow, who was sent by the Committee of the Royal
+Society to make a plan and drawings of the Brixham Cave, found
+that its entrance was situated at a height of ninety-five feet above the
+present level of the sea. In his Report made to the Royal Society,
+in explanation of the plan and sections, Mr. Bristow stated that, in
+all probability, at the time the cave was formed, the land was at a
+lower level to the extent of the observed distance of ninety-five feet,
+and that its mouth was then situated at or near the level of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The cave consisted of wide galleries or passages running in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span>
+north and south direction, with minor lateral passages branching off
+nearly at right angles to the main openings&mdash;- the whole cave being
+formed in the joints, or natural divisional planes, of the rock.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth or entrance to the cave originated, in the first instance,
+in an open joint or fissure in the Devonian limestone, which became
+widened by water flowing backwards and forwards, and was partly
+enlarged by the atmospheric water, which percolated through the
+cracks, fissures, and open joints in the overlying rock. The
+pebbles, forming the lowest deposit in the cave, were ordinary
+shingle or beach-gravel, washed in by the waves and tides. The
+cave-earth was the residual part of the limestone rock, after the calcareous
+portion had been dissolved and carried away in solution; and
+the stalactite and stalagmite were derived from the lime deposited
+from the percolating water.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to bone-caves generally, it would seem that, like
+other such openings, they are most common in limestone rocks,
+where they have been formed by water, which has dissolved and
+carried away the calcareous ingredient of the rock. In the case of
+the Brixham cave, the mode of action of the water could be clearly
+traced in two ways: first, in widening out the principal passages
+by the rush of water backwards and forwards from the sea; and,
+secondly, by the infiltration and percolation of atmospheric water
+through the overlying rock. In both cases the active agents in producing
+the cave had taken advantage of a pre-existing fissure or
+crack, or an open joint, which they gradually enlarged and widened
+out, until the opening received its final proportions.</p>
+
+<p>The cave presented no appearance of ever having been inhabited
+by man; or of having been the den of Hy&aelig;nas or other animals, like
+Wookey Hole in the Mendips, and some other bone-caves. The
+most probable supposition is, that the hind quarter of the Bear and
+other bones which were found in the cave-earth, had been washed
+into the cave by the sea, in which they were floating about.</p>
+
+<p>We draw some inferences of the greatest interest and significance
+from the Brixham cave and its contents.</p>
+
+<p>We learn that this country was, at one time, inhabited by animals
+which are now extinct, and of whose existence we have not even a
+tradition; that man, then ignorant of the use of metal, and little
+better than the brutes, was the contemporary of the animals whose
+remains were found in the cave, together with a rude flint-implement&mdash;the
+only kind of weapon with which our savage ancestor defended
+himself against animals scarcely wilder than himself.</p>
+
+<p>We also learn that after the cave had been formed and sealed up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span>
+again, as it were, together with all its contents, by the deposition of
+a solid crust of stalagmite&mdash;an operation requiring a very great length
+of time to effect&mdash;the Reindeer (<i>Cervus Tarandus</i>) was indigenous to
+this country, as is proved by the occurrence of an antler of that
+animal which was found lying upon, and partly imbedded in, the
+stalagmite forming the roof or uppermost, that is, the latest formed,
+of the cave-deposits.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we learn that, at the time the cave was formed, and while
+the land was inhabited by man, that part of the country was lower by
+ninety-five feet than it is now; and that this elevation has probably
+been produced so slowly and so gradually, as to have been imperceptible
+during the time it was taking place, which extended over a
+vast interval of time, perhaps over thousands of years.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps it may not be out of place here to describe the mode of
+formation of bone-caves generally, and the causes which have produced
+the appearances these now present.</p>
+
+<p>Caves in limestone rocks have two principal phases&mdash;one of formation,
+and one of filling up. So long as the water which enters the
+cavities in the course of formation, and carries off some of the calcareous
+matter in solution, can find an easy exit, the cavity is continually
+enlarged; but when, from various causes, the water only enters
+in small quantities, and does not escape, or only finds its way out
+slowly, and with difficulty, the lime, instead of being removed, is re-deposited
+on the walls, roof, sides, and floor of the cavity, in the
+form of stalactites and stalagmite, and the work of re-filling with
+solid carbonate of lime then takes place.</p>
+
+<p>Encouraged by the Brixham discoveries, a congress of French
+and English geologists met at Amiens, in order to consider certain
+evidence, on which it was sought to establish as a fact that man and
+the Mammoth were formerly contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>The valley of the Somme, between Abbeville and Amiens, is
+occupied by beds of peat, some twenty or thirty feet deep, resting on
+a thin bed of clay which covers other beds, of sand and gravel, and
+itself rests on white Chalk with flints. Bordering the valley, some
+hills rise with a gentle slope to a height of 200 or 300 feet, and here
+and there, on their summits, are patches of Tertiary sand and clay,
+with fossils, and again more extensive layers of loam. The inference
+from this geological structure is that the river, originally flowing
+through the Tertiary formation, gradually cut its way through the
+various strata down to its present level. From the depth of the peat,
+its lower part lies below the sea-level, and it is supposed that a
+depression of the region has occurred at some period: again, in land<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span>
+lying quite low on the Abbeville side of the valley, but above the
+tidal level, marine shells occur, which indicate an elevation of the
+region; again, about 100 feet above the valley, on the right bank of
+the river, and on a sloping surface, is the Moulin-Quignon, where
+shallow pits exhibit a floor of chalk covered by gravel and sand,
+accompanied by gravel and marly chalk and flints more or less worn,
+well-rounded Tertiary flints and pebbles, and fragments of Tertiary
+sandstone. Such is the general description of a locality which has
+acquired considerable celebrity in connection with the question of the
+antiquity of man.</p>
+
+<p>The Quaternary deposits of Moulin-Quignon and the peat-beds of
+the Somme formerly furnished Cuvier with some of the fossils he
+described, and in later times chipped flint-implements from the
+quarries and bogs came into the possession of M. Boucher de
+Perthes; the statements were received at first not without suspicion&mdash;especially
+on the part of English geologists who were familiar with
+similar attempts on their own credulity&mdash;that some at least of these
+were manufactured by the workmen of the district. At length, the
+discovery of a human jaw and tooth in the gravel-pits of St. Acheul,
+near Amiens, produced a rigorous investigation into the facts, and it
+seems to have been established to the satisfaction of Mr. Prestwich
+and his colleagues, that flint-implements and the bones of extinct
+Mammalia are met with in the same beds, and in situations indicating
+very great antiquity. In the sloping and irregular deposits overlooking
+the Somme, the bones of Elephants, Rhinoceros, with land
+and fresh-water shells of existing species, are found mingled with flint-implements.
+Shells like those now found in the neighbouring streams
+and hedge-rows, with the bones of existing quadrupeds, have been
+obtained from the peat, with flint-tools of more than usual finish, and
+together with them a few fragments of human bones. Of these
+reliqui&aelig;, the Celtic memorials lie below the Gallo-Roman; above
+them, oaks, alders, and walnut trees occur, sometimes rooted, but no
+succession of a new growth of trees appear.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of the St. Acheul beds is this: they were deposited
+by fluviatile action, and are probably amongst the oldest deposits in
+which human remains occur, older than the peat-beds of the Somme&mdash;but
+what is their <i>real</i> age? Before submitting to the reader the
+very imperfect answer this question admits of, a glance at the previous
+discoveries, which tended to give confirmation to the observations
+just narrated, may be useful.</p>
+
+<p>Implements of stone and flint have been continually turning up
+during the last century and a half in all parts of the world. In the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span>
+neighbourhood of Gray&#8217;s Inn Lane, in 1715, a flint spear-head was
+picked up, and near it some Elephants&#8217; bones. In the alluvium of
+the Wey, near Guildford, a wedge-shaped flint-tool was found in the
+gravel and sand, in which Elephants&#8217; tusks were also found. Under
+the cliffs at Whitstable an oval-shaped flint-tool was found in what
+had probably been a fresh-water deposit, and in which bones of the
+Bear and Elephant were also discovered. Between Herne Bay and
+Reculver five other flint-tools have been found, and three more near
+the top of the cliff, all in fresh-water gravel. In the valley of the
+Ouse, at Beddenham, in Bedfordshire, flint-implements, like those of
+St. Acheul, mixed with the bones of Elephant, Rhinoceros, and
+Hippopotamus, have been found, and near them an oval and a spear-shaped
+implement. In the peat of Ireland great numbers of such
+implements have been met with. But nowhere have they been so
+systematically sought for and classified as in the Scandinavian
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>The peat-deposits of those countries&mdash;of Denmark especially&mdash;are
+formed in hollows and depressions, in the northern drift and Boulder
+clay, from ten to thirty feet deep. The lower stratum, of two or
+three feet in thickness, consists of <i>sphagnum</i>, over which lies another
+growth of peat formed of aquatic and marsh plants. On the edge of
+the bogs trunks of Scotch firs of large size are found&mdash;a tree which
+has not grown in the Danish islands within historic times, and does
+not now thrive when planted, although it was evidently indigenous
+within the human period, since Steenstrup took with his own hands a
+flint-implement from beneath the trunk of one. The sessile variety
+of the oak would appear to have succeeded the fir, and is found at a
+higher level in the peat. Higher up still, the common oak, <i>Quercus
+robur</i>, is found along with the birch, hazel, and alder. The oak has
+in its turn been succeeded by the beech.</p>
+
+<p>Another source from which numerous relics of early humanity
+have been taken is the midden-heaps (Kj&ouml;kken-m&ouml;dden) found along
+the Scandinavian coast. These heaps consist of castaway shells mixed
+with bones of quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, which reveal in some
+respects the habits of the early races which inhabited the coast.
+Scattered through these mounds are flint-knives, pieces of pottery,
+and ashes, but neither bronze nor iron. The knives and hatchets are
+said to be a degree less rude than those of older date found in the
+peat. Mounds corresponding to these, Sir Charles Lyell tells us,
+occur along the American coast, from Massachusetts and Georgia.
+The bones of the quadrupeds found in these mounds correspond with
+those of existing species, or species which have existed in historic times.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span>By collecting, arranging, and comparing the flint and stone implements,
+the Scandinavian naturalists have succeeded in establishing
+a chronological succession of periods, which they designate&mdash;1. The
+Age of Stone; 2. The Age of Bronze; 3. The Age of Iron. The
+first, or Stone period, in Denmark, corresponded with the age of the
+Scotch fir, and, in part, of the sessile oak. A considerable portion of
+the oak period corresponded, however, with the age of <i>bronze</i>, swords
+made of that metal having been found in the peat on the same level
+with the oak. The <i>iron</i> age coincides with the beech. Analogous
+instances, confirmatory of these statements, occur in Yorkshire, and
+in the fens of Lincolnshire.</p>
+
+<p>The traces left indicate that the aborigines went to sea in canoes
+scooped out of a single tree, bringing back deep-sea fishes. Skulls
+obtained from the peat and from tumuli, and believed to be contemporaneous
+with the mounds, are small and round, with prominent
+supra-orbital ridges, somewhat resembling the skulls of Laplanders.</p>
+
+<p>The third series of facts (<i>Lake-dwellings</i>, or <i>lacustrine habitations</i>)
+consisted of the buildings on piles, in lakes, and once common in
+Asia and Europe. They are first mentioned by Herodotus as being
+used among the Thracians of P&aelig;onia, in the mountain-lake Prasias,
+where the natives lived in dwellings built on piles, and connected
+with the shore by a narrow causeway, by which means they escaped
+the assaults of Xerxes. Buildings of the same description occupied
+the Swiss lakes, in the mud of which hundreds of implements, like
+those found in Denmark, have been dredged up. In Zurich, Moosseedorf
+near Berne, and Lake Constance, axes, celts, pottery, and
+canoes made out of single trees, have been found; but of the human
+frame scarcely a trace has been discovered. One skull dredged up at
+Meilen, in the Lake of Zurich, was intermediate between the Lapp-like
+skull of the Danish tumuli and the more recent European type.</p>
+
+<p>The age of the different formations in which these records of the
+human race are found will probably ever remain a mystery. The
+evidence which would make the implements formed by man contemporaneous
+with the Mammoth and other great Mammalia would go a
+great way to prove that man was also pre-glacial. Let us see how
+that argument stands.</p>
+
+<p>At the period when the upper Norwich Crag was deposited, the
+general level of the British Isles is supposed to have been about 600
+feet above its present level, and so connected with the European
+continent as to have received the elements of its fauna and flora from
+thence.</p>
+
+<p>By some great change, a period of depression occurred, in which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span>
+all the country north of the mouth of the Thames and the Bristol
+Channel was placed much below the present level. Moel Tryfaen
+experienced a submergence of at least 1,400 feet, during which
+it received the erratic blocks and other marks, indicative of floating
+icebergs, which have been described in a former chapter. The
+country was raised again to something like its original level, and
+again occupied by plants, Molluscs, Fishes and Reptiles, Birds, and
+Mammifera. Again subsidence takes place, and, after several oscillations,
+the level remains as we now find it. The estimated time
+required for these various changes is something enormous, and might
+have extended the term to double the number of years. The unit
+of the calculation is the upward rate of movement observed on
+the Scandinavian coast; applied to the oscillation of the ancient
+coast of Snowdonia, the figures represent 224,000 years for the
+several oscillations of the glacial period. Adding the pre-glacial
+period, the computation gives an additional 48,000 years. But, let
+us repeat, the figures and data are somewhat hypothetical.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the St. Acheul beds&mdash;said to be the most ancient
+formation in which the productions of human hands have been found&mdash;they
+are confessedly older than the peat-beds, and the time required
+for the production of other peat-beds of equal thickness has been
+estimated at 7,000 years. The antiquity of the gravel-beds of St.
+Acheul may be estimated on two grounds:&mdash;1. General elevation
+above the level of the valley. 2. By estimating the animal-remains
+found in the gravel-beds, and not in the peat. The first question
+implies the denudation of the valley below the level of the gravel,
+or the elevation of the whole plateau. Each of these operations
+would involve an incalculable time, for want of data. In the second
+case, judging from the slow rate at which quadrupeds have disappeared
+in historic times, the extinct Mammoth and other great
+animals must have occupied many centuries in dying out, for the
+notion that they died out suddenly from sharp and sudden refrigeration,
+is not generally admitted.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the three ages of stone, bronze, and iron, M.
+Morlot has based some calculations upon the condition of the delta
+of Tini&egrave;re, near Villeneuve, which lead him to assign to the oldest,
+or stone period, an age of 5,000 to 7,000 years, and to the bronze
+period from 3,000 to 4,000. We may, then, take leave of this subject
+with the avowal that, while admitting the probability that an immense
+lapse of time would be required for the operations described, we are,
+in a great measure, without reliable data for estimating its actual
+extent.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span>The opinion which places the creation of man on the banks of
+the Euphrates in Central Asia is confirmed by an event of the highest
+importance in the history of humanity, and by a crowd of concordant
+traditions, preserved by different races of men, all tending to confirm
+it. We speak of the Asiatic deluge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_200" id="Fig_200"></a>
+<img src="images/illo491.png" alt="Fig. 200" width="400" height="332" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 200.&mdash;Mount Ararat.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Asiatic deluge&mdash;of which sacred history has transmitted to
+us the few particulars we know&mdash;was the result of the upheaval of a
+part of the long chain of mountains which are a prolongation of the
+Caucasus. The earth opening by one of the fissures made in its
+crust in course of cooling, an eruption of volcanic matter escaped
+through the enormous crater so produced. Volumes of watery vapour
+or steam accompanied the lava discharged from the interior of the
+globe, which, being first dissipated in clouds and afterwards condensing,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span>
+descended, in torrents of rain, and the plains were drowned
+with the volcanic mud. The inundation of the plains over an extensive
+radius was the immediate effect of this upheaval, and the
+formation of the volcanic cone of Mount Ararat, with the vast
+plateau on which it rests, altogether 17,323 feet above the sea, the
+permanent result. The event is graphically detailed in the seventh
+chapter of Genesis.</p>
+
+<p>11. &#8220;In the six hundredth year of Noah&#8217;s life, in the second
+month, the seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the
+fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven
+were opened.</p>
+
+<p>12. &#8220;And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty
+nights.&#8221;</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>17. &#8220;And the flood was forty days upon the earth; and the
+waters increased, and bare up the ark, and it was lift up above the
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>18. &#8220;And the waters prevailed, and were increased greatly upon
+the earth; and the ark went upon the face of the waters.</p>
+
+<p>19. &#8220;And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth; and
+all the high hills, that <i>were</i> under the whole heaven, were covered.</p>
+
+<p>20. &#8220;Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the
+mountains were covered.</p>
+
+<p>21. &#8220;And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, both of
+fowl, and of cattle, and of beast, and of every creeping thing that
+creepeth upon the earth, and every man:</p>
+
+<p>22. &#8220;All in whose nostrils <i>was</i> the breath of life, of all that <i>was</i>
+in the dry land, died.</p>
+
+<p>23. &#8220;And every living substance was destroyed which was upon
+the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and the creeping things,
+and the fowl of the heaven; and they were destroyed from the
+earth: and Noah only remained <i>alive</i>, and they that <i>were</i> with him
+in the ark.</p>
+
+<p>24. &#8220;And the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and
+fifty days.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>All the particulars of the Biblical narrative here recited are only
+to be explained by the volcanic and muddy eruption which preceded
+the formation of mount Ararat. The waters which produced the
+inundation of these countries proceeded from a volcanic eruption
+accompanied by enormous volumes of vapour, which in due course
+became condensed and descended on the earth, inundating the extensive
+plains which now stretch away from the foot of Ararat. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span>
+expression, &#8220;the earth,&#8221; or &#8220;all the earth&#8221; as it is translated in the
+Vulgate, which might be implied to mean the entire globe, is explained
+by Marcel de Serres, in a learned book entitled &#8220;La Cosmogonie
+de Mo&iuml;se,&#8221; and other philologists, as being an inaccurate
+translation. He has proved that the Hebrew word <i>haarets</i>, incorrectly
+translated &#8220;all the earth,&#8221; is often used in the sense of
+<i>region</i> or <i>country</i>, and that, in this instance, Moses used it to express
+only the part of the globe which was then peopled, and not its entire
+surface. In the same manner &#8220;<i>the mountains</i>&#8221; (rendered &#8220;<i>all the
+mountains</i>&#8221; in the Vulgate), only implies all the mountains known to
+Moses. Similarly, M. Glaire, in the &#8220;Christomathie H&eacute;bra&iuml;que,&#8221;
+which he has placed at the end of his Grammar, quotes the passage
+in this sense: &#8220;The waters were so prodigiously increased, that the
+highest mountains of the vast horizon were covered by them;&#8221; thus
+restricting the mountains covered by the inundation to those bounded
+by the horizon.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing occurs, therefore, in the description given by Moses, to
+hinder us from seeing in the Asiatic deluge a means made use of by
+God to chastise and punish the human race, then in the infancy of its
+existence, and which had strayed from the path which he had marked
+out for it. It seems to establish the countries lying at the foot of the
+Caucasus as the cradle of the human race; and it seems to establish
+also the upheaval of a chain of mountains, preceded by an eruption
+of volcanic mud, which drowned vast territories entirely composed, in
+these regions, of plains of great extent. Of this deluge many races
+besides the Jews have preserved a tradition. Moses dates it from
+1,500 to 1,800 years before the epoch in which he wrote. Berosus,
+the Chaldean historian, who wrote at Babylon in the time of
+Alexander, speaks of a universal deluge, the date of which he places
+immediately before the reign of Belus, the father of Ninus.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vedas</i>, or sacred books of the Hindus, supposed to have
+been composed about the same time as Genesis, that is, about
+3,300 years ago, make out that the deluge occurred 1,500 years
+before their time. The <i>Guebers</i> speak of the same event as having
+occurred about the same date.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Plate_XXXIII" id="Plate_XXXIII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo494.png" alt="Plate XXXIII" width="600" height="383" />
+<p class="caption">XXXIII.&mdash;The Asiatic Deluge.</p></div>
+
+<p>Confucius, the celebrated Chinese philosopher and lawgiver, born
+towards the year 551 before Christ, begins his history of China by
+speaking of the Emperor named Jas, whom he represents as making
+the waters flow back, which, <i>being raised to the heavens</i>, washed the
+feet of the highest mountains, covered the less elevated hills, and
+inundated the plains. Thus the Biblical deluge (<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XXXIII">Plate XXXIII.</a></span>) is
+confirmed in many respects; but it was local, like all phenomena of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span>
+the kind, and was the result of the upheaval of the mountains of
+western Asia.</p>
+
+<p>A deluge, quite of modern date, conveys a tolerably exact idea of
+this kind of phenomena. We recall the circumstances the better to
+comprehend the true nature of the ravages the deluge inflicted upon
+some Asiatic countries in the Quaternary period. At six days&#8217;
+journey from the city of Mexico there existed, in 1759, a fertile and
+well-cultivated district, where grew abundance of rice, maize, and
+bananas. In the month of June frightful earthquakes shook the
+ground, and were continued unceasingly for two whole months. On
+the night of the 28th September the earth was violently convulsed,
+and a region of many leagues in extent was slowly raised until it
+attained a height of about 500 feet over a surface of many square
+leagues. The earth undulated like the waves of the sea in a tempest;
+thousands of small hills alternately rose and fell, and, finally, an immense
+gulf opened, from which smoke, fire, red-hot stones and ashes
+were violently discharged, and darted to prodigious heights. Six
+mountains emerged from this gaping gulf; among which the volcanic
+mountain Jorullo rises 2,890 feet above the ancient plain, to the
+height of 4,265 feet above the sea.</p>
+
+<p>At the moment when the earthquake commenced the two rivers
+<i>Cuitimba</i> and <i>San Pedro</i> flowed backwards, inundating all the plain
+now occupied by Jorullo; but in the regions which continually rose,
+a gulf opened and swallowed up the rivers. They reappeared to the
+west, but at a point very distant from their former beds.</p>
+
+<p>This inundation reminds us on a small scale of the phenomena
+which attended the deluge of Noah.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p>Besides the deposits resulting from the partial deluges which we
+have described as occurring in Europe and Asia during the Quaternary
+epoch there were produced in the same period many new
+formations resulting from the deposition of <i>alluvia</i> thrown down by
+seas and rivers. These deposits are always few in number, and
+widely disseminated. Their stratification is as regular as that of any
+which belong to preceding periods; they are distinguished from those
+of the Tertiary epoch, with which they are most likely to be confounded,
+by their situation, which is very frequently upon the shores
+of the sea, and by the predominance of shells of a species identical
+with those now living in the adjacent seas.</p>
+
+<p>A marine formation of this kind, which, after constituting the
+coast of Sicily, principally on the side of Girgenti, Syracuse, Catania,
+and Palermo, occupies the centre of the island, where it rises to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span>
+height of 3,000 feet, is amongst the most remarkable of the great
+Quaternary European productions. It is chiefly formed of two great
+beds; the lower a bluish argillaceous marl, the other a coarse but
+very compact limestone, both containing shells analogous to those of
+the present Mediterranean coast. The same formation is found in
+the neighbouring islands, especially in Sardinia and Malta. The great
+sandy deserts of Africa, as well as the argillo-arenaceous formation of
+the steppes of Eastern Russia, and the fertile Tchornozem, or
+&#8220;<i>black earth</i>&#8221; of its southern plains, have the same geological origin;
+so have the Travertines of Tuscany, Naples, and Rome, and the
+Tufas, which are an essential constituent of the Neapolitan soil.</p>
+
+<p>The pampas of South America&mdash;which consist of an argillaceous
+soil of a deep reddish-brown colour, with horizontal beds of marly
+clay and calcareous tufa, containing shells either actually living now
+in the Atlantic, or identical with fresh-water shells of the country&mdash;ought
+surely to be considered as a Quaternary deposit, of even
+greater extent than the preceding.</p>
+
+<p>We are now approaching so near to our own age, that we can, as
+it were, trace the hand of Nature in her works. Professor Ramsay
+shows, in the Memoirs of the Government Geological Survey, that
+beds nearly a mile in thickness have been removed by denudation
+from the summit of the Mendip Hills, and that broad areas in South
+Wales and the neighbouring counties have been denuded of their
+higher beds, the materials being transported elsewhere to form newer
+strata. Now, no combination of causes has been imagined which has
+not involved submersion during long periods, and subsequent elevation
+for periods of longer or shorter duration.</p>
+
+<p>We can hardly walk any great distance along the coast, either of
+England or Scotland, without remarking some flat terrace of unequal
+breadth, and backed by a more or less steep escarpment&mdash;upon such
+a terrace many of the towns along the coast are built. No geologist
+now doubts that this fine platform, at the base of which is a deposit
+of loam or sandy gravel, with marine shells, had been, at some period,
+the line of coast against which the waves of the ocean once broke at
+high water. At that period the sea rose twenty, and thirty, and some
+places a hundred feet higher than it does now. The ancient sea-beaches
+in some places formed terraces of sand and gravel, with
+littoral shells, some broken, others entire, and corresponding with
+species in the seas below; in others they form bold projecting promontories
+or deep bays. In an historical point of view, this coast-line
+should be very ancient, though it may be only of yesterday in a
+geological sense&mdash;its origin ascending far beyond written tradition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span>
+The wall of Antoninus, raised by the Romans as a protection from
+the attacks of the Caledonians, was built, in the opinion of the best
+authorities, not in connection with the old, but with the new coast-line.
+We may, then, conclude that in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 140, when the greater
+part of this wall was constructed, the zone of the ancient coast-line
+had attained its present elevation above the actual level of
+the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The same proofs of a general and gradual elevation of the country
+are observable almost everywhere: in the estuary of the Clyde, canoes
+and other works of art have been exhumed, and assigned to a recent
+period. Near St. Austell, and at Carnon, in Cornwall, human skulls
+and other relics have been met with beneath marine strata, in which
+the bones of whales and still-existing species of land-quadrupeds were
+imbedded. But in the countries where hard limestone rocks prevail,
+in the ancient Peloponnesus, along the coast of Argolis and Arcadia,
+three and even four ranges of ancient sea-cliffs are well preserved,
+which Messrs. Boblaye and Verlet describe as rising one above the
+other, at different distances from the present coast, sometimes to the
+height of 1,000 feet, as if the upheaving force had been suspended
+for a time, leaving the waves and currents to throw down and shape
+the successive ranges of lofty cliffs. On the other hand, some
+well-known historical sites may be adduced as affording evidence of
+the subsidence of the coast-line of the Mediterranean in times comparatively
+modern. In the Bay of Bai&aelig;, the celebrated temple of
+Serapis, at Puzzuoli, near Naples, which was originally built about 100
+feet from the sea, and at or near its present level, exhibits proofs of
+having gradually sunk nineteen feet, and of a subsequent elevation
+of the ground on which the temple stands of nearly the same
+amount.</p>
+
+<p>So, also, about half a mile along the sea-shore, and standing at
+some distance from it, in the sea, there are the remains of buildings
+and columns which bear the name of the Temples of the Nymphs
+and of Neptune. The tops of these broken columns are now
+nearly on a level with the surface of the water, which is about five
+feet deep.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the littoral deposits of the Quaternary period,
+they are of very limited extent, except in a few localities. They
+are found on the western coast of Norway, and on the coasts of
+England. In France, an extensive bed of Quaternary formation is
+seen on the shores of the ancient Guienne, and on other parts of the
+coast, where it is sometimes concealed by trees and shrubs, or by
+blown sand, as at Dax in the Landes, where a steep bank may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488]</a></span>
+traced about twelve miles inland, and parallel with the present coast,
+which falls suddenly about fifty feet from a higher platform of the
+land, to a lower one extending to the sea. In making some excavations
+for the foundations of a building at Abesse, in 1830, it was
+discovered that this fall consisted of drift-sand, filling up a steep
+perpendicular cliff about fifty feet high, consisting of a bed of Tertiary
+clay extending to the sea, a bed of limestone with Tertiary shells and
+corals, and, at the summit, the Tertiary sand of the Landes. The
+marine beds, together with the alluvium of the rivers, have given
+rise to those deposits which occur more especially near the mouths
+of rivers and watercourses.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig_201" id="Fig_201"></a>
+<img src="images/illo499.png" alt="Fig. 201" width="450" height="341" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 201.&mdash;Shell of Planorbis corneus.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="footnote" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> H. Woodward, <i>Geological Magazine</i>, vol. viii., p. 193.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> &#8220;Darwin&#8217;s Journal,&#8221; p. 130.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> &#8220;Journal of Researches,&#8221; &amp;c., 2nd ed., p. 133. Charles Darwin.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> &#8220;Journal of Researches,&#8221; &amp;c., by Charles Darwin, p. 81.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> &#8220;Journal of Researches,&#8221; &amp;c., by Charles Darwin, 2nd ed., p. 81.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> &#8220;Reliqui&aelig; Diluvian&aelig;,&#8221; by the Rev. W. Buckland, 1823, p. 19.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 122.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> <i>Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.</i>, 1859.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, p. 925; March 1, 1847.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> &#8220;Carte des Anciens Glaciers des Alpes,&#8221; pp. 8-10. (1860.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Professor Ramsay, &#8220;The Old Glaciers of North Wales.&#8221; Longman, 1860.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> In 1840 Dr. Buckland described the occurrence of boulders of Criffel
+Granite between Shalbeck and Carlisle, and attributed their position to the agency
+of ice floating across the Solway Firth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Mr. Darbishire records seventy species from Macclesfield and Moel Tryfaen,
+taken together, of which 6 are Arctic, and 18 are not known in the Upper Crag.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> The typical species in West Lancashire are <i>Tellina Balthica</i>, <i>Cardium edule</i>,
+<i>C. aculeatum</i>, <i>C. rusticum</i>, <i>Psammobia ferroensis</i>, <i>Turritella terebra</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>Geological Magazine</i>, vol. iii., p. 483.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> <i>Revue des Deux Mondes.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> &#8220;Ossements fossiles. Discours sur les R&eacute;volutions du Globe.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Lyell&#8217;s &#8220;Elements of Geology,&#8221; p. 175.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> It is told of a former distinguished and witty member of the Geological
+Society that, having obtained possession of the rooms on a certain day, when
+there was to be a general meeting, he decorated its walls with a series of cartoons,
+in which the parts of the members were strangely reversed. In one cartoon
+Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri were occupied with the skeleton of Homo sapiens;
+in another, a party of Crustaceans were occupied with a cranium suspiciously
+like the same species; while in a third, a party of Pterichthys were about to dine
+on a biped with a suspicious resemblance to a certain well-conditioned F.G.S. of
+the day.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> &#8220;&Eacute;poques de la Nature,&#8221; vol. xii., pp. 322-325. 18mo. Paris, 1778.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></p>
+<h2>EPILOGUE.</h2>
+
+<p>Having considered the past history of the globe, we may now be
+permitted to bestow a glance upon the future which awaits it.</p>
+
+<p>Can the actual state of the earth be considered as definitive? The
+revolutions which have fashioned its surface, and produced the Alps
+in Europe, Mount Ararat in Asia, the Cordilleras in the New
+World&mdash;are they to be the last? In a word, will the terrestrial
+sphere for ever preserve the form under which we know it&mdash;as it
+has been, so to speak, impressed on our memories by the maps of
+the geographers?</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to reply with any confidence to this question;
+nevertheless, our readers will not object to accompany us a step
+further, while we express an opinion, founded on analogy and scientific
+induction.</p>
+
+<p>What are the causes which have produced the present inequalities
+of the globe&mdash;the mountain-ranges, continents, and waters? The
+primordial cause is, as we have had frequent occasion to repeat, the
+cooling of the earth, and the progressive solidification of the external
+crust, the nucleus of which still remains in a fluid or viscous state.
+These have produced the contortions, furrows, and fractures which
+have led to the elevation of the great mountain-ranges and the depression
+of the great valleys&mdash;which have caused some continents to
+emerge from the bed of ocean and have submerged others. The
+secondary causes which have contributed to the formation of a vast
+extent of dry land are due to the sedimentary deposits, which have
+resulted in the creation of new continents by filling up the basins of
+the ancient seas.</p>
+
+<p>Now these two causes, although in a minor degree, continue in
+operation to the present day. The thickness of the terrestrial crust
+is only a small fraction compared to that of the internal liquid mass.
+The principal cause, then, of the great dislocations of the earth&#8217;s crust
+is, so to speak, at our gates; it threatens us unceasingly. Of this the
+earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which are still frequent in our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490]</a></span>
+day, give us disastrous and incontestable proofs. On the other
+hand, our seas are continually forming new land: the bed of the
+Baltic Sea, for instance, is gradually rising, in consequence of the
+deposits which will obviously fill up its area entirely in an interval
+of time which it might not be impossible to calculate.</p>
+
+<p>It is, then, probable that the actual condition of the surface and
+the respective limits of seas and continents have nothing fixed or
+definite in them&mdash;that they are, on the contrary, open to great modifications
+in the future.</p>
+
+<p>There is another problem much more difficult of solution than the
+preceding, but for which neither induction nor analogy furnish us with
+any certain data&mdash;viz., the perpetuity of our species. Is man doomed
+to disappear from the earth some day, like all the races of animals
+which preceded him, and prepared the way for his advent? Will a
+new <i>glacial period</i>, analogous to that which, during the Quaternary
+period, was felt so rigorously, again come round to put an end to his
+existence? Like the Trilobites of the Silurian period, the great
+Reptiles of the Lias, the Mastodons of the Tertiary, and the Megatheriums
+of the Quaternary epoch, is the human species to be annihilated&mdash;to
+perish from the globe by a simple natural extinction? Or
+must we believe that man, gifted with the attribute of reason, marked,
+so to say, with the Divine seal, is to be the ultimate and supreme
+term of creation?</p>
+
+<p>Science cannot pronounce upon these grave questions, which
+exceed the competence, and extend beyond the circle of human
+reasoning. It is not impossible that man should be only a step in
+the ascending and progressive scale of animated beings. The Divine
+Power which has lavished upon the earth life, sentiment, and thought;
+which has given organisation to plants; to animals, motion, sensation,
+and intelligence; to man, in addition to these multiple gifts, the
+faculty of reason, doubled in value by the ideal&mdash;reserves to Himself
+perhaps in His wisdom the privilege of creating alongside of
+man, or after him, a being still more perfect. This new being, religion
+and modern poesy would present in the ethereal and radiant
+type of the Christian angel, with moral qualities whose nature and
+essence would escape our perceptions&mdash;of which we could no more
+form a notion than one born blind could conceive of colour, or the
+deaf and dumb of sound. <i>Erunt &aelig;quales angelis Dei.</i> &#8220;They will
+be as the angels of God,&#8221; says Holy Scripture, speaking of man
+raised to the life eternal.</p>
+
+<p>During the Metamorphic epoch the <i>mineral kingdom</i> existed
+alone; the rocks, silent and solitary, were all that was yet formed of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span>
+the burning earth. During the Primary epoch, the vegetable kingdom,
+newly created, extended itself over the whole globe, which it
+soon covered from pole to pole with an uninterrupted mass of
+verdure. During the Secondary and Tertiary epochs, the vegetable
+and animal kingdoms divided the earth between them. In the
+Quaternary epoch the <i>human kingdom</i> appeared. Is it in the future
+destinies of our planet to receive yet another lord? And after the
+four kingdoms which now occupy it, is there to be a <i>new kingdom</i>
+created, the attributes of which can never be anything but an impenetrable
+mystery, and which will differ from man in as great a degree
+as man differs from the other animals, and plants from rocks?</p>
+
+<p>We must be contented with suggesting, without hoping to solve,
+this formidable problem. It is a great mystery, which, according to
+the fine expression of Pliny, &#8220;lies hidden in the majesty of Nature,&#8221;
+<i>latet in majestate natur&aelig;</i>; or (to speak more in the spirit of Christian
+philosophy) it is known only to the Almighty Creator of the
+Universe.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[493]</a></p>
+
+<h2><span class="fsize150 gesp">TABLE</span><br />
+OF<br />
+<span class="fsize125">BRITISH SEDIMENTARY AND FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="fsize125 center"><span class="smcap">By H. W. BRISTOW.</span></p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[494]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Plate_Last" id="Plate_Last"></a>
+<img src="images/illo505.png" alt="Strata" width="350" height="600" /></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[495]</a></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80 coll nowrap" summary="Table p 495">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bt bl bb br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="center bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Subdivisions.</span></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Foreign<br />Equivalents.</span></td>
+<td class="center bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Origin.</span></td>
+<td class="center bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Commercial<br />Products.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Post Pliocene.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Blown Sand.<br />Raised Beaches.<br />Alluvium.<br />Brick Earth.<br />River Gravel.<br />Cave
+Deposits.<br />Glacial Deposits.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 bb br">Mud of the Nile.<br />Loess of the Rhine.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 bb br">Various.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Peat.<br />Amber.<br />Gold, Diamonds,<br />and other Gems<br />derived from the<br />older
+deposits.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Pliocene.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Crags.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 bb br">Sub-Apennine<br />Strata.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Marine</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Phosphatic Nodules.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Miocene.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Leaf Beds and Lignite.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 bb br">Molasse.<br />Faluns of Touraine.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 bb br">and</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Pipeclay.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Eocene.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Upper Eocene.<br />Bagshot Beds.<br />London Clay.<br />Reading Beds, &amp;c.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb br">Calcaire Grossier.<br />Nummulitic Lime-<br />stones (European<br />and Asiatic).</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 bb br">Freshwater.<br />Estuarine<br />and<br />Marine.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Sand, Brown Coal,<br />Pipeclay,<br />Cement Stone,<br />Bricks, and Pottery.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow bl br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Upper Cretaceous.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">White and Grey Chalk.<br />Upper Greensand.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 br">Maestricht Beds.<br />Senonien Turonien.</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Marine<br />and<br />Freshwater<br />(Wealden).</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Flints from Up. Chalk.<br />Phosphate of Lime.<br />Iron Pyrites.<br />Sandy
+Ironstones.<br />Building Stone.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow bl br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bl br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Gault.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 br">&#8210;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 br">Albien.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Lower Cretaceous.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower&nbsp;Greensand.<br />Wealden&nbsp;Beds,&nbsp;&amp;c.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1 br">Aptien.<br />Neocomian.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow bl br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="thinrow br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="thinrow br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow bl br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Upper Oolitic.</span></td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Purbeck.<br />Portland and Kimeridge.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">Estuarine<br />and Marine.</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="center br bb">Coal, Jet,<br />Iron Ores,<br />Roofing Slates,<br />Building Stones,<br />and Flags.<br />Alum
+Shales.<br />Hydraulic Lime-<br />stones.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Middle Oolitic.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Coral Rag &amp; Oxford Clay.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Lower Oolitic.</span></td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Cornbrash.<br />Forest Marble and Great<br />Oolite.<br />Stonesfield Slate.<br />Inferior Oolite.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 br">Jura Formation.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Marine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br bb bl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Lias.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl bb br"><span class="smcap">Keuper.<br />Bunter.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Rh&aelig;tic.<br />New Red Marl, Sandstone,<br />and Conglomerate.<br />Sandstone &amp; Pebble Beds.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br bb">Muschelkalk absent<br />in British Isles.</td>
+<td class="center br bb">Inland Seas.<br />Salt Lakes.</td>
+<td class="center br bb">Gypsum.<br />Rock Salt.<br />Building Stones.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Magnesian Lime-<br />stone.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Red Marls and Magnesian<br />Limestone.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb">Zechstein.<br />Kupferschiefer.<br />Rothliegende.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 top br bb">Marine.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Building Stones.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Lower Permian.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Red Marl, Sandstone, and<br />Conglomerate.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Carboniferous.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Coal Measures.<br />Millstone Grit.<br />Yoredale Rocks.<br />Mountain Limestone.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb top">Carboniferien.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Terrestrial<br />and<br />Marine.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Coal, Anthracite.<br />Iron and Lead Ores.<br />Bldng. Stone,Marble.<br />Oil Springs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Devonian<br />and<br />Old Red Sandstone.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Devonian Slates and<br />Limestones.<br />Old Red Sandstone, &amp;c.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb top">Eifel Limestone.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Marine<br />and<br />Freshwater.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Ornamental Marbles.<br />Serpentine &amp; Slates.<br />Tin, Copper, Lead,<br />Silver Ores,
+&amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow bl br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Upper Silurian.</span></td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Ludlow.<br />Wenlock.<br />Upper Llandovery.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center padl1 padr1 br bot">Primordial Zone.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Marine.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Roofing Slates.<br />Building Stones.<br />Gold &amp; other Metals.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow bl br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="thinrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Lower Silurian.</span></td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Llandovery.<br />Bala and Caradoc.<br />Llandeilo.<br />Lingula Flags.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow bl br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="thinrow br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="thinrow br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Cambrian.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bb">Harlech Grits.<br />Llanberis Slates.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Huronian of<br />America.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Marine.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Roofing Slates.<br />Gold &amp; other Metals.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Laurentian.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1 bb"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Gneiss</span><br />of the Outer Hebrides, and<br />N.W.
+Coast of Scotland.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br bb">Labradorite Series<br />in Canada.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Marine.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br bb">Serpentine.<br />Graphite.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="tabind bl br"><span class="smcap">Metamorphic Rocks</span> (<i>of all ages</i>):&mdash;<br />
+<span style="padding-left: 5em;">Gneiss, Mica-schist, Quartzite, Talcose-schist, &amp;c. (Serpentine probably?)</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="tabind bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Intrusive Rocks</span> (<i>of all ages</i>):&mdash;<br />
+<span style="padding-left: 5em;">Lavas, Basalt, Trachyte, Pitchstone, &amp;c.</span><br />
+<span style="padding-left: 5em;">Granite, Syenite, Greenstone, Felstone, Porphyrites, Melaphyres, Mica-Traps, &amp;c. &amp;c.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[496]</a></p>
+
+<h2>EXTENSION OF THE PREVIOUS TABLE.</h2>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 496">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 3em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 1.5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 1em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: .5em;" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="50" class="left padl1 padr1">AGE<br />OF<br />MAM-<br />MALS.</td>
+<td rowspan="50" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="50" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="18" class="left padl1 padr1">POST<br />TERTIA-<br />RY.</td>
+<td rowspan="18" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="18" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="18" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="18" class="left padl1 padr1">PLEISTO-<br />CENE,<br /><span class="smcap">or<br />Quater-<br />nary.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="18" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="18" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Recent<br />and<br />Pre-<br />Historic.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Blown Sand and Shingle.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Alluvium and River Deltas.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Burtle Beds of Somerset.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Clay, with Scrobicularia of Pagham, Morecombe, &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Submerged Forests of Bristol Channel, &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Peat Bogs of Ireland and Peat Beds of England.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl1 padr1">Post<br />Glacial</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Raised Beaches.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">Cave Deposits</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Cave Earth and Loam.<br />Stalagmite and Bone-breccia.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">River Gravels, Brick Earths, and Freshwater Clays, with Mammalian Remains.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Gravels of Bedford Levels, Salisbury, and other Old Valley Gravels and Alluvia.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Tufa and Shell-marl.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Glacial</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Kaimes or Kames of Scotland.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Eskers or Escars of Ireland.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Drift (Upper Boulder Clay or Till, Marine Gravels, Lower Till and Moraines), Scotch and Welsh, Loess of the Rhine, &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Pre-<br />glacial</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Forest Bed of Norfolk Shore.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="28" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="31" class="left padl1 padr1">KAINO-<br />ZOIC,<br />OR<br />TERTIA-<br />RY.</td>
+<td rowspan="31" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="31" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="8" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">PLIO-<br />CENE.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Crag</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="left padl1">Mammaliferous Crag</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="6" class="left padl1"><i>Norwich and Chillesford Crag</i> (Newer Pliocene).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="left padl1">Red Crag</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Coralline Crag (<i>Suffolk Crag</i>) (Older Pliocene).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="24" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">MIOCENE.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Leaf Bed of Mull.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Lignite of Antrim.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Bovey Beds, with Lignite.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="24" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="23" class="left padl1 padr1">EO-<br />CENE.</td>
+<td rowspan="23" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="23" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Upper<br />Eocene.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">Hemp-<br />stead<br />Beds</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="12" class="left padl1">Corbula Beds.</td>
+<td rowspan="14" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="14" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="14" class="left padl1">Fluvio-Marine Series.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Upper</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="9" class="left padl1 padr1">Freshwater and Estuary Marls.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Middle</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl1 padr1">Bem-<br />bridge<br />Beds</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">Bembridge Marls.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1"><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span>Limestone.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="10" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Middle<br />Eocene.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="10" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="10" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl1 padr1">Osborne<br />Beds</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="12" class="left padl1">St. Helen's Sands.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="left padl1">Nettlestone Grits.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Headon<br />Beds</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Upper</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="9" class="left padl1 padr1">Headon Beds.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Middle</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Bagshot<br />Beds</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1">Upper&nbsp;Bagshot</td>
+<td colspan="11" class="left">Sand.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">Middle<span class="padl3">&#8222;</span></td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Barton Clay.<br />Bracklesham Beds.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1">Lower&nbsp;<span class="padl3">&#8222;</span></td>
+<td colspan="11" class="left">Sand and Pipeclay, with Plants.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Lower<br />Eocene.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">London<br />Tertia-<br />ries</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15" class="left padl1">London Clay and Bognor Beds (Upper London Tertiaries).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="left padl1">Oldhaven Beds.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="3" class="left padl1">Lower do.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="left padl1">Woolwich and Reading Beds (Plastic Clay).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="left padl1">Thanet Beds.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[497]</a></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 497">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="77" class="left padr1 padl1">MESO-<br />ZOIC,<br />OR<br />SECON-<br />DARY.</td>
+<td rowspan="77" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="77" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="22" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="22" class="left padl1 padr1">CRETA-<br />CEOUS.</td>
+<td rowspan="22" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="22" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="8" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Upper<br />Creta-<br />ceous.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="8" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="8" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" colspan="7" class="left padl1 padr1">Chalk</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Upper Chalk, with Layers of Flint (Maestricht and Faxoe Beds).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Lower Chalk, without Flints.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Chalk Marl.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Chloritic Marl.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Upper Greensand (Fire-stone of Surrey, Malm-rock), &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Gault.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="13" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Lower<br />Creta-<br />ceous,<br />or<br />Neo-<br />comian.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="17" class="left padl1 padr1">Weal-<br />den.</td>
+<td rowspan="17" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="17" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="left padl1 padr1">Neo-<br />co-<br />mian.</td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">Lower<br />Green-<br />sand</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Folkestone Beds (Sand).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Sandgate Beds (with Fullers&#8217; Earth).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Hythe Beds (with Kentish Rag and Bargate Stone).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Atherfield Clay.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="14" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Weald Clay (with Sussex or Bethersden Marble and Horsham Stone).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="14" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="6" class="left padl1 padr1">Has-<br />tings<br />Sands</td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Tunbridge Wells Sand</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1">Tunbridge Wells Beds.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Grinstead Clay</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Tunbridge Wells Sand</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Wadhurst Clay (with Iron Ore).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Ashdown Sands.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Ashburnham Beds.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="12" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="40" class="left padl1 padr1">JURAS-<br />SIC<br />SERIES.</td>
+<td rowspan="40" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="40" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="34" class="left padl1 padr1">OO-<br />LITIC<br />SERIES.</td>
+<td rowspan="34" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="34" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Upper<br />Oolite.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Pur-<br />beck</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Upper (with Purbeck Marble)</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1">Purbeck Beds.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Middle</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Lower (with Dirt Beds)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="7" class="left padl1 padr1">Portland</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Portland Stone.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Portland Sand.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Kimeridge Clay (with Bituminous Shale).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="6" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Middle<br />Oolite.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="7" class="left padl1 padr1">Coralline Oolite</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Upper Calcareous Grit.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Coral Rag (with Iron Ore).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Lower Calcareous Grit.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="7" class="left padl1 padr1">Oxford Clay</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Oxford Clay and</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Kellaways Rock.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="25" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Lower<br />Oolite.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="25" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="25" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="7">Forest Marble</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Cornbrash.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Forest Marble and</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Bradford Clay (with Encrinites)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="7">Great Oolite</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Great or Bath Oolite (with &#8220;Fullers&#8217; Earth&#8221; at base, in S. of England).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Stonesfield Slate, near the base, in part of S. of England.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="7">Fullers&#8217; Earth</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Upper Fullers&#8217; Earth (Clay).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Fullers&#8217; Earth Rock (Limestone).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Lower Fullers&#8217; Earth (Clay).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="8" colspan="7">Inferior Oolite</td>
+<td rowspan="8" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="8" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Northampton Sand (with Iron Ore, in N. Oxfordshire and S. Northamptonshire).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Ragstone and Clypeus Bed.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Freestone.</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" colspan="3" class="left padl1">Cheltenham Sections.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Oolite Marl.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Freestone.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Pea Grit.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">(Colleyweston Slate, at the base of the Limestone, in Lincolnshire).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Sands.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="5" colspan="4" class="center br"><span class="smcap">Age of Reptiles,<br />or<br />Saurozoic Epoch.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl1 padr1">Lias.</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Lias</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Clay and Shale.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="14" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1">Middle Lias,</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">or</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Marlstone (Rock Bed, with Iron Ore, Sand, &amp;c.).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="14" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1">Lower Lias</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Clay, Shale, and Limestone.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="24" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="13" class="left padl1 padr1">POIKI-<br />LITIC<br />SERIES.</td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Trias,<br />or<br />New Red<br />Sand-<br />stone.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="13" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Upper<br />Trias.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="7" class="left padl1 padr1">Rh&aelig;tic, or Penarth Beds.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">&#8220;White Lias,&#8221; Avicula contorta Beds, with Koessen Beds.<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[498]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Bone Beds of Aust, &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1"><i>St. Cassian and Hallstadt Beds.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="7">Keuper</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Red variegated Marl and Upper Keuper Sandstone (with Gypsum and Rock Salt).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Lower Keuper Sandstone and Marl (Waterstones).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Dolomitic Conglomerate (of Keuper Age, Somerset, Gloucester, and S. Wales).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Middle<br />Trias.</span></td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1"><i>Muschelkalk, absent in Britain.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Lower<br />Trias.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="7">Bunter</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Upper Red and Mottled Sandstone.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Pebble Beds, Calcareous Conglomerate, and Breccia.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1">Lower Red and Mottled Sandstone.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table p 498-499">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow" style="width: .5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="23">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center"><span class="smcap">Germany.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="24" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="60" class="left padl1 padr1">PAL&AElig;O-<br />ZOIC, OR<br />PRIMARY.</td>
+<td rowspan="60" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="60" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="25" class="left padl1 padr1">UPPER<br />PAL&AElig;O-<br />ZOIC.<br /><span class="smcap">Age of<br />Fishes,<br />or Ichthyo-<br />zoic<br />Epoch.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="25" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="25" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="6" colspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Permian.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">Upper, or<br />Magnesian<br />Limestone<br />Series.</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Red Marl and Sandstone</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1">Zechstein.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Magnesian Limestone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Red Marl and Sandstone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Magnesian Limestone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower, or<br />Rothliegende.</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Red Marl, Sandstone, Breccia, R�the-liegende, and Conglomerate.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="14" colspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Carboniferous Series.<br />Age of Plants, or<br />Phytozoic Epoch.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="14" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="14" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center"><span class="smcap">England.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" >&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Scotland.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl1 padr1">Coal<br />Measures</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Coal Measures</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" colspan="4" class="left padl1">Upper Coal Measures.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Middle Coal Measures</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Pennant Grit</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Coal Measures</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Gannister Beds</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Millstone Grit or Farewell Rock</td>
+<td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1">Moor Rock.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">Carboni-<br />ferous, or<br />Mountain<br />Limestone.</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Limestone Shale (Yoredale Rocks)</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="4" class="left padl1">Upper Limestones.<br />Edge Coals Series.<br />Lower Limestones.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Carboniferous Limestone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Limestone Shale</td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1">Sandstones, Shales, and Burdie House Limestone.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Old Red Sandstone<br />and Devonian.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Old Red<br />Sandstone,<br />or<br />Devonian<br />Beds.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Upper Devonian or Barnstaple and Marwood Beds, with Petherwin Limestone, in N.E. Cornwall.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Middle Devonian or Ilfracombe Beds, with Fossiliferous Limestones and Cornstones.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Lower Devonian, or Lynton Beds.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12">&nbsp;<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[499]</a></span></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center"><span class="smcap">Wales and Central England.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Lake District.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="24" class="left padl1 padr1">LOWER<br />PAL&AElig;O-<br />ZOIC.<br /><span class="smcap">Age of<br />Crusta-<br />ceans ond<br />Molluscs,<br />or<br />Malacozoic<br />Epoch.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="24" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="24" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="24" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Silurian.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="24" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="24" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="17" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Upper<br />Silurian.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="17" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="17" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Tilestones (Passage Beds)</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="4" class="left padl1">Kirkby Moor Flags.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1">Ludlow<br />Beds</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Upper Ludlow Beds (with Bone Bed)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Aymestry Limestone</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" colspan="4" class="left padl1">Bannisdale Beds.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Lower Ludlow Beds</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl1 padr1">Wenlock<br />Beds</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Wenlock Limestone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Wenlock Shale, Sandstone, and Flags</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Woolhope Limestone and Shale</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="4" class="left padl1">Coniston Grits and Flags.<br />Stockdale Slates.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Denbighshire Grits, Shales, Slates, and Flags</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Tarannon Shale (Pale Slates).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl1 padr1">Llandovery<br />Beds</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Upper Llandovery Rocks.<br /><span style="padding-left: 2em;">(May Hill Sandstone).</span>
+<br /><span style="padding-left: 2em;">(Pentamerus Beds).</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Lower Llandovery Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="6" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Lower<br />Silurian.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl1">Caradoc,<br />or<br />Bala Beds.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Caradoc and Bala Beds.</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="4" colspan="4" class="left padl1">Coniston Limestone, Bala (Limestone and Shale)<br />Skiddaw Slates.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">(Sandstones often shelly, with  Bala  Limestone, Shale, and Slate)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl1 padr1">Llandeilo</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Llandeilo Flags and Limestone, &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Tremadoc Slates.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 padr1">Lingula<br />Beds</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Lingula Flags. (Primordial Zone of Barrande).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="21" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="7" class="left padl1 padr1">EOZOIC.</td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="7" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" colspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Cambrian.</span></td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="left padl1 padr1">Cambrian</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Harlech Grits, &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Purple Slates and Grits (St. David's).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Llanberis Grits and Slates.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Longmynd Rocks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Red Sandstone and Conglomerate (Scotland).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="thinrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7"><span class="smcap">Laurentian</span></td>
+<td class="right padr0">&#8210;</td>
+<td class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="left padl1">Fundamental Gneiss of the Outer Hebrides and of the N.W. coast of Scotland, &amp;c., containing the oldest known fossil, <i>Eozoon Canadense</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<div class="fsize80">
+
+<hr class="c05" style="margin: 0 auto;" />
+<p class="center"><sup>*</sup><sub>*</sub><sup>*</sup> ITALICS ARE WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS.</p>
+<hr class="c05" style="margin: 0 auto;"  />
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Abbeville, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Peat-beds and Flint-tools of, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+<li>Abietin&aelig;, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Acacia, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Acanthodes</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Acephala of the Oolite, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Acephalous or headless Molluscs, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+<li>Acerites cretace&aelig;, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>Acrodus nobilis, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li>Acrogens, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Adams, Mr., discoveries of, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+<li>Adapis, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+<li>Adelsberg Cave, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Adeona folifera</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li>Adh&eacute;mar&#8217;s Glacial Hypothesis, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
+<li>Adiantites, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li>Agassiz on Glaciers, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+<li>Age of Angiosperms, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Formations, how ascertained, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Ailsa Craig, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li>Air Volcano at Turbaco, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li>Albien of D&#8217;Orbigny, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>Albite, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Aleutian Isles, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Alg&aelig;, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li>Alkaline Waters of Plombi&egrave;res, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Alleghany Mountains, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Alluvial Deposits, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
+<li>Almites Frescii, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+<li>Alps, upheaval of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+<li>Alveolites, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li>Amber, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Amblypterus, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Amiens, Peat-beds of, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Ammonite, a perfect</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>restoration of an</i>, <a href="#Page_215">216</a>.</li>
+<li>Ammonites, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>rostratus</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Turneri</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> of Jurassic Period, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> rotundus, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> Herveyii, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> Danicus, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+<li>Amorphozoa, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Ancient Glaciers of the Rhine, Linth, and the Reus, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+<li>Ancient Granite, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li>Ancyloceras, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Andrias Scheuchzeri</i>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+<li>Angiosperms, Age of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> Seeds, in a Seed-vessel, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>Animal of the Ohio, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Paraguay, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+<li>Annelides, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Anning, Mary, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>Annularia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>orifolia</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+<li>Anodon, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li>Anomopteris, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Anoplotherium, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>commune</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
+<li>Anorthite, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Antediluvian Glaciers, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span>Man, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+<li>Anthracite, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li>Antiquity of Man, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+<li>Antwerp Crag, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
+<li>Ape, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> First Appearance of<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[502]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Apiocrinites liliiformis</i>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span><i>rotundus</i>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Aploceras</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Aptien (Greensand of Apt) Fossils of Havre, of the Isle of Wight, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li>Apuan Alps, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Arborescent Ferns</i>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li>Arbroath Paving-stone, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Arch&aelig;opteryx, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Archegosaurus minor</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+<li>Arctocyon prim&aelig;vus, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Arenicolites, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li>Argile de Dives, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>plastique, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Armentace&aelig;, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li>Arran, Granite of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Artesian Wells, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Artificially-formed Coal, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Asaphus caudatus</i>, <a href="#Page_105">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Ashburnham Sands, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Ashdown Sands, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Ashes, Showers of Volcanic, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li>Asiatic Deluge, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>; caused by upheaval of Caucasian Range, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
+<li>Asplenium, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Asteracanthus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Asterias lombricalis, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Asterophyllites, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>foliosa</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Atherfield Series of Rocks, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li>Atlantis of Plato, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Atrypa reticularis</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Auchenaspis, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Aucolin, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+<li>Augite, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Auvergne, Mountains of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Acidulated Springs in, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Extinct Volcanoes of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li>Aveyron Savage, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+<li>Avicula, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> contorta, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> contorta zone, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Azores, New Islands formed in the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Baculites, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+<li>Bagshot Beds, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Bajocien Formation, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Bala Beds, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+<li>Bal&aelig;na of Monte Pulgnasco, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Bal&aelig;nodon Lamanoni, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Balistes, or Silurus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>Baltic Sea filling up, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Banksia</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li>Barmouth Sandstone, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Basalt in Prismatic Columns</i>, <a href="#Page_49">47</a>.</li>
+<li>Basalt, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Action of, upon Limestone, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Ireland, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Prismatic Structure of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li>Basaltic Formations, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Causeways, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>Plateau, theoretical view of</i>, <a href="#Page_46">47</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Cavern of Staffa, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Bat, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+<li>Bath Oolite, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li>Bathonian Formation, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Batrachian Reptiles of Pliocene, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+<li>Baumann&#8217;s Hohl, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+<li>Bay of Fundy, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Beaver, Disappearance of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Post-Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>Beds of Coal, Formation of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Bees, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Belemnite restored</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>of Liassic Period, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li>Belemnites, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span><i>acutus</i>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li>Bellerophon, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>costatus</i>, <a href="#Page_143">145</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>hiulcus</i>, <a href="#Page_143">145</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Beloptera Sepioidea</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
+<li>Bembridge Series, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Ben Nevis, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Bernese Alps, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Beryx Lewesiensis</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li>Biblical Account of Noachian Deluge, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
+<li>Bidiastopora cervicornis, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Bigsby, Dr. J. T., on Silurian Fauna and Flora, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Binney, Edw., on Boulder Clay of Lancashire, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Bird of Solenhofen</i>, <a href="#Page_266">265</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Montmartre, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Birds, First Appearance of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Eocene Period, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Miocene Period, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+<li>Bison primigenius, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> priscus, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+<li>Bituminous Fountains, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+<li>Black Down Beds, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+<li>Boccaccio&#8217;s Giant, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+<li>Bogs of Denmark, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
+<li>Bone-beds of Rh&aelig;tic, or Penarth Series<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[503]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Bone-breccias, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+<li>Bone Caves, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> <span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> H. W. Bristow on formation of, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Bos</i>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span>Pallasii, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span>Primigenius, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Bracheux Sands, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Brachiopoda, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> Abundance of, in Devonian Period, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> in Upper Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> Reign of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Brachyphyllum, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Bracklesham Beds, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Bradford Clay, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Encrinites, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Branch of Banksia</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>Eucalyptus</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+<li>Bray Head, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li>Breccia, Ossiferous, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
+<li>Brecciated Limestone, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Bridlington Beds, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
+<li>Bristow, H. W., on Formation of Bone Caves, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span>on Brixham Bone-cave, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span>on Penarth or Rh&aelig;tic Beds, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>British Islands at close of Jurassic Period, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+<li><i>British Strata</i>, Section of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span>Table of, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>-<a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
+<li>Brixham Bone-cave, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+<li>Brongniart, Ad., on Upper Cretaceous Fauna, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Bronze Age, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
+<li>Brumberg Cavern, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
+<li>Buckland, Dr., on Kirkdale Cave, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+<li>Buffon and Voltaire, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> on Man, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> on Fossils, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Bunter Sandstone, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li>Burrh Stone, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Butterflies, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Caithness Flags, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Calamary, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Calamite restored</i>, <a href="#Page_134">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Calamites, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>arenaceus, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>cann&aelig;formis</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>Trunk of</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li>Calcaire de la Beauce, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Grossier, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Calceola Sandalina, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Calderas, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Calymene Blumenbachii</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>Cambrian Period, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span> Fauna, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li>Camper, Pierre, on the Mosasaurus, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> <span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> <span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> &#338;ningen Skeleton, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+<li>Camptopteris crenata, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li>Canstadt Excavations, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
+<li>Cantal Group of Mountains, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> <span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> <span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>a peak of</i>, <a href="#Page_39">40</a>.</li>
+<li>Cape Wrath, Granite and Gneiss of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Capitosaurus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Caradoc Beds, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+<li>Carboniferous Flora, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> compared with that of Islands in the Pacific, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Carboniferous Limestone, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> Period, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> Vegetation of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> Climate of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> Foraminifera of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> of France, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> Crustaceans of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> Rocks, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> Seas, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Cardiocarpon, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+<li>Cardium Rh&aelig;ticum, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> striatulum, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Carpinites arenaceus, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>Carrara Marble, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Caryophylla cyathus</i>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+<li>Causeways, Basaltic, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li>Cave Bear, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>Deposits, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>Hy&aelig;na, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>Lion, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+<li>Caverns, their Origin, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Cellaria loriculata, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li>Central Heat of the Earth, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Increase of in Depth, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+<li>Central France, Puys of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cephalaspis</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Cephalopoda, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Ceratites<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[504]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Ceratites nodosus</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Cerithium, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cerithium plicatum</i>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>telescopium</i>, <a href="#Page_334">335</a>.</li>
+<li>Cervus megaceros, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+<li>Cestracion, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>Cetaceans of Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+<li>Cetiosaurus, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li>Ch&aelig;ropotamus, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+<li>Ch&aelig;tetes, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Chalk Formation, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>Foraminifera of</i>, <a href="#Page_149">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Chalk Marl, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> White, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>of Cattolica, Sicily</i>, <a href="#Page_281">280</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>of Gravesend</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>of Isle of Mo&euml;n</i>, <a href="#Page_278">279</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>of Meudon</i>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+<li>Chara, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Cheirotherium, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Chemical Theory of the Earth, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Chesil Bank, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+<li>Chillesford Beds, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Chim&aelig;ra, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>Chlo&euml;, Isle of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Chondrites, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>Chorda-filum, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Christiana Granite and Syenite, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Cinder Bed of Purbeck, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li>Cipoline Marble, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Cirripedes, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+<li>Clermont-Ferrand, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li>Climate of the Coal Period, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span>Permian Period, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Climatius</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Clinkstone, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Clymenia Sedgwickii</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Coal, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> Formation of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> Origin of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> Theories Respecting Formation of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>Stratification of Beds of</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> Quantities annually raised in different Countries, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> Quantity of, in United Kingdom, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Coal Measures, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Composition of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Extent of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Flora of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> of Scotland, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> of South Wales, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> of Belgium, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> of France, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Time of Formation, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Composition of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Coal Mines of Treuil</i>, <a href="#Page_159">160</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Coccosteus</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+<li>C&#339;lacanthus, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Composition of Air in Carboniferous Period, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+<li>Comptonia, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>Conferv&aelig; of the Chalk, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>Conglomerates, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Conifers of Jurassic Period, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Eocene Period, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Miocene Period, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Contortions of Coal Beds</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Conybeare&#8217;s Account of Plesiosaurus, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Slate, Fossils of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Thuringia, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li>Coprolites, Petrified Excrements of Antediluvian Animals, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>of Ichthyosaurus, enclosing Bones</i>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>of Ichthyosaurus, showing Cast of Intestines</i>, <a href="#Page_226">225</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Bed of Cambridge, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>Coral Rag, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Coralline Crag, Corals of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Corals, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Cornbrash, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Cornstone, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Cornwall, Granite of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Coryphodon, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Cotham Marble, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Coupe, la, d&#8217;Ayzac</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+<li>Crag, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Creation of Man, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span>Evidences of, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>World, Scriptural Account of, Defended, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+<li>Credneria, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>Crematopteris, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Fauna of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Flora of<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[505]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Reptiles of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Fishes of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li>Crinoidea, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Crioceras, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>Duvallii</i>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+<li>Crocodile of Maestricht, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Crocodilus Toliapicus, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Croll, J., on Till, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+<li>Crust of the Earth, Composition of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Thickness of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Temperature of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Crustaceans, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> Predominance of, in Lower Silurian Seas, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> Rarity of in Carboniferous Period, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> of Eocene Period, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> of Miocene Period, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+<li>Cryptogamia, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+<li>Crystalline Action, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Limestone, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Rocks Defined, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Cucumites, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Cupanioides, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cupressocrinus crassus</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Cuvier&#8217;s Account of Plesiosaurus, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Account of Pterodactyle, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> on the Restoration of Extinct Animals, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> on the Destruction of Species, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> on the Mammoth, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
+<li>Cyathophyllum, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Cycadeace&aelig;, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Cycads, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cycas circinalis</i>, <a href="#Page_167">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Cypress, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Cypris, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> fasciculata, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>spinigera and C. Valdensis</i>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cyrtoceras depressum</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Damara, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li>Danian Beds, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+<li>Danish Peat Mosses and Kj&ouml;kken M&ouml;dden, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
+<li>Dartmoor, Granite of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li>Darwin, C., on Coral Formations, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> Volcanoes of Quito, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+<li>Daubeny on Basalt, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Davidsonia Verneuilli, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Dawkins, W. B., Discoverer of Microlestes, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>De la Beche on the Plesiosaurus, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+<li>De Rance, C. E., on Glacial Deposits, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+<li>Deer, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+<li>Deluge confirmed by traditions of all Ancient Races, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
+<li>Denudation, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Descartes, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Destruction of Successive Creations, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Devon and Cornwall, Granite of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Devonian Period, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>System, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Flora, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>Fishes</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Diameter of the Earth, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>Diceras Limestone, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li>Dicotyledons, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Diluvium, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+<li>Dinornis, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Dinornis</i>, <a href="#Page_417">414</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+<li>Dinotherium, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>restored</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+<li>Diorite, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Diplacanthus</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Dirt-bed, Fossils of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li>Dodo, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Dolomite, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li>Domite, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Donati on Fossil Shells, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Downs, North and South, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+<li>Downton Sandstone, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Draco volans</i>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li>Draconid&aelig;, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+<li>Dragon Fly, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Dragons of Mythology, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+<li>Drifted Rocks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Dr&ocirc;me, the, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+<li>Dryopithecus, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+<li>Dykes, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Early Geologists, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Earth, Cooling of the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Theories of the Origin of the, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>in a Gaseous State</i>, <a href="#Page_80">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Earth&#8217;s Crust, Thickness of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Surface, Changes of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li>Earthy Limestone, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Ebur Fossile, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+<li>Echinoderms, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Edentates<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[506]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+<li>Ehrenberg&#8217;s Microscopic Investigations, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+<li>Electric Currents, Action of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li>Elephant of the Ohio, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li>Elephants, Fossil, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+<li>Elephants&#8217; Cemetery at Canstadt, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+<li>Elephas meridionalis, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>primigenius, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
+<li>Emys, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+<li>Encrinites, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Abundance of during Devonian Period, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Encrinus liliiformis</i>, <a href="#Page_189">190</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+<li>Entalophora cellarioides, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Eocene Strata of France and England, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+<li>Eocene, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Period, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Vegetation, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Fauna, Seas, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Characters of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Table of Strata, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li>Epilogue, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
+<li>Epiornis, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+<li>Equiseta (Horse-tails), <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Erratic Blocks, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>of the Alps</i>, <a href="#Page_447">448</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Eruption of Granite</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+<li>Eruptive Rocks, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Plutonic Eruptions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Volcanic <span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Eryon arctiformis</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+<li>Erymanthean Boar, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Estimated Coal Measures of the World, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Etheridge, R., on Devonian and Old Red Sandstone, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Etna, Volcano of Mount, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Eucalyptus</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+<li>Eunomia radiata, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Europe at Close of Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
+<li>European Deluge, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
+<li>Eurypterus, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>remipes</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Exogyra conica</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+<li>Expansion of the Earth at the Equator, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li>Extinct Volcanoes of Auvergne, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li>Eye of Ichthyosaurus, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Falconer, Dr., on Brixham Cave, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+<li>Faluns, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of Paris Basin, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+<li>Fans, of Brecon, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Fault, a Dislocation of Strata, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li>Fauna, Definition of Term, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Devonian, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Neocomian, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Permian Period, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of the Middle Oolite, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of the Upper Oolite, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Eocene Period, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Miocene Period, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+<li>Faxoe Beds, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>Felis spel&aelig;a, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+<li>Felspar, composition of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Fenestrella retiformis, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferns, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Fingal&#8217;s Cave, Staffa, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Fisher, Rev. O., on Chillesford Clay, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> on Warp and Trail, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
+<li>Fishes, Silurian, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Bones of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Devonian Period, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Carboniferous Period, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Oolitic Seas, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Cretaceous Seas, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Eocene Period, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Miocene Period, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Fissurella nembosa</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Fissures near Locarno</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>Flabellaria, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Cham&aelig;ropifolia, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+<li>Flint-tools in peat-beds, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+<li>Flints, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Flora of Upper Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Devonian Period, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Tertiary Period, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Eocene Period, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Triassic Period, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Miocene Period, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Carboniferous Period, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Permian Period, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of Upper Oolite Period<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[507]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Fluvio-marine Crag, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Foliation, Cause of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Footprints in Rocks, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>at Corncockle Moor, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+<li>Foraminifera, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>of the Chalk</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>of the Mountain Limestone</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Forbes (Professor Ed.) on the Pliocene Marine Fauna, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>Forest-bed of Norfolk, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+<li>Forest Marble, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Formation of Primitive Granite</i>, <a href="#Page_89">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Fossil, Term Defined, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Bones, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Uses of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Condition of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Footprints, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Species, relations of, to existing Species, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Ivory of Siberia, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>Palms restored</i>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Shells, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Fishes, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Leeches, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Licorn, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Unicorn, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+<li>Fossils of Permian Formation, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Keuper Formation, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Upper Oolite, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Neocomian Beds, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Orgonian Beds, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Aptien Beds, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of the Glauconie, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Calcaire Grossier, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Muschelkalk, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of New Red Sandstone, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Argile Plastique, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Fournet on the Dr&ocirc;me, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>on Eruptions of Granite, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>on Eruptions of Gas and Water, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Fox of &#338;ningen, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Fucoids</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Fuller&#8217;s Earth, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Fusulina cylindrica</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+<li>Future of the Earth and Man considered, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Gabian, Bituminous Springs of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+<li>Gailenreuth, Caves of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+<li>Galacynus &#338;ningensis, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+<li>Ganoid Fishes, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Garonne Valley, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+<li>Gastornis, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Gault, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>Gavials of India, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+<li>Geikie, Prof., on Till, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+<li>Gemerelli on Fossils, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Geological humus</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> Inferences, Hypothetical Nature of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li>Geological Record, Complexity of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li>Geology, Objects of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> a Recent Science, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> its Influence on other Sciences, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> How to be Studied, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li>Geosaurus, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+<li>Geoteuthis, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li>Gerilea protea, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Geysers of Iceland</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_66">67</a>.</li>
+<li>Giants&#8217; Causeways, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>in the Ard&egrave;che</i>, <a href="#Page_49">48</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Legends of, accounted for, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Gigantology, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+<li>Glacial Action during Permian Period, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Deposits of Northern England and Wales, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Period, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Evidences of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Regions of Europe, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Theory of Martins, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+<li>Glacier System of Wales, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Systems, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+<li>Glaciers of Scotland, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of Switzerland, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of the British Isles, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+<li>Glauconie, or Glauconite, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>Glaucous Chalk, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+<li>Glenroy, Parallel Roads of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
+<li>Globe, Modification of Surface of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+<li>Glyptodon, the, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+<li>Glyptolepis, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li>Gneiss of Cape Wrath, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Laurentian, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Composition of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Goniatites, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Goniatites evolutus</i>, <a href="#Page_143">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Goulet, Great and Little, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+<li>Granite<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[508]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Mineral Composition of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>How Formed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of St. Austell, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of Christiana, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of Dartmoor, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of Cornwall and Devon, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Eruptions of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Stratified or Foliated, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Qualities of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>How Formed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><i>Veins of, at Cape Wrath</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Granitic Eruptions</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+<li>Gran Seco, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+<li>Graptolites, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Gravesend Chalk, under Microscope</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+<li>Great Animal of Maestricht, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+<li>Great Oolite, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> Reptiles of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li>Great Year, the, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
+<li>Green, A. H., on Glacial Deposits, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+<li>Greensand, Upper and Lower, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>Greenstone, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Gr&egrave;s Bigarr&eacute;, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Gr&egrave;s de Beauchamp, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li>Gr&egrave;s des Vosges, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li>Grotta del Cane, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Grotto des Demoiselles</i>, <a href="#Page_432">433</a>.</li>
+<li>Grotto of Cheeses, Tr&egrave;ves, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Gryph&aelig;a dilatata, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> virgula, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>incurva</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Gulf Stream, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+<li>Gymnogens, Plants with Naked Ovary, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Gymnosperms, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>Gypseous Formation, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li>Gypsum Quarries of Montmartre, Fossils in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+<li>Gyroceras, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Haidingera speciosa, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li>Hakea, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li>Hallstadt Beds, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Halysites catenularius</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Hamites</i>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li>Hannibal&#8217;s Elephants, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+<li>Harkness, Prof., on Glacial Deposits, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+<li>Harlech Sandstones, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li>Hastings Sands, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li>Hawaii, Volcanoes of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Head of Cave-bear</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span><i>of Cave-hy&aelig;na</i>, <a href="#Page_398">399</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span><i>of Mosasaurus Camperi</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span><i>of Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+<li>Headon Beds, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Hemicosmites pyriformis</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li>Hennessey, on the Earth&#8217;s Crust, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li>Hepaticas, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Herbaceous ferns</i>, <a href="#Page_130">131</a>.</li>
+<li>Herbivora, Eocene, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+<li>Heterocercal, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Hippopotamus, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>Hippurites, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+<li>Holl, Dr., on Malvern Rocks, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Holoptychius, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Homo diluvii testis, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+<li>Homocercal, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Hopkins, Evan, on Earth&#8217;s Antiquity, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> on Terrestrial Magnetism, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span> W., Theory of Central Heat, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl2 padr1">&#8222;</span> on the Earth&#8217;s Crust, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Horse, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+<li>Horse-tails, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li>Hot Springs, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Hughes, T. McK., Discovery of Glutton by, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+<li>Hull, Prof., on Trias, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> on Glacial Deposits, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+<li>Human Jaw, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Period, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+<li>Hunt, Rob., Electric Experiments of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Prof. Sterry, on Formation of Crystalline Schists, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Hutton&#8217;s Theory of the Earth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li>Hy&aelig;na Spel&aelig;a, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>head of</i>, <a href="#Page_398">399</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+<li>Hy&aelig;nodon, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
+<li>Hybodus, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li>Hyera, Island of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Hyl&aelig;osaurus, Lizard of the Woods, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>Hymenoptera, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Iceland, Geysers of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Lava Streams in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Volcanoes of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li>Ichthyodorulites, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li>Ichthyosaurus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span>Coprolites of<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[509]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Ichthyosaurus communis</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>platydon</i>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li>Igneous Rocks, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Iguana, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+<li>Iguanodon, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> Mantelli, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Teeth of</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Ill&aelig;nus Barriensis</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li>Incandescence of the Globe, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span>of the Sun, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Traditions of the Father of the Ox, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li>Inferior Oolite, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Infra-Lias, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Injected Veins of Granite</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Insects, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of Coal-measures, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of Oolites, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Iron Age, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr1">&#8222;</span> Ore in Coal-measures, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr1">&#8222;</span><span class="padl2 padr1">&#8222;</span>in Orgonian Beds, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Ischadites K&#339;nigii</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Islands, Sudden Appearance of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Isle of Bones, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>L&auml;chow, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Portland, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Purbeck, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Wight Alligator, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Jamieson, T. F., on Glenroy, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
+<li>Jarrow Colliery, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+<li>Java, Volcanic Mountains of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>Valley of Poison, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Jaw and Tooth of Megalosaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span><i>of Phascolotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span><i>of Thylacotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Jet, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+<li>Juglandites elegans, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>Jukes, J. B., on Devonian and Old Red Sandstone, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Jura Mountains, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li>Jurassic Limestone, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Distribution of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Reptiles of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Plants of the, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Series, Distinguishing Features of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Kangaroo, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Kea, Mauna, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Kellaways Rock, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+<li>Kent&#8217;s Hole, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+<li>Kentish Rag, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li>Keuper, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Rock Salt in, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li>Kilauea, Volcano of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Eruption of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Crater of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>Kimeridge Clay, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>King, Prof., on Permian System, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Kirkdale Cave, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+<li>Kj&ouml;kken-M&ouml;dden, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
+<li>Koessen Beds, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li>Kupfer Schiefer, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Labradorite, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Labyrinthodon, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>pachygnathus</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Labyrinthodon restored</i>, <a href="#Page_190">193</a>.</li>
+<li>La Coupe d&#8217;Ayzac, Crater of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+<li>Lacunosus laciniatus, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Lacustrine Habitations, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+<li>Ladies&#8217; Fingers, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+<li>Lake Dwellings, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+<li>Lamellibranchs, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Landscape Stone, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li>Land-turtles, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Laplace&#8217;s Theory of the Earth, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>Lasmocyathus, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Laurentian Formation in Britain, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Gneiss, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Lava Formations, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>Streams of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>Lecoq, on Triassic Vegetation, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Keuper Flora, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Cretaceous Flora, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Tertiary Flora, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Flora of Miocene Period, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>the Vegetation of Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+<li>Leibnitz&#8217; Fossil Unicorn, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+<li>Lepidodendra, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Lepidodendron carinatum, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>elegans</i>, <a href="#Page_141">140</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>Sternbergii</i>, <a href="#Page_138">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>Sternbergii restored</i>, <a href="#Page_140">142</a>.</li>
+<li>Lepidoptera, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lepidostrobus variabilis</i>, <a href="#Page_141">140</a>.</li>
+<li>Lepidotus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> gigas, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li>Lept&aelig;na Murchisoni, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Le Puy, Chain of</i>, <a href="#Page_52">51</a>.</li>
+<li>Lias, The<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[510]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+<li>Lower, Upper, and Middle, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Liassic Period, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Fauna, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Flora, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li>Libellula, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li>Licorn Fossil, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+<li>Life, First Appearance of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span>Abundance of, in Upper Silurian Times, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Lignite, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li>Lima gigantea, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> striata, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> proboseilea, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Limestone, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>of La Beauce, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>of Solenhofen, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Metamorphism of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Limn&aelig;a, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li>Lingula, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Credneri, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Flags, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Lions with Curly Manes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Lipari Isles, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Lithographic Limestone of Solenhofen, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lithostrotion</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>basaltiforme</i>, <a href="#Page_143">145</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lituites cornu-arietis</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li>Lizard of the Meuse, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>Llanberis Slates, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li>Llandeilo Flags, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+<li>Llandovery Rocks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Loa, Mauna, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Locarno, Fissures of</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li>Logan, Sir W., on Laurentian Gneiss of Canada, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Logan, Sir W., on Underclay of Coal Measures, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Lomatophloyos crassicaule, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lonchopteris Bricii</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">144</a>.</li>
+<li>London Clay, Flora of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li>Longmynd Hills, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lonsdalea floriformis</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Lophiodon, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li>Lower Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Keuper Sandstone, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Neocomian, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Lias, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Silurian Rocks, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Oolite Fauna, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Oolite Rocks, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Greensand, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li>Lucerne, The Giant of, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+<li>Ludlow Bone-beds, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Rocks, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lupea pelagica</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li>Lycopodiace&aelig;, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Lycopods, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+<li>Lyell, Sir Charles, on Formation of Granite, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>Lyell, Sir Charles, on the Upper Cretaceous Flora, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>Lyme Regis, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Machairodus, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span><i>Tooth of</i>, <a href="#Page_379">380</a>.</li>
+<li>Macrorhynchus, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li>Madrepores, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Maestricht Quarries, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Animal of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Beds, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>Magnesian Limestone, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li>Magnetism, Terrestrial, Evan Hopkins on, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Malvern Hills, Dr. Holl on, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Mammals, First Appearance of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>of Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+<li>Mammaliferous Crag, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Mammiferous Didelph&aelig;, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Mammoth, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> of Ohio, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> of the Unstrut, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Origin of Name, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Siberian Accounts of, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>-<a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>restored</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>Skeleton of the</i>, <a href="#Page_382">383</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Teeth and Tusks of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Tooth of the, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+<li>Man and Animals Compared, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> First Appearance of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> Antiquity of, considered, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> Age of St. Acheul Beds, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> Morlot&#8217;s Calculation, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
+<li>Mantell&#8217;s, Dr., Discoveries, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>Marble, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Carrara, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Cipoline, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>of France, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Marbre de Flandres and M. de petit Granit, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>Mare&#8217;s-tail, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+<li>Marl<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[511]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li>Marl-slate, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Marlstone of the Lias, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Marsupial Mammals, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li>Martins, C., on Glaciers, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+<li>Mastodon, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> its Discovery, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Opinions of Naturalists, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Difference from Mammoth, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Molar Tooth of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Arvernensis, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> angustidens, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>restored</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>Skeleton of</i>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>Skeleton of the Turin</i>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>Teeth of</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+<li>Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Mazuyer&#8217;s Pretended Discovery, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Meandrina D&aelig;dal&aelig;a</i>, <a href="#Page_252">251</a>.</li>
+<li>Mechanical Theory of the Earth, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Megaceros Hibernicus, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+<li>Megalonyx, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+<li>Megalosaurus, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Jaw of</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Tooth of</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_379">380</a>.</li>
+<li>Megalichthys, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Megatherium, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span><i>Pelvis of</i>, <a href="#Page_408">407</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span><i>Restored</i>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span><i>Skeleton of</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>foreshortened</i>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+<li>Megatheroid Animals, Habits of, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+<li>Mendip Hills, Denudation of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Mesopithecus, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span><i>restored</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span><i>Skeleton of</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Metallic veins</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Metamorphic Rocks, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li>Metamorphism, Special and General, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Action of, on Limestone, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> of Combustible Materials, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> of Argillaceous Beds, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Cause of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Meudon Chalk under Microscope</i>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+<li>Mexican Deluge, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
+<li>Mezen, Le, Peak of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Mica, Composition of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Mica-schist, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
+<li>Microdon, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Microlestes, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>Discovery of teeth of by Mr. C. Moore, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li>Middle Lias, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Oolite, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Miliola, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+<li>Millepora alcicornis, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Miller, Hugh, How he became a Geologist, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> First Lesson in Geology, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Milliolites, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li>Mimosa, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Masses composing the Earth&#8217;s Crust, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Mines, Greatest Depths of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Miocene, Meaning of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li>Miocene Period, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Vegetation, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Fauna, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Volcanoes of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Foraminifera, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Rocks of Greece, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+<li>Moel Tryfaen, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Molar Teeth of Mastodon</i>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+<li>Molasse, or Soft Clay, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Mollusca, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Pliocene, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Eocene, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Miocene, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Crag, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> Gasteropodous, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Monitor Niloticus</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>Monocotyledons, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Montmartre, Gypseous Series of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>Cuvier on Fossils of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Mont Dore, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Moraines, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
+<li>Moro, Lazzaro, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Mortillet on Glaciers, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+<li>Mosaic Account of Creation, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+<li>Mosasaurus, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Camperi</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+<li>Mosses, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li>Moulin-Quignon, Chalk Beds of, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Mount Ararat</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Hecla, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Idienne, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Sion, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+<li>Mountain Limestone<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[512]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Mountains, First Appearance of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> Chains, Formation of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Mud Volcanoes, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> of Italy, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li>Murchison, Sir R. I., Founder of Silurian System, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Murex Turonensis</i>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+<li>Muschelkalk, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li>Mussels, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Mylodon, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>Lower Jaw of</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>restored</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+<li>Mytilus, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Nabenstein, Cavern of, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
+<li>Na&iuml;dace&aelig;, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Nantwich Salt-works, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li>Nasal Horn of Iguanodon, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+<li>Natica, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Nautilus, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+<li>Nebular Theory of the Earth, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Nenuphar, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+<li>Neocomian Beds, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span>of France, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span>Formation, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span>Fauna of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li>Neptunian Rocks, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Theory, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Nereites Cambriensis, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li>Neuroptera, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li>Neuropteris elegans, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>gigantea</i>, <a href="#Page_142">143</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>New Red Marl, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span>Period, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span>Sandstone, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span>Plants of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span>Colour of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span>Fauna of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>New Zealand, Birds of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Newer Pliocene, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Alps, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> of Sicily, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>Nicol, Prof., on Ben Nevis, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Nilssonia, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li>N&ouml;ggerathia, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+<li>Norfolk Forest Bed, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Northern Deluge, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+<li>Norwich Crag, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
+<li>Nothosaurus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li>Nummulites, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li>Nummulitic Formation, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span>Limestone, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Nympheace&aelig;, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Odontaspis, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Odontopteris Brardii</i>, <a href="#Page_142">144</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> Cycades, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>&#338;chmodus Buchii, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li>&#338;ningen Formation, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> Limestone, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Ogygia Guettardi</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Old Red Sandstone, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> Colour of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> Period, Vegetation of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> Fishes of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> Rocks of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> Conglomerate of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Older Pliocene, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Oldhamia, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li>Oldhaven Beds, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li>Olivine, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Oolite, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Solenhofen, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Upper, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Lower, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Middle, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Great, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Conifers of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Rocks, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Oolitic Fauna, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Mollusca, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Echinoderms, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Insects, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Period, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Flora of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Mammals of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Reptiles of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Corals of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Zoophytes of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li>Ophiopsis, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Opossum, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Orgon Limestone, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+<li>Ornithorhynchus, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Orthoceras, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> Disappearance of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>laterale</i>, <a href="#Page_143">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Orthoceratites, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Orthoclase, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+<li>Orthopithecus, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Osmeroides Mantelli</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li>Ossiferous Beds of Sansan, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Breccia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
+<li>Ostrea deltoidea<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[513]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> distorta, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> liassica, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>longirostris</i>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Marshii, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> virgula, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Otopteris acuminata</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>dubia</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>obtusa</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>cuneata</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>Ovid a geologist, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Owen, Prof., on Megatheroid Animals, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>on Plesiosaurus, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li>Ox, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+<li>Oxford Clay, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+<li>Oysters, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Pachyderms, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+<li>Pachypteris microphylla, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;ocoma Furstembergii, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;oniscus, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;ontology, the Study of Ancient Life, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;ontology Defined, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pal&aelig;ophognos Gesneri</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;otherium, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>magnum and P. minimum, Skeletons of</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Skull of</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;oxyris M&uuml;nsteri, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;ozoic Fishes, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Palissy, Bernard, on Fossils, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Pallas on the Siberian Rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> on the Siberian Mammoth, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+<li>Palmacites, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Palms, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> absence of, in Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Tertiary Epoch, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> of Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>Fossil, restored</i>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+<li>Paludina, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li>Pampean Formation, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+<li>Pandanace&aelig;, The, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Pandanus, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Pappenheim, Lithographic Stone of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Paradoxides Bohemicus</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Parallel Roads of Glenroy</i>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
+<li>Parian Marble, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Paris Basin, Sir C. Lyell on, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+<li>Parkfield Colliery, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Patella vulgata</i>, <a href="#Page_204">205</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Peaks of the Cantal Chain</i>, <a href="#Page_39">40</a>.</li>
+<li>Pear Encrinite, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li>Peat-deposits and Shell-mounds, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+<li>Pecopteris, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>lonchitica</i>, <a href="#Page_142">143</a>.</li>
+<li>Pecten, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>Jacob&aelig;us</i>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>orbicularis</i>, <a href="#Page_201">202</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Valoniensis, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Penarth Beds, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Pennine Chain, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pentacrinites Briareus</i>, <a href="#Page_182">183</a>, <a href="#Page_213">214</a>.</li>
+<li>Perched Blocks, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+<li>Permian Flora, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Rocks, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Ocean, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Period, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Fauna and Flora of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Perna Mulleti</i>, <a href="#Page_287">288</a>.</li>
+<li>Phascolotherium, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Philadelphia Museum, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+<li>Phillips, Prof. J., on Rate of Formation of Coal, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li>Phillips, Prof. J., on Thickness of Carboniferous Limestone, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li>Phonolite, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Physa fontinalis</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Phytosaurus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Pic de Sancy, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Pimpinellites zizioides, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+<li>Pinites, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li>Pisolitic Limestone, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+<li>Pithecus antiquus, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+<li>Placodus gigas, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Planorbis, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>corneus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
+<li>Plants, First Appearance of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>of Devonian Period</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>of the Pal&aelig;ozoic Epoch</i>, <a href="#Page_113">114</a>.</li>
+<li>Plastic Clay, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li>Platemys, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Platycrinus, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Platysomus, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Pleistocene Period, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Plesiosaurus, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> Cramptoni, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Sternum of</i>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Skull of</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Skeleton of</i>, <a href="#Page_230">229</a>.</li>
+<li>Pleuronectes<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[514]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pleurotoma Babylonia</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Pleurotomaria conoidea, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Pliocene, Meaning of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Period, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Birds of, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Series, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Vegetation of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Fauna of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Reptiles of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span>Mollusca of, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Plombi&egrave;res, Alkaline Waters of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Plutonic Rocks, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Theory, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Eruptions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Ancient Granite, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Podophthalmus vigil</i>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+<li>P&#339;cilopleuron, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li>Poikilitic Series, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li>Polyphemus, Supposed Bones of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+<li>Polypodium, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Polyps of Carboniferous Period, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Polyzoa, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+<li>Pontgibaud Mines, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Porphyritic Granite, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li>Porphyry, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> Definition of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> Components of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>Portland Isle, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Dirt Bed, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Sand, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Stone, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Posidonia, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Post-pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span>Animals of the, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span>Birds of the, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span>Carnivora of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr5">&#8222;</span>Deposits in Britain, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+<li>Post-Tertiary Epoch, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Potamogeton, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Pravolta, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
+<li>Pre-glacial deposits, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+<li>Preissleria antiqua, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li>Prestwich, J., on Glacial Deposits, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Primary Epoch</span>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Retrospective Glance at, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Vegetation of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Proboscideans of Crag, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Producta, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>horrida</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Producta Martini</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_204">205</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> subaculeata, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Protogine, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Protopteris, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>Psammodus, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li>Psaronius, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Psilophyton</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Pteraspis, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pterichthys</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Pteroceras, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Pterodactyles, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>brevirostris</i>, <a href="#Page_236">235</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>crassirostris</i>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+<li>Pterophyllum, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> J&auml;geri, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span> M&uuml;nsteri, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li>Pterygotus, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>bilobatus</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li>Ptylopora, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Purbeck Beds, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Marble, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Isle of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li>Puy-de-D&ocirc;me, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Puy-de-D&ocirc;me, Extinct Volcanoes of</i>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>.</li>
+<li>Puys, Chain of, in Central France, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li>Pycnodus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Pygopterus, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Quadersandstein, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Quaternary Epoch</span>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Animals of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+<li>Quartz, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Quartziferous Porphyry, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li>Quartzite, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Rain, First Fall of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Raindrops, Impressions of, in Rocks</i>, <a href="#Page_13">14</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Raised Beaches, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Ramphorynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_256">255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Ramsay, A. C., on the Lower Oolite, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span>on Formation of Keuper Marls, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span>on Colour of Red Rocks, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span>on Denudation, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span>on Formation of Granite, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span>on Glacial Deposits, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+<li>Reading Beds, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li>Recent or Historical Period, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Re-construction of Fossil Animals from a Part<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[515]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li> <span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> Difficulties Attendant on, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+<li>Red Crag, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Reindeer, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Relative Volume of the Earth</i>, <a href="#Page_82">83</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Remains of Plesiosaurus macrocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_230">229</a>.</li>
+<li>Reptiles, Prevalence of during Secondary Epoch, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>during Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>during the Pliocene Period, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+<li>Rh&aelig;tic Strata, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+<li>Rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> Discovery of, Entire, in Siberia, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>Head of</i>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> tichorhinus, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+<li>Rhombus minimus, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Rhyncholites</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Rio Chapura, Humidity of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+<li>Ripple-marks, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> on Sandstone, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>River, Great, of Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>Roc, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+<li>Roches moutonn&eacute;es, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
+<li>Rock, in Geology, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Rocks composing the Earth&#8217;s Crust, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>formed during the Carboniferous Limestone Period, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Crystalline, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Rock Salt, its Origin, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Quantity produced in England, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+<li>Rocking Stones, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosso Antico, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>Rostellaria, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Rothliegende, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Rudistes, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Runn of Cutch, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Sables Inf&eacute;rieurs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span>Moyens, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li>Saccharoid Limestone, Minerals of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Acheul Gravel Beds, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Acheul Gravel Beds, probable Age of, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Austell, Granite of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Cassian Beds, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Christopher&#8217;s Tooth, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+<li>Salamander of &#338;ningen, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+<li>Salicites, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>Saliferous or Keuper Period, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> Fauna of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Saline Springs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Salses, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+<li>Salt Mines, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li>Sandwich Islands, Volcanoes of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Sargassites, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>Sargassum, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>Saurians, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span>of Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span>of Lias, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+<li>Savoy Alps, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+<li>Scandinavian Continent, Upheaval and Depression of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Scaphites, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+<li>Scelidotherium, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span><i>Skull of</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Scheuchzer&#8217;s Salamander</i>, <a href="#Page_368">367</a>.</li>
+<li>Schist, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+<li>Schistopleuron typus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span> <i>restored</i>, <a href="#Page_401">402</a>.</li>
+<li>Schizaster, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Scori&aelig;, Volcanic, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>Sea-Pen, Virgularia Patagonia, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li>Sea Urchins, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Secondary Epoch</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Section of a Volcano in Action</i>, <a href="#Page_53">52</a>.</li>
+<li>Sectional Appearance of the Earth, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+<li>Sedgwick, Prof. A., on Cambrian Rocks, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2">&nbsp;</span><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span><span class="padl1">&nbsp;</span>on Granite of Devon and Cornwall, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2">&nbsp;</span><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span><span class="padl1">&nbsp;</span>on Classification of Rocks, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li>Sedimentary Rocks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Senonian Beds, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+<li>Septaria, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li>Serpentine, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Serpents of Tertiary Epoch, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>Serpul&aelig;, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li>Shell Mounds, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
+<li>Shells, Marine, on Tops of Mountains, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Sheppey, Isle of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span><span class="padl1 padr2">&#8222;</span> Turtles of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li>Siberia, Fossil Elephants in, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+<li>Sigillaria, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>lavigata</i>, <a href="#Page_137">138</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>reniformis</i><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[516]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_156">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Silex meulier, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+<li>Siliceous Limestone, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li>Silurian Period, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Divisions of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Characteristics of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Fauna and Flora of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Fishes of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Mollusca of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><i>Plants</i> of, <a href="#Page_104">103</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>System, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li>Sivatherium, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>restored</i>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+<li>Skapt&aacute;r Jokul, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>of Plesiosaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Skull of Plesiosaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><i>Pal&aelig;otherium magnum</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><i>Scelidotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+<li>Skye, Basalt of Isle of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li>Smith, Dr. W., Labours of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+<li>Smilax, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li>Solenhofen, Limestone of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li>Solfataras, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li>Somma, Mount, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Somme, River, Valley of, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Peat-Beds of the, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+<li>South America, Depression and Upheaval of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+<li>Spalacotherium, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li>Sphenophyllum, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>restored</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Sphenophyllites, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li>Sphenopteris, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr6">&#8222;</span><i>artemisi&aelig;folia</i>, <a href="#Page_142">144</a>.</li>
+<li>Spirifera, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> concentrica, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> undulata, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Sph&#339;rodus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Staffa, Grotto of</i>, <a href="#Page_49">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Stag, gigantic Forest, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>Stalactite, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+<li>Stalagmite, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+<li>Stellispongia variabilis, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li>Stenosaurus, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Sternum and Pelvis of Plesiosaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li>Stigmaria, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Stigmaria</i>, <a href="#Page_137">138</a>.</li>
+<li>Stone Age, The, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
+<li>Stone Lilies, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Stonesfield Slate, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Strata, Disposition of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+<li>Stratification, Order of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> <i>of Coal Beds</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Strephodus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Streptospondylus, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li>Stringocephalus Burtini, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Stromboli, Volcanic Island of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Strophalosia Morrisiana</i>, <a href="#Page_175">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Struthionid&aelig;, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Submarine Volcanoes, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Sub-Apennine Strata, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
+<li>Suffolk Crag, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphurous Streams from Mount Idienne, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Sun-cracks, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Syenite, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>T&aelig;niopteris, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Taxoceras, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+<li>Taxodites, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>M&uuml;nsterianus, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li>Teeth of Mammoth, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Teeth of Iguanodon</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><i>Mastodon</i>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><i>Megalosaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_379">380</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span><i>Machairodus</i>, <a href="#Page_379">380</a>.</li>
+<li>Teleosaurus, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>cadomensis, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li>Temperature of the Earth, Increase of as we descend, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>at Various Depths, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>of Deep Mines, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>at the Centre, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> of Planetary Regions, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> uniform, in Carboniferous Period, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> Gradual Alteration of, during Tertiary Period, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span> of Cretaceous Period, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Terebellaria ramosissima</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Terebratula digona</i>, <a href="#Page_245">246</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> decussata, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> hastata, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>deformis</i>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>subsella</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Terebrirostra lyra</i>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>Terrestrial Plants of Devonian Period<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[517]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li>Tertiary Period, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Vegetation of, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Animals of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li>Tetragonolepis, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li>Teutobocchus Rex, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+<li>Thallogens, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Thanet Beds, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Theoretical View of a Plateau</i>, <a href="#Page_46">47</a>.</li>
+<li>Theories of the Earth, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Theory, Hutton&#8217;s, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Laplace&#8217;s, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li>Thermal Springs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Thickness of the Earth&#8217;s Crust, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li>Thomson, Sir William, on the Earth&#8217;s Crust, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Thylacotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Tidal Wave, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Tile Stones, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>Till Formation, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+<li>Tortoises, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+<li>Toxoceras, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+<li>Toxodon, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
+<li>Trachyte, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Trachytic Formations, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Trail, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
+<li>Transition, or Primary Epoch, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Transported Blocks</i>, <a href="#Page_448">449</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl5 padr5">&#8222;</span>Rocks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Trapa natans, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Trappean Grotto, Staffa</i>, <a href="#Page_49">47</a>.</li>
+<li>Travertin, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li>Tree Ferns, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Tremadoc Slates, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Treuil, Coal Mine at</i>, <a href="#Page_159">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Triassic Period, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span>Flora, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li>Trigonia, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>margaritacea</i>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Trigonocarpum N&ouml;ggerathii</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+<li>Trilobites, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Trimmer, Joshua, on Moel Tryfaen, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Trinucleus Lloydii</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Trionyx of Tertiary Period</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Trionyx, a Turtle, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+<li>Tropical Vegetation, D&#8217;Orbigny on, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Trunk of Calamites</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr4">&#8222;</span><i>Sigillaria</i>, <a href="#Page_137">136</a>.</li>
+<li>Tunbridge Wells Sand, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Turbaco, Mud Volcanoes of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li>Turonian Series, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+<li>Turrilites, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>communis</i>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>costatus</i>, <a href="#Page_290">289</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Turritella terebra</i>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+<li>Turtle, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+<li>Tyndall&#8217;s, Professor, Theory of Heat, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Uncites Gryphus, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Under Clay, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Unicornu Fossile, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+<li>Unio, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Upper Cretaceous, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>-<a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Greensand, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Oolite, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Lias, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Lias Clay, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr2">&#8222;</span> Silurian Period, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>Ursus spel&aelig;us, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl6 padr6">&#8222;</span> <i>Head of</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Vale of Wardour, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Valley of Poison, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Vallisneri on Marine Deposits of Italy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Variegated Sandstone, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Veins of Granite traversing Gneiss of Cape Wrath</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Velay, Chain of the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Vertebrata, First Appearance of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Vespertilio Parisiensis, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Vesuvius, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>Existing Crater of</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>Virgularia, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li>Vivarais, Valley of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+<li>Volcanic Bombs, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Ashes, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Scori&aelig;, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Eruptions, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Formations, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Islands, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Rocks, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Volcano in Action</i>, <a href="#Page_53">52</a>.</li>
+<li>Volcanoes, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Action of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Active, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Mud, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Extinct, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Sandwich Islands, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span>Watery<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[518]</a></span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>Voltaire and Buffon, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Voltzia heterophylla, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Voltzia restored</i>, <a href="#Page_194">195</a>.</li>
+<li>Vosges Mountains, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr2">&#8222;</span><span class="padl5 padr4">&#8222;</span> Submergence of in Permian Period, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Wadhurst Clay, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Walchia, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> <i>Schlotheimii</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Warp, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
+<li>Water, First Cradle of Life, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+<li>Waterstones, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Watery Volcanoes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>Weald Clay, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+<li>Wealden Beds, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl3 padr3">&#8222;</span> Shells, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Wenlock Rocks, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>Whale of the Rue Dauphine, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>White Chalk, Berthier&#8217;s Analysis, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+<li>White Lias, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li>Wild Man of Aveyron, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+<li>Williamsonia, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li>Wood, Searles V., Junr., on Glacial Deposits, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
+<li>Wookey Hole, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+<li>Woolwich and Reading Beds, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li>Wright, Dr. Thos., on Penarth Beds, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Xiphodon, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> <i>gracile</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Ysbrants Ides&#8217; Account of Discovery of Frozen Mammoth, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+<li>Yuccites, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Zamia, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl2 padr3">&#8222;</span> Moreana, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Zamites, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li>Zechstein, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Zeolites, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Ziphius, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Zones of different density round the incandescent Earth, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+<li>Zoophytes of Lias, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> Middle Oolite, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li><span class="padl4 padr4">&#8222;</span> of Carboniferous Period, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Zostera</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center fsize125" style="margin: 2em auto;">THE END.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="center fsize80">CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, LONDON, E.C.<br />
+773</p>
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div class="adverts">
+
+<p class="center fsize125">MESSRS. CASSELL, PETTER, &amp; GALPIN</p>
+
+<p>Publish, uniform with &#8220;The World before the Deluge,&#8221;<i>New and Cheaper
+Editions</i> of the following Works, containing all the Original
+Illustrations, with the Text revised and corrected:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="adv"><span class="booktitle"><i>The Insect World.</i>&mdash;</span>A Popular Account of the Orders of Insects.
+By <span class="smcap">Louis Figuier</span>. Revised and Corrected by <span class="smcap">P. Martin Duncan</span>,
+M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in King&#8217;s College, London.
+With 576 Illustrations<span class="padl6">&nbsp;</span></p>
+
+<p class="price">7s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="adv"><span class="booktitle"><i>The Vegetable World.</i>&mdash;</span>A History of Plants, with their
+Botanical Descriptions and Peculiar Properties. With a Glossary
+of Botanical Terms. By <span class="smcap">Louis Figuier</span>. Revised and Corrected by
+an eminent Botanist. With 470 Illustrations<span class="padl6">&nbsp;</span></p>
+
+<p class="price">7s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="adv"><span class="booktitle"><i>The Ocean World.</i>&mdash;</span>A Descriptive History of the Sea and
+its Inhabitants. By <span class="smcap">Louis Figuier</span>. Revised and Corrected by
+Professor <span class="smcap">E. Perceval Wright</span>, M.D. With 427
+Illustrations<span class="padl6">&nbsp;</span></p>
+
+<p class="price">7s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="adv"><span class="booktitle"><i>Reptiles and Birds.</i>&mdash;</span>By <span class="smcap">Louis Figuier</span>. Newly Edited and
+Revised by <span class="smcap">Parker Gillmore</span>, Author of &#8220;Gun, Rod, and Saddle,&#8221;
+&amp;c. With 307 Illustrations. 664 pp.<span class="padl6">&nbsp;</span></p>
+
+<p class="price">7s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="fsize80">&#8220;Admirable works of popularised science.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Daily Telegraph.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p class="center">CASSELL, PETTER, &amp; GALPIN,</p>
+
+<p class="center gesp">LONDON, PARIS, AND NEW YORK.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<table class="coll fsize80" cellspacing="10" cellpadding="10" summary="Advertisements 2">
+
+<tr class="fsize125">
+<td class="bb br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bb" style="width: 2em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bb" style="width: 2em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="fsize125">
+<td rowspan="24" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="24">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center gesp">The New and Cheaper Edition of</td>
+<td rowspan="24">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="24" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="fsize125">
+<td class="center sstype fsize125"><b><span class="smcap">Figuier&#8217;s Works</span>,</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="fsize125">
+<td class="center">Containing all the Original Illustrations, with the Text Revised and Corrected,
+extra crown 8vo, cloth lettered, price <b>7s. 6d.</b> each, comprise</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>The World before the Deluge.</i></span> Newly Edited and
+Revised by <span class="smcap">H. W. Bristow</span>, F.R.S. With 235 Illustrations. <i>Third Edition.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>The Ocean World.</i></span> A Descriptive History of the Sea
+and its Inhabitants. Revised and Corrected by Professor <span class="smcap">E. Perceval
+Wright</span>, M.D. With 427 Illustrations. <i>Third Edition.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>The Vegetable World.</i></span> Revised and Corrected by an
+<span class="smcap">Eminent Botanist</span>. With 471 Illustrations. <i>Third Edition.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>The Insect World.</i></span> Revised and Corrected by <span class="smcap">P.
+Martin Duncan</span>, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in King&#8217;s College,
+London. With 576 Illustrations. <i>Third Edition.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>Reptiles and Birds.</i></span> Revised and Corrected by
+Captain <span class="smcap">Parker Gillmore</span>. With 307 Illustrations. <i>Second Edition.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="btd">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="fsize125">
+<td class="center sstype"><b>POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY WORKS.</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><hr class="c05" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center"><span class="smcap">Second Edition</span> now ready, price 16s.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>The Transformations of Insects.</i></span> By <span class="smcap">P. Martin
+Duncan</span>, F.R.S., M.D., Professor of Geology, King&#8217;s College, London.
+With 240 highly-finished Engravings. Royal 8vo, 500 pp., handsomely
+bound in cloth gilt.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">Now ready, complete in Four Vols., cloth. 7s. 6d.; cloth, gilt edges, 10s. 6d. each;
+or Two Vols., half-calf, &pound;2 2s.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>Cassell&#8217;s Brehm&#8217;s Book of Birds.</i></span> Translated from
+the Text of Dr. <span class="smcap">Brehm</span> by Professor <span class="smcap">T. Rymer Jones</span>, F.R.S. With
+upwards of 400 Engravings on Wood, and numerous full-page Plates,
+printed in Colours, from Original Designs by <span class="smcap">F. W. Keyl</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center"><span class="smcap">Second Edition</span>, 256 pages, crown 8vo, cloth, price 5s.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>The Dog</i>:</span> with Simple Directions for his Treatment, and
+Notices of the Best Dogs of the Day, their Breeders and Exhibitors. By
+&#8220;IDSTONE.&#8221; With 12 full-page Portraits of Famous Dogs, Drawn from
+Life by <span class="smcap">George Earl</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">Complete in Two Vols., crown 4to, 1,532 pp., cloth, 30s.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>Cassell&#8217;s Popular Natural History.</i></span> Profusely Illustrated
+with about <b>2,000</b> splendid Engravings and Tinted Plates. Can also
+be had in Two Volumes, half-calf, 45s.; half-morocco, 50s.; also, with
+Coloured Illustrations, in Four Volumes, cloth, 42s.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">Complete in One Volume, 600 pages, demy 4to, 31s. 6d.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tabadv tabadv1"><span class="booktitle"><i>The Illustrated Book of Poultry.</i></span> By <span class="smcap">L. Wright</span>,
+Author of &#8220;The Practical Poultry-Keeper,&#8221; &amp;c. With <span class="smcap">Fifty Full-page
+Coloured Plates</span> of Celebrated Prize Birds of Every Breed, recently
+Painted from Life expressly for this Work, and with numerous Woodcuts.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><hr class="c25" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="fsize125">
+<td class="center">CASSELL, PETTER, &amp; GALPIN, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="fsize125">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="br bt">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div class="tnbox" style="margin: 2em 10%; padding: 2em;"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>
+
+<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</h2>
+
+<p>The original text has been maintained, including inconsistencies
+in spelling, hyphenation, lay-out, formatting, etc. and in the use
+of capitals, diacriticals and accents, except as described below
+under Changes Made. Important inconsistencies include: Saarbruck/Saarbr&uuml;ck, Coalbrookdale/Coalbrook Dale,
+Roth-liegende/Rothliegende/R&ouml;the-liegende, Westmorland/Westmoreland, blow-pipe/blowpipe, cuttle-fish/cuttlefish, frame-work/framework,
+fresh-water/freshwater, Kupfer-schiefer/Kupferschiefer,
+rain-drops/raindrops, re-construct/reconstruct (and related
+words), Roth-todt-liegende/Rothe-todte-liegende, sub-divide/subdivide (and related words), tile-stones/tilestones, under-clay/underclay,
+water-stones/waterstones, a&euml;rial/aerial, Baikal/Ba&iuml;kal,
+Ceteosaurus/Cetiosaurus, Colley Weston/Colleyweston, Cupanioides/Cupanio&iuml;des, Hoffman/Hoffmann (this is apparently the same person,
+it is not clear what the correct spelling should be); Kj&ouml;kken-M&ouml;dden/Kj&ouml;kken
+M&ouml;dden/Kj&ouml;kken-m&ouml;dden, M&aelig;stricht/Maestricht,
+N&eacute;ocomian/Neocomian, predaceous/predacious, proboscideans/proboscidians, and Tunguragua/Tunguraqua.</p>
+
+<p>There are slight differences in wording between the Table of
+Contents, the Index and the text. Since the meaning is not
+affected, this has not been standardised.</p>
+
+<p>Depending on the software used and its settings, some symbols may not
+display properly, or not at all.</p>
+
+<h3>Textual remarks:</h3>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li>Page 109 (table): <i>12,060</i> should possibly be <i>12,000</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 196 (table): <i>Red and variegated sandstone (Collyhurst)</i> ...:
+there is a line missing in the original work that is not present
+in other editions either. This line has been replaced by [...];</li>
+
+<li>Page 212: <i>The Lias, in England, is generally in three groups</i>:
+possibly there is a word (divided or similar) missing;</li>
+
+<li>Page 301: <i>The invertebrate animals which characterise the
+Cretaceous age are among</i>: possibly there is a word missing at
+the end of the sentence (others);</li>
+
+<li>Page 339: <i>not one-fifth the size of Switzerland</i> should possibly
+be <i>not one-fifth the size of Great Britain</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Index: contrary to the remark at the top of the index, not all
+italic entries refer to illustrations.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>Changes made to original text:</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Multi-page tables have been combined into single tables.</li>
+
+<li>Footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter.</li>
+
+<li>Some obvious typographical errors (including punctuation) have
+been corrected silently.</li>
+
+<li>Table of Contents: entries Eruptive Rocks and The Beginning have
+been indented one level less as in the text; entry Metamorphic
+Rocks has been indented one level less, in line with the other
+headings printed in small capitals.</li>
+
+<li>Page 11: <i>Ancylyceras</i> changed to <i>Ancyloceras</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 34: <i>has disappeared</i> changed to <i>have disappeared</i>; <i>Strasburg</i>
+changed to <i>Strasbourg</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 36: <i>Cevennes</i> changed to <i>C&eacute;vennes</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 37: <i>bigarr&egrave;</i> changed to <i>bigarr&eacute;</i>; <i>gres</i> changed to <i>gr&egrave;s</i> as elsewhere; <i>porpyhries</i> changed to <i>porphyries</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 57: <i>diameter)</i> changed to <i>diameter</i> (bracket removed);</li>
+
+<li>Page 152: <i>on page 155</i> changed to <i>on page 157</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 167: <i>Li&eacute;ge</i> changed to <i>Li&egrave;ge</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 184: <i>Cevennes</i> changed to <i>C&eacute;vennes</i> as elsewhere; <i>Rhone</i> changed to <i>Rh&ocirc;ne</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 194: <i>Nilsonia</i> changed to <i>Nilssonia</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 206: <i>Cevennes</i> changed to <i>C&eacute;vennes</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 213: <i>Pentatrinus</i> changed to <i>Pentacrinus</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 225: <i>Ichythyosaurus</i> changed to <i>Ichthyosaurus</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 239: <i>Nilsonia</i> changed to <i>Nilssonia</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 240: <i>Nilsonia</i> changed to <i>Nilssonia</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 247, caption fig 115: <i>Polyzoa.</i> changed to <i>Polyzoa.)</i> (bracket added);</li>
+
+<li>Page 248: <i>O. cuneatea</i> changed to <i>O. cuneata</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 250: first footnote anchor missing, inserted in most likely place;</li>
+
+<li>Page 269: <i>Gryphea</i> changed to <i>Gryph&aelig;a</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 305: <i>represented in Fig. 146</i> changed to <i>represented in Fig. 145</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 316: <i>Nymph&aelig;ea</i> changed to <i>Nymph&aelig;a</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 319: <i>&#960;&#963;&#967;&#965;&#962;</i> changed to <i>&#960;&#945;&#967;&#965;&#962;</i>; <i>inf&eacute;ri&egrave;ure</i>/<i>inf&eacute;ri&egrave;urs</i> changed to <i>inf&eacute;rieure</i>/<i>inf&eacute;rieurs</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 329: <i>Nymph&aelig;eas</i> changed to <i>Nymph&aelig;as</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 338: <i>&mdash;astodon</i> changed to <i>Mastodon</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 341: <i>Fig. 161</i> changed to <i>Fig. 160</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 348: <i>Rhone</i> changed to <i>Rh&ocirc;ne</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 401: <i>chaneled</i> changed to <i>channelled</i> as elsewhere; <i>Fig 186</i> changed to <i>Fig. 185</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 413: <i>antedulivian</i> changed to <i>antediluvian</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 429: <i>Bauman's</i> changed to <i>Baumann's</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 430: <i>Gailenruth</i> changed to <i>Gailenreuth</i> as elsehwere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 452: <i>Varese</i> changed to <i>Var&egrave;se</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 462: <i>Upsal</i> changed to <i>Upsala</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 470, footnote 117: <i>Epoques</i> changed to <i>&Eacute;poques</i> as elsewhere;</li>
+
+<li>Page 479: <i>Tini&ecirc;re</i> changed to <i>Tini&egrave;re</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 502: <i>Archeopterix</i> changed to <i>Archeopteryx</i> as in text; <i>Bathonean</i> changed to <i>Bathonian</i> as in text; <i>cervicornus</i> changed to <i>cervicornis</i> as in text;</li>
+
+<li>Page 503: second entry <i>Carboniferous Flora</i> aligned with <i>Flora</i>, ditto marks added;</li>
+
+<li>Page 504: ditto mark added under <i>Man</i> in <i>Creation of Man</i> for clarity; Cerithium plicatum <i>250</i> changed to <i>350</i>; Coccosteus <i>141</i> changed to <i>142</i>; Coupe d'Ayzac <i>45, 47</i> changed to <i>46, 47</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 505: <i>Danien</i> changed to <i>Danian</i> as in text; <i>Duvalii</i> changed to <i>Duvallii</i> as in text (the modern spelling is <i>Duvalii</i>, Lyell used <i>Duvallii</i>);</li>
+
+<li>Page 508: <i>tichorhynus</i> changed to <i>tichorhinus</i> as in text;</li>
+
+<li>Page 509: <i>Igneous</i>, <i>Iguana</i> and <i>Iguanodon</i> moved to proper place in alphabetical order; <i>Kellaway&#8217;s</i> changed to Kellaways as in text; <i>Lachow</i> changed to <i>L&auml;chow</i> as in text; <i>lacumosus</i> changed to <i>lacunosus</i> as in text; <i>Lept&#339;na</i> changed to <i>Lept&aelig;na</i> as in text;</li>
+
+<li>Page 510: <i>Limnea</i> changed to <i>Limn&aelig;a</i> as in text; <i>Lithostrotion cornu-arietis</i> changed to <i>Lituites cornu-arietis</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 511: page numbers added after <i>Mortillet on Glaciers</i> and <i>Mosaic Account of Creation</i>; page reference <i>737</i> changed to <i>73</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 512: <i>Osmero&iuml;des</i> changed to <i>Osmeroides</i> as in text;</li>
+
+<li>Page 513: <i>Pecopteris</i>, page numbers placed in numerical order; <i>Fustembergii</i> changed to <i>Furstembergii</i> as in text; second reference to <i>Otopteris acuminata</i> removed; <i>Pecten obicularis</i> changed to <i>Pecten orbicularis</i> as in text;</li>
+
+<li>Page 514: <i>Podophtalmus</i> changed to <i>Podophthalmus</i> as in text; Purbeck Beds: <i>27</i> changed to <i>279</i>;</li>
+
+<li>Page 515: <i>Reptiles, Prevalence of</i>: two entries combined into one; <i>St. Cassian Beds</i> moved to proper alphabetical order; tichorhynus changed to tichorhinus as in text; entries on Sheppey Isle moved to proper alphabetical order;</li>
+
+<li>Page 516: <i>Sph&aelig;rodus</i> changed to <i>Sph&#339;rodus</i> and moved to proper alphabetic place; <i>Sun-Appenine</i> changed to <i>Sub-Apennine</i>; <i>Terebellaria</i> moved to proper place in alphabetical order.</li>
+
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The World Before the Deluge, by Louis Figuier
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #39723 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39723)