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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/39721-8.txt b/39721-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ec9cb0d --- /dev/null +++ b/39721-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8149 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Popular Technology, Vol. I (of 2), by Edward Hazen + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Popular Technology, Vol. I (of 2) + or, Professions and Trades + +Author: Edward Hazen + +Release Date: May 18, 2012 [EBook #39721] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. I (OF 2) *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, JoAnn Greenwood, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + + POPULAR TECHNOLOGY; + + OR, + + PROFESSIONS AND TRADES. + + + [Illustration: The AUTHOR.] + + + BY EDWARD HAZEN, A. M., + + AUTHOR OF + + "THE SYMBOLICAL SPELLING-BOOK," "THE SPELLER AND + DEFINER," AND "A PRACTICAL GRAMMAR." + + EMBELLISHED WITH EIGHTY-ONE ENGRAVINGS. + + IN TWO VOLUMES. + + VOL. I. + + + NEW YORK: + HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. + + + + + Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by + + HARPER & BROTHERS, + + In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York. + + + + +CONTENTS + +OF + +THE FIRST VOLUME. + + + Page + Preface 7 + The Agriculturist 13 + The Horticulturist 28 + The Miller 34 + The Baker 39 + The Confectioner 44 + The Brewer, and the Distiller 47 + The Butcher 55 + The Tobacco Planter, and the Tobacconist 59 + The Manufacturer of Cloth 66 + The Dyer, and the Calico-Printer 77 + The Hatter 84 + The Rope-Maker 91 + The Tailor 96 + The Milliner, and the Lady's Dress-Maker 100 + The Barber 104 + The Tanner, and the Currier 111 + The Shoe and Boot Maker 116 + The Saddler and Harness-Maker, and the Trunk-Maker 121 + The Soap-Boiler, and the Candle-Maker 125 + The Comb-Maker, and the Brush-Maker 134 + The Tavern-Keeper 142 + The Hunter 147 + The Fisherman 154 + The Shipwright 171 + The Mariner 178 + The Merchant 187 + The Auctioneer 204 + The Clergyman 208 + The Attorney at Law 215 + The Physician 221 + The Chemist 229 + The Druggist and Apothecary 236 + The Dentist 240 + The Teacher 249 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The following work has been written for the use of schools and +families, as well as for miscellaneous readers. It embraces a class of +subjects in which every individual is deeply interested, and with +which, as a mere philosophical inspector of the affairs of men, he +should become acquainted. + +They, however, challenge attention by considerations of greater moment +than mere curiosity; for, in the present age, a great proportion of +mankind pursue some kind of business as means of subsistence or +distinction; and in this country especially, such pursuit is deemed +honorable and, in fact, indispensable to a reputable position in the +community. + +Nevertheless, it is a fact that cannot have escaped the attention of +persons of observation, that many individuals mistake their +appropriate calling, and engage in employments for which they have +neither mental nor physical adaptation; some learn a trade who should +have studied a profession; others study a profession who should have +learned a trade. Hence arise, in a great measure, the ill success and +discontent which so frequently attend the pursuits of men. + +For these reasons, parents should be particularly cautious in the +choice of permanent employments for their children; and, in every +case, capacity should be especially regarded, without paying much +attention to the comparative favor in which the several employments +may be held; for a successful prosecution of an humble business is far +more honorable than inferiority or failure in one which may be greatly +esteemed. + +To determine the particular genius of children, parents should give +them, at least, a superficial knowledge of the several trades and +professions. To do this effectually, a systematic course of +instruction should be given, not only at the family fireside and in +the schoolroom, but also at places where practical exhibitions of the +several employments may be seen. These means, together with a +competent literary education, and some tools and other facilities for +mechanical operations, can scarcely fail of furnishing clear +indications of intellectual bias. + +The course just proposed is not only necessary to a judicious choice +of a trade or profession, but also as means of intellectual +improvement; and as such it should be pursued, at all events, even +though the choice of an employment were not in view. + +We are endowed with a nature composed of many faculties both of the +intellectual and the animal kinds, and the reasoning faculties were +originally designed by the Creator to have the ascendency. In the +present moral condition of man, however, they do not commonly maintain +their right of precedence. This failure arises from imbecility, +originating, in part, from a deficiency in judicious cultivation, and +from the superior strength of the passions. + +This condition is particularly conspicuous in youth, and shows itself +in disobedience to parents, and in various other aberrations from +moral duty. If, therefore, parents would have their children act a +reasonable part, while in their minority, and, also, after they have +assumed their stations in manhood, they must pursue a course of early +instruction, calculated to secure the ascendency of the reasoning +faculties. + +The subjects for instruction best adapted to the cultivation of the +young mind are the _common things_ with which we are surrounded. This +is evident from the fact, that it uniformly expands with great +rapidity under their influence during the first three or four years of +life; for, it is from them, children obtain all their ideas, as well +as a knowledge of the language by which they are expressed. + +The rapid progress of young children in the acquisition of knowledge +often excites the surprise of parents of observation, and the fact +that their improvement is almost imperceptible, after they have +attained to the age of four or five years, is equally surprising. +Why, it is often asked, do not children continue to advance in +knowledge with equal and increased rapidity, especially, as their +capabilities increase with age? + +The solution of this question is not difficult. Children continue to +improve, while they have the means of doing so; but, having acquired a +knowledge of the objects within their reach, at least, so far as they +may be capable at the time, their advancement must consequently cease. +It is hardly necessary to remark, that the march of mind might be +continued with increased celerity, were new objects or subjects +continually presented. + +In supplying subjects for mental improvement, as they may be needed at +the several stages of advancement, there can be but little difficulty, +since we are surrounded by works both of nature and of art. In fact, +the same subjects may be presented several times, and, at each +presentation, instructions might be given adapted to the particular +state of improvement in the pupil. + +Instructions of this nature need never interfere injuriously with +those on the elementary branches of education, although the latter +would undoubtedly be considered of minor importance. Had they been +always regarded in this light, our schools would now present a far +more favorable aspect, and we should have been farther removed from +the ignorance and the barbarism of the middle ages. + +Were this view of education generally adopted, teachers would soon +find, that the business of communicating instructions to the young has +been changed from an irksome to a pleasant task, since their pupils +will have become studious and intellectual, and, consequently, more +capable of comprehending explanations upon every subject. Such a +course would also be attended with the incidental advantage of good +conduct on the part of pupils, inasmuch as the elevation of the +understanding over the passions uniformly tends to this result. + +For carrying into practice a system of intellectual education, the +following work supplies as great an amount of materials as can be +embodied in the same compass. Every article may be made the foundation +of one lecture or more, which might have reference not only to the +particular subject on which it treats, but also to the meaning and +application of the words. + +The articles have been concisely written, as must necessarily be the +case in all works embracing so great a variety of subjects. This +particular trait, however, need not be considered objectionable, since +all who may desire to read more extensively on any particular subject, +can easily obtain works which are exclusively devoted to it. + +Prolix descriptions of machinery and of mechanical operations have +been studiously avoided; for it has been presumed, that all who might +have perseverance enough to read such details, would feel curiosity +sufficient to visit the shops and manufactories, and see the machines +and operations themselves. Nevertheless, enough has been said, in all +cases, to give a general idea of the business, and to guide in the +researches of those who may wish to obtain information by the +impressive method of actual inspection. + +A great proportion of the whole work is occupied in recounting +historical facts, connected with the invention and progress of the +arts. The author was induced to pay especial attention to this branch +of history, from the consideration, that it furnishes very clear +indications of the real state of society in past ages, as well as at +the present time, and also that it would supply the reader with data, +by which he might, in some measure, determine the vast capabilities of +man. + +This kind of historical information will be especially beneficial to +the youthful mind, by inducing a habit of investigation and +antiquarian research. In addition to this, a knowledge of the origin +and progress of the various employments which are in active operation +all around, will throw upon the busy world an aspect exceedingly +interesting. + +It may be well, however, to caution the reader against expecting too +much information of this kind, in regard to most of the trades +practised in very ancient times. Many of the most useful inventions +were effected, before any permanent means of record had been devised; +and, in after ages, among the Greeks and Romans, the useful arts were +practised almost exclusively by slaves. The latter circumstance led to +their general neglect by the writers among these distinguished people. + +The information which may be obtained from this work, especially when +accompanied by the inspection of the operations which it describes, +may be daily applied to some useful purpose. It will be particularly +valuable in furnishing subjects for conversation, and in preventing +the mind from continuing in, or from sinking into, a state of +indifference in regard to the busy scenes of this world. + +In the composition of this work, all puerile expressions have been +avoided, not only because they would be offensive to adult individuals +of taste, but because they are at least useless, if not positively +injurious, to younger persons. What parent of reflection would suffer +his children to peruse a book calculated to induce or confirm a manner +of speaking or writing, which he would not have them use after having +arrived to manhood? Every sentence may be rendered perfectly plain by +appropriate explanations and illustrations. + +No formal classification of the professions and trades has been +adopted, although those articles which treat of kindred subjects have +been placed near each other, and in that order which seemed to be the +most natural. The paragraphs of the several articles have been +numbered for the especial accommodation of classes in schools, but +this particular feature of the work need meet with no serious +objection from miscellaneous readers, as it has no other effect, in +reference to its use by them, than to give it the aspect of a +school-book. + +While writing the articles on the different subjects, the author +consulted several works which embraced the arts and sciences +generally, as well as many which were more circumscribed in their +objects. He, however, relied more upon them for historical facts than +for a knowledge of the operations and processes which he had occasion +to detail. For this he depended, as far as practicable, upon his own +personal researches, although in the employment of appropriate +phraseology, he acknowledges his obligations to predecessors. + +With the preceding remarks, the author submits his work to the public, +in the confident expectation, that the subjects which it embraces, +that the care which has been taken in its composition, and that the +skill of the artists employed in its embellishment, will secure to it +an abundant and liberal patronage. + + + + +[Illustration: FARMER.] + +THE AGRICULTURIST. + + +1. Agriculture embraces, in its broad application, whatever relates to +the cultivation of the fields, with the view of producing food for man +and those animals which he may have brought into a state of +domestication. + +2. If we carry our observations so far back as to reach the +antediluvian history of the earth, we shall find, from the authority +of Scripture, that the cultivation of the soil was the first +employment of man, after his expulsion from the garden of Eden, when +he was commanded to till the ground from which he had been taken. We +shall also learn from the same source of information, that "Cain was a +husbandman," and that "Abel was a keeper of sheep." Hence it may be +inferred, that Adam instructed his sons in the art of husbandry; and +that they, in turn, communicated the knowledge to _their_ posterity, +together with the superadded information which had resulted from their +own experience. Improvement in this art was probably thenceforth +progressive, until the overwhelming catastrophe of the flood. + +3. After the waters had retired from the face of the earth, Noah +resorted to husbandry, as the certain means of procuring the +necessaries and comforts of life. The art of cultivating the soil was +uninterruptedly preserved in many branches of the great family of +Noah; but, in others, it was at length entirely lost. In the latter +case, the people, having sunk into a state of barbarism, depended for +subsistence on the natural productions of the earth, and on such +animals as they could contrive to capture by hunting and fishing. Many +of these degenerate tribes did not emerge from this condition for +several succeeding ages; while others have not done so to the present +day. + +4. Notwithstanding the great antiquity of agriculture, the husbandmen, +for several centuries immediately succeeding the deluge, seem to have +been but little acquainted with any proper method of restoring +fertility to exhausted soils; for we find them frequently changing +their residence, as their flocks and herds required fresh pasturage, +or as their tillage land became unproductive. As men, however, became +more numerous, and as their flocks increased, this practice became +inconvenient and, in some cases, impracticable. They were, therefore, +compelled, by degrees, to confine their flocks and herds, and their +farming operations, to lands of more narrow and specified limits. + +5. The Chaldeans were probably the people who first adopted the +important measure of retaining perpetual possession of the soil which +they had cultivated; and, consequently, were among the first who +became skilful in agriculture. But all the great nations of antiquity +held this art in the highest estimation, and usually attributed its +invention to superhuman agency. The Egyptians even worshipped the +image of the ox in gratitude for the services of the living animal in +the labours of the field. + +6. The reader of ancient history can form some idea of the extent to +which this art was cultivated in those days, from the warlike +operations of different nations; for, from no other source, could the +great armies which were then brought into the field, have been +supplied with the necessary provisions. The Greeks and the Romans, who +were more celebrated than any other people for their military +enterprise, were also most attentive to the proper cultivation of the +soil; and many of their distinguished men, especially among the +Romans, were practical husbandmen. + +7. Nor was agriculture neglected by the learned men of antiquity. +Several works on this subject, by Greek and Latin authors, have +descended to our times; and the correctness of many of the principles +which they inculcate, has been confirmed by modern experience. + +8. Throughout the extensive empire of Rome, agriculture maintained a +respectable standing, until the commencement of those formidable +invasions of the northern hordes, which, finally, nearly extinguished +the arts and sciences in every part of Europe. During the long period +of anarchy which succeeded the settlement of these barbarians in their +newly-acquired possessions, pasturage was, in most cases, preferred to +tillage, as being better suited to their state of civilization, and as +affording facilities of removal, in cases of alarm from invading +enemies. But, when permanent governments had been again established, +and when the nations enjoyed comparative peace, the regular +cultivation of the soil once more revived. + +9. The art of husbandry was at a low ebb in England, until the +fourteenth century, when it began to be practised with considerable +success in the midland and south-western parts of the island; yet, it +does not seem to have been cultivated as a science, until the latter +end of the sixteenth century. The first book on husbandry, printed and +published in the English language, appeared in 1534. It was written by +Sir A. Fitzherbert, a judge of the Common Pleas, who had studied the +laws of vegetation, and the nature of soils, with philosophical +accuracy. + +10. Very little improvement was made on the theory of this author, for +upwards of a hundred years, when Sir Hugh Platt discovered and brought +into use several kinds of substances for fertilizing and restoring +exhausted soils. + +11. Agriculture again received a new impulse, about the middle of the +eighteenth century; and, in 1793, a Board of Agriculture was +established by an act of Parliament, at the suggestion of Sir John +Sinclair, who was elected its first president. Through the influence +of this board, a great number of agricultural societies have been +formed in the kingdom, and much valuable information on rural economy +has been communicated to the public, through the medium of a +voluminous periodical under its superintendence. + +12. After the example of Great Britain, agricultural societies have +been formed, and periodical journals published, in various parts of +the continent of Europe, as well as in the United States. The +principal publications devoted to this subject in this country, are +the _American Farmer_, at Baltimore; the _New-England Farmer_, at +Boston; and the _Cultivator_, at Albany. + +13. The modern improvements in husbandry consist, principally, in the +proper application of manures, in the mixture of different kinds of +earths, in the use of plaster and lime, in the rotation of crops, in +adapting the crop to the soil, in the introduction of new kinds of +grain, roots, grasses, and fruits, as well as in improvements in the +breeds of domestic animals, and in the implements with which the +various operations of the art are performed. + +14. For many of the improved processes which relate to the +amelioration of the soil, we are indebted to chemistry. Before this +science was brought to the aid of the art, the cultivators of the soil +were chiefly guided by the precept and example of their predecessors, +which were often inapplicable. By the aid of chemical analysis, it is +easy to discover the constituent parts of different soils; and, when +this has been done, there is but little difficulty in determining the +best mode of improving them, or in applying the most suitable crops. + +15. In the large extent of territory embraced within the United +States, there is great variation of soil and climate; but, in each +state, or district, the attention of the cultivators is directed to +the production of those articles which, under the circumstances, +promise to be the most profitable. In the northern portions of our +country, the cultivators of the soil are called farmers. They direct +their attention chiefly to the production of wheat, rye, corn, oats, +barley, peas, beans, potatoes, pumpkins, and flax, together with +grasses and fruits of various kinds. The same class of men, in the +Southern states, are usually denominated planters, who confine +themselves principally to tobacco, rice, cotton, sugar-cane, or hemp. +In some parts of that portion of our country, however, rye, wheat, +oats, and sweet potatoes, are extensively cultivated; and, in almost +every part, corn is a favourite article. + +16. The process of cultivating most of the productions which have +been mentioned, is nearly the same. In general, with the occasional +exception of new lands, the plough is used to prepare the ground for +the reception of the seed. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, and the +seeds of hemp and flax, are scattered with the hand, and covered in +the earth with the harrow. In Great Britain, such seeds are sown in +drills; and this method is thought to be better than ours, as it +admits of the use of the hoe, while the vegetable is growing. + +17. Corn, beans, potatoes, and pumpkins, are covered in the earth with +the hoe. The ground is ploughed several times during the summer, to +make it loose, and to keep down the weeds. The hoe is also used in +accomplishing the same objects, and in depositing fresh earth around +the growing vegetable. + +18. When ripe, wheat, barley, oats, and peas, are cut down with the +sickle, cradle, or scythe; while hemp and flax are pulled up by the +roots. The seeds are separated from the other parts of the plants with +the flail, or by means of horses or oxen driven round upon them. Of +late, threshing machines are used to effect the same object. Chaff, +and extraneous matter generally, are separated from the grain, or +seeds, by means of a fanning-mill, or with a large fan made of the +twigs of the willow. The same thing was formerly, and is yet +sometimes, effected by the aid of a current of air. + +19. When the corn, or maize, has become ripe, the ears, with the +husks, and sometimes the stalks, are deposited in large heaps. To +assist in stripping the husks from the ears, it is customary to call +together the neighbours. In such cases, the owner of the corn provides +for them a supper, together with some means of merriment and good +cheer. + +20. This custom is most prevalent, where the greater part of the +labour is performed by slaves. The blacks, when assembled for a +husking match, choose a captain, whose business it is to lead the +song, while the rest join in chorus. Sometimes, they divide the corn +as nearly as possible into two equal heaps, and apportion the hands +accordingly, with a captain to each division. This is done to produce +a contest for the most speedy execution of the task. Should the owner +of the corn be sparing of his refreshments, his want of generosity is +sure to be published in song at every similar frolic in the +neighborhood. + +21. Maize, or Indian corn, and potatoes of all kinds, were unknown in +the eastern continent, until the discovery of America. Their origin +is, therefore, known with certainty; but some of the other productions +which have been mentioned, cannot be so satisfactorily traced. This is +particularly the case with regard to those which have been extensively +cultivated for many centuries. + +22. The grasses have ever been valuable to man, as affording a supply +of food for domestic animals. Many portions of our country are +particularly adapted to grazing. Where this is the case, the farmers +usually turn their attention to raising live stock, and to making +butter and cheese. Grass reserved in meadows, as a supply of food for +the winter, is cut at maturity with a scythe, dried in the sun, and +stored in barns, or heaped in stacks. + +23. Rice was first cultivated in the eastern parts of Asia, and, from +the earliest ages, has been the principal article of food among the +Chinese and Hindoos. To this grain may be attributed, in a great +measure, the early civilization of those nations; and its adaptation +to marshy grounds caused many districts to become populous, which +would otherwise have remained irreclaimable and desolate. + +24. Rice was long known in the east, before it was introduced into +Egypt and Greece, whence it spread over Africa generally, and the +southern parts of Europe. It is now cultivated in all the warm parts +of the globe, chiefly on grounds subject to periodical inundations. +The Chinese obtain two crops a year from the same ground, and +cultivate it in this way from generation to generation, without +applying any manure, except the stubble of the preceding crop, and the +mud deposited from the water overflowing it. + +25. Soon after the waters of the inundation have retired, a spot is +inclosed with an embankment, lightly ploughed and harrowed, and then +sown very thickly with the grain. Immediately, a thin sheet of water +is brought over it, either by a stream or some hydraulic machinery. +When the plants have grown to the height of six or seven inches, they +are transplanted in furrows; and again water is brought over them, and +kept on, until the crop begins to ripen, when it is withheld. + +26. The crop is cut with a sickle, threshed with a flail, or by the +treading of cattle; and the husks, which adhere closely to the kernel, +are beaten off in a stone mortar, or by passing the grain through a +mill, similar to our corn-mills. The mode of cultivating rice in any +part of the world, varies but little from the foregoing process. The +point which requires the greatest attention, is keeping the ground +properly covered with water. + +27. Rice was introduced into the Carolinas in 1697, where it is now +produced in greater perfection than in any other part of the world. +The seeds are dropped along, from the small end of a gourd, into +drills made with one corner of the hoe. The plants, when partly grown, +are not transferred to another place, as in Asia, but are suffered to +grow and ripen in the original drills. The crop is secured like wheat, +and the husks are forced from the grain by a machine, which leaves the +kernels more perfect than the methods adopted in other countries. + +28. Cotton is cultivated in the East and West Indies, North and South +America, Egypt, and in many other parts of the world, where the +climate is sufficiently warm for the purpose. There are several +species of this plant; of which three kinds are cultivated in the +southern states of the Union--the _nankeen cotton_, the _green seed +cotton_, and the _black seed_, or _sea island cotton_. The first two, +which grow in the middle and upland countries, are denominated _short +staple cotton_: the last is cultivated in the lower country, near the +sea, and on the islands near the main land, and is of a fine quality, +and of a long staple. + +29. The plants are propagated annually from seeds, which are sown very +thickly in ridges made with the plough or hoe. After they have grown +to the height of three or four inches, part of them are pulled up, in +order that the rest, while coming to maturity, may stand about four +inches apart. It is henceforth managed, until fully grown, like Indian +corn. + +30. The cotton is inclosed in pods, which open as fast as their +contents become fit to be gathered. In Georgia, about eighty pounds of +upland cotton can be gathered by a single hand in a day; but in +Alabama and Mississippi, where the plant thrives better, two hundred +pounds are frequently collected in the same time. + +31. The seeds adhere closely to the cotton, when picked from the pods; +but they are properly separated by machines called _gins_; of which +there are two kinds,--the _roller-gin_, and the _saw-gin_. The +essential parts of the former are two cylinders, which are placed +nearly in contact with each other. By their revolving motion, the +cotton is drawn between them, while the size of the seeds prevents +their passage. This machine, being of small size, is worked by hand. + +32. The _saw-gin_ is much larger, and is moved by animal, steam, or +water power. It consists of a receiver, having one side covered with +strong wires, placed in a parallel direction about an eighth of an +inch apart, and a number of circular saws, which revolve on a common +axis. The saws pass between these wires, and entangle in their teeth +the cotton, which is thereby drawn through the grating, while the +seeds, from their size, are forced to remain on the other side. + +33. Before the invention of the saw-gin, the seeds were separated from +the upland cottons by hand,--a method so extremely tedious, that their +cultivation was attended with but little profit to the planter. This +machine was invented in Georgia by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts. It +was undertaken at the request of several planters of the former state, +and was there put in operation in 1792. + +34. In the preceding year, the whole crop of cotton in the United +States was only sixty-four bales; but, in 1834, it amounted to +1,000,617. The vast increase in the production of this article has +arisen, in part, from the increased demand for it in Europe, and in +the Northern states, but, chiefly, from the use of the invaluable +machine just mentioned. + +35. Sugar-cane was cultivated by the Chinese, at a very early period, +probably two thousand years before it was known in Europe; but sugar, +in a candied form, was used in small quantities by the Greeks and +Romans in the days of their prosperity. It was probably brought from +Bengal, Siam, or some of the East India Islands, as it is supposed, +that it grew nowhere else at that time. + +36. In the thirteenth century, soon after the merchants of the West +began to traffic in Indian articles of commerce, the plant was +introduced into Arabia Felix, and thence into Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, +and Morocco. The Spaniards obtained it from the Moors, and, in the +fifteenth century, introduced it into the Canary Islands. It was +brought to America, and to the West India Islands, by the Spaniards +and Portuguese. It is now cultivated in the United States, below the +thirty-first degree of latitude, and in the warm parts of the globe +generally. + +37. Previous to the year 1466, sugar was known in England chiefly, as +a medicine; and, although the sugar-cane was cultivated, at that time, +in several places on the Mediterranean, it was not more extensively +used on the continent. Now, in extent of cultivation, it ranks next to +wheat and rice, and first in maritime commerce. + +38. The cultivators of sugar-cane propagate the plant by means of +cuttings from the lower end of the stalks, which are planted in the +spring or autumn, in drills, or in furrows. The new plants spring from +the joints of the cuttings, and are fit to be gathered for use in +eight, ten, twelve, or fourteen months. While growing, sugar-cane is +managed much like Indian corn. + +39. When ripe, the cane is cut and brought to the sugar-mill, where +the juice is expressed between iron or stone cylinders, moved by +steam, water, or animal power. The juice thus obtained is evaporated +in large boilers to a syrup, which is afterwards removed to coolers, +where it is agitated with wooden instruments called _stirrers_. To +accelerate its cooling, it is next poured into casks, and, when yet +warm, is conveyed to barrels, placed in an upright position over a +cistern, and pierced in the bottom in several places. The holes being +partially stopped with canes, the part which still remains in the form +of syrup, filters through them into the cistern beneath, while the +rest is left in the form of sugar, in the state called _muscovado_. + +40. This sugar is of a yellow colour, being yet in a crude, or raw +state. It is further purified by various processes, such as +redissolving it in water, and again boiling it with lime and bullocks' +blood, or with animal charcoal, and passing the syrup through several +canvas filters. + +41. Loaf-sugar is manufactured by pouring the syrup, after it has been +purified, and reduced to a certain thickness by evaporation, into +unglazed earthen vessels of a conical shape. The cones have a hole at +their apex, through which may filter the syrup which separates from +the sugar above. Most of the sugar is imported in a raw or crude +state, and is afterward refined in the cities in sugar-houses. + +42. Molasses is far less free from extraneous substances than sugar, +as it is nothing more than the drainings from the latter. Rum is +distilled from inferior molasses, and other saccharine matter of the +cane, which will answer for no other purpose. + +43. Sugar is also manufactured from the sap of the sugar-maple, in +considerable quantities, in the northern parts of the United States, +and in the Canadas. The sap is obtained by cutting a notch, or boring +a hole, in the tree, and applying a spout to conduct it to a receiver, +which is either a rude trough, or a cheap vessel made by a cooper. +This operation is performed late in the winter, or early in the +spring, when the weather is freezing at night, and thawing in the day. + +44. The liquid in which the saccharine matter is suspended, is +evaporated by heat, as in the case of the juice of the cane. During +the process of evaporation, slices of pork are kept in the kettle, to +prevent the sap or syrup from boiling over. + +45. When a sufficient quantity of syrup, of a certain thickness, has +been obtained, it is passed through a strainer, and, having been again +placed over the fire, it is clarified with eggs and milk, the scum, as +it rises, being carefully removed with a skimmer. When sufficiently +reduced, it is usually poured into tin pans, or basins, in which, as +it cools, it consolidates into hard cakes of sugar. + +46. Most of the lands in a state of nature, are covered with forest +trees. This is especially the case in North America. When this +division of our continent was first visited by Europeans, it was +nearly one vast wilderness, throughout its entire extent; and even +now, after a lapse of three centuries, a great portion of it remains +in the same condition. The industrious settlers, however, are rapidly +clearing away the natural encumbrances of the soil; and, before a +similar period shall have passed away, we may expect, that civilized +men will have occupied every portion of this vast territory, which may +be worthy of cultivation. + +47. The mode of _clearing_ land, as it is termed, varies in different +parts of the United States. In Pennsylvania, and in neighborhoods +settled by people from that state, the large trees are deadened by +girdling them, and the small ones, together with the underbrush, are +felled and burned. This mode is very objectionable, for the reason, +that the limbs on the standing trees, when they have become rotten, +sometimes peril the lives of persons and animals underneath. It seems, +however, that those who pursue this method, prefer risking life in +this way to wearing it out in wielding the axe, and in rolling logs. + +48. A very different plan is pursued by settlers from New-England. The +underbrush is first cut down, and piled in heaps. The large trees are +then felled, to serve as foundations for log-heaps; and the smaller +ones are cut so as to fall as nearly parallel to these as practicable. +The smaller trees, as well as the limbs of the larger ones, are cut +into lengths of twelve or fifteen feet. + +49. At a proper season of the year, when the brush has become dry +enough, fire is applied, which consumes much of the small stuff. The +logs are next hauled together with oxen or horses, and rolled into +heaps with handspikes. The small stuff which has escaped the first +burning, is thrown upon the heaps, and, fire being applied, the whole +is consumed together. + +50. In the Northern, Middle, and Western states, where a great +proportion of the timber is beech, maple, and elm, great quantities of +ashes are obtained in this mode of clearing land. From these ashes are +extracted the pot and pearl ashes of commerce, which have been, and +which still are, among the principal exports of the United States. + +51. The usual process of making potash is as follows: the crude ashes +are put into large tubs, or _leeches_, with a small quantity of salt +and lime. The strength of this mixture is extracted by pouring upon it +hot water, which passes through it into a reservoir. The water thus +saturated is called black ley, which is evaporated in large kettles. +The residuum is called black salts, which are converted into potash by +applying to the kettle an intense heat. + +52. The process of making pearlash is the same, until the ley has been +reduced to black salts, except that no lime or salt is used. The salts +are baked in large ovens, heated by a blazing fire, which proceeds +from an arch below. Having been thus _scorched_, the salts are +dissolved in hot water. The solution is allowed to be at rest, until +all extraneous substances have settled to the bottom, when it is drawn +off and evaporated as before. The residuum is called white salts. +Another baking, like the former, completes the process. + +53. Very few of the settlers have an ashery, as it is called, in which +the whole process of making either pot or pearl ash is performed. They +usually sell the black salts to the store-keepers in their +neighborhood, who complete the process of the manufacture. + +54. The trade in ashes is often profitable to the settlers; some of +them even pay, in this way, the whole expense of clearing their land. +Pot and pearl ashes are packed in strong barrels, and sent to the +cities, where, previous to sale, they are inspected, and branded +according to their quality. + + + + +[Illustration: GARDENER.] + +THE HORTICULTURIST. + + +1. The Creator of the Universe, having formed man from the dust of the +ground, provided a magnificent garden for his residence, and commanded +him "to dress it and to keep it:" but, having transgressed the +commandment of his lawful Sovereign, he was driven from this +delightful paradise, thenceforth to gain a subsistence from the earth +at large, which had been cursed with barrenness, thorns, thistles, and +briars. + +2. Scripture does not inform us, that Adam turned his attention to +gardening; nor have we any means of determining the state of this art, +in the centuries previous to the flood; but it is highly probable, +that it had arrived to considerable perfection, before the advent of +this destructive visitation from Heaven. + +3. Gardens, for useful purposes, were probably made, soon after the +waters had subsided; and the statement in Scripture, that "Noah +planted a vineyard," may, perhaps, be regarded as evidence sufficient +to establish it as a fact. If this were the case, the art, doubtless, +continued progressive among those descendants of Noah, who did not +sink into a state of barbarism, after the confusion of tongues. + +4. Among savage nations, one of the first indications of advancement +towards a state of civilization, is the cultivation of a little spot +of ground for raising vegetables; and the degree of refinement among +the inhabitants of any country, may be determined, with tolerable +certainty, by the taste and skill exhibited in their gardens. + +5. Ornamental gardening is never attended to, in any country, until +the arts in general have advanced to a considerable degree of +perfection; and it uniformly declines with other fine or ornamental +arts. Accordingly, we do not read of splendid gardens among the +Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, Romans, and other nations of +antiquity, until they had reached an exalted state of refinement; and +when these nations descended from this condition, or were overthrown +by barbarians, this art declined or disappeared. + +6. During the period of mental darkness, which prevailed between the +eighth and thirteenth centuries, the practice of ornamental gardening +had fallen into such general disuse, that it was confined exclusively +to the monks. After this period, it began again to spread among the +people generally. It revived in Italy, Germany, Holland, and France, +long before any attention was paid to it in England. + +7. In the latter country, but few culinary vegetables were consumed +before the beginning of the sixteenth century, and most of these were +brought from Holland; nor was gardening introduced there, as a source +of profit, until about one hundred years after that period. Peaches, +pears, plums, nectarines, apricots, grapes, cherries, strawberries, +and melons, were luxuries but little enjoyed in England, until near +the middle of the seventeenth century. The first _hot_ and _ice +houses_ known on the island, were built by Charles II., who ascended +the British throne in 1660, and soon after introduced French gardening +at Hampton Court, Carlton, and Marlborough. + +8. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, this art attracted +the attention of some of the first characters in Great Britain, who +gave it a new impulse in that country. But the style which they +imitated was objectionable, inasmuch as the mode of laying out the +gardens, and of planting and trimming the trees, was too formal and +fantastical. + +9. Several eminent writers, among whom were Pope and Addison, +ridiculed this Dutch mode of gardening, as it was called, and +endeavoured to introduce another, more consistent with genuine taste. +Their views were, at length, seconded by practical horticulturists; +and those principles of the art which they advocated, were adopted in +every part of Great Britain. The English mode has been followed and +emulated by the refined nations of the Eastern continent and by many +opulent individuals in the United States. + +10. Since the beginning of the present century horticultural societies +have been formed in every kingdom of Europe. In Great Britain alone, +there are no less than fifty; and, it is satisfactory to add, that +there are also several of these institutions in the United States. The +objects of the persons who compose these societies are, to collect and +disseminate information on this interesting art, especially in regard +to the introduction of new and valuable articles of cultivation. + +11. The authors who have written upon scientific and practical +gardening, at different periods, and in different countries, are very +numerous. Among the ancient Greek writers, were Hesiod, Theophrastus, +Xenophon, and Ælian. Among the Latins, Varo was the first; to whom +succeeded, Cato, Pliny the elder, Columella, and Palladius. + +12. Since the revival of literature, horticulture, in common with +agriculture, has shared largely in the labours of the learned; and +many works, on this important branch of rural economy, have been +published in every language of Europe. But the publications on this +subject, which attract the greatest attention, are the periodicals +under the superintendence of the great horticultural societies. Those +of London and Paris, are particularly distinguished. + +13. It is impossible to draw a distinct line between horticulture and +agriculture; since so many articles of cultivation are common to both, +and since a well-regulated farm approaches very nearly to a garden. + +14. The divisions of a complete garden, usually adopted by writers on +this subject, are the following: 1st. the culinary garden; 2d. the +flower garden; 3d. the orchard, embracing different kinds of fruits; +4th. the vineyard; 5th. the seminary, for raising seeds; 6th. the +nursery, for raising trees to be transplanted; 7th. the botanical +garden, for raising various kinds of plants; 8th. the arboretum of +ornamental trees; and, 9th. the picturesque, or landscape garden. To +become skilful in the management of even one or two of these branches, +requires much attention; but to become proficient in all, would +require years of the closest application. + +15. In Europe, the professed gardeners constitute a large class of the +population. They are employed either in their own gardens, or in those +of the wealthy, who engage them by the day or year. There are many in +this country who devote their attention to this business; but they are +chiefly from the other side of the Atlantic. In our Southern states, +the rich assign one of their slaves to the garden. + +16. In the United States, almost every family in the country, and in +the villages, has its garden for the production of vegetables, in +which are also usually reared, a few flowers, ornamental shrubs, and +fruit-trees: but horticulture, as a science, is studied and practised +here by very few, especially that branch of it called picturesque, or +landscape. To produce a pleasing effect, in a garden of this kind, +from twenty to one hundred acres are necessary, according to the +manner in which the ground may be situated. In an area of that extent, +every branch of this pleasing art can be advantageously embraced. + +17. Delicate exotic plants, which will not bear exposure to the open +air during the winter, are preserved from the effects of the cold in +_hot_ or _green houses_, which may be warmed by artificial heat. A +_hot-house_ is exhibited in the representation of a garden, at the +head of this article. It is composed chiefly of window-glass set in +sashes of wood. A green-house is usually larger; and is designed for +the preservation of those plants requiring less heat. + +18. The vegetables commonly cultivated in gardens for the table, +are,--corn, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, beans, squashes, cucumbers, +melons, strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, +currants, beets, parsnips, carrots, onions, radishes, cabbages, +asparagus, lettuce, grapes, and various kinds of fruits. The flowers, +ornamental shrubs, and trees, are very numerous, and are becoming more +so by accessions from the forests, and from foreign countries. + +19. The scientific horticulturist, in laying off his garden, +endeavours to unite beauty and utility, locating the flowers, +ornamental shrubs, and trees, where they will be most conspicuous, +and those vegetables less pleasing to the eye, in more retired +situations, yet, in a soil and exposure adapted to their constitution. +In improving the soil of his garden, he brings to his aid the science +of chemistry, together with the experience of practical men. He is +also careful in the choice of his fruit-trees, and in increasing the +variety of their products by engrafting, and by inoculation. + + + + +[Illustration: MILLER.] + +THE MILLER. + + +1. The Miller belongs to that class of employments which relates to +the preparation of food and drinks for man. His business consists, +chiefly, in reducing the farinaceous grains to a suitable degree of +fineness. + +2. The simplest method by which grain can be reduced to meal, or +flour, is rubbing or pounding it between two stones; and this was +probably the one first practised in all primitive conditions of +society, as it is still pursued among some tribes of uncivilized men. + +3. The first machine for comminuting grain, of which we have any +knowledge, was a simple hand-mill, composed of a nether stone fixed in +a horizontal position, and an upper stone, which was put in motion +with the hand by means of a peg. This simple contrivance is still used +in India, as well as in some sequestered parts of Scotland, and on +many of the plantations in the Southern states of our Union. But, in +general, where large quantities of grain are to be ground, it has been +entirely superseded by mills not moved by manual power. + +4. The modern corn and flour mill differs from the primitive hand-mill +in the size of the stones, in the addition of an apparatus for +separating the hulls and bran from the farinaceous part of the grain, +and in the power applied for putting it in motion. + +5. The grinding surfaces of the stones have channels, or furrows, cut +in them, which proceed obliquely from the centre to the circumference. +The furrows are cut slantwise on one side, and perpendicular on the +other; so that each of the ridges which they form, has a sharp edge; +and, when the upper stone is in motion, these edges pass one another, +like the blades of a pair of scissors, and cut the grain the more +easily, as it falls upon the furrows. + +6. By a careful inspection of the following picture, the whole +machinery of a common mill may be understood. + +[Illustration] + +A represents the water-wheel; B, the shaft to which is attached the +cog-wheel C, which acts on the trundle-head, D; and this, in turn, +acts on the moveable stone. The spindle, trundle-head, and upper +stone, all rest entirely on the beam, F, which can be elevated or +depressed, at pleasure, by a simple apparatus; so that the distance +between the stones can be easily regulated, to grind either fine or +coarse. The grain about to be submitted to the action of the mill, is +thrown into the hopper, H, whence it passes by the shoe, or spout I, +through a hole in the upper stone, and then between them both. + +7. The upper stone is a little convex, and the other a little concave. +There is a little difference, however, between the convexity and the +concavity of the two stones: this difference causes the space between +them to become less and less towards their edges; and the grain, being +admitted between them, is, consequently, ground finer and finer, as it +passes out in that direction, in which it is impelled by the +centrifugal power of the moving stone. + +8. If the flour, or meal, is not to be separated from the bran, the +simple grinding completes the operation; but, when this separation is +to be made, the comminuted grain, as it is thrown out from between the +stones, is carried, by little leathern buckets fastened to a strap, to +the upper end of an octagonal sieve, placed in an inclined position in +a large box. The coarse bran passes out at the lower end of the sieve, +or bolt, and the flour, or fine particles of bran, through the +bolting-cloth, at different places, according to their fineness. At +the head of the bolt, the superfine flour passes; in the middle, the +fine flour; and at the lower end, the coarse flour and fine bran; +which, when mixed, is called _canel_, or _shorts_. + +9. The best material of which mill-stones are made, is the burr-stone, +which is brought from France in small pieces, weighing from ten to +one hundred pounds. These are cemented together with plaster of Paris, +and closely bound around the circumference with hoops made of bar +iron. For grinding corn or rye, those made of sienite, or granite +rock, are frequently used. + +10. A mill, exclusively employed in grinding grain, consumed by the +inhabitants of the neighborhood, is called a _grist_ or _custom_ mill; +and a portion of the grist is allowed to the miller, in payment for +his services. The proportion is regulated by law; and, in our own +country, it varies according to the legislation of the different +states. + +11. Mills in which flour is manufactured, and packed in barrels for +sale, are called merchant mills. Here, the wheat is purchased by the +miller, or by the owner of the mill, who relies upon the difference +between the original cost of the grain, and the probable amount of its +several products, when sold, to remunerate him for the manufacture, +and his investments of capital. In Virginia, and, perhaps, in some of +the other states, it is a common practice among the farmers, to +deliver to the millers their wheat, for which they receive a specified +quantity of flour. + +12. The power most commonly employed to put heavy machinery in +operation, is that supplied by water. This is especially the case with +regard to mills for grinding grain; but, when this cannot be had, a +substitute is found in steam, or animal strength. The wind is also +rendered subservient to this purpose. The wind-mill was invented in +the time of Augustus Cæsar. During the reign of this emperor, and +probably long before, mules and asses were employed by both the Greeks +and Romans in turning their mills. The period at which water-mills +began to be used cannot be certainly determined. Some writers place it +as far back as the Christian era. + +13. Wheat flour is one of the staple commodities of the United States, +and there are mills for its manufacture in almost every part of the +country, where wheat is extensively cultivated; but our most +celebrated flour-mills are on the Brandywine Creek, Del., at +Rochester, N. Y., and at Richmond, Va. + +14. In our Southern states, hommony is a favorite article of food. It +consists of the flinty portions of Indian corn, which have been +separated from the hulls and eyes of the grain. To effect this +separation, the corn is sometimes ground very coarsely in a mill; but +the most usual method is that of pounding it in a mortar. + +15. The mortar is excavated from a log of hard wood, between twelve +and eighteen inches in diameter. The form of the excavation is similar +to that of a common iron mortar, except that it is less flat at the +bottom, to prevent the corn from being reduced to meal during the +operation. The pestle is usually made by confining an iron wedge in +the split end of a round stick, by means of an iron ring. + +16. The white flint corn is the kind usually chosen for hommony; +although any kind, possessing the requisite solidity, will do. Having +been poured into the mortar, it is moistened with hot water, and +immediately beaten with the pestle, until the eyes and hulls are +forced from the flinty portions of the grain. The part of the corn +which has been reduced to meal by the foregoing process, is removed by +means of a sieve, and the hulls, by the aid of the wind. + +17. Hommony is prepared for the table by boiling it in water for +twelve hours with about one fourth of its quantity of white beans, and +some fat bacon. It is eaten while yet warm, with milk or butter; or, +if suffered to get cold, is again warmed with lard or some other fat +substance, before it is brought to the table. + + + + +[Illustration: BAKER.] + +THE BAKER. + + +1. The business of the Baker consists in making bread, rolls, +biscuits, and crackers, and in baking various kinds of provisions. + +2. Man appears to be designed by nature, to eat all substances capable +of affording nourishment to his system; but, being more inclined to +vegetable than to animal food, he has, from the earliest times, used +farinaceous grains, as his principal means of sustenance. As these, +however, cannot be eaten in their native state without difficulty, +means have been contrived for extracting their farinaceous part, and +for converting it into an agreeable and wholesome aliment. + +3. Those who are accustomed to enjoy all the advantages of the most +useful inventions, without reflecting on the labour expended in their +completion, may fancy that there is nothing more easy than to grind +grain, to make it into paste, and to bake it in an oven; but it must +have been a long time, before men discovered any better method of +preparing their grain, than roasting it in the fire, or boiling it in +water, and forming it into viscous cakes. Accident, probably, at +length furnished some observing person a hint, by which good and +wholesome bread could be made by means of fermentation. + +4. Before the invention of the oven, bread was exclusively baked in +the embers, or ashes, or before the fire. These methods, with +sometimes a little variation, are still practised, more or less, in +all parts of the world. In England, the poor class of people place the +loaf on the heated hearth, and invert over it an iron pot or kettle, +which they surround with embers or coals. + +5. The invention of the oven must have added much to the conveniences +and comforts of the ancients; but it cannot be determined, at what +period, or by whom, it was contrived. During that period of remote +antiquity, in which the people were generally erratic in their habits, +the ovens were made of clay, and hardened by fire, like earthenware; +and, being small, they could be easily transported from place to +place, like our iron bake-ovens. Such ovens are still in use in some +parts of Asia. + +6. There are few nations that do not use bread, or a substitute for +it. Its general use arises from a law of our economy, which requires a +mixture of the animal fluids, in every stage of the process of +digestion. The saliva is, therefore, essential; and the mastication of +dry food is required, to bring it forth from the glands of the mouth. + +7. The farinaceous grains most usually employed in making bread, +are,--wheat, rye, barley, maize, and oats. The flour or meal of two +of these are often mixed; and wheat flour is sometimes advantageously +combined with rice, peas, beans, or potatoes. + +8. The component parts of wheat, rye, and barley flour, are,--fecula, +or starch, gluten, and saccharine mucilage. Fecula is the most +nutritive part of grain. It is found in all seeds, and is especially +abundant in the potato. Gluten is necessary to the production of light +bread; and wheat flour, containing it in the greatest proportion, +answers the purpose better than any other. The saccharine mucilage is +equally necessary, as this is the substance on which yeast and leaven +act, in producing the internal commotion in the particles of dough +during fermentation. + +9. There are three general methods of making bread; 1st. by mixing +meal or flour with water, or with water and milk; 2d. by adding to the +foregoing materials a small quantity of sour dough, or leaven, to +serve as a fermenting agent; and, 3d. by using yeast, to produce the +same general effect. + +10. The theory of making light bread, is not difficult to be +understood. The leaven or yeast acts upon the saccharine mucilage of +the dough, and, by the aid of heat and moisture, disengages +carbonaceous matter, which, uniting with oxygen, forms carbonic acid +gas. This, being prevented from escaping by the gluten of the dough, +causes the mass to become light and spongy. During the process of +baking, the increased heat disengages more of the fixed air, which is +further prevented from escaping by the formation of the crust. The +superfluous moisture having been expelled, the substance becomes firm, +and retains that spongy hollowness which distinguishes good bread. + +11. Many other substances contain fermenting qualities, and are, +therefore, sometimes used as substitutes for yeast and leaven. The +waters of several mineral springs, both in Europe and America, being +impregnated with carbonic acid gas, are occasionally employed in +making light bread. + +12. The three general methods of making bread, and the great number of +materials employed, admit of a great variety in this essential article +of food; so much so, that we cannot enter into details, as regards the +particular modes of manufacture adopted by different nations, or +people. There are, comparatively, but few people on the globe, among +whom this art is not practised in some way or other. + +13. It is impossible to ascertain, at what period of time the process +of baking bread became a particular profession. It is supposed, that +the first bakers in Rome came from Greece, about two hundred years +before the Christian era; and that these, together with some freemen +of the city, were incorporated into a college, or company, from which +neither they nor their children were permitted to withdraw. They held +their effects in common, without possessing any individual power of +parting with them. + +14. Each bake-house had a patron, or superintendent; and one of the +patrons had the management of the rest, and the care of the college. +So respectable was this class of men in Rome, that one of the body was +occasionally admitted, as a member of the senate; and all, on account +of their peculiar corporate association, and the public utility of +their employment, were exempted from the performance of the civil +duties to which other citizens were liable. + +15. In many of the large cities of Europe, the price and weight of +bread sold by bakers, are regulated by law. The weight of the loaves +of different sizes must be always the same; but the price may vary, +according to the current cost of the chief materials. The law was such +in the city of London, a few years ago, that if a loaf fell short in +weight a single ounce, the baker was liable to be put in the pillory; +but now, he is subject only to a fine, varying from one to five +shillings, according to the will of the magistrate before whom he may +be indicted. + +16. In this country, laws of a character somewhat similar have been +enacted by the legislatures of several states, and by city +authorities, with a view to protect the community against impositions; +but whether there is a law or not, the bakers regulate the weight, +price, and quality of their loaves by the general principles of trade. + +17. There is, perhaps, no business more laborious than that of the +baker of loaf bread, who has a regular set of customers to be supplied +every morning. The twenty-four hours of the day are systematically +appropriated to the performance of certain labours, and to rest. + +18. After breakfast, the yeast is prepared, and the oven-wood +provided: at two or three o'clock, the _sponge is set_: the hours from +three to eight or nine o'clock, are appropriated to rest. The baking +commences at nine or ten o'clock at night; and, in large bakeries, +continues until five o'clock in the morning. From that time until the +breakfast hour, the hands are engaged in distributing the bread to +customers. For seven months in the year, and, in some cases, during +the whole of it, part of the hands are employed, from eleven to one +o'clock, in baking pies, puddings, and different kinds of meats, sent +to them from neighboring families. + +19. In large cities, the bakers usually confine their attention to +particular branches of the business. Some bake light loaf bread only; +others bake unleavened bread, such as crackers, sea-biscuit, and cakes +for people of the Jewish faith. Some, again, unite several branches +together; and this is especially the case in small cities and towns, +where the demand for different kinds of bread is more limited. + + + + +[Illustration: CONFECTIONER.] + +THE CONFECTIONER. + + +1. The Confectioner makes liquid and dry confects, jellies, +marmalades, pastes, conserves, sugar-plums, ice-creams, candies, and +cakes of various kinds. + +2. Many of the articles just enumerated, are prepared in families for +domestic use; but, as their preparation requires skill and practice, +and is likewise attended with some trouble, it is sometimes better to +purchase them of the confectioner. + +3. _Liquid_ and dry _confects_ are preserves made of various kinds of +fruits and berries, the principal of which are,--peaches, apricots, +pears, quinces, apples, plums, cherries, grapes, strawberries, +gooseberries, currants, and raspberries. The fruit, of whatever kind +it may be, is confected by boiling it in a thick clarified syrup of +sugar, until it is about half cooked. Dry confects are made by +boiling the fruit a little in syrup, and then drying it with a +moderate heat in an oven. The ancients confected with honey; but, at +present, sugar is deemed more suitable for this purpose, and is almost +exclusively employed. + +4. _Jellies_ resemble a thin transparent glue, or size. They are made +by mixing the juice of the fruits mentioned in the preceding +paragraph, with a due proportion of sugar, and then boiling the +composition down to a proper consistence. Jellies are also made of the +flesh of animals; but such preparations cannot be long kept, as they +soon become corrupt. + +5. _Marmalades_ are thin pastes, usually made of the pulp of fruits +that have some consistence, and about an equal weight of sugar. +_Pastes_ are similar to marmalades, in their materials, and mode of +preparation. The difference consists only in their being reduced by +evaporation to a consistence, which renders them capable of retaining +a form, when put into moulds, and dried in an oven. + +6. _Conserves_ are a species of dry confects, compounded of sugar and +flowers. The flowers usually employed, are,--roses, mallows, rosemary, +orange, violets, jessamine, pistachoes, citrons, and sloes. +Orange-peel is also used for the same purpose. + +7. _Candies_ are made of clarified sugar, reduced by evaporation to a +suitable degree of consistence. They receive their name from the +essence, or substance, employed in giving them the required flavour. + +8. _Sugar-plums_ are small fruits, seeds, little pieces of bark, or +odoriferous and aromatic roots, incrusted with hard sugar. These +trifles are variously denominated; but, in most cases, according to +the name of the substance inclosed by the incrustation. + +9. _Ice-cream_ is an article of agreeable refreshment in hot weather. +It is sold in confectionary shops, as well as at the public gardens, +and other places of temporary resort in cities. It is composed, +chiefly, of milk or cream, fruit, and lemon-juice. It is prepared by +beating the materials well together, and rubbing them through a fine +hair sieve. The congelation is effected by placing the containing +vessel in one which is somewhat larger, and filling the surrounding +vacancy with a mixture of salt and fine ice. + +10. _Cakes_ are made of a great variety of ingredients; the principal +of which are, flour, butter, eggs, sugar, water, milk, cream, yeast, +wine, brandy, raisins, currants, caraway, lemon, orange, almonds, +cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, and ginger. The different +combinations of these materials, produce so great a variety of cakes, +that it would be tedious to detail even their names. + +11. The confectioner, in addition to those articles which may be +considered peculiar to his business, deals in various kinds of fruits +and nuts, which grow in different climates. He also sells a variety of +pickles, which he usually procures from those who make it a business +to prepare them. + +12. _Soda-water_ is likewise often sold by the confectioner. This +agreeable drink is merely water, impregnated with carbonic acid gas, +by means of a forcing-pump. The confectioners, however, in large +cities, seldom prepare it themselves, as they can procure it at less +expense, and with less trouble, ready made. + +13. Sometimes, the business of the pastry-cook is united with that of +the confectioner, especially with that branch of it which relates to +making cakes. Pies and tarts consist of paste, which, in baking, +becomes a crust, and some kind of fruit or meat, or both, with +suitable seasoning. The art of making pies and tarts is practised, +more or less, in every family: it is not, therefore, essential to be +particular in naming the materials employed, or the manner in which +they are combined. + + + + +[Illustration: DISTILLER.] + +THE BREWER, AND THE DISTILLER. + + +THE BREWER. + +1. Brewing is the art of preparing a liquor, which has received the +general denomination of beer. This beverage can be brewed from any +kind of farinaceous grain; but, on various accounts, barley is usually +preferred. It is prepared for the brewer's use by converting it into +malt, which is effected by the following process. + +2. The grain is soaked in a cistern of water about two days, or until +it is completely saturated with that fluid. It is then taken out, and +spread upon a floor in a layer nearly two feet thick. When the inside +of this heap begins to grow warm, and the kernels to germinate, the +maltster checks the rapid growth of the grain in that situation by +changing it to the outside. This operation is continued, until the +saccharine matter in the barley has been sufficiently evolved by the +natural process of germination. + +3. The grain is next transferred to the kiln, which is an iron or tile +floor, perforated with small holes, and moderately heated beneath with +a fire of coke or stone coal. Here, the grain is thoroughly dried, and +the principle of germination completely destroyed. The malt thus made +is prepared for being brewed, by crushing it in a common mill, or +between rollers. Malting, in Great Britain, and in some other parts of +Europe, is a business distinct from brewing; but, in the United +States, the brewers generally make their own malt. + +4. The first part of the process of brewing is called _mashing_. This +is performed in a large tub, or _tun_, having two bottoms. The upper +one, consisting of several moveable pieces, is perforated with a great +number of small holes; the other, though tight and immoveable at the +edges, has several large holes, furnished with ducts, which lead to a +cistern beneath. + +5. The malt, designed for one mashing, is spread in an even layer on +the upper bottom, and thoroughly saturated and incorporated with water +nearly boiling, by means of iron rakes, which are made to revolve and +move round in the tub by the aid of machinery. The water, together +with the soluble parts of the malt, at length passes off, through the +holes before mentioned, into the reservoir beneath. + +6. The malt requires to be mashed two or three times in succession +with fresh quantities of water; and the product of each mashing is +appropriated to making liquors of different degrees of strength. + +7. The product of the _mashing-tun_ is called _wort_, which, being +transferred to a large copper kettle, is boiled for a considerable +time with a quantity of hops, and then drawn off into large shallow +cisterns, called _coolers_. When the mixture has become cool enough +to be submitted to fermentation, it is drawn off into the _working +tun_. + +8. The fermentation is effected with yeast, which, acting on the +saccharine matter, disengages carbonic acid gas. This part of the +process requires from eighteen to forty-eight hours, according to the +degree of heat which may be in the atmosphere. + +9. The beer is then drawn off into casks of different dimensions, in +which it undergoes a still further fermentation, sometimes called the +_brewer's cleansing_. During this fermentation, the froth, or yeast, +works out at the bung-hole, and is received in a trough, on the edges +of which the casks have been placed. The froth thus discharged from +the beer, is the yeast used by the brewers. + +10. The products of the brewery are denominated _beer_, _ale_, and +_porter_. The difference between these liquors arises, chiefly, from +the manner in which the malt has been prepared, the relative strength +imparted to each, and the extent to which the fermentation has been +carried. + +11. There are several kinds of beer; such as table beer, half and +half, and strong beer. They are adapted to use soon after being +brewed, and differ from each other but little, except in the degree of +their strength. + +12. Ale and porter are called stock liquors; because, not being +designed for immediate consumption, they are kept for a considerable +time, that they may improve in quality. Porter is usually prepared for +consumption by putting it into bottles. This is done either at the +brewery, or in bottling establishments. In the latter case, the liquor +is purchased in large quantities from the brewer by persons who make +it their business to supply retailers and private families. + +13. We have evidence that fermented liquor was in use three thousand +years ago. It was first used in Egypt, whence it passed into adjacent +countries, and afterward into Spain, France, and England. It was +sometimes called the wine of barley; and one kind of it was +denominated Pelusian drink, from the city Pelusium, where it was first +made. + +14. Among the nations of modern times, the English are the most +celebrated for brewing good liquors. London porter is especially in +great repute, not only in that city, but in distant countries. Much +fermented liquor of the different kinds, is consumed in the United +States, where it is also made in considerable perfection. + + +THE DISTILLER. + +1. Although alcohol can be extracted from any substance containing +saccharine matter, yet sugar-cane, grapes, apples, peaches, rye, corn, +and rice, on account of their abundance, and superior adaptation to +the purpose, are more commonly used than any other. As whiskey is the +chief article of this kind, manufactured in the United States, it will +be selected to illustrate the general principles of distillation. + +2. Corn and rye are the materials from which this liquor is mostly +extracted; and these are used either together or separately, at the +option of the distiller. The meal is scalded and mashed in a large +tub: it is then permitted to stand, until it has become a little +sweet, when more water is poured upon it, and, at a suitable +temperature, a quantity of yeast is added. To aid in producing rapid +fermentation, a little malt is sprinkled on the top. + +3. After an adequate fermentation has taken place, the _beer_, as it +is called, is transferred to a large close tub, from the top of which +leads a tube extending to the worm in another tub filled with cold +water. The worm is a long pewter tube, twisted spirally, that it may +occupy a small space. + +4. The beer is heated in the close tub, by means of steam, which is +conveyed to it, from a large kettle or boiler, by a copper or iron +pipe. The heat causes the alcoholic particles to rise like vapour, and +pass into the worm, where they are condensed into a watery fluid, +which passes out into a receiver. + +5. At first, pure alcohol distils from the worm; but the produce +becomes gradually weaker, until, at length, the spirit in the beer +being exhausted, it consists only of water condensed from steam. The +remains of the beer are given as feed to hogs and cattle. + +6. Brandy is distilled from grapes, rum from sugar-cane, arrack from +rice, whiskey from various kinds of grain, peach-brandy from peaches, +and cider-brandy from apples. + +7. The great variety of articles employed in the productions of +different kinds of ardent spirits, must necessarily vary the process +of distillation in some particulars; but, in all cases, fermentation +and heat are necessary to disengage the alcoholic properties of the +saccharine matter, and also an apparatus for condensing the same from +a gaseous to a liquid form. In some countries, the _alembic_ is used +as a condenser, instead of a worm. The form of this instrument is much +like that of the retort; and when applied, it is screwed upon the top +of the boiler. + +8. Spirits, which come to market in a crude state, are sometimes +distilled for the purpose of improving their quality, or for +disguising them with drugs and colouring substances, that they may +resemble superior liquors. The process by which they are thus changed, +or improved, is called rectification. Many distilleries in large +cities, are employed in this branch of business. + +9. There is, perhaps, no kind of merchandise in which the public is +more deceived, than in the quality of ardent spirits and wines. To +illustrate this, it is only necessary to observe, that Holland gin is +made by distilling French brandy with juniper-berries; but most of the +spirits which are vended under that name, consist only of rum or +whiskey, flavoured with the oil of turpentine. Genuine French brandy +is distilled from grapes; but the article usually sold under that +denomination, is whiskey or rum coloured with treacle or scorched +sugar, and flavoured with the oil of wine, or some kind of drug. + +10. The ancient Greeks and Romans were acquainted with an instrument +for distillation, which they denominated _ambix_. This was adopted, a +long time afterward, by the Arabian alchemists, for making their +chemical experiments; but they made some improvements in its +construction, and changed its name to _alembic_. + +11. The ancients, however, knew nothing of alcohol. The method of +extracting this intoxicating substance, was probably discovered some +time in the twelfth or thirteenth century; but, for many ages after +the discovery, it was used only as a medicine, and was kept for sale +exclusively in apothecary shops. It is now used as a common article of +stimulation, in almost every quarter of the globe. + +12. But the opinion is becoming general, among all civilized people, +that the use of alcohol, for this purpose, is destructive of health, +and the primary cause of most of the crimes and pauperism in all +places, where its consumption is common. The formation of Temperance +Societies, and the publication of their reports, together with the +extensive circulation of periodical papers, devoted to the cause of +temperance, have already diminished, to a very great extent, the use +of spirituous liquors. + +13. Although the ancients knew nothing of distilling alcohol, yet they +were well versed in the art of making wine. We read of the vineyard, +as far back as the time of Noah, the second father of nations; and, +from that period to the present, the grape has been the object of +careful cultivation, in all civilized nations, where the climate and +soil were adapted to the purpose. + +14. The general process of making wine from grapes, is as follows. The +grapes, when gathered, are crushed by treading them with the feet, and +rubbing them in the hands, or by some other means, with the view to +press out the juice. The whole is then suffered to stand in the vat, +until it has passed through what is termed the _vinous_ fermentation, +when the juice, which, in this state, is termed _must_, is drawn off +into open vessels, where it remains until the pressing of the husks is +finished. + +15. The husks are submitted, in hair bags, to the press; and the +_must_ which is the result of this operation, is mixed with that drawn +from the vat. The whole is then put into casks, where it undergoes +another fermentation, called the _spirituous_, which occupies from six +to twelve days. The casks are then bunged up, and suffered to stand a +few weeks, when the wine is racked off from the _lees_, and again +returned to the same casks, after they have been perfectly cleansed. +Two such rackings generally render the wine clear and brilliant. + +16. In many cases, sugar, brandy, and flavouring substances, are +necessary, to render the wine palatable; but the best kinds of grapes +seldom require any of these additions. Wine-merchants often adulterate +their wines in various ways, and afterwards sell them for those which +are genuine. To correct acidity, and some other unpleasant qualities, +lead, copper, antimony, and corrosive sublimate, are often used by +the dealers in wine; though the practice is attended with deleterious +effects to the health of the consumers. + +17. The wines most usually met with in this country, are known by the +following denominations, viz., _Madeira_ and _Teneriffe_, from islands +of the same names; _Port_, from Portugal; _Sherry_ and _Malaga_, from +Spain; _Champagne_, _Burgundy_, and _Claret_, from France; and _Hock_, +from Germany. + + + + +[Illustration: BUTCHER.] + +THE BUTCHER. + + +1. Man is designed by nature, to subsist on vegetable and animal food. +This is obvious, from the structure of his organs of mastication and +digestion. It does not follow, however, that animal food is, in all +cases, positively required. In some countries, the mass of the people +subsist chiefly or entirely on vegetables. This is especially the case +in the East Indies, where rice and fruits are the chief articles of +food. + +2. On the other hand, the people who live in the higher latitudes +subsist principally on the flesh of animals. This is preferred, not +only because it is better suited to brace the system against the +rigours of the climate, but because it is most easily provided. In +temperate climates, a due proportion of both animal and vegetable +substances is consumed. + +3. Although the skins of beasts were used for the purpose of clothing, +soon after the fall of man, we have no intimation from the Scriptures, +that their flesh, or that of any other animal, was used, until after +the flood. The Divine permission was then given to Noah and his +posterity, to use, for this purpose, "every moving thing that liveth." +But in the law of Moses, delivered several centuries after this +period, many exceptions are to be found, which were intended to apply +only to the Jewish people. These restrictions were removed, on the +introduction of Christianity. The unbelieving Jews, however, still +adhere to their ancient law. + +4. The doctrine of transmigration has had a great influence in +diminishing the consumption of animal food. This absurd notion arose +somewhere in Central Asia, and, at a very early period, it spread into +Egypt, Greece, Italy, and finally among the remote countries of the +ancient world. It is still entertained by the heathen nations of +Eastern Asia, by the tribes in the vicinity of Mount Caucasus, and by +some of the American savages, and African negroes. + +5. The leading feature of this doctrine is, that the souls of departed +men reappear on earth in the bodies of animals, both as a punishment +for crimes committed during life, and as a means of purification from +sin. This dogma was adopted by the Pythagoreans, a sect of Grecian +philosophers; and, as a natural consequence, it led them, as it has +ever done the votaries of this opinion, to the veneration of animals, +and to abstinence from their flesh, lest they might devour that of +some of their deceased friends or relatives. + +6. People who dwell thinly scattered in the country, rear and +slaughter the animals for the supply of their own tables; but, in +villages, large towns, and cities, the inhabitants depend chiefly on +the butcher for their meat. The animals commonly slaughtered are, +sheep, cattle, and hogs. + +7. The butchers obtain their animals from the farmers, or from +drovers, who make it a business to purchase them in the country, and +drive them to market. The farmers near large cities, who have good +grazing farms, are accustomed to buy lean cattle, brought from a +distance, with a view to fatten them for sale. There are also persons +in the cities, who might, with propriety, be called cattle brokers; +since they supply the butchers of small capital with a single animal +at a time, on a credit of a few days. + +8. Every butcher who carries on the business, has a house in which he +kills his animals, and prepares them for sale. When it is intended to +slaughter an ox, a rope is thrown about his horns or neck, with which +he is forced into the _slaughter-house_, and brought to the floor by +the aid of a ring. The butcher then knocks him on the head, cuts his +throat, deprives him of his hide, takes out his entrails, washes the +inside of his body with water, and cuts him up into quarters. The beef +is now ready to be conveyed to the market-house. The process of +dressing other quadrupeds varies but little from this in its general +details. The cellular substance of mutton, lamb and veal, is often +inflated with air, that the meat may appear fat and plump. + +9. In large cities and towns, the meat is chiefly sold in the +market-house, where each butcher has a stall rented from the +corporation. It is carried there in a cart, and cut into suitable +pieces with a saw, knife, and a broad iron cleaver. + +10. In some of the large cities, it is a practice among the butchers, +to employ _runners_ to carry the meat to the houses, of those +customers who may desire this accommodation. In villages, where there +is no market-house, the butcher carries his meats from door to door +in some kind of vehicle. + +11. Those who follow this occupation usually enjoy good health, and, +as they advance in years, in most cases, become corpulent. Their good +health arises from exercise in the open air; and their corpulency, +from subsisting principally on fresh meats. It is thought, however, +that their longevity is not so great as that of men in many other +employments. + + + + +[Illustration: TOBACCONIST.] + +THE TOBACCO PLANTER, AND THE TOBACCONIST + + +THE TOBACCO PLANTER. + +1. Tobacco is a native production of America, which was in common use +among nearly all of the Indian tribes, when this continent was +discovered by Europeans. Its original name among the nations of the +islands, was _yoli_; whilst, with those of the continent, it was +termed _petum_. The Spaniards, however, chose to call it _tobacco_, a +term in the Haytian language, which designated the instrument in which +the herb was smoked. + +2. This plant was first introduced into Spain, then into Portugal and +France, and, at length, into other countries of the Eastern continent. +Sir Walter Raleigh carried it from Virginia to England, and taught his +countrymen the various methods of consuming it among the natives. + +3. The introduction of this nauseous plant into Europe, was everywhere +attended with ridicule and opposition. Hundreds of pamphlets were +published, in various languages, dissuading from its use in the +strongest terms. Even James the First, king of Great Britain, did not +regard it as inconsistent with the royal dignity to take up his pen on +the subject. In his "_Counterblast to Tobacco_," published in 1603, +occurs the following remarkable passage: "It is a custom loathsome to +the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain; and, in the black +fume thereof, nearest resembling the horrible Stygian smoke of the pit +that is bottomless." + +4. Pope Urban VIII. excommunicated those who took tobacco in churches; +and Queen Elizabeth also prohibited its use in houses of public +worship. In 1689, an ordinance was published in Transylvania, +threatening those who should plant tobacco with the confiscation of +their estates. The grand-duke of Moscow, and the king of Persia, +prohibited its use under the penalty of the loss of the nose, and even +of life. At present, however, the consumption of tobacco is looked +upon with so much greater indulgence, that all the sovereigns of +Europe, and most of those of other nations, derive a considerable +revenue from the trade in this article. + +5. But it is truly astonishing, that a nauseous weed, of an acrid +taste, disagreeable odour, and deleterious qualities, should have had +so great an influence on the social condition of nations; that its +culture should have spread more rapidly than that of the most useful +plants; and that it should, consequently, have become an article of +extensive commerce. + +6. Of this plant there are several species, which differ from each +other, in size, strength, and flavour. Some one or more of these +varieties, are cultivated in various parts of the world: but +especially in North and South America, and in the West Indies. It is +one of the staple productions of Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and +Ohio. The whole value of the tobacco, exported annually from the +United States, amounts to about five millions of dollars. + +7. The following description of the mode of cultivating this plant, +and preparing it for the tobacconist, is applicable to the state of +Maryland. A little variation in some of the details, would render it +applicable to other parts of the world. + +8. A small piece of ground, say one-sixteenth of an acre, is prepared +by burning a large quantity of brush upon it. The surface is rendered +light and even, by means of a hoe and rake; and the seeds, mixed with +ashes, are sown as equally as possible. After they have been covered +with earth, the ground is trodden down with the bare feet. The tobacco +beds are made in March, and the plants become fit for the field in +eight or ten weeks. + +9. The field, in which the cultivation of the crop is to be continued, +is ploughed two or three times, and then cross-ploughed into equal +checks, in each of which is made a hill. Immediately after a rain, the +plants are transferred to these hills, in the same manner in which +cabbages are transplanted. While the tobacco is growing, the ground is +ploughed several times, in order to keep it light, and to aid in +destroying the weeds. When the plants are nearly grown, the tops are +lopped or cut off, to prevent them from running to seed, and to cause +the leaves to grow larger and thicker. + +10. In July or August, the tobacco-worms begin to make their +appearance, and to threaten the whole crop with destruction. To arrest +the ravages of these insidious enemies, all hands, both great and +small, together with all the turkeys that can be mustered, are brought +into the field. These worms are produced from the eggs of a large +insect, called the horn-bug. + +11. The tobacco, when ripe, is cut near the ground, and hung on small +sticks about five feet in length, generally by pegs driven into the +stalks. These sticks are then laid upon poles, arranged at proper +distances from each other in the tobacco-house, shed, or hovel, as the +case may be. It is then suffered to dry gradually in the atmosphere; +or a large fire is made in the tobacco-house, to effect the drying +more rapidly. + +12. The leaves are next stripped from the stalks, and tied in small +bunches according to their quality. This can only be done when _in +order_, or rather, when the leaves are rendered tough by the +absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. These bunches, when the +leaves are so damp that they will not break, and so dry that they will +not heat, are packed in hogs-heads by the aid of a large lever press. +The tobacco is inspected in public warehouses, by men who have been +appointed for the purpose by the public authorities. + + +THE TOBACCONIST. + +1. It is the business of the tobacconist to convert the leaves of the +tobacco plant into snuff, cigars, and smoking and chewing tobacco. + +2. Although there may seem to be a great variety of snuffs, yet they +may be all reduced to three kinds, viz., Scotch, rappee, and maccouba. +These are variously modified by the quality of the tobacco, by some +little variation in the manufacture, and by the articles employed in +communicating the desired flavour. + +3. In manufacturing snuff, the tobacco is ground in a mill of a +peculiar construction. Before the weed is submitted to this operation, +it is reduced to a certain degree of fineness, by means of a cutting +machine; and then spread in a heap, one or two feet thick, and +sprinkled with water, that it may _heat_ and _sweat_. The time +required in this preparation depends upon the state of the weather, +and the kind of snuff for which the tobacco is designed. + +4. Scotch snuff is made of the strongest sort of tobacco, and is put +up in bladders and bottles without being scented. Rappee and maccouba +are put up in jars and bottles; and the former is generally scented +with bergamot, and the latter with the ottar of roses. Sometimes, +several ingredients, agreeable to the olfactory nerves, are employed. + +5. Cigars are composed of two parts, called the _wrapper_ and the +_filling_. The former is made of pieces of thin leaves, cut to a +proper shape, and the latter of those which are more broken. In all +cases, the leaves used in the manufacture of cigars are deprived of +the stems, which are reserved, either to be converted into inferior +kinds of snuff, or for exportation to Holland, where they are usually +flattened between rollers, and afterwards cut fine for smoking +tobacco, to be sold to the poorer class of people. + +6. The value of cigars depends chiefly on the quality of the tobacco. +The best kind for this purpose, grows on the island of Cuba, near +Havana. Tobacco from this seed is raised in many other places; and +such, among tobacconists, is called _seed_; but it passes, among +smokers of limited experience, for the real Havana. A very fine silky +tobacco of this sort, is cultivated in Connecticut, which is much +esteemed. + +7. An expert hand will make five or six hundred Spanish cigars in a +day, or from one thousand to fifteen hundred of those composed of +Maryland or Kentucky tobacco. Making cigars, being light work, is well +adapted to females, of whom great numbers are regularly employed in +this branch of business. Tobacco intended for the pipe, is cut in a +machine; and, after having been properly dried, it is put up in papers +of different sizes. + +8. Chewing tobacco is almost exclusively prepared from the species of +this plant which is cultivated in Virginia, chiefly in the vicinity of +James river. It is better adapted to this purpose than any other, on +account of its superior strength, and the great amount of resinous +matter which it contains. + +9. The first operation in preparing chewing tobacco, is that of +depriving the leaves of the stems. The former are then twisted by hand +into plugs of different sizes, or spun into a continued thread by the +aid of the _tobacco-wheel_, which is a simple machine moved by a +crank. The thread thus produced is formed into bunches, or twists, +containing a definite amount of tobacco. + +10. The tobacco, having been put into the form desired, is moistened +with water, packed in strong kegs, and then pressed with powerful +screw-presses. The whole process is completed by heating the kegs, +with their contents, for several days, in an oven or a tight room made +for the purpose. The same change in the quality of the tobacco is also +produced by suffering it to stand nine or twelve months, before it is +disposed of to the consumers. + +11. Snuff is very commonly used in the Southern states, as a +dentifrice; or, at least, it is applied to the teeth with this +ostensible object. The application is made by means of a small stick, +having the fibres minutely divided at one end. Although the tobacco +seems to have the desired effect upon the teeth, so far as respects +their appearance, yet its stimulating and narcotic powers are more to +be dreaded in this mode of using it than in any other. Many females +ruin their complexion and constitution, by _rubbing snuff_; and the +deleterious effects of the practice are so well known, that few are +willing to avow it. + +12. Tobacco is used, in some one of its various forms, by a great +majority of mankind; and, although it is generally acknowledged to be, +in most cases, injurious to the constitution, and often destructive of +health, yet its consumption seems to be on the increase. It is one of +the objects of trade, even in the most obscure parts of the world; and +its devotees must and will have a supply, even though they stint +themselves in food and clothing. + +13. As regards the influence which this plant assumes over its +votaries, it may be classed with alcohol and opium; although its +effects are not so destructive; nor is the expense so considerable; +yet this is an item by no means unworthy of attention, as the +aggregate sum annually expended for this useless narcotic in the +United States, would be sufficient for the support of common schools +in every part of the country. + +14. The general use of tobacco is perpetuated from generation to +generation, by the desire, common to children and young people, to act +and appear like older persons. Few ever begin the use of this nauseous +weed, because it is agreeable to the senses to which it is applied; +but because they fancy, in their childish simplicity, that it confers +upon them some additional importance. + + + + +[Illustration] + +THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. + + +1. Men, in the primitive ages, were clad with the skins of animals, +until they had acquired sufficient skill to employ a better material. +It cannot be determined from history, at what time cloth began to be +manufactured from animal or vegetable fibre; but it is evident, that +it was done at a very early period, even long before the flood. + +2. The fibres of the vegetable kind, most commonly applied to this +purpose, are the bark of several kinds of trees, together with hemp, +flax, and cotton; and those of the animal kingdom are, silk, the wool +of the sheep and lama, and the hair, or wool, of the goat and camel. + +3. That the general process of manufacturing cloth may be perfectly +understood, the manner of performing several operations must be +separately described. For the purpose of illustration, cotton, wool, +and flax, will be selected; because these are the materials of which +our clothing is principally fabricated. The operations of making +cloth, may be comprised under _carding_ and _combing_, _spinning_, +_weaving_, and _dressing_. + +4. _Carding and Combing._--Wool and cotton are carded, with the view +of disentangling the fibres, and arranging them longitudinally in +small rolls. This is done by means of the teeth of two instruments, +called cards, used by hand on the knee, or by the carding machine, +which acts on the same principle, although far more expeditiously. + +5. Machines for carding wool are to be found in every district of +country in the United States, in which the people manufacture much of +their woollen cloths in their own families. On account of the +roughness of the fibres of wool, it is necessary to cover them well +with grease or oil, that they may move freely on each other during the +carding and spinning. + +6. Long, coarse, or hard wools, used in the manufacture of camlets, +bombazines, circassians, and other worsted fabrics, are not carded, +but combed. In England, and in other countries where much of this kind +of wool is used, wool-combing forms a distinct trade. The operation +consists, chiefly, in drawing the locks through steel combs, the teeth +of which are similar to our common flax-hatchel. The comb is heated to +a certain temperature, to cause the fibres to straighten, and to +remove from them the roughness which might otherwise cause the cloth +made of them to thicken in washing, like flannel. + +7. The old method of combing wool, however, has been in part +superseded by the application of machines, the first of which was +invented by Edmund Cartwright, of England, about the year 1790. The +fibres of flax are arranged in a parallel direction, and freed from +tow, by drawing them through a hatchel. + +8. _Spinning._--The process of spinning consists in twisting the +fibres into threads. The most simple method by which this is effected, +is that by the common spinning-wheel. Of this well-known machine there +are two kinds; one of which is applied to spinning wool, cotton, and +tow, and the other, to spinning flax. + +9. This operation is, in most cases, performed by females in the +following manner. The roll of cotton or wool is attached to the +spindle, which is put in rapid motion by a band passing over it from +the rim, or periphery of the wheel. While the spinster is turning the +wheel with the right hand, she brings back from the spindle her left, +with which she has laid hold of the roll a few inches from the upper +end. When the yarn thus produced has been sufficiently twisted, she +turns it upon the spindle, and repeats the same operation, until it is +full. This yarn is formed into skeins by winding it upon a reel. + +10. The mode of spinning tow is a little different. The material +having been formed into _bats_ by hand-cards, the fibres are drawn out +from between the fingers and thumb by the twisted thread, while the +spinster gradually moves backward. Worsted is spun from combed wool +nearly in the same manner. + +11. The _flax_ or _little wheel_ is moved by the foot, so that both +hands of the spinster are used in supplying, disposing, and +occasionally wetting the fibres, as they are drawn from the distaff. +Two bands pass from the periphery of the wheel, each of which performs +a distinct office: the one keeps in motion the spindle, which twists +the thread; the other moves the fliers, which wind the thread upon a +spool, as fast as it is produced. + +12. Spinning was almost exclusively performed in the modes just +described, until the year 1767, when Richard Heargreaves, of England, +invented a machine for spinning cotton, which he called a _jenny_. +This consisted, at first, of eight spindles, moved by a common wheel, +or cylinder, which was turned by hand. The number of spindles was +afterwards increased to eighty-four. + +13. In 1769, Richard Arkwright, also an Englishman, invented the +_water-spinning-frame_. The essential and most important feature of +this invention, consists in drawing out the cotton, by causing it to +pass between successive pairs of rollers, which revolve with different +velocities, and which act as substitutes for the thumb and fingers, as +applied in common spinning. These rollers are combined with the +spindle and fliers of the common flax-wheel. + +14. Another machine was invented by Samuel Crompton, in 1779. It is +called a _mule_, because it combines the principles of the two +preceding machines. It produces finer yarn than either of them, and +has nearly superseded the jenny. Before the cotton is submitted to the +spinning machine, it is prepared by several others, by which it is +carded, extended, and partially twisted. + +15. In the manufactories, the fine, short wools, used in the +fabrication of broadcloths, flannels, and a variety of other cloths, +are carded by machinery, and spun on a _slubbing_ or _roving-machine_, +or on a _jenny_ or _mule_, in each of which the spindles are mounted +on a carriage, which is moved backwards in stretching and twisting the +material, and forwards in winding the thread upon the spindle. + +16. Worsted still continues to be spun, in most cases, on the common +spinning-wheel, as it can be done more perfectly in this way, than by +any other machine which has hitherto been invented. Several machines +have been constructed, which spin coarse threads of flax very well, +and with great rapidity; but the materials for fine linen fabrics are +still spun on the ancient flax-wheel. + +17. _Weaving._--The first step preparatory to weaving, is to form a +warp, consisting of a number of threads, which extend through the +whole piece. To produce this parallel arrangement, the yarn is wound +upon spools, which are afterwards placed in a frame perpendicularly by +means of rods, on which they move as upon an axle. From these spools, +the yarns are stretched upon pegs to the length of the proposed web, +and are carried round or doubled a sufficient number of times to make +it the proper width. The same object is more expeditiously effected, +by winding the yarn spirally on a revolving frame. + +18. The next step consists in winding the warp on a cylindrical beam, +which is usually about ten inches in diameter. The threads, having +been put through a harness, composed of moveable parts, called +_heddles_, and also through a sley, or reed, are fastened on the other +side to a large rod, from which three ropes extend to another +cylinder, on which the cloth is wound, as fast as it is woven. + +19. The heddles are suspended from cross-pieces, on the top of the +loom, by means of cords and pulleys, and, during the operation of +weaving, are moved up and down alternately by the aid of _treadles_. +This reciprocal motion causes the web to open; and, while in this +position, a shuttle, containing the _woof_, _weft_, or _filling_ on a +quill or bobbin, is passed through from right to left, or from left to +right, as often as the position of the warp is changed. The threads of +the filling are beaten up by the reed, or sley, which is placed in the +_lay_. + +20. Weaving is a business extensive in its application, being divided +into almost as many branches as there are woven fabrics. Plain cotton, +linen, woollen, and twilled cloths, silks, satins, carpets, &c., are +all woven in looms of some kind, constructed on the same general +principles. Power-looms, driven by water or steam, are now generally +introduced into the cotton and woollen manufactories, both in Europe +and in this country. One person can attend to two of these looms at +the same time, and each one will weave between twenty and forty yards +in a day. + +21. _Dressing._--Cotton fabrics, when the webs are taken from the +loom, are covered with an irregular nap, or down, formed by the +protruding ends of the fibres. From the finest cottons, this is +removed, by drawing them rapidly over an iron cylinder, kept red-hot +by a fire within. The flame of coal-gas has recently been applied, to +effect the same object. + +22. Common domestic fabrics are taken from the loom, and, without +further preparation, are folded up into pieces for sale. Finer +articles are usually whitened and calendered, before they pass from +the hand of the manufacturer. Stuffs of all kinds, made of vegetable +fibres, are now whitened by immersing them in a solution of oxymuriate +of lime. Cotton and linen goods, with a view of making them smooth and +glossy, are calendered, or pressed, between steel rollers. + +23. Many of the fine cottons are converted into calicoes, by +transferring to them various colors. The process by which this is +done, is called calico-printing, which will be described in a separate +article. + +24. The texture of the fabrics made of worsted, or long wool, is +completed, when issued from the loom. The pieces are subsequently +dyed, and then pressed between heated metallic plates, to communicate +to them the required gloss. But weaving does not always complete the +texture of the stuffs made of the short wools. When taken from the +loom, the web is too loose and open, to answer the purposes to which +such cloths are usually applied. It is, therefore, submitted to +another process, called _fulling_. + +25. _Fulling_, in common with almost every other operation pertaining +to the manufacture of cloth, constitutes a separate trade. The art is +only applied to stuffs composed of wool, or hair, as these only +possess the properties which render it applicable. The practicability +of fulling cloth depends on a certain roughness of the fibres, which +admits of motion in one way, and retards it in another. This may be +more fully understood by consulting the article on making hats. + +26. The cloth, having been prepared by a proper cleansing, is +deposited in a strong box, with a quantity of water and fuller's earth +or soap, and submitted to the action of the _pestles_, or _stampers_, +which are moved in a horizontal direction, backwards and forwards, by +means of appropriate machinery. This operation reduces the dimensions +of the cloth, and greatly improves the beauty and stability of the +texture. The cloth is afterwards dried in the open air on frames +prepared for the purpose. + +27. After the cloth has been dyed, a nap is raised on one side of it +by means of the common teazle. The nap is next cut off to an even +surface. This was formerly done with a huge pair of shears; but, +within a few years, it has most commonly been effected by a machine, +the essential part of which is a spiral blade, that revolves in +contact with another blade, while the cloth is stretched over a bed, +or support, just near enough for the projecting filaments to be cut +off at a uniform length, without injuring the main texture. Pressing +and folding the cloth complete the whole process. + +28. A great proportion of the woollen fabrics worn in the United +States, are manufactured in families, part of which is sent to the +clothiers to be dressed. Much cotton yarn, spun at the manufactories, +is purchased for domestic use. Formerly, the raw material was +procured, and spun into yarn on the _big wheel_. Coarse linens are +also extensively manufactured in families, especially among the German +population. + +29. The manufacture of cloth from wool was introduced into Britain by +the Romans, some time in the Augustan age. At Winchester, they +conducted the business on a scale sufficiently large to supply their +army. After the Romans withdrew from the island, in the fifth century, +the art was comparatively neglected, and gradually declined, until the +reign of Edward III. This monarch invited into his dominions workmen +from Flanders, in which country the manufacture had, for a long time, +been in a flourishing condition. + +30. Shortly after the first immigration of the Flemish manufacturers +into England, an act was passed prohibiting the wearing of cloths made +in any other country; and, in the time of Elizabeth, the manufacture +had become so extensive, that the exportation of the raw material was +forbidden by law. + +31. It is supposed that there are now, in Great Britain, thirty +millions of sheep; whose annual produce of wool is worth, on an +average, about seven millions of pounds sterling; to this may be added +five millions of pounds weight from foreign countries. This amount is +increased in value, by manufacturing skill, to twenty or thirty +millions of pounds. Not less than three millions of persons are +supposed to be employed in this branch of British industry. + +32. Both the woollen and cotton manufactures have arisen to great +importance, of late years, in the United States; and, from the +mechanical skill of our countrymen, the abundance of the raw material, +and the vast amount of water-power, there is every reason to +anticipate a rapid and continual increase in these divisions of +American enterprise. + + +THE SILK-WORM. + +1. Silk is the production of a worm, of the caterpillar species, +which, in due course, passes through several transformations, and at +length becomes a butterfly, like others of the genus. It is produced +from an egg, and when about to die, or rather again to change its +form, spins for itself an envelope, called _a cocoon_. The worm then +changes to a chrysalis, and, after remaining in this state from 5 to 8 +days, the butterfly, or moth, comes out, forcing its way through the +cocoon. The moths, or butterflies, eat nothing, and die as soon as +they have provided for the propagation of their species. Enough of +these are suffered to come to maturity, to provide a sufficient stock +of eggs. The rest are killed, in a few days after they have spun their +task, either by heating them in an oven, or by exposing them to the +rays of the sun. + +2. The fibres are wound upon a reel. To render this practicable, the +cocoons are put into water heated to a suitable temperature, which +dissolves the gummy substance that holds the fibres together. A number +of threads being detached, and passed through a hole in an iron bar, +form, by the aid of the remaining glutinous matter, one thread, which +is wound upon a reel into skeins. + +3. The raw silk, thus produced and prepared, is sold to the +manufacturers, who twist and double the fibres variously, and finally +form them into threads for sewing; or weave them into a great variety +of fabrics, which are too well known to need particular description +here. + +4. According to the ancients, the silk-worm was originally a native of +China, and the neighboring parts of Asia, and had there been +domesticated for a long time, before it was known in Europe. For many +years after silk was sold among the nations of the West, even the +merchants were ignorant of both the manner and place of its +production. + +5. The Greeks became acquainted with silk, soon after the time of +Alexander the Great; and the Romans knew little of the article, until +the reign of Augustus. Dresses, composed entirely of this material, +were seldom worn; but the fabrics which had been closely woven in the +East, were unravelled, and the threads were recomposed in a looser +texture, intermixed with linen or woollen yarn. + +6. The prodigal Hehogabalus is said to have been the first individual, +in the Roman empire, who wore a robe of pure silk. It is also stated, +that the Emperor Aurelian refused his wife a garment of this +description, on account of its exorbitant price. At that time, as well +as at previous periods, it usually sold for its weight in gold. + +7. A kind of gauze, originally made by the women on the island of Cos, +was very celebrated. It was dyed purple, with the substance usually +employed in communicating that colour in those days; but this was done +before it was woven, as in that state it was too frail to admit of the +process. Habits, made of this kind of stuff, were denominated "dresses +of glass:" because the body could be seen through them. + +8. The Roman empire had been supplied with silk through the medium of +the Persians, until the time of Justinian, in the year 555. This +emperor, having become indignant at the rapacity of the +silk-merchants, determined, if possible, to supply his people from the +insect itself. + +9. After many unsuccessful attempts, he at length obtained a small +quantity of the eggs from India, by the assistance of two Persian +monks, who had contrived to conceal them in the hollow of their +canes. The seeds of the mulberry-tree, on the leaves of which the worm +feeds, were also procured at the same time, together with instructions +necessary for the management of the worms. + +10. For six hundred years after the period just mentioned, the rearing +of these worms, in Europe, was confined to the Greek empire; but, in +the twelfth century, Roger, king of Sicily, introduced it into that +island, whence it gradually spread into Italy, Spain, France, and +other European countries. + +11. The silk-worm was introduced into England by James the First; but +it has never succeeded well in that country, on account of the +dampness and coldness of the climate. The manufacture of fabrics from +silk, however, is there very extensive, the raw material being +obtained, chiefly, from Bengal and Italy. In the latter of these +countries, in France, and other parts of Europe, as well as in Asia, +the manufacture is also extensive. + +12. Some attention has been paid to the rearing of silk-worms in the +United States, and attempts have been made to introduce the +manufacture of silks. The mulberry has been planted in various parts +of the Union; and it is highly probable, that, in a few years, we +shall be able to obtain excellent silks, without sending for them to +foreign countries. + + + + +[Illustration: DYER.] + +THE DYER, AND THE CALICO-PRINTER. + + +THE DYER. + +1. The art of dyeing consists in impregnating flexible fibres with any +color which may be desired, in such a manner, that it will remain +permanent, under the common exposures to which it may be liable. + +2. The union of the coloring matter with the fibres receiving the dye, +is purely chemical, and not mechanical, as in the case of the +application of paints. Wool has the greatest attraction for coloring +substances; silk comes next to it; then cotton; and, lastly, hemp and +flax. These materials, also, absorb dye-stuffs in different +proportions. + +3. Previous to the application of the dye, the greasy substance which +covers the fibres of wool, and the gluey matter on those of silk, are +removed by some kind of alkali. Their natural color is, also, +discharged by the fumes of sulphur. The resinous matter and natural +color of cotton and linen, are removed by bleaching. + +4. The materials used in dyeing are divided into two +classes--_substantive_ and _adjective_. The former communicates +durable tints without the aid of any other substance previously +applied; the latter requires the intervention of some agent which +possesses an attraction for both the coloring matter and the stuff to +be dyed, in order to make the color permanent. The substances used for +this purpose are usually termed _mordants_. + +5. Agents capable of acting in some way as mordants, are very +numerous; but _alumina_, _alum_, the _sulphate_ or _acetate of iron_, +the _muriate of tin_, and _nut-galls_, are principally employed. The +mordant not only fixes the color, but, in many cases, alters and +improves the tints. It is always dissolved in water, in which the +stuffs are immersed, previous to the application of the dye. Dyeing +substances are also very numerous; but a few of the most important +have, in practice, taken precedence of the others. + +6. Blue, red, yellow, and black, are the chief colors, for which +appropriate coloring substances are applied; but, by a judicious +combination of these same materials, and by a proper application of +mordants, intermediate hues of every shade are produced; thus, a green +is communicated by forming a blue ground of indigo, and then adding a +yellow by means of quercitron bark. + +7. The _blue dye_ is made of indigo; the _red dye_, of madder, +cochineal, archil, Brazil-wood, or safflowers; the _yellow dye_, of +quercitron bark, turmeric, hickory, weld, fustic, or saffron; the +_black dye_, of the oxide of iron combined with logwood, or the bark +of the common red, or soft maple, and the sulphate or acetate of +iron. The dyes made of some of these substances require the aid of +mordants, and those from others do not. + +8. In communicating the intermediate hues, the different dye-stuffs +forming the leading colors, are sometimes mixed; and, at other times, +they are made into separate dyes, and applied in succession. + +9. In this country, the business of the dyer is often united with that +of the clothier; but, where the amount of business will justify it, as +in manufactories, and in cities or large towns, it is a separate +business. The dyers sometimes confine their attention to particular +branches. Some dye wool only or silk, while others confine themselves +to certain colors, such as scarlet and blue. The principal profits of +the dyer, when unconnected with manufacturing establishments, arise +from dyeing garments or stuffs which have been partly worn. + +10. The origin of the art of dyeing is involved in great obscurity, as +the ancients have not furnished even a fable, which might guide us in +our researches. It is evident, however, that the art must have made +considerable progress, long before authentic history begins. Moses +speaks of stuffs dyed blue, purple, and scarlet, and of sheep-skins +dyed red. The knowledge of the preparation of these colors, implies an +advanced state of the art, at that early period. + +11. Purple was the favorite color of the ancients, and appears to have +been the first which was brought to a state of tolerable perfection. +The discovery of the mode of communicating it, is stated to have been +accidental. A shepherd's dog, while on the sea-shore, incited by +hunger, broke a shell, the contents of which stained his mouth with a +beautiful purple; and the circumstance suggested the application of +the shell-fish, as a coloring substance. This discovery is thought to +have been made about fifteen hundred years before the advent of +Christ. + +12. The Jews esteemed this color so highly, that they consecrated it +especially to the service of the Deity, using it in stuffs for +decorating the tabernacle, and for the sacred vestments of the +high-priests. The Babylonians and other idolatrous nations clothed +their idols in habits of purple, and even supposed this color capable +of appeasing the wrath of the gods. + +13. Among the heathen nations of antiquity generally, purple was +appropriated to the use of kings and princes, to the exclusion of +their subjects. In Rome, at a later period, purple habits were worn by +the chief officers of the republic, and, at length, by the opulent, +until the emperors reserved to themselves the distinguished privilege. + +14. There were several kinds of shell-fish, from which this coloring +substance was obtained, each of which communicated a shade somewhat +different from the others. The kind collected near Tyre was the best; +and hence the Tyrian purple acquired especial celebrity. So highly was +it esteemed by the Romans, in the time of Augustus, that wool imbued +with this color was sold for one thousand denarii per pound, which, in +our currency, amounts to one hundred and sixty-eight dollars. + +15. After all, the boasted purple of antiquity is supposed to have +been a very inferior dye, when compared with many which we now +possess; and this is only one among many instances, wherein modern +science has given us a decided superiority over the ancients. + +16. The color, second in repute with the people of antiquity, was +scarlet. This color was communicated by means of an insect, called +_coccus_, and which is now denominated _kermes_. Besides the various +hues of purple and scarlet, several others were in some degree of +favor; such as green, orange, and blue. The use of vegetable dyes +appears to have been but little known to the Romans; but the Gauls had +the knowledge of imparting various colors, even the purple and +scarlet, with the juice of certain herbs. + +17. The irruption of the northern barbarians into the Roman empire, +destroyed this, with the rest of the arts of civilization, in the +western parts of Europe; but, having been preserved, more or less, in +the East, it was again revived in the West, principally by means of +the intercourse arising from the Crusades. + +18. Although indigo seems to have been known to the ancient Greeks and +Romans, yet it does not appear to have been used for dyeing. The first +that was applied to this purpose in Europe, was brought from India by +the Dutch; but its general use was not established without much +opposition from interested individuals. It was strictly prohibited in +England, in the reign of Elizabeth, and, about the same time, in +Saxony. Many valuable acquisitions were made to the materials employed +in this art, on the discovery of America, among which may be +enumerated, cochineal, logwood, Brazil-wood, and Nicaragua, together +with the soft maple and quercitron barks. + +19. The first book on the art of dyeing was published in 1429. This, +of course, appeared in manuscript, as the art of printing had not then +been discovered. An edition was printed in 1510. The authors to whom +the world is most indebted for correct information on this subject, +are Dufuy, Hallet, Macquir, and Berthollet, of France; and Henry and +Bancroft, of England; all of whom wrote in the eighteenth century. + + +THE CALICO-PRINTER. + +1. Calico-printing is a combination of the arts of dyeing, engraving, +and printing, wherewith colors are applied in definite figures. This +art is applicable to woven fabrics, and chiefly to those of which the +material is cotton. + +2. The first object, after preparing the stuffs, as in dyeing, is to +apply a _mordant_ to those parts of the piece which are to receive the +color. This is now usually done by means of a steel or copper +cylinder, on which have been engraved the proposed figures, as on +plates for copperplate-printing. + +3. During the printing, the cylinder, in one part of its revolution, +becomes charged with the mordant, the superfluous part of which is +scraped off by a straight steel edge, leaving only the portion which +fills the lines of the figures. As the cylinder revolves, the cloth +comes into forcible contact with it, and receives the complete +impression of the figures, in the pale color of the mordant. + +4. The cloth, after having been washed and dried, is passed through +the _coloring bath_, in which the parts previously printed, become +permanently dyed with the intended color. Although the whole piece +receives the dye, yet, by washing the cloth, and bleaching it on the +grass in the open air, the color is discharged from those parts not +impregnated with the mordant. + +5. By the use of different mordants, successively applied, and a +single dye, several colors are often communicated to the same piece of +cloth; thus, if stripes are first made with the acetate of alumina, +and then others with the acetate of iron, a coloring bath of madder +will produce red and brown stripes. The same mordants, with a dye of +quercitron bark, give yellow and olive or drab. + +6. Sometimes, the second mordant is applied by means of engravings on +wooden blocks. Cuts, designed for this purpose, are engraved on the +_side_ of the grain, and not on the _end_, like those for printing +books. + +7. Calico-printing, so far as chemical affinities are concerned, is +the same with dyeing. The difference consists, chiefly, in the mode of +applying the materials, so as to communicate the desired tints and +figures. The dye-stuffs, most commonly employed by calico-printers, +are indigo, madder, and quercitron bark; by a dexterous application of +these and the mordants, a great variety of colors can be produced. +Indigo, being a substantive color, does not require the aid of +mordants, but, like them, when other dyes are used, is applied +directly to the cloth, sometimes by the engraved cylinder or block, +and at others with the pencil by hand. + +8. Calico-printing was practised in India twenty-two centuries ago, +when Alexander the Great visited that country with his victorious +army. The operation was then performed with a pencil. This method is +still used in the East to the exclusion of every other. The art was +also practised in Egypt in Pliny's time. + +9. Calicoes were first brought to England in the year 1631. They +derive their name from the city of Calicut, whence they were first +exported to Europe. This branch of business was introduced into London +in the year 1676. Since that time, it has been encouraged by several +acts of Parliament; but it never became extensive in England, until +the introduction of machinery for spinning cotton. It is supposed, +that the amount of cottons annually printed in the United States, +cannot be less than twenty millions of yards. + + + + +[Illustration: HATTER.] + +THE HATTER. + + +1. The business, peculiar to the hatter, consists in making hats from +the fur or hair of animals, by the process called _felting_. The hair +of animals is the only material which can be firmly matted together in +this way; yet, that of every animal is not suitable for this purpose. +The fur of the beaver, the otter, the seal, the muskrat, the rabbit, +the hare, the coney, and the nutria, together with the wool of the +lama, sheep, and camel, are employed to the exclusion of almost every +other. + +2. The skin of all animals having fur, is covered with two kinds of +hair; the one, long and coarse; the other, short, fine, and thickly +set. The coarse hair is pulled out from the skin, by the aid of a +shoe-knife, and thrown away, while the fine, which is the fur, is cut +from it with one of a circular form, such as the saddlers and +harness-makers use in cutting leather. + +3. In the application of the materials, the first object of the hatter +is to make the _body_. In the common three, four, and five dollar +hats, the body is composed of the wool of the sheep; but, in those of +greater value, it is usually made of the wool of the lama, and +different kinds of cheap furs. In describing the process of making +hats, one of the latter kind will be selected. + +4. A sufficient quantity of the materials for the body is weighed out, +and divided into two equal parts. One of these is placed on a table, +or, as the hatters call it, a _hurl_. The individual hairs composing +this portion, are separated, and lightly and regularly spread out into +a proper form, by the vibrations of a bow-string, which is plucked +with a wooden pin. + +5. The fur is then carefully compressed with a flat piece of +wicker-work, denominated a hatter's basket, and covered with a damp +piece of linen cloth, in which it is afterwards folded, pressed, and +worked, with the hands, until it becomes matted together into a _bat_. +This bat is next folded over a triangular piece of paper, and formed +into a conical cap. + +6. When another bat has been made in the same way, from the other half +of the materials, the two are put together to form one, which is then +worked in the damp cloth as before, until it is much contracted and +matted together. After this, having been conveyed to another room, it +is rolled in a woollen cloth, pressed, rubbed, and worked, with the +hands and a rolling-pin, around a kettle of hot water, into which it +is often plunged during the operation, which is called _planking_. + +7. In this way, the materials are consolidated into _felt_, and the +body contracted to the proper size. The reason why the process just +described produces this effect, may be found in the nature of the +fibres themselves. Upon a close examination, it will be observed, that +these are covered with little scales, or beards, which admit of motion +in one direction, but retard it in the other. This peculiar formation +causes them to interlock in such a way as to become closely matted +together. + +8. When the body has been dried, and shaved on the knee with a sharp +knife, to free it from projecting filaments, it is stiffened with +gum-shellac dissolved in alcohol, and then steamed in a box, to cause +the stiffening _to set_. It is now prepared for being _napped_. + +9. The fur for the _nap_ is prepared on the hurl, like the conical cap +first described. In applying the nap to the body, the latter is wet +with hot water, and _flakes_ of the former are matted down upon it, by +working it on the planks around the kettle. After three layers have +been put on in this way, the cap is beaten, while wet, with sticks, to +raise the nap, and then drawn over a cylindrical block, which gives it +the general form of a hat. + +10. The nap having been raised with a card, the hat is prepared to be +colored. The dye is made, chiefly, of the extract of logwood, +copperas, and verdigris. The hats, to the number of forty-eight or +more, are hung upon a wheel by means of pegs, which pass through the +centre of the blocks. This wheel can be turned, so as to keep one half +of the hats alternately in the dye. After having been properly +colored, they are taken from the blocks, washed, and dried. + +11. The hat is now prepared for the _finisher_, who first whips up the +nap with a ratan, and, after having rendered it pliable with steam, +draws it over the _finishing block_. The fibres composing the nap, are +properly disposed with a card and brush, and rendered smooth and +glossy by means of a hot iron. The superfluous part of the rim is cut +off with a blade, placed in a gauge. The hat is finished by adding +suitable trimmings, the nature of which, and the mode of application, +can be easily learned by examining different kinds of hats. + +12. Hats of various colors have been worn; but those most in use are +black, white, and drab. The white hats, which are intended only for +ladies and children, have a nap of rabbits' fur, selected from the +white skins. Drab hats are also made of stuffs of the natural color, +assorted for that purpose. + +13. The value of hats depends, of course, upon the workmanship, and +the cost of the materials used in the manufacture. So great is the +difference in these respects, that their price ranges between +seventy-five cents and fifteen dollars. The woollen bodies used by +hatters are now often procured from persons, who devote their +attention exclusively to their manufacture. + +14. Several years ago, woollen cloths were made in England, by the +process of felting; but, on trial, they were found to be deficient in +firmness and durability. Since the year 1840, an American citizen has +been manufacturing cloths by this method; but, whether they are liable +to the objection just mentioned, is yet uncertain. + +15. Some kind of covering for the head, either for defence or +ornament, appears to have been usually worn in all ages and countries, +where the inhabitants have made the least progress in the arts of +civilized life. + +16. The form, substance, and color, of this article of dress, have +been exceedingly various in different ages, according to the +circumstances or humor of the wearer. The ancient Persians wore +turbans, similar to those of the modern Turks; and the nations +inhabiting the Indian Peninsula, wore a kind of head-dress so large, +that it divested the person of all proportion. + +17. The imperial turban is said to have been composed of a great many +yards of muslin, twisted and formed into a shape nearly oval, and +surmounted with a woollen cap, encircled with a radiated crown. The +turban of the prime minister was smaller in its dimensions, but of +greater altitude. The chief magi, on account of his superior eminence, +wore a higher turban than those of the monarch and minister united. +Those worn by the inferior magi, were regulated by the dignity of the +stations which they held. + +18. The Jewish people and the neighboring nations borrowed the turban +from the Persians; but, at a later period, they very commonly adopted +the cap which the Romans were accustomed to give to their slaves, on +their manumission. + +19. The ancient helmet, made of steel, brass, and sometimes of more +costly materials, was worn as a piece of defensive armor in war, +instead of the ordinary coverings, used while engaged in peaceful +occupations. + +20. Roman citizens went bare-headed, except upon occasions of sacred +rites, games, and festivals; or when engaged in travelling or in war. +They were accustomed, however, in the city, to throw over their head +the lappet of their toga, as a screen from the wind or sun. The people +of Scotland used to wear a kind of bonnet, as in some parts of that +country they do at the present time; and the English, before the +invention of felt hats, covered the head with knit caps and cloth +hoods, and sometimes with hats made of thrummed silk. + +21. The Chinese do not wear hats, but use a cap of peculiar structure, +which the laws of civility will not allow them to put off in public. +The form and material of this is varied with the change of the +season. That used in summer is shaped like a cone, is made of a +beautiful kind of mat, and lined with satin; to this is added, at the +top, a large tuft of red silk, which falls all round to the lower part +of the cap, and which fluctuates gracefully on all sides, while the +wearer is in motion. The kind worn in winter is made of shaggy cloth, +bordered with some kind of fur, and ornamented in a similar manner. + +22. Head-dresses, from their variety, simplicity, and mutability, were +but little regulated by commercial or manufacturing interests, until +the introduction of felt hats, which has occasioned a uniformity in +this article of dress, unknown in former ages. + +23. Curiosity is naturally excited to become acquainted with the +particulars of the invention of the hat, and the subsequent stages of +improvement in the manufacture. But the operation of individual +interest, so generally connected with the useful arts, seems to have +concealed the whole in obscurity; and little information on the +subject can now be obtained. + +24. The hatters have a tradition, that the art of felting originated +with St. Clement, the fourth bishop of Rome. Under this impression, in +Catholic countries, they adopt him as their patron saint, and hold an +annual festival in his honor. The principle of felting is said to have +been suggested to his mind by the following circumstance; while +fleeing from his persecutors, his feet became blistered, and, to +obtain relief, he placed wool between them and his sandals. On +continuing his journey, the wool, by the perspiration, motion, and +pressure of the feet, assumed a compact form. + +25. Notwithstanding this tradition, it appears, that felt hats were +invented at Paris, by a Swiss, about the commencement of the fifteenth +century; but they were not generally known, until Charles the Seventh +made his triumphal entry into Rouen, in the year 1492, when he +astonished the people by wearing a hat, lined with red silk, and +surmounted with a plume of feathers. + +26. When some of the clergy first adopted this article of dress, it +was considered an unwarrantable indulgence. Councils were held, and +regulations published, forbidding any priest or monk to appear abroad +wearing a hat; and enjoining them to keep to the use of chaperons, or +hoods, made of black cloth, with decent cornets; if they were poor, +they were, at least to have cornets fastened to their hats, upon +penalty of suspension and excommunication. + +27. At length, however, the pope permitted even the cardinals to wear +hats; but, enjoined them to wear those of a red color at public +ceremonials, in token of their readiness to spill their blood for +their religion. + +28. In England, considerable opposition was made to the use of the +hat. By a statute, enacted in the thirteenth year of the reign of +Elizabeth, every person between certain ages was obliged, on Sundays +and holidays, to wear a woollen cap, made by some of the cappers of +that kingdom, under the penalty of three shillings and four-pence for +every day's neglect. This law continued in force, for about +twenty-five years. The manufacture of hats was commenced, in England, +in the time of Henry the Eighth, by Dutchmen and Spaniards. + +29. Hats made of plaited straw, grass, or chip, are much used in the +summer; and caps of cloth or fur are now frequently substituted for +hats, in cold weather. Silk hats have also been much worn, since the +year 1825. They are made of the common hat body, and a texture of silk +with a long nap. The silk is fastened to the body with glue. + + + + +[Illustration: ROPE MAKER.] + +THE ROPE-MAKER. + + +1. Ropes may be made of any vegetable substance which has a fibre +sufficiently flexible and tenacious. The Chinese and other orientals, +in making ropes, use the ligneous parts of certain bamboos and reeds, +the fibrous covering of the cocoa-nut, the filaments of the cotton +pod, and the leaves of certain grasses; but the bark of plants and +trees, is the most productive of fibrous matter suitable to this +manufacture. That of the linden-tree, the willow, and the bramble is +frequently used. In Europe and America, however, the fibres of hemp +and flax are more frequently employed, for this purpose, than any +other material. + +2. The operations of rope-making are commonly performed in +_rope-walks_, which are sometimes more than a quarter of a mile in +length. These are usually covered with a slight shed, the nature and +appearance of which are well exhibited in the preceding picture. + +3. The first part of the process consists in spinning the material +into yarn. The principle on which this is effected, is the same as +that by which cotton or wool is drawn out and twisted into threads, +although the machinery, and the mode of operating, are different. + +4. The kind of wheel employed in spinning rope-yarn, is also exhibited +in the cut. A band passes around the periphery, and over the +semicircle above it, in which is placed a number of wheels, the pivots +of which terminate, on the other side, in a small hook. + +5. The spinner, having a quantity of the material properly disposed +about the waist, attaches a number of fibres to one of the hooks, +which, being put in motion by the band passing over the whirl, twists +them rapidly into yarn. The part already twisted draws along with it +more fibres from the bundle, and, as the spinner is regulating their +uniform arrangement, he walks backward towards the other end of the +walk. + +6. When the thread has been spun to the proposed length, the spinner +cries out to another, who immediately takes it off from the hook, +gives it to a third person, and, in turn, attaches his own fibres to +the same hook. In the meantime, the first spinner keeps fast hold of +the end of his yarn, to prevent it from untwisting or doubling; and, +as it is wound on the reel, proceeds up the walk, keeping the yarn of +an equal tension throughout. + +7. The second part of the process consists in forming the yarn into +various kinds of ropes. The component parts of cordage are called +strands; and the operation of uniting them with a permanent twist, is +called _laying_, when applied to small ropes, and _closing_, when +applied to cables or other large ropes. + +8. The simplest twist is formed of two strands. The thread used by +sail-makers, and pack-thread, furnish examples of this kind; but +cordage with two strands is not much used; that with three is the most +usual. Lines and cords less than one and a half inches in +circumference, are laid by means of the spinning-wheel. Preparatory to +this operation, the workman fastens the hither end of the yarns to +separate whirl-hooks, and the remote ends to the hook of a swivel, +called the _loper_. + +9. The strands having been properly distended, the spinning-wheel is +turned in the same direction as when twisting the yarns. A further +twisting of the strands, during this part of the process, is prevented +by the motion of the loper, which gives way to the strain, and, at the +same time, causes the strands to entwine about each other, and form a +cord. To prevent them from entwining too rapidly, an instrument is +interposed, which, from its form, is called the _top_. It has two or +more notches, which terminate at the apex, and a handle, called a +_staff_. As the top is moved from the loper to the wheel, it regulates +the degree of twist which the cord or rope is to receive. + +10. The principle on which large cordage is laid, or closed, is the +same, although some part of the machinery is different. The strands +for large ropes and cables are formed of many yarns, and require +considerable _hardening_. This cannot be done with whirls driven by a +wheel-band; it requires the power of a crank, turned by hand, or by +some other considerable force. The strands, also, when properly +hardened, become very stiff, and, when bent round the top, cannot +transmit force enough to close the unpliant rope: it is, therefore, +necessary that the loper, also, be moved by a crank. + +11. Cordage, which is to be exposed to the alternate action of air and +water, is usually tarred. The application of this substance is made, +in most cases, while the material is in a state of yarn. In effecting +this object, the threads are drawn through boiling tar, and then +passed between rollers, or through holes surrounded with oakum, to +remove the superfluous tar. In like manner, ropes and cables are +superficially tarred. + +12. Various improvements have been made in the machinery, for +performing the different operations of rope-making; but, these not +having been generally adopted, it is unnecessary to notice them more +particularly; especially, as they do not affect the general principles +of the art. + +13. Within a few years, cotton-yarn has been employed in the +manufacture of ropes; but this material has not yet been sufficiently +tested, to determine its fitness for the purpose. A kind of vegetable +fibre, brought from Manilla, and hence called Manilla hemp, is very +extensively applied in making ropes, and, for some purposes, is +preferred to other materials. + +14. The intestines of animals are composed of very powerful fibres, +and those of sheep and lambs are manufactured into what is called +_cat-gut_, for the use of musical instrument-makers, hatters, +watch-makers, and a variety of other artificers. Animal hair, as that +from the tail and mane of horses, is frequently employed as the +material for ropes; and such are durable, elastic, and impervious to +moisture. They, however, are not applicable in cases, where the rope +is subject to considerable friction. + +15. Hemp is cultivated in various parts of the world, and especially +in Russia, whence it is exported to other countries in great +quantities. It is also produced, to a considerable extent, in the +state of Kentucky, and in many other parts of the United States. Flax +is still more generally cultivated than hemp; but its chief +application is to the manufacture of cloth, as it does not answer well +for any cordage larger than a bed-cord. The formation of cloth from +hemp is also very common; and, in this case, the yarn for the coarse +cloths is spun on the rope-maker's wheel in the manner already +described. The cloth is generally used for making bags, +sacking-bottoms for beds, and sails for vessels. + +16. Rope-making is a manufacture of general utility, as cordage of +some kind is used more or less in every family in all civilized +communities; nor are there many trades capable of being carried on, +with convenience, without it. But the great utility of cordage, in all +its varieties, is most conspicuous in the rigging and equipment of +vessels; and the extensive demand for it, in this application, renders +rope-making one of the most important and extensive of the primitive +trades. + +17. Nor does the utility of cordage end with its application to the +purposes for which it was originally designed. Old ropes are converted +into oakum by untwisting and picking them to pieces. The oakum thus +produced is driven into the seams of vessels, to render them +water-tight. + +18. As regards the invention of this art, nothing can be gathered from +ancient records. We only know, in general, that cordage was in +considerable use among the nations of antiquity, especially among the +Greeks and Romans, who probably learned its application to rigging +vessels from the Phoenicians. + + + + +[Illustration: TAILOR.] + +THE TAILOR. + + +1. The business of the tailor consists, principally, in cutting out +and making clothes for men and boys, together with habits and cloaks +for ladies. It is usual for persons who carry on this business in +cities and large towns, to keep a stock of cloths and other stuffs +adapted to the season, which they make up into garments to the order +of customers. In such cases, they are termed _merchant tailors_. + +2. The operation, preparatory to cutting out the cloth for a garment, +is that of taking the measure of the person for whom it is designed. +This is done with a narrow strip of paper or parchment, and the +dimensions are either marked on the measure with the scissors, or +entered in a _pattern-book_ kept for the purpose. + +3. The cloth is cut to the proper shape, with a large pair of shears. +This is performed either by the individual who carries on the +business, or by a foreman. The parts are sewed together, and the +trimmings applied, by means of thread and silk; this is commonly done +by those who devote their attention to this branch of the trade. It +sometimes happens, however, that the same person performs the whole of +the work, particularly in country places, where the business is very +limited in extent. + +4. Females often serve an apprenticeship to this business. Many of +them learn to cut out, and make with skill, certain kinds of garments, +and are after wards employed in families, or by the tailors. Most of +the ready-made clothing, kept for sale in cities, is made up by +females. + +5. The instruments employed in performing the operations of the +tailor, are few and simple; the principal of these are the shears, the +scissors, the needle, the thimble, the bodkin, the goose, and the +press-board. + +6. The great art of a master tailor consists in fitting the dress to +his customer, in such a manner as to conceal any defect of form, and +display his person to the best advantage. He should, therefore, be a +good judge of the human figure; as, from this knowledge, arises, +chiefly, the superiority of one workman over another in this branch of +the business. + +7. The first hint on the art of clothing the human body, was given to +man by the Deity himself; for we read in the Scriptures, that "Unto +Adam and to his wife, the Lord God made coats of skins, and clothed +them." From that time to the present, the art of cutting out garments, +and of sewing their different parts together, has been practised, more +or less, in every place, where there has been any degree of +civilization. + +8. For a long time, it is probable, that thongs and the sinews of +animals were used, for want of thread made of silk or vegetable fibre; +and, doubtless, the same necessity caused the substitution of pointed +bones and thorns, instead of needles. Such rude materials and +instruments are still employed for similar purposes by savage nations. +The dresses of the people of Greenland are sewed together with thongs +made of the intestines of the seal, or of some fish, which they have +the skill to cut fine, after having dried them in the air; and even +the inhabitants of Peru, although considerably advanced in +civilization, when that country was first visited by the Spaniards, +made use of long thorns, in sewing and fixing their clothes. + +9. We have no means of determining the period of the world, when this +art was first practised, as a particular profession. We know, in +general, that the dress of the ancients was usually more simple in its +construction than that of the people of modern times; and, +consequently, it required less skill to put the materials in the +required form. It may, therefore, be inferred, that either the females +or the slaves of each family usually made up the clothing of all its +members. + +10. The distinguishing dress of the Romans was the _toga_, or gown; as +that of the Greeks was the _pallium_, or cloak. The toga was a loose, +woollen robe, and covered nearly the whole person; it was round and +close at the bottom, and open at the top, having no sleeves, but a +large flap, or lappet, which was either thrown over the left shoulder, +or over the head, to protect it from the heat or cold. + +11. The Romans, at an early period of their history, used no other +dress, and it was also, at that time, worn by the women. Afterwards, +they wore, under the toga, a white woollen vest called _tunica_, +which extended a little below the knee. At first it was without +sleeves. Tunics, reaching to the ancles, or having sleeves, were +reckoned effeminate; but, under the emperors, they became fashionable. + +12. The toga was usually assumed at the age of seventeen. Until then, +the youth wore a kind of gown, bordered with purple, denominated _toga +prætexta_; and such a garment was also worn by females, until they +were married. The youthful dress was laid aside, and the _toga +virilis_, or manly toga, assumed with great solemnity; as, by this +act, the individual assumed the responsibilities of a citizen. The +toga was worn chiefly in the city, and only by Roman citizens. + + + + +[Illustration: MILLINER.] + +THE MILLINER, AND THE LADY'S DRESS-MAKER. + + +THE MILLINER. + +1. The milliner is one who manufactures and repairs bonnets and hats +for ladies and children. Her business requires the use of pasteboard, +wire, buckram, silks, satins, muslins, ribands, artificial flowers, +spangles, and other materials too numerous to be mentioned. + +2. The first part of the process of making a hat, or bonnet, consists +in forming a crown of buckram; which operation is performed on a block +of suitable size and shape; and to this is applied pasteboard, or +buckram, edged with wire, to form the front part. The foundation +having been thus laid, it is usually covered and lined with some of +the materials just enumerated, and finished by applying to it the +trimmings required by the fashion, or by the individual customer. + +3. Ladies' hats are also made of rye straw, and a kind of grass, which +grows in Italy; those made of the latter material are called +_Leghorns_, from the name of the city, in or near which they are +principally made. A few years since, these had almost superseded those +made of straw; but the latter, of late, have nearly regained their +former ascendency. + +4. In the United States, and likewise in various parts of Europe, +there are several establishments for making straw hats, in which the +proprietors employ females to perform the whole labor. The straw is +first cut into several pieces, so as to leave out the joints, and then +whitened by smoking them with the fumes of brimstone. They are next +split longitudinally into several pieces by a simple machine, and +afterwards plaited with the fingers and thumbs. The braid, or plait, +thus produced, is sewn together to form hats adapted to the prevailing +fashion. + +5. Great quantities of straw are, also, plaited in families, +especially in the New-England states, and sold to neighboring +merchants, who, in turn, dispose of it to those who form it into hats. +The milliners usually keep a supply of Leghorn and straw hats, which +they line and trim according to the fancy of their customers. + +6. Head-dresses were probably used nearly as early as any other part +of dress; and their form and material have likewise been equally +variable. In the early days of Rome, the head-dress of the women of +that city was very simple; and, when they went abroad, which was +seldom, they covered their faces with a veil; but, when riches and +luxury had increased, dress became, with many, the principal object of +attention; hence, a woman's toilet and ornaments were called her +_world_. + +7. The head-dresses of the ladies, in various parts of Europe, +especially in the eighteenth century, were particularly extravagant, +being sometimes so high, that the face seemed to be nearly in the +centre of the body. In 1714, this fashion was at its height in France; +but two English ladies visiting the court of Versailles, introduced +the low head-dresses of their own country. + +8. The high head-dresses had no sooner fallen into disuse in France, +than they were adopted in England, and even carried to a greater +degree of extravagance. To build one of these elevated structures in +the fashionable style, both the barber and milliner were necessary. +The head-dresses of the ladies of the present age, are characterized +by great simplicity, when compared with those of several periods in +preceding ages. + + +THE LADY'S DRESS-MAKER. + +1. This business is nearly allied to the foregoing, and is, therefore, +often carried on in conjunction with it. This is especially the case +in villages and small towns, where sufficient business cannot be +obtained in the exclusive pursuit of one branch. + +2. The customers of the lady's dress-maker are not always easily +pleased, as they frequently expect more from her skill than it is +possible to accomplish. She, however, can do much towards concealing +the defects of nature; and, by padding and other means, can sometimes +render the person tolerably well proportioned, when, in its natural +shape, it would be quite inelegant. It is to be regretted, however, +that dress-makers are guided by fashion and whim in moulding the +external form of females, rather than by the best specimens of the +human figure, as exhibited by eminent painters and sculptors. + +3. The dress-maker should have some acquaintance with the anatomy and +functions of those parts to which pressure is usually applied; for, +who that knows the structure, size, and office of the liver, and other +internal organs of digestion and vitality, would venture to apply to +them a compressive force calculated to interfere most seriously, if +not dangerously, with their healthful action? + +4. The fashions for ladies' dresses are chiefly procured from France, +and the dress-makers from that country are, therefore, often preferred +by fashionable ladies. Sometimes, however, a dress-maker, having a +name with a French termination, will answer the purpose. + +5. Corset-making is frequently a separate branch of business; but +corsets have become less necessary; inasmuch as small waists are less +admired by the gentlemen than formerly. On this account, also, the +ladies have discovered that tight lacing is somewhat uncomfortable, +especially in hot weather, and in crowded assemblies. + + + + +[Illustration: BARBER.] + +THE BARBER. + + +1. It is the business of the barber to cut and dress the hair, to make +wigs and false curls, and to shave the beards of other men. In ancient +times, he used also to trim the nails; and even at the present day, in +Turkey, this is a part of his employment. + +2. The period, when men began to shave their beards, is not certainly +known. It appears that the practice was common among the Israelites in +the time of Moses; as that legislator has left on record a prohibitory +law concerning it. They probably borrowed the custom from the +Egyptians. It is stated by Plutarch, that Alexander the Great ordered +his men to be shaved, that their enemies might not lay hold of their +beards in time of battle. Before this time, however, many of the +Greeks shaved their beards. + +3. The practice does not appear to have been introduced amongst the +ancient Romans, until about the year 296 before the Christian era, +when Paulus Ticinius Mænas brought to Rome a number of barbers from +Sicily. Scipio Africanus was the first man who shaved his beard every +day. + +4. At first, the barbers had no shops, but shaved their customers at +the corners of the streets. After a while, they followed their +vocation in shops, or shades; and, at this period, it was customary +for females to officiate in the various branches of the art. These +places, however, were frequented only by the poorer class of the +people, as opulent families generally kept slaves for the performance +of these duties. The day on which a young Roman first cut off his +beard, was celebrated by him and his friends as one of peculiar +interest; and this much-desired indication of manhood was consecrated +to some one of the gods, generally to Jupiter Capitolinus. + +5. The return of barbarism, in the fifth and sixth centuries, banished +this custom from the Western empire; nor was it again revived in +Europe, until the seventeenth century. During the reigns of Louis +XIII. and Louis XIV. of France, both of whom ascended the throne in +boyhood, the courtiers and fashionable people began to use the razor, +that they might appear with smooth chins, and thus resemble, in this +particular, the youthful monarchs. From France, the fashion, at +length, spread all over Europe. At one time, in the reign of the +English queen Elizabeth, the fellows of Lincoln's Inn were compelled +by statute to shave their beards, at least, once in two weeks. +Omission was punished with fine, loss of commons, and finally with +expulsion. + +6. The custom of shaving was introduced into Russia by Peter the +Great, who compelled his subjects to pay a tax for the privilege of +retaining their beards. This singular impost was exceedingly +unpopular, and excited greater complaints amongst the people than any +other measure of that emperor. The decree was rigidly enforced, and +every one who would not, or could not, pay the tax, was forcibly +deprived of this favorite ornament, if he would not remove it +voluntarily. Some of the people saved the sad trimmings of their +chins; and, that they might never be entirely separated from these +precious relics, ordered that they should be deposited with their +bodies in their coffins. + +7. Among the European nations that have been curious in whiskers, the +Spaniards have been particularly distinguished; and the loss of honor +among them used to be punished by depriving the individual of his +whiskers. + +8. The Portuguese were but little, if at all, behind the Spaniards in +their estimate of these valuable ornaments. As an evidence of this, it +is stated, that, in the reign of Catharine, Queen of Portugal, the +brave John de Castro, having taken the castle of Diu in India, and +being afterwards in want of money, applied to the inhabitants of Goa +to loan him one thousand piastres, and, as security for that sum, sent +them one of his whiskers, telling them that "All the gold in the world +cannot equal the value of this natural ornament of my valor." The +people, in admiration of his magnanimity, sent him the money, and, at +the same time, returned his incomparable whisker. + +9. In the reign of Louis XIII. of France, whiskers attained the +highest degree of favor. They also continued in fashion during the +early part of the succeeding reign. Louis XIV. and the great men of +France, took a pride in wearing them. It was no uncommon thing, at +that time, for the ladies to comb and dress the whiskers of their +beaux; and the men of fashion were particular in providing +whisker-wax, and every article necessary to this agreeable pastime. + +10. The whiskers belonging to the image of the Chinese philosopher +Confucius, which is preserved by his countrymen, are supposed to be +capable of conferring upon those who might wear them, a portion of the +wisdom and manly beauty of that illustrious sage. Great care, however, +is taken that none shall enjoy these great personal qualifications by +such easy means; as decapitation is the penalty for plucking the +whiskers from the position which they occupy. + +11. When the practice of shaving off the beard was again revived in +Europe, instrumental music was employed in the barber's shop, to amuse +customers waiting their turn; but, at the present time, newspapers are +furnished for this purpose. In taking off the beard, soft water, good +soap, a brush, and a sharp razor, are the usual requisites. The razor +should be placed nearly flat on the face, and be moved from point to +heel. Barbers have usually some regular customers, many of whom have a +box of soap and a brush appropriated to their individual use. + +12. In ancient times, great attention was paid to dressing the hair. +The Hebrew women plaited, and afterwards confined it with gold and +silver pins; they also adorned it with precious stones. The Greeks, +both male and female, at every period of their ancient history, wore +long hair, which they usually permitted to hang gracefully upon the +shoulders, back, and sometimes upon the breast. + +13. Adult males, among the Romans, usually wore their hair short, and +dressed with great care, especially in later ages, when attention to +this part of the person was carried to such excess, that ointments and +perfumes were used even in the army. The hair was cut for the first +time, when the boy had attained his seventh year, and the second time, +when he was fourteen years old. His locks, at each cutting, were +commonly dedicated to Apollo or Bacchus. + +14. Both men and women, among the Greeks and Romans, sometimes +permitted their hair to grow in honor of some divinity. The Jews, +also, when under the vow of a Nazarite, were not permitted to trim +their hair or beards. In grief and mourning, the Romans suffered their +hair and beards to grow. The Greeks, on the contrary, when in grief, +cut their hair and shaved their beards, as likewise did some of the +barbarous nations of early time. + +15. Artificial hair began to be fashionable, at an early period, and +was used by the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. In the time of +Ovid, blond hair was in great favour at Rome; and those ladies who did +not choose to wear wigs, powdered their hair with a kind of gold dust. +They wore hanging curls all round the head, to which they were +fastened with circular pins of silver. Every wealthy Roman lady of +fashion kept at least one slave to frizzle and curl the hair. + +16. The time, when wigs first came into use, cannot now be +ascertained. It is certain, however, that they were worn by females a +long time before they became fashionable among the men. + +17. Wigs, perukes, or periwigs, were revived in the seventeenth +century. In the reign of Louis XIII., or about the year 1629, they +became fashionable at Paris; and, as that city was generally imitated +by the rest of Europe in things of this nature, they soon became +common. The wigs were very large, as may be seen by examining ancient +portraits, and were covered with a profusion of hair-powder. At first, +it was disreputable for young people to wear them, as the loss of the +hair at an early age was attributed to a disease, which was, of +itself, discreditable. + +18. When wigs were first introduced into England, some of the clergy +opposed them violently, considering their use more culpable than +wearing long hair; since, as they alleged, it was more unnatural. Many +preachers inveighed against wigs in their sermons, and cut their own +hair shorter to manifest their abhorrence of the reigning mode. + +19. The worldly-wise, however, observed that a periwig procured for +the wearer a degree of respect and deference which otherwise might not +have been accorded; and hence there was a strong tendency to the use +of this appendage. The judges and physicians, especially, understood +well this influence of the wig, and gave to it all the advantages of +length and breadth. The fashion, at length, was adopted by the +ecclesiastics themselves, not only in England, but in most of the +European kingdoms, as well as in the British colonies of America. + +20. The fashion, however, except in cases of baldness, wherein alone +it is excusable, is now nearly banished from Europe and America. This +desirable change was effected principally by the example of republican +America, and by the influence of the French Revolution. The law passed +in England in 1795, imposing a tax of a guinea a head per annum on +those who wore hair-powder, contributed to the same result, as well as +to diminish the use of that article. + +21. The manufacture of wigs and false curls is an important branch of +the business of the barber. The first process in forming a wig is to +produce, in the hair about to be used for this purpose, a disposition +to curl. This is done by winding it on a cylinder of wood or earth, +and afterwards boiling it in water. It is then dried, and baked in an +oven. Thus prepared, it is woven on a strong thread, and is +subsequently sewn on a caul fitted to the head. False curls are made +on the same principle. + +22. Wigs and false curls were not made in ancient times precisely in +the same manner; although their appearance, when finished, was +probably similar. The hair was then attached directly to a piece of +thin leather, by means of some adhesive substance, or composition. + +23. Many barbers, especially those who have a reputation for making +wigs and false curls in a fashionable style, keep for sale perfumery, +as well as a variety of cosmetics. + +24. From the eleventh to the eighteenth century, surgical operations +were almost exclusively performed by the barbers and bath-keepers. As +phlebotomy was one of the chief sources of profit to the barbers, they +adopted a sign emblematical of this operation. It consisted of a pole, +representing the staff which the individual held in his hand, while +the blood was flowing from the arm. The white band wound spirally +about the pole, represented the fillet of linen with which the arm was +afterwards secured. + +25. It is hardly necessary to remark, that the same sign is still +employed by the barbers; although, with a few exceptions, they have +ceased to perform the operation of which it was significant. + + + + +[Illustration: TANNER & CURRIER.] + +THE TANNER, AND THE CURRIER. + + +THE TANNER. + +1. The art of tanning consists in converting hides and skins into +leather, by impregnating them with astringent matter. + +2. It is impossible to determine the period at which the art of +tanning was discovered. It was doubtless known to the ancients, and +probably to the antediluvians, in some degree of perfection; since +skins were applied as means of clothing the human body, before the +arts of spinning and weaving were practised. It is likely, however, +that they were applied to this purpose, for a considerable time, in +their natural state; and that accident, at length, suggested the means +of rendering them more applicable, by saturating them with certain +mineral or vegetable substances. + +3. Although the art of converting skins into leather was practised in +remote ages, yet it was not until near the end of the eighteenth +century, that the true principle of the process was understood. Before +this time, it was supposed, that the astringent principle of the +agents employed, was a resinous substance, which adhered mechanically +to the fibres, and thus rendered them firm and insoluble. The correct +explanation was first given by Deyeux, and afterwards more fully +developed by M. Seguin. These chemists clearly proved, that the +formation of leather was the result of a chemical union between a +substance called tannin, and the gelatinous part of the skin. + +4. The subject, however, was not thoroughly understood, and reduced to +scientific principles, until the year 1803, when Sir Humphrey Davy +gave it a careful investigation, in a series of chemical experiments. +These inquiries resulted in the conviction, that the method of tanning +which had been in general use, may, with a few alterations, be +considered preferable to that by which the process is carried on with +more rapidity. + +5. The skin which envelopes the bodies of animals, consists of three +layers. That on the outside is a thin, white, elastic membrane, called +the _cuticle_, or _scarf skin_; that on the inside is a strong +membrane, denominated the _cutis_, or _true skin_; between these two +is a very thin membrane, to which anatomists have given the name _rete +mucosum_, and in which is situated the substance which gives color to +the animal. The cutis is composed of fibres, which run in every +direction, and, being by far the thickest layer, is the one that is +converted into leather. + +6. The skins of large animals, such as those of the ox and horse, are +denominated hides; and those of smaller animals, as of the calf, goat, +and sheep, are called skins. Of the former description, is made thick, +of the latter, thin leather. The process of tanning different skins +varies in many particulars, according to the nature of the leather, +and the uses to which it is to be applied. + +7. The general process of changing thick hides into sole-leather, is +as follows: They are first soaked in water, to free them from dirt and +blood; and then, if rigid, they are beaten and rubbed, or rolled under +a large stone, to render them pliable. They are next soaked in +lime-water, or hung up in a warm room, and smoked, until a slight +putrescency takes place. The hair, cuticle, rete mucosum, on one side, +and the fleshy parts on the other, are then scraped off, on a _beam_, +with a circular knife. + +8. Nothing now remains but the cutis, or true skin. Several hides, in +this state of preparation, are put together into a vat, for the +purpose of impregnating them with tannin. This substance is found in +astringent vegetables, and is obtained, in a proper state for +application, by infusion in water. In that condition, it is called +_ooze_, which is first applied in a weak state. + +9. After the ooze, of different degrees of strength, has been renewed +several times, they are put between layers of bark, and suffered to +remain several months, fresh bark, from time to time, being supplied. +The whole process generally occupies from twelve to sixteen months. +When strong solutions of tannin are used, the leather is formed in a +much shorter time; but, in that case, it is much more rigid, and more +liable to crack. It is rendered smooth and compact, by beating it with +a wooden beetle, or by passing it between rollers. + +10. Oak bark, on account of its cheapness, and the quantity of tannin +which it contains, is more extensively employed by tanners than any +other vegetable substance. In sections of country, where this kind +cannot be conveniently obtained, the bark of the hemlock, spruce, and +chestnut, the leaves of the sumach, and various other astringents, are +substituted. + +11. The process of tanning calf-skins is somewhat different in many of +its details. They are first put into a solution of lime, where they +remain during ten or fifteen days, and are then scraped on both sides +on the beam, with a circular knife, as in the former case, and for the +same purpose. They are then washed in water, and afterwards immersed +in an infusion of hen or pigeon's dung. Here they are left for a week +or ten days, according to the state of the weather and other +circumstances; during which time, they are frequently _handled_, and +scraped on both sides. By these means, the lime, oil, and saponaceous +matter, are discharged, and the skin is rendered pliable. + +12. They are next put into a vat containing weak ooze, and afterwards +removed to several others of regularly increasing strength. In the +mean time, they are taken up and handled every day, that they may be +equally acted upon by the tanning principle. The time occupied in the +whole process, is from two to six months. The light and thin sorts of +hides, designed for upper leather, harnesses, &c., are treated in a +similar manner. + +13. The tanner procures his hides and skins from various sources, but +chiefly from the butcher, and from individuals who kill the animals +for their own consumption. Great quantities of dry hides are also +obtained from South America, where cattle are killed in great numbers, +principally for the sake of this valuable envelope of their bodies. + + +THE CURRIER. + +1. It is the business of the currier to dress the thinner kinds of +leather. In most cases, in the United States, except in and near large +cities, the business of tanning and currying are usually united in the +same individual; or, at least, the two branches of business are +carried on together, by the aid of workmen, skilled in their +respective trades. + +2. The mode of dressing the different kinds of skins, varies in some +respects; but, as the general method of operating is the same in every +sort, a description applicable in one case will convey a sufficiently +accurate idea of the whole. We shall, therefore, select the calf-skin, +since it is more frequently the subject of the currier's skill than +any other. + +3. The skin is first soaked in water, until it has become sufficiently +soft, and then shaved with the _currier's knife_, on the inner side, +over the _currier's beam_. It is then placed on a table, somewhat +inclined from the workman, and scoured on both sides with the edge of +a narrow, smooth stone, set in a handle, and again, with an iron +_sleeker_ of a similar shape. The skin is next _stuffed_ with a +composition of tallow and tanner's oil, on the flesh side, and then +hung up to dry. Afterwards it is rubbed on the hair side with a board, +and again scraped on the flesh side with the knife. Having been thus +prepared, the skin is blacked on the flesh side with lampblack and +tanner's oil, and subsequently rubbed with paste, applied with a +brush. When it has been dried, the whole process is finished by +rubbing both sides with a glass sleeker. + +4. Horse hides are blacked on the hair side, or, as the curriers term +it, on the _grain_, with a solution of copperas water. Leather +designed for harnesses, for covering carriages, and for other similar +purposes, is also blacked on that side in the same manner. + +5. The trade of the currier is divided into two or three branches. +Some dress only calf-skins and other thick leather designed for shoes, +harnesses, and carriages; others confine themselves to dressing skins, +which are to be applied to binding books, and to other purposes +requiring thin leather. It may be well to remark here, that the +dressers of thin leather usually tan the skins themselves, using the +leaves of sumach, instead of bark. + + + + +[Illustration: SHOEMAKER.] + +THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER. + + +1. As the shoe is an article of primary utility, it was used, more or +less, in the earliest ages. Some writers suppose, that the Deity, in +clothing man with skins, did not leave him to go barefooted, but gave +him shoes of the same material. + +2. The shoes of the ancient Egyptians were made of the papyrus. The +Chinese, as well as the inhabitants of India, and some other nations +of antiquity, manufactured them from silk, rushes, linen, wood, the +bark of trees, iron, brass, silver, and gold, and sometimes ornamented +them with precious stones. + +3. The Romans had various coverings for the feet, the chief of which +were the _calceus_ and the _solea_. The calceus somewhat resembled the +shoe we wear at present, and was tied upon the instep with a latchet +or lace. The solea, or sandal, was a thick cork sole, covered above +and beneath with leather, and neatly stitched on the edge. It left the +upper part of the foot bare, and was fastened to it by means of +straps, which were crossed over the instep, and wound about the ankle. +Roman citizens wore the calceus with the toga, when they went abroad +in the city, while the solea was worn at home and on journeys. The +solea was also used at entertainments; but it was changed for the +calceus, when the guests were about to surround the table. + +4. The senators wore shoes, which came up to the middle of the leg, +and which had a golden or silver crescent on the top of the foot. The +shoes of the women were generally white, sometimes red, scarlet, or +purple, and were adorned with embroidery and pearls; but those of the +men were mostly black. On days of public ceremony, however, the +magistrates wore red shoes. + +5. Boots were used in very ancient times, and were primarily worn, as +a kind of armor, with a view of protecting the lower extremities in +battle. They were, at first, made of leather, afterwards of brass or +iron, and were proof against the thrusts and cuts of warlike weapons. +The boot was called _ocrea_ by the Romans, who, as well as the Greeks, +used it in the army, and in riding on horseback, and sometimes in +pedestrian journeys. + +6. The fashion of boots and shoes, like every other part of dress, has +been subject to a number of changes, as regards both their form and +material. In Europe, about one thousand years ago, the greatest +princes wore shoes with wooden soles. In the reign of William Rufus, +of England, the shoes of the great had long, sharp points, stuffed +with tow, and twisted like a ram's horn. The clergy preached against +this fashion; but the points continued to increase in length, until +the reign of Richard the Second, when they were tied to the knees with +chains of silver or gold. In the year 1463, Parliament interposed, and +prohibited the manufacture or use of shoes or boots with _pikes_ +exceeding two inches in length. + +7. Lasts adapted to each foot, commonly called _rights and lefts_, +were not introduced into England, until about the year 1785; nor was +cramping, or _crimping_, the front part of boots practised there for +ten years after that period. These improvements did not become +generally known, or, at least, were not much used, in the United +States, for many years after their adoption in Great Britain. + +8. Many facts, besides the preceding, might be adduced to prove, that +the art of making shoes and boots, although uninterruptedly practised +from the earliest ages, has received many important improvements +within the last fifty years. + +9. In Europe and America, boots and shoes are commonly made of +leather. In shoes for females, however, it is not unusual to use +prunello, which is a kind of twilled, worsted cloth. In all cases, +thick leather is used for the soles. + +10. The business of _making_ boots and shoes is carried on very +systematically in large establishments. The materials are cut out and +fitted by the foreman, or by the person who carries on the business, +whilst the pieces are stitched together, and the work finished, by +workmen who sit upon _the bench_. + +11. As a matter of convenience, the trade have fixed upon certain +sizes, which are designated by numbers; and, corresponding to these, +the lasts are formed by the last-maker; but, to be still more exact, +individuals sometimes procure lasts corresponding to their feet, on +which they cause their boots and shoes to be made. + +12. The following is a description of the process of making a leather +shoe: after the materials have been cut out according to the measure, +or size, and the parts of the _uppers_ have been stitched together, +the sole-leather is hammered on the _lapstone_, tacked to the last, +and trimmed with a knife. The upper leather is next stretched on the +last with a pair of pincers, fastened to its proper place with tacks, +and then sewed to the bottom of the sole with a waxed thread. A narrow +strip of leather, called a _welt_, is also fastened to the sole by +similar means, and to this is stitched another sole. A heel being +added, the shoe is finished by trimming and polishing it with +appropriate instruments. + +13. The edges of fine leather shoes and boots, are trimmed with thin +strips of the like material, whilst those of prunello, and other thin +shoes for ladies, are bound with narrow tape. The binding is applied +by females with thread, by means of a common needle. + +14. Shoe-thread is commonly spun from flax; that from hemp is much +stronger, and was formerly preferred; but it is now used only for very +strong work. The greater part of the shoe-thread used in the United +States, is spun by machinery, at Leeds, in England, from Russian flax. +The wax employed by shoemakers, was formerly composed of tar and +rosin; but it is now most usually made of pitch. + +15. The shoemaker, in sewing together different parts of his work, +uses threads of various sizes, which are composed of several small +threads of different lengths. A hog's bristle is fastened to each end +of it, which enables the workman to pass it with facility through the +holes made with the awl. + +16. An expeditious way of fastening the soles of boots and shoes to +the upper leathers, is found in the use of wooden pegs or brass nails. +The old method, however, is generally preferred, on several accounts; +but chiefly, because the work is more durable, and because it can be +more easily repaired. + +17. Journeymen working at this trade most usually confine their +labours to particular kinds of work; as few can follow every branch +with advantage. Some make shoes and boots for men; others confine +their labours to those designed for ladies; but, by their aid, the +master-shoemaker can, and usually does, supply every kind at his +store. + +18. It is no uncommon thing in the country, for the farmers to +purchase leather, and employ the shoemaker to make it up; and this is +done, in most cases, on their own premises. The shoemaker employed in +this way, removes from house to house, changing his location, whenever +he has completely served a whole family in his vocation. In such +cases, he is said, by the trade, to be _whipping the cat_. The set of +tools with which he operates, is called his _kit_. + +19. The shoemaker usually buys his leather from the manufacturer; and +procures his tools, tacks, and various other articles of a similar +nature, at the _finding stores_. In some cases, the shoemaker with +little or no capital, gets his materials from the _leather-cutter_, +who makes it a business to supply them ready cut to the proper size +and shape. There are, however, but few leather-cutters in our country; +but, in England, this branch of trade is one of considerable +importance, and is frequently connected with that of the +leather-dresser. + + + + +[Illustration: HARNESS MAKER &c.] + +THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER, AND THE TRUNK-MAKER. + + +THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER. + +1. The invention of the saddle has been attributed to the Selians, a +people of ancient Franconia. Under this impression, it has been +supposed that the Latins gave it the name of _sella_. The period at +which it was first used, cannot be ascertained. It is certain, +however, that the horse had been rendered subservient to man, several +centuries before this convenient article was thought of. + +2. At first, the rider sat upon the bare back of the animal, and +guided him with a switch, but afterwards with a strap put round the +nose. In the course of time, the rider came to use, upon the back of +the horse, the skins of beasts, in order to render his seat more +easy. The Greeks, and many other refined nations of antiquity, +sometimes used superb trappings, composed of cloth, leather, and skins +dressed with the hair on; and, in addition to the gold, silver, and +precious stones, with which these were ornamented, the horses were +often otherwise decked with bells, collars, and devices of various +kinds. + +3. The Romans, in the days of the republic, deemed it more manly to +ride on the bare back of the animal than on coverings. At a later +period, they used a kind of square pannel, without stirrups; and about +the year 340 of the Christian era, they began to ride on saddles. It +appears, that those first employed were very heavy, as the Emperor +Theodosius, in the same century, forbade the use of any which weighed +over sixty pounds. The use of saddles was established in England by +Henry the Seventh, who enjoined on his nobility the practice of riding +upon them. + +4. The frame of a saddle is called a _tree_. It is not made by the +saddlers, but by persons who confine their attention to this branch of +business. The trees are constructed of wood, with a small quantity of +iron, and covered with canvas. + +5. In making a common saddle, the workman first extends two strips of +_straining web_ from the pommel to the hinder part of the tree, and +fastens them with tacks. The tree is then covered on the upper side +with two thicknesses of linen cloth, between which a quantity of wool +is afterwards interposed. A covering of thin leather, usually made of +hog's-skin, is next tacked on, and the flaps added. Under the whole +are placed the pads and saddle-cloth; the former of which is made of +thin cotton or linen cloth, and thin leather, stuffed with hair. The +addition of four straps, two girths, two stirrup-leathers, and as many +stirrups, completes the whole operation. + +6. The roughness, or the little indentations in the flaps, are +produced by passing the leather between rollers, in contact with a +rough surface, or by beating it with a mallet, on the face of which +has been fastened a piece of the skin from a species of shark, +commonly called the dog-fish. + +7. Saddles are often covered with buckskin, curiously stitched into +figures, and having the spaces between the seams stuffed with wool; +this is particularly the case in side-saddles. The form of saddles, +and the quality of the materials, together with the workmanship, are +considerably varied, to suit the purposes to which they are to be +applied, and to accommodate the fancy of customers. + +8. The process of making bridles and harness for horses, is extremely +simple. The leather is first cut out with a knife of some description, +but usually with one of a crescent-like form, or with a blade set in a +gauge, and then stitched together with the kind of thread used by +shoemakers. The awl employed in punching the holes is straight; and +needles are most commonly used, instead of the bristles which point +the shoemaker's threads. The mode of manufacturing saddle-bags, +portmanteaus, and valises, is too obvious to need description. + + +THE TRUNK-MAKER. + +1. The manufacture of trunks is equally simple with that of making +harness. In common cases, it consists chiefly in lining the inside of +a wooden box with paper, or some kind of cloth, and covering the +outside with a skin, or with leather, which is fastened to the wood by +means of tacks. Narrow strips of leather are fastened upon hair trunks +with brass nails, by way of ornament, as well as to confine the work. + +2. Instead of a wooden box, oblong rims of iron, and very thick, solid +pasteboard, fastened together by means of strong thread, are used in +the best kinds of trunks. The frame or body, thus formed, is covered +with some substantial leather, which is first stuck on with paste, and +then secured by sewing it to the pasteboard with a waxed thread. Over +the whole, are applied strips of iron, fastened with brass or copper +nails with large heads. The lines and figures on the leather, added by +way of ornament, are produced by a _crease_, a tool made of wood, +ivory, or whalebone. Its form is much like that of the blade of a +common paper-folder. + +3. How long trunk-making has been a separate trade, cannot be exactly +ascertained. The trunk-makers in France were incorporated into a +company, in 1596. In the United States, this branch of business is +very commonly united with that of the saddler and harness-maker. + + + + +[Illustration: SOAP & CANDLE MAKER.] + +THE SOAP-BOILER, AND THE CANDLE-MAKER. + + +THE SOAP-BOILER. + +1. The business of the soap-boiler consists in manufacturing soap, by +the combination of certain oily and alkaline substances. + +2. The earliest notice of this useful article occurs in the works of +Pliny, in which it is stated, that soap was composed of tallow and +ashes; that the mode of combining them was discovered by the Gauls; +but that the German soap was the best. + +3. For many ages before the invention of soap, saponaceous plants, and +several kinds of earth, together with animal matters and the ley from +ashes, were employed for the purpose of cleansing the skin, and +articles of clothing. The idea of combining some of these substances, +with the view of forming soap, probably originated in accident. + +4. The vegetable oils and animal fats, capable of saponification, are +very numerous; but those most commonly employed in the manufacture of +the soaps of commerce, are olive-oil, whale-oil, tallow, lard, +palm-oil, and rosin; and the alkalies with which these are most +frequently combined, are soda, the ley of ashes, or its residuum, +potash. + +5. Soda is sometimes called the _mineral alkali_; because it is found, +in some parts of the world, in the earth. It was known to the +ancients, at a very early period, under the denomination of _natron_. +It received this appellation from the lakes of Natron, in Egypt, from +the waters of which it was produced by evaporation, during the summer +season. + +6. The soda of commerce is now chiefly obtained from the _salsola_, a +genus of plants which grows on the sea-shore. In Spain, the plant from +which soda is obtained is denominated _barilla_; hence, the substance +produced from it by incineration has received the same appellation. +The ashes of a sea-weed which grows on the coasts of Scotland and +Ireland, is called _kelp_. In Europe, barilla and kelp are more +extensively employed in the manufacture of soap than any other +alkaline substances; but, in this country, where wood is so much used +for fuel, common ashes are generally preferred. + +7. The process of making the ordinary brown or yellow soap, from +wood-ashes, is conducted in the following manner. The alkali is first +obtained in a state of solution in water, by _leeching_ the ashes as +described in page 26, and then poured, in a weak state, into a copper +or iron caldron, having a large wooden tub carefully affixed to the +top of it. + +8. When the ley has been properly heated, the tallow, either in a +_tried_ state or in the suet, is gradually added. More ley, of +greater concentration, is poured in; and the ingredients are +moderately boiled for several hours; while a person, as represented in +the preceding cut, aids their chemical union by agitating them with a +wooden spatula. + +9. After a quantity of rosin has been added, and properly incorporated +with the other materials, the fire is withdrawn until the next +morning, when it is again raised; then, with the view of forming the +_paste_ into hard soap, a quantity of muriate of soda (common salt) is +added. The muriatic acid of this substance, uniting with the potash, +forms with it muriate of potash, which dissolves in the water, while +the soda combines with the tallow and rosin. Hard soap, therefore, +contains no potash; although this alkali is generally employed during +the early part of the process of making it. + +10. After the addition of the muriate of soda, the boiling and +stirring are continued two or three hours, when the fire is withdrawn, +and the contents of the caldron are suffered to be at rest. When the +soap has completely separated from the watery part and extraneous +matters, it is laded into another caldron, again diluted with strong +ley, and heated. The _paste_ having been brought to a proper +consistence, more common salt is added as before, and for the same +purposes. + +11. The chemical part of the process having been thus completed, the +soap is laded into single wooden boxes, or into one or more composed +of several distinct frames, which can be removed separately from the +soap, after it has become solid enough to stand without such support. +The soap is cut into bars, of nearly a uniform size, by means of a +small brass wire. + +12. Manufacturers of soap have contrived various methods of +adulterating this article, or of adding ingredients which increase +its weight, without adding to its value. The most common means +employed for this purpose is water, which may be added, in some cases, +in considerable quantities, without greatly diminishing the +consistence of the soap. + +13. This fraud may be detected by letting the soap lie for some time +exposed to the atmosphere. The water will thus be evaporated, and its +quantity can be known by weighing the soap, after its loss of the +superfluous liquid. To prevent evaporation, while the soap remains on +hand, it is said, that some dealers keep it in saturated solutions of +common salt. Another method of adulteration is found in the use of +pulverized lime, gypsum, or pipe-clay. These substances, however, can +be easily detected by means of a solution in alcohol, which +precipitates them. + +14. The process of manufacturing soft soap, differs but little in its +details from that described in the preceding paragraphs. The chief +difference consists in omitting the use of salt. Soft soap, therefore, +is composed of a greater proportion of water, and more alkali than is +necessary to saturate the unctuous matters. Soft soap is made by +almost every family in the country, from ashes, grease, and oily +matters, reserved for the purpose. + +15. The celebrated Marseilles white soap, is composed of + + Soda, 6. + Olive-oil, 60. + Water, 34. + +Castile soap, of + + Soda, 9. + Olive-oil, 76.5. + Water, with a little coloring matter, 14.5. + +Fine toilet-soaps are made with oil of almonds, nut-oil, palm-oil, +suet, or butter, combined with soda or potash, according to their +preparation in a solid or pasty state. + +16. In the manufacture of white soap, the tallow is more carefully +purified, and no rosin is used. In other particulars, the process +differs but little from that employed in the production of the common +kind. Two tons of tallow should yield three tons of white soap. In +making the same quantity of common brown or yellow soap, twelve +hundred weight less is required, on account of the substitution of +that amount of yellow rosin. + +17. The mottled appearance of some soaps is caused by dispersing the +ley through it, towards the close of the operation, or by adding a +quantity of sulphate of iron, indigo, or the oxide of manganese. +Castile soap, now manufactured in the greatest perfection at +Marseilles, in France, receives its beautifully marbled appearance +from the sulphate of iron. + + +THE CANDLE-MAKER. + +1. The subject of the candle-maker's labors may be defined to be a +wick, covered with tallow, wax, or spermaceti, in a cylindrical form, +which serves, when lighted, for the illumination of objects in the +absence of the sun. The business of candle-making is divided into two +branches; the one is confined to the manufacturing of tallow candles, +and the other, to making those composed of wax or spermaceti. + +2. The process of making candles from tallow, as conducted by the +tallow-chandler, needs only a brief description, since it differs but +little from the method pursued by families in the country, with which +most persons are familiar. The difference lies chiefly in the +employment of a few conveniences, by which the candles are more +rapidly multiplied. + +3. The first part of the process consists in preparing a wick, to +serve as a foundation. The coarse and slightly twisted yarn used for +this purpose, is spun in the cotton-factories; and, being wound into +balls, is, in that form, sold to the tallow-chandlers, as well as to +individuals who make candles for their own consumption. + +4. A sufficient number of threads is combined, to form a wick of a +proper size; and, as they are wound from the balls, they are measured +off, and cut to the proper length, by a simple contrivance, which +consists of a narrow board, a wooden pin, and the blade of a razor. +The pin and razor are placed perpendicular to the board, at a distance +determined by the length of the proposed wick. The wicks are next put +upon cylindrical rods, about three feet long; and a great number of +these are arranged on a long frame. + +5. To obtain the tallow in a proper state for use, it is separated +from the membranous part of the suet, by boiling the latter in an iron +or copper kettle, and then subjecting the _cracklings_ to the action +of a press. The substance that remains, after the tallow has been +expressed, is called _greaves_, which are sometimes applied to +fattening ducks for market. This is especially the case in the city of +London. + +6. The _tried_ tallow is prepared for application to the wicks, by +heating it to a proper temperature. It is then poured into a suitable +receptacle, where it is kept in _order_ either by a moderate fire +underneath, or by the occasional addition of hot tallow. + +7. The _broaches_, as the sticks with their wicks are called, are +taken up, several at a time, either between the fingers or by means of +a simple instrument denominated a _rake_, and dipped into the tallow. +They are then returned to the frame, and suffered to cool, while +successive broaches are treated in the same way. The dipping is +repeated, until the candles have been thickened to the proper size. + +8. In the preceding plate, is represented a workman in the act of +dipping several broaches of candles, suspended on a rake, which he +holds in his hands. The mode of making dipped candles just described, +is more generally practised than any other, and in this manner five or +six hundred pounds can be made by one hand, in a single day. In some +establishments, however, a more complicated apparatus is used, by +which every part of the process is greatly expedited. + +9. Mould candles are made very differently. The moulds consist of a +frame of wood, in which are arranged several hollow cylinders, +generally made of pewter. At the lower extremity of each cylinder, is +a small hole, for the passage of the wick, which is introduced by +means of a hook on the end of a wire. The cotton is fastened at the +other end, and placed in a perpendicular situation in the centre of +the shafts, by means of a wire, which passes through the loops of the +wicks. The melted tallow, having been poured on the top of the wooden +frame, descends into each mould. After the candles have become +sufficiently cold, they are extracted from the cylinders with a +bodkin, which is inserted into the loop of the wick. One person can +thus mould two or three hundred pounds in a day. + +10. Candles are also made of bees-wax and spermaceti; but the mode of +their manufacture differs in no particular from that of common mould +candles. The wicks for wax-candles are usually made of a peculiar kind +of cotton, which grows in Asiatic Turkey. + +11. Before the wax is applied to this purpose, the coloring matter is +discharged. This is effected by bleaching the wax, in the following +manner. It is first divided into flakes, or thin laminæ, by pouring +it, in a melted state, through a colander upon a cylindrical wheel, +which, at the same time, is kept revolving, while partly immersed in +cold water. The wax, having been removed from the water, is placed +upon a table or floor covered with some kind of cloth. Here it is +occasionally sprinkled with water, until the bleaching has been +completed. The process occupies several weeks, or even months, +according to the state of the weather, that being best which is most +favorable to a rapid evaporation. + +12. Spermaceti is a substance separated from sperm oil, which is +obtained from a species of whale, called _physeter macrocephalus_, or +_spermaceti cachalot_. This oil is obtained from both the head and +body of the animal, but that procured from the former contains twice +the quantity of spermaceti. + +13. To separate the spermaceti from the oil yielded by the body, it is +first heated, then put into casks, and suffered to stand two or three +weeks, in order to _granulate_. The oily part is now filtrated through +strainers; and the remainder, which is called _foots_, is again +heated, and put into casks. After having stood several weeks, these +are put into bags, and submitted to the action of a powerful press. +The spermaceti thus obtained, is melted and moulded into cakes. The +oil thus separated from the spermaceti, is called spring or fall +strained; because it is filtered and expressed only during those +seasons of the year. + +14. The oil from the head of the whale is treated like that from the +body, in almost every particular. The difference consists, +principally, in omitting the use of the strainer, and in the +employment of stronger bags and a more powerful press. The oil +obtained from the _head-matter_, is called _pressed_, since it is +separated by the action of the press only. It is also denominated +_winter-strained_, because the operation is performed in the cold +weather. + +15. The spermaceti, having been melted and moulded into cakes, is +reserved until the succeeding summer, when it is cut into thin +shavings, by means of a large shave, similar to the _spoke-shave_ of +the wheelwrights, and again pressed as before. The oil of this last +pressing is called _taut pressed_, and is the least valuable kind, +since a slight degree of cold causes it to become thick. The +spermaceti obtained from the oil of the body, and that from the +head-matter, are melted together, and purified by means of potash-ley. + +16. The sperm-oil, thus freed from the spermaceti, is extensively used +in lamps as a means of illumination; and, for many purposes, it is far +more convenient than tallow. In the country, lard is frequently +employed instead of oil, especially by the German population. In some +European and Asiatic countries, vegetable oils supply the place of +animal fats, in this application. + +17. The origin of the art of making candles is not known. It is +evident, however, that the business is comparatively modern, since the +Greeks and Romans, as well as other nations of antiquity, employed +torches of pine and fir, and lamps supplied with oil, in the +production of artificial light. The words in the Scriptures translated +_candle_, imply nothing more nor less than a light produced by some +kind of oil consumed in a lamp. + +18. The lamps in ancient times were suspended by a chain or cord from +the ceiling, or supported on stands and moveable tables, which were +called by the Romans _lampadaria_, or _candelabra_. Many specimens of +this utensil are preserved in several museums of Europe, and some have +lately been found in the ruins of Herculaneum. + +19. The Chinese make their candles from the tallow obtained from the +seeds and capsules of the tallow-tree. This tree, which is produced in +great abundance in China, is said to grow in various parts of South +Carolina and Georgia. In appearance, it resembles the Lombardy +poplar. + + + + +[Illustration: COMB-MAKER.] + +THE COMB-MAKER, AND THE BRUSH-MAKER. + + +THE COMB-MAKER. + +1. The comb is a well-known instrument, employed in cleansing, +dressing, and confining the hair. It is made of various materials, but +most commonly of tortoise-shell, the horns and hoofs of cattle, ivory, +bone, and several kinds of hard wood. + +2. It is impossible to determine the period of the world at which it +was introduced, since history and tradition, the sources from which we +obtain information of this nature, are silent with regard to its +origin. It is evident, however, that the comb is an instrument of +primary necessity; and hence it must have been invented in the +earliest ages. This opinion is confirmed by the fact, that the comb +has been frequently found in use amongst savages, when first visited +by civilized men. + +3. Combs employed in fixing the hair, are made of tortoise-shell, or +of the horns of cattle. The genuine tortoise-shell is taken from the +_testudo imbricata_, or _hawk's-bill turtle_; but a kind of shell, +inferior in quality, is obtained from the _testudo caretta_, or +_loggerhead turtle_. These turtles inhabit the seas of warm and +temperate climates; but they are especially numerous in the West +Indian seas, where _shell_ is a valuable article of commerce. That +from St. Domingo is especially esteemed for its brilliancy of shade +and color. + +4. The shell of the hawk's-bill turtle was extensively employed for +ornamental purposes by the refined nations of antiquity; although we +have no account of its application to the manufacture of combs. The +Greeks and Romans decorated with it the doors and pillars of their +houses, as well as their beds and other furniture. The Egyptians dealt +largely with the Romans in this elegant article. + +5. The general length of the hawk's-bill turtle is about three feet +from the bill to the end of the shell; but it has been known to +measure five feet, and to weigh five or six hundred pounds. In the +Indian Ocean, especially, specimens of prodigious magnitude are said +to have occurred. + +6. The shell employed in the arts, grows upon the back and feet of the +animal. That on the back, consists of thirteen laminæ, or plates, +which lap over each other, like tiles on the roof of a house. The +plates vary in thickness from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, +according to the age and size of the turtle. The quantity of +merchantable shell obtained from a single subject of the usual size, +is about eight pounds, which, at the usual price, is worth sixty or +seventy dollars. + +7. The process of making combs from the horns of cattle, is not +difficult to be understood. The tips and buts are first cut off with a +saw, and the remaining portion is also divided longitudinally on one +side with the same instrument. The horns are then soaked for several +days, and afterwards boiled in oil, to render them pliable. They are +next spread out and pressed between hot iron plates. This operation +clarifies the horn, and produces a plate of proper thickness. + +8. After the plates thus produced, have been cut in pieces +corresponding in size to the proposed combs, and when these have been +shaved to a suitable thickness with instruments adapted to the +purpose, the teeth are cut either with a _twinning saw_, as +represented in the preceding cut, or with a _twinning machine_. + +9. In the former case, the plate is fastened with a wooden _clamp_, by +the part which is designed to be left for the back of the comb; and +when twins, or two combs, are to be formed from one piece, the other +end is bent down, so as to render the upper surface considerably +convex. To this surface the _twinning saw_ is applied by the hand of +the workman, who makes a number of incisions; which are completed both +ways with two different kinds of saws, and the end of each tooth is +cut from the back of the opposite comb with an instrument called a +_plugging awl_. + +10. The _twinning machine_ was invented, about twenty years ago, by a +Mr. Thomas, of Philadelphia; but it has been successfully improved by +several individuals since that time. It is, altogether, an ingenious +and useful contrivance. The cutting part consists of two chisels, +which are made to act on the plate alternately, and in a perpendicular +direction, each chisel cutting one side of two teeth, and severing one +from the opposite back, at every stroke. It is impossible, however, to +form a clear conception of the manner in which the machine operates, +except by actual inspection. It performs the work with great rapidity; +since from one to two hundred dozens of combs can be cut in twelve +hours; whereas, not one-fourth of that number can be _twinned_ in the +old method, during the same time. + +11. After the teeth have been rounded, and in other respects brought +to the proper form with suitable instruments, the combs are polished +by rubbing them first with the dust of a peculiar kind of brick, then +by applying them to a moving cylinder covered with buff leather, +charged with rotten-stone, ashes, or brick-dust; and, finally, by +rubbing them with the hand, charged with rotten-stone and vinegar. + +12. The combs are next colored, or stained; and, as the tortoise-shell +is by far the best and most expensive material for this kind of comb, +the great object of the manufacturer is to produce colors as nearly +resembling those of the real shell as practicable. This is done in +considerable perfection, in the following manner: + +13. The combs are first dipped in aqua-fortis, and then covered with a +paste made of lime, pearlash, and red lead. To produce the requisite +variety of shades, both taste and judgment are necessary in applying +the composition, and in determining the time which it should remain +upon the combs. To give the combs a still stronger resemblance to +shell, they are also immersed for fifteen or twenty minutes in a dye +of Nicaragua. + +14. The combs having been covered with oil, they are next heated upon +iron plates, and brought to the desired shape by bending them upon +wooden blocks with a woollen list. The whole process is finished by +rubbing off the oil with a silk handkerchief. + +15. The general process of making shell combs differs but little from +that which has been just described, varying only in a few +particulars, in compliance with the peculiar nature of the material. + +16. On account of the great value of shell, the workmen are careful to +make the most of every portion of it; accordingly, when a piece falls +short of the desired size, it is enlarged by _welding_ to it another +of smaller dimensions. The union is effected, by lapping the two +pieces upon each other, and then pressing them together between two +plates of hot iron. The heat of the iron is prevented from injuring +the shell, by the interposition of a wet linen cloth, and by immersing +the whole in hot water. In a similar manner, broken combs are often +mended; and by the same method, two pieces of horn can also be joined +together. + +17. Both horn and shell combs are often stamped with figures, and +otherwise ornamented with carved work. In the latter case, the +ornaments are produced, by removing a part of the material with a saw +and graver. The saw employed is not more than the twelfth of an inch +in width; and, being fastened to a frame, it is moved up and down, +with great rapidity, by means of the foot, while the part of the comb +to be cut away is applied to the teeth. The operator is guided in the +work by a pattern, which has been struck on paper from an engraved +plate. + +18. Combs for dressing and cleansing the hair, are made of horn, +shell, bone, ivory, and wood; but it is unnecessary to be particular +in describing the manner in which every kind of comb is manufactured. +We will only add, that the teeth of fine ivory and bone combs are cut +with a buzz, or circular saw, which, fastened to a mandrel, is moved +in a lathe. + + +THE BRUSH-MAKER. + +1. There are few manufactured articles in more general use than +brushes. This has arisen from their great utility, and the low prices +at which they can be purchased. The productions of the brush-maker's +labor are denominated variously, according to the purposes to which +they are to be applied. + +2. The operations connected with this business are very simple, as +there is scarcely a tool employed which is not familiar to every other +class of mechanics. The brush-maker, however, does not manufacture +every part of the brush. He procures his wooden _stocks_ and handles +from various sources, but chiefly from the turner, and bone handles, +from the tooth-brush handle-maker. + +3. The first part of the process which may be considered as belonging +particularly to the brush-maker, consists in boring the holes for the +reception of the bristles. This is done with a _bit_ of a proper size, +which is kept in motion with a lathe, while the wood is brought +against it with both hands. To enable the operator to make the holes +in the right place and in the proper direction, a pattern is applied +to the hither side of the stock. + +4. The greater part of the bristles used by the brush-makers in the +United States, are imported from Russia and Germany. Large quantities, +however are obtained from Pennsylvania, and some parts of the Western +States. American bristles are worth from thirty to fifty cents per +pound, a price sufficiently high, one would suppose, to induce the +farmers to preserve them, when they butcher their swine. Were this +generally done, a tolerable supply of the shorter kinds of bristles +might be obtained in our own country. + +5. When the bristles come into the hands of the brush-maker, the long +and short, and frequently those of different colors, are mixed +together. These are first assorted, according to color; and those of a +whitish hue are afterwards washed with potash-ley and soap, to free +them from animal fat, and then whitened by bleaching them with the +fumes of brimstone. + +6. The bristles are next combed with a row of steel teeth, for the +purpose of placing them in a parallel direction, and with a view of +depriving them of the short hair which may be intermixed. The workman, +immediately after combing a handful, assorts it into separate parcels +of different lengths. This is very readily done, by pulling out the +longest bristles from the top, until those which remain in the hand +have been reduced to a certain length, which is determined by a gauge +marked with numbers. At each pulling, the handful is reduced in height +near half an inch. + +7. The stocks and the bristles having been thus prepared, they are +next fastened together. This is effected either with wire or by a +composition of tar and rosin. The wire is used in all cases in which +the fibre is doubled; but when the bristles are required in their full +length, as in sweeping-brushes, the adhesive substance is employed. + +8. It is superfluous to enter into detail, to show the manner in which +the wire and composition are applied in fixing the bristles, as any +person, with an ordinary degree of observation, can readily comprehend +the whole, by examining the different kinds of brushes which are met +with in every well-regulated household. The bristles, after having +been fixed to the stock or handle, are trimmed with the shears or +knife, according as they are required to be equal or unequal in +length. + +9. The brush is next handed over to the _finisher_, who applies to the +back of the stock a thin veneer of wood, which secures the wire +against the oxidizing influence of the atmosphere, and gives to the +brush a finished appearance. The stock, together with the veneer, is +then brought to the desired shape with suitable instruments, polished +with sand-paper, and covered with varnish. + +10. Those brushes which the manufacturer designs to be ornamented, are +sent in great quantities to the _ornamenter_, who applies to them +various figures, in gold or Dutch leaf, japan or bronze, and sometimes +prints, which have been struck on paper from engraved plates. + + + + +[Illustration: INN-KEEPER.] + +THE TAVERN-KEEPER. + + +1. A house in which travellers are entertained is denominated a +tavern, inn, coffee-house, hotel, or house of public entertainment; +and an individual who keeps a house of this description, is called an +inn-keeper or tavern-keeper. Of these establishments there are various +grades, from the log cabin with a single room, to the splendid and +commodious edifice with more than a hundred chambers. + +2. This business is one of great public utility; since, by this means, +travellers obtain necessary refreshments and a temporary home, with +very little trouble on their part, and that, in most cases, for a +reasonable compensation. This is especially the case in the United +States, where the public houses, taking them together, are said to be +superior to those of any other country. + +3. Travellers, in the early ages of the world, either carried with +them the means of sustenance, and protection from the weather, or +relied upon the hospitality of strangers; but, as the intercourse +between different places for the purposes of trade, increased, houses +of public entertainment were established, which at first were chiefly +kept by women. + +4. The people of antiquity, in every age and nation, whether barbarous +or civilized, were, however, remarkable for their hospitality. We find +this virtue enjoined in the Mosaic writings, and scriptures generally, +in the poems of Homer, as well as in other distinguished writings, +which have descended to our times. The heathen nations were rendered +more observant of the rites of hospitality by the belief, that their +fabulous gods sometimes appeared on earth in human shape; and the Jews +and ancient Christians, by the circumstance, that Abraham entertained +angels unawares. + +5. On account of the occasional acts of violence committed by both the +guest, and the master of the house, it became necessary to take some +precautions for their mutual safety. When, therefore, a stranger +applied for lodgings, it was customary among the Greeks for both to +swear by Jupiter, that they would do each other no harm. This ceremony +took place, while each party stood with his foot placed on his own +side of the threshold; and a violation of this oath by either party, +excited against the offender the greatest horror. + +6. The Greeks and Romans, in common with the people of many other +nations, were in the habit of making arrangements with persons at a +distance from their homes, for mutual accommodation, when either party +might be in the vicinity of the other. In these agreements, the +contracting parties included their posterity, and delivered to each +other tokens, which might be afterwards exhibited in proof of ancient +ties of hospitality between the families. They swore fidelity to each +other by the name of Jupiter, who was surnamed the Hospitable; because +he was supposed to be the protector of strangers, and the avenger of +their wrongs. + +7. This relation was considered a very intimate one, especially by the +Romans; and, in their language, it was called _hospitium_, or _jus +hospitii_; hence, the guest and entertainer were both called _hostes_, +a word from which _host_ is derived, which is employed to designate +both the landlord and the guest. The Roman nobility used to build, for +the reception of strangers, apartments called _hospitalia_, on the +right and left of the main building of their residence. + +8. During the middle ages, also, hospitality was very commonly +practised; and the virtue was not considered one of those which might +be observed or neglected at pleasure; the practice of it was even +enjoined by statute, in many countries, as a positive duty, which +could not be neglected with impunity. In some cases, the moveable +goods of the inhospitable person were confiscated, and his house +burned. If an individual had not the means of entertaining his guest, +he was permitted to steal, in order to obtain the requisite supply. + +9. The nobles of Europe, during this period, were generally +distinguished for their cordial entertainment of strangers, and their +immediate adherents. Their extraordinary liberality arose, in part, +from the general customs of the age, and partly from a desire to +attach to their interests as great a number of retainers as possible, +with a view to maintain or increase their political importance. +Strangers were also entertained at the monasteries, which were +numerous in almost every kingdom of Europe. Several of these +institutions were established in solitary places, with the express +purpose of relieving travellers in distress. + +10. It is evident, that the arrangements for mutual accommodation, and +the hospitable character of the ancients, were unfavorable to the +business of keeping tavern; but the free intercourse between different +nations, which arose from the Crusades, and the revival of commerce, +contributed greatly to the habit of regularly entertaining strangers +for a compensation, and led to the general establishment of inns. + +11. These inns, however, were not, at first, well supported; inasmuch +as travellers had been long accustomed to seek for lodgings in private +houses. In Scotland, inns were established by law, A.D. 1424; and, to +compel travellers to resort to them, they were forbidden, under a +penalty of forty shillings, to use private accommodations, where these +public houses were to be found. + +12. How far legislative enactments have been employed for the +establishment of inns in other countries, we have not been able to +learn, as the authorities to which we have referred for information on +this point are silent with regard to it. We know, however, that laws +have been made in almost every part of Europe, as well as in the +United States, with the view of compelling the landlord to preserve +proper order, and to accommodate his customers at reasonable charges. + +13. In the United States, and in all other commercial countries, this +business has become one of great importance, not only to the +individuals who have engaged in it, but also to the community in +general. Within the present century, the amount of travelling has +greatly increased, and the excellence of the public houses has +advanced in the same ratio. Some of these establishments in the cities +and large towns, are among the most extensive and splendid edifices of +the country; and, in every place through which there is much +travelling, they are usually equal or superior to the private +dwellings of the neighborhood. + +14. The business of keeping tavern, however, is not always confined to +the proper object of entertaining travellers, or persons at some +distance from home. A public house is frequently the resort of the +people who live in the immediate vicinity, and is often the means of +doing much injury, by increasing dissipation. + +15. In all cases in which ardent spirits are proposed to be sold, a +license must be obtained from the public authorities, for which must +be paid the sum stipulated by law; but any person is permitted to +lodge travellers, and to supply them with every necessary means of +cheer and comfort for a compensation, without the formality of a legal +permission; yet, a license to sell liquors is called a tavern-license; +because most tavern-keepers regard the profits on the sale of ardent +spirits as one of their chief objects. + +16. A public house in which no strong drink is sold, is called a +temperance tavern; and such establishments are becoming common; but +they are not, at present, so well supported as those in which the +popular appetite is more thoroughly complied with. The time, however, +may not be far distant, when the public sentiment will undergo such a +salutary change, that the tavern-keepers generally will find it their +best policy to relinquish the sale of this poisonous article. + +17. As travellers often apply to the bar for "something to drink," +merely to remunerate the landlord for the use of his fire, or some +little attention, the friends of temperance would essentially promote +their cause, by encouraging the practice of paying for a glass of +water, or some trifle of this kind. This would increase the number of +temperance taverns, and, perhaps, be the means of preventing many +generous people from forming those dissipated habits, which are so +often attended with ruinous results. + + + + +[Illustration: The HUNTER.] + +THE HUNTER. + + +1. Hunting and fishing are usually considered the primary occupations +of man; not because they were the first employments in which he +engaged, but because they are the chief means of human sustenance +among savage nations. + +2. The great and rapid increase of the inferior animals, and, +probably, the diminished fertility of the soil after the deluge, +caused many branches of the family of Noah to forsake the arts of +civilized life, especially after the dispersion caused by the +confusion of tongues. + +3. Many of these families, or tribes, continued in this barbarous +state for several ages, or until their increase of numbers, and the +diminished quantity of wild game, rendered a supply of food from the +objects of the chase extremely precarious. Necessity then compelled +them to resort to the domestication of certain animals, and to the +cultivation of the soil. But the practice of hunting wild animals is +not confined to the savage state; as it is an amusement prompted by a +propensity inherent in human nature. + +4. The earliest historical notice of this sport is found in the tenth +chapter of Genesis, in which Nimrod is styled, "a mighty hunter before +the Lord." So great was his prowess in this absorbing pursuit, that he +was proverbially celebrated on this account even in the time of Moses. +Nimrod is the first king of whom we read in history; and it is by no +means improbable, that his skill and intrepidity in subduing the wild +beasts of the forest, contributed largely towards elevating him to the +regal station. + +5. Although the spoils of the chase are of little consequence to men, +after they have united in regular communities, in which the arts of +civilized life are cultivated; yet the propensity to hunt wild animals +continues, and displays itself more or less among all classes of men. + +6. The reader of English history will recollect, that William the +Conqueror, who began his reign in the year 1066, signalized his +passion for this amusement, by laying waste, and converting, into one +vast hunting-ground, the entire county of Hampshire, containing, at +that time, no less than twenty-two populous parishes. Severe laws were +also enacted, prohibiting the destruction of certain kinds of game, +except by a few persons having specified qualifications. With some +modifications, these laws are still in force in Great Britain. + +7. In other countries of Europe, also, large tracts have been +appropriated by the kings and nobles to the same object. This +tyrannical monopoly is attempted to be justified by the unreasonable +pretension, that all wild animals belong, of right, to the monarch of +the country, where they roam. + +8. The quadrupeds most hunted in Europe, are the stag, the hare, the +fox, the wolf, and the wild boar. These beasts are pursued either on +account of their intrinsic value, or for sport, or to rid the country +of their depredations. In some instances, all three of these objects +may be united. The method of capturing or killing the animals is +various, according to the character and objects of the persons engaged +in it. + +9. In Asia, the wolf is sometimes hunted with the eagle; but, in +Europe, the strongest greyhounds are employed to run him down. This +task, however, is one of extreme difficulty, as he can easily run +twenty miles upon a stretch, and is besides very cunning in the means +of eluding his pursuers. Chasing the fox on horseback, with a pack of +hounds, is considered an animating and manly sport, both in Europe and +in North America. + +10. The most prominent victim of the hunter, in Africa, is the lion. +He is usually sought in small parties on horseback with dogs; but +sometimes, when one of these formidable animals has been discovered, +the people of the neighborhood assemble, and encircle him in a ring, +three or four miles in circumference. The circle is gradually +contracted, until the hunters have approached sufficiently near to the +beast, when they dispatch him, usually with a musket-ball. + +11. In the southern parts of Asia, tiger-hunting is a favorite +amusement. Seated upon an elephant, trained especially for the +purpose, the hunter is in comparative safety, while he pursues and +fires upon the tiger, until his destruction is effected. + +12. The white bear and the grisly bear are the most formidable animals +in North America; yet they are industriously hunted by both Indians +and white men, on account of the value of their flesh and skins. +Bisons, or, as they are erroneously called, buffaloes, are found in +great numbers in the vast prairies which occur between the Mississippi +and the Rocky Mountains. They are commonly met with in droves, which +sometimes amount to several thousands. + +13. When the Indian hunters propose to destroy these animals, they +ride into the midst of a herd, and dispatch them with repeated wounds; +or, they get a drove between themselves and a precipice, and, by +shouting and yelling, cause the animals to crowd each other off upon +the rocks below. In this manner, great numbers are disabled and taken +at once. The hunters, at other times, drive the bisons into +inclosures, and then shoot them down at their leisure. The hide of +this animal is dressed with the hair adhering to it; and skins, in +this state, are used by the savages for beds, and by the white people, +in wagons, sleighs, and stages. + +14. North America, and the northern parts of Asia, have been, and, in +some parts, still are, well stocked with fur-clad animals; and these +are the principal objects of pursuit, with those who make hunting +their regular business. Some of these animals were common in every +part of North America, when this portion of the western continent was +first visited by Europeans; and a trade in peltries, more or less +extensive, has been carried on with the natives, ever since the first +settlement of the country. + +15. For the purpose of conducting this trade with advantage, a company +was formed in England, in 1670, by Prince Rupert and others, to whom a +charter was granted, securing to them the exclusive privilege of +trading with the Indians about Hudson's Bay. Another company was +formed in 1783-4, called the North-West Fur Company. Between these +companies, there soon arose dissensions and hostilities, and many +injuries were mutually inflicted by the adherents of the parties. Both +associations, however, were at length united, under the title of the +Hudson's Bay Fur Company. The Indian trade, on the great lakes and the +Upper Mississippi, has long been in possession of the North American +Fur Company. Most of the directors of this company reside in the city +of New-York. + +16. The companies just mentioned supply the Indians with coarse blue, +red, and fine scarlet cloths, coarse cottons, blankets, ribands, +beads, kettles, firearms, hatchets, knives, ammunition, and other +articles adapted to the wants of the hunters, receiving, in return, +the skins of the muskrat, beaver, otter, martin, bear, deer, lynx, +fox, &c. + +17. The intercourse with the Indians is managed by agents, called +clerks, who receive from the company a salary, ranging from three to +eight hundred dollars per annum. The merchandise is conveyed to the +place of trade, in the autumn, by the aid of Canadian boatmen and +half-Indians. The most considerable portion of the goods are sold to +the Indians on a credit, with the understanding of their making +payment in the following spring; but, as many neglect this duty, a +high price is affixed to the articles thus intrusted to savage +honesty. The clerk furnishes the debtor with a trap, having his own +name stamped upon it, to show that the hunter has pledged every thing +which may be caught in it. + +18. Each clerk is supplied with four laborers and an interpreter. The +latter attends to the store in the absence of the clerk, or watches +the debtors in the Indian camp, lest they again sell the produce of +their winter's labors. The peltries, when obtained by the clerk, are +sent to the general agent of the company. + +19. The fur trade is also prosecuted, to some extent, by a class of +men in Missouri, who proceed from the city of St. Louis, in bodies +comprising from fifty to two hundred individuals. After having +ascended the Missouri river, or some of its branches, and, perhaps, +after having passed the Rocky Mountains, they separate, and pursue the +different animals on their own individual account, either alone or in +small parties. The Indians regard these men as intruders on their +territories; and, when a favorable opportunity is presented, they +frequently surprise and murder the wandering hunters, and retain +possession of their property. + +20. In consequence of the unremitted warfare which has, for a long +time, been carried on against the wild animals of North America, their +number has been greatly diminished; and, in many parts, almost every +species of the larger quadrupeds, and the fur-clad animals, has been +exterminated. Even on the Mississippi, and the great lakes, the latter +description of animals has been so much reduced in number, that the +trade in peltries, in those parts, has become of little value. Another +half century will, probably, nearly terminate the trade in every part +of North America. + +21. The fur trade was prosecuted with considerable success, during the +latter part of the last century, principally by the English, on the +north-west coast of America, and the adjacent islands. The peltries +obtained by these enterprising traders, were carried directly to +China. The trade was interrupted for a while by the Spaniards, who +laid claim to those regions, and seized the British traders engaged +there, together with the property in their possession. This affair, +however, was afterwards amicably adjusted by the Spanish and English +governments; and the whole trade, from California north and to China, +was opened to the latter. + +22. The fur trade, in those parts, is now chiefly in the hands of the +Russian Company in America, which has a capital of a million of +dollars invested in the business. Most of the persons owning the +stock, are merchants, residing at Irkutsk, a town of Siberia, which is +the centre of the fur trade of that country. The skins obtained in +Russian America are chiefly procured from the sea-otter, and several +species of seal, together with those from foxes, of a blue, black, and +gray color, which are brought from the interior. Parties of Russian +hunters have already passed the Rocky Mountains, and interfered with +the trade of the Hudson's Bay Company. The fur trade of Siberia is +chiefly carried on with China. + +23. The chief objects of the hunters in Siberia, are the black fox, +the sable, the ermine, the squirrel, the beaver, and the lynx. In the +region near the Frozen Ocean, are also caught blue and white foxes. +Siberia is the place of banishment for the Russian empire; and the +exiles were formerly required to pay to the government an annual +tribute of a certain number of sable-skins. The conquered tribes in +Siberia, were also compelled to pay their taxes in the skins of the +fox and sable; but now, those of less value, or money, are frequently +substituted. + +24. Although the skins of beasts were the first means employed to +clothe the human body, yet it does not appear that the Greeks and +Romans, and the other refined nations of antiquity, ever made use of +furs for this purpose. The custom of wearing them, originated in those +regions, where the fur-clad animals were numerous, and where the +severity of the climate required this species of clothing. The use of +furs was introduced into the southern parts of Europe by the Goths, +Vandals, Huns, and other barbarous nations, which overran the Roman +empire. + + + + +[Illustration: WHALER.] + +THE FISHERMAN. + + +1. Although permission was given by the Deity, immediately after the +flood, to employ for human sustenance "every moving thing that +liveth," yet it is not probable, that fishes were used as food, to any +considerable extent, for several centuries afterwards. It is stated by +Plutarch, that the Syrians and Greeks, in very ancient times, +abstained from fish. Menelaus, one of Homer's heroes, complains, on a +certain occasion, that his companions had been reduced by hunger to +the necessity of eating fish; and there is no mention in Homer, that +the Grecians, at any time, used this food at the siege of Troy, +although, for the ten years during which that contest was carried on, +their camp was on the sea-shore. + +2. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, is very explicit in designating the +land animals which might be used by the Israelites as food; and he was +equally so with regard to the animals which inhabit the waters. We +learn, from the twelfth chapter of Numbers, that the children of +Israel, while journeying to the land of Canaan, "remembered the fish +which they did eat," in Egypt. + +3. This is the earliest notice on record, of the actual use of that +class of animals for food; although it is probable, that they had been +applied to this purpose, in Egypt, six or seven hundred years before +that period, or soon after the settlement of this country by the +descendants of Ham. + +4. For a long time before the advent of Our Saviour, fishing had been +a regular business, even in Judea; and from the class of men who +followed this occupation, he chose several of his apostles. At the +time just mentioned, fish had become a common article of diet, in all +parts of the world subject to the Roman power, and probably in almost +all other countries. + +5. The methods of catching fish, pursued in ancient times, were +similar to those of the present day; for then, as now, they were +caught with a hook, with a spear, and with a seine or net, according +to the character of the animal, and the nature of the fishing station. +But the great improvements in navigation, made since the twelfth +century, have given modern fishermen the command of the Atlantic and +Pacific Oceans, and, consequently, a knowledge of many species of fish +which were formerly unknown. + +6. According to Linnæus, the great naturalist, about four hundred +species of fish have come to our knowledge; and he presumes, that +those which remain unknown are still more numerous. Notwithstanding +this great variety, the chief attention of fishermen is confined to a +few kinds, which are the most easily caught, and which are the most +valuable when taken. + +7. Every place which contains many inhabitants, and which is located +in the vicinity of waters well stored with fish, is supplied with +these animals by men who make fishing a business; still, these +fisheries may be considered local in their benefits, and perhaps do +not require particular notice in this article. We will only remark, +therefore, that, in large cities, fresh fish are sold either in a +fish-market, or are _hawked_ about the streets. The wives of the +fishermen are very often employed in selling the fish caught by their +husbands. The fisheries which are of the greatest consequence, in +general commerce, are those which relate to herring, mackerel, salmon, +seal, and whale. + +8. _Herring Fishery._--There are several species of herring; but, of +these, four kinds only are of much importance, viz., the common +herring, the shad, the hard head, and the alewife; of which, the first +is the most valuable, being by far the most numerous, and being, also, +better adapted than the others for preservation. + +9. The winter residence of the common herring is within the arctic +circle, whence it emigrates, in the spring, to more southern portions +of the globe, for the purpose of depositing its spawn. The first body +of these migratory animals, appears on the coasts of both Europe and +America, in April, or about the first of May; but these are only the +precursors of the grand shoals which arrive in a few weeks afterwards. + +10. Their first approach is indicated by the great number of birds of +prey, which follow them in their course; but, when the main body +appears, the number is so great, that they alter the appearance of the +ocean itself. In this last and principal migration, the shoals are +five or six miles in length, and three or four in breadth; and, +before each of these columns, the water is driven in a kind of ripple. +Sometimes, the fish sink together ten or fifteen minutes, and then +rise again to the surface, when they reflect, in clear weather, the +rays of the sun, in a variety of splendid colors. + +11. These fish proceed as far south as France, on the coasts of +Europe, and as far as Georgia, in America, supplying every bay, creek, +and river, which opens into the Atlantic. Having deposited their +spawn, generally in the inland waters, they return to their +head-quarters in the Arctic Ocean, and recruit their emaciated bodies +for another migration in the following spring. + +12. In a few weeks, the young ones are hatched by the genial heat of +the sun; and, as they are not found in southern waters in the winter, +it is evident that they proceed northward in the fall, to their +paternal haunts under the ice, and thus repair the vast destruction of +their race, which had been caused by men, fowl, and fish, in the +previous season. + +13. These fish are caught in nearly every river, from Maine to +Georgia, which has a free communication with the Atlantic; but the +most extensive fisheries are on the Hudson and Delaware Rivers, and on +those which flow into the Chesapeake Bay. + +14. The instrument employed in catching these fish is called a +_seine_, which is a species of net, sometimes in length several +hundred fathoms, and of a width suiting the depth of the water in +which it is to be used. The two edges of the net-work are fastened +each to a rope; and, to cause the seine to spread laterally in the +water, pieces of lead are fastened to one side, and pieces of cork to +the other. + +15. In spreading the seine in the water, one end is retained on land +by a number of persons, while the rest of it is strung along from a +boat, which is rowed in the direction from the shore. The seine +having been thus extended, the further end is brought round, in a +sweeping manner, to the shore; and the fish that may be included are +taken into the boats with a scoop-net, or are hauled out upon the +shore. In this way, two or three hundred thousands are sometimes taken +at a single _haul_. This fish dies immediately after having been taken +from the water; hence the common expression, "As dead as a herring." + +16. The herrings are sold, as soon as caught, to people who come to +the fishing stations to procure them; or, in case an immediate sale +cannot be effected, they are cured with salt, and afterwards smoked, +or continued in brine. In the Southern states, the herring is +generally thought to be superior to any other fish for the purpose of +salting down; although the shad and some others are preferred while +fresh. + +17. The importance of this fishery is superior to that of any other; +since the benefits resulting from it are more generally diffused. The +ancients, however, do not appear to have had any knowledge of this +valuable fish. It was first brought into notice by the Dutch, who are +said to have commenced the herring fishery on the coasts of Scotland, +in the year 1164, and to have retained almost exclusive possession of +it, until the beginning of the present century. + +18. The shad is a species of herring, which inhabits the sea near the +mouths of rivers, and which ascends them in the spring, to deposit its +spawn. It is caught in all the rivers terminating on our Atlantic +coasts, as well as in some of the rivers of the North of Europe. This +fish is captured in the same manner and often at the same time with +the common herring. It is highly esteemed in a fresh state; although +it is not so good when salted, as the herring and some other kinds of +fish. + +19. _Mackerel Fishery._--The common mackerel is a migratory fish, +like the herring, and ranks next to that tribe of fishes in regard to +numbers, and perhaps in general utility. Its place of retirement in +the winter, is not positively known; but it is supposed by some, to be +far north of the arctic circle; and by others, to be in some part of +the Atlantic farther south. Shoals of this fish appear on the coasts +of both Europe and America, in the summer season. Of this fish there +are twenty-two species. + +20. The mode of catching the mackerel, is either with a net or with +hooks and lines. The latter method succeeds best, when the boat or +vessel is driven forward by a gentle breeze; and, in this case, a bit +of red cloth, or a painted feather, is usually employed as a bait. +Several hooks are fastened to a single line, and the fish bite so +readily, that the fishermen occasionally take one on each hook at a +haul. The mackerel is _cured_ in the usual manner, and packed in +barrels, to be sold to dealers. + +21. This fish was well known to the ancients, as one of its places of +resort, in the summer, was the Mediterranean Sea. It was highly +esteemed by the Romans, for the reason, that it was the best fish for +making their _sarum_, a kind of pickle or sauce much esteemed by this +luxurious people. + +22. _Salmon Fishery._--The salmon is a celebrated fish, belonging to +the trout genus. It inhabits the seas on the European coasts, from +Spitzbergen to Western France; and, on the western shore of the +Atlantic, it is found from Greenland to the Hudson River. It also +abounds on both coasts of the North Pacific Ocean. The length of +full-grown salmon is from three to four feet; and their weight, from +ten to fifteen pounds. + +23. As soon as the ice has left the rivers, the salmon begin to ascend +them, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. It has been +ascertained that these fish retain a remarkable attachment to the +river which gave them birth; and, having once deposited their spawn, +they ever afterwards choose the same spot for their annual deposits. +This latter fact has been established by a curious Frenchman, who, +fastening a ring to the posterior fin of several salmon, and then +setting them at liberty, found that some of them made their appearance +at the same place three successive seasons, bearing with them this +distinguishing mark. + +24. In ascending the rivers, these fish usually proceed together in +great numbers, mostly swimming in the middle of the stream; and, being +very timid, a sudden noise, or even a floating piece of timber, will +sometimes turn them from their course, and send them back to the sea; +but having advanced a while, they assume a determined resolution, +overcoming rapids and leaping over falls twelve or fifteen feet in +perpendicular height. + +25. Salmon are caught chiefly with seines, and sometimes seven or +eight hundred are captured at a single haul; but from fifty to one +hundred is the most usual number, even in a favorable season. They are +also taken in _weirs_, which are inclosures so constructed that they +admit the ingress, but not the regress of the fish. + +26. The salmon fisheries are numerous in Great Britain and Ireland, as +well as in most of the northern countries of Europe. In the United +States, the most valuable fisheries of this kind are on the rivers in +Maine, whence the towns and cities farther south are principally +supplied with these fish, in a fresh condition. They are preserved in +ice, while on their way to market. In the cured state, salmon is +highly esteemed; although it is not easily digested. + +27. _Cod Fishery._--There are several species of cod-fish, or gadus; +but the most important and interesting of the class, is the common +cod. These fish are found in great abundance on the south and west +coasts of Iceland, on the coasts of Norway, off the Orkney and Western +Isles, and in the Baltic Sea. Farther south, they gradually diminish +in numbers, and entirely disappear, some distance from the Straits of +Gibraltar. + +28. But the great rendezvous of cod-fish is on the coasts of Labrador, +the banks of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and Nova Scotia. They are +invited to these situations by the abundance of small fish, worms, and +other marine animals of the crustaceous and testaceous kinds, on which +they feed. The fishermen resort, in the greatest numbers, to the +banks, which, stretch along the eastern coasts of Newfoundland about +four hundred and fifty miles. The water on these banks varies from +twenty to fifty fathoms in depth. + +29. By negociations with Great Britain, the French, Dutch, Spanish, +and Americans, have acquired the right to catch and cure fish, both on +the _Grand Banks_, and several other places on the coasts of the +English possessions in North America. The number of vessels employed +on the several fishing stations, during each successive season, +amounts to six or seven thousand, each measuring from forty to one +hundred and twenty tons, and carrying eight or ten men. + +30. The fishing on the Grand Banks commences in April, and continues +until about the first of August. Here, the fish are caught exclusively +with hooks, which are usually baited with a small fish called the +capelin, as well as with herring, clams, and the gills of the cod +itself. But this fish is not very particular in its choice of bait, it +biting greedily at almost any kind which may be presented. An expert +fisherman will frequently catch from one hundred to three hundred cod +in a single day. + +31. As soon as the fish have been caught, their heads are cut off, +and their entrails taken out. They are then salted away in bulk in the +hold; and, after having lain three or four days to drain, they are +taken to another part of the vessel, and again salted in the same +manner. The fishermen from New-England, however, give them but one +salting while on the fishing station; but, as soon as a cargo has been +obtained, it is carried home, where conveniences have been prepared +for curing the fish to greater advantage. By pursuing this plan, two +or three trips are made during the season. Some of the fish are +injured before they are taken from the vessel; and these form an +inferior quality, called _Jamaica fish_, because such are generally +sold in that island, for the use of the negroes. + +32. The fish which are caught on the coasts of Labrador, at the +entrance of Hudson's Bay, in the Straits of Belleisle, and on fishing +stations of similar advantages, are cured on the shore. They are first +slightly salted, and then dried in the sun, either on the rocks, or on +scaffolds erected for the purpose. In these coast fisheries, the +operations commence in June, and continue until some time in August. +The cod are caught in large seines, as well as with hook and line. + +33. _Seal Fishery._--There are several species of the seal; but the +kind which is most numerous, and most important in a commercial view, +is the common seal. It is found on the sea-coasts throughout the +world, but in the greatest numbers in very cold climates, where it +furnishes the rude inhabitants with nearly all their necessaries and +luxuries. + +34. The animal is valuable to the civilized world, on account of its +skin and oil. The oil is pure, and is adapted to all the purposes to +which that from the whale is applied. In the spring of the year, the +seals are very fat; and, at that time, even small ones will yield +four or five gallons of oil. The leather manufactured from the skins, +is employed in trunk-making, in saddlery, and in making boots and +shoes. + +35. Since the whale fishery has declined in productiveness in the +northern seas, _sealing_ has arisen in importance; and accordingly, +vessels are now frequently fitted out for this purpose, in both Europe +and America; whereas, a few years since, it was regarded only as a +part of the objects of a whaling voyage. + +36. Our countrymen of New-England have particularly distinguished +themselves in this branch of business; and the part of the globe which +they have found to be the most favorable to their objects, has been +the islands in the Antarctic Ocean. A sealing voyage to that quarter +often occupies three years, during which time the hunters are exposed +to great hardships, being often left in small detachments on desolate +islands, for the purpose of pursuing the animals to greater advantage. + +37. The best time for sealing in the Arctic Ocean, is in March and +April, when the seals are often met with in droves of several +thousands on the ice, which is either fixed, or floating in large +pieces. When the sealers meet with one of these droves, they attack +the animals with clubs, and stun them by a single blow on the nose. +After all that can be reached, have been disabled in this way, the +skin and blubber are taken off together. + +38. This operation is called _flenching_, and is sometimes a horrible +business; since some of the seals, being merely stunned, occasionally +recover, and, in their denuded state, often make battle, and even leap +into the water, and swim off. The skins, with the blubber attached to +them, are packed away in the hold; and, in case the vessel is to +return home soon, they are suffered to remain there, until she arrives +in port; but, when this is not expected, the skins, as soon as +convenient, are separated from the blubber, and the latter is put into +casks. There are other methods of capturing the seal; but it is, +perhaps, not necessary to enter into further details. + +39. _Whale Fishery._--There are five species of the whale, of which +the _Balæna Physalis_, or razor-back, is the largest. When full grown, +it is supposed to be about one hundred feet in length, and thirty or +thirty-five feet in circumference. It is so powerful an animal, that +it is extremely difficult to capture it; and, when captured, it yields +but little oil and whalebone. The species to which whalers direct +their attention is denominated the _Mystecetus_, or the _right whale_. + +40. The mystecetus is found, in the greatest numbers, in the Greenland +seas, about the island of Spitzbergen, in Davis' Straits, in Hudson's +and Baffin's Bays, and in the northern parts of the Pacific Ocean. It +is also found in the Antarctic Ocean, and along the coasts of Africa +and South America, and occasionally on the coasts of the United +States. + +41. Each vessel engaged in this fishery, is generally fitted out by +several individuals, who receive, of the return cargo of oil and +whalebone, a portion corresponding to the amount which they have +contributed to the common stock, after the men have received their +proportion of it. Should the voyage prove altogether unsuccessful, +which seldom happens, the owners lose the amount of the outfit, and +the captain and hands, their time. + +42. The whalers commence operations in the northern latitudes, in the +month of May; but the whales are most plentiful in June, when they are +met with between the latitudes 75° and 80°, in almost every variety of +situation, sometimes in the open seas, at others in the loose ice, or +at the edges of the _fields_ and _floes_, which are near the main, +impervious body of ice. + +43. On the fishing station, the boats are kept always ready for +instant service, being suspended from davits, or cranes, by the sides +of the ship, and being furnished with a lance and a harpoon, to the +latter of which is attached about one hundred and twenty fathoms of +strong but flexible rope. When the weather and situation are +favorable, the _crow's nest_, which is a station at the mast-head, is +occupied by some person with a telescope. + +44. The moment a whale is discovered, notice is given to the watch +below, who instantly man one or two boats, and row with swiftness to +the place. Sometimes, a boat is kept manned and afloat near the ship, +that no time may be lost in making ready; or, two or three are sent +out on _the look-out_, having every thing ready for an attack. + +45. The whale being very timid and cautious, the men endeavor to +approach him unperceived, and strike him with the harpoon, before he +is aware of their presence. Sometimes, however, he perceives their +approach, and dives into the water, to avoid them; but, being +compelled to come again to the surface to breathe, or, as it is +termed, _to blow_, they make another effort to harpoon him. In this +way, the whalers often pursue him for a considerable time, and +frequently without final success. The animal, when unmolested, remains +about two minutes on the surface, during which time he blows eight or +nine times, and then descends for five or ten minutes, and often, +while feeding, for fifteen or twenty. + +46. When the whale has been struck, he generally dives towards the +bottom of the sea either perpendicularly or obliquely, where he +remains about thirty minutes, and sometimes nearly an hour. The +harpoon has, near its point, two barbs, or withers, which cause it to +remain fast in the integuments under the skin; and the rope attached +to it, is coiled in the bow of the boat in such a way, that it runs +out without interruption. When more line is wanted, it is made known +to the other boats by the elevation of an oar. Should the rope prove +too short for the great descent of the whale, it becomes necessary to +sever it from the boat, lest the latter be drawn under water; for this +emergency, the harpooner stands ready with a knife. + +47. When the whale reappears, the assisting boats make for the place +with their greatest speed; and, if possible, each harpooner plunges +his weapon into the back of the creature. On convenient occasions, he +is also plied with lances, which are thrust into his vitals. At +length, overcome with wounds, and exhausted by the loss of blood, his +approaching dissolution is indicated by a discharge of blood from his +blow-holes, and sometimes by a convulsive struggle, in which his tail, +raised, whirled, and jerked in the air, resounds to the distance of +several miles. The whale having been thus conquered, and deprived of +life, the captors express their joy with loud huzzas, and communicate +the information to the ship by striking their flag. + +48. A position near a large field of solid ice is very advantageous; +because a whale diving under it is obliged to return again to blow; +and this circumstance gives opportunity to make upon him several +attacks. Close fields of drift ice present great difficulties; since +the boats cannot always pass through them with sufficient celerity. In +that case, the men sometimes travel over the ice, leaping from one +piece to another, and carrying with them lances and harpoons, with +which they pierce the animal as often as possible. If they succeed in +thus killing him, they drag him back under the ice with the fast line. + +49. The whale, having been towed to the ship, and secured alongside, +is raised a little by means of powerful blocks, or tackle. The +harpooners, with spurs fastened to the bottom of their feet to prevent +them from slipping, descend upon the huge body, and, with spades and +knives adapted to this particular purpose, cut the blubber into oblong +pieces, which are peeled off, and hoisted upon deck with the +_speck-tackle_. These long strips are then cut into chunks, which are +immediately packed away in the hold. After the animal has been thus +successively flenched, and the whale-bone taken out, the carcase is +dismissed to the sharks, bears, and birds of prey. + +50. The blubber is somewhat similar, in consistence, to the fat which +surrounds the body of the hog, although not quite so solid. In young +whales, its color is yellowish white; and, in old ones, yellow or red. +Its thickness varies in different parts and in different individuals, +from eight to twenty inches. The weight of a whale sixty feet in +length, is about seventy tons, of which the blubber weighs about +thirty tons. + +51. The whale-bone is situated in the mouth. About three hundred +laminæ, or blades, grow parallel to each other on either side of the +upper jaw, being about half an inch thick, and ten or twelve inches +wide, where they are united by the gum. As the whale grows old, they +increase in length, and approach from each side to the roof of the +mouth. The whale, while feeding, swims with his mouth wide open, which +admits a great quantity of water containing insects or small fish, on +which he subsists. The whale-bone acts as a filter, or strainer, in +retaining the little animals, while the water passes off at the +corners of the mouth. + +52. Before the whalers leave the fishing station, they cut the blubber +into small pieces, and put it into close casks. Sometimes, however, +when the ship has been very successful, there is a deficiency of +casks. In that case, it is slightly salted, and packed away in the +hold. But, as the ship must necessarily pass through a warmer climate, +on her voyage homeward, the blubber, while packed in this manner, is +liable to melt and be wasted, unless the weather should prove +uncommonly cool. + +53. When the vessel has arrived in port, the blubber is found to be +melted. To separate the oil from the _fritters_, or _fenks_, as the +integuments and other impurities are called, the contents of the casks +are poured into copper boilers, and heated. The heat causes a part of +the latter to sink to the bottom, and the former is drawn off into +coolers, where other extraneous matters settle. The pure or fine oil +is then drawn off for sale. An inferior quality of oil, called _brown +oil_, is obtained from the dregs of the blubber. + +54. The spermaceti cachalot, or _Physeter Macrocephalus_, is an animal +belonging to the norwal genus; although it is generally denominated +the spermaceti whale. It is found in the greatest abundance in the +Pacific Ocean, where it is sought by American and other whalers, for +the sake of the oil and spermaceti. This animal is gregarious, and is +often met with in herds containing more than two hundred individuals. + +55. Whenever a number of the cachalot are seen, several boats, manned +each with six men provided with harpoons and lances, proceed in +pursuit; and, if possible, each boat strikes or fastens to a distinct +animal, which, in most cases, is overcome without much difficulty. +Being towed to the ship, it is deprived of its blubber, and the matter +contained in the head, which consists of spermaceti combined with a +small proportion of oil. The oil is reduced from the blubber, soon +after it has been taken on board, in "try works," with which every +ship engaged in this fishery is provided. + +56. About three tons of oil are commonly obtained from a large +cachalot of this species, and from one to two tons from a small one, +besides the head-matter. The manner in which these two products are +treated, when brought into port, has been described in the article on +candle-making. + +57. The Biscayans were the first people who prosecuted the whale +fishery, as a commercial pursuit. In the twelfth, thirteenth, and +fourteenth centuries, they carried on this business to a considerable +extent; but the whales taken by them were not so large as those which +have since been captured in the polar seas. At length, the whales +ceased to visit the Bay of Biscay, and the fishery in that quarter was +of course terminated. + +58. The voyages of the English and Dutch to the Northern Ocean, in +search of a passage to India, led to the discovery of the principal +haunts of the whale, and induced individuals in those nations to fit +out vessels to pursue these animals in the northern latitudes, the +harpooners and part of the crews being Biscayans. The whales were +found in the greatest abundance about the island of Spitzbergen, and +were, at first, so easily captured, that extra vessels were sent out +in ballast, to assist in bringing home the oil and whalebone; but the +whales, retiring to the centre of the ocean, and to the other side to +the Greenland seas, soon became scarce about that island. + +59. The whale fishery was revived, as above stated, about the +beginning of the seventeenth century; and, with the Dutch, it was in +the most flourishing condition in 1680, when it employed about two +hundred and sixty ships, and fourteen thousand men. The wars about the +beginning of the nineteenth century, extending their baleful influence +to almost every part of the ocean, annihilated this branch of business +among the Dutch; and, in 1828, only a single whale-ship sailed from +Holland. + +60. The English whale fishery was, at first, carried on by companies +enjoying exclusive privileges; but the pursuit was attended with +little success. In 1732, Parliament decreed a bounty of twenty +shillings per ton, on every whaler measuring more than two hundred +tons; and, although this bounty was increased in 1749 to forty +shillings, yet the English whale fishery has never been very +flourishing. + +61. The whale fishery has been carried on with greater success from +the United States than from any other country. It was begun by the +colonists, on their own shores, at a very early period; but the whales +having abandoned the coasts of North America, these hardy navigators +pursued them into the northern and southern oceans. + +62. The number of American vessels now employed in pursuit of the +spermaceti cachalot and the mystecetus, amounts to about four hundred, +and the number of men to about ten thousand. The inhabitants of the +island of Nantucket, and of the town of New-Bedford, are more +extensively engaged in these fisheries than the people of any other +part of the United States. + + + + +[Illustration: SHIPWRIGHT.] + +THE SHIPWRIGHT. + + +1. The earliest notice we have of the construction of a building to +float on water, is that which relates to Noah's Ark. This was the +largest vessel that has ever been built, and the circumstance proves +that the arts, at that early period, had been brought to considerable +perfection; yet, as several centuries had elapsed, after the flood, +before the descendants of Noah had much occasion for floating vessels, +the art of constructing them seems to have been measurably lost. + +2. Early records, which perhaps are worthy of credit, state that the +Egyptians first traversed the river Nile upon rafts, then in the +canoe; and that, to these succeeded the boat, built with joist, +fastened together with wooden pins, and rendered water-tight by +interposing the leaves of the papyrus. To this boat was, at length, +added a mast of acanthus, and a sail of papyrus; but, being prejudiced +against the sea because it swallowed up their sacred river, which they +worshipped as a god, they never attempted to construct vessels adapted +to marine navigation. + +3. The Phoenicians, a nation nearly as ancient as the Egyptian, being +situated directly on the sea, without the advantages of a noble river, +were compelled to provide means for sailing on a wider expanse of +water. It is said, however, that they first traversed the +Mediterranean, and even visited distant islands, with no better means +of conveyance than a raft of timber. This is rendered somewhat +probable, from the fact, that the Peruvians, even at the present time, +venture upon the Pacific Ocean on their _balza_, a raft made from a +spongy tree of that name. + +4. The vessels first constructed by the Phoenicians, were used for +commercial purposes. They were flat-bottomed, broad, and of a small +draught; and those of the Carthaginians and Greeks were similar in +shape. The ships of war, in early times, were generally mere +row-boats, in which the combatants rushed upon each other, and decided +the combat by valor and physical strength. + +5. By successive improvements, the ships of antiquity were, at length, +brought to combine good proportion with considerable beauty. The prows +were sometimes ornamented with the sculptured figures of heathen +deities, and otherwise adorned with paint and gilding, while the +sterns, which were usually in the form of a shield, were elaborately +wrought in carved work. The approved length of a ship of war, was six +or eight times its breadth; and that for mercantile purposes, four +times the breadth; hence, the distinction of _long ships_, and _round +ships_. + +6. Both the long and round ships had a single mast, which could be +taken down or elevated at pleasure. These vessels were, however, +propelled with oars on occasions that required it; and the former, in +their improved state, were properly galleys with one, two, or three +banks of oars, which extended from one end of the vessel to the other. +The rowers were all placed under the deck; and, in time of battle, the +combatants contended above, being in part defended from the missiles +of opposing foes by shields carried on the arm, and by screens and +towers placed on the deck. The bow of each vessel was armed with a +brazen or iron beak, with which the contending parties often stove in +the sides of each other's vessels. + +7. The general size of vessels in the best days of antiquity, was not +greater than that of our sloops and schooners; but there are instances +on record, which prove that they occasionally equalled in capacity the +largest of modern times. In the early ages, they were very small, and, +for several centuries, were drawn upon the shore at the termination of +every voyage. Stranding, however, became impracticable, after the +increase in size, and the addition of the keel. The anchor and cable +were, therefore, invented, to confine the ship at a suitable distance +from the shore. At first, the anchor was nothing more than a large +stone. Afterwards, it was wood and stone combined; and, finally, iron +was the sole material. + +8. The invasion of the Roman empire by the northern barbarians, caused +the operations of war to be almost exclusively conducted on the land. +This, together with the destruction of commerce during the general +desolation of those ruthless incursions, and the barbarism of the +conquerors, occasioned a retrogression, and, in some parts of Europe, +nearly the total destruction of the art of building ships. + +9. The active trade which arose in the Mediterranean, during the +middle ages, and the naval enterprises connected with the Crusades, +occasioned a revival of the art of constructing ships; yet, it did +not advance beyond the condition in which the Carthaginians had left +it, until about the middle of the fourteenth century. At this era, the +inconsiderable galleys of former times began to be superseded by +larger vessels, in which, however, oars were not entirely dispensed +with. + +10. The great change in the general construction of vessels, arose +from the discovery of the polarity of the magnet, and the application +of astronomy to nautical pursuits; for, by these means, the mariner +was released from his dependence on the sight of the land, in guiding +his vessel on its course. Larger ships were therefore constructed, +capable of withstanding more violent storms and loftier waves. + +11. To the Italians, Catalans, and Portuguese, was ship-building most +considerably indebted, in the early days of its revival. The Spaniards +followed up their discovery of the New World with a rapid improvement +in both the form and size of their ships; some of which even rated at +two thousand tons burden. In more modern times, it is said, that the +Spaniards and French are entitled to the credit of nearly all the +improvements which have been made in the theory of the art, the +English having never contributed essentially to advance it, although +the greatest naval power of this or any other time. + +12. In the United States, very great improvements have been made in +the construction of vessels, since the commencement of the present +century. Our builders, however, are less guided by scientific rules +than by experience and a practised eye; yet, it is generally conceded, +that our ships of war and first-rate merchantmen, are superior in +swiftness and beauty to those of any other country. + +13. In Europe, the first thing done towards building a vessel, is to +exhibit it in three distinct views by as many separate drawings; but, +in the United States, the builder commences by framing a complete +wooden model of the proposed construction--the thing itself in +miniature. From this practice of our naval architects, have arisen the +superior beauty and excellence of our vessels. + +14. The timber generally used in the construction of American vessels, +is live-oak, pine, chestnut, locust, and cedar. The trees of mature +growth are chosen, and girdled in the beginning of winter, at which +time they contain but little sap. When sufficiently dry and hardened, +the trees are felled; and, after the timber has been roughly hewn, it +is carefully stored in some dry, airy place, not much exposed to wind +or sun. + +15. In collecting ship-timber, the greatest difficulty is found in +procuring the crooked sticks, which form the sides or ribs of the +skeleton of a vessel. In countries where ship-timber has become an +object of careful cultivation, this difficulty is anticipated by +bending the young trees to the desired form, and confining them there, +until they have permanently received the proper inclination. The +timber is brought to market in its rough state, and sold by the foot. + +16. The timber having been selected, the workmen proceed to fashion +the various parts of the proposed vessel with appropriate tools, being +guided in their operations by patterns, which have been made after the +exact form of the various parts of the model. Much care is taken to +avoid cutting the wood contrary to the grain, that its strength may +not be impaired. + +17. After all the parts of the frame have been made ready, they are +put together. The several blocks of timber on which the vessel is +raised, are called the _stocks_; and to these pieces, the foundation, +called the _keel_, is temporarily fastened in an inclined position. +The keel is inserted into the _stern-post_ at one end, and into the +_stem_ at the other. The _floor-timbers_ are next fixed in the keel, +every other one being there firmly bolted and riveted. Each of these +timbers is a branch and part of the body of a tree; and, when +composing a part of a vessel, they bear the same relation to it as the +ribs to the human body. With equal propriety, the keel has been +compared to the vertebral column, or back-bone. + +18. The next step is to apply and fasten the planks, which serve not +only to exclude the water, but to bind all the parts firmly and +harmoniously together. Simple as this part of the operation may seem +to be, it is the most difficult to be effected, and requires a +pre-concerted plan as much as any other part of the fabric. When it is +necessary to bend a plank at the bow or stern, it is heated by steam, +and then forced into place with screws and levers. The planks are +fastened with iron or copper bolts. + +19. The planking having been finished, and several particulars +attended to, which cannot be well understood from description, the +vessel is ready for the work of the _caulker_, who carefully stops all +the seams with oakum, and smears them with pitch. After the +superfluous pitch has been cleared away with the _scraper_, water is +pumped into the hold, to ascertain if there is any leak. + +20. The bottom of the vessel is next sheathed either with sheets of +copper or pine boards, to protect it from the worms. The latter +materials are employed when the planks have been fastened with iron +since the copper would cause the bolt-heads to corrode, if placed +against them. In either case, sheets of paper, soaked in hot pitch, +are interposed between the planks and the sheathing. + +21. The vessel is now ready to be removed from the stocks to the +water. This removal is called _launching_, which, in many cases, +requires much skill in the preparation and successive management. If +there is no permanent inclined plane in the slip, on which the vessel +may glide into the water, a temporary one is prepared, consisting of +two platforms of solid timber, erected one on each side of the keel, +at a distance of a few feet from it, and extending from the stem into +the water. Upon this double platform which is called the _ways_, is +erected another set of timbers, and the space between these and the +vessel is filled all along with wedges. The whole of this +superstructure is called the _cradle_, and the extremities of it are +fastened to the keel, at the bow and stern, with chains and ropes. + +22. Every thing having been thus prepared, the wedges are +simultaneously driven on both sides. By this means, the vessel is +raised from the stocks, and made to rest entirely on the cradle. After +the _shores_ have been all removed, the cradle, with its weighty +burden, begins to move; and, in a moment, the vessel is launched upon +its destined element. + +23. Among the ancients, a launch was ever an occasion of great +festivity. The mariners were crowned with wreaths, and the ship was +bedecked with streamers and garlands. Safely afloat, she was purified +with a lighted torch, an egg, and brimstone, and solemnly consecrated +to the god whose image she bore. In our less poetic times, there is no +lack of feasting and merriment; although the ceremony of consecration +is different, the oldest sailor on board merely breaking a bottle of +wine or rum over the figure-head--still, perchance, the image of +father Neptune or Apollo. + +24. The vessel, now brought to the wharf, is to be equipped. The mode +of doing this, is varied according as it may be a ship, brig, +hermaphrodite brig, schooner, or sloop. The masts are first erected, +and these are supplied with the necessary apparatus of spars, rigging, +and sails. The latter are furnished by the sail-maker, who is +sometimes denominated the _ship's tailor_. + + + + +[Illustration: MARINER.] + +THE MARINER. + + +1. The business of the mariner consists in navigating ships and other +vessels from one port to another. This is an employment that requires +much decisive resolution; and Horace has well said, that "his breast +must have been bound with oak and triple brass, who first committed +his frail bark to the tempestuous sea." There is certainly nothing +which speaks louder in praise of human ingenuity, than that art by +which man is able to forsake the land, contend successfully with winds +and waves, and reach, with unerring certainty, his destined port in +some distant part of the world. + +2. Nor are the skill and intrepidity exhibited in this arduous +employment, more worthy of our admiration, than the wonderful +advantages resulting from it; for, we are indebted to the exercise of +this art, for those improvements in our condition, which arise from +the exchange of the superfluities of one country for those of another, +and, above all, for the interchange of sentiments, which renders human +knowledge coextensive with the world. + +3. Ship-building is so intimately connected with the art of +navigation, that the historical part of the former subject is equally +applicable to the latter. It is, therefore, unnecessary to be +particular on this point. We shall merely supply some omissions in the +preceding article. + +4. The sailors of antiquity confined their navigation chiefly to the +rivers, lakes, and inland seas, seldom venturing out of sight of land, +unless, from their knowledge of the coasts ahead, they were certain to +meet with it again in a short time. When they thus ventured from the +land, or were driven from it by tempests, the stars and planets were +their only guides. + +5. The qualifications of a skilful pilot or master, even for the +Mediterranean seas, in those days, required more study and more +practical information, than are necessary to render a mariner a +complete general navigator, in the present improved state of the +science of navigation; for then he must needs be acquainted, not only +with the general management of the ship, but also with all the ports, +land-marks, rocks, quicksands, and other dangers, which lay in the +track of his course. Besides this, he was required to be familiar with +the course of the winds, and the indications that preceded them, +together with the movements of the heavenly bodies, and the influence +which they were supposed to exert on the weather. Nor was the ability +to read the various omens which were gathered from the sighing of the +wind in the trees, the murmurs of the waters, and their dash upon the +shore, the flight of birds, and the gambol of fishes, a qualification +to be dispensed with. + +6. A voyage, in ancient times, was a momentous undertaking, and was +usually preceded by sacrifices to those gods who were supposed to +preside over the winds and the waves. All omens were carefully +regarded; and a very small matter, such as the perching of swallows on +the ship, or an accidental sneeze to the left, was sufficient to delay +departure. When, under proper auspices, a vessel or fleet had set +sail, and had advanced some distance, it was customary to release a +number of doves, which had been brought from home. The safe arrival of +these birds at the houses of the voyagers, was considered an +auspicious omen of the return of the fleet. + +7. Having escaped the multiplied dangers of the sea, the sailors, on +their return, fulfilled the vows which they had made before their +departure, or in seasons of peril, offering thanks to Neptune, and +sacrifices to Jupiter, or some other of their gods, to whose +protection they may have committed themselves. Those who had suffered +shipwreck, felt themselves under greater obligations of gratitude; +and, in addition to the usual sacrifices, they commonly offered the +garment in which they had been saved, together with a pictorial +representation of the disaster. If the individual escaped only with +life, his clothing having been totally lost, his hair was shorn from +the head, and consecrated to the tutelar deity. + +8. There is much that is beautiful in these simple acts of piety; and +similar customs, with regard to shipwrecked mariners, are still in +existence in the Catholic countries of the Mediterranean; but the +worship of the heathen deities having been discontinued, a favourite +saint, or perchance the true God, is substituted for them. Although +such acts of piety may not avail to avert impending danger, yet their +natural tendency doubtless is to inspire courage to meet it, when it +may arise. + +9. The Carthaginians, for several centuries, were more extensively +engaged in commerce, than any other people of antiquity; and, as they +carried on their lucrative trade with other nations and their own +colonies, by means of ships, they exceeded all others in the art of +navigation. Not content with exploring every nook and corner of the +Mediterranean, they passed the Pillars of Hercules, as the +promontories of the Straits of Gibraltar were then called, and visited +the Atlantic coasts of Europe, as far north as the Scilly Islands, +then denominated the Cassorides. It is asserted by Pliny, that Hanno +even circumnavigated Africa. + +10. The destruction of Carthage by the Romans, in the year before +Christ 146, interfered with improvements in the art of navigation; and +the invasion of the northern barbarians, several centuries afterwards, +extinguished nearly all the knowledge which had been previously +acquired; nor was it again revived, and brought to the state in which +it existed in the most flourishing era of antiquity, until about the +middle of the fourteenth century. + +11. After the period just mentioned, improvements in this art followed +each other in close succession. The chief cause of this rapid advance +was the discovery of the polarity of the magnet, and the consequent +invention of the mariner's compass. The power of the loadstone to +attract iron, was early known to the Greeks and Chinese; but its +property of pointing in a particular direction, when suspended, and +left to move freely, was not suspected until about the year 1200 of +our era. + +12. At first, mariners were accustomed to place the magnetic needle on +a floating straw, whenever they needed its guidance; but, in 1302, one +Flavio Giaio, an obscure individual of the kingdom of Naples, placed +it on a permanent pivot, and added a circular card. Still, it was +nearly half a century after this, before navigators properly +appreciated, and implicitly relied on this new guide. The compass did +not reach its present improved state, until the middle of the +sixteenth century. + +13. As soon as the reputation of this instrument had become well +established, navigation assumed a bolder character; and the capacity +of vessels having been enlarged to meet this adventurous spirit, oars +were laid aside as inapplicable, and sails alone were relied upon, as +means of propulsion. + +14. Navigation, in the early days of its revival, was indebted to the +Portuguese for many valuable improvements. To them, also, is the world +under obligation for many splendid discoveries, among which was that +of a passage by sea to India. This long-desired discovery was made in +1497, by Vasco de Gama, who had been sent out for the purpose by +Emanuel, king of Portugal. + +15. Five years before Vasco de Gama had found his way to India, by the +way of the Cape of Good Hope, Columbus made his discovery of the New +World. This great man had conceived or adopted the idea, that the form +of our earth was spherical, in opposition to the generally received +opinion, that it was an extended plane; and learning that India +stretched to an unknown distance eastward, he supposed, that, by +sailing in an opposite direction, the navigator would meet with its +eastern extremity. + +16. Pursuing this idea, he applied successively to the governments of +several states and kingdoms for patronage to enable him to test its +correctness; and having, at length, succeeded in obtaining three small +vessels, with the necessary equipments, from Ferdinand and Isabella, +sovereigns of Arragon and Castile, he proceeded on his proposed +voyage, which resulted in the discovery of the American continent. + +17. These two great discoveries gave another powerful impulse to +navigation; and inventions and improvements multiplied in rapid +succession. The learned and ingenious, who at different times have +turned their attention to the subject of navigation, have supplied the +mariner with various means, by which he can direct his course on the +deep with accuracy and certainty. + +18. The instruments now employed in navigation, are the mariner's +compass, the azimuth compass, the quadrant, the sextant, the +chronometer, the half minute-glass, the log, and the sounding-line. In +addition to these, the general navigator needs accurate maps and +charts, lists of the latitude and longitude of every part of the +world, the time of high water at every port, and a book of navigation, +containing tables, to aid him in performing various calculations with +facility; and, with a view to calculate the longitude by observation, +he should be furnished with the Nautical Almanac, containing the +places and declinations of the fixed stars and planets, and especially +the distances of the moon from the sun and other heavenly bodies. + +19. The mariner's compass, as has been before observed, is employed to +indicate the various points of the horizon; but the magnetic needle +varying more or less from the exact northern and southern direction, +the azimuth compass is used, to show the degree of that variation. The +quadrant and sextant are employed to ascertain the altitude and +relative position of the heavenly bodies, that the mariner may +determine the latitude and longitude in which his vessel may be. The +chronometer is nothing more than a watch, designed to measure time +with great accuracy. This instrument is used to determine the +longitude. + +20. The log is used for ascertaining the velocity of the ship on the +water. It consists of a quadrangular piece of wood, eight or nine +inches long, to which is attached a small cord, having knots in it, at +proper distances from each other. In the application, the log is +thrown upon the water, where it will not be disturbed by the wake of +the ship; and the cord, being wound upon a reel, passes from it as +fast as the vessel moves in the water. The number of knots, which pass +off every half minute, indicates the number of miles which the ship +sails per hour; hence, in nautical language, _knots_ and _miles_ are +synonymous terms. The sounding-line is a small cord, with several +pounds of lead of a conical figure attached to it; and is employed in +trying the depth of the water, and the quality of the bottom. + +21. Navigation is either _common_ or _proper_. The former is usually +called coasting, as the vessel is either on the same or neighboring +coast, and is seldom far from land, or out of sounding. The latter is +applied to long voyages upon the main ocean, when considerable skill +in mathematics and astronomy, together with an aptness in the use of +instruments for celestial observations, are required in the captain or +master. + +22. The application of steam to the purposes of navigation, is one of +the greatest achievements of modern science and art. The great utility +of this agent is particularly conspicuous in our vast country, where +large rivers and bays and mighty lakes are numerous, and where an +energetic people and an active commerce require a rapid +intercommunication. Steamboats are but little used on the great +oceans; as merchandise can there be more cheaply and safely +transported in vessels propelled by sails. Since the year 1839, two +lines of steam packets have been running regularly between this +country and Great Britain. They commonly occupy, in crossing the +Atlantic, between twelve and fifteen days. + +23. The chief obstacle to the employment of steam, in long voyages, +arises from the difficulty of generating a sufficient quantity of this +agent, with the fuel which could be carried without overburdening the +vessel; but a remedy for this inconvenience will probably be found, in +improvements in the construction of steam-generators. + +24. The power of confined steam acting by its expansive force, was +discovered by the celebrated Marquis of Worcester, about the middle of +the seventeenth century; but the first working steam-engine was +constructed in 1705, by Thomas Newcomen, a blacksmith of Dartmouth, +Devonshire, England. About the year 1769, James Watt, a native of +Glasgow, added a great number of improvements of his own invention. + +25. Steam navigation was first suggested in England, in 1736, by +Jonathan Hulls. It was first tried in practice in France, in 1782, by +the Marquis de Jouffroy, and nearly at the same time by James Rumsey, +of Virginia, and John Fitch, of Philadelphia; but it was first +rendered completely successful at New-York, in 1807, by Robert Fulton. + +26. The sailors employed by the captain, to aid him in navigating his +ship, are called a _crew_; and the individuals composing it are +responsible to the captain, the captain to the owners, and the owners +to the merchants, for all damages to goods, arising from negligence or +bad management. + +27. In England, ample provisions are made at Greenwich Hospital or by +pensions, for seamen disabled by age or otherwise. These benefits, +however, are extended only to those who have been engaged in the +national service. This noble and politic institution is supported +partly by public bounty, and in part by private donations, and a tax +of sixpence per month, deducted from the wages of all the seamen of +the nation. Marine Hospitals, for the temporary accommodation of +seamen, suffering from disease, have been established in several +cities of the continent of Europe, as well as of the United States. + +28. Mariners have ever been a distinct class of men, and, in their +general characters, very similar in every age of the world. Their +superstitious regard of the many signs of good and bad luck, is nearly +the same now, that it was two or three thousand years ago. In ancient +times, they had their lucky and unlucky days; and now, very few +sailors are willing to leave port on Friday, lest the circumstance +bring upon them some disaster, before the conclusion of the proposed +voyage. + +29. Superstitions of this nature, however, are not confined to the +navigators of the deep. Even in this country, where the inhabitants +enjoy superior intellectual advantages, and boast a high degree of +intelligence, thousands of persons who have never been on board of a +ship, are still under the influence of such heathen notions, +notwithstanding their pretended belief in Christianity, which, in all +cases, when properly understood, would prevent the forebodings of +evil, or expectations of good, from unimportant prognostics. + + + + +[Illustration: MERCHANT.] + +THE MERCHANT. + + +1. The word _merchant_, in its most extended application, signifies, a +person who deals in merchandise. This definition, with some +exceptions, agrees very well with general usage in this country; +although, in England, the term is principally restricted to those +dealers who export and import goods on their own account, either in +their own or in chartered vessels. In the United States, dealers of +this class are denominated _importing_ and _exporting_ merchants; or +simply, _importers_ and _exporters_. + +2. Such merchants, both here and in Europe, are distinguished from +each other by the kind of goods in which they traffic, or by the +foreign country in which they have their chief correspondence; thus, +one who deals in tobacco is called a tobacco-merchant; a wholesale +dealer in wines is called a wine-merchant; a West India, East India, +or Turkey merchant, exports goods to, and imports goods from, those +respective countries. + +3. The business of merchants, in foreign countries, is usually +transacted by agents, called factors, or commission merchants, to whom +goods are consigned to be sold, and by whom other articles of +merchandise are purchased and returned according to order. Sometimes +an agent, called a supercargo, accompanies the vessel; or the captain +may act in this capacity. Goods, however, are often obtained by order, +without the intervention of an agency of any kind. + +4. Almost every sort of foreign merchandise is subject to the +imposition of duties by the government of the country in which it is +received. These duties are paid at the _Custom-House_, to persons +appointed by the constituted authorities to collect them. As soon as a +vessel from abroad has entered the harbor, it is visited by a +custom-house officer, called a _Tide-Waiter_, whose business it is to +see that no part of the cargo is removed, until measures have been +taken to secure the customs. + +5. Goods brought into the country by importers, are frequently sold, +in succession, to several merchants of different grades, before they +come to the hands of the consumers. Cloths or stuffs of different +kinds, for instance, may be first sold by the bale to one merchant, +who, in turn, may dispose of them by the package to another, and this +last may retail them in small quantities to a greater number of +customers. + +6. Dealers in a small way, in cities and large towns, are frequently +denominated shop-keepers; but those who do an extensive retail +business, are usually called merchants or grocers, according as they +deal in dry goods or groceries. In cities, the extensive demand for +goods enables retailers to confine their attention to particular +classes of articles; such as groceries, hardware, crockery, a few +kinds of dry goods, or some articles of domestic manufacture; but in +other places, where trade is more limited, the merchant is obliged to +keep a more general assortment. + +7. The general retail merchant is compelled to transact business with +a great number of wholesale dealers, to whom he pays cash in hand, or +agrees to pay it at some future period, say, in four, six, nine, or +twelve months. The people in his vicinity, in turn, purchase his goods +on similar conditions, with this difference, that they often +substitute for cash agricultural and other productions, which the +merchant, at length, turns into ready money. + +8. Barter, or the exchange of commodities, prevails to a great extent, +in country places, in almost every part of the United States. In such +exchanges, the currency of the country is made the standard of +reference: for example; a merchant receiving from a customer twenty +bushels of wheat, estimated at one dollar per bushel, gives in return +twenty dollars' worth of goods, at his marked prices; or, in other +words, he gives credit for the wheat, and charges the goods. On the +same principle, merchants of the first class often exchange the +productions of their own country for those of another. + +9. Merchants, or store-keepers, as they are indifferently called in +some places, whose location is distant from the seaboard, visit the +city in which they deal once or twice a year, for the purpose of +laying in their stock of goods; but, in order to keep up their +assortment, they sometimes order small lots in the interim. Retailers +more conveniently situated, purchase a smaller amount of goods at a +time, and replenish their stores more frequently. + +10. Commerce, on the principles of barter, or a simple exchange of one +commodity for another, must have been practised in the early days of +Adam himself; although we have no positive record of the fact; for it +cannot be imagined that the arts, which are stated in the Scripture to +have flourished long before the flood, could have existed without +commercial transactions. The period at which the precious metals began +to be employed as a standard of value, or as a medium of commercial +intercourse, is not known. They were used for this purpose in the time +of Abraham, and probably many centuries before his day. + +11. The earliest hint respecting the existence of trade between +different nations, is to be found in the book of Genesis, where the +transaction regarding the sale of Joseph to the Ishmaelites, or +Midianites, is mentioned. These merchants, it appears, were travelling +in a caravan to Egypt, then the most cultivated and refined part of +the world. Their camels were loaded with balm, myrrh, and spices. The +first of these articles was the production of Gilead; the second, of +Arabia; and the last was probably from India; as in that country the +finer spices are produced. If this were really the case, commerce, in +its widest sense, was carried on much earlier than is generally +supposed. + +12. The fertility of Egypt, and its central position, made it an +emporium of commerce; and there it flourished, in an eminent degree, +long before it was cultivated in Europe and in Western Asia. For +several ages, however, the Egyptians, on account of their +superstitious prejudices against the sea, carried on no maritime +commerce. + +13. The Phoenicians were the first people who used the Mediterranean +Sea, as a highway for the transportation of merchandise. Tyre and +Sidon were their chief cities; and the latter was called a _great_, +and the former a _strong_ city, even in the time of Joshua, fifteen +hundred years before the advent of Christ. These people, in their +original association as a nation, possessed but a small territory; +and, being surrounded by many powerful nations, they never attempted +its enlargement on the land side. + +14. The settlement of the Israelites in the "Promised Land," +circumscribed their limits to a very small territory, and compelled +them to colonize a great number of their inhabitants. The colonies +which they formed in the various countries bordering upon the +Mediterranean and on the islands, enlarged the boundaries of +civilization, and greatly extended their trade. + +15. The Phoenicians continued their colonial system for many centuries +after the period just mentioned, and even extended it to the Atlantic +coasts of Europe. But the most distinguished of all their colonies was +the one which founded the city of Carthage, on the northern coast of +Africa, about the year 869 before Christ. Elissa, or, as she is +otherwise called, Dido, the reputed leader of this colony, makes a +conspicuous figure in one of the books of Virgil's Æneid. + +16. Carthage, adopting the same system which had so long been pursued +by the great cities of Phoenicia, rose, in a few centuries, to wealth +and splendor. But, changing, at length, her mercantile for a military +character, she ruled her dependent colonies with a rod of despotism. +This produced a spirit of resistance on the part of her distant +subjects, who applied to Rome for aid to resist her tyranny. The +consequence of this application was the three "Punic wars," so +renowned in history, and which terminated in the destruction of +Carthage, in the year 146 before the Christian era. During the first +Punic war, Carthage contained seven hundred thousand inhabitants; but +at its destruction, scarcely five thousand were found within its +walls. + +17. The period of the greatest prosperity of Tyre, may be placed 588 +years before Christ, at which time the remarkable prophecies of +Ezekiel concerning it were delivered. Soon after this, it was greatly +injured by Nebuchadnezzar; and was finally destroyed by Alexander the +Great, about the year 332 before Christ. + +18. A new channel was opened to commerce by the monarch just +mentioned, he having founded a city in Egypt, to which he gave the +name of Alexandria. His object seems to have been, to render this city +the centre of the commercial world; and its commanding position, at +the mouth of the Nile, was well calculated to make it so; since it was +easy of access from the west by the Mediterranean, from the east by +the Red Sea, and from the central countries of Asia by the Isthmus of +Suez. + +19. The plans of Alexander were carried out with vigor by Ptolemy, who +received Egypt as his portion of the Macedonian empire, after the +death of his master; and, by his liberality, he induced great numbers +of people to settle in the new metropolis for the purposes of trade. +Far south, on the Red Sea, he also founded a city, which he called +Berenice, and which he designed as a depôt for the precious +commodities brought into his kingdom from India. From this city, goods +were transported on camels across the country, to a port on the Nile; +and thence they were taken down the river to Alexandria. + +20. Ptolemy also kept large fleets both on the Mediterranean and on +the Red Sea, for the protection of commerce, and the defence of his +dominions; yet, the Egyptians, even under the Ptolemies, never +attempted a direct trade to India. They, as the Phoenicians and their +own progenitors had done for ages, depended upon the Arabian merchants +for the productions of that country. + +21. The Greeks, before their subjugation to the Roman power, had paid +much attention to nautical affairs; but this had been chiefly for +warlike dominion, rather than for commercial purposes. The city of +Corinth, however, had become wealthy by the attention of its +inhabitants to manufactures and trade; but it was destroyed by the +same barbarian people who, about this time, annihilated Carthage. Both +of these cities were afterwards favored by Julius Cæsar; but they +never regained anything like their former importance. + +22. Rome having, at length, obtained the complete dominion of the +Mediterranean Sea, and the countries bordering upon it, as well as +that of many others more distant, and less easy of access, became the +great mart for the sale of merchandise of every description, from all +parts of the known world. For the various commodities brought to the +city, the Romans paid gold and silver; as they had nothing else to +export in return. The money which they had exacted as tribute, or +which they had obtained by plunder, was thus returned to the nations +from which it had been taken. + +23. The subjected provinces continued to pour their choicest +productions into Rome, as long as she retained the control of the +empire; and thus they contributed to enervate, by the many luxuries +they afforded, the power by which they had been subdued. The _eternal +city_, as she is sometimes called, in the days of her extensive +dominion, contained about three millions of inhabitants; and, although +this immense population was chiefly supplied by importations, the +Romans never esteemed the character of a merchant. They despised the +peaceful pursuits of industry, whilst they regarded it honorable to +attack without provocation, and plunder without remorse, the weaker +nations of the earth. + +24. In the year 328 of the Christian era, Byzantium was made the seat +of government of the Roman empire by Constantine, who, with a view of +perpetuating his own name, called his new capital Constantinople. +However necessary this removal may have been, to keep in subjugation +the eastern provinces, it was fatal to the security of the western +division. The rivalry between the two cities produced frequent +contests for dominion; and these, together with the general corruption +and effeminacy of the people themselves, rendered it impossible to +resist the repeated and fierce invasions of the barbarous people from +the northern parts of Europe. + +25. These invasions commenced in the latter part of the fourth +century; and, in less than two hundred years, a great portion of the +inhabitants was destroyed, and the whole Western empire was completely +subverted. The conquerors were too barbarous to encourage or protect +commerce; and, like the arts of peace and civilization generally, it +sunk, with few exceptions, amid the general ruin. + +26. The empire of Constantinople, or, as it is usually called, the +Eastern empire, continued in existence several centuries after the +Western empire had been overrun; and commerce continued to flow, for a +considerable time, through some of its former channels to the capital. +At length, the Indian trade, which had so long been carried on chiefly +through Egypt by the Red Sea, was changed to a more northern route, +through Persia. + +27. Soon after the commencement of the pretended mission of Mohammed, +or Mahomet, in 609 of the Christian era, the power of the Arabians, +since called Saracens, began to rise. The followers of the Prophet, +impelled by religious zeal, and allured by plunder, in less than 150 +years extended their dominion almost to the borders of China on the +one side, and to the Mediterranean and Atlantic on the other. The +trade of the East, of course, fell into their hands; and they +continued to enjoy it, until they, in turn, were subdued by the Turks. + +28. So great was the prejudice of the Christians against the followers +of Mohammed, that, for a long time, it was considered heretical for +the former to trade with the latter; but the Saracens having a vast +extent of territory, and having control of the Mediterranean and Red +Seas, as well as of the Persian Gulf, carried on an extensive trade +among themselves. + +29. The first European power which rose to commercial eminence, after +the destruction of the Western empire, was the republic of Venice. +This important city owed its origin to some fugitives, who fled for +their lives to a number of small islands in the Adriatic Sea, during +the invasion of Italy by the Huns, under Attila, in the year 452. + +30. The houses first built by the refugees, were constructed of mud +and seagrass; and, so insignificant were they in their appearance, +that a writer of that period compares them to a collection of the +nests of water-fowls. The number of these islands, on which so +splendid a city was afterwards built, was, according to some, +seventy-two; but, according to others, ninety, or even one hundred and +fifty. For a considerable time, the distinction of rich and poor was +not known; for all lived upon the same fish-diet, and in houses of +similar form and materials. + +31. In less than a century, the inhabitants of these islands had +established a regular government; and, in the year 732, we find them +venturing beyond the Adriatic into the Mediterranean, even as far as +Constantinople, trading in silks, purple draperies, and Indian +commodities. In 813, the French commenced trading to Alexandria, and, +in a few years, the Venetians followed their example, in despite of +the ecclesiastical prohibitions against intercourse with the +followers of Mohammed. In the tenth century, Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and +Florence, began to rival Venice in trade. + +32. The crusades, which, for two centuries from the year 1095, engaged +so much of the attention of the Christian nations of Europe, greatly +promoted the interests of the commercial cities of Italy; as the +armies in these expeditions were dependent on them for provisions, and +for the means of crossing the sea, which lay between them and the +_Holy Land_. They also gave a new and powerful impulse to commerce in +general, by giving the people, in the unrefined parts of Europe, a +knowledge of the elegances and luxuries of the East. + +33. In the thirteenth century, commerce and manufactures began to +command considerable attention in Germany and the adjacent states; but +as the seas and rivers were infested with pirates, and the roads with +banditti, it became necessary for those engaged in commerce to adopt +measures to protect their commodities, while on the way from one place +to another. The citizens of Hamburg and Lubeck first united for this +purpose; and the advantages of such a union of strength becoming +apparent, many other cities soon entered into the confederation. + +34. This association was denominated the _Hanse_, or league, and the +cities thus united were called _Hanse Towns_. Most of the commercial +towns in the northern parts of the continent of Europe, at length, +became parties to the Hanseatic league. The number of these cities +varied, at different periods; but in the days of the greatest +prosperity of the association, it amounted to eighty-five. + +35. Representatives from the different cities met triennially at +Lubeck, where their common treasury and archives were kept. By this +assembly, which was called a diet, rules for the regulation of +commercial intercourse were made, and other business transacted, +which related to the general welfare of the confederation. + +36. In the fourteenth century, the league, in all parts of Europe, +attained a high degree of political importance, and developed that +commercial policy which it had originated, and which has since been +adopted by all civilized nations. The objects of the allied cities +were now declared to be--to protect their commerce against pillage, to +guard and extend their foreign trade, and, as far as possible, to +monopolize it, to maintain and extend the privileges obtained from the +princes of different nations, and to make rules or laws for the +regulation of trade, as well as to establish the necessary tribunals +for their due execution. The decisions of their courts were respected +by the civil authorities of the countries to which their trade +extended. + +37. The treasury was chiefly supplied by duties on merchandise; and +the great wealth thus acquired enabled the allied cities to obtain +commercial privileges from needy princes, for pecuniary +accommodations. The league, in defending its commerce, even carried on +wars against kingdoms; and, at length, by its wealth and naval power, +became mistress of the Northern seas, and rendered the different +cities of the confederation in a great measure independent of the +sovereigns of the countries in which they were situated. + +38. The conduct of the Hanse Towns, at length, excited the jealousies +of those sovereigns who had, for a long time, favored their union; and +the princes of Europe generally, becoming acquainted with the value of +commerce, both as means of enriching their people, and of filling +their own coffers, combined against the association. In 1518, the +governments of several states commanded all their cities to withdraw +from the league, which soon after voluntarily excluded some others. +After this the Hanse gradually sunk in importance, and finally ceased +to exist in 1630. + +39. The trade to the East Indies continued to be carried on through +Persia and Egypt, subject to the extortions of the Saracens, and the +still severer exactions of the merchants of the Italian cities, until +the route to those countries, by the Cape of Good Hope, was +discovered. + +40. The use of this new pathway of commerce, combined with the +discovery of America, caused an entire change in both the political +and commercial state of Europe. A strong desire of visiting the remote +parts of the world, thus laid open to the people of Europe, +immediately arose, not only among the Portuguese and Spaniards, but +also among other nations. Colonies were soon planted in the East and +in the West; and the whole world may be said to have been inspired +with new energy. + +41. The Portuguese, being considerably in advance of the other +Atlantic nations in the art of navigation, soon gained the entire +control of the East India trade, and were thus raised to great +eminence, prosperity, and power. Their dominions became extensive in +Africa and Asia, and their navy superior to any that had been seen for +several ages before. + +42. In 1580, or eighty-three years after Vasco de Gama found his way, +by the Cape, to Calicut, Portugal was subdued by Philip II., king of +Spain. The Spaniards, however, were not enriched by the conquest; +since their commercial energy and enterprise had been destroyed, by +the vast quantities of the precious metals obtained from their +American possessions. + +43. In 1579, the people of Holland, with those of six neighboring +provinces, being then subject to Spain, united, under the Prince of +Orange, for the purpose of regaining their liberties. This produced a +sanguinary war, which continued for thirty years, during which time +the Dutch wrested from the Spaniards most of their Portuguese +possessions in India, and, in addition to this, formed many other +settlements in various places from the River Tigris even to Japan. +Batavia, on the Island of Java, was made the grand emporium of trade, +and the seat of the government of their East India possessions. + +44. The prosperity of the United Provinces increased with great +rapidity; and, as they were but little interfered with by other +nations in their Eastern dominions, they enjoyed, for half a century +or more, almost the whole of the trade of the East. Besides this, they +shared largely with the rest of the world in almost every other branch +of trade. After the year 1660, other nations, by great exertions, +succeeded in obtaining considerable shares of the commerce of the +East; yet the Dutch still retain valuable possessions there. + +45. The chief articles exported from Britain, in ancient times, were +tin, lead, copper, iron, wool, and cattle; for which they received in +return, gold, silver, and manufactured articles. But the commerce of +the British Islands was inconsiderable, when compared with that of +many kingdoms on the Continent, until the beginning of the eighteenth +century. + +46. When Elizabeth ascended the throne of England, in 1558, the +circumstances of the nation required an extensive navy for its +protection; and the great attention which the queen paid to this means +of defence, gave animation to all maritime concerns. Under her +patronage, several companies for trading in foreign countries were +formed, which, at that time, and for a long period afterwards, were +very beneficial to trade in general. In her reign, also, the colonial +system of England had its origin, which contributed eventually, more +than any thing else, to the commercial prosperity of that nation. +Since the reign of this wise and judicious princess, the commerce and +manufactures of Great Britain have been, with a few interruptions, +steadily advancing; and, in these two particulars, she surpasses every +other nation. + +47. The United States possess superior local advantages for trade, and +embrace a population unsurpassed for enterprise and energy. Since the +Revolution, the resources of our country have been rapidly developing. +Our exports and imports are already next in amount to those of Great +Britain and France and the extensive improvements which have been made +by the different states, to facilitate internal intercourse, are +increasing with great rapidity. + +48. The banking system is very intimately interwoven with commercial +affairs in general. Banks are of three kinds, viz., of _discount_, of +_deposit_, and of _circulation_. The term _bank_, in its original +application, signified a place of common deposit for money, and where, +in commercial transactions, individuals could have the amount, or any +part of the amount, of their deposits transferred to each other's +accounts. + +49. The term _bank_ is derived from the Italian word _banco_, which +signified a kind of bench, or table, on which the Jews were accustomed +to place the money which they proposed to lend in the markets of the +principal towns. The first bank was established in Venice, about the +middle of the twelfth century; the Bank of Genoa, in 1345; the Bank of +Amsterdam, in 1607; the Bank of Hamburg, in 1619; the Bank of +Rotterdam, in 1635. These were all banks of mere deposit and transfer. + +50. _Lending-houses_ may be traced to a very ancient origin. They +were, at first, supported by humane persons, with a view of lending +money to the poor, on pledges, without interest. Augustus Cæsar +appropriated a part of the confiscated effects of criminals to this +purpose; and Tiberias, also, advanced a large capital, to be lent for +three years, without interest, to those who could give security in +lands equal to twice the value of the sum borrowed. + +51. In the early ages of Christianity, free gifts were collected +and preserved by ecclesiastics, partly to defray the expenses of +divine service, and partly to relieve the poor of the church; and +the funds thus provided came, at length, to be called _montes +pietatis_--mountains of piety. This appellation was afterwards +applied to the _loaning-houses_, established in modern Italy in +imitation of those of antiquity. + +52. In course of time, the loaning-houses were permitted by the Roman +pontiff to charge a moderate interest on a part of their capital, and, +finally, upon the whole of it; still, they retained, for a long +period, the original denomination of _montes pietatis_. The receiving +of interest on loans was declared lawful by the Pope, about the middle +of the fifteenth century. Soon after this period, all the cities of +Italy hastened to establish these institutions; and their example was, +at length, followed in other parts of Europe. + +53. But long before the Pope had granted this privilege, individuals +were in the habit of loaning money at an exorbitant usury. These were +principally Jews and merchants from Lombardy; hence, all persons in +those countries, who dealt in money, came to be called _Lombard +merchants_. The prohibitions of the Church against receiving interest +were eluded, when necessary, by causing it to be paid in advance, by +way of present or premium. + +54. In the twelfth century, many of the dealers in money were expelled +from England, France, and the Netherlands, for usurious practices; +and, in order to regain possession of their effects, which they had, +in their haste, left in the hands of confidential friends, they +adopted the method of writing concise orders or drafts. Hence +originated bills of exchange, so convenient in commercial +transactions. + +55. The Bank of England was established in the year 1694. Hitherto, +the banks of deposit, and loaning-houses, were entirely distinct; but, +in this institution, these two branches of pecuniary operations were +united. It seems, also, that this was the first bank that issued +notes, to serve as a medium of circulation, and to supply, in part, +the place of gold and silver. + +56. In the United States, banking institutions are very numerous. They +are all established by companies, incorporated by the legislatures of +the different states, or by the congress of the United States. The act +which grants the privileges of banking, also fixes the amount of the +capital stock, and divides it into equal shares. The holders of the +stock choose the officers to transact the business of the corporation. + +57. Our banks receive deposits from individual customers, loan money +on notes of hand, acceptances, and drafts, issue notes of circulation, +and purchase and sell bills of exchange. They are usually authorized, +by their charters, to loan three times the amount, and to issue +bank-notes to twice the amount, of the capital stock paid in. Few +banking companies, however, exercise these privileges to the full +extent, lest the bank be embarrassed by too great a demand for specie. +As soon as a bank ceases to pay specie for its notes, it is said to be +broken, and its operations must cease. + +58. The Bank of North America was the first institution of this kind, +established in the United States. It was incorporated by Congress, in +1781, at the suggestion of Robert Morris. In 1791, after the union of +the states had been effected under the present constitution, the first +Bank of the United States was incorporated, with a capital of ten +millions of dollars. Most of the states soon followed this example; +and, before the beginning of the present century, the whole banking +capital amounted to near thirty millions of dollars. + +59. The charter of the first Bank of the United States expired, by its +own limitation, in 1811; and a new one, with a capital of thirty-five +millions of dollars, was established in 1816, which also closed its +concerns, as a national bank, in 1836, President Jackson having vetoed +the bill for its recharter. In that year the number of banks was 567, +and the bank capital $251,875,292. In the year 1840, the number of +banks had increased to 722, and their capital to $358,442,692. + + + + +[Illustration: AUCTIONEER.] + +THE AUCTIONEER. + + +1. The Auctioneer is one who disposes of property at public sale to +the highest bidder. The sale of property in this manner is regulated, +in some particulars, by legislative enactments, which have for their +object the prevention of fraud, or the imposition of duties. + +2. In Pennsylvania, the present law provides for three classes of +auctioneers, each of which is required to pay to the state a specified +sum for a license. The first class pays two thousand dollars per +annum; the second, one thousand; and the third, two hundred; and, +besides this, one and a half per cent. on the amount of all their +sales is required to be paid into the treasury of the state. To each +class are granted privileges corresponding to the cost of the +license. + +3. In the state of New-York, the number of auctioneers for the cities, +villages, and counties, is limited by law; and all persons who would +follow the business are compelled to give security for the faithful +execution of its duties. The state requires a duty of one per cent. on +all merchandise imported from beyond the Cape of Good Hope, one and a +half per cent. on such as may be imported from other foreign +countries, and two per cent. on wines and ardent spirits, whether +foreign or domestic. The laws and usages regarding sales at auction, +in most of the United States, are similar, in their general +principles, to those of Pennsylvania or New-York. + +4. A great amount of merchandise, both foreign and domestic, in our +principal cities, is sold by auction; and the price which staple +commodities there command is generally considered a tolerable +criterion of their value at the time. It very frequently happens, +however, that articles which are not in steady demand, are sold at a +great sacrifice. Auctioneers seldom import goods, nor is it usual for +them to own the property which they sell. + +5. In all cases, before an auction is held, due notice is given to the +public. This is usually done by the circulation of a printed +hand-bill, by a crier, or by an advertisement in a newspaper; or all +three of these modes may be employed to give publicity to one and the +same sale. + +6. Persons desirous of becoming purchasers at the proposed auction, +assemble at the time appointed; and, after the auctioneer has stated +the terms of sale, as regards the payment of whatever may be +purchased, he offers the property to the persons present, who make +their respective bids, he, in the mean time, _crying_ the sum +proposed. When no further advance is expected, he _knocks down_ the +article to the last bidder. + +7. A mode of sale was formerly, and, in some cases is still, +practised, in various parts of Europe, called _sale by inch of +candle_. The things for sale are offered in the ordinary manner, as +has been described in the preceding paragraph, and, at the same time, +a wax-candle, an inch in length, is lighted. The purchasers bid upon +each other, until the candle has been all consumed; and the last +bidder, when the light goes out, is entitled to the articles or goods +in question. + +8. Auctioneers, in large cities, hold their sales at regular periods; +sometimes, every day or evening. On extensive sales of merchandise, +credits of two, three, four, six, or nine months, are commonly given. +In such cases, the auctioneer often gives his own obligations for the +goods, and receives in return those of the purchasers. + +9. This mode of sale is employed in the disposition of property taken +by process of law for the payment of debts, in every part of the +world, where the influence of European law has extended. It is used in +preference to any other; because it is the most ready way of sale, and +is moreover the most likely method to secure to the debtor something +like the value of his property. + +10. Executors and administrators often employ this convenient method +of sale, in settling the estates of deceased persons; and they, as +well as sheriffs and constables, _ex-officio_, or by virtue of their +office, have a lawful right to act in the capacity of auctioneer, in +performing their respective duties; and no tax is required by the +state, in such cases. + +11. The sale by auction was in use among the Romans, even in the early +days of their city. It was first employed in the disposition of spoils +taken in war; hence a spear was adopted as a signal of a public sale; +and this continued to be the auctioneer's emblem, even after this mode +of sale was extended to property in general. The red flag and spear, +or rather the handle of that instrument, both emblematical of blood +and war, are still employed for the same purpose. + +12. Several attempts have been made in the United States, to suppress +sales of merchandise by auction; but these endeavors were +unsuccessful, since experience had proved this mode of effecting +exchanges to be prompt and convenient; and since some of the states +had derived considerable revenue from the duties. So long as +conflicting interests remain as they are, this mode of sale will be +likely to continue. + + + + +[Illustration: The CLERGYMAN.] + +THE CLERGYMAN. + + +1. The Lord Jesus Christ, our Saviour, during his visit of mercy to +the world, chose from among his disciples twelve men, to be his +especial agents in establishing his church. These men, in our +translation of the New Testament, are denominated apostles. The grand +commission which they received was, "Go ye into all the world, and +preach my gospel to every creature." + +2. The apostles commenced their noble enterprise on that memorable day +of Pentecost, which next occurred after the ascension of their Master; +and, in the city of his inveterate enemies, soon succeeded in +establishing a church of several thousand members. The doctrines of +Christianity soon spread to other cities and countries; and, before +the close of that century, they were known and embraced, more or +less, in every province of the Roman empire. + +3. The apostles, however, were not the only agents engaged in +spreading and maintaining the doctrines of Christianity; for, in every +church, persons were found capable of taking the supervision of the +rest, and of exercising the office of the ministry. These were +ordained either by the apostles themselves, or by persons authorized +by them to perform the ceremony. + +4. After the Church had passed through a great variety of +persecutions, during a period of nearly three centuries, the +Christians became superior in numbers to the pagans in the Roman +empire. In the early part of the fourth century, a free toleration in +religious matters was declared by Constantine the Great, who took the +Church under his especial protection. + +5. The Christians of the first and second centuries usually worshipped +God in private houses, or in the open air in retired places, chiefly +on account of the persecutions to which they were often subjected. It +was not until the third century, that they ventured to give greater +publicity to their service, by building churches for general +accommodation. When the Cross had obtained the ascendency, in the +subsequent age, many of the heathen temples were appropriated to +Christian purposes; and many splendid churches were erected, +especially by Constantine and his successors. + +6. In the middle ages, a great number of edifices were erected for the +performance of divine worship, which, in loftiness and grandeur, had +never been surpassed; and the greater part of these remain to the +present day. Some of the most famous churches are, St. Peter's, at +Rome; Notre Dame, at Paris; St. Stephen's, at Vienna; the church of +Isaac, at St. Petersburg; the minsters at Strasburg and Cologne and +St. Paul's, in London. + +7. Up to the time of the great change in favor of Christianity, just +mentioned, the whole Church had often acted together in matters of +common interest, through the medium of general councils; and this +practice continued for several centuries afterwards. But the variance +and dissensions between the Pope of Rome, and the Patriarch of +Constantinople, combined with some other causes, produced, about the +close of the ninth century, a total separation of the two great +divisions of the Church. + +8. At the time of this schism, the whole Christian world had become +subject to these two prelates. The part of the Church ruled by the +Patriarch, was called the _Eastern_, or _Greek Church_; and that part +which yielded obedience to the Pope, was denominated the _Western_, or +_Latin Church_. Many attempts have been since made to reunite these +two branches of the Church; but these endeavors have hitherto proved +unsuccessful. + +9. The conquest of the Roman empire, so often mentioned in the +preceding pages, was particularly injurious to the Church, especially +that part of it subject to the Roman pontiff; since it nearly +extinguished the arts and sciences, and since the barbarous conquerors +were received into the Church, before they had attained the proper +moral qualifications. From these causes, chiefly, arose the conduct of +the Church, in the middle ages, which has been so much censured by all +enlightened men, and which has been often unjustly attributed to +Christianity herself, rather than to the ignorance and barbarism of +the times. + +10. In the year 1517, while Leo X. occupied the papal chair, Martin +Luther, of Saxony, commenced his well-known opposition to many +practices and doctrines in the Church, which he conceived to be +departures from the spirit of primitive Christianity. He was soon +joined in his opposition by Philip Melancthon, Ulric Zuingle, and +finally by John Calvin, as well as by many other distinguished divines +of that century, in various parts of Europe. + +11. These men, with their followers and abettors, for reasons too +obvious to need explanation, received or assumed the appellation of +_Reformers_; and, on account of a solemn protest which they entered +against a certain decree which had been issued against them, they also +became distinguished by the name of _Protestants_. The latter term is +now applied to all sects, of whatever denomination, in the western +division of the Church, that do not acknowledge the authority of the +Roman See. + +12. The Protestant division of the Church is called by the Roman +Catholics, the _Western schism_, to distinguish it from that of the +Greek Church, which is termed the _Eastern schism_. The Protestants +are divided into a great number of sects, or parties; and, although +they differ from each other in many of their religious sentiments, +they agree in their steady opposition to the Roman Catholics. + +13. The ostensible object of the founders of all the churches +differing from the Romish communion, has been, to bring back +Christianity to the state in which it existed on its first +establishment; and to prove their positions in doctrine and church +government, they appeal to the Scriptures, and sometimes to the +Christian writers of the first four or five centuries. The advocates +of the "mother church," on the contrary, contend that, being +infallible, she can never have departed from primitive principles, on +any point essential to salvation. + +14. As to the government of the several churches it is, in most cases, +either Episcopal or Presbyterian. In the former case, three orders of +clergymen are recognized; viz., _bishops_, _presbyters_, and +_deacons_; and these three orders are supposed, by the advocates of +episcopacy, to have been ordained by the apostles. This opinion is +supported by the circumstance, that these orders are mentioned in the +Scriptures; and also by the fact, supposed to be sustained by the +primitive fathers, that they were uniformly established early in the +second century. + +15. It is believed by Episcopalians, that these three orders of +ministers were instituted in the Christian Church, in imitation of the +Jewish priesthood; the bishop representing the high-priest; the +presbyters, the priests; and the deacons, the Levites. + +16. On the other hand, the advocates of the Presbyterian form of +government, assert, that in the first century of the Church, bishop +and presbyter were the same order of ministers, and that the former +was nothing more than a presbyter, who presided in Christian +assemblies, when met to consult on church affairs. + +17. The deacons in the churches that have renounced episcopacy, are +not classed among the clergy, but are chosen from among the private +members, to manage the temporalities of the congregation, or church, +to which they belong, to assist the minister, on some occasions, in +religious assemblies, or to take the lead in religious worship in his +absence. Under this form of government, therefore, there is recognized +but one order of ministers, and every clergyman is denominated +_presbyter_, _priest_, or _elder_. + +18. The literary and religious qualifications required of candidates +for orders have varied in different ages of the Church, according to +the existing state of literature and religion; and the requirements in +these two particulars are now different, in the several denominations. +Nearly all, however, require the profession in the candidate, that he +believes he is moved by the Holy Ghost to take upon him the office of +the ministry. Some churches require a collegiate education, with two +or three years of the study of divinity; but others, only such as is +usually obtained in common schools, combined with a tolerable capacity +for public speaking. + +19. The clergy in the Roman Catholic Church, is of two kinds; the one +_regular_, comprehending all the religious who have taken upon +themselves monastic vows; the other _secular_, comprehending all the +ecclesiastics who do not assume these obligations. The latter, +however, in common with the former, take a vow of perpetual celibacy. + +20. It is the especial duty of clergymen, to preach the gospel, to +administer the ordinances, and to enforce the discipline of that +branch of the Church to which they belong. They are also expected to +administer consolation to persons in distress of mind, arising from +the complicated evils of this life, to unite persons by the bonds of +matrimony, and, finally, in attending on the burial of the dead, to +perform the last ceremony due from man to man. + +21. Ministers of the gospel occupy an elevated stand in all Christian +communities, both on account of the high tone of moral feeling which +they generally possess, and on account of the interest which the +people at large feel in the subject of religion. The work of the +ministry is emphatically a work of benevolence; and no man can perform +it with satisfaction to himself, or with acceptance to the people of +his charge, if destitute of love to God and man. + +22. In most of the kingdoms of Europe, some one of the several +denominations is supported by legal enactments; but, in the United +States, every branch of the Church enjoys equal favor, so far as +legislation is concerned. In most cases, the institutions of religion +are supported by voluntary contributions or subscriptions. + +23. The salary received by ministers of the gospel, in the United +States, is exceedingly various in the different denominations, and in +the same denomination from different congregations. In some instances, +they receive nothing for their services, in others, a liberal +compensation. + +24. It is but justice to this profession to remark, that, taking the +ability of its members into account, there is no employment less +productive of wealth; and this is so evidently the case, that some +denominations distribute, annually, a considerable amount among the +widows and orphans of those who have devoted their lives to the +ministry. + +25. The meagre support which the ministry usually receives, arises, in +part, from the opinion too commonly entertained, that this profession +ought to be one of benevolence exclusively, and that ministers should, +therefore, be contented with a bare subsistence, and look for their +reward in the consciousness of doing their duty, and in the prospect +of future felicity. This is a very convenient way of paying for the +services of faithful servants, and of relieving the consciences of +those whose duty it is to give them a liberal support. + + + + +[Illustration: The LAWYER.] + +ATTORNEY AT LAW. + + +1. A lawyer is one who, by profession, transacts legal business for +others, who, in this relation, are called _clients_. A lawyer is +either an attorney or councillor, or both. The part of legal business, +belonging peculiarly to the attorney, consists in preparing the +details of the _pleadings_ and the _briefs_ for the use of the +councillor, whose especial province it is to make the argument before +the court. When the lawyer prepares his own case and makes the +argument, as he generally does, he acts in the capacity of both +attorney and councillor. In the court of chancery the lawyer is +denominated _solicitor_, and in the admiralty court, _proctor_. Before +a person is permitted to practise law in our courts, he is required to +pass through a regular course of study, and afterwards undergo an +examination before persons learned in the law. + +2. This profession has its foundation in the numerous and complicated +laws which have been adopted by men, to govern their intercourse with +each other. These laws, as they exist in our country, may be divided +into _constitutional_ and _municipal_. Constitutional law is that by +which the government of the United States, and those of the different +states, have been established, and by which they are governed in their +action. The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of +the land. + +3. Municipal law embraces those rules of civil conduct prescribed by +the supreme power of the state, or of the United States; and is +composed of _statute_ and _common_ law. Statute law is the express +will of the legislative part of the government, rendered authentic by +certain forms and ceremonies prescribed by the Constitution. + +4. Common law is a system of rules and usages, which have been applied +in particular cases of litigation. It originated in the dictates of +natural justice, and cultivated reason, and is found more particularly +in the reports of the decisions of the courts of justice. The common +law is employed in cases which positive enactments do not reach, and +in construing and applying positive enactments. The common law of +England has been adopted by every state in the Union, except +Louisiana. + +5. The Constitution of the United States, and those of the several +states, provides for three departments in their respective +governments, viz., the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. +It is the chief province of the first to enact laws, and of the second +and third to see that they are duly executed. + +6. The judicial power of the United States is vested in one _supreme +court_ and two inferior courts. The Supreme Court is now composed of +seven justices who commence their session in the Capitol, at +Washington, on the second Monday in January. The two inferior courts +are the _District_ and _Circuit Courts_. In the first of these +presides a single judge; in the second, one of the justices of the +Supreme Court, and the district judge. + +7. The judiciary of the United States takes cognisance of all cases +which arise under the Constitution, laws, and treaties, of the United +States, and likewise of those cases arising under the law of nations. +It also embraces all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, as +well as those controversies to which the government of the United +States is a party, the controversies between two states, between a +state and citizens of another state, between citizens of different +states, and between a state or citizens thereof, and foreign states, +citizens, or subjects. + +8. The judicial systems of all the states correspond, in many +respects, with each other. In all, the office of justice of the peace +is similar. To these magistrates, the general police of the counties +is chiefly committed, as they have authority to cause criminals, and +other disturbers of the peace, to be arrested; and, if the offence is +small, to fix the penalty; but, if the offence is too great to be +brought within their jurisdiction, they commit the offenders to +prison, to be reserved for trial before a higher tribunal. + +9. In many of the states, the common magistrates of the county, or a +select number of them, form a court, called County Sessions, which has +a comprehensive jurisdiction in matters of police, and in regulating +the affairs of the county; such as building courthouses, assessing +county taxes, opening roads, and licensing taverns. + +10. In Virginia, the County Sessions is an important court. Its +jurisdiction extends to many criminal cases, and to those of a civil +nature involving the amount of $300. Although a great amount of +business passes through these courts, the justices discharge all their +duties without compensation. In most of the states, the common +magistrates, in their individual or collective capacity, have +jurisdiction over civil cases, varying in their greatest amount from +thirteen to one hundred dollars, a right of appeal being reserved to a +higher court. + +11. No definite qualifications are required by law or usage for +practising in the magistrates' courts, accordingly, there are many +persons who plead causes here, who do not properly belong to the +profession of law; these are called _pettifoggers_, and the practice +itself, by whomsoever performed, is called _pettifogging_. Lawyers of +inferior abilities and acquirements are, also, frequently termed +pettifoggers. + +12. In all the states, a class of county courts is established, +denominated Courts of Common Pleas, County Courts, District or Circuit +Courts, which have original jurisdiction of civil actions at law, or +indictments for crimes. Over these are established the Superior or +Supreme Courts, or Courts of Error and Appeal, to which appeals are +admitted from the inferior courts. + +13. Civil cases are frequently decided on principles of equity; and, +in some states, courts of chancery are established for this purpose. +But, in most of the states, there are no decisions of this kind; or +the same courts act as courts of law and equity, as is the case with +the courts of the United States. + +14. There are several other courts that might be mentioned; but enough +has been said of these institutions, to give an idea of the extensive +range of the profession of the law. It may be well to remark here, +that few lawyers aspire to the privilege of practising in the supreme +courts; since, to be successful there it would require not only great +abilities, but more extensive reading than the profession generally +are willing to encounter. + +15. When a client has stated his case in detail to his attorney, it is +the province of the latter to decide upon the course most proper to be +pursued in regard to it. If the client is the plaintiff, and +litigation is determined upon, the attorney decides upon the court in +which the case should be brought forward, and also upon the manner in +which it should be conducted. + +16. The suit having been brought, say into the County Court, it is +tried according to law. If it involves facts or damages, it is +canvassed before a jury of twelve men, who are bound by oath or +affirmation to bring in their verdict according to the evidence +presented by both parties. It is the business of the lawyers, each for +his own client, to sum up the evidence which may have been adduced, +and to present the whole in a light as favorable to his own side of +the question as possible. + +17. When the case involves points of law which must needs be +understood by the jury, to enable them to make a correct decision, the +advocates of the parties present their views with regard to them; but, +if these happen to be wrong, the judge, in his charge to the jury, +rectifies the mistake or misrepresentation. The case having been +decided, each party is bound to submit to the decision, or appeal, if +permitted by law, to a higher tribunal. + +18. Causes to be determined on legal principles only, are brought +before the judge or judges for adjudication. In such cases, the +advocates present the statute or common law supposed to be applicable, +and then reports of similar cases, which may have been formerly +decided in the same or similar courts. These reports are the exponents +of the common law of the case, and are supposed, in most instances, to +furnish data for correct decisions. + +10. Besides the management of causes in public courts, the lawyer has +a great mass of business of a private nature; such as drawing wills, +indentures, deeds, and mortgages. He is consulted in a great variety +of cases of a legal nature, where litigation is not immediately +concerned, and especially in regard to the validity of titles to real +estate; and the many impositions to which the community is liable from +defective titles, render the information which he is able to afford on +this subject, extremely valuable. + +20. In the preceding account of this profession, it is easy to +perceive that it is one of great utility and responsibility. It is to +the attorney, that the oppressed repair for redress against the +oppressor; and to him, the orphan and friendless look, to aid them in +obtaining or maintaining their rights. To this profession, also, as +much as to any other, the American people may confidently look for the +maintenance of correct political principles. + + + + +[Illustration: The PHYSICIAN.] + +THE PHYSICIAN. + + +1. Among the various avocations of men, that of the physician deserves +to be placed in the foremost rank. The profession is founded in the +multiplicity of diseases to which humanity is liable, and in the +medical qualities of certain substances, which have been found to +supply a remedy. + +2. It is implied, though not expressly declared, in the Scriptures, +that the diseases and other calamities pertaining to our earthly +condition, originated in the fall of man from his pristine innocence; +and the Grecian fable of Pandora's box appears to have originated in a +similar tradition. It seems that Jupiter, being angry at Prometheus, +ordered Vulcan to make a woman endowed with every possible perfection. +This workman having finished his task, and presented the workmanship +of his hands to the gods, they loaded her with presents, and sent her +to Prometheus. + +3. This prince, however, suspecting a trick, would have nothing to do +with her; but Epimetheus was so captivated with her charms, that he +took her to be his wife. The curiosity of Epimetheus led him to look +into a box, given to her by Jupiter, which he had no sooner opened, +than there issued from it the complicated miseries and diseases, which +have since afflicted the family of man. He instantly shut the box; but +all had flown, save Hope, which had not time to escape; and this is +consequently the only blessing that permanently remains with wretched +mortals. + +4. Since the introduction of moral evil into the world, it cannot be +supposed that man has ever enjoyed the blessing of uninterrupted +health; and, as it is an instinct of our nature to seek for means of +relieving pain, we may safely infer that medicinal remedies were +applied in the earliest ages of the human race. + +5. Among some of the ancient nations, the origin of diseases was +attributed to the malignant influence of supernatural agents. This +notion produced a corresponding absurdity, in the means of obtaining +relief. Accordingly, idolatrous priests, astrologers, and magicians, +were resorted to, who employed religious ceremonies, astrological +calculations, and cabalistic incantations. + +6. The healing art was cultivated at a very early period in Egypt; but +it was crippled in its infancy by ordinances, enjoining, without +discrimination, the remedies for every disease, and the precise time +and mode of their application. The practice was confined to the +priests, who connected with it the grossest superstitions. + +7. We are informed by the most ancient historians, that the Chaldeans +and Babylonians exposed their sick in places of public resort, and on +the highways; and that strangers and others were required by law to +give some advice in each case of disease. Amid the variety of +suggestions which must necessarily have been given under such +circumstances, it was expected that some would prove efficacious. This +custom was well calculated to enlarge the boundaries of medical +knowledge. + +8. The first records of medicine were kept in the temples dedicated by +the Greeks to Esculapius, who, on account of his skill in medicine, +was honored as the god of health. The name or description of the +disease, and the method of cure, were engraved on durable tablets, +which were suspended, where they could be readily seen by visitors. + +9. But medicine did not assume the dignity of a distinct science, +until the days of Hippocrates, who reckons himself the seventeenth +from Esculapius in a lineal descent. This great man, who flourished +about 400 years before the Christian era, is universally esteemed the +"Father of Medicine." After his death, the science was cultivated by +the philosophers of Greece, to whom, however, it owes but few +improvements. + +10. After the dismemberment of the Macedonian empire, learning +retreated from contending factions to Egypt, where it was liberally +fostered by the Ptolemies. Under their patronage, a medical school at +Alexandria became eminent, and the healing art flourished beyond all +former example. To the disciples of this school, is the world indebted +for the first correct description of the human structure. Their +knowledge on this subject was obtained from the dissection of the +bodies of criminals, which had been assigned to them by the +government. + +11. The acquisitions of the Greeks in medical science at length became +the inheritance of the Romans; but Rome had existed 535 years before +a professional physician was known in the city. This inattention to +the subject of medicine arose, chiefly, from an opinion, common to the +semi-barbarous nations of those times, that maladies were to be cured +by the interposition of superior beings. The sick, therefore, applied +to their idolatrous priests, who offered sacrifices to the gods in +their behalf, and practised over the body of the patient a variety of +magical ceremonies. + +12. Sacrifices were especially offered to the gods in cases of +pestilence; and, on one occasion of this kind, a temple was erected to +Apollo, who was regarded as the god of physic; and, on another, +Esculapius, under the form of a serpent, was conducted from Epidaurus, +in Greece, and introduced, with great pomp, upon an islet in the +Tiber, which was thenceforth devoted to his particular service. + +13. Archagathus, a Greek, was the first who practised physic, as an +art, at Rome; and he was soon followed by many more of his +professional brethren. These pioneers of medicine, however, were +violently opposed by Cato the Censor, who publicly charged them with a +conspiracy to poison the citizens. But the patients under their care +generally recovering, he began to regard them as impious sorcerers, +who counteracted the course of nature, and restored men to life by +means of unholy charms. + +14. Cato having succeeded in producing a general conviction, that the +practice of these physicians was calculated to enervate the +constitutions, and corrupt the manners of the people, restrictions +were laid upon the profession, and practitioners were even forbidden +to settle at Rome. But after the people had become more vicious and +luxurious, diseases became more frequent and obstinate, and physicians +more necessary. The restrictions were, therefore, at length removed. + +15. Among the Roman writers on medicine, Celsus was the first who is +worthy of consideration. He has been denominated the Roman +Hippocrates, because he imitated the close observation and practice of +that physician. His work, as well as that of his great prototype, is +read with advantage, even at the present day. He flourished at or near +the time of our Saviour. + +16. In the second century of the Christian era, Galen, a Greek +physician from Pergamus, and a disciple of the Alexandrian school, +settled in Rome. He was learned in all branches of medicine, and wrote +more copiously on the subject generally, than any other person amongst +the ancients. For 1300 years, his opinions were received as oracular, +wherever medicine was cultivated. + +17. After the destruction of the Western empire by the barbarous +nations, the science of medicine was cultivated only in the Greek +empire, and chiefly at Alexandria, until it began to arrest the +attention of the Arabians, in the seventh century. The works of +several Greek philosophers and physicians were translated into Arabic, +under the patronage of the caliphs, several of whom were zealous +promoters of learning. + +18. In the eighth century, the Caliph Almansur established, at Bagdad, +a hospital for the sick, and an academy, in which, among other +branches of knowledge, was taught the medical art. But it was in +Spain, that Arabian learning rose to the highest point, and produced +the most successful results. The University of Cordova became the most +celebrated in the world, and continued to maintain its reputation for +a long series of years. Arabian medicine reached its greatest +eminence, in the eleventh century, under Avicenna. + +19. In the tenth century, this science began to be taught in the +schools of other parts of Europe; but its professors derived their +knowledge of the subject from the Arabian school, or from Arabic +translations of the ancient authors; and this continued to be the +case, until the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453. At +this time, many erudite Greeks fled into Italy, and carried with them +the ancient writings. + +20. Before the general revival of this science in Europe, the cure of +diseases was chiefly confided, in the western nations, to the priests +and monks, who, however, generally relied more upon religious +ceremonies, and the influence of sacred relics, than upon the +application of medical remedies. The superstitions of those barbarous +times, respecting the means of curing diseases, have not yet entirely +disappeared, even from the most enlightened nations of Christendom. + +21. The science of chemistry began to attract much attention about the +beginning of the sixteenth century; and the many powerful medical +agents which it supplied, at length produced a great change in the +theory and practice of medicine. Many valuable medicines of the +vegetable kind, were also obtained from America. The discovery of the +circulation of the blood by William Harvey, in 1620, imparted a new +impulse to medicine; but, like chemistry, it gave rise to many absurd +and hurtful theories. + +22. Researches in different branches of medicine were continued with +ardor in the seventeenth century, in various parts of Europe; and +numerous discoveries of importance were made, especially in anatomy. +Many theories regarding the origin of diseases, and their treatment, +were proposed, advocated, and controverted; but all these were +overthrown by Stahl, Boerhaave, and Hoffman, three eminent theorists, +in the early part of the eighteenth century. + +23. These distinguished men were followed by others of equal +celebrity, in the same century, who, in part at least, exploded the +doctrines of their predecessors. The present century, above all other +periods, is remarkable for men eminent in this profession; and, +although all do not exactly agree in opinion, yet, guided in their +conclusions by a careful observation of facts, they are less under the +influence of visionary theories than physicians of former times. +Besides, many of the subjects of former controversy having been +satisfactorily settled, there are now fewer causes of division and +excitement among the medical profession. + +24. Medical science comprises several branches, of which the following +are the principal; viz., Anatomy, Surgery, Materia Medica, Chemistry, +the Theory and Practice of Physic. On these subjects, lectures are +given in several colleges and universities in Europe, and in the +United States. In this country, an attendance on two regular courses +of lectures entitles the student to the degree of Doctor of Medicine, +provided he can sustain with sufficient ability, an examination before +the professors, or, as they are usually termed, the medical faculty. + +25. The degree of M. D. conferred by a college or university, is a +passport to practice, in every state of the Union; and, in some +states, none are permitted to attend the sick, professionally, without +having first obtained a diploma conferring such degree. In other +states, however, no legal restrictions are imposed on the +practitioners of the healing art; or, they are licensed by a board of +physicians, constituted by law for the purpose. + +26. The practice of this profession is generally attended with great +labor, and, in many cases, with much perplexity. Diseases are often +stubborn or incurable, and effectually baffle the most skilful +practitioner. In most cases, however, diseases are under the control +of medical skill; and the high satisfaction which a benevolent +physician feels, in relieving the sufferings of his fellow-creatures, +may serve as a recompense for the many adverse circumstances which +attend the profession. + + + + +[Illustration: The CHEMIST.] + +THE CHEMIST. + + +1. This globe, and every thing appertaining to it, is composed of +substances, which exist either in a compound or simple state. It is +the object of the scientific chemist to investigate the properties of +these substances, and to show their action upon each other. By this +science, therefore, compound bodies are reduced to the simple elements +of which they are composed, or new combinations formed. + +2. According to the preceding definitions, chemistry comprehends an +immense variety of objects. It is scarcely possible to name a thing or +phenomenon in the natural world, to which it does not directly or +indirectly apply; even the growth of vegetables, and the preparation +and digestion of our food, depend upon chemical principles. + +3. The word chemistry is supposed to be of Egyptian origin, and, in +its primary application, was the same with our phrase natural +philosophy. Its meaning was afterwards restricted to the art of +working those metals which were most esteemed. In the third century, +it came to be applied to the pretended art of transmuting baser metals +into gold. The science, in the latter sense of the word, was eagerly +cultivated by the Greeks; and from them it passed to the Arabians, who +introduced it into Europe under the name of alchemy. + +4. The professors of the art were dignified with the appellation of +alchemistic philosophers, and the leading doctrine of the sect was, +that all metals are composed of the most simple substances; and that, +consequently, base metals were capable of being changed into gold; +hence, the chief object of their researches was the discovery of an +agent, by which this great change was to be effected. The substance +supposed to possess this wonderful property was called "the +philosopher's stone;" the touch of which was to change every kind of +metal into gold. + +5. The greatest rage for alchemy prevailed between the tenth and +sixteenth centuries. The writers on this subject who appeared during +that period, are very numerous, most of whom are unintelligible, +except to those initiated into the art. Many of them, however, display +great acuteness, and an extensive acquaintance with natural objects. +They all boast, that they are in possession of the philosopher's +stone, and profess the ability of communicating a knowledge of making +it to others. + +6. Their writings and confident professions gained almost implicit +credit, and many unwary persons were thus exposed to the tricks of +impostors, who offered to communicate their secret for a pecuniary +reward. Having obtained the sum proposed, they either absconded, or +wearied out their patrons with tedious and expensive processes. + +7. Chemists, for a long time, had supposed it possible to discover, by +their art, a medicine which should not only cure, but prevent all +diseases, and prolong life to an indefinite period, even to +immortality. This notion gradually becoming prevalent, the word +_chemistry_ acquired a more extensive application, and embraced not +only the art of making gold, but also that of preparing "the universal +medicine." Some of these visionary men asserted, that the +philosopher's stone was this wonderful panacea. + +8. Few readers need be informed, that the researches for the +philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, were, at length, +abandoned, as fruitless and visionary; yet the numerous experiments +which had been instituted on these accounts, were attended with the +incidental advantage of a considerable dexterity in the performance of +chemical operations, together with the discovery of many new +substances and valuable facts, which, without these strong incentives, +would have remained, at least, much longer in obscurity. + +9. Although none of the medicines, produced in the chemical +laboratory, answered the chimerical expectations of the chemists, in +curing all diseases, and in rendering the perishable body of man +immortal, yet they proved sufficiently valuable in the healing art, to +command the attention of the profession all over Europe. The adoption +of chemical medicines, however, was, at first, everywhere opposed, +either as unsafe remedies, or as being inferior in efficacy to those +which had been used for so many centuries. + +10. These prejudices having given way to the light of experience, +chemical medicines came, at length, to occupy a conspicuous place in +the Materia Medica; and their value within the present century has +become still more manifest. One of the most useful branches of +chemistry, therefore, is to make the various preparations used in the +medical art. + +11. The most efficient agent in the introduction of chemical +medicines, was Theophilus Paracelsus. This singular individual was +born near Zurich, in Switzerland. Having studied chemistry under two +masters, he commenced a rambling life, in pursuit of chemical and +medical knowledge; and, having visited Italy, France, and Germany, +where he met with many whimsical adventures, which contributed greatly +to advance his reputation, he was elected, in 1527, to fill the chair +of chemistry, in the University of Basle. + +12. One of the first acts of this arrogant professor was to burn, with +the utmost solemnity, while seated in his chair, the works of Galen +and Avicenna, declaring to his audience, that if God would not impart +the secrets of physic, it was not only allowable, but even +justifiable, to consult the devil. He also treated his contemporaries +with the same insolence, telling them, in a preface to one of his +books, that "the very down on his bald pate had more knowledge than +all their writers; the buckle of his shoes more learning than Galen +and Avicenna; and his beard more experience than all their +universities." + +13. It could not be expected, that a man with such a temper could long +retain his situation; and, accordingly, he was driven from it, in +1528, by a quarrel with those who had conferred the appointment. From +this time, he rambled about the country, chiefly in Germany, leading a +life of extreme intemperance, in the lowest company. Nevertheless, he +still maintained his reputation as a physician, by the extraordinary +cures occasionally effected by his powerful remedies; although his +failures were equally conspicuous. + +14. But the most signal failure of his remedies occurred in his own +person; for, after having boasted for many years of possessing an +elixir which would prolong life to an indefinite period, he died, in +1541, at Salzburg, with a bottle of his immortal catholicon in his +pocket. The medicines on which Paracelsus chiefly relied, were opium, +antimony, and various preparations of mercury. He has the merit of +applying the last, especially, to cases in which they had not been +before used; and upon this circumstance, his great reputation +depended. + +15. We have been thus particular in noticing this individual, because +he was the first who gave public lectures on chemistry in Europe, and +because he gave the first great impulse in favor of chemical +medicines. He also carried his speculations concerning the +philosopher's stone and the universal remedy, to the greatest height +of absurdity; and, by exemplifying their inutility and fallacy in his +own person, he contributed more than any one else to their disrepute, +and subsequent banishment from the science. + +16. Researches for the philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, +having been, at length, relinquished, the chemical facts which had +been collected became, in the general estimation, a heap of rubbish of +little value. At this time, there arose an individual thoroughly +acquainted with these facts, and capable of perceiving the important +purposes to which they might be applied. + +17. The name of this individual was John Joachim Becher. He published +a work in 1669, entitled "Physica Subterranica," by which he gave a +new direction to chemistry, by applying it to analyzing and +ascertaining the constituent parts of material bodies; and his system +is the foundation of the science, as it now exists. + +18. George Ernest Stahl, a medical professor in the University of +Halle, adopted the theory of Becher, and, after his death, edited the +work just mentioned; but he so simplified and improved it, that he +made it entirely his own; and, accordingly, it has always been +distinguished by the appellation of the Stahlian theory. The principal +work of Stahl, on this subject, was published in 1729; and, since that +time, chemistry has been cultivated with ardor in Germany, and in +other countries in the north of Europe. + +19. In France, chemistry became a fashionable study, about the middle +of the eighteenth century. It had, however, been cultivated there by a +few individuals, long before that period. Men of eminence now appeared +in all parts of the kingdom, and discoveries in the science were made +in rapid succession. Some attention was also paid to it in Italy and +Spain. + +20. In Great Britain, this subject attracted but little attention, +except from a few individuals, until Dr. Cullen had become professor +of the science, in the University of Edinburgh, in 1756. This accurate +investigator of natural phenomena, succeeded in enkindling an +enthusiasm for chemical investigations among the students; and the +subsequent experiments of Dr. Black, Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Priestley, and +Lavoisier, which resulted in the discovery of the constituent parts of +air and water, diffused the same ardor through every part of the +kingdom. + +21. Lavoisier, the celebrated French chemist, having proved the +Stahlian theory to be incorrect, founded another on the chemical +affinities and combinations of oxygen with the various substances in +nature. This system has been generally adopted; since it explains a +great number of phenomena more satisfactorily than any other ever +proposed. The great chemical agent, in the Stahlian system, was +supposed to be an inflammable substance, which was denominated by the +theorist _phlogiston_. To distinguish, therefore, the new theory from +the one which it superseded, it was called the pneumatic, or +anti-phlogistic system. + +22. In 1787, a new technical nomenclature was devised, by the aid of +which all the chemical facts are easily retained in the memory. Twelve +or fifteen terms have been found sufficient for the foundation of a +methodical language; and, by changing the terminations of these +radicals, or by prefixing certain words or syllables, the changes that +take place in bodies are clearly expressed. This valuable innovation +originated with Lavoisier and three other French chemists. + +23. In the present century, many important discoveries have been made +in this science; and, among those who have been distinguished for +their researches into its mysteries, Sir Humphrey Davy, of Great +Britain, shines pre-eminent. In the United States, it has many able +professors; among whom are Professors Hare and Mitchell, of +Philadelphia, Torrey, Renwick, and Draper, of New-York, Henry, of +Princeton, Beck, of Albany, Silliman, of New-Haven, and Johnson, of +Middletown. + +24. Chemistry is so extensive in its application, that we will not +attempt to describe any of the operations of the laboratory. We, +therefore, conclude this article by recommending this science to +general attention; assuring the uninitiated, that it is beset with +fewer difficulties than they are apt to suppose, and that every effort +in the course will be attended with interesting facts and phenomena, +which will abundantly reward the labor of investigation. + + + + +[Illustration: APOTHECARY.] + +THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY. + + +1. The druggist is a wholesale dealer in drugs, which, in commerce, +embrace not only articles used or recommended by the medical +profession, but also spices, dye-stuffs, and paints. The commodities +of his trade are obtained from almost every quarter of the globe; but +especially from the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea, +and from the East Indies and Spanish America. + +2. The chemist looks to the druggist for most of the materials +employed in his laboratory; and from him the apothecary, physician, +and country merchant, obtain their chief supply of medicines. There +are, however, but few persons in the United States, who confine +themselves exclusively to this branch of business; for most of the +druggists are also apothecaries, and sometimes operative or +manufacturing chemists. + +3. Medicinals, when they come into the warehouse of the druggist, are +usually in a crude state; and many, or most of them, must necessarily +undergo a variety of changes, of a chemical or mechanical nature, +before they can be applied in practice. The art by which these changes +are effected is called Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics; and the books which +treat of pharmaceutical operations are denominated Pharmacopoeias, or +Dispensatories. + +4. The operations of Pharmacy, which depend upon chemical principles, +are conducted chiefly by the operative chemist; but those which +consist merely in mechanical reduction, or in mixing together +different ingredients, to form compounds, belong properly to the +vocation of the apothecary. + +5. The apothecary sells medicines in small quantities, prepared for +application. Many of the standing compound preparations which have +been authorized by the Pharmacopoeias, and which are in regular +demand, he keeps ready prepared; but a great proportion of his +business consists in compounding and putting up the prescriptions of +the physician, as they are needed by the patient. + +6. In country places, where there are generally no apothecary-shops, +the physicians compound and prepare their own prescriptions; but in +cities, where these establishments are numerous, the medical +profession prefer to rid themselves of this trouble. In most cases, +however, they keep by them a few remedies, which can be applied in +cases of emergency. + +7. In Great Britain, the apothecary is permitted to attend sick +persons, and administer medicines either according to his own +judgment, or in conformity with the directions of the physician. He +is, therefore, a physician of an inferior order; and, as his fees are +more moderate than those of the regular profession, his practice is +extensive among persons who, from necessity or inclination, are +induced to study economy. + +8. The apothecaries in England, Scotland, and Ireland, are obliged to +make up their standing medicines according to the formulas of the +Dispensatories adopted in their respective countries; and their shops +are subject to the visitation of censors, who have authority to +destroy those medicines which they may consider unfit for use; so that +unwholesome or inefficient remedies be not imposed upon the sick. The +apothecaries' halls, in France, are also under the supervision of the +medical faculty. + +9. In the United States, there is no censorship of this kind +established by the public authorities; yet the physicians are careful +to recommend apothecaries, in whom they have confidence, to prepare +their prescriptions. The professors in our medical schools are, also, +particular in naming to their students those druggists whom they +consider men of honor; and omit, at least, to name those who have been +detected in selling adulterated medicines. + +10. We have, also, an incorporated college of pharmacy both in +New-York and Philadelphia, and in each of these, chemical and +pharmaceutical lectures are delivered by regular professors. These +institutions, although of recent origin, have exerted an important +influence in reforming and preventing abuses in the preparation of +medicines; and public opinion, especially in the cities, is beginning +to render it important for students in pharmacy to obtain a degree +from one of these colleges. Under the auspices of the institution at +Philadelphia, is published a quarterly journal, devoted to +pharmaceutical science. + +11. A Pharmacopoeia for the United States was formed at Washington, in +1820, by a delegation of physicians from the principal medical +societies of the Union. A revision of this work is expected to be +made every ten years. Dispensatories, as they exist in this country, +are founded upon the Pharmacopoeias, and may be properly considered +commentaries upon them, since the former contain the whole of the +latter, together with more minute descriptions of the sensible and +real properties of the medicines, as well as their history and exact +mode of preparation. + + + + +[Illustration: The DENTIST.] + +THE DENTIST. + + +1. The human family is subject to a variety of diseases in the teeth, +which generally cause the final destruction or loss of these important +instruments, unless judicious remedies are applied in proper season. +These remedies are administered by the dentist. + +2. There are few persons, in proportion to the great mass of the +people, who seem to be aware of the utility of dentistry; for, taking +the United States together, not more than one person in a hundred ever +resorts to the professors of this art, with the view of obtaining a +remedy for any dental disease with which he may be afflicted. The +common sentiment seems to be, that diseases of the teeth, and their +final loss, at different periods of life, are inevitable +inconveniences, to which we must submit with the same philosophy with +which we meet other misfortunes. + +3. To enable readers who have never examined this subject, to +comprehend its general nature, we will give a slight sketch of some of +the irregularities and diseases to which the teeth are liable, and, as +we proceed, speak of the remedies applied by the dentist. + +4. Two sets of teeth regularly appear, at different periods of life; +one in infancy, and the other, at a later period. The first set +consists of twenty, and the second of thirty-two teeth; the former are +called _infant_, and the latter _adult_; and all these, at the age of +six or seven, are upon the jaws at the same time. + +5. At the age just mentioned, the infant teeth begin to give way to +those which lie deeper in the sockets, and which are designed to +supersede the former. As the new teeth advance, the roots of the first +are absorbed; and, after having been thus deprived of their support, +they are easily removed; sometimes, by a slight pressure of the +tongue. + +6. In a majority of cases, the whole process is carried on by nature +with the utmost regularity; but, as she is not uniformly successful in +this operation, there is no other period at which the teeth of +children require so much attention and care. Sometimes the second set +rise in the socket without causing the absorption of the roots of the +first. In such cases, the former approach in an improper direction; +and, unless the latter are removed in season, deformity will be the +consequence. + +7. When, however, these precautions have been neglected, and the teeth +stand in an irregular manner, they can sometimes be reduced to +symmetry by the dentist, without occasioning much pain. When the front +teeth are too much crowded by reason of the restricted dimensions of +the jaw, the small teeth, situated next behind the eye, or canine +teeth, are extracted, one on each side, to give room to the rest. + +8. From the ages of six to fifteen years, the teeth of children should +be examined, at least once in six months, by a dentist, who, if +skilful, can seldom fail of rendering these ornaments of the human +countenance regular, healthy, and beautiful. It is customary in +England and France, for the proprietors of seminaries of learning to +employ a dentist to visit their establishments regularly, for the +purpose of performing such operations, and of administering such +remedies, as their pupils may require. + +9. The teeth are composed of very hard bone and enamel. The latter is +a substance exceeding in density any other in the body. It covers the +crown of the teeth, and is thickest in those parts which are most +exposed to forcible contact in mastication; but, in no place, is it +more than the twelfth of an inch in thickness. + +10. The most common disease of the teeth is _caries_, or decay, and +almost every part of them is liable to be affected by it, but +especially the sides of those in front, and the crowns of those on +other parts of the jaws. + +11. The disease begins its attack either on the enamel or on the bony +portion, and gradually extends itself over the tooth, until it reaches +the nerves which supply its natural cavity. These having become +exposed to the sudden changes of temperature, and to the contact of +extraneous substances in mastication, pain and inflammation are +produced, and the extraction of the tooth very commonly becomes the +only means of relief. + +12. All persons are more or less subject to this disease, but some +much more than others; and caries of a peculiar character has been so +often traced through whole families, from one generation to another, +that it is considered hereditary, as much as any other disease to +which the system is liable. In many cases, caries seems to be the +effect of some serious disease which affected the constitution, while +the teeth were in the early stages of formation. + +13. Although the teeth of some individuals possess but little +durability, and, when caries attacks them, go on rapidly to decay, in +spite of all the aid which science and skill can afford, yet, there +are comparatively but few instances in which seasonable and judicious +treatment will not arrest the progress of the disease. + +14. When the teeth are but slightly affected with caries, especially +on the sides, a cure may be accomplished by the removal of the decayed +portion. This is effected, by the most approved dentists, chiefly with +small cutting instruments. Formerly, the file and the saw were +employed for this purpose; and, by their indiscriminate and +injudicious use, many teeth were ruined, and the art of dentistry +itself brought into disrepute. + +15. Notwithstanding the injuries which have been inflicted by the +improper application of the saw and file, in some instances they are +indispensable; and, in the hands of the scientific operator, they need +not be feared. They are especially useful in preparing the way for the +employment of other instruments; for, in some cases, the affected part +can with difficulty be reached by any other means. But filing the +teeth for the purpose of improving their appearance, or for rendering +the sides more accessible to the tooth-pick and brush, seems to be +reprobated by the most intelligent part of the profession. + +16. When the caries has penetrated far into the tooth, and, in its +removal, a cavity of suitable form and dimensions can be produced, it +is filled with some substance, with the view of protecting the bone +from the action of extraneous agents. The dentist is careful to +remove every particle of the decayed portion, and to render the cavity +perfectly dry by repeated applications of lint or raw cotton, before +he attempts to fill it. + +17. Gold is the only substance which possesses sufficient solidity to +withstand the ordinary friction of mastication, and which, at the same +time, is capable of resisting the chemical action of the substances +that come in contact with it; yet lead and tin are frequently +employed; and many have been made to believe that they answer as good, +if not a better purpose, than gold itself. The durability of these +metals, however, can never be depended upon, and they ought not to be +employed, where the tooth is capable of resisting the mechanical force +required to fill it properly with gold. + +18. The metal is prepared for the use of the dentist by the +gold-beater, in the manner described in the article which treats upon +the business of the latter. The leaves, however, are not beaten so +thin as those designed for the common purposes of the arts. The +portion to be applied is cut from the leaf, and, after having been +twisted a little, is forced into the cavity. The metal is rendered +perfectly solid by means of instruments adapted to the purpose. + +19. This operation, properly performed under favorable circumstances, +generally renders the tooth as serviceable, to the end of life, as if +it had never been diseased. The hopes of the patient, however, are +sometimes disappointed by the unskilfulness of the operator, or by the +general unhealthiness of the mouth, arising from tartar, other decayed +teeth, or want of care in keeping them free from the lodgment of +particles of food. + +20. It is a common practice to have teeth extracted, when they are +affected with pain; but this operation is not always necessary. In +many cases, the nerve can be paralyzed, and the tooth plugged. By +these means, teeth which, under the ordinary treatment, would be +prematurely sacrificed, are often retained, for years, in a +serviceable state. + +21. The next most destructive affection to which the teeth are liable, +is the accumulation of _tartar_. This is an earthy substance, +deposited from the saliva, and is more or less abundant in different +individuals. This deposit is extremely troublesome, and generally does +much injury to the mouth, even before those who suffer from it are +aware of the mischief. + +22. The tartar on the teeth of some individuals, is of a black or +greenish color, and very hard; on those of others, brown or yellow, +and not so firm. When it is first deposited, it is soft, and can be +easily removed with a tooth-brush; but, if suffered to remain, it soon +becomes indurated, and gradually increases in thickness about the neck +of the teeth. The gums become irritated and inflamed. The sockets are +next absorbed, and the teeth, being left without their natural +support, either fall out, or become so loose, that they can be easily +removed. + +23. From this cause, old people lose their teeth, when, in many cases, +they are perfectly sound; but comparatively very few are aware of the +origin of this deprivation, or suppose that these valuable instruments +can be retained in old age. The loss is attributed to the deleterious +effects of calomel, or is imagined to be an evil inseparable from +advanced age. + +24. The affection of the gums, arising from causes just mentioned, is +frequently called scurvy, and, like caries, produces fetor of the +breath; but, when these two diseases are combined, as is frequently +the case, they render it extremely offensive. Besides, the effluvia +arising from these diseased parts give rise to many maladies which +terminate fatally, if a remedy is not applied sufficiently early to +save the patient. + +25. The obvious remedy for diseases arising from tartar, is the +removal of their cause. This is effected by the dentist, with small +sharp cutting instruments of a suitable form. To prevent the tartar +from accumulating again, and to restore the gums to a healthy state, +nothing more is generally requisite than the daily use of a stiff, +elastic brush, and the occasional application of some approved +dentrifice or astringent wash. Sometimes it may be necessary to +scarify the gums, or to apply leeches to them. + +26. The operations of dentistry, mentioned in the preceding part of +this article, are those which relate to the preservation of the teeth; +and, if performed in a proper manner, and under favorable +circumstances, they will, in most instances, prove effectual. But, as +few persons resort to the dentist, until the near approach of +deformity, or until they are impelled by pain to seek relief, a great +proportion of dental operations consists in inserting artificial +teeth, and in extracting those which are past recovery. + +27. When a tooth has gone so far to decay, that it cannot be cured by +_stopping_, it should not be suffered to remain in the mouth, lest it +infect the rest. Front teeth, however, when the roots remain sound, +and firmly based in the sockets, ought not to be extracted, as upon +the latter artificial teeth can be placed with great advantage. In +such cases, the removal of the crown only is necessary. + +28. The instruments commonly employed in extracting teeth, are the +key, or turnkey, the forceps, the hook, and the graver, or punch. +These are supposed to be sufficient to perform all the operations of +this kind which occur in practice; and, although many attempts have +been made to invent others which might answer a better purpose, yet +those we have mentioned, in their improved state, are likely to +continue in general use. + +29. It seems to be a common opinion, that any one can pull teeth, who +has a turnkey, and sufficient physical strength to use it; +accordingly, blacksmiths, barbers, and medical students, are the chief +operators in this line of dental surgery. The many fatal accidents +which must inevitably be the consequence, such as breaking the tooth +or jaw-bone, are considered matters of course. These, however, seldom +happen with skilful dentists; and it is to be regretted, that the +latter are not always employed, where unskilfulness may produce such +serious consequences. + +30. In the cut, at the head of this article, is represented a dentist, +about to extract a tooth for a lady, who may be supposed to be in a +state of alarm at the sight of the instruments; but he, having thrown +his right hand, which holds them, behind him, shows the other +containing nothing, with the view of allaying her fears. The manner in +which teeth are extracted, needs no description, since it is an +every-day operation in all parts of the world. + +31. One of the chief sources of income to this profession, is the +insertion of artificial teeth; for, although few are willing to expend +much to prevent the loss of their teeth, many will incur great expense +in supplying the deficiencies, after they have occurred. So perfectly +and neatly is this operation performed, by some dentists, that it is +difficult to distinguish between teeth which are natural, and those +which are artificial. + +32. The materials for artificial teeth were formerly found chiefly in +the teeth and tusks of the hippopotamus, and in the teeth of some +domestic animals; but, within a few years, a mineral composition, +called porcelain, has come into great repute, since it is very +beautiful, and is entirely proof against the most powerful acids. + +33. Surgical operations upon the teeth were performed in ancient +Greece and Rome, many of which were similar to those of the present +day. The extraction of teeth must have been practised at a period of +antiquity to which the records of medicine do not reach. The operation +is recommended by Hippocrates, who describes many of the diseases to +which the teeth are liable. He also mentions the practice of fixing +the teeth by means of gold wire, and gives several formulas for making +dentrifices. + +34. Celsus, a Roman writer on medicine, who flourished about the +beginning of the Christian era, seems to have been the first author +who described the method of extracting teeth, and the first who +notices the removal of tartar by means of cutting instruments, as well +as filling carious teeth with lead and other substances, with the view +of preventing further decay. Soon after this period, false teeth, of +bone and ivory, were introduced. Actius, a writer of the fourth +century, is the first who mentions the operation of filing the teeth. + +35. The return of barbarism to Europe, nearly extinguished the +knowledge of dentistry. As a branch of surgery, however, it was +revived by the Arabian writer, Albucasis, in the tenth century; but, +for many hundred years after this period, it received but little +attention from men of science, the operations of surgery being +confined chiefly to the barbers. + +36. The first modern work on the diseases of the teeth was published +at Lyons, in 1581. This was followed by many other publications on the +same subject, in the succeeding century. In the year 1700, it began to +be required in France, that all persons who intended to practise +dentistry in that country, should undergo an examination, to test +their qualifications. From this period is dated the establishment of +the dental art as a distinct branch of medical practice. + + + + +[Illustration] + +THE TEACHER. + + +1. Education, in antiquity, was entirely a matter of domestic concern. +In countries where priestly or royal despotism prevailed, schools for +the benefit of the sons of the great, and for the priests, were +established. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, was educated in a priestly +school in Egypt, and Cyrus, at a seminary belonging to the Persian +court. In Palestine, the Scriptures were taught in the schools of the +prophets; and, at later periods, in the synagogues, and in the schools +of the Rabbis, reading, committing to memory the sacred books, and +hearing explanations of their meaning, constituted the chief +exercises. + +2. In the Grecian cities, boys and girls were taught reading, writing, +and arithmetic in private schools; and, after having completed the +primary course, those who aspired to higher degrees of knowledge, +resorted to the instructions of the philosophers and sophists. This +system was commenced as early as 500 years before the advent of +Christ. + +3. Two hundred years after this period, the Romans began to have +primary schools for boys, in the cities; and, from the time of Julius +Cæsar, who conferred on teachers the right of citizenship, they +possessed the higher institutions of the grammarians and the +rhetoricians. In the former of these, were taught the Latin and Greek +languages; and in the latter, young men of talent were prepared, by +exercises in declamation, for speaking in public. + +4. Children, among the Greeks and Romans, were accompanied to school +by slaves, who, from the performance of this duty, were called +_pedagogues_; but, after slaves and freedmen had made acquirements in +literature and science, they were frequently employed as tutors; hence +the term, at length, came to imply a teacher of children, and it is +still used in reference to this employment, although we usually +connect with it the idea of pedantry. + +5. Until the time of Vespasian, who commenced his reign in the year 70 +of the Christian era, the schools were sustained entirely by private +enterprise. That emperor instituted public professorships of grammar +and rhetoric with fixed salaries, for the purpose of educating young +men for the public service; and, in A.D. 150, Antoninus Pius founded +imperial schools in the larger cities of the Roman empire. The most +celebrated place for the cultivation of science, in the ancient world, +was Athens; and, to this city, students from all parts of Europe +resorted, even as late as the ninth century. + +6. Christianity, by degrees, gave a new turn to education; and, in the +East, it came gradually under the influence of the clergy. Schools +were instituted in the cities and villages for catechumens, and, in +some places, those of a higher grade, for the education of clergymen. +Of the latter kind, that in Alexandria was the most flourishing, from +the second to the fourth century. + +7. From the fifth century, these higher institutions began to decline, +and others, called cathedral or episcopal schools, seem to have taken +their place. In these, besides theology, were taught _the seven +liberal arts_--grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, +astronomy, and music; of which the three first were called the +_trivium_, and the four last the _quadrivium_. The text-book employed +was the Encyclopædia of Marcianus Capella, of Africa. This compendium +was published at Rome, A.D. 470; and, although a meagre production, it +maintained its reputation in the schools of Europe more than 1000 +years. + +8. The imperial schools established by Antoninus Pius, declined, and +finally became extinct, in the confusion that followed the irruption +of the barbarians; but their places were supplied by the parochial and +cathedral schools just mentioned. These, however, were surpassed, in +the sixth century, by the _conventual_ schools, which were originally +designed to prepare persons for the monastic life, but which soon +began to be resorted to by laymen. + +9. These schools were connected with the convents belonging to the +order of St. Benedict, and served as the chief glimmering lights +during the darkest period between ancient and modern civilization, in +Europe. They flourished in Ireland, England, France, and Germany, from +the sixth to the eleventh century. The teachers of these seminaries +were called _scholastici_, and from them the scholastic philosophy +derived its origin and name. + +10. In the year 789, Charlemagne, king of the Franks, issued a decree +for the improvement of the schools of his empire, and for increasing +their number. Not only every bishop's see and every convent, but every +parish, was to have its school; the two former for the education of +clergymen and public officers, and the latter for the lower classes of +people. This monarch instituted an academy of learned men, to whom he +himself resorted for instruction, and whom he employed to educate his +children, and a select number of the sons of the nobility and +distinguished persons. + +11. The encouragement which these schools had received from government +was soon discontinued after the death of this monarch, and his school +establishment declined like that of Alfred the Great, which was +commenced in the ninth century, on a scale of equal liberality. The +designs of the English monarch were frustrated by the invasions of the +Danes. + +12. In the mean time, the Jewish rabbis had schools in Syria and in +Northern Africa, as well as in Europe, which contributed to the +preservation of ancient learning. Arabian schools were also +established, in the ninth century, by the followers of Mohammed, in +their Eastern and African caliphates, and in their Moorish dominions +in Spain. Through these institutions, the mathematical and medical +sciences were again revived in Europe. + +13. The cathedral and conventual schools continued, for a long time, +the principal institutions for education in Europe; and from them +proceeded many eminent men. By degrees the light of science began to +shine more brightly; teachers of eminence appeared in different +places, who collected around them a great number of scholars; and a +new kind of schools arose, the heads of which assumed the name of +_rectores_. + +14. In Paris, several of these teachers gave instructions in various +branches, but chiefly in rhetoric, philosophy, and theology. The +schools thus collected under different masters, were, in 1206, united +under one rector; and, on this account, the whole mass of teachers and +scholars was denominated _universitas_. Universities, in other parts +of Europe, arose in a similar manner, and some of them, about the same +time. Those of Oxford and Cambridge, according to some writers, were +established about the year 1200; and the two first of these +institutions in Germany were founded at Prague and Vienna, the former +in 1348, and the latter in 1365. + +15. The division of the students into four _nations_ was an essential +feature in the early universities. It arose from the circumstance that +the pupils coming from different countries, spoke different languages. +Those whose language was the same or similar, would naturally +associate together, and attend the instructions of the same teachers. +This division into nations is supposed to have grown up at Paris, +previous to the formal union of the several schools under one rector. + +16. The first teachers, from whose exertions the universities +originated, commenced their public instructions without permission +from established authority. Subsequently, the state and university +were careful to prevent all persons from giving lectures, who were not +well qualified for the employment. Examinations were therefore +instituted to determine the capabilities of students. Those who were +found competent, received a formal permission to teach, accompanied +with certain symbols in the spirit of the age. + +17. The first academical degree was that of _baccalaureus_, the +second, _licentiatus_; and the third _magister_. The last of these +entitled the student to all the privileges of his former teachers, and +constituted him one of the _facultas artium--the faculty of the seven +liberal arts_, since called the philosophic faculty. The other +faculties were those of theology, law, and medicine. The first of +these was instituted at Paris in 1259, and the two last, in 1260. The +faculties elected _deans_ from among their number, who, with the +_procuratores_, or heads of the four nations of students, represented +the university. These representatives possessed the power of +conferring degrees in the different departments of literature and +science. + +18. Among the public institutions of the early universities were the +colleges, (_collegia_,) buildings in which students, especially those +who were poor, might live together, under superintendents, without +paying for their lodging. In some cases, they received their board, +and frequently other allowances, gratis. These institutions were +commenced at Paris; but here, as well as in other places, they did not +continue the asylums of the necessitous only. In France and England, +the buildings of universities are composed chiefly of these colleges, +in which the students reside, and in which the business of instruction +is mainly carried on. + +19. The teachers in the universities were at first paid for their +services by the students. At a later period, the magistrates of the +town or city where the institution was located, made presents to +eminent scholars, to induce them to remain. This practice finally led +to the payment of regular salaries. From and after the fourteenth +century, universities were not left to grow up of themselves as +formerly, but were expressly established by public authorities or by +the popes. + +20. The inactivity and luxury of the clergy, had led to the neglect of +the old seminaries of learning. The universities were therefore +necessary, not only to revive the taste for science and literature, +but also to form a new body of teachers. These institutions, however, +at length became subject to undue clerical influence, since the monks +obtained admission into them as teachers, and then labored to increase +the importance of their several orders, as well as the power of the +Roman pontiff. + +21. The monks, also, connected, with their convents, popular schools, +and undertook the education of the children in the cities. But their +method of instruction was exceedingly defective, since the intelligent +investigation of the subjects studied was little encouraged, and since +the memory of the pupils was brought into requisition to the almost +entire exclusion of the other faculties of the mind. + +22. In the lower parish schools, the children were not permitted to +learn to write, the monks being desirous of confining to the clergy +the practice of this art, which was very lucrative before the +invention of printing. The art was called _ars clericalis_; and, for a +long time, the privilege of establishing writing schools for the +children of citizens, was a matter of negotiation between the +magistrates and the clergy. + +23. But the citizens becoming, at length, more independent, the +magistrates themselves began to superintend the education of youth. +_Trivial_ schools were established, in which the _trivium_, and +reading and writing, were taught; but for these, as well as for the +cathedral and parish schools, which had been neglected for some time +by the higher clergy, itinerant monks and students were employed as +teachers. + +24. The elder pupils of the highest class frequently wandered from one +school to another, under the pretence of pursuing their studies, +sometimes taking with them younger scholars, whom they compelled to +beg or steal, in order to supply their wants. As late as the sixteenth +century, Luther complains that these _vacantivi_ (or idlers) were the +persons chiefly employed as schoolmasters in Germany. + +25. A pious fraternity, called Jeronymites, consisting of clergymen +and laymen, who lived together, and occupied themselves partly in +mechanic arts, and partly in the instruction of youth, exerted +considerable influence on education in general. They first established +themselves in Italy, and afterwards in the Netherlands, on the Rhine, +and in Northern Germany. + +26. Much was done during the last half of the fourteenth century, and +in the one hundred years that followed, to encourage the study of the +ancient classics. The attention of literary men was turned to these +interesting remains of antiquity by the arrival of many learned +Greeks, who had fled from Turkish oppression, and who had brought with +them the ancient writings. + +27. These treasures of former civilization were unfolded to the modern +world by the art of printing, which was invented in 1441; and the +reformation, which commenced in 1517, also aided the advancement of +education. The corporations of the German cities in which the reformed +religion was received, founded seminaries, called _gymnasia_, and +_lyceums_, with permanent professorships. A vast amount of property, +belonging to the convents and the Church, was confiscated by the +governments, and appropriated chiefly to the promotion of education. + +28. The schools in the countries which adhered to the Roman Catholic +religion, however, continued in nearly the same state, until the +Jesuit schools arose, towards the end of the sixteenth century. These, +on account of the ability with which they were conducted, soon gained +the ascendency, and for a long time maintained their reputation; but +they, at length, degenerated, and finally became extinct, on the +suppression of the order of Jesuits in 1773. + +29. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, have, for a long time, been inactive +in relation to education, it being left entirely to the clergy, and +the efforts of the people in their individual capacity. Much has been +done in Austria, within fifty years, to advance this important +interest. Under the late emperor, professorships were constituted, in +the universities and cathedral seminaries, for the instruction of +teachers; and gymnasia, common and Sunday schools, were established in +almost every part of the kingdom. + +30. The general organization of schools in France, in the eighteenth +century, was similar to that of most other Catholic countries. The +government did nothing for the education of the people at large; and +the Church, which possessed a large proportion of the property of the +nation, left the people in total ignorance; whence may have arisen +much of the atrocity which marked the early part of the revolution. + +31. During the popular reign, the education of youth was declared to +be under the care of the state, and many schools, called +_polytechnic_, were established. Napoleon, also, afterwards instituted +several military schools, and contemplated the introduction of a +system of general education. With this view, he instituted an imperial +university, which was to have the supreme direction of instruction in +France; but his designs were but partially carried into effect. + +32. When the Bourbons were again restored to the throne of France, +they, with the clergy, labored to restore the old order of things; +and, to keep the common people from becoming dangerous, the +Lancasterian schools, established in 1816, were abolished. Efficient +measures, however, have been lately adopted by Louis Philip to +establish schools of different grades throughout his kingdom. + +33. In England and Ireland, although the middling and higher classes +are comparatively well educated, no system of general instruction has +ever been established for the benefit of the common people. Much, +however, has been accomplished by charity and Sunday schools; the +former of which were commenced in 1698, and the latter in 1812. +Besides these, there are numerous charitable foundations on which many +persons of limited means have been educated at the higher +institutions. + +34. In Scotland, more liberal provisions have been made for general +education. The system was commenced in the reign of William and Mary, +when, by an act of Parliament, every parish was required to maintain a +school. The people have so far improved their privileges, that nearly +all of the inhabitants of that part of Great Britain can read and +write. + +35. The government of Russia, during the last and present century, has +directed some attention to the promotion of education. According to +the decrees of the Emperor Alexander, schools of different grades were +to be established throughout the empire; but these decrees have been +yet only partially executed. + +36. In no part of the world has the education of all classes of people +been more encouraged than in the United States. This has arisen +chiefly from the circumstance, that a remarkable proportion of the +colonists were persons of education. This was particularly the case +with those of New-England, where the instruction of youth, from the +very beginning of the settlements, was made a matter of public +concern. + +37. The principle of making public provision for this purpose, thus +early adopted, has never been deserted; on the contrary, it has become +so deeply interwoven with the social condition of the people of +New-England, that there are few families in that part of the Union, +which are not within reach of a public school; and, in every state +where the influence of the people from that section of the country is +predominant, public schools have been organized by legal provisions, +and a fund has been provided, by which at least a part of the expense +of supporting them is paid. + +38. In all the states in which these primary institutions are +established by legislative enactments, they are kept in operation, in +country places, between six and nine months of the year. A _master_ is +employed in the winter, and a _mistress_, in the summer: the former +receives for his services from ten to fifteen dollars per month, and +the latter, from seventy-five cents to two dollars per week, together +with boarding. The teachers, however, during their engagement are +compelled to reside in the different families of the _district_, their +stay at each place being determined, with scrupulous exactness, by the +number of children sent to the school. + +39. From the low salaries received for these important services, and +the short periods for which engagements are made, it is evident, that +teaching a district school cannot be pursued as a regular employment. +These schools are, therefore, supplied by persons who, during the rest +of the year, follow some other business; or by students, who rely, in +part or entirely, on their own exertions to defray the expenses of +their academical, collegiate, or professional education. + +40. These schools are, no doubt, institutions of great value; but, in +the states where they have been established, they are evidently much +overrated. They fail in accomplishing the ends for which they have +been instituted, through the extreme tenacity with which the people +adhere to ancient and defective methods of instruction, the frequent +change of teachers, and the small compensation allowed for the +services of competent instructors. + +41. In the cities and populous towns or villages, the public schools +are kept up during the whole of the year, and the system of +instruction is generally better than that pursued in the country. In +New-York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and in some other cities, the +Lancasterian plan of mutual instruction, with many modifications, is +preferred, principally on account of its cheapness. + +42. Select-schools and private academies are, also, very numerous. +These are located chiefly in the cities and populous towns, and are +supported entirely by fees for tuition received from the parents or +guardians of the pupils. These institutions do not differ essentially +from those of a private nature in similar situations in other parts of +the United States, where common schools are not established by law. + +43. In the Southern states, wealthy families often employ private +tutors. Sometimes two, three, or more families, and even a whole +neighborhood, unite for the purpose of forming a school; and, to +induce a teacher to commence or continue his labors among them, an +adequate amount is made up beforehand by subscription. South of +Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the Ohio River, such engagements are +commonly made for a year, as, in that section of the Union, the +opinion prevails, that a teacher can do but little towards improving +his pupils in a much shorter time. + +44. The literary institutions which are next above the common schools, +and which are established by legislative authority, are the academies, +of which there are between five and six hundred in the United States. +Some of these have been founded by the funds of the state in which +they are located, some, by the union of a few spirited individuals, or +by private bequests. + +45. The course of instruction pursued in these seminaries of learning +varies considerably from each other. In some of them, it is confined +chiefly to the common branches of education; in others, the course is +pretty extensive, embracing natural and moral philosophy, chemistry, +belles lettres, and a sound course of mathematics, together with +Latin, Greek, and some of the modern languages. One great object in +these institutions is to prepare students for college. The teacher who +has charge of an academy is called the _principal_, while the teacher +who may aid him in his labors is denominated the _assistant_ or +_usher_. + +46. The highest institutions of learning among us are the colleges and +universities. Between these, however, there seems to be but little +difference, since the course of studies is nearly or quite the same in +both, and since the charters obtained from the legislatures grant to +both similar powers of conferring honorary degrees. The whole number +of these establishments in the United States is about eighty. + +47. The principal teachers in the colleges are denominated +_professors_, who confine their labors to communicating instructions +in particular branches of literature or science. These are aided by +assistants called _tutors_. The latter are generally young men, who +devote two or three years to this employment, before entering upon the +practice of a profession. The number of professors and tutors in the +several colleges varies according to their amount of funds, and number +of students. + + + END OF VOL. I. + + + * * * * * + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Obvious spelling and punctuation errors and inconsistencies were +repaired, but period spellings retained (e.g. "grisly bear," "lama," +"pistachoes," "hommony"). + +Negociat- and negotiat-, whale-bone and whalebone, ancles and ankle, +color- and colour-, endeavor- and endeavour-, favor- and favour-, +labor- and labour-, neighbor- and neighbour-, were retained as in +original. + +Contents page, Preface page number reads "7" but actually appears on +page "vii"; retained. + +Contents page, "Soapboiler" changed to more frequent "Soap-Boiler." + +P. ix, "removed from the ignorance," original reads "ignora ce." + +P. 16, "south-western parts," hyphen added for consistency within +text. + +P. 47, "maltster checks," original reads "malster." + +P. 53, "render the wine palatable," original reads "palateable." + +P. 66, Illustration at start of "Manufacturer of Cloth" chapter has +no caption in original. + +P. 101, "sewn together to form hats," original reads "sown." + +P. 174, "released from his dependence," original reads "dependance." + +P. 185, "Thomas Newcomen," original reads "Newcomer." + +P. 249, Illustration at start of "Teacher" chapter has no caption in +original. + +P. 249 and 252, "rabbis," original reads "rabbies." + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Popular Technology, Vol. I (of 2), by Edward Hazen + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. I (OF 2) *** + +***** This file should be named 39721-8.txt or 39721-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/7/2/39721/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, JoAnn Greenwood, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Popular Technology, Vol. I (of 2) + or, Professions and Trades + +Author: Edward Hazen + +Release Date: May 18, 2012 [EBook #39721] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. I (OF 2) *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, JoAnn Greenwood, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<h1> +POPULAR TECHNOLOGY;<br /><br /> + +<small>OR,</small><br /><br /> + +PROFESSIONS AND TRADES.</h1> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="500" height="421" alt="The AUTHOR." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>BY EDWARD HAZEN, A. M.,</h2> +<div class="bigskip"></div> + +<div class="center">AUTHOR OF<br /><br /> + +"THE SYMBOLICAL SPELLING-BOOK," "THE SPELLER AND +DEFINER," AND "A PRACTICAL GRAMMAR."<br /><br /> + +EMBELLISHED WITH EIGHTY-ONE ENGRAVINGS.<br /><br /> + +IN TWO VOLUMES.<br /><br /> + +<big>VOL. I.</big></div> + +<div class="hugeskip"></div> + +<div class="center">NEW YORK:<br /> +HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="center"> +Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Harper & Brothers</span>,<br /> +<br /> +In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York.</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CONTENTS<br /> + +OF<br /> + +THE FIRST VOLUME.</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">Page</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></td><td align="right">7</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_AGRICULTURIST">The Agriculturist</a></td><td align="right">13</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_HORTICULTURIST">The Horticulturist</a></td><td align="right">28</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_MILLER">The Miller</a></td><td align="right">34</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_BAKER">The Baker</a></td><td align="right">39</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_CONFECTIONER">The Confectioner</a></td><td align="right">44</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_BREWER_AND_THE_DISTILLER">The Brewer, and the Distiller</a></td><td align="right">47</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_BUTCHER">The Butcher</a></td><td align="right">55</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_TOBACCO_PLANTER_AND_THE_TOBACCONIST">The Tobacco Planter, and the Tobacconist</a></td><td align="right">59</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_MANUFACTURER_OF_CLOTH">The Manufacturer of Cloth</a></td><td align="right">66</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_DYER_AND_THE_CALICO-PRINTER">The Dyer, and the Calico-Printer</a></td><td align="right">77</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_HATTER">The Hatter</a></td><td align="right">84</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_ROPE-MAKER">The Rope-Maker</a></td><td align="right">91</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_TAILOR">The Tailor</a></td><td align="right">96</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_MILLINER_AND_THE_LADYS_DRESS-MAKER">The Milliner, and the Lady's Dress-Maker</a></td><td align="right">100</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_BARBER">The Barber</a></td><td align="right">104</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_TANNER_AND_THE_CURRIER">The Tanner, and the Currier</a></td><td align="right">111</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_SHOE_AND_BOOT_MAKER">The Shoe and Boot Maker</a></td><td align="right">116</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_SADDLER_AND_HARNESS-MAKER_AND_THE">The Saddler and Harness-Maker, and the Trunk-Maker</a></td><td align="right">121</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_SOAP-BOILER_AND_THE_CANDLE-MAKER">The <ins title="Original reads 'Soapboiler'">Soap-Boiler</ins>, and the Candle-Maker</a></td><td align="right">125</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_COMB-MAKER_AND_THE_BRUSH-MAKER">The Comb-Maker, and the Brush-Maker</a></td><td align="right">134</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_TAVERN-KEEPER">The Tavern-Keeper</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_HUNTER">The Hunter</a></td><td align="right">147</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_FISHERMAN">The Fisherman</a></td><td align="right">154</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_SHIPWRIGHT">The Shipwright</a></td><td align="right">171</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_MARINER">The Mariner</a></td><td align="right">178</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_MERCHANT">The Merchant</a></td><td align="right">187</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_AUCTIONEER">The Auctioneer</a></td><td align="right">204</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_CLERGYMAN">The Clergyman</a></td><td align="right">208</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#ATTORNEY_AT_LAW">The Attorney at Law</a></td><td align="right">215</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_PHYSICIAN">The Physician</a></td><td align="right">221</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_CHEMIST">The Chemist</a></td><td align="right">229</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_DRUGGIST_AND_APOTHECARY">The Druggist and Apothecary</a></td><td align="right">236</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_DENTIST">The Dentist</a></td><td align="right">240</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_TEACHER">The Teacher</a></td><td align="right">249</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>The following work has been written for the use of schools and +families, as well as for miscellaneous readers. It embraces a class of +subjects in which every individual is deeply interested, and with +which, as a mere philosophical inspector of the affairs of men, he +should become acquainted.</p> + +<p>They, however, challenge attention by considerations of greater moment +than mere curiosity; for, in the present age, a great proportion of +mankind pursue some kind of business as means of subsistence or +distinction; and in this country especially, such pursuit is deemed +honorable and, in fact, indispensable to a reputable position in the +community.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, it is a fact that cannot have escaped the attention of +persons of observation, that many individuals mistake their +appropriate calling, and engage in employments for which they have +neither mental nor physical adaptation; some learn a trade who should +have studied a profession; others study a profession who should have +learned a trade. Hence arise, in a great measure, the ill success and +discontent which so frequently attend the pursuits of men.</p> + +<p>For these reasons, parents should be particularly cautious in the +choice of permanent employments for their children; and, in every +case, capacity should be especially regarded, without paying much +attention to the comparative favor in which the several employments +may be held; for a successful prosecution of an humble business is far +more honorable than inferiority or failure in one which may be greatly +esteemed.</p> + +<p>To determine the particular genius of children, parents should give +them, at least, a superficial knowledge of the several trades and +professions. To do this effectually, a systematic course of +instruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> should be given, not only at the family fireside and in +the schoolroom, but also at places where practical exhibitions of the +several employments may be seen. These means, together with a +competent literary education, and some tools and other facilities for +mechanical operations, can scarcely fail of furnishing clear +indications of intellectual bias.</p> + +<p>The course just proposed is not only necessary to a judicious choice +of a trade or profession, but also as means of intellectual +improvement; and as such it should be pursued, at all events, even +though the choice of an employment were not in view.</p> + +<p>We are endowed with a nature composed of many faculties both of the +intellectual and the animal kinds, and the reasoning faculties were +originally designed by the Creator to have the ascendency. In the +present moral condition of man, however, they do not commonly maintain +their right of precedence. This failure arises from imbecility, +originating, in part, from a deficiency in judicious cultivation, and +from the superior strength of the passions.</p> + +<p>This condition is particularly conspicuous in youth, and shows itself +in disobedience to parents, and in various other aberrations from +moral duty. If, therefore, parents would have their children act a +reasonable part, while in their minority, and, also, after they have +assumed their stations in manhood, they must pursue a course of early +instruction, calculated to secure the ascendency of the reasoning +faculties.</p> + +<p>The subjects for instruction best adapted to the cultivation of the +young mind are the <i>common things</i> with which we are surrounded. This +is evident from the fact, that it uniformly expands with great +rapidity under their influence during the first three or four years of +life; for, it is from them, children obtain all their ideas, as well +as a knowledge of the language by which they are expressed.</p> + +<p>The rapid progress of young children in the acquisition of knowledge +often excites the surprise of parents of observation, and the fact +that their improvement is almost imperceptible, after they have +attained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span> to the age of four or five years, is equally surprising. +Why, it is often asked, do not children continue to advance in +knowledge with equal and increased rapidity, especially, as their +capabilities increase with age?</p> + +<p>The solution of this question is not difficult. Children continue to +improve, while they have the means of doing so; but, having acquired a +knowledge of the objects within their reach, at least, so far as they +may be capable at the time, their advancement must consequently cease. +It is hardly necessary to remark, that the march of mind might be +continued with increased celerity, were new objects or subjects +continually presented.</p> + +<p>In supplying subjects for mental improvement, as they may be needed at +the several stages of advancement, there can be but little difficulty, +since we are surrounded by works both of nature and of art. In fact, +the same subjects may be presented several times, and, at each +presentation, instructions might be given adapted to the particular +state of improvement in the pupil.</p> + +<p>Instructions of this nature need never interfere injuriously with +those on the elementary branches of education, although the latter +would undoubtedly be considered of minor importance. Had they been +always regarded in this light, our schools would now present a far +more favorable aspect, and we should have been farther removed from +the <ins title="Original reads 'ignora ce'">ignorance</ins> and the barbarism of the middle ages.</p> + +<p>Were this view of education generally adopted, teachers would soon +find, that the business of communicating instructions to the young has +been changed from an irksome to a pleasant task, since their pupils +will have become studious and intellectual, and, consequently, more +capable of comprehending explanations upon every subject. Such a +course would also be attended with the incidental advantage of good +conduct on the part of pupils, inasmuch as the elevation of the +understanding over the passions uniformly tends to this result.</p> + +<p>For carrying into practice a system of intellectual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> education, the +following work supplies as great an amount of materials as can be +embodied in the same compass. Every article may be made the foundation +of one lecture or more, which might have reference not only to the +particular subject on which it treats, but also to the meaning and +application of the words.</p> + +<p>The articles have been concisely written, as must necessarily be the +case in all works embracing so great a variety of subjects. This +particular trait, however, need not be considered objectionable, since +all who may desire to read more extensively on any particular subject, +can easily obtain works which are exclusively devoted to it.</p> + +<p>Prolix descriptions of machinery and of mechanical operations have +been studiously avoided; for it has been presumed, that all who might +have perseverance enough to read such details, would feel curiosity +sufficient to visit the shops and manufactories, and see the machines +and operations themselves. Nevertheless, enough has been said, in all +cases, to give a general idea of the business, and to guide in the +researches of those who may wish to obtain information by the +impressive method of actual inspection.</p> + +<p>A great proportion of the whole work is occupied in recounting +historical facts, connected with the invention and progress of the +arts. The author was induced to pay especial attention to this branch +of history, from the consideration, that it furnishes very clear +indications of the real state of society in past ages, as well as at +the present time, and also that it would supply the reader with data, +by which he might, in some measure, determine the vast capabilities of +man.</p> + +<p>This kind of historical information will be especially beneficial to +the youthful mind, by inducing a habit of investigation and +antiquarian research. In addition to this, a knowledge of the origin +and progress of the various employments which are in active operation +all around, will throw upon the busy world an aspect exceedingly +interesting.</p> + +<p>It may be well, however, to caution the reader<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span> against expecting too +much information of this kind, in regard to most of the trades +practised in very ancient times. Many of the most useful inventions +were effected, before any permanent means of record had been devised; +and, in after ages, among the Greeks and Romans, the useful arts were +practised almost exclusively by slaves. The latter circumstance led to +their general neglect by the writers among these distinguished people.</p> + +<p>The information which may be obtained from this work, especially when +accompanied by the inspection of the operations which it describes, +may be daily applied to some useful purpose. It will be particularly +valuable in furnishing subjects for conversation, and in preventing +the mind from continuing in, or from sinking into, a state of +indifference in regard to the busy scenes of this world.</p> + +<p>In the composition of this work, all puerile expressions have been +avoided, not only because they would be offensive to adult individuals +of taste, but because they are at least useless, if not positively +injurious, to younger persons. What parent of reflection would suffer +his children to peruse a book calculated to induce or confirm a manner +of speaking or writing, which he would not have them use after having +arrived to manhood? Every sentence may be rendered perfectly plain by +appropriate explanations and illustrations.</p> + +<p>No formal classification of the professions and trades has been +adopted, although those articles which treat of kindred subjects have +been placed near each other, and in that order which seemed to be the +most natural. The paragraphs of the several articles have been +numbered for the especial accommodation of classes in schools, but +this particular feature of the work need meet with no serious +objection from miscellaneous readers, as it has no other effect, in +reference to its use by them, than to give it the aspect of a +school-book.</p> + +<p>While writing the articles on the different subjects, the author +consulted several works which embraced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span> the arts and sciences +generally, as well as many which were more circumscribed in their +objects. He, however, relied more upon them for historical facts than +for a knowledge of the operations and processes which he had occasion +to detail. For this he depended, as far as practicable, upon his own +personal researches, although in the employment of appropriate +phraseology, he acknowledges his obligations to predecessors.</p> + +<p>With the preceding remarks, the author submits his work to the public, +in the confident expectation, that the subjects which it embraces, +that the care which has been taken in its composition, and that the +skill of the artists employed in its embellishment, will secure to it +an abundant and liberal patronage.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_AGRICULTURIST" id="THE_AGRICULTURIST"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="500" height="421" alt="FARMER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE AGRICULTURIST.</h2> + + +<p>1. Agriculture embraces, in its broad application, whatever relates to +the cultivation of the fields, with the view of producing food for man +and those animals which he may have brought into a state of +domestication.</p> + +<p>2. If we carry our observations so far back as to reach the +antediluvian history of the earth, we shall find, from the authority +of Scripture, that the cultivation of the soil was the first +employment of man, after his expulsion from the garden of Eden, when +he was commanded to till the ground from which he had been taken. We +shall also learn from the same source of information, that "Cain was a +husbandman," and that "Abel was a keeper of sheep." Hence it may be +inferred, that Adam instructed his sons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> in the art of husbandry; and +that they, in turn, communicated the knowledge to <i>their</i> posterity, +together with the superadded information which had resulted from their +own experience. Improvement in this art was probably thenceforth +progressive, until the overwhelming catastrophe of the flood.</p> + +<p>3. After the waters had retired from the face of the earth, Noah +resorted to husbandry, as the certain means of procuring the +necessaries and comforts of life. The art of cultivating the soil was +uninterruptedly preserved in many branches of the great family of +Noah; but, in others, it was at length entirely lost. In the latter +case, the people, having sunk into a state of barbarism, depended for +subsistence on the natural productions of the earth, and on such +animals as they could contrive to capture by hunting and fishing. Many +of these degenerate tribes did not emerge from this condition for +several succeeding ages; while others have not done so to the present +day.</p> + +<p>4. Notwithstanding the great antiquity of agriculture, the husbandmen, +for several centuries immediately succeeding the deluge, seem to have +been but little acquainted with any proper method of restoring +fertility to exhausted soils; for we find them frequently changing +their residence, as their flocks and herds required fresh pasturage, +or as their tillage land became unproductive. As men, however, became +more numerous, and as their flocks increased, this practice became +inconvenient and, in some cases, impracticable. They were, therefore, +compelled, by degrees, to confine their flocks and herds, and their +farming operations, to lands of more narrow and specified limits.</p> + +<p>5. The Chaldeans were probably the people who first adopted the +important measure of retaining perpetual possession of the soil which +they had cultivated; and, consequently, were among the first who +became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> skilful in agriculture. But all the great nations of antiquity +held this art in the highest estimation, and usually attributed its +invention to superhuman agency. The Egyptians even worshipped the +image of the ox in gratitude for the services of the living animal in +the labours of the field.</p> + +<p>6. The reader of ancient history can form some idea of the extent to +which this art was cultivated in those days, from the warlike +operations of different nations; for, from no other source, could the +great armies which were then brought into the field, have been +supplied with the necessary provisions. The Greeks and the Romans, who +were more celebrated than any other people for their military +enterprise, were also most attentive to the proper cultivation of the +soil; and many of their distinguished men, especially among the +Romans, were practical husbandmen.</p> + +<p>7. Nor was agriculture neglected by the learned men of antiquity. +Several works on this subject, by Greek and Latin authors, have +descended to our times; and the correctness of many of the principles +which they inculcate, has been confirmed by modern experience.</p> + +<p>8. Throughout the extensive empire of Rome, agriculture maintained a +respectable standing, until the commencement of those formidable +invasions of the northern hordes, which, finally, nearly extinguished +the arts and sciences in every part of Europe. During the long period +of anarchy which succeeded the settlement of these barbarians in their +newly-acquired possessions, pasturage was, in most cases, preferred to +tillage, as being better suited to their state of civilization, and as +affording facilities of removal, in cases of alarm from invading +enemies. But, when permanent governments had been again established, +and when the nations enjoyed comparative peace, the regular +cultivation of the soil once more revived.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> + +<p>9. The art of husbandry was at a low ebb in England, until the +fourteenth century, when it began to be practised with considerable +success in the midland and <ins title="Hyphen added for consistency">south-western</ins> parts of the island; yet, it +does not seem to have been cultivated as a science, until the latter +end of the sixteenth century. The first book on husbandry, printed and +published in the English language, appeared in 1534. It was written by +Sir A. Fitzherbert, a judge of the Common Pleas, who had studied the +laws of vegetation, and the nature of soils, with philosophical +accuracy.</p> + +<p>10. Very little improvement was made on the theory of this author, for +upwards of a hundred years, when Sir Hugh Platt discovered and brought +into use several kinds of substances for fertilizing and restoring +exhausted soils.</p> + +<p>11. Agriculture again received a new impulse, about the middle of the +eighteenth century; and, in 1793, a Board of Agriculture was +established by an act of Parliament, at the suggestion of Sir John +Sinclair, who was elected its first president. Through the influence +of this board, a great number of agricultural societies have been +formed in the kingdom, and much valuable information on rural economy +has been communicated to the public, through the medium of a +voluminous periodical under its superintendence.</p> + +<p>12. After the example of Great Britain, agricultural societies have +been formed, and periodical journals published, in various parts of +the continent of Europe, as well as in the United States. The +principal publications devoted to this subject in this country, are +the <i>American Farmer</i>, at Baltimore; the <i>New-England Farmer</i>, at +Boston; and the <i>Cultivator</i>, at Albany.</p> + +<p>13. The modern improvements in husbandry consist, principally, in the +proper application of manures,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> in the mixture of different kinds of +earths, in the use of plaster and lime, in the rotation of crops, in +adapting the crop to the soil, in the introduction of new kinds of +grain, roots, grasses, and fruits, as well as in improvements in the +breeds of domestic animals, and in the implements with which the +various operations of the art are performed.</p> + +<p>14. For many of the improved processes which relate to the +amelioration of the soil, we are indebted to chemistry. Before this +science was brought to the aid of the art, the cultivators of the soil +were chiefly guided by the precept and example of their predecessors, +which were often inapplicable. By the aid of chemical analysis, it is +easy to discover the constituent parts of different soils; and, when +this has been done, there is but little difficulty in determining the +best mode of improving them, or in applying the most suitable crops.</p> + +<p>15. In the large extent of territory embraced within the United +States, there is great variation of soil and climate; but, in each +state, or district, the attention of the cultivators is directed to +the production of those articles which, under the circumstances, +promise to be the most profitable. In the northern portions of our +country, the cultivators of the soil are called farmers. They direct +their attention chiefly to the production of wheat, rye, corn, oats, +barley, peas, beans, potatoes, pumpkins, and flax, together with +grasses and fruits of various kinds. The same class of men, in the +Southern states, are usually denominated planters, who confine +themselves principally to tobacco, rice, cotton, sugar-cane, or hemp. +In some parts of that portion of our country, however, rye, wheat, +oats, and sweet potatoes, are extensively cultivated; and, in almost +every part, corn is a favourite article.</p> + +<p>16. The process of cultivating most of the productions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> which have +been mentioned, is nearly the same. In general, with the occasional +exception of new lands, the plough is used to prepare the ground for +the reception of the seed. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, and the +seeds of hemp and flax, are scattered with the hand, and covered in +the earth with the harrow. In Great Britain, such seeds are sown in +drills; and this method is thought to be better than ours, as it +admits of the use of the hoe, while the vegetable is growing.</p> + +<p>17. Corn, beans, potatoes, and pumpkins, are covered in the earth with +the hoe. The ground is ploughed several times during the summer, to +make it loose, and to keep down the weeds. The hoe is also used in +accomplishing the same objects, and in depositing fresh earth around +the growing vegetable.</p> + +<p>18. When ripe, wheat, barley, oats, and peas, are cut down with the +sickle, cradle, or scythe; while hemp and flax are pulled up by the +roots. The seeds are separated from the other parts of the plants with +the flail, or by means of horses or oxen driven round upon them. Of +late, threshing machines are used to effect the same object. Chaff, +and extraneous matter generally, are separated from the grain, or +seeds, by means of a fanning-mill, or with a large fan made of the +twigs of the willow. The same thing was formerly, and is yet +sometimes, effected by the aid of a current of air.</p> + +<p>19. When the corn, or maize, has become ripe, the ears, with the +husks, and sometimes the stalks, are deposited in large heaps. To +assist in stripping the husks from the ears, it is customary to call +together the neighbours. In such cases, the owner of the corn provides +for them a supper, together with some means of merriment and good +cheer.</p> + +<p>20. This custom is most prevalent, where the greater part of the +labour is performed by slaves. The blacks, when assembled for a +husking match, choose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> a captain, whose business it is to lead the +song, while the rest join in chorus. Sometimes, they divide the corn +as nearly as possible into two equal heaps, and apportion the hands +accordingly, with a captain to each division. This is done to produce +a contest for the most speedy execution of the task. Should the owner +of the corn be sparing of his refreshments, his want of generosity is +sure to be published in song at every similar frolic in the +neighborhood.</p> + +<p>21. Maize, or Indian corn, and potatoes of all kinds, were unknown in +the eastern continent, until the discovery of America. Their origin +is, therefore, known with certainty; but some of the other productions +which have been mentioned, cannot be so satisfactorily traced. This is +particularly the case with regard to those which have been extensively +cultivated for many centuries.</p> + +<p>22. The grasses have ever been valuable to man, as affording a supply +of food for domestic animals. Many portions of our country are +particularly adapted to grazing. Where this is the case, the farmers +usually turn their attention to raising live stock, and to making +butter and cheese. Grass reserved in meadows, as a supply of food for +the winter, is cut at maturity with a scythe, dried in the sun, and +stored in barns, or heaped in stacks.</p> + +<p>23. Rice was first cultivated in the eastern parts of Asia, and, from +the earliest ages, has been the principal article of food among the +Chinese and Hindoos. To this grain may be attributed, in a great +measure, the early civilization of those nations; and its adaptation +to marshy grounds caused many districts to become populous, which +would otherwise have remained irreclaimable and desolate.</p> + +<p>24. Rice was long known in the east, before it was introduced into +Egypt and Greece, whence it spread over Africa generally, and the +southern parts of Europe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> It is now cultivated in all the warm parts +of the globe, chiefly on grounds subject to periodical inundations. +The Chinese obtain two crops a year from the same ground, and +cultivate it in this way from generation to generation, without +applying any manure, except the stubble of the preceding crop, and the +mud deposited from the water overflowing it.</p> + +<p>25. Soon after the waters of the inundation have retired, a spot is +inclosed with an embankment, lightly ploughed and harrowed, and then +sown very thickly with the grain. Immediately, a thin sheet of water +is brought over it, either by a stream or some hydraulic machinery. +When the plants have grown to the height of six or seven inches, they +are transplanted in furrows; and again water is brought over them, and +kept on, until the crop begins to ripen, when it is withheld.</p> + +<p>26. The crop is cut with a sickle, threshed with a flail, or by the +treading of cattle; and the husks, which adhere closely to the kernel, +are beaten off in a stone mortar, or by passing the grain through a +mill, similar to our corn-mills. The mode of cultivating rice in any +part of the world, varies but little from the foregoing process. The +point which requires the greatest attention, is keeping the ground +properly covered with water.</p> + +<p>27. Rice was introduced into the Carolinas in 1697, where it is now +produced in greater perfection than in any other part of the world. +The seeds are dropped along, from the small end of a gourd, into +drills made with one corner of the hoe. The plants, when partly grown, +are not transferred to another place, as in Asia, but are suffered to +grow and ripen in the original drills. The crop is secured like wheat, +and the husks are forced from the grain by a machine, which leaves the +kernels more perfect than the methods adopted in other countries.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> + +<p>28. Cotton is cultivated in the East and West Indies, North and South +America, Egypt, and in many other parts of the world, where the +climate is sufficiently warm for the purpose. There are several +species of this plant; of which three kinds are cultivated in the +southern states of the Union—the <i>nankeen cotton</i>, the <i>green seed +cotton</i>, and the <i>black seed</i>, or <i>sea island cotton</i>. The first two, +which grow in the middle and upland countries, are denominated <i>short +staple cotton</i>: the last is cultivated in the lower country, near the +sea, and on the islands near the main land, and is of a fine quality, +and of a long staple.</p> + +<p>29. The plants are propagated annually from seeds, which are sown very +thickly in ridges made with the plough or hoe. After they have grown +to the height of three or four inches, part of them are pulled up, in +order that the rest, while coming to maturity, may stand about four +inches apart. It is henceforth managed, until fully grown, like Indian +corn.</p> + +<p>30. The cotton is inclosed in pods, which open as fast as their +contents become fit to be gathered. In Georgia, about eighty pounds of +upland cotton can be gathered by a single hand in a day; but in +Alabama and Mississippi, where the plant thrives better, two hundred +pounds are frequently collected in the same time.</p> + +<p>31. The seeds adhere closely to the cotton, when picked from the pods; +but they are properly separated by machines called <i>gins</i>; of which +there are two kinds,—the <i>roller-gin</i>, and the <i>saw-gin</i>. The +essential parts of the former are two cylinders, which are placed +nearly in contact with each other. By their revolving motion, the +cotton is drawn between them, while the size of the seeds prevents +their passage. This machine, being of small size, is worked by hand.</p> + +<p>32. The <i>saw-gin</i> is much larger, and is moved by animal, steam, or +water power. It consists of a receiver,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> having one side covered with +strong wires, placed in a parallel direction about an eighth of an +inch apart, and a number of circular saws, which revolve on a common +axis. The saws pass between these wires, and entangle in their teeth +the cotton, which is thereby drawn through the grating, while the +seeds, from their size, are forced to remain on the other side.</p> + +<p>33. Before the invention of the saw-gin, the seeds were separated from +the upland cottons by hand,—a method so extremely tedious, that their +cultivation was attended with but little profit to the planter. This +machine was invented in Georgia by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts. It +was undertaken at the request of several planters of the former state, +and was there put in operation in 1792.</p> + +<p>34. In the preceding year, the whole crop of cotton in the United +States was only sixty-four bales; but, in 1834, it amounted to +1,000,617. The vast increase in the production of this article has +arisen, in part, from the increased demand for it in Europe, and in +the Northern states, but, chiefly, from the use of the invaluable +machine just mentioned.</p> + +<p>35. Sugar-cane was cultivated by the Chinese, at a very early period, +probably two thousand years before it was known in Europe; but sugar, +in a candied form, was used in small quantities by the Greeks and +Romans in the days of their prosperity. It was probably brought from +Bengal, Siam, or some of the East India Islands, as it is supposed, +that it grew nowhere else at that time.</p> + +<p>36. In the thirteenth century, soon after the merchants of the West +began to traffic in Indian articles of commerce, the plant was +introduced into Arabia Felix, and thence into Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, +and Morocco. The Spaniards obtained it from the Moors, and, in the +fifteenth century, introduced it into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> Canary Islands. It was +brought to America, and to the West India Islands, by the Spaniards +and Portuguese. It is now cultivated in the United States, below the +thirty-first degree of latitude, and in the warm parts of the globe +generally.</p> + +<p>37. Previous to the year 1466, sugar was known in England chiefly, as +a medicine; and, although the sugar-cane was cultivated, at that time, +in several places on the Mediterranean, it was not more extensively +used on the continent. Now, in extent of cultivation, it ranks next to +wheat and rice, and first in maritime commerce.</p> + +<p>38. The cultivators of sugar-cane propagate the plant by means of +cuttings from the lower end of the stalks, which are planted in the +spring or autumn, in drills, or in furrows. The new plants spring from +the joints of the cuttings, and are fit to be gathered for use in +eight, ten, twelve, or fourteen months. While growing, sugar-cane is +managed much like Indian corn.</p> + +<p>39. When ripe, the cane is cut and brought to the sugar-mill, where +the juice is expressed between iron or stone cylinders, moved by +steam, water, or animal power. The juice thus obtained is evaporated +in large boilers to a syrup, which is afterwards removed to coolers, +where it is agitated with wooden instruments called <i>stirrers</i>. To +accelerate its cooling, it is next poured into casks, and, when yet +warm, is conveyed to barrels, placed in an upright position over a +cistern, and pierced in the bottom in several places. The holes being +partially stopped with canes, the part which still remains in the form +of syrup, filters through them into the cistern beneath, while the +rest is left in the form of sugar, in the state called <i>muscovado</i>.</p> + +<p>40. This sugar is of a yellow colour, being yet in a crude, or raw +state. It is further purified by various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> processes, such as +redissolving it in water, and again boiling it with lime and bullocks' +blood, or with animal charcoal, and passing the syrup through several +canvas filters.</p> + +<p>41. Loaf-sugar is manufactured by pouring the syrup, after it has been +purified, and reduced to a certain thickness by evaporation, into +unglazed earthen vessels of a conical shape. The cones have a hole at +their apex, through which may filter the syrup which separates from +the sugar above. Most of the sugar is imported in a raw or crude +state, and is afterward refined in the cities in sugar-houses.</p> + +<p>42. Molasses is far less free from extraneous substances than sugar, +as it is nothing more than the drainings from the latter. Rum is +distilled from inferior molasses, and other saccharine matter of the +cane, which will answer for no other purpose.</p> + +<p>43. Sugar is also manufactured from the sap of the sugar-maple, in +considerable quantities, in the northern parts of the United States, +and in the Canadas. The sap is obtained by cutting a notch, or boring +a hole, in the tree, and applying a spout to conduct it to a receiver, +which is either a rude trough, or a cheap vessel made by a cooper. +This operation is performed late in the winter, or early in the +spring, when the weather is freezing at night, and thawing in the day.</p> + +<p>44. The liquid in which the saccharine matter is suspended, is +evaporated by heat, as in the case of the juice of the cane. During +the process of evaporation, slices of pork are kept in the kettle, to +prevent the sap or syrup from boiling over.</p> + +<p>45. When a sufficient quantity of syrup, of a certain thickness, has +been obtained, it is passed through a strainer, and, having been again +placed over the fire, it is clarified with eggs and milk, the scum, as +it rises, being carefully removed with a skimmer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> When sufficiently +reduced, it is usually poured into tin pans, or basins, in which, as +it cools, it consolidates into hard cakes of sugar.</p> + +<p>46. Most of the lands in a state of nature, are covered with forest +trees. This is especially the case in North America. When this +division of our continent was first visited by Europeans, it was +nearly one vast wilderness, throughout its entire extent; and even +now, after a lapse of three centuries, a great portion of it remains +in the same condition. The industrious settlers, however, are rapidly +clearing away the natural encumbrances of the soil; and, before a +similar period shall have passed away, we may expect, that civilized +men will have occupied every portion of this vast territory, which may +be worthy of cultivation.</p> + +<p>47. The mode of <i>clearing</i> land, as it is termed, varies in different +parts of the United States. In Pennsylvania, and in neighborhoods +settled by people from that state, the large trees are deadened by +girdling them, and the small ones, together with the underbrush, are +felled and burned. This mode is very objectionable, for the reason, +that the limbs on the standing trees, when they have become rotten, +sometimes peril the lives of persons and animals underneath. It seems, +however, that those who pursue this method, prefer risking life in +this way to wearing it out in wielding the axe, and in rolling logs.</p> + +<p>48. A very different plan is pursued by settlers from New-England. The +underbrush is first cut down, and piled in heaps. The large trees are +then felled, to serve as foundations for log-heaps; and the smaller +ones are cut so as to fall as nearly parallel to these as practicable. +The smaller trees, as well as the limbs of the larger ones, are cut +into lengths of twelve or fifteen feet.</p> + +<p>49. At a proper season of the year, when the brush<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> has become dry +enough, fire is applied, which consumes much of the small stuff. The +logs are next hauled together with oxen or horses, and rolled into +heaps with handspikes. The small stuff which has escaped the first +burning, is thrown upon the heaps, and, fire being applied, the whole +is consumed together.</p> + +<p>50. In the Northern, Middle, and Western states, where a great +proportion of the timber is beech, maple, and elm, great quantities of +ashes are obtained in this mode of clearing land. From these ashes are +extracted the pot and pearl ashes of commerce, which have been, and +which still are, among the principal exports of the United States.</p> + +<p>51. The usual process of making potash is as follows: the crude ashes +are put into large tubs, or <i>leeches</i>, with a small quantity of salt +and lime. The strength of this mixture is extracted by pouring upon it +hot water, which passes through it into a reservoir. The water thus +saturated is called black ley, which is evaporated in large kettles. +The residuum is called black salts, which are converted into potash by +applying to the kettle an intense heat.</p> + +<p>52. The process of making pearlash is the same, until the ley has been +reduced to black salts, except that no lime or salt is used. The salts +are baked in large ovens, heated by a blazing fire, which proceeds +from an arch below. Having been thus <i>scorched</i>, the salts are +dissolved in hot water. The solution is allowed to be at rest, until +all extraneous substances have settled to the bottom, when it is drawn +off and evaporated as before. The residuum is called white salts. +Another baking, like the former, completes the process.</p> + +<p>53. Very few of the settlers have an ashery, as it is called, in which +the whole process of making either pot or pearl ash is performed. They +usually sell the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> black salts to the store-keepers in their +neighborhood, who complete the process of the manufacture.</p> + +<p>54. The trade in ashes is often profitable to the settlers; some of +them even pay, in this way, the whole expense of clearing their land. +Pot and pearl ashes are packed in strong barrels, and sent to the +cities, where, previous to sale, they are inspected, and branded +according to their quality.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_HORTICULTURIST" id="THE_HORTICULTURIST"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_027.jpg" width="500" height="420" alt="GARDENER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE HORTICULTURIST.</h2> + + +<p>1. The Creator of the Universe, having formed man from the dust of the +ground, provided a magnificent garden for his residence, and commanded +him "to dress it and to keep it:" but, having transgressed the +commandment of his lawful Sovereign, he was driven from this +delightful paradise, thenceforth to gain a subsistence from the earth +at large, which had been cursed with barrenness, thorns, thistles, and +briars.</p> + +<p>2. Scripture does not inform us, that Adam turned his attention to +gardening; nor have we any means of determining the state of this art, +in the centuries previous to the flood; but it is highly probable, +that it had arrived to considerable perfection, before the advent of +this destructive visitation from Heaven.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. Gardens, for useful purposes, were probably made, soon after the +waters had subsided; and the statement in Scripture, that "Noah +planted a vineyard," may, perhaps, be regarded as evidence sufficient +to establish it as a fact. If this were the case, the art, doubtless, +continued progressive among those descendants of Noah, who did not +sink into a state of barbarism, after the confusion of tongues.</p> + +<p>4. Among savage nations, one of the first indications of advancement +towards a state of civilization, is the cultivation of a little spot +of ground for raising vegetables; and the degree of refinement among +the inhabitants of any country, may be determined, with tolerable +certainty, by the taste and skill exhibited in their gardens.</p> + +<p>5. Ornamental gardening is never attended to, in any country, until +the arts in general have advanced to a considerable degree of +perfection; and it uniformly declines with other fine or ornamental +arts. Accordingly, we do not read of splendid gardens among the +Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, Romans, and other nations of +antiquity, until they had reached an exalted state of refinement; and +when these nations descended from this condition, or were overthrown +by barbarians, this art declined or disappeared.</p> + +<p>6. During the period of mental darkness, which prevailed between the +eighth and thirteenth centuries, the practice of ornamental gardening +had fallen into such general disuse, that it was confined exclusively +to the monks. After this period, it began again to spread among the +people generally. It revived in Italy, Germany, Holland, and France, +long before any attention was paid to it in England.</p> + +<p>7. In the latter country, but few culinary vegetables were consumed +before the beginning of the sixteenth century, and most of these were +brought from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> Holland; nor was gardening introduced there, as a source +of profit, until about one hundred years after that period. Peaches, +pears, plums, nectarines, apricots, grapes, cherries, strawberries, +and melons, were luxuries but little enjoyed in England, until near +the middle of the seventeenth century. The first <i>hot</i> and <i>ice +houses</i> known on the island, were built by Charles II., who ascended +the British throne in 1660, and soon after introduced French gardening +at Hampton Court, Carlton, and Marlborough.</p> + +<p>8. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, this art attracted +the attention of some of the first characters in Great Britain, who +gave it a new impulse in that country. But the style which they +imitated was objectionable, inasmuch as the mode of laying out the +gardens, and of planting and trimming the trees, was too formal and +fantastical.</p> + +<p>9. Several eminent writers, among whom were Pope and Addison, +ridiculed this Dutch mode of gardening, as it was called, and +endeavoured to introduce another, more consistent with genuine taste. +Their views were, at length, seconded by practical horticulturists; +and those principles of the art which they advocated, were adopted in +every part of Great Britain. The English mode has been followed and +emulated by the refined nations of the Eastern continent and by many +opulent individuals in the United States.</p> + +<p>10. Since the beginning of the present century horticultural societies +have been formed in every kingdom of Europe. In Great Britain alone, +there are no less than fifty; and, it is satisfactory to add, that +there are also several of these institutions in the United States. The +objects of the persons who compose these societies are, to collect and +disseminate information on this interesting art, especially in regard +to the introduction of new and valuable articles of cultivation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> + +<p>11. The authors who have written upon scientific and practical +gardening, at different periods, and in different countries, are very +numerous. Among the ancient Greek writers, were Hesiod, Theophrastus, +Xenophon, and Ælian. Among the Latins, Varo was the first; to whom +succeeded, Cato, Pliny the elder, Columella, and Palladius.</p> + +<p>12. Since the revival of literature, horticulture, in common with +agriculture, has shared largely in the labours of the learned; and +many works, on this important branch of rural economy, have been +published in every language of Europe. But the publications on this +subject, which attract the greatest attention, are the periodicals +under the superintendence of the great horticultural societies. Those +of London and Paris, are particularly distinguished.</p> + +<p>13. It is impossible to draw a distinct line between horticulture and +agriculture; since so many articles of cultivation are common to both, +and since a well-regulated farm approaches very nearly to a garden.</p> + +<p>14. The divisions of a complete garden, usually adopted by writers on +this subject, are the following: 1st. the culinary garden; 2d. the +flower garden; 3d. the orchard, embracing different kinds of fruits; +4th. the vineyard; 5th. the seminary, for raising seeds; 6th. the +nursery, for raising trees to be transplanted; 7th. the botanical +garden, for raising various kinds of plants; 8th. the arboretum of +ornamental trees; and, 9th. the picturesque, or landscape garden. To +become skilful in the management of even one or two of these branches, +requires much attention; but to become proficient in all, would +require years of the closest application.</p> + +<p>15. In Europe, the professed gardeners constitute a large class of the +population. They are employed either in their own gardens, or in those +of the wealthy, who engage them by the day or year. There are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> many in +this country who devote their attention to this business; but they are +chiefly from the other side of the Atlantic. In our Southern states, +the rich assign one of their slaves to the garden.</p> + +<p>16. In the United States, almost every family in the country, and in +the villages, has its garden for the production of vegetables, in +which are also usually reared, a few flowers, ornamental shrubs, and +fruit-trees: but horticulture, as a science, is studied and practised +here by very few, especially that branch of it called picturesque, or +landscape. To produce a pleasing effect, in a garden of this kind, +from twenty to one hundred acres are necessary, according to the +manner in which the ground may be situated. In an area of that extent, +every branch of this pleasing art can be advantageously embraced.</p> + +<p>17. Delicate exotic plants, which will not bear exposure to the open +air during the winter, are preserved from the effects of the cold in +<i>hot</i> or <i>green houses</i>, which may be warmed by artificial heat. A +<i>hot-house</i> is exhibited in the representation of a garden, at the +head of this article. It is composed chiefly of window-glass set in +sashes of wood. A green-house is usually larger; and is designed for +the preservation of those plants requiring less heat.</p> + +<p>18. The vegetables commonly cultivated in gardens for the table, +are,—corn, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, beans, squashes, cucumbers, +melons, strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, +currants, beets, parsnips, carrots, onions, radishes, cabbages, +asparagus, lettuce, grapes, and various kinds of fruits. The flowers, +ornamental shrubs, and trees, are very numerous, and are becoming more +so by accessions from the forests, and from foreign countries.</p> + +<p>19. The scientific horticulturist, in laying off his garden, +endeavours to unite beauty and utility, locating the flowers, +ornamental shrubs, and trees, where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> they will be most conspicuous, +and those vegetables less pleasing to the eye, in more retired +situations, yet, in a soil and exposure adapted to their constitution. +In improving the soil of his garden, he brings to his aid the science +of chemistry, together with the experience of practical men. He is +also careful in the choice of his fruit-trees, and in increasing the +variety of their products by engrafting, and by inoculation.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_MILLER" id="THE_MILLER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_033.jpg" width="500" height="421" alt="MILLER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE MILLER.</h2> + + +<p>1. The Miller belongs to that class of employments which relates to +the preparation of food and drinks for man. His business consists, +chiefly, in reducing the farinaceous grains to a suitable degree of +fineness.</p> + +<p>2. The simplest method by which grain can be reduced to meal, or +flour, is rubbing or pounding it between two stones; and this was +probably the one first practised in all primitive conditions of +society, as it is still pursued among some tribes of uncivilized men.</p> + +<p>3. The first machine for comminuting grain, of which we have any +knowledge, was a simple hand-mill, composed of a nether stone fixed in +a horizontal position, and an upper stone, which was put in motion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +with the hand by means of a peg. This simple contrivance is still used +in India, as well as in some sequestered parts of Scotland, and on +many of the plantations in the Southern states of our Union. But, in +general, where large quantities of grain are to be ground, it has been +entirely superseded by mills not moved by manual power.</p> + +<p>4. The modern corn and flour mill differs from the primitive hand-mill +in the size of the stones, in the addition of an apparatus for +separating the hulls and bran from the farinaceous part of the grain, +and in the power applied for putting it in motion.</p> + +<p>5. The grinding surfaces of the stones have channels, or furrows, cut +in them, which proceed obliquely from the centre to the circumference. +The furrows are cut slantwise on one side, and perpendicular on the +other; so that each of the ridges which they form, has a sharp edge; +and, when the upper stone is in motion, these edges pass one another, +like the blades of a pair of scissors, and cut the grain the more +easily, as it falls upon the furrows.</p> + +<p>6. By a careful inspection of the following picture, the whole +machinery of a common mill may be understood.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"> +<img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="377" height="400" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> + +<p>A represents the water-wheel; B, the shaft to which is attached the +cog-wheel C, which acts on the trundle-head, D; and this, in turn, +acts on the moveable stone. The spindle, trundle-head, and upper +stone, all rest entirely on the beam, F, which can be elevated or +depressed, at pleasure, by a simple apparatus; so that the distance +between the stones can be easily regulated, to grind either fine or +coarse. The grain about to be submitted to the action of the mill, is +thrown into the hopper, H, whence it passes by the shoe, or spout I, +through a hole in the upper stone, and then between them both.</p> + +<p>7. The upper stone is a little convex, and the other a little concave. +There is a little difference, however, between the convexity and the +concavity of the two stones: this difference causes the space between +them to become less and less towards their edges; and the grain, being +admitted between them, is, consequently, ground finer and finer, as it +passes out in that direction, in which it is impelled by the +centrifugal power of the moving stone.</p> + +<p>8. If the flour, or meal, is not to be separated from the bran, the +simple grinding completes the operation; but, when this separation is +to be made, the comminuted grain, as it is thrown out from between the +stones, is carried, by little leathern buckets fastened to a strap, to +the upper end of an octagonal sieve, placed in an inclined position in +a large box. The coarse bran passes out at the lower end of the sieve, +or bolt, and the flour, or fine particles of bran, through the +bolting-cloth, at different places, according to their fineness. At +the head of the bolt, the superfine flour passes; in the middle, the +fine flour; and at the lower end, the coarse flour and fine bran; +which, when mixed, is called <i>canel</i>, or <i>shorts</i>.</p> + +<p>9. The best material of which mill-stones are made, is the burr-stone, +which is brought from France<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> in small pieces, weighing from ten to +one hundred pounds. These are cemented together with plaster of Paris, +and closely bound around the circumference with hoops made of bar +iron. For grinding corn or rye, those made of sienite, or granite +rock, are frequently used.</p> + +<p>10. A mill, exclusively employed in grinding grain, consumed by the +inhabitants of the neighborhood, is called a <i>grist</i> or <i>custom</i> mill; +and a portion of the grist is allowed to the miller, in payment for +his services. The proportion is regulated by law; and, in our own +country, it varies according to the legislation of the different +states.</p> + +<p>11. Mills in which flour is manufactured, and packed in barrels for +sale, are called merchant mills. Here, the wheat is purchased by the +miller, or by the owner of the mill, who relies upon the difference +between the original cost of the grain, and the probable amount of its +several products, when sold, to remunerate him for the manufacture, +and his investments of capital. In Virginia, and, perhaps, in some of +the other states, it is a common practice among the farmers, to +deliver to the millers their wheat, for which they receive a specified +quantity of flour.</p> + +<p>12. The power most commonly employed to put heavy machinery in +operation, is that supplied by water. This is especially the case with +regard to mills for grinding grain; but, when this cannot be had, a +substitute is found in steam, or animal strength. The wind is also +rendered subservient to this purpose. The wind-mill was invented in +the time of Augustus Cæsar. During the reign of this emperor, and +probably long before, mules and asses were employed by both the Greeks +and Romans in turning their mills. The period at which water-mills +began to be used cannot be certainly determined. Some writers place it +as far back as the Christian era.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> + +<p>13. Wheat flour is one of the staple commodities of the United States, +and there are mills for its manufacture in almost every part of the +country, where wheat is extensively cultivated; but our most +celebrated flour-mills are on the Brandywine Creek, Del., at +Rochester, N. Y., and at Richmond, Va.</p> + +<p>14. In our Southern states, hommony is a favorite article of food. It +consists of the flinty portions of Indian corn, which have been +separated from the hulls and eyes of the grain. To effect this +separation, the corn is sometimes ground very coarsely in a mill; but +the most usual method is that of pounding it in a mortar.</p> + +<p>15. The mortar is excavated from a log of hard wood, between twelve +and eighteen inches in diameter. The form of the excavation is similar +to that of a common iron mortar, except that it is less flat at the +bottom, to prevent the corn from being reduced to meal during the +operation. The pestle is usually made by confining an iron wedge in +the split end of a round stick, by means of an iron ring.</p> + +<p>16. The white flint corn is the kind usually chosen for hommony; +although any kind, possessing the requisite solidity, will do. Having +been poured into the mortar, it is moistened with hot water, and +immediately beaten with the pestle, until the eyes and hulls are +forced from the flinty portions of the grain. The part of the corn +which has been reduced to meal by the foregoing process, is removed by +means of a sieve, and the hulls, by the aid of the wind.</p> + +<p>17. Hommony is prepared for the table by boiling it in water for +twelve hours with about one fourth of its quantity of white beans, and +some fat bacon. It is eaten while yet warm, with milk or butter; or, +if suffered to get cold, is again warmed with lard or some other fat +substance, before it is brought to the table.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_BAKER" id="THE_BAKER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="500" height="420" alt="BAKER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE BAKER.</h2> + + +<p>1. The business of the Baker consists in making bread, rolls, +biscuits, and crackers, and in baking various kinds of provisions.</p> + +<p>2. Man appears to be designed by nature, to eat all substances capable +of affording nourishment to his system; but, being more inclined to +vegetable than to animal food, he has, from the earliest times, used +farinaceous grains, as his principal means of sustenance. As these, +however, cannot be eaten in their native state without difficulty, +means have been contrived for extracting their farinaceous part, and +for converting it into an agreeable and wholesome aliment.</p> + +<p>3. Those who are accustomed to enjoy all the advantages of the most +useful inventions, without reflecting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> on the labour expended in their +completion, may fancy that there is nothing more easy than to grind +grain, to make it into paste, and to bake it in an oven; but it must +have been a long time, before men discovered any better method of +preparing their grain, than roasting it in the fire, or boiling it in +water, and forming it into viscous cakes. Accident, probably, at +length furnished some observing person a hint, by which good and +wholesome bread could be made by means of fermentation.</p> + +<p>4. Before the invention of the oven, bread was exclusively baked in +the embers, or ashes, or before the fire. These methods, with +sometimes a little variation, are still practised, more or less, in +all parts of the world. In England, the poor class of people place the +loaf on the heated hearth, and invert over it an iron pot or kettle, +which they surround with embers or coals.</p> + +<p>5. The invention of the oven must have added much to the conveniences +and comforts of the ancients; but it cannot be determined, at what +period, or by whom, it was contrived. During that period of remote +antiquity, in which the people were generally erratic in their habits, +the ovens were made of clay, and hardened by fire, like earthenware; +and, being small, they could be easily transported from place to +place, like our iron bake-ovens. Such ovens are still in use in some +parts of Asia.</p> + +<p>6. There are few nations that do not use bread, or a substitute for +it. Its general use arises from a law of our economy, which requires a +mixture of the animal fluids, in every stage of the process of +digestion. The saliva is, therefore, essential; and the mastication of +dry food is required, to bring it forth from the glands of the mouth.</p> + +<p>7. The farinaceous grains most usually employed in making bread, +are,—wheat, rye, barley, maize, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> oats. The flour or meal of two +of these are often mixed; and wheat flour is sometimes advantageously +combined with rice, peas, beans, or potatoes.</p> + +<p>8. The component parts of wheat, rye, and barley flour, are,—fecula, +or starch, gluten, and saccharine mucilage. Fecula is the most +nutritive part of grain. It is found in all seeds, and is especially +abundant in the potato. Gluten is necessary to the production of light +bread; and wheat flour, containing it in the greatest proportion, +answers the purpose better than any other. The saccharine mucilage is +equally necessary, as this is the substance on which yeast and leaven +act, in producing the internal commotion in the particles of dough +during fermentation.</p> + +<p>9. There are three general methods of making bread; 1st. by mixing +meal or flour with water, or with water and milk; 2d. by adding to the +foregoing materials a small quantity of sour dough, or leaven, to +serve as a fermenting agent; and, 3d. by using yeast, to produce the +same general effect.</p> + +<p>10. The theory of making light bread, is not difficult to be +understood. The leaven or yeast acts upon the saccharine mucilage of +the dough, and, by the aid of heat and moisture, disengages +carbonaceous matter, which, uniting with oxygen, forms carbonic acid +gas. This, being prevented from escaping by the gluten of the dough, +causes the mass to become light and spongy. During the process of +baking, the increased heat disengages more of the fixed air, which is +further prevented from escaping by the formation of the crust. The +superfluous moisture having been expelled, the substance becomes firm, +and retains that spongy hollowness which distinguishes good bread.</p> + +<p>11. Many other substances contain fermenting qualities, and are, +therefore, sometimes used as substitutes for yeast and leaven. The +waters of several mineral springs, both in Europe and America, being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +impregnated with carbonic acid gas, are occasionally employed in +making light bread.</p> + +<p>12. The three general methods of making bread, and the great number of +materials employed, admit of a great variety in this essential article +of food; so much so, that we cannot enter into details, as regards the +particular modes of manufacture adopted by different nations, or +people. There are, comparatively, but few people on the globe, among +whom this art is not practised in some way or other.</p> + +<p>13. It is impossible to ascertain, at what period of time the process +of baking bread became a particular profession. It is supposed, that +the first bakers in Rome came from Greece, about two hundred years +before the Christian era; and that these, together with some freemen +of the city, were incorporated into a college, or company, from which +neither they nor their children were permitted to withdraw. They held +their effects in common, without possessing any individual power of +parting with them.</p> + +<p>14. Each bake-house had a patron, or superintendent; and one of the +patrons had the management of the rest, and the care of the college. +So respectable was this class of men in Rome, that one of the body was +occasionally admitted, as a member of the senate; and all, on account +of their peculiar corporate association, and the public utility of +their employment, were exempted from the performance of the civil +duties to which other citizens were liable.</p> + +<p>15. In many of the large cities of Europe, the price and weight of +bread sold by bakers, are regulated by law. The weight of the loaves +of different sizes must be always the same; but the price may vary, +according to the current cost of the chief materials. The law was such +in the city of London, a few years ago, that if a loaf fell short in +weight a single ounce, the baker was liable to be put in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> pillory; +but now, he is subject only to a fine, varying from one to five +shillings, according to the will of the magistrate before whom he may +be indicted.</p> + +<p>16. In this country, laws of a character somewhat similar have been +enacted by the legislatures of several states, and by city +authorities, with a view to protect the community against impositions; +but whether there is a law or not, the bakers regulate the weight, +price, and quality of their loaves by the general principles of trade.</p> + +<p>17. There is, perhaps, no business more laborious than that of the +baker of loaf bread, who has a regular set of customers to be supplied +every morning. The twenty-four hours of the day are systematically +appropriated to the performance of certain labours, and to rest.</p> + +<p>18. After breakfast, the yeast is prepared, and the oven-wood +provided: at two or three o'clock, the <i>sponge is set</i>: the hours from +three to eight or nine o'clock, are appropriated to rest. The baking +commences at nine or ten o'clock at night; and, in large bakeries, +continues until five o'clock in the morning. From that time until the +breakfast hour, the hands are engaged in distributing the bread to +customers. For seven months in the year, and, in some cases, during +the whole of it, part of the hands are employed, from eleven to one +o'clock, in baking pies, puddings, and different kinds of meats, sent +to them from neighboring families.</p> + +<p>19. In large cities, the bakers usually confine their attention to +particular branches of the business. Some bake light loaf bread only; +others bake unleavened bread, such as crackers, sea-biscuit, and cakes +for people of the Jewish faith. Some, again, unite several branches +together; and this is especially the case in small cities and towns, +where the demand for different kinds of bread is more limited.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_CONFECTIONER" id="THE_CONFECTIONER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_043.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="CONFECTIONER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE CONFECTIONER.</h2> + + +<p>1. The Confectioner makes liquid and dry confects, jellies, +marmalades, pastes, conserves, sugar-plums, ice-creams, candies, and +cakes of various kinds.</p> + +<p>2. Many of the articles just enumerated, are prepared in families for +domestic use; but, as their preparation requires skill and practice, +and is likewise attended with some trouble, it is sometimes better to +purchase them of the confectioner.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Liquid</i> and dry <i>confects</i> are preserves made of various kinds of +fruits and berries, the principal of which are,—peaches, apricots, +pears, quinces, apples, plums, cherries, grapes, strawberries, +gooseberries, currants, and raspberries. The fruit, of whatever kind +it may be, is confected by boiling it in a thick clarified syrup of +sugar, until it is about half cooked.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> Dry confects are made by +boiling the fruit a little in syrup, and then drying it with a +moderate heat in an oven. The ancients confected with honey; but, at +present, sugar is deemed more suitable for this purpose, and is almost +exclusively employed.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Jellies</i> resemble a thin transparent glue, or size. They are made +by mixing the juice of the fruits mentioned in the preceding +paragraph, with a due proportion of sugar, and then boiling the +composition down to a proper consistence. Jellies are also made of the +flesh of animals; but such preparations cannot be long kept, as they +soon become corrupt.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Marmalades</i> are thin pastes, usually made of the pulp of fruits +that have some consistence, and about an equal weight of sugar. +<i>Pastes</i> are similar to marmalades, in their materials, and mode of +preparation. The difference consists only in their being reduced by +evaporation to a consistence, which renders them capable of retaining +a form, when put into moulds, and dried in an oven.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Conserves</i> are a species of dry confects, compounded of sugar and +flowers. The flowers usually employed, are,—roses, mallows, rosemary, +orange, violets, jessamine, pistachoes, citrons, and sloes. +Orange-peel is also used for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Candies</i> are made of clarified sugar, reduced by evaporation to a +suitable degree of consistence. They receive their name from the +essence, or substance, employed in giving them the required flavour.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Sugar-plums</i> are small fruits, seeds, little pieces of bark, or +odoriferous and aromatic roots, incrusted with hard sugar. These +trifles are variously denominated; but, in most cases, according to +the name of the substance inclosed by the incrustation.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Ice-cream</i> is an article of agreeable refreshment in hot weather. +It is sold in confectionary shops, as well as at the public gardens, +and other places of temporary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> resort in cities. It is composed, +chiefly, of milk or cream, fruit, and lemon-juice. It is prepared by +beating the materials well together, and rubbing them through a fine +hair sieve. The congelation is effected by placing the containing +vessel in one which is somewhat larger, and filling the surrounding +vacancy with a mixture of salt and fine ice.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Cakes</i> are made of a great variety of ingredients; the principal +of which are, flour, butter, eggs, sugar, water, milk, cream, yeast, +wine, brandy, raisins, currants, caraway, lemon, orange, almonds, +cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, and ginger. The different +combinations of these materials, produce so great a variety of cakes, +that it would be tedious to detail even their names.</p> + +<p>11. The confectioner, in addition to those articles which may be +considered peculiar to his business, deals in various kinds of fruits +and nuts, which grow in different climates. He also sells a variety of +pickles, which he usually procures from those who make it a business +to prepare them.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Soda-water</i> is likewise often sold by the confectioner. This +agreeable drink is merely water, impregnated with carbonic acid gas, +by means of a forcing-pump. The confectioners, however, in large +cities, seldom prepare it themselves, as they can procure it at less +expense, and with less trouble, ready made.</p> + +<p>13. Sometimes, the business of the pastry-cook is united with that of +the confectioner, especially with that branch of it which relates to +making cakes. Pies and tarts consist of paste, which, in baking, +becomes a crust, and some kind of fruit or meat, or both, with +suitable seasoning. The art of making pies and tarts is practised, +more or less, in every family: it is not, therefore, essential to be +particular in naming the materials employed, or the manner in which +they are combined.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_BREWER_AND_THE_DISTILLER" id="THE_BREWER_AND_THE_DISTILLER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_046.jpg" width="500" height="425" alt="DISTILLER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE BREWER, AND THE DISTILLER.</h2> + + +<h3>THE BREWER.</h3> + +<p>1. Brewing is the art of preparing a liquor, which has received the +general denomination of beer. This beverage can be brewed from any +kind of farinaceous grain; but, on various accounts, barley is usually +preferred. It is prepared for the brewer's use by converting it into +malt, which is effected by the following process.</p> + +<p>2. The grain is soaked in a cistern of water about two days, or until +it is completely saturated with that fluid. It is then taken out, and +spread upon a floor in a layer nearly two feet thick. When the inside +of this heap begins to grow warm, and the kernels to germinate, the +<ins title="Original reads 'malster'">maltster</ins> checks the rapid growth of the grain in that situation by +changing it to the outside.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> This operation is continued, until the +saccharine matter in the barley has been sufficiently evolved by the +natural process of germination.</p> + +<p>3. The grain is next transferred to the kiln, which is an iron or tile +floor, perforated with small holes, and moderately heated beneath with +a fire of coke or stone coal. Here, the grain is thoroughly dried, and +the principle of germination completely destroyed. The malt thus made +is prepared for being brewed, by crushing it in a common mill, or +between rollers. Malting, in Great Britain, and in some other parts of +Europe, is a business distinct from brewing; but, in the United +States, the brewers generally make their own malt.</p> + +<p>4. The first part of the process of brewing is called <i>mashing</i>. This +is performed in a large tub, or <i>tun</i>, having two bottoms. The upper +one, consisting of several moveable pieces, is perforated with a great +number of small holes; the other, though tight and immoveable at the +edges, has several large holes, furnished with ducts, which lead to a +cistern beneath.</p> + +<p>5. The malt, designed for one mashing, is spread in an even layer on +the upper bottom, and thoroughly saturated and incorporated with water +nearly boiling, by means of iron rakes, which are made to revolve and +move round in the tub by the aid of machinery. The water, together +with the soluble parts of the malt, at length passes off, through the +holes before mentioned, into the reservoir beneath.</p> + +<p>6. The malt requires to be mashed two or three times in succession +with fresh quantities of water; and the product of each mashing is +appropriated to making liquors of different degrees of strength.</p> + +<p>7. The product of the <i>mashing-tun</i> is called <i>wort</i>, which, being +transferred to a large copper kettle, is boiled for a considerable +time with a quantity of hops, and then drawn off into large shallow +cisterns,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> called <i>coolers</i>. When the mixture has become cool enough +to be submitted to fermentation, it is drawn off into the <i>working +tun</i>.</p> + +<p>8. The fermentation is effected with yeast, which, acting on the +saccharine matter, disengages carbonic acid gas. This part of the +process requires from eighteen to forty-eight hours, according to the +degree of heat which may be in the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>9. The beer is then drawn off into casks of different dimensions, in +which it undergoes a still further fermentation, sometimes called the +<i>brewer's cleansing</i>. During this fermentation, the froth, or yeast, +works out at the bung-hole, and is received in a trough, on the edges +of which the casks have been placed. The froth thus discharged from +the beer, is the yeast used by the brewers.</p> + +<p>10. The products of the brewery are denominated <i>beer</i>, <i>ale</i>, and +<i>porter</i>. The difference between these liquors arises, chiefly, from +the manner in which the malt has been prepared, the relative strength +imparted to each, and the extent to which the fermentation has been +carried.</p> + +<p>11. There are several kinds of beer; such as table beer, half and +half, and strong beer. They are adapted to use soon after being +brewed, and differ from each other but little, except in the degree of +their strength.</p> + +<p>12. Ale and porter are called stock liquors; because, not being +designed for immediate consumption, they are kept for a considerable +time, that they may improve in quality. Porter is usually prepared for +consumption by putting it into bottles. This is done either at the +brewery, or in bottling establishments. In the latter case, the liquor +is purchased in large quantities from the brewer by persons who make +it their business to supply retailers and private families.</p> + +<p>13. We have evidence that fermented liquor was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> in use three thousand +years ago. It was first used in Egypt, whence it passed into adjacent +countries, and afterward into Spain, France, and England. It was +sometimes called the wine of barley; and one kind of it was +denominated Pelusian drink, from the city Pelusium, where it was first +made.</p> + +<p>14. Among the nations of modern times, the English are the most +celebrated for brewing good liquors. London porter is especially in +great repute, not only in that city, but in distant countries. Much +fermented liquor of the different kinds, is consumed in the United +States, where it is also made in considerable perfection.</p> + + +<h3>THE DISTILLER.</h3> + +<p>1. Although alcohol can be extracted from any substance containing +saccharine matter, yet sugar-cane, grapes, apples, peaches, rye, corn, +and rice, on account of their abundance, and superior adaptation to +the purpose, are more commonly used than any other. As whiskey is the +chief article of this kind, manufactured in the United States, it will +be selected to illustrate the general principles of distillation.</p> + +<p>2. Corn and rye are the materials from which this liquor is mostly +extracted; and these are used either together or separately, at the +option of the distiller. The meal is scalded and mashed in a large +tub: it is then permitted to stand, until it has become a little +sweet, when more water is poured upon it, and, at a suitable +temperature, a quantity of yeast is added. To aid in producing rapid +fermentation, a little malt is sprinkled on the top.</p> + +<p>3. After an adequate fermentation has taken place, the <i>beer</i>, as it +is called, is transferred to a large close tub, from the top of which +leads a tube extending to the worm in another tub filled with cold +water. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> worm is a long pewter tube, twisted spirally, that it may +occupy a small space.</p> + +<p>4. The beer is heated in the close tub, by means of steam, which is +conveyed to it, from a large kettle or boiler, by a copper or iron +pipe. The heat causes the alcoholic particles to rise like vapour, and +pass into the worm, where they are condensed into a watery fluid, +which passes out into a receiver.</p> + +<p>5. At first, pure alcohol distils from the worm; but the produce +becomes gradually weaker, until, at length, the spirit in the beer +being exhausted, it consists only of water condensed from steam. The +remains of the beer are given as feed to hogs and cattle.</p> + +<p>6. Brandy is distilled from grapes, rum from sugar-cane, arrack from +rice, whiskey from various kinds of grain, peach-brandy from peaches, +and cider-brandy from apples.</p> + +<p>7. The great variety of articles employed in the productions of +different kinds of ardent spirits, must necessarily vary the process +of distillation in some particulars; but, in all cases, fermentation +and heat are necessary to disengage the alcoholic properties of the +saccharine matter, and also an apparatus for condensing the same from +a gaseous to a liquid form. In some countries, the <i>alembic</i> is used +as a condenser, instead of a worm. The form of this instrument is much +like that of the retort; and when applied, it is screwed upon the top +of the boiler.</p> + +<p>8. Spirits, which come to market in a crude state, are sometimes +distilled for the purpose of improving their quality, or for +disguising them with drugs and colouring substances, that they may +resemble superior liquors. The process by which they are thus changed, +or improved, is called rectification. Many distilleries in large +cities, are employed in this branch of business.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> + +<p>9. There is, perhaps, no kind of merchandise in which the public is +more deceived, than in the quality of ardent spirits and wines. To +illustrate this, it is only necessary to observe, that Holland gin is +made by distilling French brandy with juniper-berries; but most of the +spirits which are vended under that name, consist only of rum or +whiskey, flavoured with the oil of turpentine. Genuine French brandy +is distilled from grapes; but the article usually sold under that +denomination, is whiskey or rum coloured with treacle or scorched +sugar, and flavoured with the oil of wine, or some kind of drug.</p> + +<p>10. The ancient Greeks and Romans were acquainted with an instrument +for distillation, which they denominated <i>ambix</i>. This was adopted, a +long time afterward, by the Arabian alchemists, for making their +chemical experiments; but they made some improvements in its +construction, and changed its name to <i>alembic</i>.</p> + +<p>11. The ancients, however, knew nothing of alcohol. The method of +extracting this intoxicating substance, was probably discovered some +time in the twelfth or thirteenth century; but, for many ages after +the discovery, it was used only as a medicine, and was kept for sale +exclusively in apothecary shops. It is now used as a common article of +stimulation, in almost every quarter of the globe.</p> + +<p>12. But the opinion is becoming general, among all civilized people, +that the use of alcohol, for this purpose, is destructive of health, +and the primary cause of most of the crimes and pauperism in all +places, where its consumption is common. The formation of Temperance +Societies, and the publication of their reports, together with the +extensive circulation of periodical papers, devoted to the cause of +temperance, have already diminished, to a very great extent, the use +of spirituous liquors.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> + +<p>13. Although the ancients knew nothing of distilling alcohol, yet they +were well versed in the art of making wine. We read of the vineyard, +as far back as the time of Noah, the second father of nations; and, +from that period to the present, the grape has been the object of +careful cultivation, in all civilized nations, where the climate and +soil were adapted to the purpose.</p> + +<p>14. The general process of making wine from grapes, is as follows. The +grapes, when gathered, are crushed by treading them with the feet, and +rubbing them in the hands, or by some other means, with the view to +press out the juice. The whole is then suffered to stand in the vat, +until it has passed through what is termed the <i>vinous</i> fermentation, +when the juice, which, in this state, is termed <i>must</i>, is drawn off +into open vessels, where it remains until the pressing of the husks is +finished.</p> + +<p>15. The husks are submitted, in hair bags, to the press; and the +<i>must</i> which is the result of this operation, is mixed with that drawn +from the vat. The whole is then put into casks, where it undergoes +another fermentation, called the <i>spirituous</i>, which occupies from six +to twelve days. The casks are then bunged up, and suffered to stand a +few weeks, when the wine is racked off from the <i>lees</i>, and again +returned to the same casks, after they have been perfectly cleansed. +Two such rackings generally render the wine clear and brilliant.</p> + +<p>16. In many cases, sugar, brandy, and flavouring substances, are +necessary, to render the wine <ins title="Original reads 'palateable'">palatable</ins>; but the best kinds of grapes +seldom require any of these additions. Wine-merchants often adulterate +their wines in various ways, and afterwards sell them for those which +are genuine. To correct acidity, and some other unpleasant qualities, +lead, copper, antimony, and corrosive sublimate, are often used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> by +the dealers in wine; though the practice is attended with deleterious +effects to the health of the consumers.</p> + +<p>17. The wines most usually met with in this country, are known by the +following denominations, viz., <i>Madeira</i> and <i>Teneriffe</i>, from islands +of the same names; <i>Port</i>, from Portugal; <i>Sherry</i> and <i>Malaga</i>, from +Spain; <i>Champagne</i>, <i>Burgundy</i>, and <i>Claret</i>, from France; and <i>Hock</i>, +from Germany.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_BUTCHER" id="THE_BUTCHER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_054.jpg" width="500" height="422" alt="BUTCHER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE BUTCHER.</h2> + + +<p>1. Man is designed by nature, to subsist on vegetable and animal food. +This is obvious, from the structure of his organs of mastication and +digestion. It does not follow, however, that animal food is, in all +cases, positively required. In some countries, the mass of the people +subsist chiefly or entirely on vegetables. This is especially the case +in the East Indies, where rice and fruits are the chief articles of +food.</p> + +<p>2. On the other hand, the people who live in the higher latitudes +subsist principally on the flesh of animals. This is preferred, not +only because it is better suited to brace the system against the +rigours of the climate, but because it is most easily provided.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> In +temperate climates, a due proportion of both animal and vegetable +substances is consumed.</p> + +<p>3. Although the skins of beasts were used for the purpose of clothing, +soon after the fall of man, we have no intimation from the Scriptures, +that their flesh, or that of any other animal, was used, until after +the flood. The Divine permission was then given to Noah and his +posterity, to use, for this purpose, "every moving thing that liveth." +But in the law of Moses, delivered several centuries after this +period, many exceptions are to be found, which were intended to apply +only to the Jewish people. These restrictions were removed, on the +introduction of Christianity. The unbelieving Jews, however, still +adhere to their ancient law.</p> + +<p>4. The doctrine of transmigration has had a great influence in +diminishing the consumption of animal food. This absurd notion arose +somewhere in Central Asia, and, at a very early period, it spread into +Egypt, Greece, Italy, and finally among the remote countries of the +ancient world. It is still entertained by the heathen nations of +Eastern Asia, by the tribes in the vicinity of Mount Caucasus, and by +some of the American savages, and African negroes.</p> + +<p>5. The leading feature of this doctrine is, that the souls of departed +men reappear on earth in the bodies of animals, both as a punishment +for crimes committed during life, and as a means of purification from +sin. This dogma was adopted by the Pythagoreans, a sect of Grecian +philosophers; and, as a natural consequence, it led them, as it has +ever done the votaries of this opinion, to the veneration of animals, +and to abstinence from their flesh, lest they might devour that of +some of their deceased friends or relatives.</p> + +<p>6. People who dwell thinly scattered in the country, rear and +slaughter the animals for the supply of their own tables; but, in +villages, large towns, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> cities, the inhabitants depend chiefly on +the butcher for their meat. The animals commonly slaughtered are, +sheep, cattle, and hogs.</p> + +<p>7. The butchers obtain their animals from the farmers, or from +drovers, who make it a business to purchase them in the country, and +drive them to market. The farmers near large cities, who have good +grazing farms, are accustomed to buy lean cattle, brought from a +distance, with a view to fatten them for sale. There are also persons +in the cities, who might, with propriety, be called cattle brokers; +since they supply the butchers of small capital with a single animal +at a time, on a credit of a few days.</p> + +<p>8. Every butcher who carries on the business, has a house in which he +kills his animals, and prepares them for sale. When it is intended to +slaughter an ox, a rope is thrown about his horns or neck, with which +he is forced into the <i>slaughter-house</i>, and brought to the floor by +the aid of a ring. The butcher then knocks him on the head, cuts his +throat, deprives him of his hide, takes out his entrails, washes the +inside of his body with water, and cuts him up into quarters. The beef +is now ready to be conveyed to the market-house. The process of +dressing other quadrupeds varies but little from this in its general +details. The cellular substance of mutton, lamb and veal, is often +inflated with air, that the meat may appear fat and plump.</p> + +<p>9. In large cities and towns, the meat is chiefly sold in the +market-house, where each butcher has a stall rented from the +corporation. It is carried there in a cart, and cut into suitable +pieces with a saw, knife, and a broad iron cleaver.</p> + +<p>10. In some of the large cities, it is a practice among the butchers, +to employ <i>runners</i> to carry the meat to the houses, of those +customers who may desire this accommodation. In villages, where there +is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> no market-house, the butcher carries his meats from door to door +in some kind of vehicle.</p> + +<p>11. Those who follow this occupation usually enjoy good health, and, +as they advance in years, in most cases, become corpulent. Their good +health arises from exercise in the open air; and their corpulency, +from subsisting principally on fresh meats. It is thought, however, +that their longevity is not so great as that of men in many other +employments.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_TOBACCO_PLANTER_AND_THE_TOBACCONIST" id="THE_TOBACCO_PLANTER_AND_THE_TOBACCONIST"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_058.jpg" width="500" height="423" alt="TOBACCONIST." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE TOBACCO PLANTER, <span class="smcap">AND</span> THE TOBACCONIST</h2> + + +<h3>THE TOBACCO PLANTER.</h3> + +<p>1. Tobacco is a native production of America, which was in common use +among nearly all of the Indian tribes, when this continent was +discovered by Europeans. Its original name among the nations of the +islands, was <i>yoli</i>; whilst, with those of the continent, it was +termed <i>petum</i>. The Spaniards, however, chose to call it <i>tobacco</i>, a +term in the Haytian language, which designated the instrument in which +the herb was smoked.</p> + +<p>2. This plant was first introduced into Spain, then into Portugal and +France, and, at length, into other countries of the Eastern continent. +Sir Walter Raleigh carried it from Virginia to England, and taught his +countrymen the various methods of consuming it among the natives.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. The introduction of this nauseous plant into Europe, was everywhere +attended with ridicule and opposition. Hundreds of pamphlets were +published, in various languages, dissuading from its use in the +strongest terms. Even James the First, king of Great Britain, did not +regard it as inconsistent with the royal dignity to take up his pen on +the subject. In his "<i>Counterblast to Tobacco</i>," published in 1603, +occurs the following remarkable passage: "It is a custom loathsome to +the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain; and, in the black +fume thereof, nearest resembling the horrible Stygian smoke of the pit +that is bottomless."</p> + +<p>4. Pope Urban VIII. excommunicated those who took tobacco in churches; +and Queen Elizabeth also prohibited its use in houses of public +worship. In 1689, an ordinance was published in Transylvania, +threatening those who should plant tobacco with the confiscation of +their estates. The grand-duke of Moscow, and the king of Persia, +prohibited its use under the penalty of the loss of the nose, and even +of life. At present, however, the consumption of tobacco is looked +upon with so much greater indulgence, that all the sovereigns of +Europe, and most of those of other nations, derive a considerable +revenue from the trade in this article.</p> + +<p>5. But it is truly astonishing, that a nauseous weed, of an acrid +taste, disagreeable odour, and deleterious qualities, should have had +so great an influence on the social condition of nations; that its +culture should have spread more rapidly than that of the most useful +plants; and that it should, consequently, have become an article of +extensive commerce.</p> + +<p>6. Of this plant there are several species, which differ from each +other, in size, strength, and flavour. Some one or more of these +varieties, are cultivated in various parts of the world: but +especially in North<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> and South America, and in the West Indies. It is +one of the staple productions of Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and +Ohio. The whole value of the tobacco, exported annually from the +United States, amounts to about five millions of dollars.</p> + +<p>7. The following description of the mode of cultivating this plant, +and preparing it for the tobacconist, is applicable to the state of +Maryland. A little variation in some of the details, would render it +applicable to other parts of the world.</p> + +<p>8. A small piece of ground, say one-sixteenth of an acre, is prepared +by burning a large quantity of brush upon it. The surface is rendered +light and even, by means of a hoe and rake; and the seeds, mixed with +ashes, are sown as equally as possible. After they have been covered +with earth, the ground is trodden down with the bare feet. The tobacco +beds are made in March, and the plants become fit for the field in +eight or ten weeks.</p> + +<p>9. The field, in which the cultivation of the crop is to be continued, +is ploughed two or three times, and then cross-ploughed into equal +checks, in each of which is made a hill. Immediately after a rain, the +plants are transferred to these hills, in the same manner in which +cabbages are transplanted. While the tobacco is growing, the ground is +ploughed several times, in order to keep it light, and to aid in +destroying the weeds. When the plants are nearly grown, the tops are +lopped or cut off, to prevent them from running to seed, and to cause +the leaves to grow larger and thicker.</p> + +<p>10. In July or August, the tobacco-worms begin to make their +appearance, and to threaten the whole crop with destruction. To arrest +the ravages of these insidious enemies, all hands, both great and +small, together with all the turkeys that can be mustered, are brought +into the field. These worms are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> produced from the eggs of a large +insect, called the horn-bug.</p> + +<p>11. The tobacco, when ripe, is cut near the ground, and hung on small +sticks about five feet in length, generally by pegs driven into the +stalks. These sticks are then laid upon poles, arranged at proper +distances from each other in the tobacco-house, shed, or hovel, as the +case may be. It is then suffered to dry gradually in the atmosphere; +or a large fire is made in the tobacco-house, to effect the drying +more rapidly.</p> + +<p>12. The leaves are next stripped from the stalks, and tied in small +bunches according to their quality. This can only be done when <i>in +order</i>, or rather, when the leaves are rendered tough by the +absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. These bunches, when the +leaves are so damp that they will not break, and so dry that they will +not heat, are packed in hogs-heads by the aid of a large lever press. +The tobacco is inspected in public warehouses, by men who have been +appointed for the purpose by the public authorities.</p> + + +<h3>THE TOBACCONIST.</h3> + +<p>1. It is the business of the tobacconist to convert the leaves of the +tobacco plant into snuff, cigars, and smoking and chewing tobacco.</p> + +<p>2. Although there may seem to be a great variety of snuffs, yet they +may be all reduced to three kinds, viz., Scotch, rappee, and maccouba. +These are variously modified by the quality of the tobacco, by some +little variation in the manufacture, and by the articles employed in +communicating the desired flavour.</p> + +<p>3. In manufacturing snuff, the tobacco is ground in a mill of a +peculiar construction. Before the weed is submitted to this operation, +it is reduced to a certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> degree of fineness, by means of a cutting +machine; and then spread in a heap, one or two feet thick, and +sprinkled with water, that it may <i>heat</i> and <i>sweat</i>. The time +required in this preparation depends upon the state of the weather, +and the kind of snuff for which the tobacco is designed.</p> + +<p>4. Scotch snuff is made of the strongest sort of tobacco, and is put +up in bladders and bottles without being scented. Rappee and maccouba +are put up in jars and bottles; and the former is generally scented +with bergamot, and the latter with the ottar of roses. Sometimes, +several ingredients, agreeable to the olfactory nerves, are employed.</p> + +<p>5. Cigars are composed of two parts, called the <i>wrapper</i> and the +<i>filling</i>. The former is made of pieces of thin leaves, cut to a +proper shape, and the latter of those which are more broken. In all +cases, the leaves used in the manufacture of cigars are deprived of +the stems, which are reserved, either to be converted into inferior +kinds of snuff, or for exportation to Holland, where they are usually +flattened between rollers, and afterwards cut fine for smoking +tobacco, to be sold to the poorer class of people.</p> + +<p>6. The value of cigars depends chiefly on the quality of the tobacco. +The best kind for this purpose, grows on the island of Cuba, near +Havana. Tobacco from this seed is raised in many other places; and +such, among tobacconists, is called <i>seed</i>; but it passes, among +smokers of limited experience, for the real Havana. A very fine silky +tobacco of this sort, is cultivated in Connecticut, which is much +esteemed.</p> + +<p>7. An expert hand will make five or six hundred Spanish cigars in a +day, or from one thousand to fifteen hundred of those composed of +Maryland or Kentucky tobacco. Making cigars, being light work, is well +adapted to females, of whom great numbers are regularly employed in +this branch of business. Tobacco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> intended for the pipe, is cut in a +machine; and, after having been properly dried, it is put up in papers +of different sizes.</p> + +<p>8. Chewing tobacco is almost exclusively prepared from the species of +this plant which is cultivated in Virginia, chiefly in the vicinity of +James river. It is better adapted to this purpose than any other, on +account of its superior strength, and the great amount of resinous +matter which it contains.</p> + +<p>9. The first operation in preparing chewing tobacco, is that of +depriving the leaves of the stems. The former are then twisted by hand +into plugs of different sizes, or spun into a continued thread by the +aid of the <i>tobacco-wheel</i>, which is a simple machine moved by a +crank. The thread thus produced is formed into bunches, or twists, +containing a definite amount of tobacco.</p> + +<p>10. The tobacco, having been put into the form desired, is moistened +with water, packed in strong kegs, and then pressed with powerful +screw-presses. The whole process is completed by heating the kegs, +with their contents, for several days, in an oven or a tight room made +for the purpose. The same change in the quality of the tobacco is also +produced by suffering it to stand nine or twelve months, before it is +disposed of to the consumers.</p> + +<p>11. Snuff is very commonly used in the Southern states, as a +dentifrice; or, at least, it is applied to the teeth with this +ostensible object. The application is made by means of a small stick, +having the fibres minutely divided at one end. Although the tobacco +seems to have the desired effect upon the teeth, so far as respects +their appearance, yet its stimulating and narcotic powers are more to +be dreaded in this mode of using it than in any other. Many females +ruin their complexion and constitution, by <i>rubbing snuff</i>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> and the +deleterious effects of the practice are so well known, that few are +willing to avow it.</p> + +<p>12. Tobacco is used, in some one of its various forms, by a great +majority of mankind; and, although it is generally acknowledged to be, +in most cases, injurious to the constitution, and often destructive of +health, yet its consumption seems to be on the increase. It is one of +the objects of trade, even in the most obscure parts of the world; and +its devotees must and will have a supply, even though they stint +themselves in food and clothing.</p> + +<p>13. As regards the influence which this plant assumes over its +votaries, it may be classed with alcohol and opium; although its +effects are not so destructive; nor is the expense so considerable; +yet this is an item by no means unworthy of attention, as the +aggregate sum annually expended for this useless narcotic in the +United States, would be sufficient for the support of common schools +in every part of the country.</p> + +<p>14. The general use of tobacco is perpetuated from generation to +generation, by the desire, common to children and young people, to act +and appear like older persons. Few ever begin the use of this nauseous +weed, because it is agreeable to the senses to which it is applied; +but because they fancy, in their childish simplicity, that it confers +upon them some additional importance.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_MANUFACTURER_OF_CLOTH" id="THE_MANUFACTURER_OF_CLOTH"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="500" height="414" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH.</h2> + + +<p>1. Men, in the primitive ages, were clad with the skins of animals, +until they had acquired sufficient skill to employ a better material. +It cannot be determined from history, at what time cloth began to be +manufactured from animal or vegetable fibre; but it is evident, that +it was done at a very early period, even long before the flood.</p> + +<p>2. The fibres of the vegetable kind, most commonly applied to this +purpose, are the bark of several kinds of trees, together with hemp, +flax, and cotton; and those of the animal kingdom are, silk, the wool +of the sheep and lama, and the hair, or wool, of the goat and camel.</p> + +<p>3. That the general process of manufacturing cloth may be perfectly +understood, the manner of performing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> several operations must be +separately described. For the purpose of illustration, cotton, wool, +and flax, will be selected; because these are the materials of which +our clothing is principally fabricated. The operations of making +cloth, may be comprised under <i>carding</i> and <i>combing</i>, <i>spinning</i>, +<i>weaving</i>, and <i>dressing</i>.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Carding and Combing.</i>—Wool and cotton are carded, with the view +of disentangling the fibres, and arranging them longitudinally in +small rolls. This is done by means of the teeth of two instruments, +called cards, used by hand on the knee, or by the carding machine, +which acts on the same principle, although far more expeditiously.</p> + +<p>5. Machines for carding wool are to be found in every district of +country in the United States, in which the people manufacture much of +their woollen cloths in their own families. On account of the +roughness of the fibres of wool, it is necessary to cover them well +with grease or oil, that they may move freely on each other during the +carding and spinning.</p> + +<p>6. Long, coarse, or hard wools, used in the manufacture of camlets, +bombazines, circassians, and other worsted fabrics, are not carded, +but combed. In England, and in other countries where much of this kind +of wool is used, wool-combing forms a distinct trade. The operation +consists, chiefly, in drawing the locks through steel combs, the teeth +of which are similar to our common flax-hatchel. The comb is heated to +a certain temperature, to cause the fibres to straighten, and to +remove from them the roughness which might otherwise cause the cloth +made of them to thicken in washing, like flannel.</p> + +<p>7. The old method of combing wool, however, has been in part +superseded by the application of machines, the first of which was +invented by Edmund Cartwright, of England, about the year 1790. The +fibres of flax are arranged in a parallel direction,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> and freed from +tow, by drawing them through a hatchel.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Spinning.</i>—The process of spinning consists in twisting the +fibres into threads. The most simple method by which this is effected, +is that by the common spinning-wheel. Of this well-known machine there +are two kinds; one of which is applied to spinning wool, cotton, and +tow, and the other, to spinning flax.</p> + +<p>9. This operation is, in most cases, performed by females in the +following manner. The roll of cotton or wool is attached to the +spindle, which is put in rapid motion by a band passing over it from +the rim, or periphery of the wheel. While the spinster is turning the +wheel with the right hand, she brings back from the spindle her left, +with which she has laid hold of the roll a few inches from the upper +end. When the yarn thus produced has been sufficiently twisted, she +turns it upon the spindle, and repeats the same operation, until it is +full. This yarn is formed into skeins by winding it upon a reel.</p> + +<p>10. The mode of spinning tow is a little different. The material +having been formed into <i>bats</i> by hand-cards, the fibres are drawn out +from between the fingers and thumb by the twisted thread, while the +spinster gradually moves backward. Worsted is spun from combed wool +nearly in the same manner.</p> + +<p>11. The <i>flax</i> or <i>little wheel</i> is moved by the foot, so that both +hands of the spinster are used in supplying, disposing, and +occasionally wetting the fibres, as they are drawn from the distaff. +Two bands pass from the periphery of the wheel, each of which performs +a distinct office: the one keeps in motion the spindle, which twists +the thread; the other moves the fliers, which wind the thread upon a +spool, as fast as it is produced.</p> + +<p>12. Spinning was almost exclusively performed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> the modes just +described, until the year 1767, when Richard Heargreaves, of England, +invented a machine for spinning cotton, which he called a <i>jenny</i>. +This consisted, at first, of eight spindles, moved by a common wheel, +or cylinder, which was turned by hand. The number of spindles was +afterwards increased to eighty-four.</p> + +<p>13. In 1769, Richard Arkwright, also an Englishman, invented the +<i>water-spinning-frame</i>. The essential and most important feature of +this invention, consists in drawing out the cotton, by causing it to +pass between successive pairs of rollers, which revolve with different +velocities, and which act as substitutes for the thumb and fingers, as +applied in common spinning. These rollers are combined with the +spindle and fliers of the common flax-wheel.</p> + +<p>14. Another machine was invented by Samuel Crompton, in 1779. It is +called a <i>mule</i>, because it combines the principles of the two +preceding machines. It produces finer yarn than either of them, and +has nearly superseded the jenny. Before the cotton is submitted to the +spinning machine, it is prepared by several others, by which it is +carded, extended, and partially twisted.</p> + +<p>15. In the manufactories, the fine, short wools, used in the +fabrication of broadcloths, flannels, and a variety of other cloths, +are carded by machinery, and spun on a <i>slubbing</i> or <i>roving-machine</i>, +or on a <i>jenny</i> or <i>mule</i>, in each of which the spindles are mounted +on a carriage, which is moved backwards in stretching and twisting the +material, and forwards in winding the thread upon the spindle.</p> + +<p>16. Worsted still continues to be spun, in most cases, on the common +spinning-wheel, as it can be done more perfectly in this way, than by +any other machine which has hitherto been invented. Several machines +have been constructed, which spin coarse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> threads of flax very well, +and with great rapidity; but the materials for fine linen fabrics are +still spun on the ancient flax-wheel.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Weaving.</i>—The first step preparatory to weaving, is to form a +warp, consisting of a number of threads, which extend through the +whole piece. To produce this parallel arrangement, the yarn is wound +upon spools, which are afterwards placed in a frame perpendicularly by +means of rods, on which they move as upon an axle. From these spools, +the yarns are stretched upon pegs to the length of the proposed web, +and are carried round or doubled a sufficient number of times to make +it the proper width. The same object is more expeditiously effected, +by winding the yarn spirally on a revolving frame.</p> + +<p>18. The next step consists in winding the warp on a cylindrical beam, +which is usually about ten inches in diameter. The threads, having +been put through a harness, composed of moveable parts, called +<i>heddles</i>, and also through a sley, or reed, are fastened on the other +side to a large rod, from which three ropes extend to another +cylinder, on which the cloth is wound, as fast as it is woven.</p> + +<p>19. The heddles are suspended from cross-pieces, on the top of the +loom, by means of cords and pulleys, and, during the operation of +weaving, are moved up and down alternately by the aid of <i>treadles</i>. +This reciprocal motion causes the web to open; and, while in this +position, a shuttle, containing the <i>woof</i>, <i>weft</i>, or <i>filling</i> on a +quill or bobbin, is passed through from right to left, or from left to +right, as often as the position of the warp is changed. The threads of +the filling are beaten up by the reed, or sley, which is placed in the +<i>lay</i>.</p> + +<p>20. Weaving is a business extensive in its application, being divided +into almost as many branches as there are woven fabrics. Plain cotton, +linen, woollen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> and twilled cloths, silks, satins, carpets, &c., are +all woven in looms of some kind, constructed on the same general +principles. Power-looms, driven by water or steam, are now generally +introduced into the cotton and woollen manufactories, both in Europe +and in this country. One person can attend to two of these looms at +the same time, and each one will weave between twenty and forty yards +in a day.</p> + +<p>21. <i>Dressing.</i>—Cotton fabrics, when the webs are taken from the +loom, are covered with an irregular nap, or down, formed by the +protruding ends of the fibres. From the finest cottons, this is +removed, by drawing them rapidly over an iron cylinder, kept red-hot +by a fire within. The flame of coal-gas has recently been applied, to +effect the same object.</p> + +<p>22. Common domestic fabrics are taken from the loom, and, without +further preparation, are folded up into pieces for sale. Finer +articles are usually whitened and calendered, before they pass from +the hand of the manufacturer. Stuffs of all kinds, made of vegetable +fibres, are now whitened by immersing them in a solution of oxymuriate +of lime. Cotton and linen goods, with a view of making them smooth and +glossy, are calendered, or pressed, between steel rollers.</p> + +<p>23. Many of the fine cottons are converted into calicoes, by +transferring to them various colors. The process by which this is +done, is called calico-printing, which will be described in a separate +article.</p> + +<p>24. The texture of the fabrics made of worsted, or long wool, is +completed, when issued from the loom. The pieces are subsequently +dyed, and then pressed between heated metallic plates, to communicate +to them the required gloss. But weaving does not always complete the +texture of the stuffs made of the short wools. When taken from the +loom, the web is too loose and open, to answer the purposes to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> which +such cloths are usually applied. It is, therefore, submitted to +another process, called <i>fulling</i>.</p> + +<p>25. <i>Fulling</i>, in common with almost every other operation pertaining +to the manufacture of cloth, constitutes a separate trade. The art is +only applied to stuffs composed of wool, or hair, as these only +possess the properties which render it applicable. The practicability +of fulling cloth depends on a certain roughness of the fibres, which +admits of motion in one way, and retards it in another. This may be +more fully understood by consulting the article on making hats.</p> + +<p>26. The cloth, having been prepared by a proper cleansing, is +deposited in a strong box, with a quantity of water and fuller's earth +or soap, and submitted to the action of the <i>pestles</i>, or <i>stampers</i>, +which are moved in a horizontal direction, backwards and forwards, by +means of appropriate machinery. This operation reduces the dimensions +of the cloth, and greatly improves the beauty and stability of the +texture. The cloth is afterwards dried in the open air on frames +prepared for the purpose.</p> + +<p>27. After the cloth has been dyed, a nap is raised on one side of it +by means of the common teazle. The nap is next cut off to an even +surface. This was formerly done with a huge pair of shears; but, +within a few years, it has most commonly been effected by a machine, +the essential part of which is a spiral blade, that revolves in +contact with another blade, while the cloth is stretched over a bed, +or support, just near enough for the projecting filaments to be cut +off at a uniform length, without injuring the main texture. Pressing +and folding the cloth complete the whole process.</p> + +<p>28. A great proportion of the woollen fabrics worn in the United +States, are manufactured in families, part of which is sent to the +clothiers to be dressed. Much cotton yarn, spun at the manufactories, +is purchased<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> for domestic use. Formerly, the raw material was +procured, and spun into yarn on the <i>big wheel</i>. Coarse linens are +also extensively manufactured in families, especially among the German +population.</p> + +<p>29. The manufacture of cloth from wool was introduced into Britain by +the Romans, some time in the Augustan age. At Winchester, they +conducted the business on a scale sufficiently large to supply their +army. After the Romans withdrew from the island, in the fifth century, +the art was comparatively neglected, and gradually declined, until the +reign of Edward III. This monarch invited into his dominions workmen +from Flanders, in which country the manufacture had, for a long time, +been in a flourishing condition.</p> + +<p>30. Shortly after the first immigration of the Flemish manufacturers +into England, an act was passed prohibiting the wearing of cloths made +in any other country; and, in the time of Elizabeth, the manufacture +had become so extensive, that the exportation of the raw material was +forbidden by law.</p> + +<p>31. It is supposed that there are now, in Great Britain, thirty +millions of sheep; whose annual produce of wool is worth, on an +average, about seven millions of pounds sterling; to this may be added +five millions of pounds weight from foreign countries. This amount is +increased in value, by manufacturing skill, to twenty or thirty +millions of pounds. Not less than three millions of persons are +supposed to be employed in this branch of British industry.</p> + +<p>32. Both the woollen and cotton manufactures have arisen to great +importance, of late years, in the United States; and, from the +mechanical skill of our countrymen, the abundance of the raw material, +and the vast amount of water-power, there is every reason<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> to +anticipate a rapid and continual increase in these divisions of +American enterprise.</p> + + +<h3>THE SILK-WORM.</h3> + +<p>1. Silk is the production of a worm, of the caterpillar species, +which, in due course, passes through several transformations, and at +length becomes a butterfly, like others of the genus. It is produced +from an egg, and when about to die, or rather again to change its +form, spins for itself an envelope, called <i>a cocoon</i>. The worm then +changes to a chrysalis, and, after remaining in this state from 5 to 8 +days, the butterfly, or moth, comes out, forcing its way through the +cocoon. The moths, or butterflies, eat nothing, and die as soon as +they have provided for the propagation of their species. Enough of +these are suffered to come to maturity, to provide a sufficient stock +of eggs. The rest are killed, in a few days after they have spun their +task, either by heating them in an oven, or by exposing them to the +rays of the sun.</p> + +<p>2. The fibres are wound upon a reel. To render this practicable, the +cocoons are put into water heated to a suitable temperature, which +dissolves the gummy substance that holds the fibres together. A number +of threads being detached, and passed through a hole in an iron bar, +form, by the aid of the remaining glutinous matter, one thread, which +is wound upon a reel into skeins.</p> + +<p>3. The raw silk, thus produced and prepared, is sold to the +manufacturers, who twist and double the fibres variously, and finally +form them into threads for sewing; or weave them into a great variety +of fabrics, which are too well known to need particular description +here.</p> + +<p>4. According to the ancients, the silk-worm was originally a native of +China, and the neighboring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> parts of Asia, and had there been +domesticated for a long time, before it was known in Europe. For many +years after silk was sold among the nations of the West, even the +merchants were ignorant of both the manner and place of its +production.</p> + +<p>5. The Greeks became acquainted with silk, soon after the time of +Alexander the Great; and the Romans knew little of the article, until +the reign of Augustus. Dresses, composed entirely of this material, +were seldom worn; but the fabrics which had been closely woven in the +East, were unravelled, and the threads were recomposed in a looser +texture, intermixed with linen or woollen yarn.</p> + +<p>6. The prodigal Hehogabalus is said to have been the first individual, +in the Roman empire, who wore a robe of pure silk. It is also stated, +that the Emperor Aurelian refused his wife a garment of this +description, on account of its exorbitant price. At that time, as well +as at previous periods, it usually sold for its weight in gold.</p> + +<p>7. A kind of gauze, originally made by the women on the island of Cos, +was very celebrated. It was dyed purple, with the substance usually +employed in communicating that colour in those days; but this was done +before it was woven, as in that state it was too frail to admit of the +process. Habits, made of this kind of stuff, were denominated "dresses +of glass:" because the body could be seen through them.</p> + +<p>8. The Roman empire had been supplied with silk through the medium of +the Persians, until the time of Justinian, in the year 555. This +emperor, having become indignant at the rapacity of the +silk-merchants, determined, if possible, to supply his people from the +insect itself.</p> + +<p>9. After many unsuccessful attempts, he at length obtained a small +quantity of the eggs from India, by the assistance of two Persian +monks, who had contrived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> to conceal them in the hollow of their +canes. The seeds of the mulberry-tree, on the leaves of which the worm +feeds, were also procured at the same time, together with instructions +necessary for the management of the worms.</p> + +<p>10. For six hundred years after the period just mentioned, the rearing +of these worms, in Europe, was confined to the Greek empire; but, in +the twelfth century, Roger, king of Sicily, introduced it into that +island, whence it gradually spread into Italy, Spain, France, and +other European countries.</p> + +<p>11. The silk-worm was introduced into England by James the First; but +it has never succeeded well in that country, on account of the +dampness and coldness of the climate. The manufacture of fabrics from +silk, however, is there very extensive, the raw material being +obtained, chiefly, from Bengal and Italy. In the latter of these +countries, in France, and other parts of Europe, as well as in Asia, +the manufacture is also extensive.</p> + +<p>12. Some attention has been paid to the rearing of silk-worms in the +United States, and attempts have been made to introduce the +manufacture of silks. The mulberry has been planted in various parts +of the Union; and it is highly probable, that, in a few years, we +shall be able to obtain excellent silks, without sending for them to +foreign countries.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_DYER_AND_THE_CALICO-PRINTER" id="THE_DYER_AND_THE_CALICO-PRINTER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_076.jpg" width="500" height="423" alt="DYER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE DYER, AND THE CALICO-PRINTER.</h2> + + +<h3>THE DYER.</h3> + +<p>1. The art of dyeing consists in impregnating flexible fibres with any +color which may be desired, in such a manner, that it will remain +permanent, under the common exposures to which it may be liable.</p> + +<p>2. The union of the coloring matter with the fibres receiving the dye, +is purely chemical, and not mechanical, as in the case of the +application of paints. Wool has the greatest attraction for coloring +substances; silk comes next to it; then cotton; and, lastly, hemp and +flax. These materials, also, absorb dye-stuffs in different +proportions.</p> + +<p>3. Previous to the application of the dye, the greasy substance which +covers the fibres of wool, and the gluey matter on those of silk, are +removed by some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> kind of alkali. Their natural color is, also, +discharged by the fumes of sulphur. The resinous matter and natural +color of cotton and linen, are removed by bleaching.</p> + +<p>4. The materials used in dyeing are divided into two +classes—<i>substantive</i> and <i>adjective</i>. The former communicates +durable tints without the aid of any other substance previously +applied; the latter requires the intervention of some agent which +possesses an attraction for both the coloring matter and the stuff to +be dyed, in order to make the color permanent. The substances used for +this purpose are usually termed <i>mordants</i>.</p> + +<p>5. Agents capable of acting in some way as mordants, are very +numerous; but <i>alumina</i>, <i>alum</i>, the <i>sulphate</i> or <i>acetate of iron</i>, +the <i>muriate of tin</i>, and <i>nut-galls</i>, are principally employed. The +mordant not only fixes the color, but, in many cases, alters and +improves the tints. It is always dissolved in water, in which the +stuffs are immersed, previous to the application of the dye. Dyeing +substances are also very numerous; but a few of the most important +have, in practice, taken precedence of the others.</p> + +<p>6. Blue, red, yellow, and black, are the chief colors, for which +appropriate coloring substances are applied; but, by a judicious +combination of these same materials, and by a proper application of +mordants, intermediate hues of every shade are produced; thus, a green +is communicated by forming a blue ground of indigo, and then adding a +yellow by means of quercitron bark.</p> + +<p>7. The <i>blue dye</i> is made of indigo; the <i>red dye</i>, of madder, +cochineal, archil, Brazil-wood, or safflowers; the <i>yellow dye</i>, of +quercitron bark, turmeric, hickory, weld, fustic, or saffron; the +<i>black dye</i>, of the oxide of iron combined with logwood, or the bark +of the common red, or soft maple, and the sulphate or acetate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> of +iron. The dyes made of some of these substances require the aid of +mordants, and those from others do not.</p> + +<p>8. In communicating the intermediate hues, the different dye-stuffs +forming the leading colors, are sometimes mixed; and, at other times, +they are made into separate dyes, and applied in succession.</p> + +<p>9. In this country, the business of the dyer is often united with that +of the clothier; but, where the amount of business will justify it, as +in manufactories, and in cities or large towns, it is a separate +business. The dyers sometimes confine their attention to particular +branches. Some dye wool only or silk, while others confine themselves +to certain colors, such as scarlet and blue. The principal profits of +the dyer, when unconnected with manufacturing establishments, arise +from dyeing garments or stuffs which have been partly worn.</p> + +<p>10. The origin of the art of dyeing is involved in great obscurity, as +the ancients have not furnished even a fable, which might guide us in +our researches. It is evident, however, that the art must have made +considerable progress, long before authentic history begins. Moses +speaks of stuffs dyed blue, purple, and scarlet, and of sheep-skins +dyed red. The knowledge of the preparation of these colors, implies an +advanced state of the art, at that early period.</p> + +<p>11. Purple was the favorite color of the ancients, and appears to have +been the first which was brought to a state of tolerable perfection. +The discovery of the mode of communicating it, is stated to have been +accidental. A shepherd's dog, while on the sea-shore, incited by +hunger, broke a shell, the contents of which stained his mouth with a +beautiful purple; and the circumstance suggested the application of +the shell-fish, as a coloring substance. This discovery is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> thought to +have been made about fifteen hundred years before the advent of +Christ.</p> + +<p>12. The Jews esteemed this color so highly, that they consecrated it +especially to the service of the Deity, using it in stuffs for +decorating the tabernacle, and for the sacred vestments of the +high-priests. The Babylonians and other idolatrous nations clothed +their idols in habits of purple, and even supposed this color capable +of appeasing the wrath of the gods.</p> + +<p>13. Among the heathen nations of antiquity generally, purple was +appropriated to the use of kings and princes, to the exclusion of +their subjects. In Rome, at a later period, purple habits were worn by +the chief officers of the republic, and, at length, by the opulent, +until the emperors reserved to themselves the distinguished privilege.</p> + +<p>14. There were several kinds of shell-fish, from which this coloring +substance was obtained, each of which communicated a shade somewhat +different from the others. The kind collected near Tyre was the best; +and hence the Tyrian purple acquired especial celebrity. So highly was +it esteemed by the Romans, in the time of Augustus, that wool imbued +with this color was sold for one thousand denarii per pound, which, in +our currency, amounts to one hundred and sixty-eight dollars.</p> + +<p>15. After all, the boasted purple of antiquity is supposed to have +been a very inferior dye, when compared with many which we now +possess; and this is only one among many instances, wherein modern +science has given us a decided superiority over the ancients.</p> + +<p>16. The color, second in repute with the people of antiquity, was +scarlet. This color was communicated by means of an insect, called +<i>coccus</i>, and which is now denominated <i>kermes</i>. Besides the various +hues of purple and scarlet, several others were in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> some degree of +favor; such as green, orange, and blue. The use of vegetable dyes +appears to have been but little known to the Romans; but the Gauls had +the knowledge of imparting various colors, even the purple and +scarlet, with the juice of certain herbs.</p> + +<p>17. The irruption of the northern barbarians into the Roman empire, +destroyed this, with the rest of the arts of civilization, in the +western parts of Europe; but, having been preserved, more or less, in +the East, it was again revived in the West, principally by means of +the intercourse arising from the Crusades.</p> + +<p>18. Although indigo seems to have been known to the ancient Greeks and +Romans, yet it does not appear to have been used for dyeing. The first +that was applied to this purpose in Europe, was brought from India by +the Dutch; but its general use was not established without much +opposition from interested individuals. It was strictly prohibited in +England, in the reign of Elizabeth, and, about the same time, in +Saxony. Many valuable acquisitions were made to the materials employed +in this art, on the discovery of America, among which may be +enumerated, cochineal, logwood, Brazil-wood, and Nicaragua, together +with the soft maple and quercitron barks.</p> + +<p>19. The first book on the art of dyeing was published in 1429. This, +of course, appeared in manuscript, as the art of printing had not then +been discovered. An edition was printed in 1510. The authors to whom +the world is most indebted for correct information on this subject, +are Dufuy, Hallet, Macquir, and Berthollet, of France; and Henry and +Bancroft, of England; all of whom wrote in the eighteenth century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>THE CALICO-PRINTER.</h3> + +<p>1. Calico-printing is a combination of the arts of dyeing, engraving, +and printing, wherewith colors are applied in definite figures. This +art is applicable to woven fabrics, and chiefly to those of which the +material is cotton.</p> + +<p>2. The first object, after preparing the stuffs, as in dyeing, is to +apply a <i>mordant</i> to those parts of the piece which are to receive the +color. This is now usually done by means of a steel or copper +cylinder, on which have been engraved the proposed figures, as on +plates for copperplate-printing.</p> + +<p>3. During the printing, the cylinder, in one part of its revolution, +becomes charged with the mordant, the superfluous part of which is +scraped off by a straight steel edge, leaving only the portion which +fills the lines of the figures. As the cylinder revolves, the cloth +comes into forcible contact with it, and receives the complete +impression of the figures, in the pale color of the mordant.</p> + +<p>4. The cloth, after having been washed and dried, is passed through +the <i>coloring bath</i>, in which the parts previously printed, become +permanently dyed with the intended color. Although the whole piece +receives the dye, yet, by washing the cloth, and bleaching it on the +grass in the open air, the color is discharged from those parts not +impregnated with the mordant.</p> + +<p>5. By the use of different mordants, successively applied, and a +single dye, several colors are often communicated to the same piece of +cloth; thus, if stripes are first made with the acetate of alumina, +and then others with the acetate of iron, a coloring bath of madder +will produce red and brown stripes. The same mordants, with a dye of +quercitron bark, give yellow and olive or drab.</p> + +<p>6. Sometimes, the second mordant is applied by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> means of engravings on +wooden blocks. Cuts, designed for this purpose, are engraved on the +<i>side</i> of the grain, and not on the <i>end</i>, like those for printing +books.</p> + +<p>7. Calico-printing, so far as chemical affinities are concerned, is +the same with dyeing. The difference consists, chiefly, in the mode of +applying the materials, so as to communicate the desired tints and +figures. The dye-stuffs, most commonly employed by calico-printers, +are indigo, madder, and quercitron bark; by a dexterous application of +these and the mordants, a great variety of colors can be produced. +Indigo, being a substantive color, does not require the aid of +mordants, but, like them, when other dyes are used, is applied +directly to the cloth, sometimes by the engraved cylinder or block, +and at others with the pencil by hand.</p> + +<p>8. Calico-printing was practised in India twenty-two centuries ago, +when Alexander the Great visited that country with his victorious +army. The operation was then performed with a pencil. This method is +still used in the East to the exclusion of every other. The art was +also practised in Egypt in Pliny's time.</p> + +<p>9. Calicoes were first brought to England in the year 1631. They +derive their name from the city of Calicut, whence they were first +exported to Europe. This branch of business was introduced into London +in the year 1676. Since that time, it has been encouraged by several +acts of Parliament; but it never became extensive in England, until +the introduction of machinery for spinning cotton. It is supposed, +that the amount of cottons annually printed in the United States, +cannot be less than twenty millions of yards.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_HATTER" id="THE_HATTER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_083.jpg" width="500" height="417" alt="HATTER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE HATTER.</h2> + + +<p>1. The business, peculiar to the hatter, consists in making hats from +the fur or hair of animals, by the process called <i>felting</i>. The hair +of animals is the only material which can be firmly matted together in +this way; yet, that of every animal is not suitable for this purpose. +The fur of the beaver, the otter, the seal, the muskrat, the rabbit, +the hare, the coney, and the nutria, together with the wool of the +lama, sheep, and camel, are employed to the exclusion of almost every +other.</p> + +<p>2. The skin of all animals having fur, is covered with two kinds of +hair; the one, long and coarse; the other, short, fine, and thickly +set. The coarse hair is pulled out from the skin, by the aid of a +shoe-knife, and thrown away, while the fine, which is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> fur, is cut +from it with one of a circular form, such as the saddlers and +harness-makers use in cutting leather.</p> + +<p>3. In the application of the materials, the first object of the hatter +is to make the <i>body</i>. In the common three, four, and five dollar +hats, the body is composed of the wool of the sheep; but, in those of +greater value, it is usually made of the wool of the lama, and +different kinds of cheap furs. In describing the process of making +hats, one of the latter kind will be selected.</p> + +<p>4. A sufficient quantity of the materials for the body is weighed out, +and divided into two equal parts. One of these is placed on a table, +or, as the hatters call it, a <i>hurl</i>. The individual hairs composing +this portion, are separated, and lightly and regularly spread out into +a proper form, by the vibrations of a bow-string, which is plucked +with a wooden pin.</p> + +<p>5. The fur is then carefully compressed with a flat piece of +wicker-work, denominated a hatter's basket, and covered with a damp +piece of linen cloth, in which it is afterwards folded, pressed, and +worked, with the hands, until it becomes matted together into a <i>bat</i>. +This bat is next folded over a triangular piece of paper, and formed +into a conical cap.</p> + +<p>6. When another bat has been made in the same way, from the other half +of the materials, the two are put together to form one, which is then +worked in the damp cloth as before, until it is much contracted and +matted together. After this, having been conveyed to another room, it +is rolled in a woollen cloth, pressed, rubbed, and worked, with the +hands and a rolling-pin, around a kettle of hot water, into which it +is often plunged during the operation, which is called <i>planking</i>.</p> + +<p>7. In this way, the materials are consolidated into <i>felt</i>, and the +body contracted to the proper size. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> reason why the process just +described produces this effect, may be found in the nature of the +fibres themselves. Upon a close examination, it will be observed, that +these are covered with little scales, or beards, which admit of motion +in one direction, but retard it in the other. This peculiar formation +causes them to interlock in such a way as to become closely matted +together.</p> + +<p>8. When the body has been dried, and shaved on the knee with a sharp +knife, to free it from projecting filaments, it is stiffened with +gum-shellac dissolved in alcohol, and then steamed in a box, to cause +the stiffening <i>to set</i>. It is now prepared for being <i>napped</i>.</p> + +<p>9. The fur for the <i>nap</i> is prepared on the hurl, like the conical cap +first described. In applying the nap to the body, the latter is wet +with hot water, and <i>flakes</i> of the former are matted down upon it, by +working it on the planks around the kettle. After three layers have +been put on in this way, the cap is beaten, while wet, with sticks, to +raise the nap, and then drawn over a cylindrical block, which gives it +the general form of a hat.</p> + +<p>10. The nap having been raised with a card, the hat is prepared to be +colored. The dye is made, chiefly, of the extract of logwood, +copperas, and verdigris. The hats, to the number of forty-eight or +more, are hung upon a wheel by means of pegs, which pass through the +centre of the blocks. This wheel can be turned, so as to keep one half +of the hats alternately in the dye. After having been properly +colored, they are taken from the blocks, washed, and dried.</p> + +<p>11. The hat is now prepared for the <i>finisher</i>, who first whips up the +nap with a ratan, and, after having rendered it pliable with steam, +draws it over the <i>finishing block</i>. The fibres composing the nap, are +properly disposed with a card and brush, and rendered smooth and +glossy by means of a hot iron. The superfluous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> part of the rim is cut +off with a blade, placed in a gauge. The hat is finished by adding +suitable trimmings, the nature of which, and the mode of application, +can be easily learned by examining different kinds of hats.</p> + +<p>12. Hats of various colors have been worn; but those most in use are +black, white, and drab. The white hats, which are intended only for +ladies and children, have a nap of rabbits' fur, selected from the +white skins. Drab hats are also made of stuffs of the natural color, +assorted for that purpose.</p> + +<p>13. The value of hats depends, of course, upon the workmanship, and +the cost of the materials used in the manufacture. So great is the +difference in these respects, that their price ranges between +seventy-five cents and fifteen dollars. The woollen bodies used by +hatters are now often procured from persons, who devote their +attention exclusively to their manufacture.</p> + +<p>14. Several years ago, woollen cloths were made in England, by the +process of felting; but, on trial, they were found to be deficient in +firmness and durability. Since the year 1840, an American citizen has +been manufacturing cloths by this method; but, whether they are liable +to the objection just mentioned, is yet uncertain.</p> + +<p>15. Some kind of covering for the head, either for defence or +ornament, appears to have been usually worn in all ages and countries, +where the inhabitants have made the least progress in the arts of +civilized life.</p> + +<p>16. The form, substance, and color, of this article of dress, have +been exceedingly various in different ages, according to the +circumstances or humor of the wearer. The ancient Persians wore +turbans, similar to those of the modern Turks; and the nations +inhabiting the Indian Peninsula, wore a kind of head-dress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> so large, +that it divested the person of all proportion.</p> + +<p>17. The imperial turban is said to have been composed of a great many +yards of muslin, twisted and formed into a shape nearly oval, and +surmounted with a woollen cap, encircled with a radiated crown. The +turban of the prime minister was smaller in its dimensions, but of +greater altitude. The chief magi, on account of his superior eminence, +wore a higher turban than those of the monarch and minister united. +Those worn by the inferior magi, were regulated by the dignity of the +stations which they held.</p> + +<p>18. The Jewish people and the neighboring nations borrowed the turban +from the Persians; but, at a later period, they very commonly adopted +the cap which the Romans were accustomed to give to their slaves, on +their manumission.</p> + +<p>19. The ancient helmet, made of steel, brass, and sometimes of more +costly materials, was worn as a piece of defensive armor in war, +instead of the ordinary coverings, used while engaged in peaceful +occupations.</p> + +<p>20. Roman citizens went bare-headed, except upon occasions of sacred +rites, games, and festivals; or when engaged in travelling or in war. +They were accustomed, however, in the city, to throw over their head +the lappet of their toga, as a screen from the wind or sun. The people +of Scotland used to wear a kind of bonnet, as in some parts of that +country they do at the present time; and the English, before the +invention of felt hats, covered the head with knit caps and cloth +hoods, and sometimes with hats made of thrummed silk.</p> + +<p>21. The Chinese do not wear hats, but use a cap of peculiar structure, +which the laws of civility will not allow them to put off in public. +The form and material of this is varied with the change of the +season.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> That used in summer is shaped like a cone, is made of a +beautiful kind of mat, and lined with satin; to this is added, at the +top, a large tuft of red silk, which falls all round to the lower part +of the cap, and which fluctuates gracefully on all sides, while the +wearer is in motion. The kind worn in winter is made of shaggy cloth, +bordered with some kind of fur, and ornamented in a similar manner.</p> + +<p>22. Head-dresses, from their variety, simplicity, and mutability, were +but little regulated by commercial or manufacturing interests, until +the introduction of felt hats, which has occasioned a uniformity in +this article of dress, unknown in former ages.</p> + +<p>23. Curiosity is naturally excited to become acquainted with the +particulars of the invention of the hat, and the subsequent stages of +improvement in the manufacture. But the operation of individual +interest, so generally connected with the useful arts, seems to have +concealed the whole in obscurity; and little information on the +subject can now be obtained.</p> + +<p>24. The hatters have a tradition, that the art of felting originated +with St. Clement, the fourth bishop of Rome. Under this impression, in +Catholic countries, they adopt him as their patron saint, and hold an +annual festival in his honor. The principle of felting is said to have +been suggested to his mind by the following circumstance; while +fleeing from his persecutors, his feet became blistered, and, to +obtain relief, he placed wool between them and his sandals. On +continuing his journey, the wool, by the perspiration, motion, and +pressure of the feet, assumed a compact form.</p> + +<p>25. Notwithstanding this tradition, it appears, that felt hats were +invented at Paris, by a Swiss, about the commencement of the fifteenth +century; but they were not generally known, until Charles the Seventh +made his triumphal entry into Rouen, in the year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> 1492, when he +astonished the people by wearing a hat, lined with red silk, and +surmounted with a plume of feathers.</p> + +<p>26. When some of the clergy first adopted this article of dress, it +was considered an unwarrantable indulgence. Councils were held, and +regulations published, forbidding any priest or monk to appear abroad +wearing a hat; and enjoining them to keep to the use of chaperons, or +hoods, made of black cloth, with decent cornets; if they were poor, +they were, at least to have cornets fastened to their hats, upon +penalty of suspension and excommunication.</p> + +<p>27. At length, however, the pope permitted even the cardinals to wear +hats; but, enjoined them to wear those of a red color at public +ceremonials, in token of their readiness to spill their blood for +their religion.</p> + +<p>28. In England, considerable opposition was made to the use of the +hat. By a statute, enacted in the thirteenth year of the reign of +Elizabeth, every person between certain ages was obliged, on Sundays +and holidays, to wear a woollen cap, made by some of the cappers of +that kingdom, under the penalty of three shillings and four-pence for +every day's neglect. This law continued in force, for about +twenty-five years. The manufacture of hats was commenced, in England, +in the time of Henry the Eighth, by Dutchmen and Spaniards.</p> + +<p>29. Hats made of plaited straw, grass, or chip, are much used in the +summer; and caps of cloth or fur are now frequently substituted for +hats, in cold weather. Silk hats have also been much worn, since the +year 1825. They are made of the common hat body, and a texture of silk +with a long nap. The silk is fastened to the body with glue.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_ROPE-MAKER" id="THE_ROPE-MAKER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_090.jpg" width="500" height="415" alt="ROPE MAKER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE ROPE-MAKER.</h2> + + +<p>1. Ropes may be made of any vegetable substance which has a fibre +sufficiently flexible and tenacious. The Chinese and other orientals, +in making ropes, use the ligneous parts of certain bamboos and reeds, +the fibrous covering of the cocoa-nut, the filaments of the cotton +pod, and the leaves of certain grasses; but the bark of plants and +trees, is the most productive of fibrous matter suitable to this +manufacture. That of the linden-tree, the willow, and the bramble is +frequently used. In Europe and America, however, the fibres of hemp +and flax are more frequently employed, for this purpose, than any +other material.</p> + +<p>2. The operations of rope-making are commonly performed in +<i>rope-walks</i>, which are sometimes more than a quarter of a mile in +length. These are usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> covered with a slight shed, the nature and +appearance of which are well exhibited in the preceding picture.</p> + +<p>3. The first part of the process consists in spinning the material +into yarn. The principle on which this is effected, is the same as +that by which cotton or wool is drawn out and twisted into threads, +although the machinery, and the mode of operating, are different.</p> + +<p>4. The kind of wheel employed in spinning rope-yarn, is also exhibited +in the cut. A band passes around the periphery, and over the +semicircle above it, in which is placed a number of wheels, the pivots +of which terminate, on the other side, in a small hook.</p> + +<p>5. The spinner, having a quantity of the material properly disposed +about the waist, attaches a number of fibres to one of the hooks, +which, being put in motion by the band passing over the whirl, twists +them rapidly into yarn. The part already twisted draws along with it +more fibres from the bundle, and, as the spinner is regulating their +uniform arrangement, he walks backward towards the other end of the +walk.</p> + +<p>6. When the thread has been spun to the proposed length, the spinner +cries out to another, who immediately takes it off from the hook, +gives it to a third person, and, in turn, attaches his own fibres to +the same hook. In the meantime, the first spinner keeps fast hold of +the end of his yarn, to prevent it from untwisting or doubling; and, +as it is wound on the reel, proceeds up the walk, keeping the yarn of +an equal tension throughout.</p> + +<p>7. The second part of the process consists in forming the yarn into +various kinds of ropes. The component parts of cordage are called +strands; and the operation of uniting them with a permanent twist, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +called <i>laying</i>, when applied to small ropes, and <i>closing</i>, when +applied to cables or other large ropes.</p> + +<p>8. The simplest twist is formed of two strands. The thread used by +sail-makers, and pack-thread, furnish examples of this kind; but +cordage with two strands is not much used; that with three is the most +usual. Lines and cords less than one and a half inches in +circumference, are laid by means of the spinning-wheel. Preparatory to +this operation, the workman fastens the hither end of the yarns to +separate whirl-hooks, and the remote ends to the hook of a swivel, +called the <i>loper</i>.</p> + +<p>9. The strands having been properly distended, the spinning-wheel is +turned in the same direction as when twisting the yarns. A further +twisting of the strands, during this part of the process, is prevented +by the motion of the loper, which gives way to the strain, and, at the +same time, causes the strands to entwine about each other, and form a +cord. To prevent them from entwining too rapidly, an instrument is +interposed, which, from its form, is called the <i>top</i>. It has two or +more notches, which terminate at the apex, and a handle, called a +<i>staff</i>. As the top is moved from the loper to the wheel, it regulates +the degree of twist which the cord or rope is to receive.</p> + +<p>10. The principle on which large cordage is laid, or closed, is the +same, although some part of the machinery is different. The strands +for large ropes and cables are formed of many yarns, and require +considerable <i>hardening</i>. This cannot be done with whirls driven by a +wheel-band; it requires the power of a crank, turned by hand, or by +some other considerable force. The strands, also, when properly +hardened, become very stiff, and, when bent round the top, cannot +transmit force enough to close the unpliant rope: it is, therefore, +necessary that the loper, also, be moved by a crank.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p> + +<p>11. Cordage, which is to be exposed to the alternate action of air and +water, is usually tarred. The application of this substance is made, +in most cases, while the material is in a state of yarn. In effecting +this object, the threads are drawn through boiling tar, and then +passed between rollers, or through holes surrounded with oakum, to +remove the superfluous tar. In like manner, ropes and cables are +superficially tarred.</p> + +<p>12. Various improvements have been made in the machinery, for +performing the different operations of rope-making; but, these not +having been generally adopted, it is unnecessary to notice them more +particularly; especially, as they do not affect the general principles +of the art.</p> + +<p>13. Within a few years, cotton-yarn has been employed in the +manufacture of ropes; but this material has not yet been sufficiently +tested, to determine its fitness for the purpose. A kind of vegetable +fibre, brought from Manilla, and hence called Manilla hemp, is very +extensively applied in making ropes, and, for some purposes, is +preferred to other materials.</p> + +<p>14. The intestines of animals are composed of very powerful fibres, +and those of sheep and lambs are manufactured into what is called +<i>cat-gut</i>, for the use of musical instrument-makers, hatters, +watch-makers, and a variety of other artificers. Animal hair, as that +from the tail and mane of horses, is frequently employed as the +material for ropes; and such are durable, elastic, and impervious to +moisture. They, however, are not applicable in cases, where the rope +is subject to considerable friction.</p> + +<p>15. Hemp is cultivated in various parts of the world, and especially +in Russia, whence it is exported to other countries in great +quantities. It is also produced, to a considerable extent, in the +state of Kentucky, and in many other parts of the United States.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> Flax +is still more generally cultivated than hemp; but its chief +application is to the manufacture of cloth, as it does not answer well +for any cordage larger than a bed-cord. The formation of cloth from +hemp is also very common; and, in this case, the yarn for the coarse +cloths is spun on the rope-maker's wheel in the manner already +described. The cloth is generally used for making bags, +sacking-bottoms for beds, and sails for vessels.</p> + +<p>16. Rope-making is a manufacture of general utility, as cordage of +some kind is used more or less in every family in all civilized +communities; nor are there many trades capable of being carried on, +with convenience, without it. But the great utility of cordage, in all +its varieties, is most conspicuous in the rigging and equipment of +vessels; and the extensive demand for it, in this application, renders +rope-making one of the most important and extensive of the primitive +trades.</p> + +<p>17. Nor does the utility of cordage end with its application to the +purposes for which it was originally designed. Old ropes are converted +into oakum by untwisting and picking them to pieces. The oakum thus +produced is driven into the seams of vessels, to render them +water-tight.</p> + +<p>18. As regards the invention of this art, nothing can be gathered from +ancient records. We only know, in general, that cordage was in +considerable use among the nations of antiquity, especially among the +Greeks and Romans, who probably learned its application to rigging +vessels from the Phœnicians.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_TAILOR" id="THE_TAILOR"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="500" height="422" alt="TAILOR." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE TAILOR.</h2> + + +<p>1. The business of the tailor consists, principally, in cutting out +and making clothes for men and boys, together with habits and cloaks +for ladies. It is usual for persons who carry on this business in +cities and large towns, to keep a stock of cloths and other stuffs +adapted to the season, which they make up into garments to the order +of customers. In such cases, they are termed <i>merchant tailors</i>.</p> + +<p>2. The operation, preparatory to cutting out the cloth for a garment, +is that of taking the measure of the person for whom it is designed. +This is done with a narrow strip of paper or parchment, and the +dimensions are either marked on the measure with the scissors, or +entered in a <i>pattern-book</i> kept for the purpose.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. The cloth is cut to the proper shape, with a large pair of shears. +This is performed either by the individual who carries on the +business, or by a foreman. The parts are sewed together, and the +trimmings applied, by means of thread and silk; this is commonly done +by those who devote their attention to this branch of the trade. It +sometimes happens, however, that the same person performs the whole of +the work, particularly in country places, where the business is very +limited in extent.</p> + +<p>4. Females often serve an apprenticeship to this business. Many of +them learn to cut out, and make with skill, certain kinds of garments, +and are after wards employed in families, or by the tailors. Most of +the ready-made clothing, kept for sale in cities, is made up by +females.</p> + +<p>5. The instruments employed in performing the operations of the +tailor, are few and simple; the principal of these are the shears, the +scissors, the needle, the thimble, the bodkin, the goose, and the +press-board.</p> + +<p>6. The great art of a master tailor consists in fitting the dress to +his customer, in such a manner as to conceal any defect of form, and +display his person to the best advantage. He should, therefore, be a +good judge of the human figure; as, from this knowledge, arises, +chiefly, the superiority of one workman over another in this branch of +the business.</p> + +<p>7. The first hint on the art of clothing the human body, was given to +man by the Deity himself; for we read in the Scriptures, that "Unto +Adam and to his wife, the Lord God made coats of skins, and clothed +them." From that time to the present, the art of cutting out garments, +and of sewing their different parts together, has been practised, more +or less, in every place, where there has been any degree of +civilization.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p> + +<p>8. For a long time, it is probable, that thongs and the sinews of +animals were used, for want of thread made of silk or vegetable fibre; +and, doubtless, the same necessity caused the substitution of pointed +bones and thorns, instead of needles. Such rude materials and +instruments are still employed for similar purposes by savage nations. +The dresses of the people of Greenland are sewed together with thongs +made of the intestines of the seal, or of some fish, which they have +the skill to cut fine, after having dried them in the air; and even +the inhabitants of Peru, although considerably advanced in +civilization, when that country was first visited by the Spaniards, +made use of long thorns, in sewing and fixing their clothes.</p> + +<p>9. We have no means of determining the period of the world, when this +art was first practised, as a particular profession. We know, in +general, that the dress of the ancients was usually more simple in its +construction than that of the people of modern times; and, +consequently, it required less skill to put the materials in the +required form. It may, therefore, be inferred, that either the females +or the slaves of each family usually made up the clothing of all its +members.</p> + +<p>10. The distinguishing dress of the Romans was the <i>toga</i>, or gown; as +that of the Greeks was the <i>pallium</i>, or cloak. The toga was a loose, +woollen robe, and covered nearly the whole person; it was round and +close at the bottom, and open at the top, having no sleeves, but a +large flap, or lappet, which was either thrown over the left shoulder, +or over the head, to protect it from the heat or cold.</p> + +<p>11. The Romans, at an early period of their history, used no other +dress, and it was also, at that time, worn by the women. Afterwards, +they wore, under the toga, a white woollen vest called <i>tunica</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +which extended a little below the knee. At first it was without +sleeves. Tunics, reaching to the ancles, or having sleeves, were +reckoned effeminate; but, under the emperors, they became fashionable.</p> + +<p>12. The toga was usually assumed at the age of seventeen. Until then, +the youth wore a kind of gown, bordered with purple, denominated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga +prætexta</i>; and such a garment was also worn by females, until they +were married. The youthful dress was laid aside, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga +virilis</i>, or manly toga, assumed with great solemnity; as, by this +act, the individual assumed the responsibilities of a citizen. The +toga was worn chiefly in the city, and only by Roman citizens.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_MILLINER_AND_THE_LADYS_DRESS-MAKER" id="THE_MILLINER_AND_THE_LADYS_DRESS-MAKER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_099.jpg" width="500" height="421" alt="MILLINER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE MILLINER, <span class="smcap">AND</span> THE LADY'S DRESS-MAKER.</h2> + + +<h3>THE MILLINER.</h3> + + +<p>1. The milliner is one who manufactures and repairs bonnets and hats +for ladies and children. Her business requires the use of pasteboard, +wire, buckram, silks, satins, muslins, ribands, artificial flowers, +spangles, and other materials too numerous to be mentioned.</p> + +<p>2. The first part of the process of making a hat, or bonnet, consists +in forming a crown of buckram; which operation is performed on a block +of suitable size and shape; and to this is applied pasteboard, or +buckram, edged with wire, to form the front part. The foundation +having been thus laid, it is usually covered and lined with some of +the materials just enumerated, and finished by applying to it the +trimmings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> required by the fashion, or by the individual customer.</p> + +<p>3. Ladies' hats are also made of rye straw, and a kind of grass, which +grows in Italy; those made of the latter material are called +<i>Leghorns</i>, from the name of the city, in or near which they are +principally made. A few years since, these had almost superseded those +made of straw; but the latter, of late, have nearly regained their +former ascendency.</p> + +<p>4. In the United States, and likewise in various parts of Europe, +there are several establishments for making straw hats, in which the +proprietors employ females to perform the whole labor. The straw is +first cut into several pieces, so as to leave out the joints, and then +whitened by smoking them with the fumes of brimstone. They are next +split longitudinally into several pieces by a simple machine, and +afterwards plaited with the fingers and thumbs. The braid, or plait, +thus produced, is <ins title="Original reads 'sown'">sewn</ins> together to form hats adapted to the prevailing +fashion.</p> + +<p>5. Great quantities of straw are, also, plaited in families, +especially in the New-England states, and sold to neighboring +merchants, who, in turn, dispose of it to those who form it into hats. +The milliners usually keep a supply of Leghorn and straw hats, which +they line and trim according to the fancy of their customers.</p> + +<p>6. Head-dresses were probably used nearly as early as any other part +of dress; and their form and material have likewise been equally +variable. In the early days of Rome, the head-dress of the women of +that city was very simple; and, when they went abroad, which was +seldom, they covered their faces with a veil; but, when riches and +luxury had increased, dress became, with many, the principal object of +attention; hence, a woman's toilet and ornaments were called her +<i>world</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> + +<p>7. The head-dresses of the ladies, in various parts of Europe, +especially in the eighteenth century, were particularly extravagant, +being sometimes so high, that the face seemed to be nearly in the +centre of the body. In 1714, this fashion was at its height in France; +but two English ladies visiting the court of Versailles, introduced +the low head-dresses of their own country.</p> + +<p>8. The high head-dresses had no sooner fallen into disuse in France, +than they were adopted in England, and even carried to a greater +degree of extravagance. To build one of these elevated structures in +the fashionable style, both the barber and milliner were necessary. +The head-dresses of the ladies of the present age, are characterized +by great simplicity, when compared with those of several periods in +preceding ages.</p> + + +<h3>THE LADY'S DRESS-MAKER.</h3> + +<p>1. This business is nearly allied to the foregoing, and is, therefore, +often carried on in conjunction with it. This is especially the case +in villages and small towns, where sufficient business cannot be +obtained in the exclusive pursuit of one branch.</p> + +<p>2. The customers of the lady's dress-maker are not always easily +pleased, as they frequently expect more from her skill than it is +possible to accomplish. She, however, can do much towards concealing +the defects of nature; and, by padding and other means, can sometimes +render the person tolerably well proportioned, when, in its natural +shape, it would be quite inelegant. It is to be regretted, however, +that dress-makers are guided by fashion and whim in moulding the +external form of females, rather than by the best specimens of the +human figure, as exhibited by eminent painters and sculptors.</p> + +<p>3. The dress-maker should have some acquaintance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> with the anatomy and +functions of those parts to which pressure is usually applied; for, +who that knows the structure, size, and office of the liver, and other +internal organs of digestion and vitality, would venture to apply to +them a compressive force calculated to interfere most seriously, if +not dangerously, with their healthful action?</p> + +<p>4. The fashions for ladies' dresses are chiefly procured from France, +and the dress-makers from that country are, therefore, often preferred +by fashionable ladies. Sometimes, however, a dress-maker, having a +name with a French termination, will answer the purpose.</p> + +<p>5. Corset-making is frequently a separate branch of business; but +corsets have become less necessary; inasmuch as small waists are less +admired by the gentlemen than formerly. On this account, also, the +ladies have discovered that tight lacing is somewhat uncomfortable, +especially in hot weather, and in crowded assemblies.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_BARBER" id="THE_BARBER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_103.jpg" width="500" height="420" alt="BARBER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE BARBER.</h2> + + +<p>1. It is the business of the barber to cut and dress the hair, to make +wigs and false curls, and to shave the beards of other men. In ancient +times, he used also to trim the nails; and even at the present day, in +Turkey, this is a part of his employment.</p> + +<p>2. The period, when men began to shave their beards, is not certainly +known. It appears that the practice was common among the Israelites in +the time of Moses; as that legislator has left on record a prohibitory +law concerning it. They probably borrowed the custom from the +Egyptians. It is stated by Plutarch, that Alexander the Great ordered +his men to be shaved, that their enemies might not lay hold of their +beards in time of battle. Before this time, however, many of the +Greeks shaved their beards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. The practice does not appear to have been introduced amongst the +ancient Romans, until about the year 296 before the Christian era, +when Paulus Ticinius Mænas brought to Rome a number of barbers from +Sicily. Scipio Africanus was the first man who shaved his beard every +day.</p> + +<p>4. At first, the barbers had no shops, but shaved their customers at +the corners of the streets. After a while, they followed their +vocation in shops, or shades; and, at this period, it was customary +for females to officiate in the various branches of the art. These +places, however, were frequented only by the poorer class of the +people, as opulent families generally kept slaves for the performance +of these duties. The day on which a young Roman first cut off his +beard, was celebrated by him and his friends as one of peculiar +interest; and this much-desired indication of manhood was consecrated +to some one of the gods, generally to Jupiter Capitolinus.</p> + +<p>5. The return of barbarism, in the fifth and sixth centuries, banished +this custom from the Western empire; nor was it again revived in +Europe, until the seventeenth century. During the reigns of Louis +XIII. and Louis XIV. of France, both of whom ascended the throne in +boyhood, the courtiers and fashionable people began to use the razor, +that they might appear with smooth chins, and thus resemble, in this +particular, the youthful monarchs. From France, the fashion, at +length, spread all over Europe. At one time, in the reign of the +English queen Elizabeth, the fellows of Lincoln's Inn were compelled +by statute to shave their beards, at least, once in two weeks. +Omission was punished with fine, loss of commons, and finally with +expulsion.</p> + +<p>6. The custom of shaving was introduced into Russia by Peter the +Great, who compelled his subjects to pay a tax for the privilege of +retaining their beards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> This singular impost was exceedingly +unpopular, and excited greater complaints amongst the people than any +other measure of that emperor. The decree was rigidly enforced, and +every one who would not, or could not, pay the tax, was forcibly +deprived of this favorite ornament, if he would not remove it +voluntarily. Some of the people saved the sad trimmings of their +chins; and, that they might never be entirely separated from these +precious relics, ordered that they should be deposited with their +bodies in their coffins.</p> + +<p>7. Among the European nations that have been curious in whiskers, the +Spaniards have been particularly distinguished; and the loss of honor +among them used to be punished by depriving the individual of his +whiskers.</p> + +<p>8. The Portuguese were but little, if at all, behind the Spaniards in +their estimate of these valuable ornaments. As an evidence of this, it +is stated, that, in the reign of Catharine, Queen of Portugal, the +brave John de Castro, having taken the castle of Diu in India, and +being afterwards in want of money, applied to the inhabitants of Goa +to loan him one thousand piastres, and, as security for that sum, sent +them one of his whiskers, telling them that "All the gold in the world +cannot equal the value of this natural ornament of my valor." The +people, in admiration of his magnanimity, sent him the money, and, at +the same time, returned his incomparable whisker.</p> + +<p>9. In the reign of Louis XIII. of France, whiskers attained the +highest degree of favor. They also continued in fashion during the +early part of the succeeding reign. Louis XIV. and the great men of +France, took a pride in wearing them. It was no uncommon thing, at +that time, for the ladies to comb and dress the whiskers of their +beaux; and the men of fashion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> were particular in providing +whisker-wax, and every article necessary to this agreeable pastime.</p> + +<p>10. The whiskers belonging to the image of the Chinese philosopher +Confucius, which is preserved by his countrymen, are supposed to be +capable of conferring upon those who might wear them, a portion of the +wisdom and manly beauty of that illustrious sage. Great care, however, +is taken that none shall enjoy these great personal qualifications by +such easy means; as decapitation is the penalty for plucking the +whiskers from the position which they occupy.</p> + +<p>11. When the practice of shaving off the beard was again revived in +Europe, instrumental music was employed in the barber's shop, to amuse +customers waiting their turn; but, at the present time, newspapers are +furnished for this purpose. In taking off the beard, soft water, good +soap, a brush, and a sharp razor, are the usual requisites. The razor +should be placed nearly flat on the face, and be moved from point to +heel. Barbers have usually some regular customers, many of whom have a +box of soap and a brush appropriated to their individual use.</p> + +<p>12. In ancient times, great attention was paid to dressing the hair. +The Hebrew women plaited, and afterwards confined it with gold and +silver pins; they also adorned it with precious stones. The Greeks, +both male and female, at every period of their ancient history, wore +long hair, which they usually permitted to hang gracefully upon the +shoulders, back, and sometimes upon the breast.</p> + +<p>13. Adult males, among the Romans, usually wore their hair short, and +dressed with great care, especially in later ages, when attention to +this part of the person was carried to such excess, that ointments and +perfumes were used even in the army. The hair was cut for the first +time, when the boy had attained his seventh year, and the second time, +when he was fourteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> years old. His locks, at each cutting, were +commonly dedicated to Apollo or Bacchus.</p> + +<p>14. Both men and women, among the Greeks and Romans, sometimes +permitted their hair to grow in honor of some divinity. The Jews, +also, when under the vow of a Nazarite, were not permitted to trim +their hair or beards. In grief and mourning, the Romans suffered their +hair and beards to grow. The Greeks, on the contrary, when in grief, +cut their hair and shaved their beards, as likewise did some of the +barbarous nations of early time.</p> + +<p>15. Artificial hair began to be fashionable, at an early period, and +was used by the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. In the time of +Ovid, blond hair was in great favour at Rome; and those ladies who did +not choose to wear wigs, powdered their hair with a kind of gold dust. +They wore hanging curls all round the head, to which they were +fastened with circular pins of silver. Every wealthy Roman lady of +fashion kept at least one slave to frizzle and curl the hair.</p> + +<p>16. The time, when wigs first came into use, cannot now be +ascertained. It is certain, however, that they were worn by females a +long time before they became fashionable among the men.</p> + +<p>17. Wigs, perukes, or periwigs, were revived in the seventeenth +century. In the reign of Louis XIII., or about the year 1629, they +became fashionable at Paris; and, as that city was generally imitated +by the rest of Europe in things of this nature, they soon became +common. The wigs were very large, as may be seen by examining ancient +portraits, and were covered with a profusion of hair-powder. At first, +it was disreputable for young people to wear them, as the loss of the +hair at an early age was attributed to a disease, which was, of +itself, discreditable.</p> + +<p>18. When wigs were first introduced into England,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> some of the clergy +opposed them violently, considering their use more culpable than +wearing long hair; since, as they alleged, it was more unnatural. Many +preachers inveighed against wigs in their sermons, and cut their own +hair shorter to manifest their abhorrence of the reigning mode.</p> + +<p>19. The worldly-wise, however, observed that a periwig procured for +the wearer a degree of respect and deference which otherwise might not +have been accorded; and hence there was a strong tendency to the use +of this appendage. The judges and physicians, especially, understood +well this influence of the wig, and gave to it all the advantages of +length and breadth. The fashion, at length, was adopted by the +ecclesiastics themselves, not only in England, but in most of the +European kingdoms, as well as in the British colonies of America.</p> + +<p>20. The fashion, however, except in cases of baldness, wherein alone +it is excusable, is now nearly banished from Europe and America. This +desirable change was effected principally by the example of republican +America, and by the influence of the French Revolution. The law passed +in England in 1795, imposing a tax of a guinea a head per annum on +those who wore hair-powder, contributed to the same result, as well as +to diminish the use of that article.</p> + +<p>21. The manufacture of wigs and false curls is an important branch of +the business of the barber. The first process in forming a wig is to +produce, in the hair about to be used for this purpose, a disposition +to curl. This is done by winding it on a cylinder of wood or earth, +and afterwards boiling it in water. It is then dried, and baked in an +oven. Thus prepared, it is woven on a strong thread, and is +subsequently sewn on a caul fitted to the head. False curls are made +on the same principle.</p> + +<p>22. Wigs and false curls were not made in ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> times precisely in +the same manner; although their appearance, when finished, was +probably similar. The hair was then attached directly to a piece of +thin leather, by means of some adhesive substance, or composition.</p> + +<p>23. Many barbers, especially those who have a reputation for making +wigs and false curls in a fashionable style, keep for sale perfumery, +as well as a variety of cosmetics.</p> + +<p>24. From the eleventh to the eighteenth century, surgical operations +were almost exclusively performed by the barbers and bath-keepers. As +phlebotomy was one of the chief sources of profit to the barbers, they +adopted a sign emblematical of this operation. It consisted of a pole, +representing the staff which the individual held in his hand, while +the blood was flowing from the arm. The white band wound spirally +about the pole, represented the fillet of linen with which the arm was +afterwards secured.</p> + +<p>25. It is hardly necessary to remark, that the same sign is still +employed by the barbers; although, with a few exceptions, they have +ceased to perform the operation of which it was significant.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_TANNER_AND_THE_CURRIER" id="THE_TANNER_AND_THE_CURRIER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_110.jpg" width="500" height="422" alt="TANNER & CURRIER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE TANNER, AND THE CURRIER.</h2> + + +<h3>THE TANNER.</h3> + +<p>1. The art of tanning consists in converting hides and skins into +leather, by impregnating them with astringent matter.</p> + +<p>2. It is impossible to determine the period at which the art of +tanning was discovered. It was doubtless known to the ancients, and +probably to the antediluvians, in some degree of perfection; since +skins were applied as means of clothing the human body, before the +arts of spinning and weaving were practised. It is likely, however, +that they were applied to this purpose, for a considerable time, in +their natural state; and that accident, at length, suggested the means +of rendering them more applicable, by saturating them with certain +mineral or vegetable substances.</p> + +<p>3. Although the art of converting skins into leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> was practised in +remote ages, yet it was not until near the end of the eighteenth +century, that the true principle of the process was understood. Before +this time, it was supposed, that the astringent principle of the +agents employed, was a resinous substance, which adhered mechanically +to the fibres, and thus rendered them firm and insoluble. The correct +explanation was first given by Deyeux, and afterwards more fully +developed by M. Seguin. These chemists clearly proved, that the +formation of leather was the result of a chemical union between a +substance called tannin, and the gelatinous part of the skin.</p> + +<p>4. The subject, however, was not thoroughly understood, and reduced to +scientific principles, until the year 1803, when Sir Humphrey Davy +gave it a careful investigation, in a series of chemical experiments. +These inquiries resulted in the conviction, that the method of tanning +which had been in general use, may, with a few alterations, be +considered preferable to that by which the process is carried on with +more rapidity.</p> + +<p>5. The skin which envelopes the bodies of animals, consists of three +layers. That on the outside is a thin, white, elastic membrane, called +the <i>cuticle</i>, or <i>scarf skin</i>; that on the inside is a strong +membrane, denominated the <i>cutis</i>, or <i>true skin</i>; between these two +is a very thin membrane, to which anatomists have given the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rete +mucosum</i>, and in which is situated the substance which gives color to +the animal. The cutis is composed of fibres, which run in every +direction, and, being by far the thickest layer, is the one that is +converted into leather.</p> + +<p>6. The skins of large animals, such as those of the ox and horse, are +denominated hides; and those of smaller animals, as of the calf, goat, +and sheep, are called skins. Of the former description, is made thick, +of the latter, thin leather. The process of tanning different skins +varies in many particulars, according<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> to the nature of the leather, +and the uses to which it is to be applied.</p> + +<p>7. The general process of changing thick hides into sole-leather, is +as follows: They are first soaked in water, to free them from dirt and +blood; and then, if rigid, they are beaten and rubbed, or rolled under +a large stone, to render them pliable. They are next soaked in +lime-water, or hung up in a warm room, and smoked, until a slight +putrescency takes place. The hair, cuticle, rete mucosum, on one side, +and the fleshy parts on the other, are then scraped off, on a <i>beam</i>, +with a circular knife.</p> + +<p>8. Nothing now remains but the cutis, or true skin. Several hides, in +this state of preparation, are put together into a vat, for the +purpose of impregnating them with tannin. This substance is found in +astringent vegetables, and is obtained, in a proper state for +application, by infusion in water. In that condition, it is called +<i>ooze</i>, which is first applied in a weak state.</p> + +<p>9. After the ooze, of different degrees of strength, has been renewed +several times, they are put between layers of bark, and suffered to +remain several months, fresh bark, from time to time, being supplied. +The whole process generally occupies from twelve to sixteen months. +When strong solutions of tannin are used, the leather is formed in a +much shorter time; but, in that case, it is much more rigid, and more +liable to crack. It is rendered smooth and compact, by beating it with +a wooden beetle, or by passing it between rollers.</p> + +<p>10. Oak bark, on account of its cheapness, and the quantity of tannin +which it contains, is more extensively employed by tanners than any +other vegetable substance. In sections of country, where this kind +cannot be conveniently obtained, the bark of the hemlock, spruce, and +chestnut, the leaves of the sumach, and various other astringents, are +substituted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p> + +<p>11. The process of tanning calf-skins is somewhat different in many of +its details. They are first put into a solution of lime, where they +remain during ten or fifteen days, and are then scraped on both sides +on the beam, with a circular knife, as in the former case, and for the +same purpose. They are then washed in water, and afterwards immersed +in an infusion of hen or pigeon's dung. Here they are left for a week +or ten days, according to the state of the weather and other +circumstances; during which time, they are frequently <i>handled</i>, and +scraped on both sides. By these means, the lime, oil, and saponaceous +matter, are discharged, and the skin is rendered pliable.</p> + +<p>12. They are next put into a vat containing weak ooze, and afterwards +removed to several others of regularly increasing strength. In the +mean time, they are taken up and handled every day, that they may be +equally acted upon by the tanning principle. The time occupied in the +whole process, is from two to six months. The light and thin sorts of +hides, designed for upper leather, harnesses, &c., are treated in a +similar manner.</p> + +<p>13. The tanner procures his hides and skins from various sources, but +chiefly from the butcher, and from individuals who kill the animals +for their own consumption. Great quantities of dry hides are also +obtained from South America, where cattle are killed in great numbers, +principally for the sake of this valuable envelope of their bodies.</p> + + +<h3>THE CURRIER.</h3> + +<p>1. It is the business of the currier to dress the thinner kinds of +leather. In most cases, in the United States, except in and near large +cities, the business of tanning and currying are usually united in the +same individual; or, at least, the two branches of business are +carried on together, by the aid of workmen, skilled in their +respective trades.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. The mode of dressing the different kinds of skins, varies in some +respects; but, as the general method of operating is the same in every +sort, a description applicable in one case will convey a sufficiently +accurate idea of the whole. We shall, therefore, select the calf-skin, +since it is more frequently the subject of the currier's skill than +any other.</p> + +<p>3. The skin is first soaked in water, until it has become sufficiently +soft, and then shaved with the <i>currier's knife</i>, on the inner side, +over the <i>currier's beam</i>. It is then placed on a table, somewhat +inclined from the workman, and scoured on both sides with the edge of +a narrow, smooth stone, set in a handle, and again, with an iron +<i>sleeker</i> of a similar shape. The skin is next <i>stuffed</i> with a +composition of tallow and tanner's oil, on the flesh side, and then +hung up to dry. Afterwards it is rubbed on the hair side with a board, +and again scraped on the flesh side with the knife. Having been thus +prepared, the skin is blacked on the flesh side with lampblack and +tanner's oil, and subsequently rubbed with paste, applied with a +brush. When it has been dried, the whole process is finished by +rubbing both sides with a glass sleeker.</p> + +<p>4. Horse hides are blacked on the hair side, or, as the curriers term +it, on the <i>grain</i>, with a solution of copperas water. Leather +designed for harnesses, for covering carriages, and for other similar +purposes, is also blacked on that side in the same manner.</p> + +<p>5. The trade of the currier is divided into two or three branches. +Some dress only calf-skins and other thick leather designed for shoes, +harnesses, and carriages; others confine themselves to dressing skins, +which are to be applied to binding books, and to other purposes +requiring thin leather. It may be well to remark here, that the +dressers of thin leather usually tan the skins themselves, using the +leaves of sumach, instead of bark.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_SHOE_AND_BOOT_MAKER" id="THE_SHOE_AND_BOOT_MAKER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_115.jpg" width="500" height="427" alt="SHOEMAKER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER.</h2> + + +<p>1. As the shoe is an article of primary utility, it was used, more or +less, in the earliest ages. Some writers suppose, that the Deity, in +clothing man with skins, did not leave him to go barefooted, but gave +him shoes of the same material.</p> + +<p>2. The shoes of the ancient Egyptians were made of the papyrus. The +Chinese, as well as the inhabitants of India, and some other nations +of antiquity, manufactured them from silk, rushes, linen, wood, the +bark of trees, iron, brass, silver, and gold, and sometimes ornamented +them with precious stones.</p> + +<p>3. The Romans had various coverings for the feet, the chief of which +were the <i>calceus</i> and the <i>solea</i>. The calceus somewhat resembled the +shoe we wear at present, and was tied upon the instep with a latchet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +or lace. The solea, or sandal, was a thick cork sole, covered above +and beneath with leather, and neatly stitched on the edge. It left the +upper part of the foot bare, and was fastened to it by means of +straps, which were crossed over the instep, and wound about the ankle. +Roman citizens wore the calceus with the toga, when they went abroad +in the city, while the solea was worn at home and on journeys. The +solea was also used at entertainments; but it was changed for the +calceus, when the guests were about to surround the table.</p> + +<p>4. The senators wore shoes, which came up to the middle of the leg, +and which had a golden or silver crescent on the top of the foot. The +shoes of the women were generally white, sometimes red, scarlet, or +purple, and were adorned with embroidery and pearls; but those of the +men were mostly black. On days of public ceremony, however, the +magistrates wore red shoes.</p> + +<p>5. Boots were used in very ancient times, and were primarily worn, as +a kind of armor, with a view of protecting the lower extremities in +battle. They were, at first, made of leather, afterwards of brass or +iron, and were proof against the thrusts and cuts of warlike weapons. +The boot was called <i>ocrea</i> by the Romans, who, as well as the Greeks, +used it in the army, and in riding on horseback, and sometimes in +pedestrian journeys.</p> + +<p>6. The fashion of boots and shoes, like every other part of dress, has +been subject to a number of changes, as regards both their form and +material. In Europe, about one thousand years ago, the greatest +princes wore shoes with wooden soles. In the reign of William Rufus, +of England, the shoes of the great had long, sharp points, stuffed +with tow, and twisted like a ram's horn. The clergy preached against +this fashion; but the points continued to increase in length,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> until +the reign of Richard the Second, when they were tied to the knees with +chains of silver or gold. In the year 1463, Parliament interposed, and +prohibited the manufacture or use of shoes or boots with <i>pikes</i> +exceeding two inches in length.</p> + +<p>7. Lasts adapted to each foot, commonly called <i>rights and lefts</i>, +were not introduced into England, until about the year 1785; nor was +cramping, or <i>crimping</i>, the front part of boots practised there for +ten years after that period. These improvements did not become +generally known, or, at least, were not much used, in the United +States, for many years after their adoption in Great Britain.</p> + +<p>8. Many facts, besides the preceding, might be adduced to prove, that +the art of making shoes and boots, although uninterruptedly practised +from the earliest ages, has received many important improvements +within the last fifty years.</p> + +<p>9. In Europe and America, boots and shoes are commonly made of +leather. In shoes for females, however, it is not unusual to use +prunello, which is a kind of twilled, worsted cloth. In all cases, +thick leather is used for the soles.</p> + +<p>10. The business of <i>making</i> boots and shoes is carried on very +systematically in large establishments. The materials are cut out and +fitted by the foreman, or by the person who carries on the business, +whilst the pieces are stitched together, and the work finished, by +workmen who sit upon <i>the bench</i>.</p> + +<p>11. As a matter of convenience, the trade have fixed upon certain +sizes, which are designated by numbers; and, corresponding to these, +the lasts are formed by the last-maker; but, to be still more exact, +individuals sometimes procure lasts corresponding to their feet, on +which they cause their boots and shoes to be made.</p> + +<p>12. The following is a description of the process<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> of making a leather +shoe: after the materials have been cut out according to the measure, +or size, and the parts of the <i>uppers</i> have been stitched together, +the sole-leather is hammered on the <i>lapstone</i>, tacked to the last, +and trimmed with a knife. The upper leather is next stretched on the +last with a pair of pincers, fastened to its proper place with tacks, +and then sewed to the bottom of the sole with a waxed thread. A narrow +strip of leather, called a <i>welt</i>, is also fastened to the sole by +similar means, and to this is stitched another sole. A heel being +added, the shoe is finished by trimming and polishing it with +appropriate instruments.</p> + +<p>13. The edges of fine leather shoes and boots, are trimmed with thin +strips of the like material, whilst those of prunello, and other thin +shoes for ladies, are bound with narrow tape. The binding is applied +by females with thread, by means of a common needle.</p> + +<p>14. Shoe-thread is commonly spun from flax; that from hemp is much +stronger, and was formerly preferred; but it is now used only for very +strong work. The greater part of the shoe-thread used in the United +States, is spun by machinery, at Leeds, in England, from Russian flax. +The wax employed by shoemakers, was formerly composed of tar and +rosin; but it is now most usually made of pitch.</p> + +<p>15. The shoemaker, in sewing together different parts of his work, +uses threads of various sizes, which are composed of several small +threads of different lengths. A hog's bristle is fastened to each end +of it, which enables the workman to pass it with facility through the +holes made with the awl.</p> + +<p>16. An expeditious way of fastening the soles of boots and shoes to +the upper leathers, is found in the use of wooden pegs or brass nails. +The old method, however, is generally preferred, on several accounts;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +but chiefly, because the work is more durable, and because it can be +more easily repaired.</p> + +<p>17. Journeymen working at this trade most usually confine their +labours to particular kinds of work; as few can follow every branch +with advantage. Some make shoes and boots for men; others confine +their labours to those designed for ladies; but, by their aid, the +master-shoemaker can, and usually does, supply every kind at his +store.</p> + +<p>18. It is no uncommon thing in the country, for the farmers to +purchase leather, and employ the shoemaker to make it up; and this is +done, in most cases, on their own premises. The shoemaker employed in +this way, removes from house to house, changing his location, whenever +he has completely served a whole family in his vocation. In such +cases, he is said, by the trade, to be <i>whipping the cat</i>. The set of +tools with which he operates, is called his <i>kit</i>.</p> + +<p>19. The shoemaker usually buys his leather from the manufacturer; and +procures his tools, tacks, and various other articles of a similar +nature, at the <i>finding stores</i>. In some cases, the shoemaker with +little or no capital, gets his materials from the <i>leather-cutter</i>, +who makes it a business to supply them ready cut to the proper size +and shape. There are, however, but few leather-cutters in our country; +but, in England, this branch of trade is one of considerable +importance, and is frequently connected with that of the +leather-dresser.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_SADDLER_AND_HARNESS-MAKER_AND_THE" id="THE_SADDLER_AND_HARNESS-MAKER_AND_THE"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_120.jpg" width="500" height="420" alt="HARNESS MAKER &c." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER, AND THE +TRUNK-MAKER.</h2> + + +<h3>THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER.</h3> + +<p>1. The invention of the saddle has been attributed to the Selians, a +people of ancient Franconia. Under this impression, it has been +supposed that the Latins gave it the name of <i>sella</i>. The period at +which it was first used, cannot be ascertained. It is certain, +however, that the horse had been rendered subservient to man, several +centuries before this convenient article was thought of.</p> + +<p>2. At first, the rider sat upon the bare back of the animal, and +guided him with a switch, but afterwards with a strap put round the +nose. In the course of time, the rider came to use, upon the back of +the horse, the skins of beasts, in order to render his seat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> more +easy. The Greeks, and many other refined nations of antiquity, +sometimes used superb trappings, composed of cloth, leather, and skins +dressed with the hair on; and, in addition to the gold, silver, and +precious stones, with which these were ornamented, the horses were +often otherwise decked with bells, collars, and devices of various +kinds.</p> + +<p>3. The Romans, in the days of the republic, deemed it more manly to +ride on the bare back of the animal than on coverings. At a later +period, they used a kind of square pannel, without stirrups; and about +the year 340 of the Christian era, they began to ride on saddles. It +appears, that those first employed were very heavy, as the Emperor +Theodosius, in the same century, forbade the use of any which weighed +over sixty pounds. The use of saddles was established in England by +Henry the Seventh, who enjoined on his nobility the practice of riding +upon them.</p> + +<p>4. The frame of a saddle is called a <i>tree</i>. It is not made by the +saddlers, but by persons who confine their attention to this branch of +business. The trees are constructed of wood, with a small quantity of +iron, and covered with canvas.</p> + +<p>5. In making a common saddle, the workman first extends two strips of +<i>straining web</i> from the pommel to the hinder part of the tree, and +fastens them with tacks. The tree is then covered on the upper side +with two thicknesses of linen cloth, between which a quantity of wool +is afterwards interposed. A covering of thin leather, usually made of +hog's-skin, is next tacked on, and the flaps added. Under the whole +are placed the pads and saddle-cloth; the former of which is made of +thin cotton or linen cloth, and thin leather, stuffed with hair. The +addition of four straps, two girths, two stirrup-leathers, and as many +stirrups, completes the whole operation.</p> + +<p>6. The roughness, or the little indentations in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> flaps, are +produced by passing the leather between rollers, in contact with a +rough surface, or by beating it with a mallet, on the face of which +has been fastened a piece of the skin from a species of shark, +commonly called the dog-fish.</p> + +<p>7. Saddles are often covered with buckskin, curiously stitched into +figures, and having the spaces between the seams stuffed with wool; +this is particularly the case in side-saddles. The form of saddles, +and the quality of the materials, together with the workmanship, are +considerably varied, to suit the purposes to which they are to be +applied, and to accommodate the fancy of customers.</p> + +<p>8. The process of making bridles and harness for horses, is extremely +simple. The leather is first cut out with a knife of some description, +but usually with one of a crescent-like form, or with a blade set in a +gauge, and then stitched together with the kind of thread used by +shoemakers. The awl employed in punching the holes is straight; and +needles are most commonly used, instead of the bristles which point +the shoemaker's threads. The mode of manufacturing saddle-bags, +portmanteaus, and valises, is too obvious to need description.</p> + + +<h3>THE TRUNK-MAKER.</h3> + +<p>1. The manufacture of trunks is equally simple with that of making +harness. In common cases, it consists chiefly in lining the inside of +a wooden box with paper, or some kind of cloth, and covering the +outside with a skin, or with leather, which is fastened to the wood by +means of tacks. Narrow strips of leather are fastened upon hair trunks +with brass nails, by way of ornament, as well as to confine the work.</p> + +<p>2. Instead of a wooden box, oblong rims of iron, and very thick, solid +pasteboard, fastened together by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> means of strong thread, are used in +the best kinds of trunks. The frame or body, thus formed, is covered +with some substantial leather, which is first stuck on with paste, and +then secured by sewing it to the pasteboard with a waxed thread. Over +the whole, are applied strips of iron, fastened with brass or copper +nails with large heads. The lines and figures on the leather, added by +way of ornament, are produced by a <i>crease</i>, a tool made of wood, +ivory, or whalebone. Its form is much like that of the blade of a +common paper-folder.</p> + +<p>3. How long trunk-making has been a separate trade, cannot be exactly +ascertained. The trunk-makers in France were incorporated into a +company, in 1596. In the United States, this branch of business is +very commonly united with that of the saddler and harness-maker.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_SOAP-BOILER_AND_THE_CANDLE-MAKER" id="THE_SOAP-BOILER_AND_THE_CANDLE-MAKER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_124.jpg" width="500" height="420" alt="SOAP & CANDLE MAKER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE SOAP-BOILER, AND THE CANDLE-MAKER.</h2> + + +<h3>THE SOAP-BOILER.</h3> + +<p>1. The business of the soap-boiler consists in manufacturing soap, by +the combination of certain oily and alkaline substances.</p> + +<p>2. The earliest notice of this useful article occurs in the works of +Pliny, in which it is stated, that soap was composed of tallow and +ashes; that the mode of combining them was discovered by the Gauls; +but that the German soap was the best.</p> + +<p>3. For many ages before the invention of soap, saponaceous plants, and +several kinds of earth, together with animal matters and the ley from +ashes, were employed for the purpose of cleansing the skin, and +articles of clothing. The idea of combining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> some of these substances, +with the view of forming soap, probably originated in accident.</p> + +<p>4. The vegetable oils and animal fats, capable of saponification, are +very numerous; but those most commonly employed in the manufacture of +the soaps of commerce, are olive-oil, whale-oil, tallow, lard, +palm-oil, and rosin; and the alkalies with which these are most +frequently combined, are soda, the ley of ashes, or its residuum, +potash.</p> + +<p>5. Soda is sometimes called the <i>mineral alkali</i>; because it is found, +in some parts of the world, in the earth. It was known to the +ancients, at a very early period, under the denomination of <i>natron</i>. +It received this appellation from the lakes of Natron, in Egypt, from +the waters of which it was produced by evaporation, during the summer +season.</p> + +<p>6. The soda of commerce is now chiefly obtained from the <i>salsola</i>, a +genus of plants which grows on the sea-shore. In Spain, the plant from +which soda is obtained is denominated <i>barilla</i>; hence, the substance +produced from it by incineration has received the same appellation. +The ashes of a sea-weed which grows on the coasts of Scotland and +Ireland, is called <i>kelp</i>. In Europe, barilla and kelp are more +extensively employed in the manufacture of soap than any other +alkaline substances; but, in this country, where wood is so much used +for fuel, common ashes are generally preferred.</p> + +<p>7. The process of making the ordinary brown or yellow soap, from +wood-ashes, is conducted in the following manner. The alkali is first +obtained in a state of solution in water, by <i>leeching</i> the ashes as +described in <a href="#Page_26">page 26</a>, and then poured, in a weak state, into a copper +or iron caldron, having a large wooden tub carefully affixed to the +top of it.</p> + +<p>8. When the ley has been properly heated, the tallow, either in a +<i>tried</i> state or in the suet, is gradually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> added. More ley, of +greater concentration, is poured in; and the ingredients are +moderately boiled for several hours; while a person, as represented in +the preceding cut, aids their chemical union by agitating them with a +wooden spatula.</p> + +<p>9. After a quantity of rosin has been added, and properly incorporated +with the other materials, the fire is withdrawn until the next +morning, when it is again raised; then, with the view of forming the +<i>paste</i> into hard soap, a quantity of muriate of soda (common salt) is +added. The muriatic acid of this substance, uniting with the potash, +forms with it muriate of potash, which dissolves in the water, while +the soda combines with the tallow and rosin. Hard soap, therefore, +contains no potash; although this alkali is generally employed during +the early part of the process of making it.</p> + +<p>10. After the addition of the muriate of soda, the boiling and +stirring are continued two or three hours, when the fire is withdrawn, +and the contents of the caldron are suffered to be at rest. When the +soap has completely separated from the watery part and extraneous +matters, it is laded into another caldron, again diluted with strong +ley, and heated. The <i>paste</i> having been brought to a proper +consistence, more common salt is added as before, and for the same +purposes.</p> + +<p>11. The chemical part of the process having been thus completed, the +soap is laded into single wooden boxes, or into one or more composed +of several distinct frames, which can be removed separately from the +soap, after it has become solid enough to stand without such support. +The soap is cut into bars, of nearly a uniform size, by means of a +small brass wire.</p> + +<p>12. Manufacturers of soap have contrived various methods of +adulterating this article, or of adding ingredients<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> which increase +its weight, without adding to its value. The most common means +employed for this purpose is water, which may be added, in some cases, +in considerable quantities, without greatly diminishing the +consistence of the soap.</p> + +<p>13. This fraud may be detected by letting the soap lie for some time +exposed to the atmosphere. The water will thus be evaporated, and its +quantity can be known by weighing the soap, after its loss of the +superfluous liquid. To prevent evaporation, while the soap remains on +hand, it is said, that some dealers keep it in saturated solutions of +common salt. Another method of adulteration is found in the use of +pulverized lime, gypsum, or pipe-clay. These substances, however, can +be easily detected by means of a solution in alcohol, which +precipitates them.</p> + +<p>14. The process of manufacturing soft soap, differs but little in its +details from that described in the preceding paragraphs. The chief +difference consists in omitting the use of salt. Soft soap, therefore, +is composed of a greater proportion of water, and more alkali than is +necessary to saturate the unctuous matters. Soft soap is made by +almost every family in the country, from ashes, grease, and oily +matters, reserved for the purpose.</p> + +<p>15. The celebrated Marseilles white soap, is composed of</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Marseilles soap" width="40%"> +<tr><td align="left" width="70%">Soda,</td><td align="right" width="30%">6.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Olive-oil,</td><td align="right">60.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Water,</td><td align="right">34.</td></tr> +</table></div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<p>Castile soap, of</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Castile soap" width="40%"> +<tr><td align="left" width ="70%">Soda,</td><td align="right" width="30%">9. </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Olive-oil,</td><td align="right">76.5.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Water, with a little coloring matter,</td><td align="right">14.5.</td></tr> +</table></div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<p>Fine toilet-soaps are made with oil of almonds, nut-oil, palm-oil, +suet, or butter, combined with soda or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> potash, according to their +preparation in a solid or pasty state.</p> + +<p>16. In the manufacture of white soap, the tallow is more carefully +purified, and no rosin is used. In other particulars, the process +differs but little from that employed in the production of the common +kind. Two tons of tallow should yield three tons of white soap. In +making the same quantity of common brown or yellow soap, twelve +hundred weight less is required, on account of the substitution of +that amount of yellow rosin.</p> + +<p>17. The mottled appearance of some soaps is caused by dispersing the +ley through it, towards the close of the operation, or by adding a +quantity of sulphate of iron, indigo, or the oxide of manganese. +Castile soap, now manufactured in the greatest perfection at +Marseilles, in France, receives its beautifully marbled appearance +from the sulphate of iron.</p> + + +<h3>THE CANDLE-MAKER.</h3> + +<p>1. The subject of the candle-maker's labors may be defined to be a +wick, covered with tallow, wax, or spermaceti, in a cylindrical form, +which serves, when lighted, for the illumination of objects in the +absence of the sun. The business of candle-making is divided into two +branches; the one is confined to the manufacturing of tallow candles, +and the other, to making those composed of wax or spermaceti.</p> + +<p>2. The process of making candles from tallow, as conducted by the +tallow-chandler, needs only a brief description, since it differs but +little from the method pursued by families in the country, with which +most persons are familiar. The difference lies chiefly in the +employment of a few conveniences, by which the candles are more +rapidly multiplied.</p> + +<p>3. The first part of the process consists in preparing a wick, to +serve as a foundation. The coarse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> and slightly twisted yarn used for +this purpose, is spun in the cotton-factories; and, being wound into +balls, is, in that form, sold to the tallow-chandlers, as well as to +individuals who make candles for their own consumption.</p> + +<p>4. A sufficient number of threads is combined, to form a wick of a +proper size; and, as they are wound from the balls, they are measured +off, and cut to the proper length, by a simple contrivance, which +consists of a narrow board, a wooden pin, and the blade of a razor. +The pin and razor are placed perpendicular to the board, at a distance +determined by the length of the proposed wick. The wicks are next put +upon cylindrical rods, about three feet long; and a great number of +these are arranged on a long frame.</p> + +<p>5. To obtain the tallow in a proper state for use, it is separated +from the membranous part of the suet, by boiling the latter in an iron +or copper kettle, and then subjecting the <i>cracklings</i> to the action +of a press. The substance that remains, after the tallow has been +expressed, is called <i>greaves</i>, which are sometimes applied to +fattening ducks for market. This is especially the case in the city of +London.</p> + +<p>6. The <i>tried</i> tallow is prepared for application to the wicks, by +heating it to a proper temperature. It is then poured into a suitable +receptacle, where it is kept in <i>order</i> either by a moderate fire +underneath, or by the occasional addition of hot tallow.</p> + +<p>7. The <i>broaches</i>, as the sticks with their wicks are called, are +taken up, several at a time, either between the fingers or by means of +a simple instrument denominated a <i>rake</i>, and dipped into the tallow. +They are then returned to the frame, and suffered to cool, while +successive broaches are treated in the same way. The dipping is +repeated, until the candles have been thickened to the proper size.</p> + +<p>8. In the preceding plate, is represented a workman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> in the act of +dipping several broaches of candles, suspended on a rake, which he +holds in his hands. The mode of making dipped candles just described, +is more generally practised than any other, and in this manner five or +six hundred pounds can be made by one hand, in a single day. In some +establishments, however, a more complicated apparatus is used, by +which every part of the process is greatly expedited.</p> + +<p>9. Mould candles are made very differently. The moulds consist of a +frame of wood, in which are arranged several hollow cylinders, +generally made of pewter. At the lower extremity of each cylinder, is +a small hole, for the passage of the wick, which is introduced by +means of a hook on the end of a wire. The cotton is fastened at the +other end, and placed in a perpendicular situation in the centre of +the shafts, by means of a wire, which passes through the loops of the +wicks. The melted tallow, having been poured on the top of the wooden +frame, descends into each mould. After the candles have become +sufficiently cold, they are extracted from the cylinders with a +bodkin, which is inserted into the loop of the wick. One person can +thus mould two or three hundred pounds in a day.</p> + +<p>10. Candles are also made of bees-wax and spermaceti; but the mode of +their manufacture differs in no particular from that of common mould +candles. The wicks for wax-candles are usually made of a peculiar kind +of cotton, which grows in Asiatic Turkey.</p> + +<p>11. Before the wax is applied to this purpose, the coloring matter is +discharged. This is effected by bleaching the wax, in the following +manner. It is first divided into flakes, or thin laminæ, by pouring +it, in a melted state, through a colander upon a cylindrical wheel, +which, at the same time, is kept revolving, while partly immersed in +cold water. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> wax, having been removed from the water, is placed +upon a table or floor covered with some kind of cloth. Here it is +occasionally sprinkled with water, until the bleaching has been +completed. The process occupies several weeks, or even months, +according to the state of the weather, that being best which is most +favorable to a rapid evaporation.</p> + +<p>12. Spermaceti is a substance separated from sperm oil, which is +obtained from a species of whale, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">physeter macrocephalus</i>, or +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spermaceti cachalot</i>. This oil is obtained from both the head and +body of the animal, but that procured from the former contains twice +the quantity of spermaceti.</p> + +<p>13. To separate the spermaceti from the oil yielded by the body, it is +first heated, then put into casks, and suffered to stand two or three +weeks, in order to <i>granulate</i>. The oily part is now filtrated through +strainers; and the remainder, which is called <i>foots</i>, is again +heated, and put into casks. After having stood several weeks, these +are put into bags, and submitted to the action of a powerful press. +The spermaceti thus obtained, is melted and moulded into cakes. The +oil thus separated from the spermaceti, is called spring or fall +strained; because it is filtered and expressed only during those +seasons of the year.</p> + +<p>14. The oil from the head of the whale is treated like that from the +body, in almost every particular. The difference consists, +principally, in omitting the use of the strainer, and in the +employment of stronger bags and a more powerful press. The oil +obtained from the <i>head-matter</i>, is called <i>pressed</i>, since it is +separated by the action of the press only. It is also denominated +<i>winter-strained</i>, because the operation is performed in the cold +weather.</p> + +<p>15. The spermaceti, having been melted and moulded into cakes, is +reserved until the succeeding summer, when it is cut into thin +shavings, by means of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> large shave, similar to the <i>spoke-shave</i> of +the wheelwrights, and again pressed as before. The oil of this last +pressing is called <i>taut pressed</i>, and is the least valuable kind, +since a slight degree of cold causes it to become thick. The +spermaceti obtained from the oil of the body, and that from the +head-matter, are melted together, and purified by means of potash-ley.</p> + +<p>16. The sperm-oil, thus freed from the spermaceti, is extensively used +in lamps as a means of illumination; and, for many purposes, it is far +more convenient than tallow. In the country, lard is frequently +employed instead of oil, especially by the German population. In some +European and Asiatic countries, vegetable oils supply the place of +animal fats, in this application.</p> + +<p>17. The origin of the art of making candles is not known. It is +evident, however, that the business is comparatively modern, since the +Greeks and Romans, as well as other nations of antiquity, employed +torches of pine and fir, and lamps supplied with oil, in the +production of artificial light. The words in the Scriptures translated +<i>candle</i>, imply nothing more nor less than a light produced by some +kind of oil consumed in a lamp.</p> + +<p>18. The lamps in ancient times were suspended by a chain or cord from +the ceiling, or supported on stands and moveable tables, which were +called by the Romans <i>lampadaria</i>, or <i>candelabra</i>. Many specimens of +this utensil are preserved in several museums of Europe, and some have +lately been found in the ruins of Herculaneum.</p> + +<p>19. The Chinese make their candles from the tallow obtained from the +seeds and capsules of the tallow-tree. This tree, which is produced in +great abundance in China, is said to grow in various parts of South +Carolina and Georgia. In appearance, it resembles the Lombardy +poplar.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_COMB-MAKER_AND_THE_BRUSH-MAKER" id="THE_COMB-MAKER_AND_THE_BRUSH-MAKER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_133.jpg" width="500" height="425" alt="COMB-MAKER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE COMB-MAKER, AND THE BRUSH-MAKER.</h2> + + +<h3>THE COMB-MAKER.</h3> + +<p>1. The comb is a well-known instrument, employed in cleansing, +dressing, and confining the hair. It is made of various materials, but +most commonly of tortoise-shell, the horns and hoofs of cattle, ivory, +bone, and several kinds of hard wood.</p> + +<p>2. It is impossible to determine the period of the world at which it +was introduced, since history and tradition, the sources from which we +obtain information of this nature, are silent with regard to its +origin. It is evident, however, that the comb is an instrument of +primary necessity; and hence it must have been invented in the +earliest ages. This opinion is confirmed by the fact, that the comb +has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> frequently found in use amongst savages, when first visited +by civilized men.</p> + +<p>3. Combs employed in fixing the hair, are made of tortoise-shell, or +of the horns of cattle. The genuine tortoise-shell is taken from the +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testudo imbricata</i>, or <i>hawk's-bill turtle</i>; but a kind of shell, +inferior in quality, is obtained from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testudo caretta</i>, or +<i>loggerhead turtle</i>. These turtles inhabit the seas of warm and +temperate climates; but they are especially numerous in the West +Indian seas, where <i>shell</i> is a valuable article of commerce. That +from St. Domingo is especially esteemed for its brilliancy of shade +and color.</p> + +<p>4. The shell of the hawk's-bill turtle was extensively employed for +ornamental purposes by the refined nations of antiquity; although we +have no account of its application to the manufacture of combs. The +Greeks and Romans decorated with it the doors and pillars of their +houses, as well as their beds and other furniture. The Egyptians dealt +largely with the Romans in this elegant article.</p> + +<p>5. The general length of the hawk's-bill turtle is about three feet +from the bill to the end of the shell; but it has been known to +measure five feet, and to weigh five or six hundred pounds. In the +Indian Ocean, especially, specimens of prodigious magnitude are said +to have occurred.</p> + +<p>6. The shell employed in the arts, grows upon the back and feet of the +animal. That on the back, consists of thirteen laminæ, or plates, +which lap over each other, like tiles on the roof of a house. The +plates vary in thickness from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, +according to the age and size of the turtle. The quantity of +merchantable shell obtained from a single subject of the usual size, +is about eight pounds, which, at the usual price, is worth sixty or +seventy dollars.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> + +<p>7. The process of making combs from the horns of cattle, is not +difficult to be understood. The tips and buts are first cut off with a +saw, and the remaining portion is also divided longitudinally on one +side with the same instrument. The horns are then soaked for several +days, and afterwards boiled in oil, to render them pliable. They are +next spread out and pressed between hot iron plates. This operation +clarifies the horn, and produces a plate of proper thickness.</p> + +<p>8. After the plates thus produced, have been cut in pieces +corresponding in size to the proposed combs, and when these have been +shaved to a suitable thickness with instruments adapted to the +purpose, the teeth are cut either with a <i>twinning saw</i>, as +represented in the preceding cut, or with a <i>twinning machine</i>.</p> + +<p>9. In the former case, the plate is fastened with a wooden <i>clamp</i>, by +the part which is designed to be left for the back of the comb; and +when twins, or two combs, are to be formed from one piece, the other +end is bent down, so as to render the upper surface considerably +convex. To this surface the <i>twinning saw</i> is applied by the hand of +the workman, who makes a number of incisions; which are completed both +ways with two different kinds of saws, and the end of each tooth is +cut from the back of the opposite comb with an instrument called a +<i>plugging awl</i>.</p> + +<p>10. The <i>twinning machine</i> was invented, about twenty years ago, by a +Mr. Thomas, of Philadelphia; but it has been successfully improved by +several individuals since that time. It is, altogether, an ingenious +and useful contrivance. The cutting part consists of two chisels, +which are made to act on the plate alternately, and in a perpendicular +direction, each chisel cutting one side of two teeth, and severing one +from the opposite back, at every stroke. It is impossible, however, to +form a clear conception of the manner in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> which the machine operates, +except by actual inspection. It performs the work with great rapidity; +since from one to two hundred dozens of combs can be cut in twelve +hours; whereas, not one-fourth of that number can be <i>twinned</i> in the +old method, during the same time.</p> + +<p>11. After the teeth have been rounded, and in other respects brought +to the proper form with suitable instruments, the combs are polished +by rubbing them first with the dust of a peculiar kind of brick, then +by applying them to a moving cylinder covered with buff leather, +charged with rotten-stone, ashes, or brick-dust; and, finally, by +rubbing them with the hand, charged with rotten-stone and vinegar.</p> + +<p>12. The combs are next colored, or stained; and, as the tortoise-shell +is by far the best and most expensive material for this kind of comb, +the great object of the manufacturer is to produce colors as nearly +resembling those of the real shell as practicable. This is done in +considerable perfection, in the following manner:</p> + +<p>13. The combs are first dipped in aqua-fortis, and then covered with a +paste made of lime, pearlash, and red lead. To produce the requisite +variety of shades, both taste and judgment are necessary in applying +the composition, and in determining the time which it should remain +upon the combs. To give the combs a still stronger resemblance to +shell, they are also immersed for fifteen or twenty minutes in a dye +of Nicaragua.</p> + +<p>14. The combs having been covered with oil, they are next heated upon +iron plates, and brought to the desired shape by bending them upon +wooden blocks with a woollen list. The whole process is finished by +rubbing off the oil with a silk handkerchief.</p> + +<p>15. The general process of making shell combs differs but little from +that which has been just described,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> varying only in a few +particulars, in compliance with the peculiar nature of the material.</p> + +<p>16. On account of the great value of shell, the workmen are careful to +make the most of every portion of it; accordingly, when a piece falls +short of the desired size, it is enlarged by <i>welding</i> to it another +of smaller dimensions. The union is effected, by lapping the two +pieces upon each other, and then pressing them together between two +plates of hot iron. The heat of the iron is prevented from injuring +the shell, by the interposition of a wet linen cloth, and by immersing +the whole in hot water. In a similar manner, broken combs are often +mended; and by the same method, two pieces of horn can also be joined +together.</p> + +<p>17. Both horn and shell combs are often stamped with figures, and +otherwise ornamented with carved work. In the latter case, the +ornaments are produced, by removing a part of the material with a saw +and graver. The saw employed is not more than the twelfth of an inch +in width; and, being fastened to a frame, it is moved up and down, +with great rapidity, by means of the foot, while the part of the comb +to be cut away is applied to the teeth. The operator is guided in the +work by a pattern, which has been struck on paper from an engraved +plate.</p> + +<p>18. Combs for dressing and cleansing the hair, are made of horn, +shell, bone, ivory, and wood; but it is unnecessary to be particular +in describing the manner in which every kind of comb is manufactured. +We will only add, that the teeth of fine ivory and bone combs are cut +with a buzz, or circular saw, which, fastened to a mandrel, is moved +in a lathe.</p> + + +<h3>THE BRUSH-MAKER.</h3> + +<p>1. There are few manufactured articles in more general use than +brushes. This has arisen from their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> great utility, and the low prices +at which they can be purchased. The productions of the brush-maker's +labor are denominated variously, according to the purposes to which +they are to be applied.</p> + +<p>2. The operations connected with this business are very simple, as +there is scarcely a tool employed which is not familiar to every other +class of mechanics. The brush-maker, however, does not manufacture +every part of the brush. He procures his wooden <i>stocks</i> and handles +from various sources, but chiefly from the turner, and bone handles, +from the tooth-brush handle-maker.</p> + +<p>3. The first part of the process which may be considered as belonging +particularly to the brush-maker, consists in boring the holes for the +reception of the bristles. This is done with a <i>bit</i> of a proper size, +which is kept in motion with a lathe, while the wood is brought +against it with both hands. To enable the operator to make the holes +in the right place and in the proper direction, a pattern is applied +to the hither side of the stock.</p> + +<p>4. The greater part of the bristles used by the brush-makers in the +United States, are imported from Russia and Germany. Large quantities, +however are obtained from Pennsylvania, and some parts of the Western +States. American bristles are worth from thirty to fifty cents per +pound, a price sufficiently high, one would suppose, to induce the +farmers to preserve them, when they butcher their swine. Were this +generally done, a tolerable supply of the shorter kinds of bristles +might be obtained in our own country.</p> + +<p>5. When the bristles come into the hands of the brush-maker, the long +and short, and frequently those of different colors, are mixed +together. These are first assorted, according to color; and those of a +whitish hue are afterwards washed with potash-ley and soap, to free +them from animal fat, and then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> whitened by bleaching them with the +fumes of brimstone.</p> + +<p>6. The bristles are next combed with a row of steel teeth, for the +purpose of placing them in a parallel direction, and with a view of +depriving them of the short hair which may be intermixed. The workman, +immediately after combing a handful, assorts it into separate parcels +of different lengths. This is very readily done, by pulling out the +longest bristles from the top, until those which remain in the hand +have been reduced to a certain length, which is determined by a gauge +marked with numbers. At each pulling, the handful is reduced in height +near half an inch.</p> + +<p>7. The stocks and the bristles having been thus prepared, they are +next fastened together. This is effected either with wire or by a +composition of tar and rosin. The wire is used in all cases in which +the fibre is doubled; but when the bristles are required in their full +length, as in sweeping-brushes, the adhesive substance is employed.</p> + +<p>8. It is superfluous to enter into detail, to show the manner in which +the wire and composition are applied in fixing the bristles, as any +person, with an ordinary degree of observation, can readily comprehend +the whole, by examining the different kinds of brushes which are met +with in every well-regulated household. The bristles, after having +been fixed to the stock or handle, are trimmed with the shears or +knife, according as they are required to be equal or unequal in +length.</p> + +<p>9. The brush is next handed over to the <i>finisher</i>, who applies to the +back of the stock a thin veneer of wood, which secures the wire +against the oxidizing influence of the atmosphere, and gives to the +brush a finished appearance. The stock, together with the veneer, is +then brought to the desired shape with suitable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> instruments, polished +with sand-paper, and covered with varnish.</p> + +<p>10. Those brushes which the manufacturer designs to be ornamented, are +sent in great quantities to the <i>ornamenter</i>, who applies to them +various figures, in gold or Dutch leaf, japan or bronze, and sometimes +prints, which have been struck on paper from engraved plates.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_TAVERN-KEEPER" id="THE_TAVERN-KEEPER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_141.jpg" width="500" height="417" alt="INN-KEEPER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE TAVERN-KEEPER.</h2> + + +<p>1. A house in which travellers are entertained is denominated a +tavern, inn, coffee-house, hotel, or house of public entertainment; +and an individual who keeps a house of this description, is called an +inn-keeper or tavern-keeper. Of these establishments there are various +grades, from the log cabin with a single room, to the splendid and +commodious edifice with more than a hundred chambers.</p> + +<p>2. This business is one of great public utility; since, by this means, +travellers obtain necessary refreshments and a temporary home, with +very little trouble on their part, and that, in most cases, for a +reasonable compensation. This is especially the case in the United +States, where the public houses, taking them together, are said to be +superior to those of any other country.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. Travellers, in the early ages of the world, either carried with +them the means of sustenance, and protection from the weather, or +relied upon the hospitality of strangers; but, as the intercourse +between different places for the purposes of trade, increased, houses +of public entertainment were established, which at first were chiefly +kept by women.</p> + +<p>4. The people of antiquity, in every age and nation, whether barbarous +or civilized, were, however, remarkable for their hospitality. We find +this virtue enjoined in the Mosaic writings, and scriptures generally, +in the poems of Homer, as well as in other distinguished writings, +which have descended to our times. The heathen nations were rendered +more observant of the rites of hospitality by the belief, that their +fabulous gods sometimes appeared on earth in human shape; and the Jews +and ancient Christians, by the circumstance, that Abraham entertained +angels unawares.</p> + +<p>5. On account of the occasional acts of violence committed by both the +guest, and the master of the house, it became necessary to take some +precautions for their mutual safety. When, therefore, a stranger +applied for lodgings, it was customary among the Greeks for both to +swear by Jupiter, that they would do each other no harm. This ceremony +took place, while each party stood with his foot placed on his own +side of the threshold; and a violation of this oath by either party, +excited against the offender the greatest horror.</p> + +<p>6. The Greeks and Romans, in common with the people of many other +nations, were in the habit of making arrangements with persons at a +distance from their homes, for mutual accommodation, when either party +might be in the vicinity of the other. In these agreements, the +contracting parties included their posterity, and delivered to each +other tokens,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> which might be afterwards exhibited in proof of ancient +ties of hospitality between the families. They swore fidelity to each +other by the name of Jupiter, who was surnamed the Hospitable; because +he was supposed to be the protector of strangers, and the avenger of +their wrongs.</p> + +<p>7. This relation was considered a very intimate one, especially by the +Romans; and, in their language, it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospitium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus +hospitii</i>; hence, the guest and entertainer were both called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostes</i>, +a word from which <i>host</i> is derived, which is employed to designate +both the landlord and the guest. The Roman nobility used to build, for +the reception of strangers, apartments called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospitalia</i>, on the +right and left of the main building of their residence.</p> + +<p>8. During the middle ages, also, hospitality was very commonly +practised; and the virtue was not considered one of those which might +be observed or neglected at pleasure; the practice of it was even +enjoined by statute, in many countries, as a positive duty, which +could not be neglected with impunity. In some cases, the moveable +goods of the inhospitable person were confiscated, and his house +burned. If an individual had not the means of entertaining his guest, +he was permitted to steal, in order to obtain the requisite supply.</p> + +<p>9. The nobles of Europe, during this period, were generally +distinguished for their cordial entertainment of strangers, and their +immediate adherents. Their extraordinary liberality arose, in part, +from the general customs of the age, and partly from a desire to +attach to their interests as great a number of retainers as possible, +with a view to maintain or increase their political importance. +Strangers were also entertained at the monasteries, which were +numerous in almost every kingdom of Europe. Several of these +institutions were established in solitary places,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> with the express +purpose of relieving travellers in distress.</p> + +<p>10. It is evident, that the arrangements for mutual accommodation, and +the hospitable character of the ancients, were unfavorable to the +business of keeping tavern; but the free intercourse between different +nations, which arose from the Crusades, and the revival of commerce, +contributed greatly to the habit of regularly entertaining strangers +for a compensation, and led to the general establishment of inns.</p> + +<p>11. These inns, however, were not, at first, well supported; inasmuch +as travellers had been long accustomed to seek for lodgings in private +houses. In Scotland, inns were established by law, A.D. 1424; and, to +compel travellers to resort to them, they were forbidden, under a +penalty of forty shillings, to use private accommodations, where these +public houses were to be found.</p> + +<p>12. How far legislative enactments have been employed for the +establishment of inns in other countries, we have not been able to +learn, as the authorities to which we have referred for information on +this point are silent with regard to it. We know, however, that laws +have been made in almost every part of Europe, as well as in the +United States, with the view of compelling the landlord to preserve +proper order, and to accommodate his customers at reasonable charges.</p> + +<p>13. In the United States, and in all other commercial countries, this +business has become one of great importance, not only to the +individuals who have engaged in it, but also to the community in +general. Within the present century, the amount of travelling has +greatly increased, and the excellence of the public houses has +advanced in the same ratio. Some of these establishments in the cities +and large towns, are among the most extensive and splendid edifices of +the country; and, in every place through which there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> is much +travelling, they are usually equal or superior to the private +dwellings of the neighborhood.</p> + +<p>14. The business of keeping tavern, however, is not always confined to +the proper object of entertaining travellers, or persons at some +distance from home. A public house is frequently the resort of the +people who live in the immediate vicinity, and is often the means of +doing much injury, by increasing dissipation.</p> + +<p>15. In all cases in which ardent spirits are proposed to be sold, a +license must be obtained from the public authorities, for which must +be paid the sum stipulated by law; but any person is permitted to +lodge travellers, and to supply them with every necessary means of +cheer and comfort for a compensation, without the formality of a legal +permission; yet, a license to sell liquors is called a tavern-license; +because most tavern-keepers regard the profits on the sale of ardent +spirits as one of their chief objects.</p> + +<p>16. A public house in which no strong drink is sold, is called a +temperance tavern; and such establishments are becoming common; but +they are not, at present, so well supported as those in which the +popular appetite is more thoroughly complied with. The time, however, +may not be far distant, when the public sentiment will undergo such a +salutary change, that the tavern-keepers generally will find it their +best policy to relinquish the sale of this poisonous article.</p> + +<p>17. As travellers often apply to the bar for "something to drink," +merely to remunerate the landlord for the use of his fire, or some +little attention, the friends of temperance would essentially promote +their cause, by encouraging the practice of paying for a glass of +water, or some trifle of this kind. This would increase the number of +temperance taverns, and, perhaps, be the means of preventing many +generous people from forming those dissipated habits, which are so +often attended with ruinous results.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_HUNTER" id="THE_HUNTER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_146.jpg" width="500" height="424" alt="The HUNTER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE HUNTER.</h2> + + +<p>1. Hunting and fishing are usually considered the primary occupations +of man; not because they were the first employments in which he +engaged, but because they are the chief means of human sustenance +among savage nations.</p> + +<p>2. The great and rapid increase of the inferior animals, and, +probably, the diminished fertility of the soil after the deluge, +caused many branches of the family of Noah to forsake the arts of +civilized life, especially after the dispersion caused by the +confusion of tongues.</p> + +<p>3. Many of these families, or tribes, continued in this barbarous +state for several ages, or until their increase of numbers, and the +diminished quantity of wild game, rendered a supply of food from the +objects<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> of the chase extremely precarious. Necessity then compelled +them to resort to the domestication of certain animals, and to the +cultivation of the soil. But the practice of hunting wild animals is +not confined to the savage state; as it is an amusement prompted by a +propensity inherent in human nature.</p> + +<p>4. The earliest historical notice of this sport is found in the tenth +chapter of Genesis, in which Nimrod is styled, "a mighty hunter before +the Lord." So great was his prowess in this absorbing pursuit, that he +was proverbially celebrated on this account even in the time of Moses. +Nimrod is the first king of whom we read in history; and it is by no +means improbable, that his skill and intrepidity in subduing the wild +beasts of the forest, contributed largely towards elevating him to the +regal station.</p> + +<p>5. Although the spoils of the chase are of little consequence to men, +after they have united in regular communities, in which the arts of +civilized life are cultivated; yet the propensity to hunt wild animals +continues, and displays itself more or less among all classes of men.</p> + +<p>6. The reader of English history will recollect, that William the +Conqueror, who began his reign in the year 1066, signalized his +passion for this amusement, by laying waste, and converting, into one +vast hunting-ground, the entire county of Hampshire, containing, at +that time, no less than twenty-two populous parishes. Severe laws were +also enacted, prohibiting the destruction of certain kinds of game, +except by a few persons having specified qualifications. With some +modifications, these laws are still in force in Great Britain.</p> + +<p>7. In other countries of Europe, also, large tracts have been +appropriated by the kings and nobles to the same object. This +tyrannical monopoly is attempted to be justified by the unreasonable +pretension, that all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> wild animals belong, of right, to the monarch of +the country, where they roam.</p> + +<p>8. The quadrupeds most hunted in Europe, are the stag, the hare, the +fox, the wolf, and the wild boar. These beasts are pursued either on +account of their intrinsic value, or for sport, or to rid the country +of their depredations. In some instances, all three of these objects +may be united. The method of capturing or killing the animals is +various, according to the character and objects of the persons engaged +in it.</p> + +<p>9. In Asia, the wolf is sometimes hunted with the eagle; but, in +Europe, the strongest greyhounds are employed to run him down. This +task, however, is one of extreme difficulty, as he can easily run +twenty miles upon a stretch, and is besides very cunning in the means +of eluding his pursuers. Chasing the fox on horseback, with a pack of +hounds, is considered an animating and manly sport, both in Europe and +in North America.</p> + +<p>10. The most prominent victim of the hunter, in Africa, is the lion. +He is usually sought in small parties on horseback with dogs; but +sometimes, when one of these formidable animals has been discovered, +the people of the neighborhood assemble, and encircle him in a ring, +three or four miles in circumference. The circle is gradually +contracted, until the hunters have approached sufficiently near to the +beast, when they dispatch him, usually with a musket-ball.</p> + +<p>11. In the southern parts of Asia, tiger-hunting is a favorite +amusement. Seated upon an elephant, trained especially for the +purpose, the hunter is in comparative safety, while he pursues and +fires upon the tiger, until his destruction is effected.</p> + +<p>12. The white bear and the grisly bear are the most formidable animals +in North America; yet they are industriously hunted by both Indians +and white<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> men, on account of the value of their flesh and skins. +Bisons, or, as they are erroneously called, buffaloes, are found in +great numbers in the vast prairies which occur between the Mississippi +and the Rocky Mountains. They are commonly met with in droves, which +sometimes amount to several thousands.</p> + +<p>13. When the Indian hunters propose to destroy these animals, they +ride into the midst of a herd, and dispatch them with repeated wounds; +or, they get a drove between themselves and a precipice, and, by +shouting and yelling, cause the animals to crowd each other off upon +the rocks below. In this manner, great numbers are disabled and taken +at once. The hunters, at other times, drive the bisons into +inclosures, and then shoot them down at their leisure. The hide of +this animal is dressed with the hair adhering to it; and skins, in +this state, are used by the savages for beds, and by the white people, +in wagons, sleighs, and stages.</p> + +<p>14. North America, and the northern parts of Asia, have been, and, in +some parts, still are, well stocked with fur-clad animals; and these +are the principal objects of pursuit, with those who make hunting +their regular business. Some of these animals were common in every +part of North America, when this portion of the western continent was +first visited by Europeans; and a trade in peltries, more or less +extensive, has been carried on with the natives, ever since the first +settlement of the country.</p> + +<p>15. For the purpose of conducting this trade with advantage, a company +was formed in England, in 1670, by Prince Rupert and others, to whom a +charter was granted, securing to them the exclusive privilege of +trading with the Indians about Hudson's Bay. Another company was +formed in 1783-4, called the North-West Fur Company. Between these +companies, there soon arose dissensions and hostilities, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> many +injuries were mutually inflicted by the adherents of the parties. Both +associations, however, were at length united, under the title of the +Hudson's Bay Fur Company. The Indian trade, on the great lakes and the +Upper Mississippi, has long been in possession of the North American +Fur Company. Most of the directors of this company reside in the city +of New-York.</p> + +<p>16. The companies just mentioned supply the Indians with coarse blue, +red, and fine scarlet cloths, coarse cottons, blankets, ribands, +beads, kettles, firearms, hatchets, knives, ammunition, and other +articles adapted to the wants of the hunters, receiving, in return, +the skins of the muskrat, beaver, otter, martin, bear, deer, lynx, +fox, &c.</p> + +<p>17. The intercourse with the Indians is managed by agents, called +clerks, who receive from the company a salary, ranging from three to +eight hundred dollars per annum. The merchandise is conveyed to the +place of trade, in the autumn, by the aid of Canadian boatmen and +half-Indians. The most considerable portion of the goods are sold to +the Indians on a credit, with the understanding of their making +payment in the following spring; but, as many neglect this duty, a +high price is affixed to the articles thus intrusted to savage +honesty. The clerk furnishes the debtor with a trap, having his own +name stamped upon it, to show that the hunter has pledged every thing +which may be caught in it.</p> + +<p>18. Each clerk is supplied with four laborers and an interpreter. The +latter attends to the store in the absence of the clerk, or watches +the debtors in the Indian camp, lest they again sell the produce of +their winter's labors. The peltries, when obtained by the clerk, are +sent to the general agent of the company.</p> + +<p>19. The fur trade is also prosecuted, to some extent, by a class of +men in Missouri, who proceed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> from the city of St. Louis, in bodies +comprising from fifty to two hundred individuals. After having +ascended the Missouri river, or some of its branches, and, perhaps, +after having passed the Rocky Mountains, they separate, and pursue the +different animals on their own individual account, either alone or in +small parties. The Indians regard these men as intruders on their +territories; and, when a favorable opportunity is presented, they +frequently surprise and murder the wandering hunters, and retain +possession of their property.</p> + +<p>20. In consequence of the unremitted warfare which has, for a long +time, been carried on against the wild animals of North America, their +number has been greatly diminished; and, in many parts, almost every +species of the larger quadrupeds, and the fur-clad animals, has been +exterminated. Even on the Mississippi, and the great lakes, the latter +description of animals has been so much reduced in number, that the +trade in peltries, in those parts, has become of little value. Another +half century will, probably, nearly terminate the trade in every part +of North America.</p> + +<p>21. The fur trade was prosecuted with considerable success, during the +latter part of the last century, principally by the English, on the +north-west coast of America, and the adjacent islands. The peltries +obtained by these enterprising traders, were carried directly to +China. The trade was interrupted for a while by the Spaniards, who +laid claim to those regions, and seized the British traders engaged +there, together with the property in their possession. This affair, +however, was afterwards amicably adjusted by the Spanish and English +governments; and the whole trade, from California north and to China, +was opened to the latter.</p> + +<p>22. The fur trade, in those parts, is now chiefly in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> the hands of the +Russian Company in America, which has a capital of a million of +dollars invested in the business. Most of the persons owning the +stock, are merchants, residing at Irkutsk, a town of Siberia, which is +the centre of the fur trade of that country. The skins obtained in +Russian America are chiefly procured from the sea-otter, and several +species of seal, together with those from foxes, of a blue, black, and +gray color, which are brought from the interior. Parties of Russian +hunters have already passed the Rocky Mountains, and interfered with +the trade of the Hudson's Bay Company. The fur trade of Siberia is +chiefly carried on with China.</p> + +<p>23. The chief objects of the hunters in Siberia, are the black fox, +the sable, the ermine, the squirrel, the beaver, and the lynx. In the +region near the Frozen Ocean, are also caught blue and white foxes. +Siberia is the place of banishment for the Russian empire; and the +exiles were formerly required to pay to the government an annual +tribute of a certain number of sable-skins. The conquered tribes in +Siberia, were also compelled to pay their taxes in the skins of the +fox and sable; but now, those of less value, or money, are frequently +substituted.</p> + +<p>24. Although the skins of beasts were the first means employed to +clothe the human body, yet it does not appear that the Greeks and +Romans, and the other refined nations of antiquity, ever made use of +furs for this purpose. The custom of wearing them, originated in those +regions, where the fur-clad animals were numerous, and where the +severity of the climate required this species of clothing. The use of +furs was introduced into the southern parts of Europe by the Goths, +Vandals, Huns, and other barbarous nations, which overran the Roman +empire.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_FISHERMAN" id="THE_FISHERMAN"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_153.jpg" width="500" height="420" alt="WHALER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE FISHERMAN.</h2> + + +<p>1. Although permission was given by the Deity, immediately after the +flood, to employ for human sustenance "every moving thing that +liveth," yet it is not probable, that fishes were used as food, to any +considerable extent, for several centuries afterwards. It is stated by +Plutarch, that the Syrians and Greeks, in very ancient times, +abstained from fish. Menelaus, one of Homer's heroes, complains, on a +certain occasion, that his companions had been reduced by hunger to +the necessity of eating fish; and there is no mention in Homer, that +the Grecians, at any time, used this food at the siege of Troy, +although, for the ten years during which that contest was carried on, +their camp was on the sea-shore.</p> + +<p>2. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, is very explicit in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> designating the +land animals which might be used by the Israelites as food; and he was +equally so with regard to the animals which inhabit the waters. We +learn, from the twelfth chapter of Numbers, that the children of +Israel, while journeying to the land of Canaan, "remembered the fish +which they did eat," in Egypt.</p> + +<p>3. This is the earliest notice on record, of the actual use of that +class of animals for food; although it is probable, that they had been +applied to this purpose, in Egypt, six or seven hundred years before +that period, or soon after the settlement of this country by the +descendants of Ham.</p> + +<p>4. For a long time before the advent of Our Saviour, fishing had been +a regular business, even in Judea; and from the class of men who +followed this occupation, he chose several of his apostles. At the +time just mentioned, fish had become a common article of diet, in all +parts of the world subject to the Roman power, and probably in almost +all other countries.</p> + +<p>5. The methods of catching fish, pursued in ancient times, were +similar to those of the present day; for then, as now, they were +caught with a hook, with a spear, and with a seine or net, according +to the character of the animal, and the nature of the fishing station. +But the great improvements in navigation, made since the twelfth +century, have given modern fishermen the command of the Atlantic and +Pacific Oceans, and, consequently, a knowledge of many species of fish +which were formerly unknown.</p> + +<p>6. According to Linnæus, the great naturalist, about four hundred +species of fish have come to our knowledge; and he presumes, that +those which remain unknown are still more numerous. Notwithstanding +this great variety, the chief attention of fishermen is confined to a +few kinds, which are the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> easily caught, and which are the most +valuable when taken.</p> + +<p>7. Every place which contains many inhabitants, and which is located +in the vicinity of waters well stored with fish, is supplied with +these animals by men who make fishing a business; still, these +fisheries may be considered local in their benefits, and perhaps do +not require particular notice in this article. We will only remark, +therefore, that, in large cities, fresh fish are sold either in a +fish-market, or are <i>hawked</i> about the streets. The wives of the +fishermen are very often employed in selling the fish caught by their +husbands. The fisheries which are of the greatest consequence, in +general commerce, are those which relate to herring, mackerel, salmon, +seal, and whale.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Herring Fishery.</i>—There are several species of herring; but, of +these, four kinds only are of much importance, viz., the common +herring, the shad, the hard head, and the alewife; of which, the first +is the most valuable, being by far the most numerous, and being, also, +better adapted than the others for preservation.</p> + +<p>9. The winter residence of the common herring is within the arctic +circle, whence it emigrates, in the spring, to more southern portions +of the globe, for the purpose of depositing its spawn. The first body +of these migratory animals, appears on the coasts of both Europe and +America, in April, or about the first of May; but these are only the +precursors of the grand shoals which arrive in a few weeks afterwards.</p> + +<p>10. Their first approach is indicated by the great number of birds of +prey, which follow them in their course; but, when the main body +appears, the number is so great, that they alter the appearance of the +ocean itself. In this last and principal migration, the shoals are +five or six miles in length, and three or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> four in breadth; and, +before each of these columns, the water is driven in a kind of ripple. +Sometimes, the fish sink together ten or fifteen minutes, and then +rise again to the surface, when they reflect, in clear weather, the +rays of the sun, in a variety of splendid colors.</p> + +<p>11. These fish proceed as far south as France, on the coasts of +Europe, and as far as Georgia, in America, supplying every bay, creek, +and river, which opens into the Atlantic. Having deposited their +spawn, generally in the inland waters, they return to their +head-quarters in the Arctic Ocean, and recruit their emaciated bodies +for another migration in the following spring.</p> + +<p>12. In a few weeks, the young ones are hatched by the genial heat of +the sun; and, as they are not found in southern waters in the winter, +it is evident that they proceed northward in the fall, to their +paternal haunts under the ice, and thus repair the vast destruction of +their race, which had been caused by men, fowl, and fish, in the +previous season.</p> + +<p>13. These fish are caught in nearly every river, from Maine to +Georgia, which has a free communication with the Atlantic; but the +most extensive fisheries are on the Hudson and Delaware Rivers, and on +those which flow into the Chesapeake Bay.</p> + +<p>14. The instrument employed in catching these fish is called a +<i>seine</i>, which is a species of net, sometimes in length several +hundred fathoms, and of a width suiting the depth of the water in +which it is to be used. The two edges of the net-work are fastened +each to a rope; and, to cause the seine to spread laterally in the +water, pieces of lead are fastened to one side, and pieces of cork to +the other.</p> + +<p>15. In spreading the seine in the water, one end is retained on land +by a number of persons, while the rest of it is strung along from a +boat, which is rowed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> in the direction from the shore. The seine +having been thus extended, the further end is brought round, in a +sweeping manner, to the shore; and the fish that may be included are +taken into the boats with a scoop-net, or are hauled out upon the +shore. In this way, two or three hundred thousands are sometimes taken +at a single <i>haul</i>. This fish dies immediately after having been taken +from the water; hence the common expression, "As dead as a herring."</p> + +<p>16. The herrings are sold, as soon as caught, to people who come to +the fishing stations to procure them; or, in case an immediate sale +cannot be effected, they are cured with salt, and afterwards smoked, +or continued in brine. In the Southern states, the herring is +generally thought to be superior to any other fish for the purpose of +salting down; although the shad and some others are preferred while +fresh.</p> + +<p>17. The importance of this fishery is superior to that of any other; +since the benefits resulting from it are more generally diffused. The +ancients, however, do not appear to have had any knowledge of this +valuable fish. It was first brought into notice by the Dutch, who are +said to have commenced the herring fishery on the coasts of Scotland, +in the year 1164, and to have retained almost exclusive possession of +it, until the beginning of the present century.</p> + +<p>18. The shad is a species of herring, which inhabits the sea near the +mouths of rivers, and which ascends them in the spring, to deposit its +spawn. It is caught in all the rivers terminating on our Atlantic +coasts, as well as in some of the rivers of the North of Europe. This +fish is captured in the same manner and often at the same time with +the common herring. It is highly esteemed in a fresh state; although +it is not so good when salted, as the herring and some other kinds of +fish.</p> + +<p>19. <i>Mackerel Fishery.</i>—The common mackerel is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> a migratory fish, +like the herring, and ranks next to that tribe of fishes in regard to +numbers, and perhaps in general utility. Its place of retirement in +the winter, is not positively known; but it is supposed by some, to be +far north of the arctic circle; and by others, to be in some part of +the Atlantic farther south. Shoals of this fish appear on the coasts +of both Europe and America, in the summer season. Of this fish there +are twenty-two species.</p> + +<p>20. The mode of catching the mackerel, is either with a net or with +hooks and lines. The latter method succeeds best, when the boat or +vessel is driven forward by a gentle breeze; and, in this case, a bit +of red cloth, or a painted feather, is usually employed as a bait. +Several hooks are fastened to a single line, and the fish bite so +readily, that the fishermen occasionally take one on each hook at a +haul. The mackerel is <i>cured</i> in the usual manner, and packed in +barrels, to be sold to dealers.</p> + +<p>21. This fish was well known to the ancients, as one of its places of +resort, in the summer, was the Mediterranean Sea. It was highly +esteemed by the Romans, for the reason, that it was the best fish for +making their <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sarum</i>, a kind of pickle or sauce much esteemed by this +luxurious people.</p> + +<p>22. <i>Salmon Fishery.</i>—The salmon is a celebrated fish, belonging to +the trout genus. It inhabits the seas on the European coasts, from +Spitzbergen to Western France; and, on the western shore of the +Atlantic, it is found from Greenland to the Hudson River. It also +abounds on both coasts of the North Pacific Ocean. The length of +full-grown salmon is from three to four feet; and their weight, from +ten to fifteen pounds.</p> + +<p>23. As soon as the ice has left the rivers, the salmon begin to ascend +them, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. It has been +ascertained that these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> fish retain a remarkable attachment to the +river which gave them birth; and, having once deposited their spawn, +they ever afterwards choose the same spot for their annual deposits. +This latter fact has been established by a curious Frenchman, who, +fastening a ring to the posterior fin of several salmon, and then +setting them at liberty, found that some of them made their appearance +at the same place three successive seasons, bearing with them this +distinguishing mark.</p> + +<p>24. In ascending the rivers, these fish usually proceed together in +great numbers, mostly swimming in the middle of the stream; and, being +very timid, a sudden noise, or even a floating piece of timber, will +sometimes turn them from their course, and send them back to the sea; +but having advanced a while, they assume a determined resolution, +overcoming rapids and leaping over falls twelve or fifteen feet in +perpendicular height.</p> + +<p>25. Salmon are caught chiefly with seines, and sometimes seven or +eight hundred are captured at a single haul; but from fifty to one +hundred is the most usual number, even in a favorable season. They are +also taken in <i>weirs</i>, which are inclosures so constructed that they +admit the ingress, but not the regress of the fish.</p> + +<p>26. The salmon fisheries are numerous in Great Britain and Ireland, as +well as in most of the northern countries of Europe. In the United +States, the most valuable fisheries of this kind are on the rivers in +Maine, whence the towns and cities farther south are principally +supplied with these fish, in a fresh condition. They are preserved in +ice, while on their way to market. In the cured state, salmon is +highly esteemed; although it is not easily digested.</p> + +<p>27. <i>Cod Fishery.</i>—There are several species of cod-fish, or gadus; +but the most important and interesting of the class, is the common +cod. These fish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> are found in great abundance on the south and west +coasts of Iceland, on the coasts of Norway, off the Orkney and Western +Isles, and in the Baltic Sea. Farther south, they gradually diminish +in numbers, and entirely disappear, some distance from the Straits of +Gibraltar.</p> + +<p>28. But the great rendezvous of cod-fish is on the coasts of Labrador, +the banks of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and Nova Scotia. They are +invited to these situations by the abundance of small fish, worms, and +other marine animals of the crustaceous and testaceous kinds, on which +they feed. The fishermen resort, in the greatest numbers, to the +banks, which, stretch along the eastern coasts of Newfoundland about +four hundred and fifty miles. The water on these banks varies from +twenty to fifty fathoms in depth.</p> + +<p>29. By negociations with Great Britain, the French, Dutch, Spanish, +and Americans, have acquired the right to catch and cure fish, both on +the <i>Grand Banks</i>, and several other places on the coasts of the +English possessions in North America. The number of vessels employed +on the several fishing stations, during each successive season, +amounts to six or seven thousand, each measuring from forty to one +hundred and twenty tons, and carrying eight or ten men.</p> + +<p>30. The fishing on the Grand Banks commences in April, and continues +until about the first of August. Here, the fish are caught exclusively +with hooks, which are usually baited with a small fish called the +capelin, as well as with herring, clams, and the gills of the cod +itself. But this fish is not very particular in its choice of bait, it +biting greedily at almost any kind which may be presented. An expert +fisherman will frequently catch from one hundred to three hundred cod +in a single day.</p> + +<p>31. As soon as the fish have been caught, their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> heads are cut off, +and their entrails taken out. They are then salted away in bulk in the +hold; and, after having lain three or four days to drain, they are +taken to another part of the vessel, and again salted in the same +manner. The fishermen from New-England, however, give them but one +salting while on the fishing station; but, as soon as a cargo has been +obtained, it is carried home, where conveniences have been prepared +for curing the fish to greater advantage. By pursuing this plan, two +or three trips are made during the season. Some of the fish are +injured before they are taken from the vessel; and these form an +inferior quality, called <i>Jamaica fish</i>, because such are generally +sold in that island, for the use of the negroes.</p> + +<p>32. The fish which are caught on the coasts of Labrador, at the +entrance of Hudson's Bay, in the Straits of Belleisle, and on fishing +stations of similar advantages, are cured on the shore. They are first +slightly salted, and then dried in the sun, either on the rocks, or on +scaffolds erected for the purpose. In these coast fisheries, the +operations commence in June, and continue until some time in August. +The cod are caught in large seines, as well as with hook and line.</p> + +<p>33. <i>Seal Fishery.</i>—There are several species of the seal; but the +kind which is most numerous, and most important in a commercial view, +is the common seal. It is found on the sea-coasts throughout the +world, but in the greatest numbers in very cold climates, where it +furnishes the rude inhabitants with nearly all their necessaries and +luxuries.</p> + +<p>34. The animal is valuable to the civilized world, on account of its +skin and oil. The oil is pure, and is adapted to all the purposes to +which that from the whale is applied. In the spring of the year, the +seals are very fat; and, at that time, even small ones will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> yield +four or five gallons of oil. The leather manufactured from the skins, +is employed in trunk-making, in saddlery, and in making boots and +shoes.</p> + +<p>35. Since the whale fishery has declined in productiveness in the +northern seas, <i>sealing</i> has arisen in importance; and accordingly, +vessels are now frequently fitted out for this purpose, in both Europe +and America; whereas, a few years since, it was regarded only as a +part of the objects of a whaling voyage.</p> + +<p>36. Our countrymen of New-England have particularly distinguished +themselves in this branch of business; and the part of the globe which +they have found to be the most favorable to their objects, has been +the islands in the Antarctic Ocean. A sealing voyage to that quarter +often occupies three years, during which time the hunters are exposed +to great hardships, being often left in small detachments on desolate +islands, for the purpose of pursuing the animals to greater advantage.</p> + +<p>37. The best time for sealing in the Arctic Ocean, is in March and +April, when the seals are often met with in droves of several +thousands on the ice, which is either fixed, or floating in large +pieces. When the sealers meet with one of these droves, they attack +the animals with clubs, and stun them by a single blow on the nose. +After all that can be reached, have been disabled in this way, the +skin and blubber are taken off together.</p> + +<p>38. This operation is called <i>flenching</i>, and is sometimes a horrible +business; since some of the seals, being merely stunned, occasionally +recover, and, in their denuded state, often make battle, and even leap +into the water, and swim off. The skins, with the blubber attached to +them, are packed away in the hold; and, in case the vessel is to +return home soon, they are suffered to remain there, until she arrives +in port; but, when this is not expected, the skins, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> soon as +convenient, are separated from the blubber, and the latter is put into +casks. There are other methods of capturing the seal; but it is, +perhaps, not necessary to enter into further details.</p> + +<p>39. <i>Whale Fishery.</i>—There are five species of the whale, of which +the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balæna Physalis</i>, or razor-back, is the largest. When full grown, +it is supposed to be about one hundred feet in length, and thirty or +thirty-five feet in circumference. It is so powerful an animal, that +it is extremely difficult to capture it; and, when captured, it yields +but little oil and whalebone. The species to which whalers direct +their attention is denominated the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mystecetus</i>, or the <i>right whale</i>.</p> + +<p>40. The mystecetus is found, in the greatest numbers, in the Greenland +seas, about the island of Spitzbergen, in Davis' Straits, in Hudson's +and Baffin's Bays, and in the northern parts of the Pacific Ocean. It +is also found in the Antarctic Ocean, and along the coasts of Africa +and South America, and occasionally on the coasts of the United +States.</p> + +<p>41. Each vessel engaged in this fishery, is generally fitted out by +several individuals, who receive, of the return cargo of oil and +whalebone, a portion corresponding to the amount which they have +contributed to the common stock, after the men have received their +proportion of it. Should the voyage prove altogether unsuccessful, +which seldom happens, the owners lose the amount of the outfit, and +the captain and hands, their time.</p> + +<p>42. The whalers commence operations in the northern latitudes, in the +month of May; but the whales are most plentiful in June, when they are +met with between the latitudes 75° and 80°, in almost every variety of +situation, sometimes in the open seas, at others in the loose ice, or +at the edges of the <i>fields</i> and <i>floes</i>, which are near the main, +impervious body of ice.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p> + +<p>43. On the fishing station, the boats are kept always ready for +instant service, being suspended from davits, or cranes, by the sides +of the ship, and being furnished with a lance and a harpoon, to the +latter of which is attached about one hundred and twenty fathoms of +strong but flexible rope. When the weather and situation are +favorable, the <i>crow's nest</i>, which is a station at the mast-head, is +occupied by some person with a telescope.</p> + +<p>44. The moment a whale is discovered, notice is given to the watch +below, who instantly man one or two boats, and row with swiftness to +the place. Sometimes, a boat is kept manned and afloat near the ship, +that no time may be lost in making ready; or, two or three are sent +out on <i>the look-out</i>, having every thing ready for an attack.</p> + +<p>45. The whale being very timid and cautious, the men endeavor to +approach him unperceived, and strike him with the harpoon, before he +is aware of their presence. Sometimes, however, he perceives their +approach, and dives into the water, to avoid them; but, being +compelled to come again to the surface to breathe, or, as it is +termed, <i>to blow</i>, they make another effort to harpoon him. In this +way, the whalers often pursue him for a considerable time, and +frequently without final success. The animal, when unmolested, remains +about two minutes on the surface, during which time he blows eight or +nine times, and then descends for five or ten minutes, and often, +while feeding, for fifteen or twenty.</p> + +<p>46. When the whale has been struck, he generally dives towards the +bottom of the sea either perpendicularly or obliquely, where he +remains about thirty minutes, and sometimes nearly an hour. The +harpoon has, near its point, two barbs, or withers, which cause it to +remain fast in the integuments under the skin; and the rope attached +to it, is coiled in the bow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> of the boat in such a way, that it runs +out without interruption. When more line is wanted, it is made known +to the other boats by the elevation of an oar. Should the rope prove +too short for the great descent of the whale, it becomes necessary to +sever it from the boat, lest the latter be drawn under water; for this +emergency, the harpooner stands ready with a knife.</p> + +<p>47. When the whale reappears, the assisting boats make for the place +with their greatest speed; and, if possible, each harpooner plunges +his weapon into the back of the creature. On convenient occasions, he +is also plied with lances, which are thrust into his vitals. At +length, overcome with wounds, and exhausted by the loss of blood, his +approaching dissolution is indicated by a discharge of blood from his +blow-holes, and sometimes by a convulsive struggle, in which his tail, +raised, whirled, and jerked in the air, resounds to the distance of +several miles. The whale having been thus conquered, and deprived of +life, the captors express their joy with loud huzzas, and communicate +the information to the ship by striking their flag.</p> + +<p>48. A position near a large field of solid ice is very advantageous; +because a whale diving under it is obliged to return again to blow; +and this circumstance gives opportunity to make upon him several +attacks. Close fields of drift ice present great difficulties; since +the boats cannot always pass through them with sufficient celerity. In +that case, the men sometimes travel over the ice, leaping from one +piece to another, and carrying with them lances and harpoons, with +which they pierce the animal as often as possible. If they succeed in +thus killing him, they drag him back under the ice with the fast line.</p> + +<p>49. The whale, having been towed to the ship, and secured alongside, +is raised a little by means of powerful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> blocks, or tackle. The +harpooners, with spurs fastened to the bottom of their feet to prevent +them from slipping, descend upon the huge body, and, with spades and +knives adapted to this particular purpose, cut the blubber into oblong +pieces, which are peeled off, and hoisted upon deck with the +<i>speck-tackle</i>. These long strips are then cut into chunks, which are +immediately packed away in the hold. After the animal has been thus +successively flenched, and the whale-bone taken out, the carcase is +dismissed to the sharks, bears, and birds of prey.</p> + +<p>50. The blubber is somewhat similar, in consistence, to the fat which +surrounds the body of the hog, although not quite so solid. In young +whales, its color is yellowish white; and, in old ones, yellow or red. +Its thickness varies in different parts and in different individuals, +from eight to twenty inches. The weight of a whale sixty feet in +length, is about seventy tons, of which the blubber weighs about +thirty tons.</p> + +<p>51. The whale-bone is situated in the mouth. About three hundred +laminæ, or blades, grow parallel to each other on either side of the +upper jaw, being about half an inch thick, and ten or twelve inches +wide, where they are united by the gum. As the whale grows old, they +increase in length, and approach from each side to the roof of the +mouth. The whale, while feeding, swims with his mouth wide open, which +admits a great quantity of water containing insects or small fish, on +which he subsists. The whale-bone acts as a filter, or strainer, in +retaining the little animals, while the water passes off at the +corners of the mouth.</p> + +<p>52. Before the whalers leave the fishing station, they cut the blubber +into small pieces, and put it into close casks. Sometimes, however, +when the ship has been very successful, there is a deficiency of +casks. In that case, it is slightly salted, and packed away in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> the +hold. But, as the ship must necessarily pass through a warmer climate, +on her voyage homeward, the blubber, while packed in this manner, is +liable to melt and be wasted, unless the weather should prove +uncommonly cool.</p> + +<p>53. When the vessel has arrived in port, the blubber is found to be +melted. To separate the oil from the <i>fritters</i>, or <i>fenks</i>, as the +integuments and other impurities are called, the contents of the casks +are poured into copper boilers, and heated. The heat causes a part of +the latter to sink to the bottom, and the former is drawn off into +coolers, where other extraneous matters settle. The pure or fine oil +is then drawn off for sale. An inferior quality of oil, called <i>brown +oil</i>, is obtained from the dregs of the blubber.</p> + +<p>54. The spermaceti cachalot, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Physeter Macrocephalus</i>, is an animal +belonging to the norwal genus; although it is generally denominated +the spermaceti whale. It is found in the greatest abundance in the +Pacific Ocean, where it is sought by American and other whalers, for +the sake of the oil and spermaceti. This animal is gregarious, and is +often met with in herds containing more than two hundred individuals.</p> + +<p>55. Whenever a number of the cachalot are seen, several boats, manned +each with six men provided with harpoons and lances, proceed in +pursuit; and, if possible, each boat strikes or fastens to a distinct +animal, which, in most cases, is overcome without much difficulty. +Being towed to the ship, it is deprived of its blubber, and the matter +contained in the head, which consists of spermaceti combined with a +small proportion of oil. The oil is reduced from the blubber, soon +after it has been taken on board, in "try works," with which every +ship engaged in this fishery is provided.</p> + +<p>56. About three tons of oil are commonly obtained from a large +cachalot of this species, and from one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> to two tons from a small one, +besides the head-matter. The manner in which these two products are +treated, when brought into port, has been described in the article on +candle-making.</p> + +<p>57. The Biscayans were the first people who prosecuted the whale +fishery, as a commercial pursuit. In the twelfth, thirteenth, and +fourteenth centuries, they carried on this business to a considerable +extent; but the whales taken by them were not so large as those which +have since been captured in the polar seas. At length, the whales +ceased to visit the Bay of Biscay, and the fishery in that quarter was +of course terminated.</p> + +<p>58. The voyages of the English and Dutch to the Northern Ocean, in +search of a passage to India, led to the discovery of the principal +haunts of the whale, and induced individuals in those nations to fit +out vessels to pursue these animals in the northern latitudes, the +harpooners and part of the crews being Biscayans. The whales were +found in the greatest abundance about the island of Spitzbergen, and +were, at first, so easily captured, that extra vessels were sent out +in ballast, to assist in bringing home the oil and whalebone; but the +whales, retiring to the centre of the ocean, and to the other side to +the Greenland seas, soon became scarce about that island.</p> + +<p>59. The whale fishery was revived, as above stated, about the +beginning of the seventeenth century; and, with the Dutch, it was in +the most flourishing condition in 1680, when it employed about two +hundred and sixty ships, and fourteen thousand men. The wars about the +beginning of the nineteenth century, extending their baleful influence +to almost every part of the ocean, annihilated this branch of business +among the Dutch; and, in 1828, only a single whale-ship sailed from +Holland.</p> + +<p>60. The English whale fishery was, at first, carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> on by companies +enjoying exclusive privileges; but the pursuit was attended with +little success. In 1732, Parliament decreed a bounty of twenty +shillings per ton, on every whaler measuring more than two hundred +tons; and, although this bounty was increased in 1749 to forty +shillings, yet the English whale fishery has never been very +flourishing.</p> + +<p>61. The whale fishery has been carried on with greater success from +the United States than from any other country. It was begun by the +colonists, on their own shores, at a very early period; but the whales +having abandoned the coasts of North America, these hardy navigators +pursued them into the northern and southern oceans.</p> + +<p>62. The number of American vessels now employed in pursuit of the +spermaceti cachalot and the mystecetus, amounts to about four hundred, +and the number of men to about ten thousand. The inhabitants of the +island of Nantucket, and of the town of New-Bedford, are more +extensively engaged in these fisheries than the people of any other +part of the United States.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_SHIPWRIGHT" id="THE_SHIPWRIGHT"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_170.jpg" width="500" height="420" alt="SHIPWRIGHT." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE SHIPWRIGHT.</h2> + + +<p>1. The earliest notice we have of the construction of a building to +float on water, is that which relates to Noah's Ark. This was the +largest vessel that has ever been built, and the circumstance proves +that the arts, at that early period, had been brought to considerable +perfection; yet, as several centuries had elapsed, after the flood, +before the descendants of Noah had much occasion for floating vessels, +the art of constructing them seems to have been measurably lost.</p> + +<p>2. Early records, which perhaps are worthy of credit, state that the +Egyptians first traversed the river Nile upon rafts, then in the +canoe; and that, to these succeeded the boat, built with joist, +fastened together with wooden pins, and rendered water-tight by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +interposing the leaves of the papyrus. To this boat was, at length, +added a mast of acanthus, and a sail of papyrus; but, being prejudiced +against the sea because it swallowed up their sacred river, which they +worshipped as a god, they never attempted to construct vessels adapted +to marine navigation.</p> + +<p>3. The Phœnicians, a nation nearly as ancient as the Egyptian, +being situated directly on the sea, without the advantages of a noble +river, were compelled to provide means for sailing on a wider expanse +of water. It is said, however, that they first traversed the +Mediterranean, and even visited distant islands, with no better means +of conveyance than a raft of timber. This is rendered somewhat +probable, from the fact, that the Peruvians, even at the present time, +venture upon the Pacific Ocean on their <i>balza</i>, a raft made from a +spongy tree of that name.</p> + +<p>4. The vessels first constructed by the Phœnicians, were used for +commercial purposes. They were flat-bottomed, broad, and of a small +draught; and those of the Carthaginians and Greeks were similar in +shape. The ships of war, in early times, were generally mere +row-boats, in which the combatants rushed upon each other, and decided +the combat by valor and physical strength.</p> + +<p>5. By successive improvements, the ships of antiquity were, at length, +brought to combine good proportion with considerable beauty. The prows +were sometimes ornamented with the sculptured figures of heathen +deities, and otherwise adorned with paint and gilding, while the +sterns, which were usually in the form of a shield, were elaborately +wrought in carved work. The approved length of a ship of war, was six +or eight times its breadth; and that for mercantile purposes, four +times the breadth; hence, the distinction of <i>long ships</i>, and <i>round +ships</i>.</p> + +<p>6. Both the long and round ships had a single mast, which could be +taken down or elevated at pleasure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> These vessels were, however, +propelled with oars on occasions that required it; and the former, in +their improved state, were properly galleys with one, two, or three +banks of oars, which extended from one end of the vessel to the other. +The rowers were all placed under the deck; and, in time of battle, the +combatants contended above, being in part defended from the missiles +of opposing foes by shields carried on the arm, and by screens and +towers placed on the deck. The bow of each vessel was armed with a +brazen or iron beak, with which the contending parties often stove in +the sides of each other's vessels.</p> + +<p>7. The general size of vessels in the best days of antiquity, was not +greater than that of our sloops and schooners; but there are instances +on record, which prove that they occasionally equalled in capacity the +largest of modern times. In the early ages, they were very small, and, +for several centuries, were drawn upon the shore at the termination of +every voyage. Stranding, however, became impracticable, after the +increase in size, and the addition of the keel. The anchor and cable +were, therefore, invented, to confine the ship at a suitable distance +from the shore. At first, the anchor was nothing more than a large +stone. Afterwards, it was wood and stone combined; and, finally, iron +was the sole material.</p> + +<p>8. The invasion of the Roman empire by the northern barbarians, caused +the operations of war to be almost exclusively conducted on the land. +This, together with the destruction of commerce during the general +desolation of those ruthless incursions, and the barbarism of the +conquerors, occasioned a retrogression, and, in some parts of Europe, +nearly the total destruction of the art of building ships.</p> + +<p>9. The active trade which arose in the Mediterranean, during the +middle ages, and the naval enterprises connected with the Crusades, +occasioned a revival<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> of the art of constructing ships; yet, it did +not advance beyond the condition in which the Carthaginians had left +it, until about the middle of the fourteenth century. At this era, the +inconsiderable galleys of former times began to be superseded by +larger vessels, in which, however, oars were not entirely dispensed +with.</p> + +<p>10. The great change in the general construction of vessels, arose +from the discovery of the polarity of the magnet, and the application +of astronomy to nautical pursuits; for, by these means, the mariner +was released from his <ins title="Original reads 'dependance'">dependence</ins> on the sight of the land, in guiding +his vessel on its course. Larger ships were therefore constructed, +capable of withstanding more violent storms and loftier waves.</p> + +<p>11. To the Italians, Catalans, and Portuguese, was ship-building most +considerably indebted, in the early days of its revival. The Spaniards +followed up their discovery of the New World with a rapid improvement +in both the form and size of their ships; some of which even rated at +two thousand tons burden. In more modern times, it is said, that the +Spaniards and French are entitled to the credit of nearly all the +improvements which have been made in the theory of the art, the +English having never contributed essentially to advance it, although +the greatest naval power of this or any other time.</p> + +<p>12. In the United States, very great improvements have been made in +the construction of vessels, since the commencement of the present +century. Our builders, however, are less guided by scientific rules +than by experience and a practised eye; yet, it is generally conceded, +that our ships of war and first-rate merchantmen, are superior in +swiftness and beauty to those of any other country.</p> + +<p>13. In Europe, the first thing done towards building a vessel, is to +exhibit it in three distinct views by as many separate drawings; but, +in the United States,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> the builder commences by framing a complete +wooden model of the proposed construction—the thing itself in +miniature. From this practice of our naval architects, have arisen the +superior beauty and excellence of our vessels.</p> + +<p>14. The timber generally used in the construction of American vessels, +is live-oak, pine, chestnut, locust, and cedar. The trees of mature +growth are chosen, and girdled in the beginning of winter, at which +time they contain but little sap. When sufficiently dry and hardened, +the trees are felled; and, after the timber has been roughly hewn, it +is carefully stored in some dry, airy place, not much exposed to wind +or sun.</p> + +<p>15. In collecting ship-timber, the greatest difficulty is found in +procuring the crooked sticks, which form the sides or ribs of the +skeleton of a vessel. In countries where ship-timber has become an +object of careful cultivation, this difficulty is anticipated by +bending the young trees to the desired form, and confining them there, +until they have permanently received the proper inclination. The +timber is brought to market in its rough state, and sold by the foot.</p> + +<p>16. The timber having been selected, the workmen proceed to fashion +the various parts of the proposed vessel with appropriate tools, being +guided in their operations by patterns, which have been made after the +exact form of the various parts of the model. Much care is taken to +avoid cutting the wood contrary to the grain, that its strength may +not be impaired.</p> + +<p>17. After all the parts of the frame have been made ready, they are +put together. The several blocks of timber on which the vessel is +raised, are called the <i>stocks</i>; and to these pieces, the foundation, +called the <i>keel</i>, is temporarily fastened in an inclined position. +The keel is inserted into the <i>stern-post</i> at one end, and into the +<i>stem</i> at the other. The <i>floor-timbers</i> are next fixed in the keel, +every other one being there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> firmly bolted and riveted. Each of these +timbers is a branch and part of the body of a tree; and, when +composing a part of a vessel, they bear the same relation to it as the +ribs to the human body. With equal propriety, the keel has been +compared to the vertebral column, or back-bone.</p> + +<p>18. The next step is to apply and fasten the planks, which serve not +only to exclude the water, but to bind all the parts firmly and +harmoniously together. Simple as this part of the operation may seem +to be, it is the most difficult to be effected, and requires a +pre-concerted plan as much as any other part of the fabric. When it is +necessary to bend a plank at the bow or stern, it is heated by steam, +and then forced into place with screws and levers. The planks are +fastened with iron or copper bolts.</p> + +<p>19. The planking having been finished, and several particulars +attended to, which cannot be well understood from description, the +vessel is ready for the work of the <i>caulker</i>, who carefully stops all +the seams with oakum, and smears them with pitch. After the +superfluous pitch has been cleared away with the <i>scraper</i>, water is +pumped into the hold, to ascertain if there is any leak.</p> + +<p>20. The bottom of the vessel is next sheathed either with sheets of +copper or pine boards, to protect it from the worms. The latter +materials are employed when the planks have been fastened with iron +since the copper would cause the bolt-heads to corrode, if placed +against them. In either case, sheets of paper, soaked in hot pitch, +are interposed between the planks and the sheathing.</p> + +<p>21. The vessel is now ready to be removed from the stocks to the +water. This removal is called <i>launching</i>, which, in many cases, +requires much skill in the preparation and successive management. If +there is no permanent inclined plane in the slip, on which the vessel +may glide into the water, a temporary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> one is prepared, consisting of +two platforms of solid timber, erected one on each side of the keel, +at a distance of a few feet from it, and extending from the stem into +the water. Upon this double platform which is called the <i>ways</i>, is +erected another set of timbers, and the space between these and the +vessel is filled all along with wedges. The whole of this +superstructure is called the <i>cradle</i>, and the extremities of it are +fastened to the keel, at the bow and stern, with chains and ropes.</p> + +<p>22. Every thing having been thus prepared, the wedges are +simultaneously driven on both sides. By this means, the vessel is +raised from the stocks, and made to rest entirely on the cradle. After +the <i>shores</i> have been all removed, the cradle, with its weighty +burden, begins to move; and, in a moment, the vessel is launched upon +its destined element.</p> + +<p>23. Among the ancients, a launch was ever an occasion of great +festivity. The mariners were crowned with wreaths, and the ship was +bedecked with streamers and garlands. Safely afloat, she was purified +with a lighted torch, an egg, and brimstone, and solemnly consecrated +to the god whose image she bore. In our less poetic times, there is no +lack of feasting and merriment; although the ceremony of consecration +is different, the oldest sailor on board merely breaking a bottle of +wine or rum over the figure-head—still, perchance, the image of +father Neptune or Apollo.</p> + +<p>24. The vessel, now brought to the wharf, is to be equipped. The mode +of doing this, is varied according as it may be a ship, brig, +hermaphrodite brig, schooner, or sloop. The masts are first erected, +and these are supplied with the necessary apparatus of spars, rigging, +and sails. The latter are furnished by the sail-maker, who is +sometimes denominated the <i>ship's tailor</i>.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_MARINER" id="THE_MARINER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_177.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="MARINER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE MARINER.</h2> + + +<p>1. The business of the mariner consists in navigating ships and other +vessels from one port to another. This is an employment that requires +much decisive resolution; and Horace has well said, that "his breast +must have been bound with oak and triple brass, who first committed +his frail bark to the tempestuous sea." There is certainly nothing +which speaks louder in praise of human ingenuity, than that art by +which man is able to forsake the land, contend successfully with winds +and waves, and reach, with unerring certainty, his destined port in +some distant part of the world.</p> + +<p>2. Nor are the skill and intrepidity exhibited in this arduous +employment, more worthy of our admiration, than the wonderful +advantages resulting from it; for,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> we are indebted to the exercise of +this art, for those improvements in our condition, which arise from +the exchange of the superfluities of one country for those of another, +and, above all, for the interchange of sentiments, which renders human +knowledge coextensive with the world.</p> + +<p>3. Ship-building is so intimately connected with the art of +navigation, that the historical part of the former subject is equally +applicable to the latter. It is, therefore, unnecessary to be +particular on this point. We shall merely supply some omissions in the +preceding article.</p> + +<p>4. The sailors of antiquity confined their navigation chiefly to the +rivers, lakes, and inland seas, seldom venturing out of sight of land, +unless, from their knowledge of the coasts ahead, they were certain to +meet with it again in a short time. When they thus ventured from the +land, or were driven from it by tempests, the stars and planets were +their only guides.</p> + +<p>5. The qualifications of a skilful pilot or master, even for the +Mediterranean seas, in those days, required more study and more +practical information, than are necessary to render a mariner a +complete general navigator, in the present improved state of the +science of navigation; for then he must needs be acquainted, not only +with the general management of the ship, but also with all the ports, +land-marks, rocks, quicksands, and other dangers, which lay in the +track of his course. Besides this, he was required to be familiar with +the course of the winds, and the indications that preceded them, +together with the movements of the heavenly bodies, and the influence +which they were supposed to exert on the weather. Nor was the ability +to read the various omens which were gathered from the sighing of the +wind in the trees, the murmurs of the waters, and their dash upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +shore, the flight of birds, and the gambol of fishes, a qualification +to be dispensed with.</p> + +<p>6. A voyage, in ancient times, was a momentous undertaking, and was +usually preceded by sacrifices to those gods who were supposed to +preside over the winds and the waves. All omens were carefully +regarded; and a very small matter, such as the perching of swallows on +the ship, or an accidental sneeze to the left, was sufficient to delay +departure. When, under proper auspices, a vessel or fleet had set +sail, and had advanced some distance, it was customary to release a +number of doves, which had been brought from home. The safe arrival of +these birds at the houses of the voyagers, was considered an +auspicious omen of the return of the fleet.</p> + +<p>7. Having escaped the multiplied dangers of the sea, the sailors, on +their return, fulfilled the vows which they had made before their +departure, or in seasons of peril, offering thanks to Neptune, and +sacrifices to Jupiter, or some other of their gods, to whose +protection they may have committed themselves. Those who had suffered +shipwreck, felt themselves under greater obligations of gratitude; +and, in addition to the usual sacrifices, they commonly offered the +garment in which they had been saved, together with a pictorial +representation of the disaster. If the individual escaped only with +life, his clothing having been totally lost, his hair was shorn from +the head, and consecrated to the tutelar deity.</p> + +<p>8. There is much that is beautiful in these simple acts of piety; and +similar customs, with regard to shipwrecked mariners, are still in +existence in the Catholic countries of the Mediterranean; but the +worship of the heathen deities having been discontinued, a favourite +saint, or perchance the true God, is substituted for them. Although +such acts of piety may not avail to avert impending danger, yet their +natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> tendency doubtless is to inspire courage to meet it, when it +may arise.</p> + +<p>9. The Carthaginians, for several centuries, were more extensively +engaged in commerce, than any other people of antiquity; and, as they +carried on their lucrative trade with other nations and their own +colonies, by means of ships, they exceeded all others in the art of +navigation. Not content with exploring every nook and corner of the +Mediterranean, they passed the Pillars of Hercules, as the +promontories of the Straits of Gibraltar were then called, and visited +the Atlantic coasts of Europe, as far north as the Scilly Islands, +then denominated the Cassorides. It is asserted by Pliny, that Hanno +even circumnavigated Africa.</p> + +<p>10. The destruction of Carthage by the Romans, in the year before +Christ 146, interfered with improvements in the art of navigation; and +the invasion of the northern barbarians, several centuries afterwards, +extinguished nearly all the knowledge which had been previously +acquired; nor was it again revived, and brought to the state in which +it existed in the most flourishing era of antiquity, until about the +middle of the fourteenth century.</p> + +<p>11. After the period just mentioned, improvements in this art followed +each other in close succession. The chief cause of this rapid advance +was the discovery of the polarity of the magnet, and the consequent +invention of the mariner's compass. The power of the loadstone to +attract iron, was early known to the Greeks and Chinese; but its +property of pointing in a particular direction, when suspended, and +left to move freely, was not suspected until about the year 1200 of +our era.</p> + +<p>12. At first, mariners were accustomed to place the magnetic needle on +a floating straw, whenever they needed its guidance; but, in 1302, one +Flavio<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> Giaio, an obscure individual of the kingdom of Naples, placed +it on a permanent pivot, and added a circular card. Still, it was +nearly half a century after this, before navigators properly +appreciated, and implicitly relied on this new guide. The compass did +not reach its present improved state, until the middle of the +sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>13. As soon as the reputation of this instrument had become well +established, navigation assumed a bolder character; and the capacity +of vessels having been enlarged to meet this adventurous spirit, oars +were laid aside as inapplicable, and sails alone were relied upon, as +means of propulsion.</p> + +<p>14. Navigation, in the early days of its revival, was indebted to the +Portuguese for many valuable improvements. To them, also, is the world +under obligation for many splendid discoveries, among which was that +of a passage by sea to India. This long-desired discovery was made in +1497, by Vasco de Gama, who had been sent out for the purpose by +Emanuel, king of Portugal.</p> + +<p>15. Five years before Vasco de Gama had found his way to India, by the +way of the Cape of Good Hope, Columbus made his discovery of the New +World. This great man had conceived or adopted the idea, that the form +of our earth was spherical, in opposition to the generally received +opinion, that it was an extended plane; and learning that India +stretched to an unknown distance eastward, he supposed, that, by +sailing in an opposite direction, the navigator would meet with its +eastern extremity.</p> + +<p>16. Pursuing this idea, he applied successively to the governments of +several states and kingdoms for patronage to enable him to test its +correctness; and having, at length, succeeded in obtaining three small +vessels, with the necessary equipments, from Ferdinand and Isabella, +sovereigns of Arragon and Castile,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> he proceeded on his proposed +voyage, which resulted in the discovery of the American continent.</p> + +<p>17. These two great discoveries gave another powerful impulse to +navigation; and inventions and improvements multiplied in rapid +succession. The learned and ingenious, who at different times have +turned their attention to the subject of navigation, have supplied the +mariner with various means, by which he can direct his course on the +deep with accuracy and certainty.</p> + +<p>18. The instruments now employed in navigation, are the mariner's +compass, the azimuth compass, the quadrant, the sextant, the +chronometer, the half minute-glass, the log, and the sounding-line. In +addition to these, the general navigator needs accurate maps and +charts, lists of the latitude and longitude of every part of the +world, the time of high water at every port, and a book of navigation, +containing tables, to aid him in performing various calculations with +facility; and, with a view to calculate the longitude by observation, +he should be furnished with the Nautical Almanac, containing the +places and declinations of the fixed stars and planets, and especially +the distances of the moon from the sun and other heavenly bodies.</p> + +<p>19. The mariner's compass, as has been before observed, is employed to +indicate the various points of the horizon; but the magnetic needle +varying more or less from the exact northern and southern direction, +the azimuth compass is used, to show the degree of that variation. The +quadrant and sextant are employed to ascertain the altitude and +relative position of the heavenly bodies, that the mariner may +determine the latitude and longitude in which his vessel may be. The +chronometer is nothing more than a watch, designed to measure time +with great accuracy. This instrument is used to determine the +longitude.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p> + +<p>20. The log is used for ascertaining the velocity of the ship on the +water. It consists of a quadrangular piece of wood, eight or nine +inches long, to which is attached a small cord, having knots in it, at +proper distances from each other. In the application, the log is +thrown upon the water, where it will not be disturbed by the wake of +the ship; and the cord, being wound upon a reel, passes from it as +fast as the vessel moves in the water. The number of knots, which pass +off every half minute, indicates the number of miles which the ship +sails per hour; hence, in nautical language, <i>knots</i> and <i>miles</i> are +synonymous terms. The sounding-line is a small cord, with several +pounds of lead of a conical figure attached to it; and is employed in +trying the depth of the water, and the quality of the bottom.</p> + +<p>21. Navigation is either <i>common</i> or <i>proper</i>. The former is usually +called coasting, as the vessel is either on the same or neighboring +coast, and is seldom far from land, or out of sounding. The latter is +applied to long voyages upon the main ocean, when considerable skill +in mathematics and astronomy, together with an aptness in the use of +instruments for celestial observations, are required in the captain or +master.</p> + +<p>22. The application of steam to the purposes of navigation, is one of +the greatest achievements of modern science and art. The great utility +of this agent is particularly conspicuous in our vast country, where +large rivers and bays and mighty lakes are numerous, and where an +energetic people and an active commerce require a rapid +intercommunication. Steamboats are but little used on the great +oceans; as merchandise can there be more cheaply and safely +transported in vessels propelled by sails. Since the year 1839, two +lines of steam packets have been running regularly between this +country and Great Britain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> They commonly occupy, in crossing the +Atlantic, between twelve and fifteen days.</p> + +<p>23. The chief obstacle to the employment of steam, in long voyages, +arises from the difficulty of generating a sufficient quantity of this +agent, with the fuel which could be carried without overburdening the +vessel; but a remedy for this inconvenience will probably be found, in +improvements in the construction of steam-generators.</p> + +<p>24. The power of confined steam acting by its expansive force, was +discovered by the celebrated Marquis of Worcester, about the middle of +the seventeenth century; but the first working steam-engine was +constructed in 1705, by Thomas <ins title="Original reads 'Newcomer'">Newcomen</ins>, a blacksmith of Dartmouth, +Devonshire, England. About the year 1769, James Watt, a native of +Glasgow, added a great number of improvements of his own invention.</p> + +<p>25. Steam navigation was first suggested in England, in 1736, by +Jonathan Hulls. It was first tried in practice in France, in 1782, by +the Marquis de Jouffroy, and nearly at the same time by James Rumsey, +of Virginia, and John Fitch, of Philadelphia; but it was first +rendered completely successful at New-York, in 1807, by Robert Fulton.</p> + +<p>26. The sailors employed by the captain, to aid him in navigating his +ship, are called a <i>crew</i>; and the individuals composing it are +responsible to the captain, the captain to the owners, and the owners +to the merchants, for all damages to goods, arising from negligence or +bad management.</p> + +<p>27. In England, ample provisions are made at Greenwich Hospital or by +pensions, for seamen disabled by age or otherwise. These benefits, +however, are extended only to those who have been engaged in the +national service. This noble and politic institution is supported +partly by public bounty, and in part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> by private donations, and a tax +of sixpence per month, deducted from the wages of all the seamen of +the nation. Marine Hospitals, for the temporary accommodation of +seamen, suffering from disease, have been established in several +cities of the continent of Europe, as well as of the United States.</p> + +<p>28. Mariners have ever been a distinct class of men, and, in their +general characters, very similar in every age of the world. Their +superstitious regard of the many signs of good and bad luck, is nearly +the same now, that it was two or three thousand years ago. In ancient +times, they had their lucky and unlucky days; and now, very few +sailors are willing to leave port on Friday, lest the circumstance +bring upon them some disaster, before the conclusion of the proposed +voyage.</p> + +<p>29. Superstitions of this nature, however, are not confined to the +navigators of the deep. Even in this country, where the inhabitants +enjoy superior intellectual advantages, and boast a high degree of +intelligence, thousands of persons who have never been on board of a +ship, are still under the influence of such heathen notions, +notwithstanding their pretended belief in Christianity, which, in all +cases, when properly understood, would prevent the forebodings of +evil, or expectations of good, from unimportant prognostics.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_MERCHANT" id="THE_MERCHANT"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_186.jpg" width="500" height="417" alt="MERCHANT." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE MERCHANT.</h2> + + +<p>1. The word <i>merchant</i>, in its most extended application, signifies, a +person who deals in merchandise. This definition, with some +exceptions, agrees very well with general usage in this country; +although, in England, the term is principally restricted to those +dealers who export and import goods on their own account, either in +their own or in chartered vessels. In the United States, dealers of +this class are denominated <i>importing</i> and <i>exporting</i> merchants; or +simply, <i>importers</i> and <i>exporters</i>.</p> + +<p>2. Such merchants, both here and in Europe, are distinguished from +each other by the kind of goods in which they traffic, or by the +foreign country in which they have their chief correspondence; thus, +one who deals in tobacco is called a tobacco-merchant; a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> wholesale +dealer in wines is called a wine-merchant; a West India, East India, +or Turkey merchant, exports goods to, and imports goods from, those +respective countries.</p> + +<p>3. The business of merchants, in foreign countries, is usually +transacted by agents, called factors, or commission merchants, to whom +goods are consigned to be sold, and by whom other articles of +merchandise are purchased and returned according to order. Sometimes +an agent, called a supercargo, accompanies the vessel; or the captain +may act in this capacity. Goods, however, are often obtained by order, +without the intervention of an agency of any kind.</p> + +<p>4. Almost every sort of foreign merchandise is subject to the +imposition of duties by the government of the country in which it is +received. These duties are paid at the <i>Custom-House</i>, to persons +appointed by the constituted authorities to collect them. As soon as a +vessel from abroad has entered the harbor, it is visited by a +custom-house officer, called a <i>Tide-Waiter</i>, whose business it is to +see that no part of the cargo is removed, until measures have been +taken to secure the customs.</p> + +<p>5. Goods brought into the country by importers, are frequently sold, +in succession, to several merchants of different grades, before they +come to the hands of the consumers. Cloths or stuffs of different +kinds, for instance, may be first sold by the bale to one merchant, +who, in turn, may dispose of them by the package to another, and this +last may retail them in small quantities to a greater number of +customers.</p> + +<p>6. Dealers in a small way, in cities and large towns, are frequently +denominated shop-keepers; but those who do an extensive retail +business, are usually called merchants or grocers, according as they +deal in dry goods or groceries. In cities, the extensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> demand for +goods enables retailers to confine their attention to particular +classes of articles; such as groceries, hardware, crockery, a few +kinds of dry goods, or some articles of domestic manufacture; but in +other places, where trade is more limited, the merchant is obliged to +keep a more general assortment.</p> + +<p>7. The general retail merchant is compelled to transact business with +a great number of wholesale dealers, to whom he pays cash in hand, or +agrees to pay it at some future period, say, in four, six, nine, or +twelve months. The people in his vicinity, in turn, purchase his goods +on similar conditions, with this difference, that they often +substitute for cash agricultural and other productions, which the +merchant, at length, turns into ready money.</p> + +<p>8. Barter, or the exchange of commodities, prevails to a great extent, +in country places, in almost every part of the United States. In such +exchanges, the currency of the country is made the standard of +reference: for example; a merchant receiving from a customer twenty +bushels of wheat, estimated at one dollar per bushel, gives in return +twenty dollars' worth of goods, at his marked prices; or, in other +words, he gives credit for the wheat, and charges the goods. On the +same principle, merchants of the first class often exchange the +productions of their own country for those of another.</p> + +<p>9. Merchants, or store-keepers, as they are indifferently called in +some places, whose location is distant from the seaboard, visit the +city in which they deal once or twice a year, for the purpose of +laying in their stock of goods; but, in order to keep up their +assortment, they sometimes order small lots in the interim. Retailers +more conveniently situated, purchase a smaller amount of goods at a +time, and replenish their stores more frequently.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p> + +<p>10. Commerce, on the principles of barter, or a simple exchange of one +commodity for another, must have been practised in the early days of +Adam himself; although we have no positive record of the fact; for it +cannot be imagined that the arts, which are stated in the Scripture to +have flourished long before the flood, could have existed without +commercial transactions. The period at which the precious metals began +to be employed as a standard of value, or as a medium of commercial +intercourse, is not known. They were used for this purpose in the time +of Abraham, and probably many centuries before his day.</p> + +<p>11. The earliest hint respecting the existence of trade between +different nations, is to be found in the book of Genesis, where the +transaction regarding the sale of Joseph to the Ishmaelites, or +Midianites, is mentioned. These merchants, it appears, were travelling +in a caravan to Egypt, then the most cultivated and refined part of +the world. Their camels were loaded with balm, myrrh, and spices. The +first of these articles was the production of Gilead; the second, of +Arabia; and the last was probably from India; as in that country the +finer spices are produced. If this were really the case, commerce, in +its widest sense, was carried on much earlier than is generally +supposed.</p> + +<p>12. The fertility of Egypt, and its central position, made it an +emporium of commerce; and there it flourished, in an eminent degree, +long before it was cultivated in Europe and in Western Asia. For +several ages, however, the Egyptians, on account of their +superstitious prejudices against the sea, carried on no maritime +commerce.</p> + +<p>13. The Phœnicians were the first people who used the Mediterranean +Sea, as a highway for the transportation of merchandise. Tyre and +Sidon were their chief cities; and the latter was called a <i>great</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +and the former a <i>strong</i> city, even in the time of Joshua, fifteen +hundred years before the advent of Christ. These people, in their +original association as a nation, possessed but a small territory; +and, being surrounded by many powerful nations, they never attempted +its enlargement on the land side.</p> + +<p>14. The settlement of the Israelites in the "Promised Land," +circumscribed their limits to a very small territory, and compelled +them to colonize a great number of their inhabitants. The colonies +which they formed in the various countries bordering upon the +Mediterranean and on the islands, enlarged the boundaries of +civilization, and greatly extended their trade.</p> + +<p>15. The Phœnicians continued their colonial system for many +centuries after the period just mentioned, and even extended it to the +Atlantic coasts of Europe. But the most distinguished of all their +colonies was the one which founded the city of Carthage, on the +northern coast of Africa, about the year 869 before Christ. Elissa, +or, as she is otherwise called, Dido, the reputed leader of this +colony, makes a conspicuous figure in one of the books of Virgil's +Æneid.</p> + +<p>16. Carthage, adopting the same system which had so long been pursued +by the great cities of Phœnicia, rose, in a few centuries, to +wealth and splendor. But, changing, at length, her mercantile for a +military character, she ruled her dependent colonies with a rod of +despotism. This produced a spirit of resistance on the part of her +distant subjects, who applied to Rome for aid to resist her tyranny. +The consequence of this application was the three "Punic wars," so +renowned in history, and which terminated in the destruction of +Carthage, in the year 146 before the Christian era. During the first +Punic war, Carthage contained seven hundred thousand inhabitants; but +at its destruction, scarcely five thousand were found within its +walls.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p> + +<p>17. The period of the greatest prosperity of Tyre, may be placed 588 +years before Christ, at which time the remarkable prophecies of +Ezekiel concerning it were delivered. Soon after this, it was greatly +injured by Nebuchadnezzar; and was finally destroyed by Alexander the +Great, about the year 332 before Christ.</p> + +<p>18. A new channel was opened to commerce by the monarch just +mentioned, he having founded a city in Egypt, to which he gave the +name of Alexandria. His object seems to have been, to render this city +the centre of the commercial world; and its commanding position, at +the mouth of the Nile, was well calculated to make it so; since it was +easy of access from the west by the Mediterranean, from the east by +the Red Sea, and from the central countries of Asia by the Isthmus of +Suez.</p> + +<p>19. The plans of Alexander were carried out with vigor by Ptolemy, who +received Egypt as his portion of the Macedonian empire, after the +death of his master; and, by his liberality, he induced great numbers +of people to settle in the new metropolis for the purposes of trade. +Far south, on the Red Sea, he also founded a city, which he called +Berenice, and which he designed as a depôt for the precious +commodities brought into his kingdom from India. From this city, goods +were transported on camels across the country, to a port on the Nile; +and thence they were taken down the river to Alexandria.</p> + +<p>20. Ptolemy also kept large fleets both on the Mediterranean and on +the Red Sea, for the protection of commerce, and the defence of his +dominions; yet, the Egyptians, even under the Ptolemies, never +attempted a direct trade to India. They, as the Phœnicians and +their own progenitors had done for ages, depended upon the Arabian +merchants for the productions of that country.</p> + +<p>21. The Greeks, before their subjugation to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> Roman power, had paid +much attention to nautical affairs; but this had been chiefly for +warlike dominion, rather than for commercial purposes. The city of +Corinth, however, had become wealthy by the attention of its +inhabitants to manufactures and trade; but it was destroyed by the +same barbarian people who, about this time, annihilated Carthage. Both +of these cities were afterwards favored by Julius Cæsar; but they +never regained anything like their former importance.</p> + +<p>22. Rome having, at length, obtained the complete dominion of the +Mediterranean Sea, and the countries bordering upon it, as well as +that of many others more distant, and less easy of access, became the +great mart for the sale of merchandise of every description, from all +parts of the known world. For the various commodities brought to the +city, the Romans paid gold and silver; as they had nothing else to +export in return. The money which they had exacted as tribute, or +which they had obtained by plunder, was thus returned to the nations +from which it had been taken.</p> + +<p>23. The subjected provinces continued to pour their choicest +productions into Rome, as long as she retained the control of the +empire; and thus they contributed to enervate, by the many luxuries +they afforded, the power by which they had been subdued. The <i>eternal +city</i>, as she is sometimes called, in the days of her extensive +dominion, contained about three millions of inhabitants; and, although +this immense population was chiefly supplied by importations, the +Romans never esteemed the character of a merchant. They despised the +peaceful pursuits of industry, whilst they regarded it honorable to +attack without provocation, and plunder without remorse, the weaker +nations of the earth.</p> + +<p>24. In the year 328 of the Christian era, Byzantium<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> was made the seat +of government of the Roman empire by Constantine, who, with a view of +perpetuating his own name, called his new capital Constantinople. +However necessary this removal may have been, to keep in subjugation +the eastern provinces, it was fatal to the security of the western +division. The rivalry between the two cities produced frequent +contests for dominion; and these, together with the general corruption +and effeminacy of the people themselves, rendered it impossible to +resist the repeated and fierce invasions of the barbarous people from +the northern parts of Europe.</p> + +<p>25. These invasions commenced in the latter part of the fourth +century; and, in less than two hundred years, a great portion of the +inhabitants was destroyed, and the whole Western empire was completely +subverted. The conquerors were too barbarous to encourage or protect +commerce; and, like the arts of peace and civilization generally, it +sunk, with few exceptions, amid the general ruin.</p> + +<p>26. The empire of Constantinople, or, as it is usually called, the +Eastern empire, continued in existence several centuries after the +Western empire had been overrun; and commerce continued to flow, for a +considerable time, through some of its former channels to the capital. +At length, the Indian trade, which had so long been carried on chiefly +through Egypt by the Red Sea, was changed to a more northern route, +through Persia.</p> + +<p>27. Soon after the commencement of the pretended mission of Mohammed, +or Mahomet, in 609 of the Christian era, the power of the Arabians, +since called Saracens, began to rise. The followers of the Prophet, +impelled by religious zeal, and allured by plunder, in less than 150 +years extended their dominion almost to the borders of China on the +one side, and to the Mediterranean and Atlantic on the other. The +trade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> of the East, of course, fell into their hands; and they +continued to enjoy it, until they, in turn, were subdued by the Turks.</p> + +<p>28. So great was the prejudice of the Christians against the followers +of Mohammed, that, for a long time, it was considered heretical for +the former to trade with the latter; but the Saracens having a vast +extent of territory, and having control of the Mediterranean and Red +Seas, as well as of the Persian Gulf, carried on an extensive trade +among themselves.</p> + +<p>29. The first European power which rose to commercial eminence, after +the destruction of the Western empire, was the republic of Venice. +This important city owed its origin to some fugitives, who fled for +their lives to a number of small islands in the Adriatic Sea, during +the invasion of Italy by the Huns, under Attila, in the year 452.</p> + +<p>30. The houses first built by the refugees, were constructed of mud +and seagrass; and, so insignificant were they in their appearance, +that a writer of that period compares them to a collection of the +nests of water-fowls. The number of these islands, on which so +splendid a city was afterwards built, was, according to some, +seventy-two; but, according to others, ninety, or even one hundred and +fifty. For a considerable time, the distinction of rich and poor was +not known; for all lived upon the same fish-diet, and in houses of +similar form and materials.</p> + +<p>31. In less than a century, the inhabitants of these islands had +established a regular government; and, in the year 732, we find them +venturing beyond the Adriatic into the Mediterranean, even as far as +Constantinople, trading in silks, purple draperies, and Indian +commodities. In 813, the French commenced trading to Alexandria, and, +in a few years, the Venetians followed their example, in despite of +the ecclesiastical prohibitions against intercourse with the +followers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> of Mohammed. In the tenth century, Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and +Florence, began to rival Venice in trade.</p> + +<p>32. The crusades, which, for two centuries from the year 1095, engaged +so much of the attention of the Christian nations of Europe, greatly +promoted the interests of the commercial cities of Italy; as the +armies in these expeditions were dependent on them for provisions, and +for the means of crossing the sea, which lay between them and the +<i>Holy Land</i>. They also gave a new and powerful impulse to commerce in +general, by giving the people, in the unrefined parts of Europe, a +knowledge of the elegances and luxuries of the East.</p> + +<p>33. In the thirteenth century, commerce and manufactures began to +command considerable attention in Germany and the adjacent states; but +as the seas and rivers were infested with pirates, and the roads with +banditti, it became necessary for those engaged in commerce to adopt +measures to protect their commodities, while on the way from one place +to another. The citizens of Hamburg and Lubeck first united for this +purpose; and the advantages of such a union of strength becoming +apparent, many other cities soon entered into the confederation.</p> + +<p>34. This association was denominated the <i>Hanse</i>, or league, and the +cities thus united were called <i>Hanse Towns</i>. Most of the commercial +towns in the northern parts of the continent of Europe, at length, +became parties to the Hanseatic league. The number of these cities +varied, at different periods; but in the days of the greatest +prosperity of the association, it amounted to eighty-five.</p> + +<p>35. Representatives from the different cities met triennially at +Lubeck, where their common treasury and archives were kept. By this +assembly, which was called a diet, rules for the regulation of +commercial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> intercourse were made, and other business transacted, +which related to the general welfare of the confederation.</p> + +<p>36. In the fourteenth century, the league, in all parts of Europe, +attained a high degree of political importance, and developed that +commercial policy which it had originated, and which has since been +adopted by all civilized nations. The objects of the allied cities +were now declared to be—to protect their commerce against pillage, to +guard and extend their foreign trade, and, as far as possible, to +monopolize it, to maintain and extend the privileges obtained from the +princes of different nations, and to make rules or laws for the +regulation of trade, as well as to establish the necessary tribunals +for their due execution. The decisions of their courts were respected +by the civil authorities of the countries to which their trade +extended.</p> + +<p>37. The treasury was chiefly supplied by duties on merchandise; and +the great wealth thus acquired enabled the allied cities to obtain +commercial privileges from needy princes, for pecuniary +accommodations. The league, in defending its commerce, even carried on +wars against kingdoms; and, at length, by its wealth and naval power, +became mistress of the Northern seas, and rendered the different +cities of the confederation in a great measure independent of the +sovereigns of the countries in which they were situated.</p> + +<p>38. The conduct of the Hanse Towns, at length, excited the jealousies +of those sovereigns who had, for a long time, favored their union; and +the princes of Europe generally, becoming acquainted with the value of +commerce, both as means of enriching their people, and of filling +their own coffers, combined against the association. In 1518, the +governments of several states commanded all their cities to withdraw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +from the league, which soon after voluntarily excluded some others. +After this the Hanse gradually sunk in importance, and finally ceased +to exist in 1630.</p> + +<p>39. The trade to the East Indies continued to be carried on through +Persia and Egypt, subject to the extortions of the Saracens, and the +still severer exactions of the merchants of the Italian cities, until +the route to those countries, by the Cape of Good Hope, was +discovered.</p> + +<p>40. The use of this new pathway of commerce, combined with the +discovery of America, caused an entire change in both the political +and commercial state of Europe. A strong desire of visiting the remote +parts of the world, thus laid open to the people of Europe, +immediately arose, not only among the Portuguese and Spaniards, but +also among other nations. Colonies were soon planted in the East and +in the West; and the whole world may be said to have been inspired +with new energy.</p> + +<p>41. The Portuguese, being considerably in advance of the other +Atlantic nations in the art of navigation, soon gained the entire +control of the East India trade, and were thus raised to great +eminence, prosperity, and power. Their dominions became extensive in +Africa and Asia, and their navy superior to any that had been seen for +several ages before.</p> + +<p>42. In 1580, or eighty-three years after Vasco de Gama found his way, +by the Cape, to Calicut, Portugal was subdued by Philip II., king of +Spain. The Spaniards, however, were not enriched by the conquest; +since their commercial energy and enterprise had been destroyed, by +the vast quantities of the precious metals obtained from their +American possessions.</p> + +<p>43. In 1579, the people of Holland, with those of six neighboring +provinces, being then subject to Spain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> united, under the Prince of +Orange, for the purpose of regaining their liberties. This produced a +sanguinary war, which continued for thirty years, during which time +the Dutch wrested from the Spaniards most of their Portuguese +possessions in India, and, in addition to this, formed many other +settlements in various places from the River Tigris even to Japan. +Batavia, on the Island of Java, was made the grand emporium of trade, +and the seat of the government of their East India possessions.</p> + +<p>44. The prosperity of the United Provinces increased with great +rapidity; and, as they were but little interfered with by other +nations in their Eastern dominions, they enjoyed, for half a century +or more, almost the whole of the trade of the East. Besides this, they +shared largely with the rest of the world in almost every other branch +of trade. After the year 1660, other nations, by great exertions, +succeeded in obtaining considerable shares of the commerce of the +East; yet the Dutch still retain valuable possessions there.</p> + +<p>45. The chief articles exported from Britain, in ancient times, were +tin, lead, copper, iron, wool, and cattle; for which they received in +return, gold, silver, and manufactured articles. But the commerce of +the British Islands was inconsiderable, when compared with that of +many kingdoms on the Continent, until the beginning of the eighteenth +century.</p> + +<p>46. When Elizabeth ascended the throne of England, in 1558, the +circumstances of the nation required an extensive navy for its +protection; and the great attention which the queen paid to this means +of defence, gave animation to all maritime concerns. Under her +patronage, several companies for trading in foreign countries were +formed, which, at that time, and for a long period afterwards, were +very beneficial to trade in general. In her reign, also, the colonial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +system of England had its origin, which contributed eventually, more +than any thing else, to the commercial prosperity of that nation. +Since the reign of this wise and judicious princess, the commerce and +manufactures of Great Britain have been, with a few interruptions, +steadily advancing; and, in these two particulars, she surpasses every +other nation.</p> + +<p>47. The United States possess superior local advantages for trade, and +embrace a population unsurpassed for enterprise and energy. Since the +Revolution, the resources of our country have been rapidly developing. +Our exports and imports are already next in amount to those of Great +Britain and France and the extensive improvements which have been made +by the different states, to facilitate internal intercourse, are +increasing with great rapidity.</p> + +<p>48. The banking system is very intimately interwoven with commercial +affairs in general. Banks are of three kinds, viz., of <i>discount</i>, of +<i>deposit</i>, and of <i>circulation</i>. The term <i>bank</i>, in its original +application, signified a place of common deposit for money, and where, +in commercial transactions, individuals could have the amount, or any +part of the amount, of their deposits transferred to each other's +accounts.</p> + +<p>49. The term <i>bank</i> is derived from the Italian word <i>banco</i>, which +signified a kind of bench, or table, on which the Jews were accustomed +to place the money which they proposed to lend in the markets of the +principal towns. The first bank was established in Venice, about the +middle of the twelfth century; the Bank of Genoa, in 1345; the Bank of +Amsterdam, in 1607; the Bank of Hamburg, in 1619; the Bank of +Rotterdam, in 1635. These were all banks of mere deposit and transfer.</p> + +<p>50. <i>Lending-houses</i> may be traced to a very ancient origin. They +were, at first, supported by humane persons, with a view of lending +money to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> poor, on pledges, without interest. Augustus Cæsar +appropriated a part of the confiscated effects of criminals to this +purpose; and Tiberias, also, advanced a large capital, to be lent for +three years, without interest, to those who could give security in +lands equal to twice the value of the sum borrowed.</p> + +<p>51. In the early ages of Christianity, free gifts were collected and +preserved by ecclesiastics, partly to defray the expenses of divine +service, and partly to relieve the poor of the church; and the funds +thus provided came, at length, to be called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">montes +pietatis</i>—mountains of piety. This appellation was afterwards applied +to the <i>loaning-houses</i>, established in modern Italy in imitation of +those of antiquity.</p> + +<p>52. In course of time, the loaning-houses were permitted by the Roman +pontiff to charge a moderate interest on a part of their capital, and, +finally, upon the whole of it; still, they retained, for a long +period, the original denomination of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">montes pietatis</i>. The receiving +of interest on loans was declared lawful by the Pope, about the middle +of the fifteenth century. Soon after this period, all the cities of +Italy hastened to establish these institutions; and their example was, +at length, followed in other parts of Europe.</p> + +<p>53. But long before the Pope had granted this privilege, individuals +were in the habit of loaning money at an exorbitant usury. These were +principally Jews and merchants from Lombardy; hence, all persons in +those countries, who dealt in money, came to be called <i>Lombard +merchants</i>. The prohibitions of the Church against receiving interest +were eluded, when necessary, by causing it to be paid in advance, by +way of present or premium.</p> + +<p>54. In the twelfth century, many of the dealers in money were expelled +from England, France, and the Netherlands, for usurious practices; +and, in order to regain possession of their effects, which they had, +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> their haste, left in the hands of confidential friends, they +adopted the method of writing concise orders or drafts. Hence +originated bills of exchange, so convenient in commercial +transactions.</p> + +<p>55. The Bank of England was established in the year 1694. Hitherto, +the banks of deposit, and loaning-houses, were entirely distinct; but, +in this institution, these two branches of pecuniary operations were +united. It seems, also, that this was the first bank that issued +notes, to serve as a medium of circulation, and to supply, in part, +the place of gold and silver.</p> + +<p>56. In the United States, banking institutions are very numerous. They +are all established by companies, incorporated by the legislatures of +the different states, or by the congress of the United States. The act +which grants the privileges of banking, also fixes the amount of the +capital stock, and divides it into equal shares. The holders of the +stock choose the officers to transact the business of the corporation.</p> + +<p>57. Our banks receive deposits from individual customers, loan money +on notes of hand, acceptances, and drafts, issue notes of circulation, +and purchase and sell bills of exchange. They are usually authorized, +by their charters, to loan three times the amount, and to issue +bank-notes to twice the amount, of the capital stock paid in. Few +banking companies, however, exercise these privileges to the full +extent, lest the bank be embarrassed by too great a demand for specie. +As soon as a bank ceases to pay specie for its notes, it is said to be +broken, and its operations must cease.</p> + +<p>58. The Bank of North America was the first institution of this kind, +established in the United States. It was incorporated by Congress, in +1781, at the suggestion of Robert Morris. In 1791, after the union<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> of +the states had been effected under the present constitution, the first +Bank of the United States was incorporated, with a capital of ten +millions of dollars. Most of the states soon followed this example; +and, before the beginning of the present century, the whole banking +capital amounted to near thirty millions of dollars.</p> + +<p>59. The charter of the first Bank of the United States expired, by its +own limitation, in 1811; and a new one, with a capital of thirty-five +millions of dollars, was established in 1816, which also closed its +concerns, as a national bank, in 1836, President Jackson having vetoed +the bill for its recharter. In that year the number of banks was 567, +and the bank capital $251,875,292. In the year 1840, the number of +banks had increased to 722, and their capital to $358,442,692.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_AUCTIONEER" id="THE_AUCTIONEER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_203.jpg" width="500" height="418" alt="AUCTIONEER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE AUCTIONEER.</h2> + + +<p>1. The Auctioneer is one who disposes of property at public sale to +the highest bidder. The sale of property in this manner is regulated, +in some particulars, by legislative enactments, which have for their +object the prevention of fraud, or the imposition of duties.</p> + +<p>2. In Pennsylvania, the present law provides for three classes of +auctioneers, each of which is required to pay to the state a specified +sum for a license. The first class pays two thousand dollars per +annum; the second, one thousand; and the third, two hundred; and, +besides this, one and a half per cent. on the amount of all their +sales is required to be paid into the treasury of the state. To each +class are granted privileges corresponding to the cost of the +license.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. In the state of New-York, the number of auctioneers for the cities, +villages, and counties, is limited by law; and all persons who would +follow the business are compelled to give security for the faithful +execution of its duties. The state requires a duty of one per cent. on +all merchandise imported from beyond the Cape of Good Hope, one and a +half per cent. on such as may be imported from other foreign +countries, and two per cent. on wines and ardent spirits, whether +foreign or domestic. The laws and usages regarding sales at auction, +in most of the United States, are similar, in their general +principles, to those of Pennsylvania or New-York.</p> + +<p>4. A great amount of merchandise, both foreign and domestic, in our +principal cities, is sold by auction; and the price which staple +commodities there command is generally considered a tolerable +criterion of their value at the time. It very frequently happens, +however, that articles which are not in steady demand, are sold at a +great sacrifice. Auctioneers seldom import goods, nor is it usual for +them to own the property which they sell.</p> + +<p>5. In all cases, before an auction is held, due notice is given to the +public. This is usually done by the circulation of a printed +hand-bill, by a crier, or by an advertisement in a newspaper; or all +three of these modes may be employed to give publicity to one and the +same sale.</p> + +<p>6. Persons desirous of becoming purchasers at the proposed auction, +assemble at the time appointed; and, after the auctioneer has stated +the terms of sale, as regards the payment of whatever may be +purchased, he offers the property to the persons present, who make +their respective bids, he, in the mean time, <i>crying</i> the sum +proposed. When no further advance is expected, he <i>knocks down</i> the +article to the last bidder.</p> + +<p>7. A mode of sale was formerly, and, in some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> cases is still, +practised, in various parts of Europe, called <i>sale by inch of +candle</i>. The things for sale are offered in the ordinary manner, as +has been described in the preceding paragraph, and, at the same time, +a wax-candle, an inch in length, is lighted. The purchasers bid upon +each other, until the candle has been all consumed; and the last +bidder, when the light goes out, is entitled to the articles or goods +in question.</p> + +<p>8. Auctioneers, in large cities, hold their sales at regular periods; +sometimes, every day or evening. On extensive sales of merchandise, +credits of two, three, four, six, or nine months, are commonly given. +In such cases, the auctioneer often gives his own obligations for the +goods, and receives in return those of the purchasers.</p> + +<p>9. This mode of sale is employed in the disposition of property taken +by process of law for the payment of debts, in every part of the +world, where the influence of European law has extended. It is used in +preference to any other; because it is the most ready way of sale, and +is moreover the most likely method to secure to the debtor something +like the value of his property.</p> + +<p>10. Executors and administrators often employ this convenient method +of sale, in settling the estates of deceased persons; and they, as +well as sheriffs and constables, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex-officio</i>, or by virtue of their +office, have a lawful right to act in the capacity of auctioneer, in +performing their respective duties; and no tax is required by the +state, in such cases.</p> + +<p>11. The sale by auction was in use among the Romans, even in the early +days of their city. It was first employed in the disposition of spoils +taken in war; hence a spear was adopted as a signal of a public sale; +and this continued to be the auctioneer's emblem, even after this mode +of sale was extended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> to property in general. The red flag and spear, +or rather the handle of that instrument, both emblematical of blood +and war, are still employed for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>12. Several attempts have been made in the United States, to suppress +sales of merchandise by auction; but these endeavors were +unsuccessful, since experience had proved this mode of effecting +exchanges to be prompt and convenient; and since some of the states +had derived considerable revenue from the duties. So long as +conflicting interests remain as they are, this mode of sale will be +likely to continue.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_CLERGYMAN" id="THE_CLERGYMAN"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_207.jpg" width="500" height="422" alt="The CLERGYMAN." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE CLERGYMAN.</h2> + + +<p>1. The Lord Jesus Christ, our Saviour, during his visit of mercy to +the world, chose from among his disciples twelve men, to be his +especial agents in establishing his church. These men, in our +translation of the New Testament, are denominated apostles. The grand +commission which they received was, "Go ye into all the world, and +preach my gospel to every creature."</p> + +<p>2. The apostles commenced their noble enterprise on that memorable day +of Pentecost, which next occurred after the ascension of their Master; +and, in the city of his inveterate enemies, soon succeeded in +establishing a church of several thousand members. The doctrines of +Christianity soon spread to other cities and countries; and, before +the close of that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> century, they were known and embraced, more or +less, in every province of the Roman empire.</p> + +<p>3. The apostles, however, were not the only agents engaged in +spreading and maintaining the doctrines of Christianity; for, in every +church, persons were found capable of taking the supervision of the +rest, and of exercising the office of the ministry. These were +ordained either by the apostles themselves, or by persons authorized +by them to perform the ceremony.</p> + +<p>4. After the Church had passed through a great variety of +persecutions, during a period of nearly three centuries, the +Christians became superior in numbers to the pagans in the Roman +empire. In the early part of the fourth century, a free toleration in +religious matters was declared by Constantine the Great, who took the +Church under his especial protection.</p> + +<p>5. The Christians of the first and second centuries usually worshipped +God in private houses, or in the open air in retired places, chiefly +on account of the persecutions to which they were often subjected. It +was not until the third century, that they ventured to give greater +publicity to their service, by building churches for general +accommodation. When the Cross had obtained the ascendency, in the +subsequent age, many of the heathen temples were appropriated to +Christian purposes; and many splendid churches were erected, +especially by Constantine and his successors.</p> + +<p>6. In the middle ages, a great number of edifices were erected for the +performance of divine worship, which, in loftiness and grandeur, had +never been surpassed; and the greater part of these remain to the +present day. Some of the most famous churches are, St. Peter's, at +Rome; Notre Dame, at Paris; St. Stephen's, at Vienna; the church of +Isaac, at St. Petersburg;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> the minsters at Strasburg and Cologne and +St. Paul's, in London.</p> + +<p>7. Up to the time of the great change in favor of Christianity, just +mentioned, the whole Church had often acted together in matters of +common interest, through the medium of general councils; and this +practice continued for several centuries afterwards. But the variance +and dissensions between the Pope of Rome, and the Patriarch of +Constantinople, combined with some other causes, produced, about the +close of the ninth century, a total separation of the two great +divisions of the Church.</p> + +<p>8. At the time of this schism, the whole Christian world had become +subject to these two prelates. The part of the Church ruled by the +Patriarch, was called the <i>Eastern</i>, or <i>Greek Church</i>; and that part +which yielded obedience to the Pope, was denominated the <i>Western</i>, or +<i>Latin Church</i>. Many attempts have been since made to reunite these +two branches of the Church; but these endeavors have hitherto proved +unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>9. The conquest of the Roman empire, so often mentioned in the +preceding pages, was particularly injurious to the Church, especially +that part of it subject to the Roman pontiff; since it nearly +extinguished the arts and sciences, and since the barbarous conquerors +were received into the Church, before they had attained the proper +moral qualifications. From these causes, chiefly, arose the conduct of +the Church, in the middle ages, which has been so much censured by all +enlightened men, and which has been often unjustly attributed to +Christianity herself, rather than to the ignorance and barbarism of +the times.</p> + +<p>10. In the year 1517, while Leo X. occupied the papal chair, Martin +Luther, of Saxony, commenced his well-known opposition to many +practices and doctrines in the Church, which he conceived to be +departures<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> from the spirit of primitive Christianity. He was soon +joined in his opposition by Philip Melancthon, Ulric Zuingle, and +finally by John Calvin, as well as by many other distinguished divines +of that century, in various parts of Europe.</p> + +<p>11. These men, with their followers and abettors, for reasons too +obvious to need explanation, received or assumed the appellation of +<i>Reformers</i>; and, on account of a solemn protest which they entered +against a certain decree which had been issued against them, they also +became distinguished by the name of <i>Protestants</i>. The latter term is +now applied to all sects, of whatever denomination, in the western +division of the Church, that do not acknowledge the authority of the +Roman See.</p> + +<p>12. The Protestant division of the Church is called by the Roman +Catholics, the <i>Western schism</i>, to distinguish it from that of the +Greek Church, which is termed the <i>Eastern schism</i>. The Protestants +are divided into a great number of sects, or parties; and, although +they differ from each other in many of their religious sentiments, +they agree in their steady opposition to the Roman Catholics.</p> + +<p>13. The ostensible object of the founders of all the churches +differing from the Romish communion, has been, to bring back +Christianity to the state in which it existed on its first +establishment; and to prove their positions in doctrine and church +government, they appeal to the Scriptures, and sometimes to the +Christian writers of the first four or five centuries. The advocates +of the "mother church," on the contrary, contend that, being +infallible, she can never have departed from primitive principles, on +any point essential to salvation.</p> + +<p>14. As to the government of the several churches it is, in most cases, +either Episcopal or Presbyterian. In the former case, three orders of +clergymen are recognized;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> viz., <i>bishops</i>, <i>presbyters</i>, and +<i>deacons</i>; and these three orders are supposed, by the advocates of +episcopacy, to have been ordained by the apostles. This opinion is +supported by the circumstance, that these orders are mentioned in the +Scriptures; and also by the fact, supposed to be sustained by the +primitive fathers, that they were uniformly established early in the +second century.</p> + +<p>15. It is believed by Episcopalians, that these three orders of +ministers were instituted in the Christian Church, in imitation of the +Jewish priesthood; the bishop representing the high-priest; the +presbyters, the priests; and the deacons, the Levites.</p> + +<p>16. On the other hand, the advocates of the Presbyterian form of +government, assert, that in the first century of the Church, bishop +and presbyter were the same order of ministers, and that the former +was nothing more than a presbyter, who presided in Christian +assemblies, when met to consult on church affairs.</p> + +<p>17. The deacons in the churches that have renounced episcopacy, are +not classed among the clergy, but are chosen from among the private +members, to manage the temporalities of the congregation, or church, +to which they belong, to assist the minister, on some occasions, in +religious assemblies, or to take the lead in religious worship in his +absence. Under this form of government, therefore, there is recognized +but one order of ministers, and every clergyman is denominated +<i>presbyter</i>, <i>priest</i>, or <i>elder</i>.</p> + +<p>18. The literary and religious qualifications required of candidates +for orders have varied in different ages of the Church, according to +the existing state of literature and religion; and the requirements in +these two particulars are now different, in the several denominations. +Nearly all, however, require the profession in the candidate, that he +believes he is moved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> by the Holy Ghost to take upon him the office of +the ministry. Some churches require a collegiate education, with two +or three years of the study of divinity; but others, only such as is +usually obtained in common schools, combined with a tolerable capacity +for public speaking.</p> + +<p>19. The clergy in the Roman Catholic Church, is of two kinds; the one +<i>regular</i>, comprehending all the religious who have taken upon +themselves monastic vows; the other <i>secular</i>, comprehending all the +ecclesiastics who do not assume these obligations. The latter, +however, in common with the former, take a vow of perpetual celibacy.</p> + +<p>20. It is the especial duty of clergymen, to preach the gospel, to +administer the ordinances, and to enforce the discipline of that +branch of the Church to which they belong. They are also expected to +administer consolation to persons in distress of mind, arising from +the complicated evils of this life, to unite persons by the bonds of +matrimony, and, finally, in attending on the burial of the dead, to +perform the last ceremony due from man to man.</p> + +<p>21. Ministers of the gospel occupy an elevated stand in all Christian +communities, both on account of the high tone of moral feeling which +they generally possess, and on account of the interest which the +people at large feel in the subject of religion. The work of the +ministry is emphatically a work of benevolence; and no man can perform +it with satisfaction to himself, or with acceptance to the people of +his charge, if destitute of love to God and man.</p> + +<p>22. In most of the kingdoms of Europe, some one of the several +denominations is supported by legal enactments; but, in the United +States, every branch of the Church enjoys equal favor, so far as +legislation is concerned. In most cases, the institutions of religion +are supported by voluntary contributions or subscriptions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> + +<p>23. The salary received by ministers of the gospel, in the United +States, is exceedingly various in the different denominations, and in +the same denomination from different congregations. In some instances, +they receive nothing for their services, in others, a liberal +compensation.</p> + +<p>24. It is but justice to this profession to remark, that, taking the +ability of its members into account, there is no employment less +productive of wealth; and this is so evidently the case, that some +denominations distribute, annually, a considerable amount among the +widows and orphans of those who have devoted their lives to the +ministry.</p> + +<p>25. The meagre support which the ministry usually receives, arises, in +part, from the opinion too commonly entertained, that this profession +ought to be one of benevolence exclusively, and that ministers should, +therefore, be contented with a bare subsistence, and look for their +reward in the consciousness of doing their duty, and in the prospect +of future felicity. This is a very convenient way of paying for the +services of faithful servants, and of relieving the consciences of +those whose duty it is to give them a liberal support.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="ATTORNEY_AT_LAW" id="ATTORNEY_AT_LAW"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_214.jpg" width="500" height="424" alt="The LAWYER." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>ATTORNEY AT LAW.</h2> + + +<p>1. A lawyer is one who, by profession, transacts legal business for +others, who, in this relation, are called <i>clients</i>. A lawyer is +either an attorney or councillor, or both. The part of legal business, +belonging peculiarly to the attorney, consists in preparing the +details of the <i>pleadings</i> and the <i>briefs</i> for the use of the +councillor, whose especial province it is to make the argument before +the court. When the lawyer prepares his own case and makes the +argument, as he generally does, he acts in the capacity of both +attorney and councillor. In the court of chancery the lawyer is +denominated <i>solicitor</i>, and in the admiralty court, <i>proctor</i>. Before +a person is permitted to practise law in our courts, he is required to +pass through a regular course of study, and afterwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> undergo an +examination before persons learned in the law.</p> + +<p>2. This profession has its foundation in the numerous and complicated +laws which have been adopted by men, to govern their intercourse with +each other. These laws, as they exist in our country, may be divided +into <i>constitutional</i> and <i>municipal</i>. Constitutional law is that by +which the government of the United States, and those of the different +states, have been established, and by which they are governed in their +action. The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of +the land.</p> + +<p>3. Municipal law embraces those rules of civil conduct prescribed by +the supreme power of the state, or of the United States; and is +composed of <i>statute</i> and <i>common</i> law. Statute law is the express +will of the legislative part of the government, rendered authentic by +certain forms and ceremonies prescribed by the Constitution.</p> + +<p>4. Common law is a system of rules and usages, which have been applied +in particular cases of litigation. It originated in the dictates of +natural justice, and cultivated reason, and is found more particularly +in the reports of the decisions of the courts of justice. The common +law is employed in cases which positive enactments do not reach, and +in construing and applying positive enactments. The common law of +England has been adopted by every state in the Union, except +Louisiana.</p> + +<p>5. The Constitution of the United States, and those of the several +states, provides for three departments in their respective +governments, viz., the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. +It is the chief province of the first to enact laws, and of the second +and third to see that they are duly executed.</p> + +<p>6. The judicial power of the United States is vested in one <i>supreme +court</i> and two inferior courts. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> Supreme Court is now composed of +seven justices who commence their session in the Capitol, at +Washington, on the second Monday in January. The two inferior courts +are the <i>District</i> and <i>Circuit Courts</i>. In the first of these +presides a single judge; in the second, one of the justices of the +Supreme Court, and the district judge.</p> + +<p>7. The judiciary of the United States takes cognisance of all cases +which arise under the Constitution, laws, and treaties, of the United +States, and likewise of those cases arising under the law of nations. +It also embraces all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, as +well as those controversies to which the government of the United +States is a party, the controversies between two states, between a +state and citizens of another state, between citizens of different +states, and between a state or citizens thereof, and foreign states, +citizens, or subjects.</p> + +<p>8. The judicial systems of all the states correspond, in many +respects, with each other. In all, the office of justice of the peace +is similar. To these magistrates, the general police of the counties +is chiefly committed, as they have authority to cause criminals, and +other disturbers of the peace, to be arrested; and, if the offence is +small, to fix the penalty; but, if the offence is too great to be +brought within their jurisdiction, they commit the offenders to +prison, to be reserved for trial before a higher tribunal.</p> + +<p>9. In many of the states, the common magistrates of the county, or a +select number of them, form a court, called County Sessions, which has +a comprehensive jurisdiction in matters of police, and in regulating +the affairs of the county; such as building courthouses, assessing +county taxes, opening roads, and licensing taverns.</p> + +<p>10. In Virginia, the County Sessions is an important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> court. Its +jurisdiction extends to many criminal cases, and to those of a civil +nature involving the amount of $300. Although a great amount of +business passes through these courts, the justices discharge all their +duties without compensation. In most of the states, the common +magistrates, in their individual or collective capacity, have +jurisdiction over civil cases, varying in their greatest amount from +thirteen to one hundred dollars, a right of appeal being reserved to a +higher court.</p> + +<p>11. No definite qualifications are required by law or usage for +practising in the magistrates' courts, accordingly, there are many +persons who plead causes here, who do not properly belong to the +profession of law; these are called <i>pettifoggers</i>, and the practice +itself, by whomsoever performed, is called <i>pettifogging</i>. Lawyers of +inferior abilities and acquirements are, also, frequently termed +pettifoggers.</p> + +<p>12. In all the states, a class of county courts is established, +denominated Courts of Common Pleas, County Courts, District or Circuit +Courts, which have original jurisdiction of civil actions at law, or +indictments for crimes. Over these are established the Superior or +Supreme Courts, or Courts of Error and Appeal, to which appeals are +admitted from the inferior courts.</p> + +<p>13. Civil cases are frequently decided on principles of equity; and, +in some states, courts of chancery are established for this purpose. +But, in most of the states, there are no decisions of this kind; or +the same courts act as courts of law and equity, as is the case with +the courts of the United States.</p> + +<p>14. There are several other courts that might be mentioned; but enough +has been said of these institutions, to give an idea of the extensive +range of the profession of the law. It may be well to remark here, +that few lawyers aspire to the privilege of practising in the supreme +courts; since, to be successful there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> it would require not only great +abilities, but more extensive reading than the profession generally +are willing to encounter.</p> + +<p>15. When a client has stated his case in detail to his attorney, it is +the province of the latter to decide upon the course most proper to be +pursued in regard to it. If the client is the plaintiff, and +litigation is determined upon, the attorney decides upon the court in +which the case should be brought forward, and also upon the manner in +which it should be conducted.</p> + +<p>16. The suit having been brought, say into the County Court, it is +tried according to law. If it involves facts or damages, it is +canvassed before a jury of twelve men, who are bound by oath or +affirmation to bring in their verdict according to the evidence +presented by both parties. It is the business of the lawyers, each for +his own client, to sum up the evidence which may have been adduced, +and to present the whole in a light as favorable to his own side of +the question as possible.</p> + +<p>17. When the case involves points of law which must needs be +understood by the jury, to enable them to make a correct decision, the +advocates of the parties present their views with regard to them; but, +if these happen to be wrong, the judge, in his charge to the jury, +rectifies the mistake or misrepresentation. The case having been +decided, each party is bound to submit to the decision, or appeal, if +permitted by law, to a higher tribunal.</p> + +<p>18. Causes to be determined on legal principles only, are brought +before the judge or judges for adjudication. In such cases, the +advocates present the statute or common law supposed to be applicable, +and then reports of similar cases, which may have been formerly +decided in the same or similar courts. These reports are the exponents +of the common law of the case, and are supposed, in most instances, to +furnish data for correct decisions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> + +<p>10. Besides the management of causes in public courts, the lawyer has +a great mass of business of a private nature; such as drawing wills, +indentures, deeds, and mortgages. He is consulted in a great variety +of cases of a legal nature, where litigation is not immediately +concerned, and especially in regard to the validity of titles to real +estate; and the many impositions to which the community is liable from +defective titles, render the information which he is able to afford on +this subject, extremely valuable.</p> + +<p>20. In the preceding account of this profession, it is easy to +perceive that it is one of great utility and responsibility. It is to +the attorney, that the oppressed repair for redress against the +oppressor; and to him, the orphan and friendless look, to aid them in +obtaining or maintaining their rights. To this profession, also, as +much as to any other, the American people may confidently look for the +maintenance of correct political principles.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_PHYSICIAN" id="THE_PHYSICIAN"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_220.jpg" width="500" height="417" alt="The PHYSICIAN." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE PHYSICIAN.</h2> + + +<p>1. Among the various avocations of men, that of the physician deserves +to be placed in the foremost rank. The profession is founded in the +multiplicity of diseases to which humanity is liable, and in the +medical qualities of certain substances, which have been found to +supply a remedy.</p> + +<p>2. It is implied, though not expressly declared, in the Scriptures, +that the diseases and other calamities pertaining to our earthly +condition, originated in the fall of man from his pristine innocence; +and the Grecian fable of Pandora's box appears to have originated in a +similar tradition. It seems that Jupiter, being angry at Prometheus, +ordered Vulcan to make a woman endowed with every possible perfection. +This workman having finished his task, and presented the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> workmanship +of his hands to the gods, they loaded her with presents, and sent her +to Prometheus.</p> + +<p>3. This prince, however, suspecting a trick, would have nothing to do +with her; but Epimetheus was so captivated with her charms, that he +took her to be his wife. The curiosity of Epimetheus led him to look +into a box, given to her by Jupiter, which he had no sooner opened, +than there issued from it the complicated miseries and diseases, which +have since afflicted the family of man. He instantly shut the box; but +all had flown, save Hope, which had not time to escape; and this is +consequently the only blessing that permanently remains with wretched +mortals.</p> + +<p>4. Since the introduction of moral evil into the world, it cannot be +supposed that man has ever enjoyed the blessing of uninterrupted +health; and, as it is an instinct of our nature to seek for means of +relieving pain, we may safely infer that medicinal remedies were +applied in the earliest ages of the human race.</p> + +<p>5. Among some of the ancient nations, the origin of diseases was +attributed to the malignant influence of supernatural agents. This +notion produced a corresponding absurdity, in the means of obtaining +relief. Accordingly, idolatrous priests, astrologers, and magicians, +were resorted to, who employed religious ceremonies, astrological +calculations, and cabalistic incantations.</p> + +<p>6. The healing art was cultivated at a very early period in Egypt; but +it was crippled in its infancy by ordinances, enjoining, without +discrimination, the remedies for every disease, and the precise time +and mode of their application. The practice was confined to the +priests, who connected with it the grossest superstitions.</p> + +<p>7. We are informed by the most ancient historians, that the Chaldeans +and Babylonians exposed their sick<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> in places of public resort, and on +the highways; and that strangers and others were required by law to +give some advice in each case of disease. Amid the variety of +suggestions which must necessarily have been given under such +circumstances, it was expected that some would prove efficacious. This +custom was well calculated to enlarge the boundaries of medical +knowledge.</p> + +<p>8. The first records of medicine were kept in the temples dedicated by +the Greeks to Esculapius, who, on account of his skill in medicine, +was honored as the god of health. The name or description of the +disease, and the method of cure, were engraved on durable tablets, +which were suspended, where they could be readily seen by visitors.</p> + +<p>9. But medicine did not assume the dignity of a distinct science, +until the days of Hippocrates, who reckons himself the seventeenth +from Esculapius in a lineal descent. This great man, who flourished +about 400 years before the Christian era, is universally esteemed the +"Father of Medicine." After his death, the science was cultivated by +the philosophers of Greece, to whom, however, it owes but few +improvements.</p> + +<p>10. After the dismemberment of the Macedonian empire, learning +retreated from contending factions to Egypt, where it was liberally +fostered by the Ptolemies. Under their patronage, a medical school at +Alexandria became eminent, and the healing art flourished beyond all +former example. To the disciples of this school, is the world indebted +for the first correct description of the human structure. Their +knowledge on this subject was obtained from the dissection of the +bodies of criminals, which had been assigned to them by the +government.</p> + +<p>11. The acquisitions of the Greeks in medical science at length became +the inheritance of the Romans;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> but Rome had existed 535 years before +a professional physician was known in the city. This inattention to +the subject of medicine arose, chiefly, from an opinion, common to the +semi-barbarous nations of those times, that maladies were to be cured +by the interposition of superior beings. The sick, therefore, applied +to their idolatrous priests, who offered sacrifices to the gods in +their behalf, and practised over the body of the patient a variety of +magical ceremonies.</p> + +<p>12. Sacrifices were especially offered to the gods in cases of +pestilence; and, on one occasion of this kind, a temple was erected to +Apollo, who was regarded as the god of physic; and, on another, +Esculapius, under the form of a serpent, was conducted from Epidaurus, +in Greece, and introduced, with great pomp, upon an islet in the +Tiber, which was thenceforth devoted to his particular service.</p> + +<p>13. Archagathus, a Greek, was the first who practised physic, as an +art, at Rome; and he was soon followed by many more of his +professional brethren. These pioneers of medicine, however, were +violently opposed by Cato the Censor, who publicly charged them with a +conspiracy to poison the citizens. But the patients under their care +generally recovering, he began to regard them as impious sorcerers, +who counteracted the course of nature, and restored men to life by +means of unholy charms.</p> + +<p>14. Cato having succeeded in producing a general conviction, that the +practice of these physicians was calculated to enervate the +constitutions, and corrupt the manners of the people, restrictions +were laid upon the profession, and practitioners were even forbidden +to settle at Rome. But after the people had become more vicious and +luxurious, diseases became more frequent and obstinate, and physicians +more necessary. The restrictions were, therefore, at length removed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> + +<p>15. Among the Roman writers on medicine, Celsus was the first who is +worthy of consideration. He has been denominated the Roman +Hippocrates, because he imitated the close observation and practice of +that physician. His work, as well as that of his great prototype, is +read with advantage, even at the present day. He flourished at or near +the time of our Saviour.</p> + +<p>16. In the second century of the Christian era, Galen, a Greek +physician from Pergamus, and a disciple of the Alexandrian school, +settled in Rome. He was learned in all branches of medicine, and wrote +more copiously on the subject generally, than any other person amongst +the ancients. For 1300 years, his opinions were received as oracular, +wherever medicine was cultivated.</p> + +<p>17. After the destruction of the Western empire by the barbarous +nations, the science of medicine was cultivated only in the Greek +empire, and chiefly at Alexandria, until it began to arrest the +attention of the Arabians, in the seventh century. The works of +several Greek philosophers and physicians were translated into Arabic, +under the patronage of the caliphs, several of whom were zealous +promoters of learning.</p> + +<p>18. In the eighth century, the Caliph Almansur established, at Bagdad, +a hospital for the sick, and an academy, in which, among other +branches of knowledge, was taught the medical art. But it was in +Spain, that Arabian learning rose to the highest point, and produced +the most successful results. The University of Cordova became the most +celebrated in the world, and continued to maintain its reputation for +a long series of years. Arabian medicine reached its greatest +eminence, in the eleventh century, under Avicenna.</p> + +<p>19. In the tenth century, this science began to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> taught in the +schools of other parts of Europe; but its professors derived their +knowledge of the subject from the Arabian school, or from Arabic +translations of the ancient authors; and this continued to be the +case, until the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453. At +this time, many erudite Greeks fled into Italy, and carried with them +the ancient writings.</p> + +<p>20. Before the general revival of this science in Europe, the cure of +diseases was chiefly confided, in the western nations, to the priests +and monks, who, however, generally relied more upon religious +ceremonies, and the influence of sacred relics, than upon the +application of medical remedies. The superstitions of those barbarous +times, respecting the means of curing diseases, have not yet entirely +disappeared, even from the most enlightened nations of Christendom.</p> + +<p>21. The science of chemistry began to attract much attention about the +beginning of the sixteenth century; and the many powerful medical +agents which it supplied, at length produced a great change in the +theory and practice of medicine. Many valuable medicines of the +vegetable kind, were also obtained from America. The discovery of the +circulation of the blood by William Harvey, in 1620, imparted a new +impulse to medicine; but, like chemistry, it gave rise to many absurd +and hurtful theories.</p> + +<p>22. Researches in different branches of medicine were continued with +ardor in the seventeenth century, in various parts of Europe; and +numerous discoveries of importance were made, especially in anatomy. +Many theories regarding the origin of diseases, and their treatment, +were proposed, advocated, and controverted; but all these were +overthrown by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> Stahl, Boerhaave, and Hoffman, three eminent theorists, +in the early part of the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>23. These distinguished men were followed by others of equal +celebrity, in the same century, who, in part at least, exploded the +doctrines of their predecessors. The present century, above all other +periods, is remarkable for men eminent in this profession; and, +although all do not exactly agree in opinion, yet, guided in their +conclusions by a careful observation of facts, they are less under the +influence of visionary theories than physicians of former times. +Besides, many of the subjects of former controversy having been +satisfactorily settled, there are now fewer causes of division and +excitement among the medical profession.</p> + +<p>24. Medical science comprises several branches, of which the following +are the principal; viz., Anatomy, Surgery, Materia Medica, Chemistry, +the Theory and Practice of Physic. On these subjects, lectures are +given in several colleges and universities in Europe, and in the +United States. In this country, an attendance on two regular courses +of lectures entitles the student to the degree of Doctor of Medicine, +provided he can sustain with sufficient ability, an examination before +the professors, or, as they are usually termed, the medical faculty.</p> + +<p>25. The degree of M. D. conferred by a college or university, is a +passport to practice, in every state of the Union; and, in some +states, none are permitted to attend the sick, professionally, without +having first obtained a diploma conferring such degree. In other +states, however, no legal restrictions are imposed on the +practitioners of the healing art; or, they are licensed by a board of +physicians, constituted by law for the purpose.</p> + +<p>26. The practice of this profession is generally attended with great +labor, and, in many cases, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> much perplexity. Diseases are often +stubborn or incurable, and effectually baffle the most skilful +practitioner. In most cases, however, diseases are under the control +of medical skill; and the high satisfaction which a benevolent +physician feels, in relieving the sufferings of his fellow-creatures, +may serve as a recompense for the many adverse circumstances which +attend the profession.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_CHEMIST" id="THE_CHEMIST"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_228.jpg" width="500" height="420" alt="The CHEMIST." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE CHEMIST.</h2> + + +<p>1. This globe, and every thing appertaining to it, is composed of +substances, which exist either in a compound or simple state. It is +the object of the scientific chemist to investigate the properties of +these substances, and to show their action upon each other. By this +science, therefore, compound bodies are reduced to the simple elements +of which they are composed, or new combinations formed.</p> + +<p>2. According to the preceding definitions, chemistry comprehends an +immense variety of objects. It is scarcely possible to name a thing or +phenomenon in the natural world, to which it does not directly or +indirectly apply; even the growth of vegetables, and the preparation +and digestion of our food, depend upon chemical principles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. The word chemistry is supposed to be of Egyptian origin, and, in +its primary application, was the same with our phrase natural +philosophy. Its meaning was afterwards restricted to the art of +working those metals which were most esteemed. In the third century, +it came to be applied to the pretended art of transmuting baser metals +into gold. The science, in the latter sense of the word, was eagerly +cultivated by the Greeks; and from them it passed to the Arabians, who +introduced it into Europe under the name of alchemy.</p> + +<p>4. The professors of the art were dignified with the appellation of +alchemistic philosophers, and the leading doctrine of the sect was, +that all metals are composed of the most simple substances; and that, +consequently, base metals were capable of being changed into gold; +hence, the chief object of their researches was the discovery of an +agent, by which this great change was to be effected. The substance +supposed to possess this wonderful property was called "the +philosopher's stone;" the touch of which was to change every kind of +metal into gold.</p> + +<p>5. The greatest rage for alchemy prevailed between the tenth and +sixteenth centuries. The writers on this subject who appeared during +that period, are very numerous, most of whom are unintelligible, +except to those initiated into the art. Many of them, however, display +great acuteness, and an extensive acquaintance with natural objects. +They all boast, that they are in possession of the philosopher's +stone, and profess the ability of communicating a knowledge of making +it to others.</p> + +<p>6. Their writings and confident professions gained almost implicit +credit, and many unwary persons were thus exposed to the tricks of +impostors, who offered to communicate their secret for a pecuniary +reward. Having obtained the sum proposed, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> either absconded, or +wearied out their patrons with tedious and expensive processes.</p> + +<p>7. Chemists, for a long time, had supposed it possible to discover, by +their art, a medicine which should not only cure, but prevent all +diseases, and prolong life to an indefinite period, even to +immortality. This notion gradually becoming prevalent, the word +<i>chemistry</i> acquired a more extensive application, and embraced not +only the art of making gold, but also that of preparing "the universal +medicine." Some of these visionary men asserted, that the +philosopher's stone was this wonderful panacea.</p> + +<p>8. Few readers need be informed, that the researches for the +philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, were, at length, +abandoned, as fruitless and visionary; yet the numerous experiments +which had been instituted on these accounts, were attended with the +incidental advantage of a considerable dexterity in the performance of +chemical operations, together with the discovery of many new +substances and valuable facts, which, without these strong incentives, +would have remained, at least, much longer in obscurity.</p> + +<p>9. Although none of the medicines, produced in the chemical +laboratory, answered the chimerical expectations of the chemists, in +curing all diseases, and in rendering the perishable body of man +immortal, yet they proved sufficiently valuable in the healing art, to +command the attention of the profession all over Europe. The adoption +of chemical medicines, however, was, at first, everywhere opposed, +either as unsafe remedies, or as being inferior in efficacy to those +which had been used for so many centuries.</p> + +<p>10. These prejudices having given way to the light of experience, +chemical medicines came, at length, to occupy a conspicuous place in +the Materia Medica; and their value within the present century has +become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> still more manifest. One of the most useful branches of +chemistry, therefore, is to make the various preparations used in the +medical art.</p> + +<p>11. The most efficient agent in the introduction of chemical +medicines, was Theophilus Paracelsus. This singular individual was +born near Zurich, in Switzerland. Having studied chemistry under two +masters, he commenced a rambling life, in pursuit of chemical and +medical knowledge; and, having visited Italy, France, and Germany, +where he met with many whimsical adventures, which contributed greatly +to advance his reputation, he was elected, in 1527, to fill the chair +of chemistry, in the University of Basle.</p> + +<p>12. One of the first acts of this arrogant professor was to burn, with +the utmost solemnity, while seated in his chair, the works of Galen +and Avicenna, declaring to his audience, that if God would not impart +the secrets of physic, it was not only allowable, but even +justifiable, to consult the devil. He also treated his contemporaries +with the same insolence, telling them, in a preface to one of his +books, that "the very down on his bald pate had more knowledge than +all their writers; the buckle of his shoes more learning than Galen +and Avicenna; and his beard more experience than all their +universities."</p> + +<p>13. It could not be expected, that a man with such a temper could long +retain his situation; and, accordingly, he was driven from it, in +1528, by a quarrel with those who had conferred the appointment. From +this time, he rambled about the country, chiefly in Germany, leading a +life of extreme intemperance, in the lowest company. Nevertheless, he +still maintained his reputation as a physician, by the extraordinary +cures occasionally effected by his powerful remedies; although his +failures were equally conspicuous.</p> + +<p>14. But the most signal failure of his remedies occurred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> in his own +person; for, after having boasted for many years of possessing an +elixir which would prolong life to an indefinite period, he died, in +1541, at Salzburg, with a bottle of his immortal catholicon in his +pocket. The medicines on which Paracelsus chiefly relied, were opium, +antimony, and various preparations of mercury. He has the merit of +applying the last, especially, to cases in which they had not been +before used; and upon this circumstance, his great reputation +depended.</p> + +<p>15. We have been thus particular in noticing this individual, because +he was the first who gave public lectures on chemistry in Europe, and +because he gave the first great impulse in favor of chemical +medicines. He also carried his speculations concerning the +philosopher's stone and the universal remedy, to the greatest height +of absurdity; and, by exemplifying their inutility and fallacy in his +own person, he contributed more than any one else to their disrepute, +and subsequent banishment from the science.</p> + +<p>16. Researches for the philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, +having been, at length, relinquished, the chemical facts which had +been collected became, in the general estimation, a heap of rubbish of +little value. At this time, there arose an individual thoroughly +acquainted with these facts, and capable of perceiving the important +purposes to which they might be applied.</p> + +<p>17. The name of this individual was John Joachim Becher. He published +a work in 1669, entitled "Physica Subterranica," by which he gave a +new direction to chemistry, by applying it to analyzing and +ascertaining the constituent parts of material bodies; and his system +is the foundation of the science, as it now exists.</p> + +<p>18. George Ernest Stahl, a medical professor in the University of +Halle, adopted the theory of Becher,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> and, after his death, edited the +work just mentioned; but he so simplified and improved it, that he +made it entirely his own; and, accordingly, it has always been +distinguished by the appellation of the Stahlian theory. The principal +work of Stahl, on this subject, was published in 1729; and, since that +time, chemistry has been cultivated with ardor in Germany, and in +other countries in the north of Europe.</p> + +<p>19. In France, chemistry became a fashionable study, about the middle +of the eighteenth century. It had, however, been cultivated there by a +few individuals, long before that period. Men of eminence now appeared +in all parts of the kingdom, and discoveries in the science were made +in rapid succession. Some attention was also paid to it in Italy and +Spain.</p> + +<p>20. In Great Britain, this subject attracted but little attention, +except from a few individuals, until Dr. Cullen had become professor +of the science, in the University of Edinburgh, in 1756. This accurate +investigator of natural phenomena, succeeded in enkindling an +enthusiasm for chemical investigations among the students; and the +subsequent experiments of Dr. Black, Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Priestley, and +Lavoisier, which resulted in the discovery of the constituent parts of +air and water, diffused the same ardor through every part of the +kingdom.</p> + +<p>21. Lavoisier, the celebrated French chemist, having proved the +Stahlian theory to be incorrect, founded another on the chemical +affinities and combinations of oxygen with the various substances in +nature. This system has been generally adopted; since it explains a +great number of phenomena more satisfactorily than any other ever +proposed. The great chemical agent, in the Stahlian system, was +supposed to be an inflammable substance, which was denominated by the +theorist <i>phlogiston</i>. To distinguish, therefore, the new theory from +the one which it superseded,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> it was called the pneumatic, or +anti-phlogistic system.</p> + +<p>22. In 1787, a new technical nomenclature was devised, by the aid of +which all the chemical facts are easily retained in the memory. Twelve +or fifteen terms have been found sufficient for the foundation of a +methodical language; and, by changing the terminations of these +radicals, or by prefixing certain words or syllables, the changes that +take place in bodies are clearly expressed. This valuable innovation +originated with Lavoisier and three other French chemists.</p> + +<p>23. In the present century, many important discoveries have been made +in this science; and, among those who have been distinguished for +their researches into its mysteries, Sir Humphrey Davy, of Great +Britain, shines pre-eminent. In the United States, it has many able +professors; among whom are Professors Hare and Mitchell, of +Philadelphia, Torrey, Renwick, and Draper, of New-York, Henry, of +Princeton, Beck, of Albany, Silliman, of New-Haven, and Johnson, of +Middletown.</p> + +<p>24. Chemistry is so extensive in its application, that we will not +attempt to describe any of the operations of the laboratory. We, +therefore, conclude this article by recommending this science to +general attention; assuring the uninitiated, that it is beset with +fewer difficulties than they are apt to suppose, and that every effort +in the course will be attended with interesting facts and phenomena, +which will abundantly reward the labor of investigation.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_DRUGGIST_AND_APOTHECARY" id="THE_DRUGGIST_AND_APOTHECARY"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_235.jpg" width="500" height="424" alt="APOTHECARY." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY.</h2> + + +<p>1. The druggist is a wholesale dealer in drugs, which, in commerce, +embrace not only articles used or recommended by the medical +profession, but also spices, dye-stuffs, and paints. The commodities +of his trade are obtained from almost every quarter of the globe; but +especially from the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea, +and from the East Indies and Spanish America.</p> + +<p>2. The chemist looks to the druggist for most of the materials +employed in his laboratory; and from him the apothecary, physician, +and country merchant, obtain their chief supply of medicines. There +are, however, but few persons in the United States, who confine +themselves exclusively to this branch of business; for most of the +druggists are also apothecaries,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> and sometimes operative or +manufacturing chemists.</p> + +<p>3. Medicinals, when they come into the warehouse of the druggist, are +usually in a crude state; and many, or most of them, must necessarily +undergo a variety of changes, of a chemical or mechanical nature, +before they can be applied in practice. The art by which these changes +are effected is called Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics; and the books which +treat of pharmaceutical operations are denominated Pharmacopœias, +or Dispensatories.</p> + +<p>4. The operations of Pharmacy, which depend upon chemical principles, +are conducted chiefly by the operative chemist; but those which +consist merely in mechanical reduction, or in mixing together +different ingredients, to form compounds, belong properly to the +vocation of the apothecary.</p> + +<p>5. The apothecary sells medicines in small quantities, prepared for +application. Many of the standing compound preparations which have +been authorized by the Pharmacopœias, and which are in regular +demand, he keeps ready prepared; but a great proportion of his +business consists in compounding and putting up the prescriptions of +the physician, as they are needed by the patient.</p> + +<p>6. In country places, where there are generally no apothecary-shops, +the physicians compound and prepare their own prescriptions; but in +cities, where these establishments are numerous, the medical +profession prefer to rid themselves of this trouble. In most cases, +however, they keep by them a few remedies, which can be applied in +cases of emergency.</p> + +<p>7. In Great Britain, the apothecary is permitted to attend sick +persons, and administer medicines either according to his own +judgment, or in conformity with the directions of the physician. He +is, therefore, a physician of an inferior order; and, as his fees are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +more moderate than those of the regular profession, his practice is +extensive among persons who, from necessity or inclination, are +induced to study economy.</p> + +<p>8. The apothecaries in England, Scotland, and Ireland, are obliged to +make up their standing medicines according to the formulas of the +Dispensatories adopted in their respective countries; and their shops +are subject to the visitation of censors, who have authority to +destroy those medicines which they may consider unfit for use; so that +unwholesome or inefficient remedies be not imposed upon the sick. The +apothecaries' halls, in France, are also under the supervision of the +medical faculty.</p> + +<p>9. In the United States, there is no censorship of this kind +established by the public authorities; yet the physicians are careful +to recommend apothecaries, in whom they have confidence, to prepare +their prescriptions. The professors in our medical schools are, also, +particular in naming to their students those druggists whom they +consider men of honor; and omit, at least, to name those who have been +detected in selling adulterated medicines.</p> + +<p>10. We have, also, an incorporated college of pharmacy both in +New-York and Philadelphia, and in each of these, chemical and +pharmaceutical lectures are delivered by regular professors. These +institutions, although of recent origin, have exerted an important +influence in reforming and preventing abuses in the preparation of +medicines; and public opinion, especially in the cities, is beginning +to render it important for students in pharmacy to obtain a degree +from one of these colleges. Under the auspices of the institution at +Philadelphia, is published a quarterly journal, devoted to +pharmaceutical science.</p> + +<p>11. A Pharmacopœia for the United States was formed at Washington, +in 1820, by a delegation of physicians from the principal medical +societies of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> Union. A revision of this work is expected to be +made every ten years. Dispensatories, as they exist in this country, +are founded upon the Pharmacopœias, and may be properly considered +commentaries upon them, since the former contain the whole of the +latter, together with more minute descriptions of the sensible and +real properties of the medicines, as well as their history and exact +mode of preparation.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_DENTIST" id="THE_DENTIST"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_239.jpg" width="500" height="421" alt="The DENTIST." title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE DENTIST.</h2> + + +<p>1. The human family is subject to a variety of diseases in the teeth, +which generally cause the final destruction or loss of these important +instruments, unless judicious remedies are applied in proper season. +These remedies are administered by the dentist.</p> + +<p>2. There are few persons, in proportion to the great mass of the +people, who seem to be aware of the utility of dentistry; for, taking +the United States together, not more than one person in a hundred ever +resorts to the professors of this art, with the view of obtaining a +remedy for any dental disease with which he may be afflicted. The +common sentiment seems to be, that diseases of the teeth, and their +final loss, at different periods of life, are inevitable +inconveniences,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> to which we must submit with the same philosophy with +which we meet other misfortunes.</p> + +<p>3. To enable readers who have never examined this subject, to +comprehend its general nature, we will give a slight sketch of some of +the irregularities and diseases to which the teeth are liable, and, as +we proceed, speak of the remedies applied by the dentist.</p> + +<p>4. Two sets of teeth regularly appear, at different periods of life; +one in infancy, and the other, at a later period. The first set +consists of twenty, and the second of thirty-two teeth; the former are +called <i>infant</i>, and the latter <i>adult</i>; and all these, at the age of +six or seven, are upon the jaws at the same time.</p> + +<p>5. At the age just mentioned, the infant teeth begin to give way to +those which lie deeper in the sockets, and which are designed to +supersede the former. As the new teeth advance, the roots of the first +are absorbed; and, after having been thus deprived of their support, +they are easily removed; sometimes, by a slight pressure of the +tongue.</p> + +<p>6. In a majority of cases, the whole process is carried on by nature +with the utmost regularity; but, as she is not uniformly successful in +this operation, there is no other period at which the teeth of +children require so much attention and care. Sometimes the second set +rise in the socket without causing the absorption of the roots of the +first. In such cases, the former approach in an improper direction; +and, unless the latter are removed in season, deformity will be the +consequence.</p> + +<p>7. When, however, these precautions have been neglected, and the teeth +stand in an irregular manner, they can sometimes be reduced to +symmetry by the dentist, without occasioning much pain. When the front +teeth are too much crowded by reason of the restricted dimensions of +the jaw, the small teeth, situated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> next behind the eye, or canine +teeth, are extracted, one on each side, to give room to the rest.</p> + +<p>8. From the ages of six to fifteen years, the teeth of children should +be examined, at least once in six months, by a dentist, who, if +skilful, can seldom fail of rendering these ornaments of the human +countenance regular, healthy, and beautiful. It is customary in +England and France, for the proprietors of seminaries of learning to +employ a dentist to visit their establishments regularly, for the +purpose of performing such operations, and of administering such +remedies, as their pupils may require.</p> + +<p>9. The teeth are composed of very hard bone and enamel. The latter is +a substance exceeding in density any other in the body. It covers the +crown of the teeth, and is thickest in those parts which are most +exposed to forcible contact in mastication; but, in no place, is it +more than the twelfth of an inch in thickness.</p> + +<p>10. The most common disease of the teeth is <i>caries</i>, or decay, and +almost every part of them is liable to be affected by it, but +especially the sides of those in front, and the crowns of those on +other parts of the jaws.</p> + +<p>11. The disease begins its attack either on the enamel or on the bony +portion, and gradually extends itself over the tooth, until it reaches +the nerves which supply its natural cavity. These having become +exposed to the sudden changes of temperature, and to the contact of +extraneous substances in mastication, pain and inflammation are +produced, and the extraction of the tooth very commonly becomes the +only means of relief.</p> + +<p>12. All persons are more or less subject to this disease, but some +much more than others; and caries of a peculiar character has been so +often traced through whole families, from one generation to another,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +that it is considered hereditary, as much as any other disease to +which the system is liable. In many cases, caries seems to be the +effect of some serious disease which affected the constitution, while +the teeth were in the early stages of formation.</p> + +<p>13. Although the teeth of some individuals possess but little +durability, and, when caries attacks them, go on rapidly to decay, in +spite of all the aid which science and skill can afford, yet, there +are comparatively but few instances in which seasonable and judicious +treatment will not arrest the progress of the disease.</p> + +<p>14. When the teeth are but slightly affected with caries, especially +on the sides, a cure may be accomplished by the removal of the decayed +portion. This is effected, by the most approved dentists, chiefly with +small cutting instruments. Formerly, the file and the saw were +employed for this purpose; and, by their indiscriminate and +injudicious use, many teeth were ruined, and the art of dentistry +itself brought into disrepute.</p> + +<p>15. Notwithstanding the injuries which have been inflicted by the +improper application of the saw and file, in some instances they are +indispensable; and, in the hands of the scientific operator, they need +not be feared. They are especially useful in preparing the way for the +employment of other instruments; for, in some cases, the affected part +can with difficulty be reached by any other means. But filing the +teeth for the purpose of improving their appearance, or for rendering +the sides more accessible to the tooth-pick and brush, seems to be +reprobated by the most intelligent part of the profession.</p> + +<p>16. When the caries has penetrated far into the tooth, and, in its +removal, a cavity of suitable form and dimensions can be produced, it +is filled with some substance, with the view of protecting the bone +from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> the action of extraneous agents. The dentist is careful to +remove every particle of the decayed portion, and to render the cavity +perfectly dry by repeated applications of lint or raw cotton, before +he attempts to fill it.</p> + +<p>17. Gold is the only substance which possesses sufficient solidity to +withstand the ordinary friction of mastication, and which, at the same +time, is capable of resisting the chemical action of the substances +that come in contact with it; yet lead and tin are frequently +employed; and many have been made to believe that they answer as good, +if not a better purpose, than gold itself. The durability of these +metals, however, can never be depended upon, and they ought not to be +employed, where the tooth is capable of resisting the mechanical force +required to fill it properly with gold.</p> + +<p>18. The metal is prepared for the use of the dentist by the +gold-beater, in the manner described in the article which treats upon +the business of the latter. The leaves, however, are not beaten so +thin as those designed for the common purposes of the arts. The +portion to be applied is cut from the leaf, and, after having been +twisted a little, is forced into the cavity. The metal is rendered +perfectly solid by means of instruments adapted to the purpose.</p> + +<p>19. This operation, properly performed under favorable circumstances, +generally renders the tooth as serviceable, to the end of life, as if +it had never been diseased. The hopes of the patient, however, are +sometimes disappointed by the unskilfulness of the operator, or by the +general unhealthiness of the mouth, arising from tartar, other decayed +teeth, or want of care in keeping them free from the lodgment of +particles of food.</p> + +<p>20. It is a common practice to have teeth extracted, when they are +affected with pain; but this operation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> is not always necessary. In +many cases, the nerve can be paralyzed, and the tooth plugged. By +these means, teeth which, under the ordinary treatment, would be +prematurely sacrificed, are often retained, for years, in a +serviceable state.</p> + +<p>21. The next most destructive affection to which the teeth are liable, +is the accumulation of <i>tartar</i>. This is an earthy substance, +deposited from the saliva, and is more or less abundant in different +individuals. This deposit is extremely troublesome, and generally does +much injury to the mouth, even before those who suffer from it are +aware of the mischief.</p> + +<p>22. The tartar on the teeth of some individuals, is of a black or +greenish color, and very hard; on those of others, brown or yellow, +and not so firm. When it is first deposited, it is soft, and can be +easily removed with a tooth-brush; but, if suffered to remain, it soon +becomes indurated, and gradually increases in thickness about the neck +of the teeth. The gums become irritated and inflamed. The sockets are +next absorbed, and the teeth, being left without their natural +support, either fall out, or become so loose, that they can be easily +removed.</p> + +<p>23. From this cause, old people lose their teeth, when, in many cases, +they are perfectly sound; but comparatively very few are aware of the +origin of this deprivation, or suppose that these valuable instruments +can be retained in old age. The loss is attributed to the deleterious +effects of calomel, or is imagined to be an evil inseparable from +advanced age.</p> + +<p>24. The affection of the gums, arising from causes just mentioned, is +frequently called scurvy, and, like caries, produces fetor of the +breath; but, when these two diseases are combined, as is frequently +the case, they render it extremely offensive. Besides, the effluvia +arising from these diseased parts give rise to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> many maladies which +terminate fatally, if a remedy is not applied sufficiently early to +save the patient.</p> + +<p>25. The obvious remedy for diseases arising from tartar, is the +removal of their cause. This is effected by the dentist, with small +sharp cutting instruments of a suitable form. To prevent the tartar +from accumulating again, and to restore the gums to a healthy state, +nothing more is generally requisite than the daily use of a stiff, +elastic brush, and the occasional application of some approved +dentrifice or astringent wash. Sometimes it may be necessary to +scarify the gums, or to apply leeches to them.</p> + +<p>26. The operations of dentistry, mentioned in the preceding part of +this article, are those which relate to the preservation of the teeth; +and, if performed in a proper manner, and under favorable +circumstances, they will, in most instances, prove effectual. But, as +few persons resort to the dentist, until the near approach of +deformity, or until they are impelled by pain to seek relief, a great +proportion of dental operations consists in inserting artificial +teeth, and in extracting those which are past recovery.</p> + +<p>27. When a tooth has gone so far to decay, that it cannot be cured by +<i>stopping</i>, it should not be suffered to remain in the mouth, lest it +infect the rest. Front teeth, however, when the roots remain sound, +and firmly based in the sockets, ought not to be extracted, as upon +the latter artificial teeth can be placed with great advantage. In +such cases, the removal of the crown only is necessary.</p> + +<p>28. The instruments commonly employed in extracting teeth, are the +key, or turnkey, the forceps, the hook, and the graver, or punch. +These are supposed to be sufficient to perform all the operations of +this kind which occur in practice; and, although many attempts have +been made to invent others which might answer a better purpose, yet +those we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> have mentioned, in their improved state, are likely to +continue in general use.</p> + +<p>29. It seems to be a common opinion, that any one can pull teeth, who +has a turnkey, and sufficient physical strength to use it; +accordingly, blacksmiths, barbers, and medical students, are the chief +operators in this line of dental surgery. The many fatal accidents +which must inevitably be the consequence, such as breaking the tooth +or jaw-bone, are considered matters of course. These, however, seldom +happen with skilful dentists; and it is to be regretted, that the +latter are not always employed, where unskilfulness may produce such +serious consequences.</p> + +<p>30. In the cut, at the head of this article, is represented a dentist, +about to extract a tooth for a lady, who may be supposed to be in a +state of alarm at the sight of the instruments; but he, having thrown +his right hand, which holds them, behind him, shows the other +containing nothing, with the view of allaying her fears. The manner in +which teeth are extracted, needs no description, since it is an +every-day operation in all parts of the world.</p> + +<p>31. One of the chief sources of income to this profession, is the +insertion of artificial teeth; for, although few are willing to expend +much to prevent the loss of their teeth, many will incur great expense +in supplying the deficiencies, after they have occurred. So perfectly +and neatly is this operation performed, by some dentists, that it is +difficult to distinguish between teeth which are natural, and those +which are artificial.</p> + +<p>32. The materials for artificial teeth were formerly found chiefly in +the teeth and tusks of the hippopotamus, and in the teeth of some +domestic animals; but, within a few years, a mineral composition, +called porcelain, has come into great repute, since it is very +beautiful, and is entirely proof against the most powerful acids.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p> + +<p>33. Surgical operations upon the teeth were performed in ancient +Greece and Rome, many of which were similar to those of the present +day. The extraction of teeth must have been practised at a period of +antiquity to which the records of medicine do not reach. The operation +is recommended by Hippocrates, who describes many of the diseases to +which the teeth are liable. He also mentions the practice of fixing +the teeth by means of gold wire, and gives several formulas for making +dentrifices.</p> + +<p>34. Celsus, a Roman writer on medicine, who flourished about the +beginning of the Christian era, seems to have been the first author +who described the method of extracting teeth, and the first who +notices the removal of tartar by means of cutting instruments, as well +as filling carious teeth with lead and other substances, with the view +of preventing further decay. Soon after this period, false teeth, of +bone and ivory, were introduced. Actius, a writer of the fourth +century, is the first who mentions the operation of filing the teeth.</p> + +<p>35. The return of barbarism to Europe, nearly extinguished the +knowledge of dentistry. As a branch of surgery, however, it was +revived by the Arabian writer, Albucasis, in the tenth century; but, +for many hundred years after this period, it received but little +attention from men of science, the operations of surgery being +confined chiefly to the barbers.</p> + +<p>36. The first modern work on the diseases of the teeth was published +at Lyons, in 1581. This was followed by many other publications on the +same subject, in the succeeding century. In the year 1700, it began to +be required in France, that all persons who intended to practise +dentistry in that country, should undergo an examination, to test +their qualifications. From this period is dated the establishment of +the dental art as a distinct branch of medical practice.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="THE_TEACHER" id="THE_TEACHER"></a><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_248.jpg" width="500" height="422" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<div class="medskip"></div> + +<h2>THE TEACHER.</h2> + + +<p>1. Education, in antiquity, was entirely a matter of domestic concern. +In countries where priestly or royal despotism prevailed, schools for +the benefit of the sons of the great, and for the priests, were +established. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, was educated in a priestly +school in Egypt, and Cyrus, at a seminary belonging to the Persian +court. In Palestine, the Scriptures were taught in the schools of the +prophets; and, at later periods, in the synagogues, and in the schools +of the <ins title="Original reads 'Rabbies'">Rabbis</ins>, reading, committing to memory the sacred books, and +hearing explanations of their meaning, constituted the chief +exercises.</p> + +<p>2. In the Grecian cities, boys and girls were taught reading, writing, +and arithmetic in private schools; and, after having completed the +primary course, those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> who aspired to higher degrees of knowledge, +resorted to the instructions of the philosophers and sophists. This +system was commenced as early as 500 years before the advent of +Christ.</p> + +<p>3. Two hundred years after this period, the Romans began to have +primary schools for boys, in the cities; and, from the time of Julius +Cæsar, who conferred on teachers the right of citizenship, they +possessed the higher institutions of the grammarians and the +rhetoricians. In the former of these, were taught the Latin and Greek +languages; and in the latter, young men of talent were prepared, by +exercises in declamation, for speaking in public.</p> + +<p>4. Children, among the Greeks and Romans, were accompanied to school +by slaves, who, from the performance of this duty, were called +<i>pedagogues</i>; but, after slaves and freedmen had made acquirements in +literature and science, they were frequently employed as tutors; hence +the term, at length, came to imply a teacher of children, and it is +still used in reference to this employment, although we usually +connect with it the idea of pedantry.</p> + +<p>5. Until the time of Vespasian, who commenced his reign in the year 70 +of the Christian era, the schools were sustained entirely by private +enterprise. That emperor instituted public professorships of grammar +and rhetoric with fixed salaries, for the purpose of educating young +men for the public service; and, in A.D. 150, Antoninus Pius founded +imperial schools in the larger cities of the Roman empire. The most +celebrated place for the cultivation of science, in the ancient world, +was Athens; and, to this city, students from all parts of Europe +resorted, even as late as the ninth century.</p> + +<p>6. Christianity, by degrees, gave a new turn to education; and, in the +East, it came gradually under the influence of the clergy. Schools +were instituted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> in the cities and villages for catechumens, and, in +some places, those of a higher grade, for the education of clergymen. +Of the latter kind, that in Alexandria was the most flourishing, from +the second to the fourth century.</p> + +<p>7. From the fifth century, these higher institutions began to decline, +and others, called cathedral or episcopal schools, seem to have taken +their place. In these, besides theology, were taught <i>the seven +liberal arts</i>—grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, +astronomy, and music; of which the three first were called the +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trivium</i>, and the four last the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrivium</i>. The text-book employed +was the Encyclopædia of Marcianus Capella, of Africa. This compendium +was published at Rome, A.D. 470; and, although a meagre production, it +maintained its reputation in the schools of Europe more than 1000 +years.</p> + +<p>8. The imperial schools established by Antoninus Pius, declined, and +finally became extinct, in the confusion that followed the irruption +of the barbarians; but their places were supplied by the parochial and +cathedral schools just mentioned. These, however, were surpassed, in +the sixth century, by the <i>conventual</i> schools, which were originally +designed to prepare persons for the monastic life, but which soon +began to be resorted to by laymen.</p> + +<p>9. These schools were connected with the convents belonging to the +order of St. Benedict, and served as the chief glimmering lights +during the darkest period between ancient and modern civilization, in +Europe. They flourished in Ireland, England, France, and Germany, from +the sixth to the eleventh century. The teachers of these seminaries +were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scholastici</i>, and from them the scholastic philosophy +derived its origin and name.</p> + +<p>10. In the year 789, Charlemagne, king of the Franks, issued a decree +for the improvement of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> schools of his empire, and for increasing +their number. Not only every bishop's see and every convent, but every +parish, was to have its school; the two former for the education of +clergymen and public officers, and the latter for the lower classes of +people. This monarch instituted an academy of learned men, to whom he +himself resorted for instruction, and whom he employed to educate his +children, and a select number of the sons of the nobility and +distinguished persons.</p> + +<p>11. The encouragement which these schools had received from government +was soon discontinued after the death of this monarch, and his school +establishment declined like that of Alfred the Great, which was +commenced in the ninth century, on a scale of equal liberality. The +designs of the English monarch were frustrated by the invasions of the +Danes.</p> + +<p>12. In the mean time, the Jewish <ins title="Original reads 'rabbies'">rabbis</ins> had schools in Syria and in +Northern Africa, as well as in Europe, which contributed to the +preservation of ancient learning. Arabian schools were also +established, in the ninth century, by the followers of Mohammed, in +their Eastern and African caliphates, and in their Moorish dominions +in Spain. Through these institutions, the mathematical and medical +sciences were again revived in Europe.</p> + +<p>13. The cathedral and conventual schools continued, for a long time, +the principal institutions for education in Europe; and from them +proceeded many eminent men. By degrees the light of science began to +shine more brightly; teachers of eminence appeared in different +places, who collected around them a great number of scholars; and a +new kind of schools arose, the heads of which assumed the name of +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rectores</i>.</p> + +<p>14. In Paris, several of these teachers gave instructions in various +branches, but chiefly in rhetoric,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> philosophy, and theology. The +schools thus collected under different masters, were, in 1206, united +under one rector; and, on this account, the whole mass of teachers and +scholars was denominated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">universitas</i>. Universities, in other parts +of Europe, arose in a similar manner, and some of them, about the same +time. Those of Oxford and Cambridge, according to some writers, were +established about the year 1200; and the two first of these +institutions in Germany were founded at Prague and Vienna, the former +in 1348, and the latter in 1365.</p> + +<p>15. The division of the students into four <i>nations</i> was an essential +feature in the early universities. It arose from the circumstance that +the pupils coming from different countries, spoke different languages. +Those whose language was the same or similar, would naturally +associate together, and attend the instructions of the same teachers. +This division into nations is supposed to have grown up at Paris, +previous to the formal union of the several schools under one rector.</p> + +<p>16. The first teachers, from whose exertions the universities +originated, commenced their public instructions without permission +from established authority. Subsequently, the state and university +were careful to prevent all persons from giving lectures, who were not +well qualified for the employment. Examinations were therefore +instituted to determine the capabilities of students. Those who were +found competent, received a formal permission to teach, accompanied +with certain symbols in the spirit of the age.</p> + +<p>17. The first academical degree was that of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">baccalaureus</i>, the +second, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">licentiatus</i>; and the third <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister</i>. The last of these +entitled the student to all the privileges of his former teachers, and +constituted him one of the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">facultas artium</span>—the faculty of the seven +liberal arts</i>, since called the philosophic faculty. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> other +faculties were those of theology, law, and medicine. The first of +these was instituted at Paris in 1259, and the two last, in 1260. The +faculties elected <i>deans</i> from among their number, who, with the +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procuratores</i>, or heads of the four nations of students, represented +the university. These representatives possessed the power of +conferring degrees in the different departments of literature and +science.</p> + +<p>18. Among the public institutions of the early universities were the +colleges, (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">collegia</i>,) buildings in which students, especially those +who were poor, might live together, under superintendents, without +paying for their lodging. In some cases, they received their board, +and frequently other allowances, gratis. These institutions were +commenced at Paris; but here, as well as in other places, they did not +continue the asylums of the necessitous only. In France and England, +the buildings of universities are composed chiefly of these colleges, +in which the students reside, and in which the business of instruction +is mainly carried on.</p> + +<p>19. The teachers in the universities were at first paid for their +services by the students. At a later period, the magistrates of the +town or city where the institution was located, made presents to +eminent scholars, to induce them to remain. This practice finally led +to the payment of regular salaries. From and after the fourteenth +century, universities were not left to grow up of themselves as +formerly, but were expressly established by public authorities or by +the popes.</p> + +<p>20. The inactivity and luxury of the clergy, had led to the neglect of +the old seminaries of learning. The universities were therefore +necessary, not only to revive the taste for science and literature, +but also to form a new body of teachers. These institutions, however, +at length became subject to undue clerical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> influence, since the monks +obtained admission into them as teachers, and then labored to increase +the importance of their several orders, as well as the power of the +Roman pontiff.</p> + +<p>21. The monks, also, connected, with their convents, popular schools, +and undertook the education of the children in the cities. But their +method of instruction was exceedingly defective, since the intelligent +investigation of the subjects studied was little encouraged, and since +the memory of the pupils was brought into requisition to the almost +entire exclusion of the other faculties of the mind.</p> + +<p>22. In the lower parish schools, the children were not permitted to +learn to write, the monks being desirous of confining to the clergy +the practice of this art, which was very lucrative before the +invention of printing. The art was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ars clericalis</i>; and, for a +long time, the privilege of establishing writing schools for the +children of citizens, was a matter of negotiation between the +magistrates and the clergy.</p> + +<p>23. But the citizens becoming, at length, more independent, the +magistrates themselves began to superintend the education of youth. +<i>Trivial</i> schools were established, in which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trivium</i>, and +reading and writing, were taught; but for these, as well as for the +cathedral and parish schools, which had been neglected for some time +by the higher clergy, itinerant monks and students were employed as +teachers.</p> + +<p>24. The elder pupils of the highest class frequently wandered from one +school to another, under the pretence of pursuing their studies, +sometimes taking with them younger scholars, whom they compelled to +beg or steal, in order to supply their wants. As late as the sixteenth +century, Luther complains that these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vacantivi</i> (or idlers) were the +persons chiefly employed as schoolmasters in Germany.</p> + +<p>25. A pious fraternity, called Jeronymites, consisting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> of clergymen +and laymen, who lived together, and occupied themselves partly in +mechanic arts, and partly in the instruction of youth, exerted +considerable influence on education in general. They first established +themselves in Italy, and afterwards in the Netherlands, on the Rhine, +and in Northern Germany.</p> + +<p>26. Much was done during the last half of the fourteenth century, and +in the one hundred years that followed, to encourage the study of the +ancient classics. The attention of literary men was turned to these +interesting remains of antiquity by the arrival of many learned +Greeks, who had fled from Turkish oppression, and who had brought with +them the ancient writings.</p> + +<p>27. These treasures of former civilization were unfolded to the modern +world by the art of printing, which was invented in 1441; and the +reformation, which commenced in 1517, also aided the advancement of +education. The corporations of the German cities in which the reformed +religion was received, founded seminaries, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gymnasia</i>, and +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lyceums</i>, with permanent professorships. A vast amount of property, +belonging to the convents and the Church, was confiscated by the +governments, and appropriated chiefly to the promotion of education.</p> + +<p>28. The schools in the countries which adhered to the Roman Catholic +religion, however, continued in nearly the same state, until the +Jesuit schools arose, towards the end of the sixteenth century. These, +on account of the ability with which they were conducted, soon gained +the ascendency, and for a long time maintained their reputation; but +they, at length, degenerated, and finally became extinct, on the +suppression of the order of Jesuits in 1773.</p> + +<p>29. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, have, for a long time, been inactive +in relation to education, it being left entirely to the clergy, and +the efforts of the people in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> their individual capacity. Much has been +done in Austria, within fifty years, to advance this important +interest. Under the late emperor, professorships were constituted, in +the universities and cathedral seminaries, for the instruction of +teachers; and gymnasia, common and Sunday schools, were established in +almost every part of the kingdom.</p> + +<p>30. The general organization of schools in France, in the eighteenth +century, was similar to that of most other Catholic countries. The +government did nothing for the education of the people at large; and +the Church, which possessed a large proportion of the property of the +nation, left the people in total ignorance; whence may have arisen +much of the atrocity which marked the early part of the revolution.</p> + +<p>31. During the popular reign, the education of youth was declared to +be under the care of the state, and many schools, called +<i>polytechnic</i>, were established. Napoleon, also, afterwards instituted +several military schools, and contemplated the introduction of a +system of general education. With this view, he instituted an imperial +university, which was to have the supreme direction of instruction in +France; but his designs were but partially carried into effect.</p> + +<p>32. When the Bourbons were again restored to the throne of France, +they, with the clergy, labored to restore the old order of things; +and, to keep the common people from becoming dangerous, the +Lancasterian schools, established in 1816, were abolished. Efficient +measures, however, have been lately adopted by Louis Philip to +establish schools of different grades throughout his kingdom.</p> + +<p>33. In England and Ireland, although the middling and higher classes +are comparatively well educated, no system of general instruction has +ever been established for the benefit of the common people. Much, +however, has been accomplished by charity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> and Sunday schools; the +former of which were commenced in 1698, and the latter in 1812. +Besides these, there are numerous charitable foundations on which many +persons of limited means have been educated at the higher +institutions.</p> + +<p>34. In Scotland, more liberal provisions have been made for general +education. The system was commenced in the reign of William and Mary, +when, by an act of Parliament, every parish was required to maintain a +school. The people have so far improved their privileges, that nearly +all of the inhabitants of that part of Great Britain can read and +write.</p> + +<p>35. The government of Russia, during the last and present century, has +directed some attention to the promotion of education. According to +the decrees of the Emperor Alexander, schools of different grades were +to be established throughout the empire; but these decrees have been +yet only partially executed.</p> + +<p>36. In no part of the world has the education of all classes of people +been more encouraged than in the United States. This has arisen +chiefly from the circumstance, that a remarkable proportion of the +colonists were persons of education. This was particularly the case +with those of New-England, where the instruction of youth, from the +very beginning of the settlements, was made a matter of public +concern.</p> + +<p>37. The principle of making public provision for this purpose, thus +early adopted, has never been deserted; on the contrary, it has become +so deeply interwoven with the social condition of the people of +New-England, that there are few families in that part of the Union, +which are not within reach of a public school; and, in every state +where the influence of the people from that section of the country is +predominant, public schools have been organized by legal provisions, +and a fund has been provided, by which at least a part of the expense +of supporting them is paid.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p> + +<p>38. In all the states in which these primary institutions are +established by legislative enactments, they are kept in operation, in +country places, between six and nine months of the year. A <i>master</i> is +employed in the winter, and a <i>mistress</i>, in the summer: the former +receives for his services from ten to fifteen dollars per month, and +the latter, from seventy-five cents to two dollars per week, together +with boarding. The teachers, however, during their engagement are +compelled to reside in the different families of the <i>district</i>, their +stay at each place being determined, with scrupulous exactness, by the +number of children sent to the school.</p> + +<p>39. From the low salaries received for these important services, and +the short periods for which engagements are made, it is evident, that +teaching a district school cannot be pursued as a regular employment. +These schools are, therefore, supplied by persons who, during the rest +of the year, follow some other business; or by students, who rely, in +part or entirely, on their own exertions to defray the expenses of +their academical, collegiate, or professional education.</p> + +<p>40. These schools are, no doubt, institutions of great value; but, in +the states where they have been established, they are evidently much +overrated. They fail in accomplishing the ends for which they have +been instituted, through the extreme tenacity with which the people +adhere to ancient and defective methods of instruction, the frequent +change of teachers, and the small compensation allowed for the +services of competent instructors.</p> + +<p>41. In the cities and populous towns or villages, the public schools +are kept up during the whole of the year, and the system of +instruction is generally better than that pursued in the country. In +New-York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and in some other cities,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> the +Lancasterian plan of mutual instruction, with many modifications, is +preferred, principally on account of its cheapness.</p> + +<p>42. Select-schools and private academies are, also, very numerous. +These are located chiefly in the cities and populous towns, and are +supported entirely by fees for tuition received from the parents or +guardians of the pupils. These institutions do not differ essentially +from those of a private nature in similar situations in other parts of +the United States, where common schools are not established by law.</p> + +<p>43. In the Southern states, wealthy families often employ private +tutors. Sometimes two, three, or more families, and even a whole +neighborhood, unite for the purpose of forming a school; and, to +induce a teacher to commence or continue his labors among them, an +adequate amount is made up beforehand by subscription. South of +Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the Ohio River, such engagements are +commonly made for a year, as, in that section of the Union, the +opinion prevails, that a teacher can do but little towards improving +his pupils in a much shorter time.</p> + +<p>44. The literary institutions which are next above the common schools, +and which are established by legislative authority, are the academies, +of which there are between five and six hundred in the United States. +Some of these have been founded by the funds of the state in which +they are located, some, by the union of a few spirited individuals, or +by private bequests.</p> + +<p>45. The course of instruction pursued in these seminaries of learning +varies considerably from each other. In some of them, it is confined +chiefly to the common branches of education; in others, the course is +pretty extensive, embracing natural and moral philosophy, chemistry, +belles lettres, and a sound course of mathematics, together with +Latin, Greek,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> and some of the modern languages. One great object in +these institutions is to prepare students for college. The teacher who +has charge of an academy is called the <i>principal</i>, while the teacher +who may aid him in his labors is denominated the <i>assistant</i> or +<i>usher</i>.</p> + +<p>46. The highest institutions of learning among us are the colleges and +universities. Between these, however, there seems to be but little +difference, since the course of studies is nearly or quite the same in +both, and since the charters obtained from the legislatures grant to +both similar powers of conferring honorary degrees. The whole number +of these establishments in the United States is about eighty.</p> + +<p>47. The principal teachers in the colleges are denominated +<i>professors</i>, who confine their labors to communicating instructions +in particular branches of literature or science. These are aided by +assistants called <i>tutors</i>. The latter are generally young men, who +devote two or three years to this employment, before entering upon the +practice of a profession. The number of professors and tutors in the +several colleges varies according to their amount of funds, and number +of students.</p> + +<div class="hugeskip"></div> + +<div class="center"> +END OF VOL. I.</div> + + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="transnote"> +<h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3> + +<p>Obvious spelling and punctuation errors and inconsistencies were repaired, but period spellings retained (e.g. "grisly bear," "lama," "pistachoes," "hommony").</p> + +<p>Negociat- and negotiat-, whale-bone and whalebone, ancles and ankle, color- and colour-, endeavor- and endeavour-, favor- and favour-, labor- and labour-, neighbor- and neighbour-, were retained as in original.</p> + +<p>Contents page, Preface page number reads "7" but actually appears on +page "vii"; retained.</p> + +<p>Contents page, "Soapboiler" changed to more frequent "Soap-Boiler."</p> + +<p>P. ix, "removed from the ignorance," original reads "ignora ce."</p> + +<p>P. 16, "south-western parts," hyphen added for consistency within text.</p> + +<p>P. 47, "maltster checks," original reads "malster."</p> + +<p>P. 53, "render the wine palatable," original reads "palateable."</p> + +<p>P. 66, Illustration at start of "Manufacturer of Cloth" chapter has no caption in original.</p> + +<p>P. 101, "sewn together to form hats," original reads "sown."</p> + +<p>P. 174, "released from his dependence," original reads "dependance."</p> + +<p>P. 185, "Thomas Newcomen," original reads "Newcomer."</p> + +<p>P. 249, Illustration at start of "Teacher" chapter has no caption in original.</p> + +<p>P. 249 and 252, "rabbis," original reads "rabbies."</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Popular Technology, Vol. I (of 2), by Edward Hazen + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 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+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Popular Technology, Vol. I (of 2) + or, Professions and Trades + +Author: Edward Hazen + +Release Date: May 18, 2012 [EBook #39721] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. I (OF 2) *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, JoAnn Greenwood, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + + POPULAR TECHNOLOGY; + + OR, + + PROFESSIONS AND TRADES. + + + [Illustration: The AUTHOR.] + + + BY EDWARD HAZEN, A. M., + + AUTHOR OF + + "THE SYMBOLICAL SPELLING-BOOK," "THE SPELLER AND + DEFINER," AND "A PRACTICAL GRAMMAR." + + EMBELLISHED WITH EIGHTY-ONE ENGRAVINGS. + + IN TWO VOLUMES. + + VOL. I. + + + NEW YORK: + HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. + + + + + Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by + + HARPER & BROTHERS, + + In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York. + + + + +CONTENTS + +OF + +THE FIRST VOLUME. + + + Page + Preface 7 + The Agriculturist 13 + The Horticulturist 28 + The Miller 34 + The Baker 39 + The Confectioner 44 + The Brewer, and the Distiller 47 + The Butcher 55 + The Tobacco Planter, and the Tobacconist 59 + The Manufacturer of Cloth 66 + The Dyer, and the Calico-Printer 77 + The Hatter 84 + The Rope-Maker 91 + The Tailor 96 + The Milliner, and the Lady's Dress-Maker 100 + The Barber 104 + The Tanner, and the Currier 111 + The Shoe and Boot Maker 116 + The Saddler and Harness-Maker, and the Trunk-Maker 121 + The Soap-Boiler, and the Candle-Maker 125 + The Comb-Maker, and the Brush-Maker 134 + The Tavern-Keeper 142 + The Hunter 147 + The Fisherman 154 + The Shipwright 171 + The Mariner 178 + The Merchant 187 + The Auctioneer 204 + The Clergyman 208 + The Attorney at Law 215 + The Physician 221 + The Chemist 229 + The Druggist and Apothecary 236 + The Dentist 240 + The Teacher 249 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The following work has been written for the use of schools and +families, as well as for miscellaneous readers. It embraces a class of +subjects in which every individual is deeply interested, and with +which, as a mere philosophical inspector of the affairs of men, he +should become acquainted. + +They, however, challenge attention by considerations of greater moment +than mere curiosity; for, in the present age, a great proportion of +mankind pursue some kind of business as means of subsistence or +distinction; and in this country especially, such pursuit is deemed +honorable and, in fact, indispensable to a reputable position in the +community. + +Nevertheless, it is a fact that cannot have escaped the attention of +persons of observation, that many individuals mistake their +appropriate calling, and engage in employments for which they have +neither mental nor physical adaptation; some learn a trade who should +have studied a profession; others study a profession who should have +learned a trade. Hence arise, in a great measure, the ill success and +discontent which so frequently attend the pursuits of men. + +For these reasons, parents should be particularly cautious in the +choice of permanent employments for their children; and, in every +case, capacity should be especially regarded, without paying much +attention to the comparative favor in which the several employments +may be held; for a successful prosecution of an humble business is far +more honorable than inferiority or failure in one which may be greatly +esteemed. + +To determine the particular genius of children, parents should give +them, at least, a superficial knowledge of the several trades and +professions. To do this effectually, a systematic course of +instruction should be given, not only at the family fireside and in +the schoolroom, but also at places where practical exhibitions of the +several employments may be seen. These means, together with a +competent literary education, and some tools and other facilities for +mechanical operations, can scarcely fail of furnishing clear +indications of intellectual bias. + +The course just proposed is not only necessary to a judicious choice +of a trade or profession, but also as means of intellectual +improvement; and as such it should be pursued, at all events, even +though the choice of an employment were not in view. + +We are endowed with a nature composed of many faculties both of the +intellectual and the animal kinds, and the reasoning faculties were +originally designed by the Creator to have the ascendency. In the +present moral condition of man, however, they do not commonly maintain +their right of precedence. This failure arises from imbecility, +originating, in part, from a deficiency in judicious cultivation, and +from the superior strength of the passions. + +This condition is particularly conspicuous in youth, and shows itself +in disobedience to parents, and in various other aberrations from +moral duty. If, therefore, parents would have their children act a +reasonable part, while in their minority, and, also, after they have +assumed their stations in manhood, they must pursue a course of early +instruction, calculated to secure the ascendency of the reasoning +faculties. + +The subjects for instruction best adapted to the cultivation of the +young mind are the _common things_ with which we are surrounded. This +is evident from the fact, that it uniformly expands with great +rapidity under their influence during the first three or four years of +life; for, it is from them, children obtain all their ideas, as well +as a knowledge of the language by which they are expressed. + +The rapid progress of young children in the acquisition of knowledge +often excites the surprise of parents of observation, and the fact +that their improvement is almost imperceptible, after they have +attained to the age of four or five years, is equally surprising. +Why, it is often asked, do not children continue to advance in +knowledge with equal and increased rapidity, especially, as their +capabilities increase with age? + +The solution of this question is not difficult. Children continue to +improve, while they have the means of doing so; but, having acquired a +knowledge of the objects within their reach, at least, so far as they +may be capable at the time, their advancement must consequently cease. +It is hardly necessary to remark, that the march of mind might be +continued with increased celerity, were new objects or subjects +continually presented. + +In supplying subjects for mental improvement, as they may be needed at +the several stages of advancement, there can be but little difficulty, +since we are surrounded by works both of nature and of art. In fact, +the same subjects may be presented several times, and, at each +presentation, instructions might be given adapted to the particular +state of improvement in the pupil. + +Instructions of this nature need never interfere injuriously with +those on the elementary branches of education, although the latter +would undoubtedly be considered of minor importance. Had they been +always regarded in this light, our schools would now present a far +more favorable aspect, and we should have been farther removed from +the ignorance and the barbarism of the middle ages. + +Were this view of education generally adopted, teachers would soon +find, that the business of communicating instructions to the young has +been changed from an irksome to a pleasant task, since their pupils +will have become studious and intellectual, and, consequently, more +capable of comprehending explanations upon every subject. Such a +course would also be attended with the incidental advantage of good +conduct on the part of pupils, inasmuch as the elevation of the +understanding over the passions uniformly tends to this result. + +For carrying into practice a system of intellectual education, the +following work supplies as great an amount of materials as can be +embodied in the same compass. Every article may be made the foundation +of one lecture or more, which might have reference not only to the +particular subject on which it treats, but also to the meaning and +application of the words. + +The articles have been concisely written, as must necessarily be the +case in all works embracing so great a variety of subjects. This +particular trait, however, need not be considered objectionable, since +all who may desire to read more extensively on any particular subject, +can easily obtain works which are exclusively devoted to it. + +Prolix descriptions of machinery and of mechanical operations have +been studiously avoided; for it has been presumed, that all who might +have perseverance enough to read such details, would feel curiosity +sufficient to visit the shops and manufactories, and see the machines +and operations themselves. Nevertheless, enough has been said, in all +cases, to give a general idea of the business, and to guide in the +researches of those who may wish to obtain information by the +impressive method of actual inspection. + +A great proportion of the whole work is occupied in recounting +historical facts, connected with the invention and progress of the +arts. The author was induced to pay especial attention to this branch +of history, from the consideration, that it furnishes very clear +indications of the real state of society in past ages, as well as at +the present time, and also that it would supply the reader with data, +by which he might, in some measure, determine the vast capabilities of +man. + +This kind of historical information will be especially beneficial to +the youthful mind, by inducing a habit of investigation and +antiquarian research. In addition to this, a knowledge of the origin +and progress of the various employments which are in active operation +all around, will throw upon the busy world an aspect exceedingly +interesting. + +It may be well, however, to caution the reader against expecting too +much information of this kind, in regard to most of the trades +practised in very ancient times. Many of the most useful inventions +were effected, before any permanent means of record had been devised; +and, in after ages, among the Greeks and Romans, the useful arts were +practised almost exclusively by slaves. The latter circumstance led to +their general neglect by the writers among these distinguished people. + +The information which may be obtained from this work, especially when +accompanied by the inspection of the operations which it describes, +may be daily applied to some useful purpose. It will be particularly +valuable in furnishing subjects for conversation, and in preventing +the mind from continuing in, or from sinking into, a state of +indifference in regard to the busy scenes of this world. + +In the composition of this work, all puerile expressions have been +avoided, not only because they would be offensive to adult individuals +of taste, but because they are at least useless, if not positively +injurious, to younger persons. What parent of reflection would suffer +his children to peruse a book calculated to induce or confirm a manner +of speaking or writing, which he would not have them use after having +arrived to manhood? Every sentence may be rendered perfectly plain by +appropriate explanations and illustrations. + +No formal classification of the professions and trades has been +adopted, although those articles which treat of kindred subjects have +been placed near each other, and in that order which seemed to be the +most natural. The paragraphs of the several articles have been +numbered for the especial accommodation of classes in schools, but +this particular feature of the work need meet with no serious +objection from miscellaneous readers, as it has no other effect, in +reference to its use by them, than to give it the aspect of a +school-book. + +While writing the articles on the different subjects, the author +consulted several works which embraced the arts and sciences +generally, as well as many which were more circumscribed in their +objects. He, however, relied more upon them for historical facts than +for a knowledge of the operations and processes which he had occasion +to detail. For this he depended, as far as practicable, upon his own +personal researches, although in the employment of appropriate +phraseology, he acknowledges his obligations to predecessors. + +With the preceding remarks, the author submits his work to the public, +in the confident expectation, that the subjects which it embraces, +that the care which has been taken in its composition, and that the +skill of the artists employed in its embellishment, will secure to it +an abundant and liberal patronage. + + + + +[Illustration: FARMER.] + +THE AGRICULTURIST. + + +1. Agriculture embraces, in its broad application, whatever relates to +the cultivation of the fields, with the view of producing food for man +and those animals which he may have brought into a state of +domestication. + +2. If we carry our observations so far back as to reach the +antediluvian history of the earth, we shall find, from the authority +of Scripture, that the cultivation of the soil was the first +employment of man, after his expulsion from the garden of Eden, when +he was commanded to till the ground from which he had been taken. We +shall also learn from the same source of information, that "Cain was a +husbandman," and that "Abel was a keeper of sheep." Hence it may be +inferred, that Adam instructed his sons in the art of husbandry; and +that they, in turn, communicated the knowledge to _their_ posterity, +together with the superadded information which had resulted from their +own experience. Improvement in this art was probably thenceforth +progressive, until the overwhelming catastrophe of the flood. + +3. After the waters had retired from the face of the earth, Noah +resorted to husbandry, as the certain means of procuring the +necessaries and comforts of life. The art of cultivating the soil was +uninterruptedly preserved in many branches of the great family of +Noah; but, in others, it was at length entirely lost. In the latter +case, the people, having sunk into a state of barbarism, depended for +subsistence on the natural productions of the earth, and on such +animals as they could contrive to capture by hunting and fishing. Many +of these degenerate tribes did not emerge from this condition for +several succeeding ages; while others have not done so to the present +day. + +4. Notwithstanding the great antiquity of agriculture, the husbandmen, +for several centuries immediately succeeding the deluge, seem to have +been but little acquainted with any proper method of restoring +fertility to exhausted soils; for we find them frequently changing +their residence, as their flocks and herds required fresh pasturage, +or as their tillage land became unproductive. As men, however, became +more numerous, and as their flocks increased, this practice became +inconvenient and, in some cases, impracticable. They were, therefore, +compelled, by degrees, to confine their flocks and herds, and their +farming operations, to lands of more narrow and specified limits. + +5. The Chaldeans were probably the people who first adopted the +important measure of retaining perpetual possession of the soil which +they had cultivated; and, consequently, were among the first who +became skilful in agriculture. But all the great nations of antiquity +held this art in the highest estimation, and usually attributed its +invention to superhuman agency. The Egyptians even worshipped the +image of the ox in gratitude for the services of the living animal in +the labours of the field. + +6. The reader of ancient history can form some idea of the extent to +which this art was cultivated in those days, from the warlike +operations of different nations; for, from no other source, could the +great armies which were then brought into the field, have been +supplied with the necessary provisions. The Greeks and the Romans, who +were more celebrated than any other people for their military +enterprise, were also most attentive to the proper cultivation of the +soil; and many of their distinguished men, especially among the +Romans, were practical husbandmen. + +7. Nor was agriculture neglected by the learned men of antiquity. +Several works on this subject, by Greek and Latin authors, have +descended to our times; and the correctness of many of the principles +which they inculcate, has been confirmed by modern experience. + +8. Throughout the extensive empire of Rome, agriculture maintained a +respectable standing, until the commencement of those formidable +invasions of the northern hordes, which, finally, nearly extinguished +the arts and sciences in every part of Europe. During the long period +of anarchy which succeeded the settlement of these barbarians in their +newly-acquired possessions, pasturage was, in most cases, preferred to +tillage, as being better suited to their state of civilization, and as +affording facilities of removal, in cases of alarm from invading +enemies. But, when permanent governments had been again established, +and when the nations enjoyed comparative peace, the regular +cultivation of the soil once more revived. + +9. The art of husbandry was at a low ebb in England, until the +fourteenth century, when it began to be practised with considerable +success in the midland and south-western parts of the island; yet, it +does not seem to have been cultivated as a science, until the latter +end of the sixteenth century. The first book on husbandry, printed and +published in the English language, appeared in 1534. It was written by +Sir A. Fitzherbert, a judge of the Common Pleas, who had studied the +laws of vegetation, and the nature of soils, with philosophical +accuracy. + +10. Very little improvement was made on the theory of this author, for +upwards of a hundred years, when Sir Hugh Platt discovered and brought +into use several kinds of substances for fertilizing and restoring +exhausted soils. + +11. Agriculture again received a new impulse, about the middle of the +eighteenth century; and, in 1793, a Board of Agriculture was +established by an act of Parliament, at the suggestion of Sir John +Sinclair, who was elected its first president. Through the influence +of this board, a great number of agricultural societies have been +formed in the kingdom, and much valuable information on rural economy +has been communicated to the public, through the medium of a +voluminous periodical under its superintendence. + +12. After the example of Great Britain, agricultural societies have +been formed, and periodical journals published, in various parts of +the continent of Europe, as well as in the United States. The +principal publications devoted to this subject in this country, are +the _American Farmer_, at Baltimore; the _New-England Farmer_, at +Boston; and the _Cultivator_, at Albany. + +13. The modern improvements in husbandry consist, principally, in the +proper application of manures, in the mixture of different kinds of +earths, in the use of plaster and lime, in the rotation of crops, in +adapting the crop to the soil, in the introduction of new kinds of +grain, roots, grasses, and fruits, as well as in improvements in the +breeds of domestic animals, and in the implements with which the +various operations of the art are performed. + +14. For many of the improved processes which relate to the +amelioration of the soil, we are indebted to chemistry. Before this +science was brought to the aid of the art, the cultivators of the soil +were chiefly guided by the precept and example of their predecessors, +which were often inapplicable. By the aid of chemical analysis, it is +easy to discover the constituent parts of different soils; and, when +this has been done, there is but little difficulty in determining the +best mode of improving them, or in applying the most suitable crops. + +15. In the large extent of territory embraced within the United +States, there is great variation of soil and climate; but, in each +state, or district, the attention of the cultivators is directed to +the production of those articles which, under the circumstances, +promise to be the most profitable. In the northern portions of our +country, the cultivators of the soil are called farmers. They direct +their attention chiefly to the production of wheat, rye, corn, oats, +barley, peas, beans, potatoes, pumpkins, and flax, together with +grasses and fruits of various kinds. The same class of men, in the +Southern states, are usually denominated planters, who confine +themselves principally to tobacco, rice, cotton, sugar-cane, or hemp. +In some parts of that portion of our country, however, rye, wheat, +oats, and sweet potatoes, are extensively cultivated; and, in almost +every part, corn is a favourite article. + +16. The process of cultivating most of the productions which have +been mentioned, is nearly the same. In general, with the occasional +exception of new lands, the plough is used to prepare the ground for +the reception of the seed. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, and the +seeds of hemp and flax, are scattered with the hand, and covered in +the earth with the harrow. In Great Britain, such seeds are sown in +drills; and this method is thought to be better than ours, as it +admits of the use of the hoe, while the vegetable is growing. + +17. Corn, beans, potatoes, and pumpkins, are covered in the earth with +the hoe. The ground is ploughed several times during the summer, to +make it loose, and to keep down the weeds. The hoe is also used in +accomplishing the same objects, and in depositing fresh earth around +the growing vegetable. + +18. When ripe, wheat, barley, oats, and peas, are cut down with the +sickle, cradle, or scythe; while hemp and flax are pulled up by the +roots. The seeds are separated from the other parts of the plants with +the flail, or by means of horses or oxen driven round upon them. Of +late, threshing machines are used to effect the same object. Chaff, +and extraneous matter generally, are separated from the grain, or +seeds, by means of a fanning-mill, or with a large fan made of the +twigs of the willow. The same thing was formerly, and is yet +sometimes, effected by the aid of a current of air. + +19. When the corn, or maize, has become ripe, the ears, with the +husks, and sometimes the stalks, are deposited in large heaps. To +assist in stripping the husks from the ears, it is customary to call +together the neighbours. In such cases, the owner of the corn provides +for them a supper, together with some means of merriment and good +cheer. + +20. This custom is most prevalent, where the greater part of the +labour is performed by slaves. The blacks, when assembled for a +husking match, choose a captain, whose business it is to lead the +song, while the rest join in chorus. Sometimes, they divide the corn +as nearly as possible into two equal heaps, and apportion the hands +accordingly, with a captain to each division. This is done to produce +a contest for the most speedy execution of the task. Should the owner +of the corn be sparing of his refreshments, his want of generosity is +sure to be published in song at every similar frolic in the +neighborhood. + +21. Maize, or Indian corn, and potatoes of all kinds, were unknown in +the eastern continent, until the discovery of America. Their origin +is, therefore, known with certainty; but some of the other productions +which have been mentioned, cannot be so satisfactorily traced. This is +particularly the case with regard to those which have been extensively +cultivated for many centuries. + +22. The grasses have ever been valuable to man, as affording a supply +of food for domestic animals. Many portions of our country are +particularly adapted to grazing. Where this is the case, the farmers +usually turn their attention to raising live stock, and to making +butter and cheese. Grass reserved in meadows, as a supply of food for +the winter, is cut at maturity with a scythe, dried in the sun, and +stored in barns, or heaped in stacks. + +23. Rice was first cultivated in the eastern parts of Asia, and, from +the earliest ages, has been the principal article of food among the +Chinese and Hindoos. To this grain may be attributed, in a great +measure, the early civilization of those nations; and its adaptation +to marshy grounds caused many districts to become populous, which +would otherwise have remained irreclaimable and desolate. + +24. Rice was long known in the east, before it was introduced into +Egypt and Greece, whence it spread over Africa generally, and the +southern parts of Europe. It is now cultivated in all the warm parts +of the globe, chiefly on grounds subject to periodical inundations. +The Chinese obtain two crops a year from the same ground, and +cultivate it in this way from generation to generation, without +applying any manure, except the stubble of the preceding crop, and the +mud deposited from the water overflowing it. + +25. Soon after the waters of the inundation have retired, a spot is +inclosed with an embankment, lightly ploughed and harrowed, and then +sown very thickly with the grain. Immediately, a thin sheet of water +is brought over it, either by a stream or some hydraulic machinery. +When the plants have grown to the height of six or seven inches, they +are transplanted in furrows; and again water is brought over them, and +kept on, until the crop begins to ripen, when it is withheld. + +26. The crop is cut with a sickle, threshed with a flail, or by the +treading of cattle; and the husks, which adhere closely to the kernel, +are beaten off in a stone mortar, or by passing the grain through a +mill, similar to our corn-mills. The mode of cultivating rice in any +part of the world, varies but little from the foregoing process. The +point which requires the greatest attention, is keeping the ground +properly covered with water. + +27. Rice was introduced into the Carolinas in 1697, where it is now +produced in greater perfection than in any other part of the world. +The seeds are dropped along, from the small end of a gourd, into +drills made with one corner of the hoe. The plants, when partly grown, +are not transferred to another place, as in Asia, but are suffered to +grow and ripen in the original drills. The crop is secured like wheat, +and the husks are forced from the grain by a machine, which leaves the +kernels more perfect than the methods adopted in other countries. + +28. Cotton is cultivated in the East and West Indies, North and South +America, Egypt, and in many other parts of the world, where the +climate is sufficiently warm for the purpose. There are several +species of this plant; of which three kinds are cultivated in the +southern states of the Union--the _nankeen cotton_, the _green seed +cotton_, and the _black seed_, or _sea island cotton_. The first two, +which grow in the middle and upland countries, are denominated _short +staple cotton_: the last is cultivated in the lower country, near the +sea, and on the islands near the main land, and is of a fine quality, +and of a long staple. + +29. The plants are propagated annually from seeds, which are sown very +thickly in ridges made with the plough or hoe. After they have grown +to the height of three or four inches, part of them are pulled up, in +order that the rest, while coming to maturity, may stand about four +inches apart. It is henceforth managed, until fully grown, like Indian +corn. + +30. The cotton is inclosed in pods, which open as fast as their +contents become fit to be gathered. In Georgia, about eighty pounds of +upland cotton can be gathered by a single hand in a day; but in +Alabama and Mississippi, where the plant thrives better, two hundred +pounds are frequently collected in the same time. + +31. The seeds adhere closely to the cotton, when picked from the pods; +but they are properly separated by machines called _gins_; of which +there are two kinds,--the _roller-gin_, and the _saw-gin_. The +essential parts of the former are two cylinders, which are placed +nearly in contact with each other. By their revolving motion, the +cotton is drawn between them, while the size of the seeds prevents +their passage. This machine, being of small size, is worked by hand. + +32. The _saw-gin_ is much larger, and is moved by animal, steam, or +water power. It consists of a receiver, having one side covered with +strong wires, placed in a parallel direction about an eighth of an +inch apart, and a number of circular saws, which revolve on a common +axis. The saws pass between these wires, and entangle in their teeth +the cotton, which is thereby drawn through the grating, while the +seeds, from their size, are forced to remain on the other side. + +33. Before the invention of the saw-gin, the seeds were separated from +the upland cottons by hand,--a method so extremely tedious, that their +cultivation was attended with but little profit to the planter. This +machine was invented in Georgia by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts. It +was undertaken at the request of several planters of the former state, +and was there put in operation in 1792. + +34. In the preceding year, the whole crop of cotton in the United +States was only sixty-four bales; but, in 1834, it amounted to +1,000,617. The vast increase in the production of this article has +arisen, in part, from the increased demand for it in Europe, and in +the Northern states, but, chiefly, from the use of the invaluable +machine just mentioned. + +35. Sugar-cane was cultivated by the Chinese, at a very early period, +probably two thousand years before it was known in Europe; but sugar, +in a candied form, was used in small quantities by the Greeks and +Romans in the days of their prosperity. It was probably brought from +Bengal, Siam, or some of the East India Islands, as it is supposed, +that it grew nowhere else at that time. + +36. In the thirteenth century, soon after the merchants of the West +began to traffic in Indian articles of commerce, the plant was +introduced into Arabia Felix, and thence into Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, +and Morocco. The Spaniards obtained it from the Moors, and, in the +fifteenth century, introduced it into the Canary Islands. It was +brought to America, and to the West India Islands, by the Spaniards +and Portuguese. It is now cultivated in the United States, below the +thirty-first degree of latitude, and in the warm parts of the globe +generally. + +37. Previous to the year 1466, sugar was known in England chiefly, as +a medicine; and, although the sugar-cane was cultivated, at that time, +in several places on the Mediterranean, it was not more extensively +used on the continent. Now, in extent of cultivation, it ranks next to +wheat and rice, and first in maritime commerce. + +38. The cultivators of sugar-cane propagate the plant by means of +cuttings from the lower end of the stalks, which are planted in the +spring or autumn, in drills, or in furrows. The new plants spring from +the joints of the cuttings, and are fit to be gathered for use in +eight, ten, twelve, or fourteen months. While growing, sugar-cane is +managed much like Indian corn. + +39. When ripe, the cane is cut and brought to the sugar-mill, where +the juice is expressed between iron or stone cylinders, moved by +steam, water, or animal power. The juice thus obtained is evaporated +in large boilers to a syrup, which is afterwards removed to coolers, +where it is agitated with wooden instruments called _stirrers_. To +accelerate its cooling, it is next poured into casks, and, when yet +warm, is conveyed to barrels, placed in an upright position over a +cistern, and pierced in the bottom in several places. The holes being +partially stopped with canes, the part which still remains in the form +of syrup, filters through them into the cistern beneath, while the +rest is left in the form of sugar, in the state called _muscovado_. + +40. This sugar is of a yellow colour, being yet in a crude, or raw +state. It is further purified by various processes, such as +redissolving it in water, and again boiling it with lime and bullocks' +blood, or with animal charcoal, and passing the syrup through several +canvas filters. + +41. Loaf-sugar is manufactured by pouring the syrup, after it has been +purified, and reduced to a certain thickness by evaporation, into +unglazed earthen vessels of a conical shape. The cones have a hole at +their apex, through which may filter the syrup which separates from +the sugar above. Most of the sugar is imported in a raw or crude +state, and is afterward refined in the cities in sugar-houses. + +42. Molasses is far less free from extraneous substances than sugar, +as it is nothing more than the drainings from the latter. Rum is +distilled from inferior molasses, and other saccharine matter of the +cane, which will answer for no other purpose. + +43. Sugar is also manufactured from the sap of the sugar-maple, in +considerable quantities, in the northern parts of the United States, +and in the Canadas. The sap is obtained by cutting a notch, or boring +a hole, in the tree, and applying a spout to conduct it to a receiver, +which is either a rude trough, or a cheap vessel made by a cooper. +This operation is performed late in the winter, or early in the +spring, when the weather is freezing at night, and thawing in the day. + +44. The liquid in which the saccharine matter is suspended, is +evaporated by heat, as in the case of the juice of the cane. During +the process of evaporation, slices of pork are kept in the kettle, to +prevent the sap or syrup from boiling over. + +45. When a sufficient quantity of syrup, of a certain thickness, has +been obtained, it is passed through a strainer, and, having been again +placed over the fire, it is clarified with eggs and milk, the scum, as +it rises, being carefully removed with a skimmer. When sufficiently +reduced, it is usually poured into tin pans, or basins, in which, as +it cools, it consolidates into hard cakes of sugar. + +46. Most of the lands in a state of nature, are covered with forest +trees. This is especially the case in North America. When this +division of our continent was first visited by Europeans, it was +nearly one vast wilderness, throughout its entire extent; and even +now, after a lapse of three centuries, a great portion of it remains +in the same condition. The industrious settlers, however, are rapidly +clearing away the natural encumbrances of the soil; and, before a +similar period shall have passed away, we may expect, that civilized +men will have occupied every portion of this vast territory, which may +be worthy of cultivation. + +47. The mode of _clearing_ land, as it is termed, varies in different +parts of the United States. In Pennsylvania, and in neighborhoods +settled by people from that state, the large trees are deadened by +girdling them, and the small ones, together with the underbrush, are +felled and burned. This mode is very objectionable, for the reason, +that the limbs on the standing trees, when they have become rotten, +sometimes peril the lives of persons and animals underneath. It seems, +however, that those who pursue this method, prefer risking life in +this way to wearing it out in wielding the axe, and in rolling logs. + +48. A very different plan is pursued by settlers from New-England. The +underbrush is first cut down, and piled in heaps. The large trees are +then felled, to serve as foundations for log-heaps; and the smaller +ones are cut so as to fall as nearly parallel to these as practicable. +The smaller trees, as well as the limbs of the larger ones, are cut +into lengths of twelve or fifteen feet. + +49. At a proper season of the year, when the brush has become dry +enough, fire is applied, which consumes much of the small stuff. The +logs are next hauled together with oxen or horses, and rolled into +heaps with handspikes. The small stuff which has escaped the first +burning, is thrown upon the heaps, and, fire being applied, the whole +is consumed together. + +50. In the Northern, Middle, and Western states, where a great +proportion of the timber is beech, maple, and elm, great quantities of +ashes are obtained in this mode of clearing land. From these ashes are +extracted the pot and pearl ashes of commerce, which have been, and +which still are, among the principal exports of the United States. + +51. The usual process of making potash is as follows: the crude ashes +are put into large tubs, or _leeches_, with a small quantity of salt +and lime. The strength of this mixture is extracted by pouring upon it +hot water, which passes through it into a reservoir. The water thus +saturated is called black ley, which is evaporated in large kettles. +The residuum is called black salts, which are converted into potash by +applying to the kettle an intense heat. + +52. The process of making pearlash is the same, until the ley has been +reduced to black salts, except that no lime or salt is used. The salts +are baked in large ovens, heated by a blazing fire, which proceeds +from an arch below. Having been thus _scorched_, the salts are +dissolved in hot water. The solution is allowed to be at rest, until +all extraneous substances have settled to the bottom, when it is drawn +off and evaporated as before. The residuum is called white salts. +Another baking, like the former, completes the process. + +53. Very few of the settlers have an ashery, as it is called, in which +the whole process of making either pot or pearl ash is performed. They +usually sell the black salts to the store-keepers in their +neighborhood, who complete the process of the manufacture. + +54. The trade in ashes is often profitable to the settlers; some of +them even pay, in this way, the whole expense of clearing their land. +Pot and pearl ashes are packed in strong barrels, and sent to the +cities, where, previous to sale, they are inspected, and branded +according to their quality. + + + + +[Illustration: GARDENER.] + +THE HORTICULTURIST. + + +1. The Creator of the Universe, having formed man from the dust of the +ground, provided a magnificent garden for his residence, and commanded +him "to dress it and to keep it:" but, having transgressed the +commandment of his lawful Sovereign, he was driven from this +delightful paradise, thenceforth to gain a subsistence from the earth +at large, which had been cursed with barrenness, thorns, thistles, and +briars. + +2. Scripture does not inform us, that Adam turned his attention to +gardening; nor have we any means of determining the state of this art, +in the centuries previous to the flood; but it is highly probable, +that it had arrived to considerable perfection, before the advent of +this destructive visitation from Heaven. + +3. Gardens, for useful purposes, were probably made, soon after the +waters had subsided; and the statement in Scripture, that "Noah +planted a vineyard," may, perhaps, be regarded as evidence sufficient +to establish it as a fact. If this were the case, the art, doubtless, +continued progressive among those descendants of Noah, who did not +sink into a state of barbarism, after the confusion of tongues. + +4. Among savage nations, one of the first indications of advancement +towards a state of civilization, is the cultivation of a little spot +of ground for raising vegetables; and the degree of refinement among +the inhabitants of any country, may be determined, with tolerable +certainty, by the taste and skill exhibited in their gardens. + +5. Ornamental gardening is never attended to, in any country, until +the arts in general have advanced to a considerable degree of +perfection; and it uniformly declines with other fine or ornamental +arts. Accordingly, we do not read of splendid gardens among the +Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, Romans, and other nations of +antiquity, until they had reached an exalted state of refinement; and +when these nations descended from this condition, or were overthrown +by barbarians, this art declined or disappeared. + +6. During the period of mental darkness, which prevailed between the +eighth and thirteenth centuries, the practice of ornamental gardening +had fallen into such general disuse, that it was confined exclusively +to the monks. After this period, it began again to spread among the +people generally. It revived in Italy, Germany, Holland, and France, +long before any attention was paid to it in England. + +7. In the latter country, but few culinary vegetables were consumed +before the beginning of the sixteenth century, and most of these were +brought from Holland; nor was gardening introduced there, as a source +of profit, until about one hundred years after that period. Peaches, +pears, plums, nectarines, apricots, grapes, cherries, strawberries, +and melons, were luxuries but little enjoyed in England, until near +the middle of the seventeenth century. The first _hot_ and _ice +houses_ known on the island, were built by Charles II., who ascended +the British throne in 1660, and soon after introduced French gardening +at Hampton Court, Carlton, and Marlborough. + +8. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, this art attracted +the attention of some of the first characters in Great Britain, who +gave it a new impulse in that country. But the style which they +imitated was objectionable, inasmuch as the mode of laying out the +gardens, and of planting and trimming the trees, was too formal and +fantastical. + +9. Several eminent writers, among whom were Pope and Addison, +ridiculed this Dutch mode of gardening, as it was called, and +endeavoured to introduce another, more consistent with genuine taste. +Their views were, at length, seconded by practical horticulturists; +and those principles of the art which they advocated, were adopted in +every part of Great Britain. The English mode has been followed and +emulated by the refined nations of the Eastern continent and by many +opulent individuals in the United States. + +10. Since the beginning of the present century horticultural societies +have been formed in every kingdom of Europe. In Great Britain alone, +there are no less than fifty; and, it is satisfactory to add, that +there are also several of these institutions in the United States. The +objects of the persons who compose these societies are, to collect and +disseminate information on this interesting art, especially in regard +to the introduction of new and valuable articles of cultivation. + +11. The authors who have written upon scientific and practical +gardening, at different periods, and in different countries, are very +numerous. Among the ancient Greek writers, were Hesiod, Theophrastus, +Xenophon, and AElian. Among the Latins, Varo was the first; to whom +succeeded, Cato, Pliny the elder, Columella, and Palladius. + +12. Since the revival of literature, horticulture, in common with +agriculture, has shared largely in the labours of the learned; and +many works, on this important branch of rural economy, have been +published in every language of Europe. But the publications on this +subject, which attract the greatest attention, are the periodicals +under the superintendence of the great horticultural societies. Those +of London and Paris, are particularly distinguished. + +13. It is impossible to draw a distinct line between horticulture and +agriculture; since so many articles of cultivation are common to both, +and since a well-regulated farm approaches very nearly to a garden. + +14. The divisions of a complete garden, usually adopted by writers on +this subject, are the following: 1st. the culinary garden; 2d. the +flower garden; 3d. the orchard, embracing different kinds of fruits; +4th. the vineyard; 5th. the seminary, for raising seeds; 6th. the +nursery, for raising trees to be transplanted; 7th. the botanical +garden, for raising various kinds of plants; 8th. the arboretum of +ornamental trees; and, 9th. the picturesque, or landscape garden. To +become skilful in the management of even one or two of these branches, +requires much attention; but to become proficient in all, would +require years of the closest application. + +15. In Europe, the professed gardeners constitute a large class of the +population. They are employed either in their own gardens, or in those +of the wealthy, who engage them by the day or year. There are many in +this country who devote their attention to this business; but they are +chiefly from the other side of the Atlantic. In our Southern states, +the rich assign one of their slaves to the garden. + +16. In the United States, almost every family in the country, and in +the villages, has its garden for the production of vegetables, in +which are also usually reared, a few flowers, ornamental shrubs, and +fruit-trees: but horticulture, as a science, is studied and practised +here by very few, especially that branch of it called picturesque, or +landscape. To produce a pleasing effect, in a garden of this kind, +from twenty to one hundred acres are necessary, according to the +manner in which the ground may be situated. In an area of that extent, +every branch of this pleasing art can be advantageously embraced. + +17. Delicate exotic plants, which will not bear exposure to the open +air during the winter, are preserved from the effects of the cold in +_hot_ or _green houses_, which may be warmed by artificial heat. A +_hot-house_ is exhibited in the representation of a garden, at the +head of this article. It is composed chiefly of window-glass set in +sashes of wood. A green-house is usually larger; and is designed for +the preservation of those plants requiring less heat. + +18. The vegetables commonly cultivated in gardens for the table, +are,--corn, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, beans, squashes, cucumbers, +melons, strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, +currants, beets, parsnips, carrots, onions, radishes, cabbages, +asparagus, lettuce, grapes, and various kinds of fruits. The flowers, +ornamental shrubs, and trees, are very numerous, and are becoming more +so by accessions from the forests, and from foreign countries. + +19. The scientific horticulturist, in laying off his garden, +endeavours to unite beauty and utility, locating the flowers, +ornamental shrubs, and trees, where they will be most conspicuous, +and those vegetables less pleasing to the eye, in more retired +situations, yet, in a soil and exposure adapted to their constitution. +In improving the soil of his garden, he brings to his aid the science +of chemistry, together with the experience of practical men. He is +also careful in the choice of his fruit-trees, and in increasing the +variety of their products by engrafting, and by inoculation. + + + + +[Illustration: MILLER.] + +THE MILLER. + + +1. The Miller belongs to that class of employments which relates to +the preparation of food and drinks for man. His business consists, +chiefly, in reducing the farinaceous grains to a suitable degree of +fineness. + +2. The simplest method by which grain can be reduced to meal, or +flour, is rubbing or pounding it between two stones; and this was +probably the one first practised in all primitive conditions of +society, as it is still pursued among some tribes of uncivilized men. + +3. The first machine for comminuting grain, of which we have any +knowledge, was a simple hand-mill, composed of a nether stone fixed in +a horizontal position, and an upper stone, which was put in motion +with the hand by means of a peg. This simple contrivance is still used +in India, as well as in some sequestered parts of Scotland, and on +many of the plantations in the Southern states of our Union. But, in +general, where large quantities of grain are to be ground, it has been +entirely superseded by mills not moved by manual power. + +4. The modern corn and flour mill differs from the primitive hand-mill +in the size of the stones, in the addition of an apparatus for +separating the hulls and bran from the farinaceous part of the grain, +and in the power applied for putting it in motion. + +5. The grinding surfaces of the stones have channels, or furrows, cut +in them, which proceed obliquely from the centre to the circumference. +The furrows are cut slantwise on one side, and perpendicular on the +other; so that each of the ridges which they form, has a sharp edge; +and, when the upper stone is in motion, these edges pass one another, +like the blades of a pair of scissors, and cut the grain the more +easily, as it falls upon the furrows. + +6. By a careful inspection of the following picture, the whole +machinery of a common mill may be understood. + +[Illustration] + +A represents the water-wheel; B, the shaft to which is attached the +cog-wheel C, which acts on the trundle-head, D; and this, in turn, +acts on the moveable stone. The spindle, trundle-head, and upper +stone, all rest entirely on the beam, F, which can be elevated or +depressed, at pleasure, by a simple apparatus; so that the distance +between the stones can be easily regulated, to grind either fine or +coarse. The grain about to be submitted to the action of the mill, is +thrown into the hopper, H, whence it passes by the shoe, or spout I, +through a hole in the upper stone, and then between them both. + +7. The upper stone is a little convex, and the other a little concave. +There is a little difference, however, between the convexity and the +concavity of the two stones: this difference causes the space between +them to become less and less towards their edges; and the grain, being +admitted between them, is, consequently, ground finer and finer, as it +passes out in that direction, in which it is impelled by the +centrifugal power of the moving stone. + +8. If the flour, or meal, is not to be separated from the bran, the +simple grinding completes the operation; but, when this separation is +to be made, the comminuted grain, as it is thrown out from between the +stones, is carried, by little leathern buckets fastened to a strap, to +the upper end of an octagonal sieve, placed in an inclined position in +a large box. The coarse bran passes out at the lower end of the sieve, +or bolt, and the flour, or fine particles of bran, through the +bolting-cloth, at different places, according to their fineness. At +the head of the bolt, the superfine flour passes; in the middle, the +fine flour; and at the lower end, the coarse flour and fine bran; +which, when mixed, is called _canel_, or _shorts_. + +9. The best material of which mill-stones are made, is the burr-stone, +which is brought from France in small pieces, weighing from ten to +one hundred pounds. These are cemented together with plaster of Paris, +and closely bound around the circumference with hoops made of bar +iron. For grinding corn or rye, those made of sienite, or granite +rock, are frequently used. + +10. A mill, exclusively employed in grinding grain, consumed by the +inhabitants of the neighborhood, is called a _grist_ or _custom_ mill; +and a portion of the grist is allowed to the miller, in payment for +his services. The proportion is regulated by law; and, in our own +country, it varies according to the legislation of the different +states. + +11. Mills in which flour is manufactured, and packed in barrels for +sale, are called merchant mills. Here, the wheat is purchased by the +miller, or by the owner of the mill, who relies upon the difference +between the original cost of the grain, and the probable amount of its +several products, when sold, to remunerate him for the manufacture, +and his investments of capital. In Virginia, and, perhaps, in some of +the other states, it is a common practice among the farmers, to +deliver to the millers their wheat, for which they receive a specified +quantity of flour. + +12. The power most commonly employed to put heavy machinery in +operation, is that supplied by water. This is especially the case with +regard to mills for grinding grain; but, when this cannot be had, a +substitute is found in steam, or animal strength. The wind is also +rendered subservient to this purpose. The wind-mill was invented in +the time of Augustus Caesar. During the reign of this emperor, and +probably long before, mules and asses were employed by both the Greeks +and Romans in turning their mills. The period at which water-mills +began to be used cannot be certainly determined. Some writers place it +as far back as the Christian era. + +13. Wheat flour is one of the staple commodities of the United States, +and there are mills for its manufacture in almost every part of the +country, where wheat is extensively cultivated; but our most +celebrated flour-mills are on the Brandywine Creek, Del., at +Rochester, N. Y., and at Richmond, Va. + +14. In our Southern states, hommony is a favorite article of food. It +consists of the flinty portions of Indian corn, which have been +separated from the hulls and eyes of the grain. To effect this +separation, the corn is sometimes ground very coarsely in a mill; but +the most usual method is that of pounding it in a mortar. + +15. The mortar is excavated from a log of hard wood, between twelve +and eighteen inches in diameter. The form of the excavation is similar +to that of a common iron mortar, except that it is less flat at the +bottom, to prevent the corn from being reduced to meal during the +operation. The pestle is usually made by confining an iron wedge in +the split end of a round stick, by means of an iron ring. + +16. The white flint corn is the kind usually chosen for hommony; +although any kind, possessing the requisite solidity, will do. Having +been poured into the mortar, it is moistened with hot water, and +immediately beaten with the pestle, until the eyes and hulls are +forced from the flinty portions of the grain. The part of the corn +which has been reduced to meal by the foregoing process, is removed by +means of a sieve, and the hulls, by the aid of the wind. + +17. Hommony is prepared for the table by boiling it in water for +twelve hours with about one fourth of its quantity of white beans, and +some fat bacon. It is eaten while yet warm, with milk or butter; or, +if suffered to get cold, is again warmed with lard or some other fat +substance, before it is brought to the table. + + + + +[Illustration: BAKER.] + +THE BAKER. + + +1. The business of the Baker consists in making bread, rolls, +biscuits, and crackers, and in baking various kinds of provisions. + +2. Man appears to be designed by nature, to eat all substances capable +of affording nourishment to his system; but, being more inclined to +vegetable than to animal food, he has, from the earliest times, used +farinaceous grains, as his principal means of sustenance. As these, +however, cannot be eaten in their native state without difficulty, +means have been contrived for extracting their farinaceous part, and +for converting it into an agreeable and wholesome aliment. + +3. Those who are accustomed to enjoy all the advantages of the most +useful inventions, without reflecting on the labour expended in their +completion, may fancy that there is nothing more easy than to grind +grain, to make it into paste, and to bake it in an oven; but it must +have been a long time, before men discovered any better method of +preparing their grain, than roasting it in the fire, or boiling it in +water, and forming it into viscous cakes. Accident, probably, at +length furnished some observing person a hint, by which good and +wholesome bread could be made by means of fermentation. + +4. Before the invention of the oven, bread was exclusively baked in +the embers, or ashes, or before the fire. These methods, with +sometimes a little variation, are still practised, more or less, in +all parts of the world. In England, the poor class of people place the +loaf on the heated hearth, and invert over it an iron pot or kettle, +which they surround with embers or coals. + +5. The invention of the oven must have added much to the conveniences +and comforts of the ancients; but it cannot be determined, at what +period, or by whom, it was contrived. During that period of remote +antiquity, in which the people were generally erratic in their habits, +the ovens were made of clay, and hardened by fire, like earthenware; +and, being small, they could be easily transported from place to +place, like our iron bake-ovens. Such ovens are still in use in some +parts of Asia. + +6. There are few nations that do not use bread, or a substitute for +it. Its general use arises from a law of our economy, which requires a +mixture of the animal fluids, in every stage of the process of +digestion. The saliva is, therefore, essential; and the mastication of +dry food is required, to bring it forth from the glands of the mouth. + +7. The farinaceous grains most usually employed in making bread, +are,--wheat, rye, barley, maize, and oats. The flour or meal of two +of these are often mixed; and wheat flour is sometimes advantageously +combined with rice, peas, beans, or potatoes. + +8. The component parts of wheat, rye, and barley flour, are,--fecula, +or starch, gluten, and saccharine mucilage. Fecula is the most +nutritive part of grain. It is found in all seeds, and is especially +abundant in the potato. Gluten is necessary to the production of light +bread; and wheat flour, containing it in the greatest proportion, +answers the purpose better than any other. The saccharine mucilage is +equally necessary, as this is the substance on which yeast and leaven +act, in producing the internal commotion in the particles of dough +during fermentation. + +9. There are three general methods of making bread; 1st. by mixing +meal or flour with water, or with water and milk; 2d. by adding to the +foregoing materials a small quantity of sour dough, or leaven, to +serve as a fermenting agent; and, 3d. by using yeast, to produce the +same general effect. + +10. The theory of making light bread, is not difficult to be +understood. The leaven or yeast acts upon the saccharine mucilage of +the dough, and, by the aid of heat and moisture, disengages +carbonaceous matter, which, uniting with oxygen, forms carbonic acid +gas. This, being prevented from escaping by the gluten of the dough, +causes the mass to become light and spongy. During the process of +baking, the increased heat disengages more of the fixed air, which is +further prevented from escaping by the formation of the crust. The +superfluous moisture having been expelled, the substance becomes firm, +and retains that spongy hollowness which distinguishes good bread. + +11. Many other substances contain fermenting qualities, and are, +therefore, sometimes used as substitutes for yeast and leaven. The +waters of several mineral springs, both in Europe and America, being +impregnated with carbonic acid gas, are occasionally employed in +making light bread. + +12. The three general methods of making bread, and the great number of +materials employed, admit of a great variety in this essential article +of food; so much so, that we cannot enter into details, as regards the +particular modes of manufacture adopted by different nations, or +people. There are, comparatively, but few people on the globe, among +whom this art is not practised in some way or other. + +13. It is impossible to ascertain, at what period of time the process +of baking bread became a particular profession. It is supposed, that +the first bakers in Rome came from Greece, about two hundred years +before the Christian era; and that these, together with some freemen +of the city, were incorporated into a college, or company, from which +neither they nor their children were permitted to withdraw. They held +their effects in common, without possessing any individual power of +parting with them. + +14. Each bake-house had a patron, or superintendent; and one of the +patrons had the management of the rest, and the care of the college. +So respectable was this class of men in Rome, that one of the body was +occasionally admitted, as a member of the senate; and all, on account +of their peculiar corporate association, and the public utility of +their employment, were exempted from the performance of the civil +duties to which other citizens were liable. + +15. In many of the large cities of Europe, the price and weight of +bread sold by bakers, are regulated by law. The weight of the loaves +of different sizes must be always the same; but the price may vary, +according to the current cost of the chief materials. The law was such +in the city of London, a few years ago, that if a loaf fell short in +weight a single ounce, the baker was liable to be put in the pillory; +but now, he is subject only to a fine, varying from one to five +shillings, according to the will of the magistrate before whom he may +be indicted. + +16. In this country, laws of a character somewhat similar have been +enacted by the legislatures of several states, and by city +authorities, with a view to protect the community against impositions; +but whether there is a law or not, the bakers regulate the weight, +price, and quality of their loaves by the general principles of trade. + +17. There is, perhaps, no business more laborious than that of the +baker of loaf bread, who has a regular set of customers to be supplied +every morning. The twenty-four hours of the day are systematically +appropriated to the performance of certain labours, and to rest. + +18. After breakfast, the yeast is prepared, and the oven-wood +provided: at two or three o'clock, the _sponge is set_: the hours from +three to eight or nine o'clock, are appropriated to rest. The baking +commences at nine or ten o'clock at night; and, in large bakeries, +continues until five o'clock in the morning. From that time until the +breakfast hour, the hands are engaged in distributing the bread to +customers. For seven months in the year, and, in some cases, during +the whole of it, part of the hands are employed, from eleven to one +o'clock, in baking pies, puddings, and different kinds of meats, sent +to them from neighboring families. + +19. In large cities, the bakers usually confine their attention to +particular branches of the business. Some bake light loaf bread only; +others bake unleavened bread, such as crackers, sea-biscuit, and cakes +for people of the Jewish faith. Some, again, unite several branches +together; and this is especially the case in small cities and towns, +where the demand for different kinds of bread is more limited. + + + + +[Illustration: CONFECTIONER.] + +THE CONFECTIONER. + + +1. The Confectioner makes liquid and dry confects, jellies, +marmalades, pastes, conserves, sugar-plums, ice-creams, candies, and +cakes of various kinds. + +2. Many of the articles just enumerated, are prepared in families for +domestic use; but, as their preparation requires skill and practice, +and is likewise attended with some trouble, it is sometimes better to +purchase them of the confectioner. + +3. _Liquid_ and dry _confects_ are preserves made of various kinds of +fruits and berries, the principal of which are,--peaches, apricots, +pears, quinces, apples, plums, cherries, grapes, strawberries, +gooseberries, currants, and raspberries. The fruit, of whatever kind +it may be, is confected by boiling it in a thick clarified syrup of +sugar, until it is about half cooked. Dry confects are made by +boiling the fruit a little in syrup, and then drying it with a +moderate heat in an oven. The ancients confected with honey; but, at +present, sugar is deemed more suitable for this purpose, and is almost +exclusively employed. + +4. _Jellies_ resemble a thin transparent glue, or size. They are made +by mixing the juice of the fruits mentioned in the preceding +paragraph, with a due proportion of sugar, and then boiling the +composition down to a proper consistence. Jellies are also made of the +flesh of animals; but such preparations cannot be long kept, as they +soon become corrupt. + +5. _Marmalades_ are thin pastes, usually made of the pulp of fruits +that have some consistence, and about an equal weight of sugar. +_Pastes_ are similar to marmalades, in their materials, and mode of +preparation. The difference consists only in their being reduced by +evaporation to a consistence, which renders them capable of retaining +a form, when put into moulds, and dried in an oven. + +6. _Conserves_ are a species of dry confects, compounded of sugar and +flowers. The flowers usually employed, are,--roses, mallows, rosemary, +orange, violets, jessamine, pistachoes, citrons, and sloes. +Orange-peel is also used for the same purpose. + +7. _Candies_ are made of clarified sugar, reduced by evaporation to a +suitable degree of consistence. They receive their name from the +essence, or substance, employed in giving them the required flavour. + +8. _Sugar-plums_ are small fruits, seeds, little pieces of bark, or +odoriferous and aromatic roots, incrusted with hard sugar. These +trifles are variously denominated; but, in most cases, according to +the name of the substance inclosed by the incrustation. + +9. _Ice-cream_ is an article of agreeable refreshment in hot weather. +It is sold in confectionary shops, as well as at the public gardens, +and other places of temporary resort in cities. It is composed, +chiefly, of milk or cream, fruit, and lemon-juice. It is prepared by +beating the materials well together, and rubbing them through a fine +hair sieve. The congelation is effected by placing the containing +vessel in one which is somewhat larger, and filling the surrounding +vacancy with a mixture of salt and fine ice. + +10. _Cakes_ are made of a great variety of ingredients; the principal +of which are, flour, butter, eggs, sugar, water, milk, cream, yeast, +wine, brandy, raisins, currants, caraway, lemon, orange, almonds, +cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, and ginger. The different +combinations of these materials, produce so great a variety of cakes, +that it would be tedious to detail even their names. + +11. The confectioner, in addition to those articles which may be +considered peculiar to his business, deals in various kinds of fruits +and nuts, which grow in different climates. He also sells a variety of +pickles, which he usually procures from those who make it a business +to prepare them. + +12. _Soda-water_ is likewise often sold by the confectioner. This +agreeable drink is merely water, impregnated with carbonic acid gas, +by means of a forcing-pump. The confectioners, however, in large +cities, seldom prepare it themselves, as they can procure it at less +expense, and with less trouble, ready made. + +13. Sometimes, the business of the pastry-cook is united with that of +the confectioner, especially with that branch of it which relates to +making cakes. Pies and tarts consist of paste, which, in baking, +becomes a crust, and some kind of fruit or meat, or both, with +suitable seasoning. The art of making pies and tarts is practised, +more or less, in every family: it is not, therefore, essential to be +particular in naming the materials employed, or the manner in which +they are combined. + + + + +[Illustration: DISTILLER.] + +THE BREWER, AND THE DISTILLER. + + +THE BREWER. + +1. Brewing is the art of preparing a liquor, which has received the +general denomination of beer. This beverage can be brewed from any +kind of farinaceous grain; but, on various accounts, barley is usually +preferred. It is prepared for the brewer's use by converting it into +malt, which is effected by the following process. + +2. The grain is soaked in a cistern of water about two days, or until +it is completely saturated with that fluid. It is then taken out, and +spread upon a floor in a layer nearly two feet thick. When the inside +of this heap begins to grow warm, and the kernels to germinate, the +maltster checks the rapid growth of the grain in that situation by +changing it to the outside. This operation is continued, until the +saccharine matter in the barley has been sufficiently evolved by the +natural process of germination. + +3. The grain is next transferred to the kiln, which is an iron or tile +floor, perforated with small holes, and moderately heated beneath with +a fire of coke or stone coal. Here, the grain is thoroughly dried, and +the principle of germination completely destroyed. The malt thus made +is prepared for being brewed, by crushing it in a common mill, or +between rollers. Malting, in Great Britain, and in some other parts of +Europe, is a business distinct from brewing; but, in the United +States, the brewers generally make their own malt. + +4. The first part of the process of brewing is called _mashing_. This +is performed in a large tub, or _tun_, having two bottoms. The upper +one, consisting of several moveable pieces, is perforated with a great +number of small holes; the other, though tight and immoveable at the +edges, has several large holes, furnished with ducts, which lead to a +cistern beneath. + +5. The malt, designed for one mashing, is spread in an even layer on +the upper bottom, and thoroughly saturated and incorporated with water +nearly boiling, by means of iron rakes, which are made to revolve and +move round in the tub by the aid of machinery. The water, together +with the soluble parts of the malt, at length passes off, through the +holes before mentioned, into the reservoir beneath. + +6. The malt requires to be mashed two or three times in succession +with fresh quantities of water; and the product of each mashing is +appropriated to making liquors of different degrees of strength. + +7. The product of the _mashing-tun_ is called _wort_, which, being +transferred to a large copper kettle, is boiled for a considerable +time with a quantity of hops, and then drawn off into large shallow +cisterns, called _coolers_. When the mixture has become cool enough +to be submitted to fermentation, it is drawn off into the _working +tun_. + +8. The fermentation is effected with yeast, which, acting on the +saccharine matter, disengages carbonic acid gas. This part of the +process requires from eighteen to forty-eight hours, according to the +degree of heat which may be in the atmosphere. + +9. The beer is then drawn off into casks of different dimensions, in +which it undergoes a still further fermentation, sometimes called the +_brewer's cleansing_. During this fermentation, the froth, or yeast, +works out at the bung-hole, and is received in a trough, on the edges +of which the casks have been placed. The froth thus discharged from +the beer, is the yeast used by the brewers. + +10. The products of the brewery are denominated _beer_, _ale_, and +_porter_. The difference between these liquors arises, chiefly, from +the manner in which the malt has been prepared, the relative strength +imparted to each, and the extent to which the fermentation has been +carried. + +11. There are several kinds of beer; such as table beer, half and +half, and strong beer. They are adapted to use soon after being +brewed, and differ from each other but little, except in the degree of +their strength. + +12. Ale and porter are called stock liquors; because, not being +designed for immediate consumption, they are kept for a considerable +time, that they may improve in quality. Porter is usually prepared for +consumption by putting it into bottles. This is done either at the +brewery, or in bottling establishments. In the latter case, the liquor +is purchased in large quantities from the brewer by persons who make +it their business to supply retailers and private families. + +13. We have evidence that fermented liquor was in use three thousand +years ago. It was first used in Egypt, whence it passed into adjacent +countries, and afterward into Spain, France, and England. It was +sometimes called the wine of barley; and one kind of it was +denominated Pelusian drink, from the city Pelusium, where it was first +made. + +14. Among the nations of modern times, the English are the most +celebrated for brewing good liquors. London porter is especially in +great repute, not only in that city, but in distant countries. Much +fermented liquor of the different kinds, is consumed in the United +States, where it is also made in considerable perfection. + + +THE DISTILLER. + +1. Although alcohol can be extracted from any substance containing +saccharine matter, yet sugar-cane, grapes, apples, peaches, rye, corn, +and rice, on account of their abundance, and superior adaptation to +the purpose, are more commonly used than any other. As whiskey is the +chief article of this kind, manufactured in the United States, it will +be selected to illustrate the general principles of distillation. + +2. Corn and rye are the materials from which this liquor is mostly +extracted; and these are used either together or separately, at the +option of the distiller. The meal is scalded and mashed in a large +tub: it is then permitted to stand, until it has become a little +sweet, when more water is poured upon it, and, at a suitable +temperature, a quantity of yeast is added. To aid in producing rapid +fermentation, a little malt is sprinkled on the top. + +3. After an adequate fermentation has taken place, the _beer_, as it +is called, is transferred to a large close tub, from the top of which +leads a tube extending to the worm in another tub filled with cold +water. The worm is a long pewter tube, twisted spirally, that it may +occupy a small space. + +4. The beer is heated in the close tub, by means of steam, which is +conveyed to it, from a large kettle or boiler, by a copper or iron +pipe. The heat causes the alcoholic particles to rise like vapour, and +pass into the worm, where they are condensed into a watery fluid, +which passes out into a receiver. + +5. At first, pure alcohol distils from the worm; but the produce +becomes gradually weaker, until, at length, the spirit in the beer +being exhausted, it consists only of water condensed from steam. The +remains of the beer are given as feed to hogs and cattle. + +6. Brandy is distilled from grapes, rum from sugar-cane, arrack from +rice, whiskey from various kinds of grain, peach-brandy from peaches, +and cider-brandy from apples. + +7. The great variety of articles employed in the productions of +different kinds of ardent spirits, must necessarily vary the process +of distillation in some particulars; but, in all cases, fermentation +and heat are necessary to disengage the alcoholic properties of the +saccharine matter, and also an apparatus for condensing the same from +a gaseous to a liquid form. In some countries, the _alembic_ is used +as a condenser, instead of a worm. The form of this instrument is much +like that of the retort; and when applied, it is screwed upon the top +of the boiler. + +8. Spirits, which come to market in a crude state, are sometimes +distilled for the purpose of improving their quality, or for +disguising them with drugs and colouring substances, that they may +resemble superior liquors. The process by which they are thus changed, +or improved, is called rectification. Many distilleries in large +cities, are employed in this branch of business. + +9. There is, perhaps, no kind of merchandise in which the public is +more deceived, than in the quality of ardent spirits and wines. To +illustrate this, it is only necessary to observe, that Holland gin is +made by distilling French brandy with juniper-berries; but most of the +spirits which are vended under that name, consist only of rum or +whiskey, flavoured with the oil of turpentine. Genuine French brandy +is distilled from grapes; but the article usually sold under that +denomination, is whiskey or rum coloured with treacle or scorched +sugar, and flavoured with the oil of wine, or some kind of drug. + +10. The ancient Greeks and Romans were acquainted with an instrument +for distillation, which they denominated _ambix_. This was adopted, a +long time afterward, by the Arabian alchemists, for making their +chemical experiments; but they made some improvements in its +construction, and changed its name to _alembic_. + +11. The ancients, however, knew nothing of alcohol. The method of +extracting this intoxicating substance, was probably discovered some +time in the twelfth or thirteenth century; but, for many ages after +the discovery, it was used only as a medicine, and was kept for sale +exclusively in apothecary shops. It is now used as a common article of +stimulation, in almost every quarter of the globe. + +12. But the opinion is becoming general, among all civilized people, +that the use of alcohol, for this purpose, is destructive of health, +and the primary cause of most of the crimes and pauperism in all +places, where its consumption is common. The formation of Temperance +Societies, and the publication of their reports, together with the +extensive circulation of periodical papers, devoted to the cause of +temperance, have already diminished, to a very great extent, the use +of spirituous liquors. + +13. Although the ancients knew nothing of distilling alcohol, yet they +were well versed in the art of making wine. We read of the vineyard, +as far back as the time of Noah, the second father of nations; and, +from that period to the present, the grape has been the object of +careful cultivation, in all civilized nations, where the climate and +soil were adapted to the purpose. + +14. The general process of making wine from grapes, is as follows. The +grapes, when gathered, are crushed by treading them with the feet, and +rubbing them in the hands, or by some other means, with the view to +press out the juice. The whole is then suffered to stand in the vat, +until it has passed through what is termed the _vinous_ fermentation, +when the juice, which, in this state, is termed _must_, is drawn off +into open vessels, where it remains until the pressing of the husks is +finished. + +15. The husks are submitted, in hair bags, to the press; and the +_must_ which is the result of this operation, is mixed with that drawn +from the vat. The whole is then put into casks, where it undergoes +another fermentation, called the _spirituous_, which occupies from six +to twelve days. The casks are then bunged up, and suffered to stand a +few weeks, when the wine is racked off from the _lees_, and again +returned to the same casks, after they have been perfectly cleansed. +Two such rackings generally render the wine clear and brilliant. + +16. In many cases, sugar, brandy, and flavouring substances, are +necessary, to render the wine palatable; but the best kinds of grapes +seldom require any of these additions. Wine-merchants often adulterate +their wines in various ways, and afterwards sell them for those which +are genuine. To correct acidity, and some other unpleasant qualities, +lead, copper, antimony, and corrosive sublimate, are often used by +the dealers in wine; though the practice is attended with deleterious +effects to the health of the consumers. + +17. The wines most usually met with in this country, are known by the +following denominations, viz., _Madeira_ and _Teneriffe_, from islands +of the same names; _Port_, from Portugal; _Sherry_ and _Malaga_, from +Spain; _Champagne_, _Burgundy_, and _Claret_, from France; and _Hock_, +from Germany. + + + + +[Illustration: BUTCHER.] + +THE BUTCHER. + + +1. Man is designed by nature, to subsist on vegetable and animal food. +This is obvious, from the structure of his organs of mastication and +digestion. It does not follow, however, that animal food is, in all +cases, positively required. In some countries, the mass of the people +subsist chiefly or entirely on vegetables. This is especially the case +in the East Indies, where rice and fruits are the chief articles of +food. + +2. On the other hand, the people who live in the higher latitudes +subsist principally on the flesh of animals. This is preferred, not +only because it is better suited to brace the system against the +rigours of the climate, but because it is most easily provided. In +temperate climates, a due proportion of both animal and vegetable +substances is consumed. + +3. Although the skins of beasts were used for the purpose of clothing, +soon after the fall of man, we have no intimation from the Scriptures, +that their flesh, or that of any other animal, was used, until after +the flood. The Divine permission was then given to Noah and his +posterity, to use, for this purpose, "every moving thing that liveth." +But in the law of Moses, delivered several centuries after this +period, many exceptions are to be found, which were intended to apply +only to the Jewish people. These restrictions were removed, on the +introduction of Christianity. The unbelieving Jews, however, still +adhere to their ancient law. + +4. The doctrine of transmigration has had a great influence in +diminishing the consumption of animal food. This absurd notion arose +somewhere in Central Asia, and, at a very early period, it spread into +Egypt, Greece, Italy, and finally among the remote countries of the +ancient world. It is still entertained by the heathen nations of +Eastern Asia, by the tribes in the vicinity of Mount Caucasus, and by +some of the American savages, and African negroes. + +5. The leading feature of this doctrine is, that the souls of departed +men reappear on earth in the bodies of animals, both as a punishment +for crimes committed during life, and as a means of purification from +sin. This dogma was adopted by the Pythagoreans, a sect of Grecian +philosophers; and, as a natural consequence, it led them, as it has +ever done the votaries of this opinion, to the veneration of animals, +and to abstinence from their flesh, lest they might devour that of +some of their deceased friends or relatives. + +6. People who dwell thinly scattered in the country, rear and +slaughter the animals for the supply of their own tables; but, in +villages, large towns, and cities, the inhabitants depend chiefly on +the butcher for their meat. The animals commonly slaughtered are, +sheep, cattle, and hogs. + +7. The butchers obtain their animals from the farmers, or from +drovers, who make it a business to purchase them in the country, and +drive them to market. The farmers near large cities, who have good +grazing farms, are accustomed to buy lean cattle, brought from a +distance, with a view to fatten them for sale. There are also persons +in the cities, who might, with propriety, be called cattle brokers; +since they supply the butchers of small capital with a single animal +at a time, on a credit of a few days. + +8. Every butcher who carries on the business, has a house in which he +kills his animals, and prepares them for sale. When it is intended to +slaughter an ox, a rope is thrown about his horns or neck, with which +he is forced into the _slaughter-house_, and brought to the floor by +the aid of a ring. The butcher then knocks him on the head, cuts his +throat, deprives him of his hide, takes out his entrails, washes the +inside of his body with water, and cuts him up into quarters. The beef +is now ready to be conveyed to the market-house. The process of +dressing other quadrupeds varies but little from this in its general +details. The cellular substance of mutton, lamb and veal, is often +inflated with air, that the meat may appear fat and plump. + +9. In large cities and towns, the meat is chiefly sold in the +market-house, where each butcher has a stall rented from the +corporation. It is carried there in a cart, and cut into suitable +pieces with a saw, knife, and a broad iron cleaver. + +10. In some of the large cities, it is a practice among the butchers, +to employ _runners_ to carry the meat to the houses, of those +customers who may desire this accommodation. In villages, where there +is no market-house, the butcher carries his meats from door to door +in some kind of vehicle. + +11. Those who follow this occupation usually enjoy good health, and, +as they advance in years, in most cases, become corpulent. Their good +health arises from exercise in the open air; and their corpulency, +from subsisting principally on fresh meats. It is thought, however, +that their longevity is not so great as that of men in many other +employments. + + + + +[Illustration: TOBACCONIST.] + +THE TOBACCO PLANTER, AND THE TOBACCONIST + + +THE TOBACCO PLANTER. + +1. Tobacco is a native production of America, which was in common use +among nearly all of the Indian tribes, when this continent was +discovered by Europeans. Its original name among the nations of the +islands, was _yoli_; whilst, with those of the continent, it was +termed _petum_. The Spaniards, however, chose to call it _tobacco_, a +term in the Haytian language, which designated the instrument in which +the herb was smoked. + +2. This plant was first introduced into Spain, then into Portugal and +France, and, at length, into other countries of the Eastern continent. +Sir Walter Raleigh carried it from Virginia to England, and taught his +countrymen the various methods of consuming it among the natives. + +3. The introduction of this nauseous plant into Europe, was everywhere +attended with ridicule and opposition. Hundreds of pamphlets were +published, in various languages, dissuading from its use in the +strongest terms. Even James the First, king of Great Britain, did not +regard it as inconsistent with the royal dignity to take up his pen on +the subject. In his "_Counterblast to Tobacco_," published in 1603, +occurs the following remarkable passage: "It is a custom loathsome to +the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain; and, in the black +fume thereof, nearest resembling the horrible Stygian smoke of the pit +that is bottomless." + +4. Pope Urban VIII. excommunicated those who took tobacco in churches; +and Queen Elizabeth also prohibited its use in houses of public +worship. In 1689, an ordinance was published in Transylvania, +threatening those who should plant tobacco with the confiscation of +their estates. The grand-duke of Moscow, and the king of Persia, +prohibited its use under the penalty of the loss of the nose, and even +of life. At present, however, the consumption of tobacco is looked +upon with so much greater indulgence, that all the sovereigns of +Europe, and most of those of other nations, derive a considerable +revenue from the trade in this article. + +5. But it is truly astonishing, that a nauseous weed, of an acrid +taste, disagreeable odour, and deleterious qualities, should have had +so great an influence on the social condition of nations; that its +culture should have spread more rapidly than that of the most useful +plants; and that it should, consequently, have become an article of +extensive commerce. + +6. Of this plant there are several species, which differ from each +other, in size, strength, and flavour. Some one or more of these +varieties, are cultivated in various parts of the world: but +especially in North and South America, and in the West Indies. It is +one of the staple productions of Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and +Ohio. The whole value of the tobacco, exported annually from the +United States, amounts to about five millions of dollars. + +7. The following description of the mode of cultivating this plant, +and preparing it for the tobacconist, is applicable to the state of +Maryland. A little variation in some of the details, would render it +applicable to other parts of the world. + +8. A small piece of ground, say one-sixteenth of an acre, is prepared +by burning a large quantity of brush upon it. The surface is rendered +light and even, by means of a hoe and rake; and the seeds, mixed with +ashes, are sown as equally as possible. After they have been covered +with earth, the ground is trodden down with the bare feet. The tobacco +beds are made in March, and the plants become fit for the field in +eight or ten weeks. + +9. The field, in which the cultivation of the crop is to be continued, +is ploughed two or three times, and then cross-ploughed into equal +checks, in each of which is made a hill. Immediately after a rain, the +plants are transferred to these hills, in the same manner in which +cabbages are transplanted. While the tobacco is growing, the ground is +ploughed several times, in order to keep it light, and to aid in +destroying the weeds. When the plants are nearly grown, the tops are +lopped or cut off, to prevent them from running to seed, and to cause +the leaves to grow larger and thicker. + +10. In July or August, the tobacco-worms begin to make their +appearance, and to threaten the whole crop with destruction. To arrest +the ravages of these insidious enemies, all hands, both great and +small, together with all the turkeys that can be mustered, are brought +into the field. These worms are produced from the eggs of a large +insect, called the horn-bug. + +11. The tobacco, when ripe, is cut near the ground, and hung on small +sticks about five feet in length, generally by pegs driven into the +stalks. These sticks are then laid upon poles, arranged at proper +distances from each other in the tobacco-house, shed, or hovel, as the +case may be. It is then suffered to dry gradually in the atmosphere; +or a large fire is made in the tobacco-house, to effect the drying +more rapidly. + +12. The leaves are next stripped from the stalks, and tied in small +bunches according to their quality. This can only be done when _in +order_, or rather, when the leaves are rendered tough by the +absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. These bunches, when the +leaves are so damp that they will not break, and so dry that they will +not heat, are packed in hogs-heads by the aid of a large lever press. +The tobacco is inspected in public warehouses, by men who have been +appointed for the purpose by the public authorities. + + +THE TOBACCONIST. + +1. It is the business of the tobacconist to convert the leaves of the +tobacco plant into snuff, cigars, and smoking and chewing tobacco. + +2. Although there may seem to be a great variety of snuffs, yet they +may be all reduced to three kinds, viz., Scotch, rappee, and maccouba. +These are variously modified by the quality of the tobacco, by some +little variation in the manufacture, and by the articles employed in +communicating the desired flavour. + +3. In manufacturing snuff, the tobacco is ground in a mill of a +peculiar construction. Before the weed is submitted to this operation, +it is reduced to a certain degree of fineness, by means of a cutting +machine; and then spread in a heap, one or two feet thick, and +sprinkled with water, that it may _heat_ and _sweat_. The time +required in this preparation depends upon the state of the weather, +and the kind of snuff for which the tobacco is designed. + +4. Scotch snuff is made of the strongest sort of tobacco, and is put +up in bladders and bottles without being scented. Rappee and maccouba +are put up in jars and bottles; and the former is generally scented +with bergamot, and the latter with the ottar of roses. Sometimes, +several ingredients, agreeable to the olfactory nerves, are employed. + +5. Cigars are composed of two parts, called the _wrapper_ and the +_filling_. The former is made of pieces of thin leaves, cut to a +proper shape, and the latter of those which are more broken. In all +cases, the leaves used in the manufacture of cigars are deprived of +the stems, which are reserved, either to be converted into inferior +kinds of snuff, or for exportation to Holland, where they are usually +flattened between rollers, and afterwards cut fine for smoking +tobacco, to be sold to the poorer class of people. + +6. The value of cigars depends chiefly on the quality of the tobacco. +The best kind for this purpose, grows on the island of Cuba, near +Havana. Tobacco from this seed is raised in many other places; and +such, among tobacconists, is called _seed_; but it passes, among +smokers of limited experience, for the real Havana. A very fine silky +tobacco of this sort, is cultivated in Connecticut, which is much +esteemed. + +7. An expert hand will make five or six hundred Spanish cigars in a +day, or from one thousand to fifteen hundred of those composed of +Maryland or Kentucky tobacco. Making cigars, being light work, is well +adapted to females, of whom great numbers are regularly employed in +this branch of business. Tobacco intended for the pipe, is cut in a +machine; and, after having been properly dried, it is put up in papers +of different sizes. + +8. Chewing tobacco is almost exclusively prepared from the species of +this plant which is cultivated in Virginia, chiefly in the vicinity of +James river. It is better adapted to this purpose than any other, on +account of its superior strength, and the great amount of resinous +matter which it contains. + +9. The first operation in preparing chewing tobacco, is that of +depriving the leaves of the stems. The former are then twisted by hand +into plugs of different sizes, or spun into a continued thread by the +aid of the _tobacco-wheel_, which is a simple machine moved by a +crank. The thread thus produced is formed into bunches, or twists, +containing a definite amount of tobacco. + +10. The tobacco, having been put into the form desired, is moistened +with water, packed in strong kegs, and then pressed with powerful +screw-presses. The whole process is completed by heating the kegs, +with their contents, for several days, in an oven or a tight room made +for the purpose. The same change in the quality of the tobacco is also +produced by suffering it to stand nine or twelve months, before it is +disposed of to the consumers. + +11. Snuff is very commonly used in the Southern states, as a +dentifrice; or, at least, it is applied to the teeth with this +ostensible object. The application is made by means of a small stick, +having the fibres minutely divided at one end. Although the tobacco +seems to have the desired effect upon the teeth, so far as respects +their appearance, yet its stimulating and narcotic powers are more to +be dreaded in this mode of using it than in any other. Many females +ruin their complexion and constitution, by _rubbing snuff_; and the +deleterious effects of the practice are so well known, that few are +willing to avow it. + +12. Tobacco is used, in some one of its various forms, by a great +majority of mankind; and, although it is generally acknowledged to be, +in most cases, injurious to the constitution, and often destructive of +health, yet its consumption seems to be on the increase. It is one of +the objects of trade, even in the most obscure parts of the world; and +its devotees must and will have a supply, even though they stint +themselves in food and clothing. + +13. As regards the influence which this plant assumes over its +votaries, it may be classed with alcohol and opium; although its +effects are not so destructive; nor is the expense so considerable; +yet this is an item by no means unworthy of attention, as the +aggregate sum annually expended for this useless narcotic in the +United States, would be sufficient for the support of common schools +in every part of the country. + +14. The general use of tobacco is perpetuated from generation to +generation, by the desire, common to children and young people, to act +and appear like older persons. Few ever begin the use of this nauseous +weed, because it is agreeable to the senses to which it is applied; +but because they fancy, in their childish simplicity, that it confers +upon them some additional importance. + + + + +[Illustration] + +THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. + + +1. Men, in the primitive ages, were clad with the skins of animals, +until they had acquired sufficient skill to employ a better material. +It cannot be determined from history, at what time cloth began to be +manufactured from animal or vegetable fibre; but it is evident, that +it was done at a very early period, even long before the flood. + +2. The fibres of the vegetable kind, most commonly applied to this +purpose, are the bark of several kinds of trees, together with hemp, +flax, and cotton; and those of the animal kingdom are, silk, the wool +of the sheep and lama, and the hair, or wool, of the goat and camel. + +3. That the general process of manufacturing cloth may be perfectly +understood, the manner of performing several operations must be +separately described. For the purpose of illustration, cotton, wool, +and flax, will be selected; because these are the materials of which +our clothing is principally fabricated. The operations of making +cloth, may be comprised under _carding_ and _combing_, _spinning_, +_weaving_, and _dressing_. + +4. _Carding and Combing._--Wool and cotton are carded, with the view +of disentangling the fibres, and arranging them longitudinally in +small rolls. This is done by means of the teeth of two instruments, +called cards, used by hand on the knee, or by the carding machine, +which acts on the same principle, although far more expeditiously. + +5. Machines for carding wool are to be found in every district of +country in the United States, in which the people manufacture much of +their woollen cloths in their own families. On account of the +roughness of the fibres of wool, it is necessary to cover them well +with grease or oil, that they may move freely on each other during the +carding and spinning. + +6. Long, coarse, or hard wools, used in the manufacture of camlets, +bombazines, circassians, and other worsted fabrics, are not carded, +but combed. In England, and in other countries where much of this kind +of wool is used, wool-combing forms a distinct trade. The operation +consists, chiefly, in drawing the locks through steel combs, the teeth +of which are similar to our common flax-hatchel. The comb is heated to +a certain temperature, to cause the fibres to straighten, and to +remove from them the roughness which might otherwise cause the cloth +made of them to thicken in washing, like flannel. + +7. The old method of combing wool, however, has been in part +superseded by the application of machines, the first of which was +invented by Edmund Cartwright, of England, about the year 1790. The +fibres of flax are arranged in a parallel direction, and freed from +tow, by drawing them through a hatchel. + +8. _Spinning._--The process of spinning consists in twisting the +fibres into threads. The most simple method by which this is effected, +is that by the common spinning-wheel. Of this well-known machine there +are two kinds; one of which is applied to spinning wool, cotton, and +tow, and the other, to spinning flax. + +9. This operation is, in most cases, performed by females in the +following manner. The roll of cotton or wool is attached to the +spindle, which is put in rapid motion by a band passing over it from +the rim, or periphery of the wheel. While the spinster is turning the +wheel with the right hand, she brings back from the spindle her left, +with which she has laid hold of the roll a few inches from the upper +end. When the yarn thus produced has been sufficiently twisted, she +turns it upon the spindle, and repeats the same operation, until it is +full. This yarn is formed into skeins by winding it upon a reel. + +10. The mode of spinning tow is a little different. The material +having been formed into _bats_ by hand-cards, the fibres are drawn out +from between the fingers and thumb by the twisted thread, while the +spinster gradually moves backward. Worsted is spun from combed wool +nearly in the same manner. + +11. The _flax_ or _little wheel_ is moved by the foot, so that both +hands of the spinster are used in supplying, disposing, and +occasionally wetting the fibres, as they are drawn from the distaff. +Two bands pass from the periphery of the wheel, each of which performs +a distinct office: the one keeps in motion the spindle, which twists +the thread; the other moves the fliers, which wind the thread upon a +spool, as fast as it is produced. + +12. Spinning was almost exclusively performed in the modes just +described, until the year 1767, when Richard Heargreaves, of England, +invented a machine for spinning cotton, which he called a _jenny_. +This consisted, at first, of eight spindles, moved by a common wheel, +or cylinder, which was turned by hand. The number of spindles was +afterwards increased to eighty-four. + +13. In 1769, Richard Arkwright, also an Englishman, invented the +_water-spinning-frame_. The essential and most important feature of +this invention, consists in drawing out the cotton, by causing it to +pass between successive pairs of rollers, which revolve with different +velocities, and which act as substitutes for the thumb and fingers, as +applied in common spinning. These rollers are combined with the +spindle and fliers of the common flax-wheel. + +14. Another machine was invented by Samuel Crompton, in 1779. It is +called a _mule_, because it combines the principles of the two +preceding machines. It produces finer yarn than either of them, and +has nearly superseded the jenny. Before the cotton is submitted to the +spinning machine, it is prepared by several others, by which it is +carded, extended, and partially twisted. + +15. In the manufactories, the fine, short wools, used in the +fabrication of broadcloths, flannels, and a variety of other cloths, +are carded by machinery, and spun on a _slubbing_ or _roving-machine_, +or on a _jenny_ or _mule_, in each of which the spindles are mounted +on a carriage, which is moved backwards in stretching and twisting the +material, and forwards in winding the thread upon the spindle. + +16. Worsted still continues to be spun, in most cases, on the common +spinning-wheel, as it can be done more perfectly in this way, than by +any other machine which has hitherto been invented. Several machines +have been constructed, which spin coarse threads of flax very well, +and with great rapidity; but the materials for fine linen fabrics are +still spun on the ancient flax-wheel. + +17. _Weaving._--The first step preparatory to weaving, is to form a +warp, consisting of a number of threads, which extend through the +whole piece. To produce this parallel arrangement, the yarn is wound +upon spools, which are afterwards placed in a frame perpendicularly by +means of rods, on which they move as upon an axle. From these spools, +the yarns are stretched upon pegs to the length of the proposed web, +and are carried round or doubled a sufficient number of times to make +it the proper width. The same object is more expeditiously effected, +by winding the yarn spirally on a revolving frame. + +18. The next step consists in winding the warp on a cylindrical beam, +which is usually about ten inches in diameter. The threads, having +been put through a harness, composed of moveable parts, called +_heddles_, and also through a sley, or reed, are fastened on the other +side to a large rod, from which three ropes extend to another +cylinder, on which the cloth is wound, as fast as it is woven. + +19. The heddles are suspended from cross-pieces, on the top of the +loom, by means of cords and pulleys, and, during the operation of +weaving, are moved up and down alternately by the aid of _treadles_. +This reciprocal motion causes the web to open; and, while in this +position, a shuttle, containing the _woof_, _weft_, or _filling_ on a +quill or bobbin, is passed through from right to left, or from left to +right, as often as the position of the warp is changed. The threads of +the filling are beaten up by the reed, or sley, which is placed in the +_lay_. + +20. Weaving is a business extensive in its application, being divided +into almost as many branches as there are woven fabrics. Plain cotton, +linen, woollen, and twilled cloths, silks, satins, carpets, &c., are +all woven in looms of some kind, constructed on the same general +principles. Power-looms, driven by water or steam, are now generally +introduced into the cotton and woollen manufactories, both in Europe +and in this country. One person can attend to two of these looms at +the same time, and each one will weave between twenty and forty yards +in a day. + +21. _Dressing._--Cotton fabrics, when the webs are taken from the +loom, are covered with an irregular nap, or down, formed by the +protruding ends of the fibres. From the finest cottons, this is +removed, by drawing them rapidly over an iron cylinder, kept red-hot +by a fire within. The flame of coal-gas has recently been applied, to +effect the same object. + +22. Common domestic fabrics are taken from the loom, and, without +further preparation, are folded up into pieces for sale. Finer +articles are usually whitened and calendered, before they pass from +the hand of the manufacturer. Stuffs of all kinds, made of vegetable +fibres, are now whitened by immersing them in a solution of oxymuriate +of lime. Cotton and linen goods, with a view of making them smooth and +glossy, are calendered, or pressed, between steel rollers. + +23. Many of the fine cottons are converted into calicoes, by +transferring to them various colors. The process by which this is +done, is called calico-printing, which will be described in a separate +article. + +24. The texture of the fabrics made of worsted, or long wool, is +completed, when issued from the loom. The pieces are subsequently +dyed, and then pressed between heated metallic plates, to communicate +to them the required gloss. But weaving does not always complete the +texture of the stuffs made of the short wools. When taken from the +loom, the web is too loose and open, to answer the purposes to which +such cloths are usually applied. It is, therefore, submitted to +another process, called _fulling_. + +25. _Fulling_, in common with almost every other operation pertaining +to the manufacture of cloth, constitutes a separate trade. The art is +only applied to stuffs composed of wool, or hair, as these only +possess the properties which render it applicable. The practicability +of fulling cloth depends on a certain roughness of the fibres, which +admits of motion in one way, and retards it in another. This may be +more fully understood by consulting the article on making hats. + +26. The cloth, having been prepared by a proper cleansing, is +deposited in a strong box, with a quantity of water and fuller's earth +or soap, and submitted to the action of the _pestles_, or _stampers_, +which are moved in a horizontal direction, backwards and forwards, by +means of appropriate machinery. This operation reduces the dimensions +of the cloth, and greatly improves the beauty and stability of the +texture. The cloth is afterwards dried in the open air on frames +prepared for the purpose. + +27. After the cloth has been dyed, a nap is raised on one side of it +by means of the common teazle. The nap is next cut off to an even +surface. This was formerly done with a huge pair of shears; but, +within a few years, it has most commonly been effected by a machine, +the essential part of which is a spiral blade, that revolves in +contact with another blade, while the cloth is stretched over a bed, +or support, just near enough for the projecting filaments to be cut +off at a uniform length, without injuring the main texture. Pressing +and folding the cloth complete the whole process. + +28. A great proportion of the woollen fabrics worn in the United +States, are manufactured in families, part of which is sent to the +clothiers to be dressed. Much cotton yarn, spun at the manufactories, +is purchased for domestic use. Formerly, the raw material was +procured, and spun into yarn on the _big wheel_. Coarse linens are +also extensively manufactured in families, especially among the German +population. + +29. The manufacture of cloth from wool was introduced into Britain by +the Romans, some time in the Augustan age. At Winchester, they +conducted the business on a scale sufficiently large to supply their +army. After the Romans withdrew from the island, in the fifth century, +the art was comparatively neglected, and gradually declined, until the +reign of Edward III. This monarch invited into his dominions workmen +from Flanders, in which country the manufacture had, for a long time, +been in a flourishing condition. + +30. Shortly after the first immigration of the Flemish manufacturers +into England, an act was passed prohibiting the wearing of cloths made +in any other country; and, in the time of Elizabeth, the manufacture +had become so extensive, that the exportation of the raw material was +forbidden by law. + +31. It is supposed that there are now, in Great Britain, thirty +millions of sheep; whose annual produce of wool is worth, on an +average, about seven millions of pounds sterling; to this may be added +five millions of pounds weight from foreign countries. This amount is +increased in value, by manufacturing skill, to twenty or thirty +millions of pounds. Not less than three millions of persons are +supposed to be employed in this branch of British industry. + +32. Both the woollen and cotton manufactures have arisen to great +importance, of late years, in the United States; and, from the +mechanical skill of our countrymen, the abundance of the raw material, +and the vast amount of water-power, there is every reason to +anticipate a rapid and continual increase in these divisions of +American enterprise. + + +THE SILK-WORM. + +1. Silk is the production of a worm, of the caterpillar species, +which, in due course, passes through several transformations, and at +length becomes a butterfly, like others of the genus. It is produced +from an egg, and when about to die, or rather again to change its +form, spins for itself an envelope, called _a cocoon_. The worm then +changes to a chrysalis, and, after remaining in this state from 5 to 8 +days, the butterfly, or moth, comes out, forcing its way through the +cocoon. The moths, or butterflies, eat nothing, and die as soon as +they have provided for the propagation of their species. Enough of +these are suffered to come to maturity, to provide a sufficient stock +of eggs. The rest are killed, in a few days after they have spun their +task, either by heating them in an oven, or by exposing them to the +rays of the sun. + +2. The fibres are wound upon a reel. To render this practicable, the +cocoons are put into water heated to a suitable temperature, which +dissolves the gummy substance that holds the fibres together. A number +of threads being detached, and passed through a hole in an iron bar, +form, by the aid of the remaining glutinous matter, one thread, which +is wound upon a reel into skeins. + +3. The raw silk, thus produced and prepared, is sold to the +manufacturers, who twist and double the fibres variously, and finally +form them into threads for sewing; or weave them into a great variety +of fabrics, which are too well known to need particular description +here. + +4. According to the ancients, the silk-worm was originally a native of +China, and the neighboring parts of Asia, and had there been +domesticated for a long time, before it was known in Europe. For many +years after silk was sold among the nations of the West, even the +merchants were ignorant of both the manner and place of its +production. + +5. The Greeks became acquainted with silk, soon after the time of +Alexander the Great; and the Romans knew little of the article, until +the reign of Augustus. Dresses, composed entirely of this material, +were seldom worn; but the fabrics which had been closely woven in the +East, were unravelled, and the threads were recomposed in a looser +texture, intermixed with linen or woollen yarn. + +6. The prodigal Hehogabalus is said to have been the first individual, +in the Roman empire, who wore a robe of pure silk. It is also stated, +that the Emperor Aurelian refused his wife a garment of this +description, on account of its exorbitant price. At that time, as well +as at previous periods, it usually sold for its weight in gold. + +7. A kind of gauze, originally made by the women on the island of Cos, +was very celebrated. It was dyed purple, with the substance usually +employed in communicating that colour in those days; but this was done +before it was woven, as in that state it was too frail to admit of the +process. Habits, made of this kind of stuff, were denominated "dresses +of glass:" because the body could be seen through them. + +8. The Roman empire had been supplied with silk through the medium of +the Persians, until the time of Justinian, in the year 555. This +emperor, having become indignant at the rapacity of the +silk-merchants, determined, if possible, to supply his people from the +insect itself. + +9. After many unsuccessful attempts, he at length obtained a small +quantity of the eggs from India, by the assistance of two Persian +monks, who had contrived to conceal them in the hollow of their +canes. The seeds of the mulberry-tree, on the leaves of which the worm +feeds, were also procured at the same time, together with instructions +necessary for the management of the worms. + +10. For six hundred years after the period just mentioned, the rearing +of these worms, in Europe, was confined to the Greek empire; but, in +the twelfth century, Roger, king of Sicily, introduced it into that +island, whence it gradually spread into Italy, Spain, France, and +other European countries. + +11. The silk-worm was introduced into England by James the First; but +it has never succeeded well in that country, on account of the +dampness and coldness of the climate. The manufacture of fabrics from +silk, however, is there very extensive, the raw material being +obtained, chiefly, from Bengal and Italy. In the latter of these +countries, in France, and other parts of Europe, as well as in Asia, +the manufacture is also extensive. + +12. Some attention has been paid to the rearing of silk-worms in the +United States, and attempts have been made to introduce the +manufacture of silks. The mulberry has been planted in various parts +of the Union; and it is highly probable, that, in a few years, we +shall be able to obtain excellent silks, without sending for them to +foreign countries. + + + + +[Illustration: DYER.] + +THE DYER, AND THE CALICO-PRINTER. + + +THE DYER. + +1. The art of dyeing consists in impregnating flexible fibres with any +color which may be desired, in such a manner, that it will remain +permanent, under the common exposures to which it may be liable. + +2. The union of the coloring matter with the fibres receiving the dye, +is purely chemical, and not mechanical, as in the case of the +application of paints. Wool has the greatest attraction for coloring +substances; silk comes next to it; then cotton; and, lastly, hemp and +flax. These materials, also, absorb dye-stuffs in different +proportions. + +3. Previous to the application of the dye, the greasy substance which +covers the fibres of wool, and the gluey matter on those of silk, are +removed by some kind of alkali. Their natural color is, also, +discharged by the fumes of sulphur. The resinous matter and natural +color of cotton and linen, are removed by bleaching. + +4. The materials used in dyeing are divided into two +classes--_substantive_ and _adjective_. The former communicates +durable tints without the aid of any other substance previously +applied; the latter requires the intervention of some agent which +possesses an attraction for both the coloring matter and the stuff to +be dyed, in order to make the color permanent. The substances used for +this purpose are usually termed _mordants_. + +5. Agents capable of acting in some way as mordants, are very +numerous; but _alumina_, _alum_, the _sulphate_ or _acetate of iron_, +the _muriate of tin_, and _nut-galls_, are principally employed. The +mordant not only fixes the color, but, in many cases, alters and +improves the tints. It is always dissolved in water, in which the +stuffs are immersed, previous to the application of the dye. Dyeing +substances are also very numerous; but a few of the most important +have, in practice, taken precedence of the others. + +6. Blue, red, yellow, and black, are the chief colors, for which +appropriate coloring substances are applied; but, by a judicious +combination of these same materials, and by a proper application of +mordants, intermediate hues of every shade are produced; thus, a green +is communicated by forming a blue ground of indigo, and then adding a +yellow by means of quercitron bark. + +7. The _blue dye_ is made of indigo; the _red dye_, of madder, +cochineal, archil, Brazil-wood, or safflowers; the _yellow dye_, of +quercitron bark, turmeric, hickory, weld, fustic, or saffron; the +_black dye_, of the oxide of iron combined with logwood, or the bark +of the common red, or soft maple, and the sulphate or acetate of +iron. The dyes made of some of these substances require the aid of +mordants, and those from others do not. + +8. In communicating the intermediate hues, the different dye-stuffs +forming the leading colors, are sometimes mixed; and, at other times, +they are made into separate dyes, and applied in succession. + +9. In this country, the business of the dyer is often united with that +of the clothier; but, where the amount of business will justify it, as +in manufactories, and in cities or large towns, it is a separate +business. The dyers sometimes confine their attention to particular +branches. Some dye wool only or silk, while others confine themselves +to certain colors, such as scarlet and blue. The principal profits of +the dyer, when unconnected with manufacturing establishments, arise +from dyeing garments or stuffs which have been partly worn. + +10. The origin of the art of dyeing is involved in great obscurity, as +the ancients have not furnished even a fable, which might guide us in +our researches. It is evident, however, that the art must have made +considerable progress, long before authentic history begins. Moses +speaks of stuffs dyed blue, purple, and scarlet, and of sheep-skins +dyed red. The knowledge of the preparation of these colors, implies an +advanced state of the art, at that early period. + +11. Purple was the favorite color of the ancients, and appears to have +been the first which was brought to a state of tolerable perfection. +The discovery of the mode of communicating it, is stated to have been +accidental. A shepherd's dog, while on the sea-shore, incited by +hunger, broke a shell, the contents of which stained his mouth with a +beautiful purple; and the circumstance suggested the application of +the shell-fish, as a coloring substance. This discovery is thought to +have been made about fifteen hundred years before the advent of +Christ. + +12. The Jews esteemed this color so highly, that they consecrated it +especially to the service of the Deity, using it in stuffs for +decorating the tabernacle, and for the sacred vestments of the +high-priests. The Babylonians and other idolatrous nations clothed +their idols in habits of purple, and even supposed this color capable +of appeasing the wrath of the gods. + +13. Among the heathen nations of antiquity generally, purple was +appropriated to the use of kings and princes, to the exclusion of +their subjects. In Rome, at a later period, purple habits were worn by +the chief officers of the republic, and, at length, by the opulent, +until the emperors reserved to themselves the distinguished privilege. + +14. There were several kinds of shell-fish, from which this coloring +substance was obtained, each of which communicated a shade somewhat +different from the others. The kind collected near Tyre was the best; +and hence the Tyrian purple acquired especial celebrity. So highly was +it esteemed by the Romans, in the time of Augustus, that wool imbued +with this color was sold for one thousand denarii per pound, which, in +our currency, amounts to one hundred and sixty-eight dollars. + +15. After all, the boasted purple of antiquity is supposed to have +been a very inferior dye, when compared with many which we now +possess; and this is only one among many instances, wherein modern +science has given us a decided superiority over the ancients. + +16. The color, second in repute with the people of antiquity, was +scarlet. This color was communicated by means of an insect, called +_coccus_, and which is now denominated _kermes_. Besides the various +hues of purple and scarlet, several others were in some degree of +favor; such as green, orange, and blue. The use of vegetable dyes +appears to have been but little known to the Romans; but the Gauls had +the knowledge of imparting various colors, even the purple and +scarlet, with the juice of certain herbs. + +17. The irruption of the northern barbarians into the Roman empire, +destroyed this, with the rest of the arts of civilization, in the +western parts of Europe; but, having been preserved, more or less, in +the East, it was again revived in the West, principally by means of +the intercourse arising from the Crusades. + +18. Although indigo seems to have been known to the ancient Greeks and +Romans, yet it does not appear to have been used for dyeing. The first +that was applied to this purpose in Europe, was brought from India by +the Dutch; but its general use was not established without much +opposition from interested individuals. It was strictly prohibited in +England, in the reign of Elizabeth, and, about the same time, in +Saxony. Many valuable acquisitions were made to the materials employed +in this art, on the discovery of America, among which may be +enumerated, cochineal, logwood, Brazil-wood, and Nicaragua, together +with the soft maple and quercitron barks. + +19. The first book on the art of dyeing was published in 1429. This, +of course, appeared in manuscript, as the art of printing had not then +been discovered. An edition was printed in 1510. The authors to whom +the world is most indebted for correct information on this subject, +are Dufuy, Hallet, Macquir, and Berthollet, of France; and Henry and +Bancroft, of England; all of whom wrote in the eighteenth century. + + +THE CALICO-PRINTER. + +1. Calico-printing is a combination of the arts of dyeing, engraving, +and printing, wherewith colors are applied in definite figures. This +art is applicable to woven fabrics, and chiefly to those of which the +material is cotton. + +2. The first object, after preparing the stuffs, as in dyeing, is to +apply a _mordant_ to those parts of the piece which are to receive the +color. This is now usually done by means of a steel or copper +cylinder, on which have been engraved the proposed figures, as on +plates for copperplate-printing. + +3. During the printing, the cylinder, in one part of its revolution, +becomes charged with the mordant, the superfluous part of which is +scraped off by a straight steel edge, leaving only the portion which +fills the lines of the figures. As the cylinder revolves, the cloth +comes into forcible contact with it, and receives the complete +impression of the figures, in the pale color of the mordant. + +4. The cloth, after having been washed and dried, is passed through +the _coloring bath_, in which the parts previously printed, become +permanently dyed with the intended color. Although the whole piece +receives the dye, yet, by washing the cloth, and bleaching it on the +grass in the open air, the color is discharged from those parts not +impregnated with the mordant. + +5. By the use of different mordants, successively applied, and a +single dye, several colors are often communicated to the same piece of +cloth; thus, if stripes are first made with the acetate of alumina, +and then others with the acetate of iron, a coloring bath of madder +will produce red and brown stripes. The same mordants, with a dye of +quercitron bark, give yellow and olive or drab. + +6. Sometimes, the second mordant is applied by means of engravings on +wooden blocks. Cuts, designed for this purpose, are engraved on the +_side_ of the grain, and not on the _end_, like those for printing +books. + +7. Calico-printing, so far as chemical affinities are concerned, is +the same with dyeing. The difference consists, chiefly, in the mode of +applying the materials, so as to communicate the desired tints and +figures. The dye-stuffs, most commonly employed by calico-printers, +are indigo, madder, and quercitron bark; by a dexterous application of +these and the mordants, a great variety of colors can be produced. +Indigo, being a substantive color, does not require the aid of +mordants, but, like them, when other dyes are used, is applied +directly to the cloth, sometimes by the engraved cylinder or block, +and at others with the pencil by hand. + +8. Calico-printing was practised in India twenty-two centuries ago, +when Alexander the Great visited that country with his victorious +army. The operation was then performed with a pencil. This method is +still used in the East to the exclusion of every other. The art was +also practised in Egypt in Pliny's time. + +9. Calicoes were first brought to England in the year 1631. They +derive their name from the city of Calicut, whence they were first +exported to Europe. This branch of business was introduced into London +in the year 1676. Since that time, it has been encouraged by several +acts of Parliament; but it never became extensive in England, until +the introduction of machinery for spinning cotton. It is supposed, +that the amount of cottons annually printed in the United States, +cannot be less than twenty millions of yards. + + + + +[Illustration: HATTER.] + +THE HATTER. + + +1. The business, peculiar to the hatter, consists in making hats from +the fur or hair of animals, by the process called _felting_. The hair +of animals is the only material which can be firmly matted together in +this way; yet, that of every animal is not suitable for this purpose. +The fur of the beaver, the otter, the seal, the muskrat, the rabbit, +the hare, the coney, and the nutria, together with the wool of the +lama, sheep, and camel, are employed to the exclusion of almost every +other. + +2. The skin of all animals having fur, is covered with two kinds of +hair; the one, long and coarse; the other, short, fine, and thickly +set. The coarse hair is pulled out from the skin, by the aid of a +shoe-knife, and thrown away, while the fine, which is the fur, is cut +from it with one of a circular form, such as the saddlers and +harness-makers use in cutting leather. + +3. In the application of the materials, the first object of the hatter +is to make the _body_. In the common three, four, and five dollar +hats, the body is composed of the wool of the sheep; but, in those of +greater value, it is usually made of the wool of the lama, and +different kinds of cheap furs. In describing the process of making +hats, one of the latter kind will be selected. + +4. A sufficient quantity of the materials for the body is weighed out, +and divided into two equal parts. One of these is placed on a table, +or, as the hatters call it, a _hurl_. The individual hairs composing +this portion, are separated, and lightly and regularly spread out into +a proper form, by the vibrations of a bow-string, which is plucked +with a wooden pin. + +5. The fur is then carefully compressed with a flat piece of +wicker-work, denominated a hatter's basket, and covered with a damp +piece of linen cloth, in which it is afterwards folded, pressed, and +worked, with the hands, until it becomes matted together into a _bat_. +This bat is next folded over a triangular piece of paper, and formed +into a conical cap. + +6. When another bat has been made in the same way, from the other half +of the materials, the two are put together to form one, which is then +worked in the damp cloth as before, until it is much contracted and +matted together. After this, having been conveyed to another room, it +is rolled in a woollen cloth, pressed, rubbed, and worked, with the +hands and a rolling-pin, around a kettle of hot water, into which it +is often plunged during the operation, which is called _planking_. + +7. In this way, the materials are consolidated into _felt_, and the +body contracted to the proper size. The reason why the process just +described produces this effect, may be found in the nature of the +fibres themselves. Upon a close examination, it will be observed, that +these are covered with little scales, or beards, which admit of motion +in one direction, but retard it in the other. This peculiar formation +causes them to interlock in such a way as to become closely matted +together. + +8. When the body has been dried, and shaved on the knee with a sharp +knife, to free it from projecting filaments, it is stiffened with +gum-shellac dissolved in alcohol, and then steamed in a box, to cause +the stiffening _to set_. It is now prepared for being _napped_. + +9. The fur for the _nap_ is prepared on the hurl, like the conical cap +first described. In applying the nap to the body, the latter is wet +with hot water, and _flakes_ of the former are matted down upon it, by +working it on the planks around the kettle. After three layers have +been put on in this way, the cap is beaten, while wet, with sticks, to +raise the nap, and then drawn over a cylindrical block, which gives it +the general form of a hat. + +10. The nap having been raised with a card, the hat is prepared to be +colored. The dye is made, chiefly, of the extract of logwood, +copperas, and verdigris. The hats, to the number of forty-eight or +more, are hung upon a wheel by means of pegs, which pass through the +centre of the blocks. This wheel can be turned, so as to keep one half +of the hats alternately in the dye. After having been properly +colored, they are taken from the blocks, washed, and dried. + +11. The hat is now prepared for the _finisher_, who first whips up the +nap with a ratan, and, after having rendered it pliable with steam, +draws it over the _finishing block_. The fibres composing the nap, are +properly disposed with a card and brush, and rendered smooth and +glossy by means of a hot iron. The superfluous part of the rim is cut +off with a blade, placed in a gauge. The hat is finished by adding +suitable trimmings, the nature of which, and the mode of application, +can be easily learned by examining different kinds of hats. + +12. Hats of various colors have been worn; but those most in use are +black, white, and drab. The white hats, which are intended only for +ladies and children, have a nap of rabbits' fur, selected from the +white skins. Drab hats are also made of stuffs of the natural color, +assorted for that purpose. + +13. The value of hats depends, of course, upon the workmanship, and +the cost of the materials used in the manufacture. So great is the +difference in these respects, that their price ranges between +seventy-five cents and fifteen dollars. The woollen bodies used by +hatters are now often procured from persons, who devote their +attention exclusively to their manufacture. + +14. Several years ago, woollen cloths were made in England, by the +process of felting; but, on trial, they were found to be deficient in +firmness and durability. Since the year 1840, an American citizen has +been manufacturing cloths by this method; but, whether they are liable +to the objection just mentioned, is yet uncertain. + +15. Some kind of covering for the head, either for defence or +ornament, appears to have been usually worn in all ages and countries, +where the inhabitants have made the least progress in the arts of +civilized life. + +16. The form, substance, and color, of this article of dress, have +been exceedingly various in different ages, according to the +circumstances or humor of the wearer. The ancient Persians wore +turbans, similar to those of the modern Turks; and the nations +inhabiting the Indian Peninsula, wore a kind of head-dress so large, +that it divested the person of all proportion. + +17. The imperial turban is said to have been composed of a great many +yards of muslin, twisted and formed into a shape nearly oval, and +surmounted with a woollen cap, encircled with a radiated crown. The +turban of the prime minister was smaller in its dimensions, but of +greater altitude. The chief magi, on account of his superior eminence, +wore a higher turban than those of the monarch and minister united. +Those worn by the inferior magi, were regulated by the dignity of the +stations which they held. + +18. The Jewish people and the neighboring nations borrowed the turban +from the Persians; but, at a later period, they very commonly adopted +the cap which the Romans were accustomed to give to their slaves, on +their manumission. + +19. The ancient helmet, made of steel, brass, and sometimes of more +costly materials, was worn as a piece of defensive armor in war, +instead of the ordinary coverings, used while engaged in peaceful +occupations. + +20. Roman citizens went bare-headed, except upon occasions of sacred +rites, games, and festivals; or when engaged in travelling or in war. +They were accustomed, however, in the city, to throw over their head +the lappet of their toga, as a screen from the wind or sun. The people +of Scotland used to wear a kind of bonnet, as in some parts of that +country they do at the present time; and the English, before the +invention of felt hats, covered the head with knit caps and cloth +hoods, and sometimes with hats made of thrummed silk. + +21. The Chinese do not wear hats, but use a cap of peculiar structure, +which the laws of civility will not allow them to put off in public. +The form and material of this is varied with the change of the +season. That used in summer is shaped like a cone, is made of a +beautiful kind of mat, and lined with satin; to this is added, at the +top, a large tuft of red silk, which falls all round to the lower part +of the cap, and which fluctuates gracefully on all sides, while the +wearer is in motion. The kind worn in winter is made of shaggy cloth, +bordered with some kind of fur, and ornamented in a similar manner. + +22. Head-dresses, from their variety, simplicity, and mutability, were +but little regulated by commercial or manufacturing interests, until +the introduction of felt hats, which has occasioned a uniformity in +this article of dress, unknown in former ages. + +23. Curiosity is naturally excited to become acquainted with the +particulars of the invention of the hat, and the subsequent stages of +improvement in the manufacture. But the operation of individual +interest, so generally connected with the useful arts, seems to have +concealed the whole in obscurity; and little information on the +subject can now be obtained. + +24. The hatters have a tradition, that the art of felting originated +with St. Clement, the fourth bishop of Rome. Under this impression, in +Catholic countries, they adopt him as their patron saint, and hold an +annual festival in his honor. The principle of felting is said to have +been suggested to his mind by the following circumstance; while +fleeing from his persecutors, his feet became blistered, and, to +obtain relief, he placed wool between them and his sandals. On +continuing his journey, the wool, by the perspiration, motion, and +pressure of the feet, assumed a compact form. + +25. Notwithstanding this tradition, it appears, that felt hats were +invented at Paris, by a Swiss, about the commencement of the fifteenth +century; but they were not generally known, until Charles the Seventh +made his triumphal entry into Rouen, in the year 1492, when he +astonished the people by wearing a hat, lined with red silk, and +surmounted with a plume of feathers. + +26. When some of the clergy first adopted this article of dress, it +was considered an unwarrantable indulgence. Councils were held, and +regulations published, forbidding any priest or monk to appear abroad +wearing a hat; and enjoining them to keep to the use of chaperons, or +hoods, made of black cloth, with decent cornets; if they were poor, +they were, at least to have cornets fastened to their hats, upon +penalty of suspension and excommunication. + +27. At length, however, the pope permitted even the cardinals to wear +hats; but, enjoined them to wear those of a red color at public +ceremonials, in token of their readiness to spill their blood for +their religion. + +28. In England, considerable opposition was made to the use of the +hat. By a statute, enacted in the thirteenth year of the reign of +Elizabeth, every person between certain ages was obliged, on Sundays +and holidays, to wear a woollen cap, made by some of the cappers of +that kingdom, under the penalty of three shillings and four-pence for +every day's neglect. This law continued in force, for about +twenty-five years. The manufacture of hats was commenced, in England, +in the time of Henry the Eighth, by Dutchmen and Spaniards. + +29. Hats made of plaited straw, grass, or chip, are much used in the +summer; and caps of cloth or fur are now frequently substituted for +hats, in cold weather. Silk hats have also been much worn, since the +year 1825. They are made of the common hat body, and a texture of silk +with a long nap. The silk is fastened to the body with glue. + + + + +[Illustration: ROPE MAKER.] + +THE ROPE-MAKER. + + +1. Ropes may be made of any vegetable substance which has a fibre +sufficiently flexible and tenacious. The Chinese and other orientals, +in making ropes, use the ligneous parts of certain bamboos and reeds, +the fibrous covering of the cocoa-nut, the filaments of the cotton +pod, and the leaves of certain grasses; but the bark of plants and +trees, is the most productive of fibrous matter suitable to this +manufacture. That of the linden-tree, the willow, and the bramble is +frequently used. In Europe and America, however, the fibres of hemp +and flax are more frequently employed, for this purpose, than any +other material. + +2. The operations of rope-making are commonly performed in +_rope-walks_, which are sometimes more than a quarter of a mile in +length. These are usually covered with a slight shed, the nature and +appearance of which are well exhibited in the preceding picture. + +3. The first part of the process consists in spinning the material +into yarn. The principle on which this is effected, is the same as +that by which cotton or wool is drawn out and twisted into threads, +although the machinery, and the mode of operating, are different. + +4. The kind of wheel employed in spinning rope-yarn, is also exhibited +in the cut. A band passes around the periphery, and over the +semicircle above it, in which is placed a number of wheels, the pivots +of which terminate, on the other side, in a small hook. + +5. The spinner, having a quantity of the material properly disposed +about the waist, attaches a number of fibres to one of the hooks, +which, being put in motion by the band passing over the whirl, twists +them rapidly into yarn. The part already twisted draws along with it +more fibres from the bundle, and, as the spinner is regulating their +uniform arrangement, he walks backward towards the other end of the +walk. + +6. When the thread has been spun to the proposed length, the spinner +cries out to another, who immediately takes it off from the hook, +gives it to a third person, and, in turn, attaches his own fibres to +the same hook. In the meantime, the first spinner keeps fast hold of +the end of his yarn, to prevent it from untwisting or doubling; and, +as it is wound on the reel, proceeds up the walk, keeping the yarn of +an equal tension throughout. + +7. The second part of the process consists in forming the yarn into +various kinds of ropes. The component parts of cordage are called +strands; and the operation of uniting them with a permanent twist, is +called _laying_, when applied to small ropes, and _closing_, when +applied to cables or other large ropes. + +8. The simplest twist is formed of two strands. The thread used by +sail-makers, and pack-thread, furnish examples of this kind; but +cordage with two strands is not much used; that with three is the most +usual. Lines and cords less than one and a half inches in +circumference, are laid by means of the spinning-wheel. Preparatory to +this operation, the workman fastens the hither end of the yarns to +separate whirl-hooks, and the remote ends to the hook of a swivel, +called the _loper_. + +9. The strands having been properly distended, the spinning-wheel is +turned in the same direction as when twisting the yarns. A further +twisting of the strands, during this part of the process, is prevented +by the motion of the loper, which gives way to the strain, and, at the +same time, causes the strands to entwine about each other, and form a +cord. To prevent them from entwining too rapidly, an instrument is +interposed, which, from its form, is called the _top_. It has two or +more notches, which terminate at the apex, and a handle, called a +_staff_. As the top is moved from the loper to the wheel, it regulates +the degree of twist which the cord or rope is to receive. + +10. The principle on which large cordage is laid, or closed, is the +same, although some part of the machinery is different. The strands +for large ropes and cables are formed of many yarns, and require +considerable _hardening_. This cannot be done with whirls driven by a +wheel-band; it requires the power of a crank, turned by hand, or by +some other considerable force. The strands, also, when properly +hardened, become very stiff, and, when bent round the top, cannot +transmit force enough to close the unpliant rope: it is, therefore, +necessary that the loper, also, be moved by a crank. + +11. Cordage, which is to be exposed to the alternate action of air and +water, is usually tarred. The application of this substance is made, +in most cases, while the material is in a state of yarn. In effecting +this object, the threads are drawn through boiling tar, and then +passed between rollers, or through holes surrounded with oakum, to +remove the superfluous tar. In like manner, ropes and cables are +superficially tarred. + +12. Various improvements have been made in the machinery, for +performing the different operations of rope-making; but, these not +having been generally adopted, it is unnecessary to notice them more +particularly; especially, as they do not affect the general principles +of the art. + +13. Within a few years, cotton-yarn has been employed in the +manufacture of ropes; but this material has not yet been sufficiently +tested, to determine its fitness for the purpose. A kind of vegetable +fibre, brought from Manilla, and hence called Manilla hemp, is very +extensively applied in making ropes, and, for some purposes, is +preferred to other materials. + +14. The intestines of animals are composed of very powerful fibres, +and those of sheep and lambs are manufactured into what is called +_cat-gut_, for the use of musical instrument-makers, hatters, +watch-makers, and a variety of other artificers. Animal hair, as that +from the tail and mane of horses, is frequently employed as the +material for ropes; and such are durable, elastic, and impervious to +moisture. They, however, are not applicable in cases, where the rope +is subject to considerable friction. + +15. Hemp is cultivated in various parts of the world, and especially +in Russia, whence it is exported to other countries in great +quantities. It is also produced, to a considerable extent, in the +state of Kentucky, and in many other parts of the United States. Flax +is still more generally cultivated than hemp; but its chief +application is to the manufacture of cloth, as it does not answer well +for any cordage larger than a bed-cord. The formation of cloth from +hemp is also very common; and, in this case, the yarn for the coarse +cloths is spun on the rope-maker's wheel in the manner already +described. The cloth is generally used for making bags, +sacking-bottoms for beds, and sails for vessels. + +16. Rope-making is a manufacture of general utility, as cordage of +some kind is used more or less in every family in all civilized +communities; nor are there many trades capable of being carried on, +with convenience, without it. But the great utility of cordage, in all +its varieties, is most conspicuous in the rigging and equipment of +vessels; and the extensive demand for it, in this application, renders +rope-making one of the most important and extensive of the primitive +trades. + +17. Nor does the utility of cordage end with its application to the +purposes for which it was originally designed. Old ropes are converted +into oakum by untwisting and picking them to pieces. The oakum thus +produced is driven into the seams of vessels, to render them +water-tight. + +18. As regards the invention of this art, nothing can be gathered from +ancient records. We only know, in general, that cordage was in +considerable use among the nations of antiquity, especially among the +Greeks and Romans, who probably learned its application to rigging +vessels from the Phoenicians. + + + + +[Illustration: TAILOR.] + +THE TAILOR. + + +1. The business of the tailor consists, principally, in cutting out +and making clothes for men and boys, together with habits and cloaks +for ladies. It is usual for persons who carry on this business in +cities and large towns, to keep a stock of cloths and other stuffs +adapted to the season, which they make up into garments to the order +of customers. In such cases, they are termed _merchant tailors_. + +2. The operation, preparatory to cutting out the cloth for a garment, +is that of taking the measure of the person for whom it is designed. +This is done with a narrow strip of paper or parchment, and the +dimensions are either marked on the measure with the scissors, or +entered in a _pattern-book_ kept for the purpose. + +3. The cloth is cut to the proper shape, with a large pair of shears. +This is performed either by the individual who carries on the +business, or by a foreman. The parts are sewed together, and the +trimmings applied, by means of thread and silk; this is commonly done +by those who devote their attention to this branch of the trade. It +sometimes happens, however, that the same person performs the whole of +the work, particularly in country places, where the business is very +limited in extent. + +4. Females often serve an apprenticeship to this business. Many of +them learn to cut out, and make with skill, certain kinds of garments, +and are after wards employed in families, or by the tailors. Most of +the ready-made clothing, kept for sale in cities, is made up by +females. + +5. The instruments employed in performing the operations of the +tailor, are few and simple; the principal of these are the shears, the +scissors, the needle, the thimble, the bodkin, the goose, and the +press-board. + +6. The great art of a master tailor consists in fitting the dress to +his customer, in such a manner as to conceal any defect of form, and +display his person to the best advantage. He should, therefore, be a +good judge of the human figure; as, from this knowledge, arises, +chiefly, the superiority of one workman over another in this branch of +the business. + +7. The first hint on the art of clothing the human body, was given to +man by the Deity himself; for we read in the Scriptures, that "Unto +Adam and to his wife, the Lord God made coats of skins, and clothed +them." From that time to the present, the art of cutting out garments, +and of sewing their different parts together, has been practised, more +or less, in every place, where there has been any degree of +civilization. + +8. For a long time, it is probable, that thongs and the sinews of +animals were used, for want of thread made of silk or vegetable fibre; +and, doubtless, the same necessity caused the substitution of pointed +bones and thorns, instead of needles. Such rude materials and +instruments are still employed for similar purposes by savage nations. +The dresses of the people of Greenland are sewed together with thongs +made of the intestines of the seal, or of some fish, which they have +the skill to cut fine, after having dried them in the air; and even +the inhabitants of Peru, although considerably advanced in +civilization, when that country was first visited by the Spaniards, +made use of long thorns, in sewing and fixing their clothes. + +9. We have no means of determining the period of the world, when this +art was first practised, as a particular profession. We know, in +general, that the dress of the ancients was usually more simple in its +construction than that of the people of modern times; and, +consequently, it required less skill to put the materials in the +required form. It may, therefore, be inferred, that either the females +or the slaves of each family usually made up the clothing of all its +members. + +10. The distinguishing dress of the Romans was the _toga_, or gown; as +that of the Greeks was the _pallium_, or cloak. The toga was a loose, +woollen robe, and covered nearly the whole person; it was round and +close at the bottom, and open at the top, having no sleeves, but a +large flap, or lappet, which was either thrown over the left shoulder, +or over the head, to protect it from the heat or cold. + +11. The Romans, at an early period of their history, used no other +dress, and it was also, at that time, worn by the women. Afterwards, +they wore, under the toga, a white woollen vest called _tunica_, +which extended a little below the knee. At first it was without +sleeves. Tunics, reaching to the ancles, or having sleeves, were +reckoned effeminate; but, under the emperors, they became fashionable. + +12. The toga was usually assumed at the age of seventeen. Until then, +the youth wore a kind of gown, bordered with purple, denominated _toga +praetexta_; and such a garment was also worn by females, until they +were married. The youthful dress was laid aside, and the _toga +virilis_, or manly toga, assumed with great solemnity; as, by this +act, the individual assumed the responsibilities of a citizen. The +toga was worn chiefly in the city, and only by Roman citizens. + + + + +[Illustration: MILLINER.] + +THE MILLINER, AND THE LADY'S DRESS-MAKER. + + +THE MILLINER. + +1. The milliner is one who manufactures and repairs bonnets and hats +for ladies and children. Her business requires the use of pasteboard, +wire, buckram, silks, satins, muslins, ribands, artificial flowers, +spangles, and other materials too numerous to be mentioned. + +2. The first part of the process of making a hat, or bonnet, consists +in forming a crown of buckram; which operation is performed on a block +of suitable size and shape; and to this is applied pasteboard, or +buckram, edged with wire, to form the front part. The foundation +having been thus laid, it is usually covered and lined with some of +the materials just enumerated, and finished by applying to it the +trimmings required by the fashion, or by the individual customer. + +3. Ladies' hats are also made of rye straw, and a kind of grass, which +grows in Italy; those made of the latter material are called +_Leghorns_, from the name of the city, in or near which they are +principally made. A few years since, these had almost superseded those +made of straw; but the latter, of late, have nearly regained their +former ascendency. + +4. In the United States, and likewise in various parts of Europe, +there are several establishments for making straw hats, in which the +proprietors employ females to perform the whole labor. The straw is +first cut into several pieces, so as to leave out the joints, and then +whitened by smoking them with the fumes of brimstone. They are next +split longitudinally into several pieces by a simple machine, and +afterwards plaited with the fingers and thumbs. The braid, or plait, +thus produced, is sewn together to form hats adapted to the prevailing +fashion. + +5. Great quantities of straw are, also, plaited in families, +especially in the New-England states, and sold to neighboring +merchants, who, in turn, dispose of it to those who form it into hats. +The milliners usually keep a supply of Leghorn and straw hats, which +they line and trim according to the fancy of their customers. + +6. Head-dresses were probably used nearly as early as any other part +of dress; and their form and material have likewise been equally +variable. In the early days of Rome, the head-dress of the women of +that city was very simple; and, when they went abroad, which was +seldom, they covered their faces with a veil; but, when riches and +luxury had increased, dress became, with many, the principal object of +attention; hence, a woman's toilet and ornaments were called her +_world_. + +7. The head-dresses of the ladies, in various parts of Europe, +especially in the eighteenth century, were particularly extravagant, +being sometimes so high, that the face seemed to be nearly in the +centre of the body. In 1714, this fashion was at its height in France; +but two English ladies visiting the court of Versailles, introduced +the low head-dresses of their own country. + +8. The high head-dresses had no sooner fallen into disuse in France, +than they were adopted in England, and even carried to a greater +degree of extravagance. To build one of these elevated structures in +the fashionable style, both the barber and milliner were necessary. +The head-dresses of the ladies of the present age, are characterized +by great simplicity, when compared with those of several periods in +preceding ages. + + +THE LADY'S DRESS-MAKER. + +1. This business is nearly allied to the foregoing, and is, therefore, +often carried on in conjunction with it. This is especially the case +in villages and small towns, where sufficient business cannot be +obtained in the exclusive pursuit of one branch. + +2. The customers of the lady's dress-maker are not always easily +pleased, as they frequently expect more from her skill than it is +possible to accomplish. She, however, can do much towards concealing +the defects of nature; and, by padding and other means, can sometimes +render the person tolerably well proportioned, when, in its natural +shape, it would be quite inelegant. It is to be regretted, however, +that dress-makers are guided by fashion and whim in moulding the +external form of females, rather than by the best specimens of the +human figure, as exhibited by eminent painters and sculptors. + +3. The dress-maker should have some acquaintance with the anatomy and +functions of those parts to which pressure is usually applied; for, +who that knows the structure, size, and office of the liver, and other +internal organs of digestion and vitality, would venture to apply to +them a compressive force calculated to interfere most seriously, if +not dangerously, with their healthful action? + +4. The fashions for ladies' dresses are chiefly procured from France, +and the dress-makers from that country are, therefore, often preferred +by fashionable ladies. Sometimes, however, a dress-maker, having a +name with a French termination, will answer the purpose. + +5. Corset-making is frequently a separate branch of business; but +corsets have become less necessary; inasmuch as small waists are less +admired by the gentlemen than formerly. On this account, also, the +ladies have discovered that tight lacing is somewhat uncomfortable, +especially in hot weather, and in crowded assemblies. + + + + +[Illustration: BARBER.] + +THE BARBER. + + +1. It is the business of the barber to cut and dress the hair, to make +wigs and false curls, and to shave the beards of other men. In ancient +times, he used also to trim the nails; and even at the present day, in +Turkey, this is a part of his employment. + +2. The period, when men began to shave their beards, is not certainly +known. It appears that the practice was common among the Israelites in +the time of Moses; as that legislator has left on record a prohibitory +law concerning it. They probably borrowed the custom from the +Egyptians. It is stated by Plutarch, that Alexander the Great ordered +his men to be shaved, that their enemies might not lay hold of their +beards in time of battle. Before this time, however, many of the +Greeks shaved their beards. + +3. The practice does not appear to have been introduced amongst the +ancient Romans, until about the year 296 before the Christian era, +when Paulus Ticinius Maenas brought to Rome a number of barbers from +Sicily. Scipio Africanus was the first man who shaved his beard every +day. + +4. At first, the barbers had no shops, but shaved their customers at +the corners of the streets. After a while, they followed their +vocation in shops, or shades; and, at this period, it was customary +for females to officiate in the various branches of the art. These +places, however, were frequented only by the poorer class of the +people, as opulent families generally kept slaves for the performance +of these duties. The day on which a young Roman first cut off his +beard, was celebrated by him and his friends as one of peculiar +interest; and this much-desired indication of manhood was consecrated +to some one of the gods, generally to Jupiter Capitolinus. + +5. The return of barbarism, in the fifth and sixth centuries, banished +this custom from the Western empire; nor was it again revived in +Europe, until the seventeenth century. During the reigns of Louis +XIII. and Louis XIV. of France, both of whom ascended the throne in +boyhood, the courtiers and fashionable people began to use the razor, +that they might appear with smooth chins, and thus resemble, in this +particular, the youthful monarchs. From France, the fashion, at +length, spread all over Europe. At one time, in the reign of the +English queen Elizabeth, the fellows of Lincoln's Inn were compelled +by statute to shave their beards, at least, once in two weeks. +Omission was punished with fine, loss of commons, and finally with +expulsion. + +6. The custom of shaving was introduced into Russia by Peter the +Great, who compelled his subjects to pay a tax for the privilege of +retaining their beards. This singular impost was exceedingly +unpopular, and excited greater complaints amongst the people than any +other measure of that emperor. The decree was rigidly enforced, and +every one who would not, or could not, pay the tax, was forcibly +deprived of this favorite ornament, if he would not remove it +voluntarily. Some of the people saved the sad trimmings of their +chins; and, that they might never be entirely separated from these +precious relics, ordered that they should be deposited with their +bodies in their coffins. + +7. Among the European nations that have been curious in whiskers, the +Spaniards have been particularly distinguished; and the loss of honor +among them used to be punished by depriving the individual of his +whiskers. + +8. The Portuguese were but little, if at all, behind the Spaniards in +their estimate of these valuable ornaments. As an evidence of this, it +is stated, that, in the reign of Catharine, Queen of Portugal, the +brave John de Castro, having taken the castle of Diu in India, and +being afterwards in want of money, applied to the inhabitants of Goa +to loan him one thousand piastres, and, as security for that sum, sent +them one of his whiskers, telling them that "All the gold in the world +cannot equal the value of this natural ornament of my valor." The +people, in admiration of his magnanimity, sent him the money, and, at +the same time, returned his incomparable whisker. + +9. In the reign of Louis XIII. of France, whiskers attained the +highest degree of favor. They also continued in fashion during the +early part of the succeeding reign. Louis XIV. and the great men of +France, took a pride in wearing them. It was no uncommon thing, at +that time, for the ladies to comb and dress the whiskers of their +beaux; and the men of fashion were particular in providing +whisker-wax, and every article necessary to this agreeable pastime. + +10. The whiskers belonging to the image of the Chinese philosopher +Confucius, which is preserved by his countrymen, are supposed to be +capable of conferring upon those who might wear them, a portion of the +wisdom and manly beauty of that illustrious sage. Great care, however, +is taken that none shall enjoy these great personal qualifications by +such easy means; as decapitation is the penalty for plucking the +whiskers from the position which they occupy. + +11. When the practice of shaving off the beard was again revived in +Europe, instrumental music was employed in the barber's shop, to amuse +customers waiting their turn; but, at the present time, newspapers are +furnished for this purpose. In taking off the beard, soft water, good +soap, a brush, and a sharp razor, are the usual requisites. The razor +should be placed nearly flat on the face, and be moved from point to +heel. Barbers have usually some regular customers, many of whom have a +box of soap and a brush appropriated to their individual use. + +12. In ancient times, great attention was paid to dressing the hair. +The Hebrew women plaited, and afterwards confined it with gold and +silver pins; they also adorned it with precious stones. The Greeks, +both male and female, at every period of their ancient history, wore +long hair, which they usually permitted to hang gracefully upon the +shoulders, back, and sometimes upon the breast. + +13. Adult males, among the Romans, usually wore their hair short, and +dressed with great care, especially in later ages, when attention to +this part of the person was carried to such excess, that ointments and +perfumes were used even in the army. The hair was cut for the first +time, when the boy had attained his seventh year, and the second time, +when he was fourteen years old. His locks, at each cutting, were +commonly dedicated to Apollo or Bacchus. + +14. Both men and women, among the Greeks and Romans, sometimes +permitted their hair to grow in honor of some divinity. The Jews, +also, when under the vow of a Nazarite, were not permitted to trim +their hair or beards. In grief and mourning, the Romans suffered their +hair and beards to grow. The Greeks, on the contrary, when in grief, +cut their hair and shaved their beards, as likewise did some of the +barbarous nations of early time. + +15. Artificial hair began to be fashionable, at an early period, and +was used by the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. In the time of +Ovid, blond hair was in great favour at Rome; and those ladies who did +not choose to wear wigs, powdered their hair with a kind of gold dust. +They wore hanging curls all round the head, to which they were +fastened with circular pins of silver. Every wealthy Roman lady of +fashion kept at least one slave to frizzle and curl the hair. + +16. The time, when wigs first came into use, cannot now be +ascertained. It is certain, however, that they were worn by females a +long time before they became fashionable among the men. + +17. Wigs, perukes, or periwigs, were revived in the seventeenth +century. In the reign of Louis XIII., or about the year 1629, they +became fashionable at Paris; and, as that city was generally imitated +by the rest of Europe in things of this nature, they soon became +common. The wigs were very large, as may be seen by examining ancient +portraits, and were covered with a profusion of hair-powder. At first, +it was disreputable for young people to wear them, as the loss of the +hair at an early age was attributed to a disease, which was, of +itself, discreditable. + +18. When wigs were first introduced into England, some of the clergy +opposed them violently, considering their use more culpable than +wearing long hair; since, as they alleged, it was more unnatural. Many +preachers inveighed against wigs in their sermons, and cut their own +hair shorter to manifest their abhorrence of the reigning mode. + +19. The worldly-wise, however, observed that a periwig procured for +the wearer a degree of respect and deference which otherwise might not +have been accorded; and hence there was a strong tendency to the use +of this appendage. The judges and physicians, especially, understood +well this influence of the wig, and gave to it all the advantages of +length and breadth. The fashion, at length, was adopted by the +ecclesiastics themselves, not only in England, but in most of the +European kingdoms, as well as in the British colonies of America. + +20. The fashion, however, except in cases of baldness, wherein alone +it is excusable, is now nearly banished from Europe and America. This +desirable change was effected principally by the example of republican +America, and by the influence of the French Revolution. The law passed +in England in 1795, imposing a tax of a guinea a head per annum on +those who wore hair-powder, contributed to the same result, as well as +to diminish the use of that article. + +21. The manufacture of wigs and false curls is an important branch of +the business of the barber. The first process in forming a wig is to +produce, in the hair about to be used for this purpose, a disposition +to curl. This is done by winding it on a cylinder of wood or earth, +and afterwards boiling it in water. It is then dried, and baked in an +oven. Thus prepared, it is woven on a strong thread, and is +subsequently sewn on a caul fitted to the head. False curls are made +on the same principle. + +22. Wigs and false curls were not made in ancient times precisely in +the same manner; although their appearance, when finished, was +probably similar. The hair was then attached directly to a piece of +thin leather, by means of some adhesive substance, or composition. + +23. Many barbers, especially those who have a reputation for making +wigs and false curls in a fashionable style, keep for sale perfumery, +as well as a variety of cosmetics. + +24. From the eleventh to the eighteenth century, surgical operations +were almost exclusively performed by the barbers and bath-keepers. As +phlebotomy was one of the chief sources of profit to the barbers, they +adopted a sign emblematical of this operation. It consisted of a pole, +representing the staff which the individual held in his hand, while +the blood was flowing from the arm. The white band wound spirally +about the pole, represented the fillet of linen with which the arm was +afterwards secured. + +25. It is hardly necessary to remark, that the same sign is still +employed by the barbers; although, with a few exceptions, they have +ceased to perform the operation of which it was significant. + + + + +[Illustration: TANNER & CURRIER.] + +THE TANNER, AND THE CURRIER. + + +THE TANNER. + +1. The art of tanning consists in converting hides and skins into +leather, by impregnating them with astringent matter. + +2. It is impossible to determine the period at which the art of +tanning was discovered. It was doubtless known to the ancients, and +probably to the antediluvians, in some degree of perfection; since +skins were applied as means of clothing the human body, before the +arts of spinning and weaving were practised. It is likely, however, +that they were applied to this purpose, for a considerable time, in +their natural state; and that accident, at length, suggested the means +of rendering them more applicable, by saturating them with certain +mineral or vegetable substances. + +3. Although the art of converting skins into leather was practised in +remote ages, yet it was not until near the end of the eighteenth +century, that the true principle of the process was understood. Before +this time, it was supposed, that the astringent principle of the +agents employed, was a resinous substance, which adhered mechanically +to the fibres, and thus rendered them firm and insoluble. The correct +explanation was first given by Deyeux, and afterwards more fully +developed by M. Seguin. These chemists clearly proved, that the +formation of leather was the result of a chemical union between a +substance called tannin, and the gelatinous part of the skin. + +4. The subject, however, was not thoroughly understood, and reduced to +scientific principles, until the year 1803, when Sir Humphrey Davy +gave it a careful investigation, in a series of chemical experiments. +These inquiries resulted in the conviction, that the method of tanning +which had been in general use, may, with a few alterations, be +considered preferable to that by which the process is carried on with +more rapidity. + +5. The skin which envelopes the bodies of animals, consists of three +layers. That on the outside is a thin, white, elastic membrane, called +the _cuticle_, or _scarf skin_; that on the inside is a strong +membrane, denominated the _cutis_, or _true skin_; between these two +is a very thin membrane, to which anatomists have given the name _rete +mucosum_, and in which is situated the substance which gives color to +the animal. The cutis is composed of fibres, which run in every +direction, and, being by far the thickest layer, is the one that is +converted into leather. + +6. The skins of large animals, such as those of the ox and horse, are +denominated hides; and those of smaller animals, as of the calf, goat, +and sheep, are called skins. Of the former description, is made thick, +of the latter, thin leather. The process of tanning different skins +varies in many particulars, according to the nature of the leather, +and the uses to which it is to be applied. + +7. The general process of changing thick hides into sole-leather, is +as follows: They are first soaked in water, to free them from dirt and +blood; and then, if rigid, they are beaten and rubbed, or rolled under +a large stone, to render them pliable. They are next soaked in +lime-water, or hung up in a warm room, and smoked, until a slight +putrescency takes place. The hair, cuticle, rete mucosum, on one side, +and the fleshy parts on the other, are then scraped off, on a _beam_, +with a circular knife. + +8. Nothing now remains but the cutis, or true skin. Several hides, in +this state of preparation, are put together into a vat, for the +purpose of impregnating them with tannin. This substance is found in +astringent vegetables, and is obtained, in a proper state for +application, by infusion in water. In that condition, it is called +_ooze_, which is first applied in a weak state. + +9. After the ooze, of different degrees of strength, has been renewed +several times, they are put between layers of bark, and suffered to +remain several months, fresh bark, from time to time, being supplied. +The whole process generally occupies from twelve to sixteen months. +When strong solutions of tannin are used, the leather is formed in a +much shorter time; but, in that case, it is much more rigid, and more +liable to crack. It is rendered smooth and compact, by beating it with +a wooden beetle, or by passing it between rollers. + +10. Oak bark, on account of its cheapness, and the quantity of tannin +which it contains, is more extensively employed by tanners than any +other vegetable substance. In sections of country, where this kind +cannot be conveniently obtained, the bark of the hemlock, spruce, and +chestnut, the leaves of the sumach, and various other astringents, are +substituted. + +11. The process of tanning calf-skins is somewhat different in many of +its details. They are first put into a solution of lime, where they +remain during ten or fifteen days, and are then scraped on both sides +on the beam, with a circular knife, as in the former case, and for the +same purpose. They are then washed in water, and afterwards immersed +in an infusion of hen or pigeon's dung. Here they are left for a week +or ten days, according to the state of the weather and other +circumstances; during which time, they are frequently _handled_, and +scraped on both sides. By these means, the lime, oil, and saponaceous +matter, are discharged, and the skin is rendered pliable. + +12. They are next put into a vat containing weak ooze, and afterwards +removed to several others of regularly increasing strength. In the +mean time, they are taken up and handled every day, that they may be +equally acted upon by the tanning principle. The time occupied in the +whole process, is from two to six months. The light and thin sorts of +hides, designed for upper leather, harnesses, &c., are treated in a +similar manner. + +13. The tanner procures his hides and skins from various sources, but +chiefly from the butcher, and from individuals who kill the animals +for their own consumption. Great quantities of dry hides are also +obtained from South America, where cattle are killed in great numbers, +principally for the sake of this valuable envelope of their bodies. + + +THE CURRIER. + +1. It is the business of the currier to dress the thinner kinds of +leather. In most cases, in the United States, except in and near large +cities, the business of tanning and currying are usually united in the +same individual; or, at least, the two branches of business are +carried on together, by the aid of workmen, skilled in their +respective trades. + +2. The mode of dressing the different kinds of skins, varies in some +respects; but, as the general method of operating is the same in every +sort, a description applicable in one case will convey a sufficiently +accurate idea of the whole. We shall, therefore, select the calf-skin, +since it is more frequently the subject of the currier's skill than +any other. + +3. The skin is first soaked in water, until it has become sufficiently +soft, and then shaved with the _currier's knife_, on the inner side, +over the _currier's beam_. It is then placed on a table, somewhat +inclined from the workman, and scoured on both sides with the edge of +a narrow, smooth stone, set in a handle, and again, with an iron +_sleeker_ of a similar shape. The skin is next _stuffed_ with a +composition of tallow and tanner's oil, on the flesh side, and then +hung up to dry. Afterwards it is rubbed on the hair side with a board, +and again scraped on the flesh side with the knife. Having been thus +prepared, the skin is blacked on the flesh side with lampblack and +tanner's oil, and subsequently rubbed with paste, applied with a +brush. When it has been dried, the whole process is finished by +rubbing both sides with a glass sleeker. + +4. Horse hides are blacked on the hair side, or, as the curriers term +it, on the _grain_, with a solution of copperas water. Leather +designed for harnesses, for covering carriages, and for other similar +purposes, is also blacked on that side in the same manner. + +5. The trade of the currier is divided into two or three branches. +Some dress only calf-skins and other thick leather designed for shoes, +harnesses, and carriages; others confine themselves to dressing skins, +which are to be applied to binding books, and to other purposes +requiring thin leather. It may be well to remark here, that the +dressers of thin leather usually tan the skins themselves, using the +leaves of sumach, instead of bark. + + + + +[Illustration: SHOEMAKER.] + +THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER. + + +1. As the shoe is an article of primary utility, it was used, more or +less, in the earliest ages. Some writers suppose, that the Deity, in +clothing man with skins, did not leave him to go barefooted, but gave +him shoes of the same material. + +2. The shoes of the ancient Egyptians were made of the papyrus. The +Chinese, as well as the inhabitants of India, and some other nations +of antiquity, manufactured them from silk, rushes, linen, wood, the +bark of trees, iron, brass, silver, and gold, and sometimes ornamented +them with precious stones. + +3. The Romans had various coverings for the feet, the chief of which +were the _calceus_ and the _solea_. The calceus somewhat resembled the +shoe we wear at present, and was tied upon the instep with a latchet +or lace. The solea, or sandal, was a thick cork sole, covered above +and beneath with leather, and neatly stitched on the edge. It left the +upper part of the foot bare, and was fastened to it by means of +straps, which were crossed over the instep, and wound about the ankle. +Roman citizens wore the calceus with the toga, when they went abroad +in the city, while the solea was worn at home and on journeys. The +solea was also used at entertainments; but it was changed for the +calceus, when the guests were about to surround the table. + +4. The senators wore shoes, which came up to the middle of the leg, +and which had a golden or silver crescent on the top of the foot. The +shoes of the women were generally white, sometimes red, scarlet, or +purple, and were adorned with embroidery and pearls; but those of the +men were mostly black. On days of public ceremony, however, the +magistrates wore red shoes. + +5. Boots were used in very ancient times, and were primarily worn, as +a kind of armor, with a view of protecting the lower extremities in +battle. They were, at first, made of leather, afterwards of brass or +iron, and were proof against the thrusts and cuts of warlike weapons. +The boot was called _ocrea_ by the Romans, who, as well as the Greeks, +used it in the army, and in riding on horseback, and sometimes in +pedestrian journeys. + +6. The fashion of boots and shoes, like every other part of dress, has +been subject to a number of changes, as regards both their form and +material. In Europe, about one thousand years ago, the greatest +princes wore shoes with wooden soles. In the reign of William Rufus, +of England, the shoes of the great had long, sharp points, stuffed +with tow, and twisted like a ram's horn. The clergy preached against +this fashion; but the points continued to increase in length, until +the reign of Richard the Second, when they were tied to the knees with +chains of silver or gold. In the year 1463, Parliament interposed, and +prohibited the manufacture or use of shoes or boots with _pikes_ +exceeding two inches in length. + +7. Lasts adapted to each foot, commonly called _rights and lefts_, +were not introduced into England, until about the year 1785; nor was +cramping, or _crimping_, the front part of boots practised there for +ten years after that period. These improvements did not become +generally known, or, at least, were not much used, in the United +States, for many years after their adoption in Great Britain. + +8. Many facts, besides the preceding, might be adduced to prove, that +the art of making shoes and boots, although uninterruptedly practised +from the earliest ages, has received many important improvements +within the last fifty years. + +9. In Europe and America, boots and shoes are commonly made of +leather. In shoes for females, however, it is not unusual to use +prunello, which is a kind of twilled, worsted cloth. In all cases, +thick leather is used for the soles. + +10. The business of _making_ boots and shoes is carried on very +systematically in large establishments. The materials are cut out and +fitted by the foreman, or by the person who carries on the business, +whilst the pieces are stitched together, and the work finished, by +workmen who sit upon _the bench_. + +11. As a matter of convenience, the trade have fixed upon certain +sizes, which are designated by numbers; and, corresponding to these, +the lasts are formed by the last-maker; but, to be still more exact, +individuals sometimes procure lasts corresponding to their feet, on +which they cause their boots and shoes to be made. + +12. The following is a description of the process of making a leather +shoe: after the materials have been cut out according to the measure, +or size, and the parts of the _uppers_ have been stitched together, +the sole-leather is hammered on the _lapstone_, tacked to the last, +and trimmed with a knife. The upper leather is next stretched on the +last with a pair of pincers, fastened to its proper place with tacks, +and then sewed to the bottom of the sole with a waxed thread. A narrow +strip of leather, called a _welt_, is also fastened to the sole by +similar means, and to this is stitched another sole. A heel being +added, the shoe is finished by trimming and polishing it with +appropriate instruments. + +13. The edges of fine leather shoes and boots, are trimmed with thin +strips of the like material, whilst those of prunello, and other thin +shoes for ladies, are bound with narrow tape. The binding is applied +by females with thread, by means of a common needle. + +14. Shoe-thread is commonly spun from flax; that from hemp is much +stronger, and was formerly preferred; but it is now used only for very +strong work. The greater part of the shoe-thread used in the United +States, is spun by machinery, at Leeds, in England, from Russian flax. +The wax employed by shoemakers, was formerly composed of tar and +rosin; but it is now most usually made of pitch. + +15. The shoemaker, in sewing together different parts of his work, +uses threads of various sizes, which are composed of several small +threads of different lengths. A hog's bristle is fastened to each end +of it, which enables the workman to pass it with facility through the +holes made with the awl. + +16. An expeditious way of fastening the soles of boots and shoes to +the upper leathers, is found in the use of wooden pegs or brass nails. +The old method, however, is generally preferred, on several accounts; +but chiefly, because the work is more durable, and because it can be +more easily repaired. + +17. Journeymen working at this trade most usually confine their +labours to particular kinds of work; as few can follow every branch +with advantage. Some make shoes and boots for men; others confine +their labours to those designed for ladies; but, by their aid, the +master-shoemaker can, and usually does, supply every kind at his +store. + +18. It is no uncommon thing in the country, for the farmers to +purchase leather, and employ the shoemaker to make it up; and this is +done, in most cases, on their own premises. The shoemaker employed in +this way, removes from house to house, changing his location, whenever +he has completely served a whole family in his vocation. In such +cases, he is said, by the trade, to be _whipping the cat_. The set of +tools with which he operates, is called his _kit_. + +19. The shoemaker usually buys his leather from the manufacturer; and +procures his tools, tacks, and various other articles of a similar +nature, at the _finding stores_. In some cases, the shoemaker with +little or no capital, gets his materials from the _leather-cutter_, +who makes it a business to supply them ready cut to the proper size +and shape. There are, however, but few leather-cutters in our country; +but, in England, this branch of trade is one of considerable +importance, and is frequently connected with that of the +leather-dresser. + + + + +[Illustration: HARNESS MAKER &c.] + +THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER, AND THE TRUNK-MAKER. + + +THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER. + +1. The invention of the saddle has been attributed to the Selians, a +people of ancient Franconia. Under this impression, it has been +supposed that the Latins gave it the name of _sella_. The period at +which it was first used, cannot be ascertained. It is certain, +however, that the horse had been rendered subservient to man, several +centuries before this convenient article was thought of. + +2. At first, the rider sat upon the bare back of the animal, and +guided him with a switch, but afterwards with a strap put round the +nose. In the course of time, the rider came to use, upon the back of +the horse, the skins of beasts, in order to render his seat more +easy. The Greeks, and many other refined nations of antiquity, +sometimes used superb trappings, composed of cloth, leather, and skins +dressed with the hair on; and, in addition to the gold, silver, and +precious stones, with which these were ornamented, the horses were +often otherwise decked with bells, collars, and devices of various +kinds. + +3. The Romans, in the days of the republic, deemed it more manly to +ride on the bare back of the animal than on coverings. At a later +period, they used a kind of square pannel, without stirrups; and about +the year 340 of the Christian era, they began to ride on saddles. It +appears, that those first employed were very heavy, as the Emperor +Theodosius, in the same century, forbade the use of any which weighed +over sixty pounds. The use of saddles was established in England by +Henry the Seventh, who enjoined on his nobility the practice of riding +upon them. + +4. The frame of a saddle is called a _tree_. It is not made by the +saddlers, but by persons who confine their attention to this branch of +business. The trees are constructed of wood, with a small quantity of +iron, and covered with canvas. + +5. In making a common saddle, the workman first extends two strips of +_straining web_ from the pommel to the hinder part of the tree, and +fastens them with tacks. The tree is then covered on the upper side +with two thicknesses of linen cloth, between which a quantity of wool +is afterwards interposed. A covering of thin leather, usually made of +hog's-skin, is next tacked on, and the flaps added. Under the whole +are placed the pads and saddle-cloth; the former of which is made of +thin cotton or linen cloth, and thin leather, stuffed with hair. The +addition of four straps, two girths, two stirrup-leathers, and as many +stirrups, completes the whole operation. + +6. The roughness, or the little indentations in the flaps, are +produced by passing the leather between rollers, in contact with a +rough surface, or by beating it with a mallet, on the face of which +has been fastened a piece of the skin from a species of shark, +commonly called the dog-fish. + +7. Saddles are often covered with buckskin, curiously stitched into +figures, and having the spaces between the seams stuffed with wool; +this is particularly the case in side-saddles. The form of saddles, +and the quality of the materials, together with the workmanship, are +considerably varied, to suit the purposes to which they are to be +applied, and to accommodate the fancy of customers. + +8. The process of making bridles and harness for horses, is extremely +simple. The leather is first cut out with a knife of some description, +but usually with one of a crescent-like form, or with a blade set in a +gauge, and then stitched together with the kind of thread used by +shoemakers. The awl employed in punching the holes is straight; and +needles are most commonly used, instead of the bristles which point +the shoemaker's threads. The mode of manufacturing saddle-bags, +portmanteaus, and valises, is too obvious to need description. + + +THE TRUNK-MAKER. + +1. The manufacture of trunks is equally simple with that of making +harness. In common cases, it consists chiefly in lining the inside of +a wooden box with paper, or some kind of cloth, and covering the +outside with a skin, or with leather, which is fastened to the wood by +means of tacks. Narrow strips of leather are fastened upon hair trunks +with brass nails, by way of ornament, as well as to confine the work. + +2. Instead of a wooden box, oblong rims of iron, and very thick, solid +pasteboard, fastened together by means of strong thread, are used in +the best kinds of trunks. The frame or body, thus formed, is covered +with some substantial leather, which is first stuck on with paste, and +then secured by sewing it to the pasteboard with a waxed thread. Over +the whole, are applied strips of iron, fastened with brass or copper +nails with large heads. The lines and figures on the leather, added by +way of ornament, are produced by a _crease_, a tool made of wood, +ivory, or whalebone. Its form is much like that of the blade of a +common paper-folder. + +3. How long trunk-making has been a separate trade, cannot be exactly +ascertained. The trunk-makers in France were incorporated into a +company, in 1596. In the United States, this branch of business is +very commonly united with that of the saddler and harness-maker. + + + + +[Illustration: SOAP & CANDLE MAKER.] + +THE SOAP-BOILER, AND THE CANDLE-MAKER. + + +THE SOAP-BOILER. + +1. The business of the soap-boiler consists in manufacturing soap, by +the combination of certain oily and alkaline substances. + +2. The earliest notice of this useful article occurs in the works of +Pliny, in which it is stated, that soap was composed of tallow and +ashes; that the mode of combining them was discovered by the Gauls; +but that the German soap was the best. + +3. For many ages before the invention of soap, saponaceous plants, and +several kinds of earth, together with animal matters and the ley from +ashes, were employed for the purpose of cleansing the skin, and +articles of clothing. The idea of combining some of these substances, +with the view of forming soap, probably originated in accident. + +4. The vegetable oils and animal fats, capable of saponification, are +very numerous; but those most commonly employed in the manufacture of +the soaps of commerce, are olive-oil, whale-oil, tallow, lard, +palm-oil, and rosin; and the alkalies with which these are most +frequently combined, are soda, the ley of ashes, or its residuum, +potash. + +5. Soda is sometimes called the _mineral alkali_; because it is found, +in some parts of the world, in the earth. It was known to the +ancients, at a very early period, under the denomination of _natron_. +It received this appellation from the lakes of Natron, in Egypt, from +the waters of which it was produced by evaporation, during the summer +season. + +6. The soda of commerce is now chiefly obtained from the _salsola_, a +genus of plants which grows on the sea-shore. In Spain, the plant from +which soda is obtained is denominated _barilla_; hence, the substance +produced from it by incineration has received the same appellation. +The ashes of a sea-weed which grows on the coasts of Scotland and +Ireland, is called _kelp_. In Europe, barilla and kelp are more +extensively employed in the manufacture of soap than any other +alkaline substances; but, in this country, where wood is so much used +for fuel, common ashes are generally preferred. + +7. The process of making the ordinary brown or yellow soap, from +wood-ashes, is conducted in the following manner. The alkali is first +obtained in a state of solution in water, by _leeching_ the ashes as +described in page 26, and then poured, in a weak state, into a copper +or iron caldron, having a large wooden tub carefully affixed to the +top of it. + +8. When the ley has been properly heated, the tallow, either in a +_tried_ state or in the suet, is gradually added. More ley, of +greater concentration, is poured in; and the ingredients are +moderately boiled for several hours; while a person, as represented in +the preceding cut, aids their chemical union by agitating them with a +wooden spatula. + +9. After a quantity of rosin has been added, and properly incorporated +with the other materials, the fire is withdrawn until the next +morning, when it is again raised; then, with the view of forming the +_paste_ into hard soap, a quantity of muriate of soda (common salt) is +added. The muriatic acid of this substance, uniting with the potash, +forms with it muriate of potash, which dissolves in the water, while +the soda combines with the tallow and rosin. Hard soap, therefore, +contains no potash; although this alkali is generally employed during +the early part of the process of making it. + +10. After the addition of the muriate of soda, the boiling and +stirring are continued two or three hours, when the fire is withdrawn, +and the contents of the caldron are suffered to be at rest. When the +soap has completely separated from the watery part and extraneous +matters, it is laded into another caldron, again diluted with strong +ley, and heated. The _paste_ having been brought to a proper +consistence, more common salt is added as before, and for the same +purposes. + +11. The chemical part of the process having been thus completed, the +soap is laded into single wooden boxes, or into one or more composed +of several distinct frames, which can be removed separately from the +soap, after it has become solid enough to stand without such support. +The soap is cut into bars, of nearly a uniform size, by means of a +small brass wire. + +12. Manufacturers of soap have contrived various methods of +adulterating this article, or of adding ingredients which increase +its weight, without adding to its value. The most common means +employed for this purpose is water, which may be added, in some cases, +in considerable quantities, without greatly diminishing the +consistence of the soap. + +13. This fraud may be detected by letting the soap lie for some time +exposed to the atmosphere. The water will thus be evaporated, and its +quantity can be known by weighing the soap, after its loss of the +superfluous liquid. To prevent evaporation, while the soap remains on +hand, it is said, that some dealers keep it in saturated solutions of +common salt. Another method of adulteration is found in the use of +pulverized lime, gypsum, or pipe-clay. These substances, however, can +be easily detected by means of a solution in alcohol, which +precipitates them. + +14. The process of manufacturing soft soap, differs but little in its +details from that described in the preceding paragraphs. The chief +difference consists in omitting the use of salt. Soft soap, therefore, +is composed of a greater proportion of water, and more alkali than is +necessary to saturate the unctuous matters. Soft soap is made by +almost every family in the country, from ashes, grease, and oily +matters, reserved for the purpose. + +15. The celebrated Marseilles white soap, is composed of + + Soda, 6. + Olive-oil, 60. + Water, 34. + +Castile soap, of + + Soda, 9. + Olive-oil, 76.5. + Water, with a little coloring matter, 14.5. + +Fine toilet-soaps are made with oil of almonds, nut-oil, palm-oil, +suet, or butter, combined with soda or potash, according to their +preparation in a solid or pasty state. + +16. In the manufacture of white soap, the tallow is more carefully +purified, and no rosin is used. In other particulars, the process +differs but little from that employed in the production of the common +kind. Two tons of tallow should yield three tons of white soap. In +making the same quantity of common brown or yellow soap, twelve +hundred weight less is required, on account of the substitution of +that amount of yellow rosin. + +17. The mottled appearance of some soaps is caused by dispersing the +ley through it, towards the close of the operation, or by adding a +quantity of sulphate of iron, indigo, or the oxide of manganese. +Castile soap, now manufactured in the greatest perfection at +Marseilles, in France, receives its beautifully marbled appearance +from the sulphate of iron. + + +THE CANDLE-MAKER. + +1. The subject of the candle-maker's labors may be defined to be a +wick, covered with tallow, wax, or spermaceti, in a cylindrical form, +which serves, when lighted, for the illumination of objects in the +absence of the sun. The business of candle-making is divided into two +branches; the one is confined to the manufacturing of tallow candles, +and the other, to making those composed of wax or spermaceti. + +2. The process of making candles from tallow, as conducted by the +tallow-chandler, needs only a brief description, since it differs but +little from the method pursued by families in the country, with which +most persons are familiar. The difference lies chiefly in the +employment of a few conveniences, by which the candles are more +rapidly multiplied. + +3. The first part of the process consists in preparing a wick, to +serve as a foundation. The coarse and slightly twisted yarn used for +this purpose, is spun in the cotton-factories; and, being wound into +balls, is, in that form, sold to the tallow-chandlers, as well as to +individuals who make candles for their own consumption. + +4. A sufficient number of threads is combined, to form a wick of a +proper size; and, as they are wound from the balls, they are measured +off, and cut to the proper length, by a simple contrivance, which +consists of a narrow board, a wooden pin, and the blade of a razor. +The pin and razor are placed perpendicular to the board, at a distance +determined by the length of the proposed wick. The wicks are next put +upon cylindrical rods, about three feet long; and a great number of +these are arranged on a long frame. + +5. To obtain the tallow in a proper state for use, it is separated +from the membranous part of the suet, by boiling the latter in an iron +or copper kettle, and then subjecting the _cracklings_ to the action +of a press. The substance that remains, after the tallow has been +expressed, is called _greaves_, which are sometimes applied to +fattening ducks for market. This is especially the case in the city of +London. + +6. The _tried_ tallow is prepared for application to the wicks, by +heating it to a proper temperature. It is then poured into a suitable +receptacle, where it is kept in _order_ either by a moderate fire +underneath, or by the occasional addition of hot tallow. + +7. The _broaches_, as the sticks with their wicks are called, are +taken up, several at a time, either between the fingers or by means of +a simple instrument denominated a _rake_, and dipped into the tallow. +They are then returned to the frame, and suffered to cool, while +successive broaches are treated in the same way. The dipping is +repeated, until the candles have been thickened to the proper size. + +8. In the preceding plate, is represented a workman in the act of +dipping several broaches of candles, suspended on a rake, which he +holds in his hands. The mode of making dipped candles just described, +is more generally practised than any other, and in this manner five or +six hundred pounds can be made by one hand, in a single day. In some +establishments, however, a more complicated apparatus is used, by +which every part of the process is greatly expedited. + +9. Mould candles are made very differently. The moulds consist of a +frame of wood, in which are arranged several hollow cylinders, +generally made of pewter. At the lower extremity of each cylinder, is +a small hole, for the passage of the wick, which is introduced by +means of a hook on the end of a wire. The cotton is fastened at the +other end, and placed in a perpendicular situation in the centre of +the shafts, by means of a wire, which passes through the loops of the +wicks. The melted tallow, having been poured on the top of the wooden +frame, descends into each mould. After the candles have become +sufficiently cold, they are extracted from the cylinders with a +bodkin, which is inserted into the loop of the wick. One person can +thus mould two or three hundred pounds in a day. + +10. Candles are also made of bees-wax and spermaceti; but the mode of +their manufacture differs in no particular from that of common mould +candles. The wicks for wax-candles are usually made of a peculiar kind +of cotton, which grows in Asiatic Turkey. + +11. Before the wax is applied to this purpose, the coloring matter is +discharged. This is effected by bleaching the wax, in the following +manner. It is first divided into flakes, or thin laminae, by pouring +it, in a melted state, through a colander upon a cylindrical wheel, +which, at the same time, is kept revolving, while partly immersed in +cold water. The wax, having been removed from the water, is placed +upon a table or floor covered with some kind of cloth. Here it is +occasionally sprinkled with water, until the bleaching has been +completed. The process occupies several weeks, or even months, +according to the state of the weather, that being best which is most +favorable to a rapid evaporation. + +12. Spermaceti is a substance separated from sperm oil, which is +obtained from a species of whale, called _physeter macrocephalus_, or +_spermaceti cachalot_. This oil is obtained from both the head and +body of the animal, but that procured from the former contains twice +the quantity of spermaceti. + +13. To separate the spermaceti from the oil yielded by the body, it is +first heated, then put into casks, and suffered to stand two or three +weeks, in order to _granulate_. The oily part is now filtrated through +strainers; and the remainder, which is called _foots_, is again +heated, and put into casks. After having stood several weeks, these +are put into bags, and submitted to the action of a powerful press. +The spermaceti thus obtained, is melted and moulded into cakes. The +oil thus separated from the spermaceti, is called spring or fall +strained; because it is filtered and expressed only during those +seasons of the year. + +14. The oil from the head of the whale is treated like that from the +body, in almost every particular. The difference consists, +principally, in omitting the use of the strainer, and in the +employment of stronger bags and a more powerful press. The oil +obtained from the _head-matter_, is called _pressed_, since it is +separated by the action of the press only. It is also denominated +_winter-strained_, because the operation is performed in the cold +weather. + +15. The spermaceti, having been melted and moulded into cakes, is +reserved until the succeeding summer, when it is cut into thin +shavings, by means of a large shave, similar to the _spoke-shave_ of +the wheelwrights, and again pressed as before. The oil of this last +pressing is called _taut pressed_, and is the least valuable kind, +since a slight degree of cold causes it to become thick. The +spermaceti obtained from the oil of the body, and that from the +head-matter, are melted together, and purified by means of potash-ley. + +16. The sperm-oil, thus freed from the spermaceti, is extensively used +in lamps as a means of illumination; and, for many purposes, it is far +more convenient than tallow. In the country, lard is frequently +employed instead of oil, especially by the German population. In some +European and Asiatic countries, vegetable oils supply the place of +animal fats, in this application. + +17. The origin of the art of making candles is not known. It is +evident, however, that the business is comparatively modern, since the +Greeks and Romans, as well as other nations of antiquity, employed +torches of pine and fir, and lamps supplied with oil, in the +production of artificial light. The words in the Scriptures translated +_candle_, imply nothing more nor less than a light produced by some +kind of oil consumed in a lamp. + +18. The lamps in ancient times were suspended by a chain or cord from +the ceiling, or supported on stands and moveable tables, which were +called by the Romans _lampadaria_, or _candelabra_. Many specimens of +this utensil are preserved in several museums of Europe, and some have +lately been found in the ruins of Herculaneum. + +19. The Chinese make their candles from the tallow obtained from the +seeds and capsules of the tallow-tree. This tree, which is produced in +great abundance in China, is said to grow in various parts of South +Carolina and Georgia. In appearance, it resembles the Lombardy +poplar. + + + + +[Illustration: COMB-MAKER.] + +THE COMB-MAKER, AND THE BRUSH-MAKER. + + +THE COMB-MAKER. + +1. The comb is a well-known instrument, employed in cleansing, +dressing, and confining the hair. It is made of various materials, but +most commonly of tortoise-shell, the horns and hoofs of cattle, ivory, +bone, and several kinds of hard wood. + +2. It is impossible to determine the period of the world at which it +was introduced, since history and tradition, the sources from which we +obtain information of this nature, are silent with regard to its +origin. It is evident, however, that the comb is an instrument of +primary necessity; and hence it must have been invented in the +earliest ages. This opinion is confirmed by the fact, that the comb +has been frequently found in use amongst savages, when first visited +by civilized men. + +3. Combs employed in fixing the hair, are made of tortoise-shell, or +of the horns of cattle. The genuine tortoise-shell is taken from the +_testudo imbricata_, or _hawk's-bill turtle_; but a kind of shell, +inferior in quality, is obtained from the _testudo caretta_, or +_loggerhead turtle_. These turtles inhabit the seas of warm and +temperate climates; but they are especially numerous in the West +Indian seas, where _shell_ is a valuable article of commerce. That +from St. Domingo is especially esteemed for its brilliancy of shade +and color. + +4. The shell of the hawk's-bill turtle was extensively employed for +ornamental purposes by the refined nations of antiquity; although we +have no account of its application to the manufacture of combs. The +Greeks and Romans decorated with it the doors and pillars of their +houses, as well as their beds and other furniture. The Egyptians dealt +largely with the Romans in this elegant article. + +5. The general length of the hawk's-bill turtle is about three feet +from the bill to the end of the shell; but it has been known to +measure five feet, and to weigh five or six hundred pounds. In the +Indian Ocean, especially, specimens of prodigious magnitude are said +to have occurred. + +6. The shell employed in the arts, grows upon the back and feet of the +animal. That on the back, consists of thirteen laminae, or plates, +which lap over each other, like tiles on the roof of a house. The +plates vary in thickness from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, +according to the age and size of the turtle. The quantity of +merchantable shell obtained from a single subject of the usual size, +is about eight pounds, which, at the usual price, is worth sixty or +seventy dollars. + +7. The process of making combs from the horns of cattle, is not +difficult to be understood. The tips and buts are first cut off with a +saw, and the remaining portion is also divided longitudinally on one +side with the same instrument. The horns are then soaked for several +days, and afterwards boiled in oil, to render them pliable. They are +next spread out and pressed between hot iron plates. This operation +clarifies the horn, and produces a plate of proper thickness. + +8. After the plates thus produced, have been cut in pieces +corresponding in size to the proposed combs, and when these have been +shaved to a suitable thickness with instruments adapted to the +purpose, the teeth are cut either with a _twinning saw_, as +represented in the preceding cut, or with a _twinning machine_. + +9. In the former case, the plate is fastened with a wooden _clamp_, by +the part which is designed to be left for the back of the comb; and +when twins, or two combs, are to be formed from one piece, the other +end is bent down, so as to render the upper surface considerably +convex. To this surface the _twinning saw_ is applied by the hand of +the workman, who makes a number of incisions; which are completed both +ways with two different kinds of saws, and the end of each tooth is +cut from the back of the opposite comb with an instrument called a +_plugging awl_. + +10. The _twinning machine_ was invented, about twenty years ago, by a +Mr. Thomas, of Philadelphia; but it has been successfully improved by +several individuals since that time. It is, altogether, an ingenious +and useful contrivance. The cutting part consists of two chisels, +which are made to act on the plate alternately, and in a perpendicular +direction, each chisel cutting one side of two teeth, and severing one +from the opposite back, at every stroke. It is impossible, however, to +form a clear conception of the manner in which the machine operates, +except by actual inspection. It performs the work with great rapidity; +since from one to two hundred dozens of combs can be cut in twelve +hours; whereas, not one-fourth of that number can be _twinned_ in the +old method, during the same time. + +11. After the teeth have been rounded, and in other respects brought +to the proper form with suitable instruments, the combs are polished +by rubbing them first with the dust of a peculiar kind of brick, then +by applying them to a moving cylinder covered with buff leather, +charged with rotten-stone, ashes, or brick-dust; and, finally, by +rubbing them with the hand, charged with rotten-stone and vinegar. + +12. The combs are next colored, or stained; and, as the tortoise-shell +is by far the best and most expensive material for this kind of comb, +the great object of the manufacturer is to produce colors as nearly +resembling those of the real shell as practicable. This is done in +considerable perfection, in the following manner: + +13. The combs are first dipped in aqua-fortis, and then covered with a +paste made of lime, pearlash, and red lead. To produce the requisite +variety of shades, both taste and judgment are necessary in applying +the composition, and in determining the time which it should remain +upon the combs. To give the combs a still stronger resemblance to +shell, they are also immersed for fifteen or twenty minutes in a dye +of Nicaragua. + +14. The combs having been covered with oil, they are next heated upon +iron plates, and brought to the desired shape by bending them upon +wooden blocks with a woollen list. The whole process is finished by +rubbing off the oil with a silk handkerchief. + +15. The general process of making shell combs differs but little from +that which has been just described, varying only in a few +particulars, in compliance with the peculiar nature of the material. + +16. On account of the great value of shell, the workmen are careful to +make the most of every portion of it; accordingly, when a piece falls +short of the desired size, it is enlarged by _welding_ to it another +of smaller dimensions. The union is effected, by lapping the two +pieces upon each other, and then pressing them together between two +plates of hot iron. The heat of the iron is prevented from injuring +the shell, by the interposition of a wet linen cloth, and by immersing +the whole in hot water. In a similar manner, broken combs are often +mended; and by the same method, two pieces of horn can also be joined +together. + +17. Both horn and shell combs are often stamped with figures, and +otherwise ornamented with carved work. In the latter case, the +ornaments are produced, by removing a part of the material with a saw +and graver. The saw employed is not more than the twelfth of an inch +in width; and, being fastened to a frame, it is moved up and down, +with great rapidity, by means of the foot, while the part of the comb +to be cut away is applied to the teeth. The operator is guided in the +work by a pattern, which has been struck on paper from an engraved +plate. + +18. Combs for dressing and cleansing the hair, are made of horn, +shell, bone, ivory, and wood; but it is unnecessary to be particular +in describing the manner in which every kind of comb is manufactured. +We will only add, that the teeth of fine ivory and bone combs are cut +with a buzz, or circular saw, which, fastened to a mandrel, is moved +in a lathe. + + +THE BRUSH-MAKER. + +1. There are few manufactured articles in more general use than +brushes. This has arisen from their great utility, and the low prices +at which they can be purchased. The productions of the brush-maker's +labor are denominated variously, according to the purposes to which +they are to be applied. + +2. The operations connected with this business are very simple, as +there is scarcely a tool employed which is not familiar to every other +class of mechanics. The brush-maker, however, does not manufacture +every part of the brush. He procures his wooden _stocks_ and handles +from various sources, but chiefly from the turner, and bone handles, +from the tooth-brush handle-maker. + +3. The first part of the process which may be considered as belonging +particularly to the brush-maker, consists in boring the holes for the +reception of the bristles. This is done with a _bit_ of a proper size, +which is kept in motion with a lathe, while the wood is brought +against it with both hands. To enable the operator to make the holes +in the right place and in the proper direction, a pattern is applied +to the hither side of the stock. + +4. The greater part of the bristles used by the brush-makers in the +United States, are imported from Russia and Germany. Large quantities, +however are obtained from Pennsylvania, and some parts of the Western +States. American bristles are worth from thirty to fifty cents per +pound, a price sufficiently high, one would suppose, to induce the +farmers to preserve them, when they butcher their swine. Were this +generally done, a tolerable supply of the shorter kinds of bristles +might be obtained in our own country. + +5. When the bristles come into the hands of the brush-maker, the long +and short, and frequently those of different colors, are mixed +together. These are first assorted, according to color; and those of a +whitish hue are afterwards washed with potash-ley and soap, to free +them from animal fat, and then whitened by bleaching them with the +fumes of brimstone. + +6. The bristles are next combed with a row of steel teeth, for the +purpose of placing them in a parallel direction, and with a view of +depriving them of the short hair which may be intermixed. The workman, +immediately after combing a handful, assorts it into separate parcels +of different lengths. This is very readily done, by pulling out the +longest bristles from the top, until those which remain in the hand +have been reduced to a certain length, which is determined by a gauge +marked with numbers. At each pulling, the handful is reduced in height +near half an inch. + +7. The stocks and the bristles having been thus prepared, they are +next fastened together. This is effected either with wire or by a +composition of tar and rosin. The wire is used in all cases in which +the fibre is doubled; but when the bristles are required in their full +length, as in sweeping-brushes, the adhesive substance is employed. + +8. It is superfluous to enter into detail, to show the manner in which +the wire and composition are applied in fixing the bristles, as any +person, with an ordinary degree of observation, can readily comprehend +the whole, by examining the different kinds of brushes which are met +with in every well-regulated household. The bristles, after having +been fixed to the stock or handle, are trimmed with the shears or +knife, according as they are required to be equal or unequal in +length. + +9. The brush is next handed over to the _finisher_, who applies to the +back of the stock a thin veneer of wood, which secures the wire +against the oxidizing influence of the atmosphere, and gives to the +brush a finished appearance. The stock, together with the veneer, is +then brought to the desired shape with suitable instruments, polished +with sand-paper, and covered with varnish. + +10. Those brushes which the manufacturer designs to be ornamented, are +sent in great quantities to the _ornamenter_, who applies to them +various figures, in gold or Dutch leaf, japan or bronze, and sometimes +prints, which have been struck on paper from engraved plates. + + + + +[Illustration: INN-KEEPER.] + +THE TAVERN-KEEPER. + + +1. A house in which travellers are entertained is denominated a +tavern, inn, coffee-house, hotel, or house of public entertainment; +and an individual who keeps a house of this description, is called an +inn-keeper or tavern-keeper. Of these establishments there are various +grades, from the log cabin with a single room, to the splendid and +commodious edifice with more than a hundred chambers. + +2. This business is one of great public utility; since, by this means, +travellers obtain necessary refreshments and a temporary home, with +very little trouble on their part, and that, in most cases, for a +reasonable compensation. This is especially the case in the United +States, where the public houses, taking them together, are said to be +superior to those of any other country. + +3. Travellers, in the early ages of the world, either carried with +them the means of sustenance, and protection from the weather, or +relied upon the hospitality of strangers; but, as the intercourse +between different places for the purposes of trade, increased, houses +of public entertainment were established, which at first were chiefly +kept by women. + +4. The people of antiquity, in every age and nation, whether barbarous +or civilized, were, however, remarkable for their hospitality. We find +this virtue enjoined in the Mosaic writings, and scriptures generally, +in the poems of Homer, as well as in other distinguished writings, +which have descended to our times. The heathen nations were rendered +more observant of the rites of hospitality by the belief, that their +fabulous gods sometimes appeared on earth in human shape; and the Jews +and ancient Christians, by the circumstance, that Abraham entertained +angels unawares. + +5. On account of the occasional acts of violence committed by both the +guest, and the master of the house, it became necessary to take some +precautions for their mutual safety. When, therefore, a stranger +applied for lodgings, it was customary among the Greeks for both to +swear by Jupiter, that they would do each other no harm. This ceremony +took place, while each party stood with his foot placed on his own +side of the threshold; and a violation of this oath by either party, +excited against the offender the greatest horror. + +6. The Greeks and Romans, in common with the people of many other +nations, were in the habit of making arrangements with persons at a +distance from their homes, for mutual accommodation, when either party +might be in the vicinity of the other. In these agreements, the +contracting parties included their posterity, and delivered to each +other tokens, which might be afterwards exhibited in proof of ancient +ties of hospitality between the families. They swore fidelity to each +other by the name of Jupiter, who was surnamed the Hospitable; because +he was supposed to be the protector of strangers, and the avenger of +their wrongs. + +7. This relation was considered a very intimate one, especially by the +Romans; and, in their language, it was called _hospitium_, or _jus +hospitii_; hence, the guest and entertainer were both called _hostes_, +a word from which _host_ is derived, which is employed to designate +both the landlord and the guest. The Roman nobility used to build, for +the reception of strangers, apartments called _hospitalia_, on the +right and left of the main building of their residence. + +8. During the middle ages, also, hospitality was very commonly +practised; and the virtue was not considered one of those which might +be observed or neglected at pleasure; the practice of it was even +enjoined by statute, in many countries, as a positive duty, which +could not be neglected with impunity. In some cases, the moveable +goods of the inhospitable person were confiscated, and his house +burned. If an individual had not the means of entertaining his guest, +he was permitted to steal, in order to obtain the requisite supply. + +9. The nobles of Europe, during this period, were generally +distinguished for their cordial entertainment of strangers, and their +immediate adherents. Their extraordinary liberality arose, in part, +from the general customs of the age, and partly from a desire to +attach to their interests as great a number of retainers as possible, +with a view to maintain or increase their political importance. +Strangers were also entertained at the monasteries, which were +numerous in almost every kingdom of Europe. Several of these +institutions were established in solitary places, with the express +purpose of relieving travellers in distress. + +10. It is evident, that the arrangements for mutual accommodation, and +the hospitable character of the ancients, were unfavorable to the +business of keeping tavern; but the free intercourse between different +nations, which arose from the Crusades, and the revival of commerce, +contributed greatly to the habit of regularly entertaining strangers +for a compensation, and led to the general establishment of inns. + +11. These inns, however, were not, at first, well supported; inasmuch +as travellers had been long accustomed to seek for lodgings in private +houses. In Scotland, inns were established by law, A.D. 1424; and, to +compel travellers to resort to them, they were forbidden, under a +penalty of forty shillings, to use private accommodations, where these +public houses were to be found. + +12. How far legislative enactments have been employed for the +establishment of inns in other countries, we have not been able to +learn, as the authorities to which we have referred for information on +this point are silent with regard to it. We know, however, that laws +have been made in almost every part of Europe, as well as in the +United States, with the view of compelling the landlord to preserve +proper order, and to accommodate his customers at reasonable charges. + +13. In the United States, and in all other commercial countries, this +business has become one of great importance, not only to the +individuals who have engaged in it, but also to the community in +general. Within the present century, the amount of travelling has +greatly increased, and the excellence of the public houses has +advanced in the same ratio. Some of these establishments in the cities +and large towns, are among the most extensive and splendid edifices of +the country; and, in every place through which there is much +travelling, they are usually equal or superior to the private +dwellings of the neighborhood. + +14. The business of keeping tavern, however, is not always confined to +the proper object of entertaining travellers, or persons at some +distance from home. A public house is frequently the resort of the +people who live in the immediate vicinity, and is often the means of +doing much injury, by increasing dissipation. + +15. In all cases in which ardent spirits are proposed to be sold, a +license must be obtained from the public authorities, for which must +be paid the sum stipulated by law; but any person is permitted to +lodge travellers, and to supply them with every necessary means of +cheer and comfort for a compensation, without the formality of a legal +permission; yet, a license to sell liquors is called a tavern-license; +because most tavern-keepers regard the profits on the sale of ardent +spirits as one of their chief objects. + +16. A public house in which no strong drink is sold, is called a +temperance tavern; and such establishments are becoming common; but +they are not, at present, so well supported as those in which the +popular appetite is more thoroughly complied with. The time, however, +may not be far distant, when the public sentiment will undergo such a +salutary change, that the tavern-keepers generally will find it their +best policy to relinquish the sale of this poisonous article. + +17. As travellers often apply to the bar for "something to drink," +merely to remunerate the landlord for the use of his fire, or some +little attention, the friends of temperance would essentially promote +their cause, by encouraging the practice of paying for a glass of +water, or some trifle of this kind. This would increase the number of +temperance taverns, and, perhaps, be the means of preventing many +generous people from forming those dissipated habits, which are so +often attended with ruinous results. + + + + +[Illustration: The HUNTER.] + +THE HUNTER. + + +1. Hunting and fishing are usually considered the primary occupations +of man; not because they were the first employments in which he +engaged, but because they are the chief means of human sustenance +among savage nations. + +2. The great and rapid increase of the inferior animals, and, +probably, the diminished fertility of the soil after the deluge, +caused many branches of the family of Noah to forsake the arts of +civilized life, especially after the dispersion caused by the +confusion of tongues. + +3. Many of these families, or tribes, continued in this barbarous +state for several ages, or until their increase of numbers, and the +diminished quantity of wild game, rendered a supply of food from the +objects of the chase extremely precarious. Necessity then compelled +them to resort to the domestication of certain animals, and to the +cultivation of the soil. But the practice of hunting wild animals is +not confined to the savage state; as it is an amusement prompted by a +propensity inherent in human nature. + +4. The earliest historical notice of this sport is found in the tenth +chapter of Genesis, in which Nimrod is styled, "a mighty hunter before +the Lord." So great was his prowess in this absorbing pursuit, that he +was proverbially celebrated on this account even in the time of Moses. +Nimrod is the first king of whom we read in history; and it is by no +means improbable, that his skill and intrepidity in subduing the wild +beasts of the forest, contributed largely towards elevating him to the +regal station. + +5. Although the spoils of the chase are of little consequence to men, +after they have united in regular communities, in which the arts of +civilized life are cultivated; yet the propensity to hunt wild animals +continues, and displays itself more or less among all classes of men. + +6. The reader of English history will recollect, that William the +Conqueror, who began his reign in the year 1066, signalized his +passion for this amusement, by laying waste, and converting, into one +vast hunting-ground, the entire county of Hampshire, containing, at +that time, no less than twenty-two populous parishes. Severe laws were +also enacted, prohibiting the destruction of certain kinds of game, +except by a few persons having specified qualifications. With some +modifications, these laws are still in force in Great Britain. + +7. In other countries of Europe, also, large tracts have been +appropriated by the kings and nobles to the same object. This +tyrannical monopoly is attempted to be justified by the unreasonable +pretension, that all wild animals belong, of right, to the monarch of +the country, where they roam. + +8. The quadrupeds most hunted in Europe, are the stag, the hare, the +fox, the wolf, and the wild boar. These beasts are pursued either on +account of their intrinsic value, or for sport, or to rid the country +of their depredations. In some instances, all three of these objects +may be united. The method of capturing or killing the animals is +various, according to the character and objects of the persons engaged +in it. + +9. In Asia, the wolf is sometimes hunted with the eagle; but, in +Europe, the strongest greyhounds are employed to run him down. This +task, however, is one of extreme difficulty, as he can easily run +twenty miles upon a stretch, and is besides very cunning in the means +of eluding his pursuers. Chasing the fox on horseback, with a pack of +hounds, is considered an animating and manly sport, both in Europe and +in North America. + +10. The most prominent victim of the hunter, in Africa, is the lion. +He is usually sought in small parties on horseback with dogs; but +sometimes, when one of these formidable animals has been discovered, +the people of the neighborhood assemble, and encircle him in a ring, +three or four miles in circumference. The circle is gradually +contracted, until the hunters have approached sufficiently near to the +beast, when they dispatch him, usually with a musket-ball. + +11. In the southern parts of Asia, tiger-hunting is a favorite +amusement. Seated upon an elephant, trained especially for the +purpose, the hunter is in comparative safety, while he pursues and +fires upon the tiger, until his destruction is effected. + +12. The white bear and the grisly bear are the most formidable animals +in North America; yet they are industriously hunted by both Indians +and white men, on account of the value of their flesh and skins. +Bisons, or, as they are erroneously called, buffaloes, are found in +great numbers in the vast prairies which occur between the Mississippi +and the Rocky Mountains. They are commonly met with in droves, which +sometimes amount to several thousands. + +13. When the Indian hunters propose to destroy these animals, they +ride into the midst of a herd, and dispatch them with repeated wounds; +or, they get a drove between themselves and a precipice, and, by +shouting and yelling, cause the animals to crowd each other off upon +the rocks below. In this manner, great numbers are disabled and taken +at once. The hunters, at other times, drive the bisons into +inclosures, and then shoot them down at their leisure. The hide of +this animal is dressed with the hair adhering to it; and skins, in +this state, are used by the savages for beds, and by the white people, +in wagons, sleighs, and stages. + +14. North America, and the northern parts of Asia, have been, and, in +some parts, still are, well stocked with fur-clad animals; and these +are the principal objects of pursuit, with those who make hunting +their regular business. Some of these animals were common in every +part of North America, when this portion of the western continent was +first visited by Europeans; and a trade in peltries, more or less +extensive, has been carried on with the natives, ever since the first +settlement of the country. + +15. For the purpose of conducting this trade with advantage, a company +was formed in England, in 1670, by Prince Rupert and others, to whom a +charter was granted, securing to them the exclusive privilege of +trading with the Indians about Hudson's Bay. Another company was +formed in 1783-4, called the North-West Fur Company. Between these +companies, there soon arose dissensions and hostilities, and many +injuries were mutually inflicted by the adherents of the parties. Both +associations, however, were at length united, under the title of the +Hudson's Bay Fur Company. The Indian trade, on the great lakes and the +Upper Mississippi, has long been in possession of the North American +Fur Company. Most of the directors of this company reside in the city +of New-York. + +16. The companies just mentioned supply the Indians with coarse blue, +red, and fine scarlet cloths, coarse cottons, blankets, ribands, +beads, kettles, firearms, hatchets, knives, ammunition, and other +articles adapted to the wants of the hunters, receiving, in return, +the skins of the muskrat, beaver, otter, martin, bear, deer, lynx, +fox, &c. + +17. The intercourse with the Indians is managed by agents, called +clerks, who receive from the company a salary, ranging from three to +eight hundred dollars per annum. The merchandise is conveyed to the +place of trade, in the autumn, by the aid of Canadian boatmen and +half-Indians. The most considerable portion of the goods are sold to +the Indians on a credit, with the understanding of their making +payment in the following spring; but, as many neglect this duty, a +high price is affixed to the articles thus intrusted to savage +honesty. The clerk furnishes the debtor with a trap, having his own +name stamped upon it, to show that the hunter has pledged every thing +which may be caught in it. + +18. Each clerk is supplied with four laborers and an interpreter. The +latter attends to the store in the absence of the clerk, or watches +the debtors in the Indian camp, lest they again sell the produce of +their winter's labors. The peltries, when obtained by the clerk, are +sent to the general agent of the company. + +19. The fur trade is also prosecuted, to some extent, by a class of +men in Missouri, who proceed from the city of St. Louis, in bodies +comprising from fifty to two hundred individuals. After having +ascended the Missouri river, or some of its branches, and, perhaps, +after having passed the Rocky Mountains, they separate, and pursue the +different animals on their own individual account, either alone or in +small parties. The Indians regard these men as intruders on their +territories; and, when a favorable opportunity is presented, they +frequently surprise and murder the wandering hunters, and retain +possession of their property. + +20. In consequence of the unremitted warfare which has, for a long +time, been carried on against the wild animals of North America, their +number has been greatly diminished; and, in many parts, almost every +species of the larger quadrupeds, and the fur-clad animals, has been +exterminated. Even on the Mississippi, and the great lakes, the latter +description of animals has been so much reduced in number, that the +trade in peltries, in those parts, has become of little value. Another +half century will, probably, nearly terminate the trade in every part +of North America. + +21. The fur trade was prosecuted with considerable success, during the +latter part of the last century, principally by the English, on the +north-west coast of America, and the adjacent islands. The peltries +obtained by these enterprising traders, were carried directly to +China. The trade was interrupted for a while by the Spaniards, who +laid claim to those regions, and seized the British traders engaged +there, together with the property in their possession. This affair, +however, was afterwards amicably adjusted by the Spanish and English +governments; and the whole trade, from California north and to China, +was opened to the latter. + +22. The fur trade, in those parts, is now chiefly in the hands of the +Russian Company in America, which has a capital of a million of +dollars invested in the business. Most of the persons owning the +stock, are merchants, residing at Irkutsk, a town of Siberia, which is +the centre of the fur trade of that country. The skins obtained in +Russian America are chiefly procured from the sea-otter, and several +species of seal, together with those from foxes, of a blue, black, and +gray color, which are brought from the interior. Parties of Russian +hunters have already passed the Rocky Mountains, and interfered with +the trade of the Hudson's Bay Company. The fur trade of Siberia is +chiefly carried on with China. + +23. The chief objects of the hunters in Siberia, are the black fox, +the sable, the ermine, the squirrel, the beaver, and the lynx. In the +region near the Frozen Ocean, are also caught blue and white foxes. +Siberia is the place of banishment for the Russian empire; and the +exiles were formerly required to pay to the government an annual +tribute of a certain number of sable-skins. The conquered tribes in +Siberia, were also compelled to pay their taxes in the skins of the +fox and sable; but now, those of less value, or money, are frequently +substituted. + +24. Although the skins of beasts were the first means employed to +clothe the human body, yet it does not appear that the Greeks and +Romans, and the other refined nations of antiquity, ever made use of +furs for this purpose. The custom of wearing them, originated in those +regions, where the fur-clad animals were numerous, and where the +severity of the climate required this species of clothing. The use of +furs was introduced into the southern parts of Europe by the Goths, +Vandals, Huns, and other barbarous nations, which overran the Roman +empire. + + + + +[Illustration: WHALER.] + +THE FISHERMAN. + + +1. Although permission was given by the Deity, immediately after the +flood, to employ for human sustenance "every moving thing that +liveth," yet it is not probable, that fishes were used as food, to any +considerable extent, for several centuries afterwards. It is stated by +Plutarch, that the Syrians and Greeks, in very ancient times, +abstained from fish. Menelaus, one of Homer's heroes, complains, on a +certain occasion, that his companions had been reduced by hunger to +the necessity of eating fish; and there is no mention in Homer, that +the Grecians, at any time, used this food at the siege of Troy, +although, for the ten years during which that contest was carried on, +their camp was on the sea-shore. + +2. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, is very explicit in designating the +land animals which might be used by the Israelites as food; and he was +equally so with regard to the animals which inhabit the waters. We +learn, from the twelfth chapter of Numbers, that the children of +Israel, while journeying to the land of Canaan, "remembered the fish +which they did eat," in Egypt. + +3. This is the earliest notice on record, of the actual use of that +class of animals for food; although it is probable, that they had been +applied to this purpose, in Egypt, six or seven hundred years before +that period, or soon after the settlement of this country by the +descendants of Ham. + +4. For a long time before the advent of Our Saviour, fishing had been +a regular business, even in Judea; and from the class of men who +followed this occupation, he chose several of his apostles. At the +time just mentioned, fish had become a common article of diet, in all +parts of the world subject to the Roman power, and probably in almost +all other countries. + +5. The methods of catching fish, pursued in ancient times, were +similar to those of the present day; for then, as now, they were +caught with a hook, with a spear, and with a seine or net, according +to the character of the animal, and the nature of the fishing station. +But the great improvements in navigation, made since the twelfth +century, have given modern fishermen the command of the Atlantic and +Pacific Oceans, and, consequently, a knowledge of many species of fish +which were formerly unknown. + +6. According to Linnaeus, the great naturalist, about four hundred +species of fish have come to our knowledge; and he presumes, that +those which remain unknown are still more numerous. Notwithstanding +this great variety, the chief attention of fishermen is confined to a +few kinds, which are the most easily caught, and which are the most +valuable when taken. + +7. Every place which contains many inhabitants, and which is located +in the vicinity of waters well stored with fish, is supplied with +these animals by men who make fishing a business; still, these +fisheries may be considered local in their benefits, and perhaps do +not require particular notice in this article. We will only remark, +therefore, that, in large cities, fresh fish are sold either in a +fish-market, or are _hawked_ about the streets. The wives of the +fishermen are very often employed in selling the fish caught by their +husbands. The fisheries which are of the greatest consequence, in +general commerce, are those which relate to herring, mackerel, salmon, +seal, and whale. + +8. _Herring Fishery._--There are several species of herring; but, of +these, four kinds only are of much importance, viz., the common +herring, the shad, the hard head, and the alewife; of which, the first +is the most valuable, being by far the most numerous, and being, also, +better adapted than the others for preservation. + +9. The winter residence of the common herring is within the arctic +circle, whence it emigrates, in the spring, to more southern portions +of the globe, for the purpose of depositing its spawn. The first body +of these migratory animals, appears on the coasts of both Europe and +America, in April, or about the first of May; but these are only the +precursors of the grand shoals which arrive in a few weeks afterwards. + +10. Their first approach is indicated by the great number of birds of +prey, which follow them in their course; but, when the main body +appears, the number is so great, that they alter the appearance of the +ocean itself. In this last and principal migration, the shoals are +five or six miles in length, and three or four in breadth; and, +before each of these columns, the water is driven in a kind of ripple. +Sometimes, the fish sink together ten or fifteen minutes, and then +rise again to the surface, when they reflect, in clear weather, the +rays of the sun, in a variety of splendid colors. + +11. These fish proceed as far south as France, on the coasts of +Europe, and as far as Georgia, in America, supplying every bay, creek, +and river, which opens into the Atlantic. Having deposited their +spawn, generally in the inland waters, they return to their +head-quarters in the Arctic Ocean, and recruit their emaciated bodies +for another migration in the following spring. + +12. In a few weeks, the young ones are hatched by the genial heat of +the sun; and, as they are not found in southern waters in the winter, +it is evident that they proceed northward in the fall, to their +paternal haunts under the ice, and thus repair the vast destruction of +their race, which had been caused by men, fowl, and fish, in the +previous season. + +13. These fish are caught in nearly every river, from Maine to +Georgia, which has a free communication with the Atlantic; but the +most extensive fisheries are on the Hudson and Delaware Rivers, and on +those which flow into the Chesapeake Bay. + +14. The instrument employed in catching these fish is called a +_seine_, which is a species of net, sometimes in length several +hundred fathoms, and of a width suiting the depth of the water in +which it is to be used. The two edges of the net-work are fastened +each to a rope; and, to cause the seine to spread laterally in the +water, pieces of lead are fastened to one side, and pieces of cork to +the other. + +15. In spreading the seine in the water, one end is retained on land +by a number of persons, while the rest of it is strung along from a +boat, which is rowed in the direction from the shore. The seine +having been thus extended, the further end is brought round, in a +sweeping manner, to the shore; and the fish that may be included are +taken into the boats with a scoop-net, or are hauled out upon the +shore. In this way, two or three hundred thousands are sometimes taken +at a single _haul_. This fish dies immediately after having been taken +from the water; hence the common expression, "As dead as a herring." + +16. The herrings are sold, as soon as caught, to people who come to +the fishing stations to procure them; or, in case an immediate sale +cannot be effected, they are cured with salt, and afterwards smoked, +or continued in brine. In the Southern states, the herring is +generally thought to be superior to any other fish for the purpose of +salting down; although the shad and some others are preferred while +fresh. + +17. The importance of this fishery is superior to that of any other; +since the benefits resulting from it are more generally diffused. The +ancients, however, do not appear to have had any knowledge of this +valuable fish. It was first brought into notice by the Dutch, who are +said to have commenced the herring fishery on the coasts of Scotland, +in the year 1164, and to have retained almost exclusive possession of +it, until the beginning of the present century. + +18. The shad is a species of herring, which inhabits the sea near the +mouths of rivers, and which ascends them in the spring, to deposit its +spawn. It is caught in all the rivers terminating on our Atlantic +coasts, as well as in some of the rivers of the North of Europe. This +fish is captured in the same manner and often at the same time with +the common herring. It is highly esteemed in a fresh state; although +it is not so good when salted, as the herring and some other kinds of +fish. + +19. _Mackerel Fishery._--The common mackerel is a migratory fish, +like the herring, and ranks next to that tribe of fishes in regard to +numbers, and perhaps in general utility. Its place of retirement in +the winter, is not positively known; but it is supposed by some, to be +far north of the arctic circle; and by others, to be in some part of +the Atlantic farther south. Shoals of this fish appear on the coasts +of both Europe and America, in the summer season. Of this fish there +are twenty-two species. + +20. The mode of catching the mackerel, is either with a net or with +hooks and lines. The latter method succeeds best, when the boat or +vessel is driven forward by a gentle breeze; and, in this case, a bit +of red cloth, or a painted feather, is usually employed as a bait. +Several hooks are fastened to a single line, and the fish bite so +readily, that the fishermen occasionally take one on each hook at a +haul. The mackerel is _cured_ in the usual manner, and packed in +barrels, to be sold to dealers. + +21. This fish was well known to the ancients, as one of its places of +resort, in the summer, was the Mediterranean Sea. It was highly +esteemed by the Romans, for the reason, that it was the best fish for +making their _sarum_, a kind of pickle or sauce much esteemed by this +luxurious people. + +22. _Salmon Fishery._--The salmon is a celebrated fish, belonging to +the trout genus. It inhabits the seas on the European coasts, from +Spitzbergen to Western France; and, on the western shore of the +Atlantic, it is found from Greenland to the Hudson River. It also +abounds on both coasts of the North Pacific Ocean. The length of +full-grown salmon is from three to four feet; and their weight, from +ten to fifteen pounds. + +23. As soon as the ice has left the rivers, the salmon begin to ascend +them, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. It has been +ascertained that these fish retain a remarkable attachment to the +river which gave them birth; and, having once deposited their spawn, +they ever afterwards choose the same spot for their annual deposits. +This latter fact has been established by a curious Frenchman, who, +fastening a ring to the posterior fin of several salmon, and then +setting them at liberty, found that some of them made their appearance +at the same place three successive seasons, bearing with them this +distinguishing mark. + +24. In ascending the rivers, these fish usually proceed together in +great numbers, mostly swimming in the middle of the stream; and, being +very timid, a sudden noise, or even a floating piece of timber, will +sometimes turn them from their course, and send them back to the sea; +but having advanced a while, they assume a determined resolution, +overcoming rapids and leaping over falls twelve or fifteen feet in +perpendicular height. + +25. Salmon are caught chiefly with seines, and sometimes seven or +eight hundred are captured at a single haul; but from fifty to one +hundred is the most usual number, even in a favorable season. They are +also taken in _weirs_, which are inclosures so constructed that they +admit the ingress, but not the regress of the fish. + +26. The salmon fisheries are numerous in Great Britain and Ireland, as +well as in most of the northern countries of Europe. In the United +States, the most valuable fisheries of this kind are on the rivers in +Maine, whence the towns and cities farther south are principally +supplied with these fish, in a fresh condition. They are preserved in +ice, while on their way to market. In the cured state, salmon is +highly esteemed; although it is not easily digested. + +27. _Cod Fishery._--There are several species of cod-fish, or gadus; +but the most important and interesting of the class, is the common +cod. These fish are found in great abundance on the south and west +coasts of Iceland, on the coasts of Norway, off the Orkney and Western +Isles, and in the Baltic Sea. Farther south, they gradually diminish +in numbers, and entirely disappear, some distance from the Straits of +Gibraltar. + +28. But the great rendezvous of cod-fish is on the coasts of Labrador, +the banks of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and Nova Scotia. They are +invited to these situations by the abundance of small fish, worms, and +other marine animals of the crustaceous and testaceous kinds, on which +they feed. The fishermen resort, in the greatest numbers, to the +banks, which, stretch along the eastern coasts of Newfoundland about +four hundred and fifty miles. The water on these banks varies from +twenty to fifty fathoms in depth. + +29. By negociations with Great Britain, the French, Dutch, Spanish, +and Americans, have acquired the right to catch and cure fish, both on +the _Grand Banks_, and several other places on the coasts of the +English possessions in North America. The number of vessels employed +on the several fishing stations, during each successive season, +amounts to six or seven thousand, each measuring from forty to one +hundred and twenty tons, and carrying eight or ten men. + +30. The fishing on the Grand Banks commences in April, and continues +until about the first of August. Here, the fish are caught exclusively +with hooks, which are usually baited with a small fish called the +capelin, as well as with herring, clams, and the gills of the cod +itself. But this fish is not very particular in its choice of bait, it +biting greedily at almost any kind which may be presented. An expert +fisherman will frequently catch from one hundred to three hundred cod +in a single day. + +31. As soon as the fish have been caught, their heads are cut off, +and their entrails taken out. They are then salted away in bulk in the +hold; and, after having lain three or four days to drain, they are +taken to another part of the vessel, and again salted in the same +manner. The fishermen from New-England, however, give them but one +salting while on the fishing station; but, as soon as a cargo has been +obtained, it is carried home, where conveniences have been prepared +for curing the fish to greater advantage. By pursuing this plan, two +or three trips are made during the season. Some of the fish are +injured before they are taken from the vessel; and these form an +inferior quality, called _Jamaica fish_, because such are generally +sold in that island, for the use of the negroes. + +32. The fish which are caught on the coasts of Labrador, at the +entrance of Hudson's Bay, in the Straits of Belleisle, and on fishing +stations of similar advantages, are cured on the shore. They are first +slightly salted, and then dried in the sun, either on the rocks, or on +scaffolds erected for the purpose. In these coast fisheries, the +operations commence in June, and continue until some time in August. +The cod are caught in large seines, as well as with hook and line. + +33. _Seal Fishery._--There are several species of the seal; but the +kind which is most numerous, and most important in a commercial view, +is the common seal. It is found on the sea-coasts throughout the +world, but in the greatest numbers in very cold climates, where it +furnishes the rude inhabitants with nearly all their necessaries and +luxuries. + +34. The animal is valuable to the civilized world, on account of its +skin and oil. The oil is pure, and is adapted to all the purposes to +which that from the whale is applied. In the spring of the year, the +seals are very fat; and, at that time, even small ones will yield +four or five gallons of oil. The leather manufactured from the skins, +is employed in trunk-making, in saddlery, and in making boots and +shoes. + +35. Since the whale fishery has declined in productiveness in the +northern seas, _sealing_ has arisen in importance; and accordingly, +vessels are now frequently fitted out for this purpose, in both Europe +and America; whereas, a few years since, it was regarded only as a +part of the objects of a whaling voyage. + +36. Our countrymen of New-England have particularly distinguished +themselves in this branch of business; and the part of the globe which +they have found to be the most favorable to their objects, has been +the islands in the Antarctic Ocean. A sealing voyage to that quarter +often occupies three years, during which time the hunters are exposed +to great hardships, being often left in small detachments on desolate +islands, for the purpose of pursuing the animals to greater advantage. + +37. The best time for sealing in the Arctic Ocean, is in March and +April, when the seals are often met with in droves of several +thousands on the ice, which is either fixed, or floating in large +pieces. When the sealers meet with one of these droves, they attack +the animals with clubs, and stun them by a single blow on the nose. +After all that can be reached, have been disabled in this way, the +skin and blubber are taken off together. + +38. This operation is called _flenching_, and is sometimes a horrible +business; since some of the seals, being merely stunned, occasionally +recover, and, in their denuded state, often make battle, and even leap +into the water, and swim off. The skins, with the blubber attached to +them, are packed away in the hold; and, in case the vessel is to +return home soon, they are suffered to remain there, until she arrives +in port; but, when this is not expected, the skins, as soon as +convenient, are separated from the blubber, and the latter is put into +casks. There are other methods of capturing the seal; but it is, +perhaps, not necessary to enter into further details. + +39. _Whale Fishery._--There are five species of the whale, of which +the _Balaena Physalis_, or razor-back, is the largest. When full grown, +it is supposed to be about one hundred feet in length, and thirty or +thirty-five feet in circumference. It is so powerful an animal, that +it is extremely difficult to capture it; and, when captured, it yields +but little oil and whalebone. The species to which whalers direct +their attention is denominated the _Mystecetus_, or the _right whale_. + +40. The mystecetus is found, in the greatest numbers, in the Greenland +seas, about the island of Spitzbergen, in Davis' Straits, in Hudson's +and Baffin's Bays, and in the northern parts of the Pacific Ocean. It +is also found in the Antarctic Ocean, and along the coasts of Africa +and South America, and occasionally on the coasts of the United +States. + +41. Each vessel engaged in this fishery, is generally fitted out by +several individuals, who receive, of the return cargo of oil and +whalebone, a portion corresponding to the amount which they have +contributed to the common stock, after the men have received their +proportion of it. Should the voyage prove altogether unsuccessful, +which seldom happens, the owners lose the amount of the outfit, and +the captain and hands, their time. + +42. The whalers commence operations in the northern latitudes, in the +month of May; but the whales are most plentiful in June, when they are +met with between the latitudes 75 deg. and 80 deg., in almost every variety of +situation, sometimes in the open seas, at others in the loose ice, or +at the edges of the _fields_ and _floes_, which are near the main, +impervious body of ice. + +43. On the fishing station, the boats are kept always ready for +instant service, being suspended from davits, or cranes, by the sides +of the ship, and being furnished with a lance and a harpoon, to the +latter of which is attached about one hundred and twenty fathoms of +strong but flexible rope. When the weather and situation are +favorable, the _crow's nest_, which is a station at the mast-head, is +occupied by some person with a telescope. + +44. The moment a whale is discovered, notice is given to the watch +below, who instantly man one or two boats, and row with swiftness to +the place. Sometimes, a boat is kept manned and afloat near the ship, +that no time may be lost in making ready; or, two or three are sent +out on _the look-out_, having every thing ready for an attack. + +45. The whale being very timid and cautious, the men endeavor to +approach him unperceived, and strike him with the harpoon, before he +is aware of their presence. Sometimes, however, he perceives their +approach, and dives into the water, to avoid them; but, being +compelled to come again to the surface to breathe, or, as it is +termed, _to blow_, they make another effort to harpoon him. In this +way, the whalers often pursue him for a considerable time, and +frequently without final success. The animal, when unmolested, remains +about two minutes on the surface, during which time he blows eight or +nine times, and then descends for five or ten minutes, and often, +while feeding, for fifteen or twenty. + +46. When the whale has been struck, he generally dives towards the +bottom of the sea either perpendicularly or obliquely, where he +remains about thirty minutes, and sometimes nearly an hour. The +harpoon has, near its point, two barbs, or withers, which cause it to +remain fast in the integuments under the skin; and the rope attached +to it, is coiled in the bow of the boat in such a way, that it runs +out without interruption. When more line is wanted, it is made known +to the other boats by the elevation of an oar. Should the rope prove +too short for the great descent of the whale, it becomes necessary to +sever it from the boat, lest the latter be drawn under water; for this +emergency, the harpooner stands ready with a knife. + +47. When the whale reappears, the assisting boats make for the place +with their greatest speed; and, if possible, each harpooner plunges +his weapon into the back of the creature. On convenient occasions, he +is also plied with lances, which are thrust into his vitals. At +length, overcome with wounds, and exhausted by the loss of blood, his +approaching dissolution is indicated by a discharge of blood from his +blow-holes, and sometimes by a convulsive struggle, in which his tail, +raised, whirled, and jerked in the air, resounds to the distance of +several miles. The whale having been thus conquered, and deprived of +life, the captors express their joy with loud huzzas, and communicate +the information to the ship by striking their flag. + +48. A position near a large field of solid ice is very advantageous; +because a whale diving under it is obliged to return again to blow; +and this circumstance gives opportunity to make upon him several +attacks. Close fields of drift ice present great difficulties; since +the boats cannot always pass through them with sufficient celerity. In +that case, the men sometimes travel over the ice, leaping from one +piece to another, and carrying with them lances and harpoons, with +which they pierce the animal as often as possible. If they succeed in +thus killing him, they drag him back under the ice with the fast line. + +49. The whale, having been towed to the ship, and secured alongside, +is raised a little by means of powerful blocks, or tackle. The +harpooners, with spurs fastened to the bottom of their feet to prevent +them from slipping, descend upon the huge body, and, with spades and +knives adapted to this particular purpose, cut the blubber into oblong +pieces, which are peeled off, and hoisted upon deck with the +_speck-tackle_. These long strips are then cut into chunks, which are +immediately packed away in the hold. After the animal has been thus +successively flenched, and the whale-bone taken out, the carcase is +dismissed to the sharks, bears, and birds of prey. + +50. The blubber is somewhat similar, in consistence, to the fat which +surrounds the body of the hog, although not quite so solid. In young +whales, its color is yellowish white; and, in old ones, yellow or red. +Its thickness varies in different parts and in different individuals, +from eight to twenty inches. The weight of a whale sixty feet in +length, is about seventy tons, of which the blubber weighs about +thirty tons. + +51. The whale-bone is situated in the mouth. About three hundred +laminae, or blades, grow parallel to each other on either side of the +upper jaw, being about half an inch thick, and ten or twelve inches +wide, where they are united by the gum. As the whale grows old, they +increase in length, and approach from each side to the roof of the +mouth. The whale, while feeding, swims with his mouth wide open, which +admits a great quantity of water containing insects or small fish, on +which he subsists. The whale-bone acts as a filter, or strainer, in +retaining the little animals, while the water passes off at the +corners of the mouth. + +52. Before the whalers leave the fishing station, they cut the blubber +into small pieces, and put it into close casks. Sometimes, however, +when the ship has been very successful, there is a deficiency of +casks. In that case, it is slightly salted, and packed away in the +hold. But, as the ship must necessarily pass through a warmer climate, +on her voyage homeward, the blubber, while packed in this manner, is +liable to melt and be wasted, unless the weather should prove +uncommonly cool. + +53. When the vessel has arrived in port, the blubber is found to be +melted. To separate the oil from the _fritters_, or _fenks_, as the +integuments and other impurities are called, the contents of the casks +are poured into copper boilers, and heated. The heat causes a part of +the latter to sink to the bottom, and the former is drawn off into +coolers, where other extraneous matters settle. The pure or fine oil +is then drawn off for sale. An inferior quality of oil, called _brown +oil_, is obtained from the dregs of the blubber. + +54. The spermaceti cachalot, or _Physeter Macrocephalus_, is an animal +belonging to the norwal genus; although it is generally denominated +the spermaceti whale. It is found in the greatest abundance in the +Pacific Ocean, where it is sought by American and other whalers, for +the sake of the oil and spermaceti. This animal is gregarious, and is +often met with in herds containing more than two hundred individuals. + +55. Whenever a number of the cachalot are seen, several boats, manned +each with six men provided with harpoons and lances, proceed in +pursuit; and, if possible, each boat strikes or fastens to a distinct +animal, which, in most cases, is overcome without much difficulty. +Being towed to the ship, it is deprived of its blubber, and the matter +contained in the head, which consists of spermaceti combined with a +small proportion of oil. The oil is reduced from the blubber, soon +after it has been taken on board, in "try works," with which every +ship engaged in this fishery is provided. + +56. About three tons of oil are commonly obtained from a large +cachalot of this species, and from one to two tons from a small one, +besides the head-matter. The manner in which these two products are +treated, when brought into port, has been described in the article on +candle-making. + +57. The Biscayans were the first people who prosecuted the whale +fishery, as a commercial pursuit. In the twelfth, thirteenth, and +fourteenth centuries, they carried on this business to a considerable +extent; but the whales taken by them were not so large as those which +have since been captured in the polar seas. At length, the whales +ceased to visit the Bay of Biscay, and the fishery in that quarter was +of course terminated. + +58. The voyages of the English and Dutch to the Northern Ocean, in +search of a passage to India, led to the discovery of the principal +haunts of the whale, and induced individuals in those nations to fit +out vessels to pursue these animals in the northern latitudes, the +harpooners and part of the crews being Biscayans. The whales were +found in the greatest abundance about the island of Spitzbergen, and +were, at first, so easily captured, that extra vessels were sent out +in ballast, to assist in bringing home the oil and whalebone; but the +whales, retiring to the centre of the ocean, and to the other side to +the Greenland seas, soon became scarce about that island. + +59. The whale fishery was revived, as above stated, about the +beginning of the seventeenth century; and, with the Dutch, it was in +the most flourishing condition in 1680, when it employed about two +hundred and sixty ships, and fourteen thousand men. The wars about the +beginning of the nineteenth century, extending their baleful influence +to almost every part of the ocean, annihilated this branch of business +among the Dutch; and, in 1828, only a single whale-ship sailed from +Holland. + +60. The English whale fishery was, at first, carried on by companies +enjoying exclusive privileges; but the pursuit was attended with +little success. In 1732, Parliament decreed a bounty of twenty +shillings per ton, on every whaler measuring more than two hundred +tons; and, although this bounty was increased in 1749 to forty +shillings, yet the English whale fishery has never been very +flourishing. + +61. The whale fishery has been carried on with greater success from +the United States than from any other country. It was begun by the +colonists, on their own shores, at a very early period; but the whales +having abandoned the coasts of North America, these hardy navigators +pursued them into the northern and southern oceans. + +62. The number of American vessels now employed in pursuit of the +spermaceti cachalot and the mystecetus, amounts to about four hundred, +and the number of men to about ten thousand. The inhabitants of the +island of Nantucket, and of the town of New-Bedford, are more +extensively engaged in these fisheries than the people of any other +part of the United States. + + + + +[Illustration: SHIPWRIGHT.] + +THE SHIPWRIGHT. + + +1. The earliest notice we have of the construction of a building to +float on water, is that which relates to Noah's Ark. This was the +largest vessel that has ever been built, and the circumstance proves +that the arts, at that early period, had been brought to considerable +perfection; yet, as several centuries had elapsed, after the flood, +before the descendants of Noah had much occasion for floating vessels, +the art of constructing them seems to have been measurably lost. + +2. Early records, which perhaps are worthy of credit, state that the +Egyptians first traversed the river Nile upon rafts, then in the +canoe; and that, to these succeeded the boat, built with joist, +fastened together with wooden pins, and rendered water-tight by +interposing the leaves of the papyrus. To this boat was, at length, +added a mast of acanthus, and a sail of papyrus; but, being prejudiced +against the sea because it swallowed up their sacred river, which they +worshipped as a god, they never attempted to construct vessels adapted +to marine navigation. + +3. The Phoenicians, a nation nearly as ancient as the Egyptian, being +situated directly on the sea, without the advantages of a noble river, +were compelled to provide means for sailing on a wider expanse of +water. It is said, however, that they first traversed the +Mediterranean, and even visited distant islands, with no better means +of conveyance than a raft of timber. This is rendered somewhat +probable, from the fact, that the Peruvians, even at the present time, +venture upon the Pacific Ocean on their _balza_, a raft made from a +spongy tree of that name. + +4. The vessels first constructed by the Phoenicians, were used for +commercial purposes. They were flat-bottomed, broad, and of a small +draught; and those of the Carthaginians and Greeks were similar in +shape. The ships of war, in early times, were generally mere +row-boats, in which the combatants rushed upon each other, and decided +the combat by valor and physical strength. + +5. By successive improvements, the ships of antiquity were, at length, +brought to combine good proportion with considerable beauty. The prows +were sometimes ornamented with the sculptured figures of heathen +deities, and otherwise adorned with paint and gilding, while the +sterns, which were usually in the form of a shield, were elaborately +wrought in carved work. The approved length of a ship of war, was six +or eight times its breadth; and that for mercantile purposes, four +times the breadth; hence, the distinction of _long ships_, and _round +ships_. + +6. Both the long and round ships had a single mast, which could be +taken down or elevated at pleasure. These vessels were, however, +propelled with oars on occasions that required it; and the former, in +their improved state, were properly galleys with one, two, or three +banks of oars, which extended from one end of the vessel to the other. +The rowers were all placed under the deck; and, in time of battle, the +combatants contended above, being in part defended from the missiles +of opposing foes by shields carried on the arm, and by screens and +towers placed on the deck. The bow of each vessel was armed with a +brazen or iron beak, with which the contending parties often stove in +the sides of each other's vessels. + +7. The general size of vessels in the best days of antiquity, was not +greater than that of our sloops and schooners; but there are instances +on record, which prove that they occasionally equalled in capacity the +largest of modern times. In the early ages, they were very small, and, +for several centuries, were drawn upon the shore at the termination of +every voyage. Stranding, however, became impracticable, after the +increase in size, and the addition of the keel. The anchor and cable +were, therefore, invented, to confine the ship at a suitable distance +from the shore. At first, the anchor was nothing more than a large +stone. Afterwards, it was wood and stone combined; and, finally, iron +was the sole material. + +8. The invasion of the Roman empire by the northern barbarians, caused +the operations of war to be almost exclusively conducted on the land. +This, together with the destruction of commerce during the general +desolation of those ruthless incursions, and the barbarism of the +conquerors, occasioned a retrogression, and, in some parts of Europe, +nearly the total destruction of the art of building ships. + +9. The active trade which arose in the Mediterranean, during the +middle ages, and the naval enterprises connected with the Crusades, +occasioned a revival of the art of constructing ships; yet, it did +not advance beyond the condition in which the Carthaginians had left +it, until about the middle of the fourteenth century. At this era, the +inconsiderable galleys of former times began to be superseded by +larger vessels, in which, however, oars were not entirely dispensed +with. + +10. The great change in the general construction of vessels, arose +from the discovery of the polarity of the magnet, and the application +of astronomy to nautical pursuits; for, by these means, the mariner +was released from his dependence on the sight of the land, in guiding +his vessel on its course. Larger ships were therefore constructed, +capable of withstanding more violent storms and loftier waves. + +11. To the Italians, Catalans, and Portuguese, was ship-building most +considerably indebted, in the early days of its revival. The Spaniards +followed up their discovery of the New World with a rapid improvement +in both the form and size of their ships; some of which even rated at +two thousand tons burden. In more modern times, it is said, that the +Spaniards and French are entitled to the credit of nearly all the +improvements which have been made in the theory of the art, the +English having never contributed essentially to advance it, although +the greatest naval power of this or any other time. + +12. In the United States, very great improvements have been made in +the construction of vessels, since the commencement of the present +century. Our builders, however, are less guided by scientific rules +than by experience and a practised eye; yet, it is generally conceded, +that our ships of war and first-rate merchantmen, are superior in +swiftness and beauty to those of any other country. + +13. In Europe, the first thing done towards building a vessel, is to +exhibit it in three distinct views by as many separate drawings; but, +in the United States, the builder commences by framing a complete +wooden model of the proposed construction--the thing itself in +miniature. From this practice of our naval architects, have arisen the +superior beauty and excellence of our vessels. + +14. The timber generally used in the construction of American vessels, +is live-oak, pine, chestnut, locust, and cedar. The trees of mature +growth are chosen, and girdled in the beginning of winter, at which +time they contain but little sap. When sufficiently dry and hardened, +the trees are felled; and, after the timber has been roughly hewn, it +is carefully stored in some dry, airy place, not much exposed to wind +or sun. + +15. In collecting ship-timber, the greatest difficulty is found in +procuring the crooked sticks, which form the sides or ribs of the +skeleton of a vessel. In countries where ship-timber has become an +object of careful cultivation, this difficulty is anticipated by +bending the young trees to the desired form, and confining them there, +until they have permanently received the proper inclination. The +timber is brought to market in its rough state, and sold by the foot. + +16. The timber having been selected, the workmen proceed to fashion +the various parts of the proposed vessel with appropriate tools, being +guided in their operations by patterns, which have been made after the +exact form of the various parts of the model. Much care is taken to +avoid cutting the wood contrary to the grain, that its strength may +not be impaired. + +17. After all the parts of the frame have been made ready, they are +put together. The several blocks of timber on which the vessel is +raised, are called the _stocks_; and to these pieces, the foundation, +called the _keel_, is temporarily fastened in an inclined position. +The keel is inserted into the _stern-post_ at one end, and into the +_stem_ at the other. The _floor-timbers_ are next fixed in the keel, +every other one being there firmly bolted and riveted. Each of these +timbers is a branch and part of the body of a tree; and, when +composing a part of a vessel, they bear the same relation to it as the +ribs to the human body. With equal propriety, the keel has been +compared to the vertebral column, or back-bone. + +18. The next step is to apply and fasten the planks, which serve not +only to exclude the water, but to bind all the parts firmly and +harmoniously together. Simple as this part of the operation may seem +to be, it is the most difficult to be effected, and requires a +pre-concerted plan as much as any other part of the fabric. When it is +necessary to bend a plank at the bow or stern, it is heated by steam, +and then forced into place with screws and levers. The planks are +fastened with iron or copper bolts. + +19. The planking having been finished, and several particulars +attended to, which cannot be well understood from description, the +vessel is ready for the work of the _caulker_, who carefully stops all +the seams with oakum, and smears them with pitch. After the +superfluous pitch has been cleared away with the _scraper_, water is +pumped into the hold, to ascertain if there is any leak. + +20. The bottom of the vessel is next sheathed either with sheets of +copper or pine boards, to protect it from the worms. The latter +materials are employed when the planks have been fastened with iron +since the copper would cause the bolt-heads to corrode, if placed +against them. In either case, sheets of paper, soaked in hot pitch, +are interposed between the planks and the sheathing. + +21. The vessel is now ready to be removed from the stocks to the +water. This removal is called _launching_, which, in many cases, +requires much skill in the preparation and successive management. If +there is no permanent inclined plane in the slip, on which the vessel +may glide into the water, a temporary one is prepared, consisting of +two platforms of solid timber, erected one on each side of the keel, +at a distance of a few feet from it, and extending from the stem into +the water. Upon this double platform which is called the _ways_, is +erected another set of timbers, and the space between these and the +vessel is filled all along with wedges. The whole of this +superstructure is called the _cradle_, and the extremities of it are +fastened to the keel, at the bow and stern, with chains and ropes. + +22. Every thing having been thus prepared, the wedges are +simultaneously driven on both sides. By this means, the vessel is +raised from the stocks, and made to rest entirely on the cradle. After +the _shores_ have been all removed, the cradle, with its weighty +burden, begins to move; and, in a moment, the vessel is launched upon +its destined element. + +23. Among the ancients, a launch was ever an occasion of great +festivity. The mariners were crowned with wreaths, and the ship was +bedecked with streamers and garlands. Safely afloat, she was purified +with a lighted torch, an egg, and brimstone, and solemnly consecrated +to the god whose image she bore. In our less poetic times, there is no +lack of feasting and merriment; although the ceremony of consecration +is different, the oldest sailor on board merely breaking a bottle of +wine or rum over the figure-head--still, perchance, the image of +father Neptune or Apollo. + +24. The vessel, now brought to the wharf, is to be equipped. The mode +of doing this, is varied according as it may be a ship, brig, +hermaphrodite brig, schooner, or sloop. The masts are first erected, +and these are supplied with the necessary apparatus of spars, rigging, +and sails. The latter are furnished by the sail-maker, who is +sometimes denominated the _ship's tailor_. + + + + +[Illustration: MARINER.] + +THE MARINER. + + +1. The business of the mariner consists in navigating ships and other +vessels from one port to another. This is an employment that requires +much decisive resolution; and Horace has well said, that "his breast +must have been bound with oak and triple brass, who first committed +his frail bark to the tempestuous sea." There is certainly nothing +which speaks louder in praise of human ingenuity, than that art by +which man is able to forsake the land, contend successfully with winds +and waves, and reach, with unerring certainty, his destined port in +some distant part of the world. + +2. Nor are the skill and intrepidity exhibited in this arduous +employment, more worthy of our admiration, than the wonderful +advantages resulting from it; for, we are indebted to the exercise of +this art, for those improvements in our condition, which arise from +the exchange of the superfluities of one country for those of another, +and, above all, for the interchange of sentiments, which renders human +knowledge coextensive with the world. + +3. Ship-building is so intimately connected with the art of +navigation, that the historical part of the former subject is equally +applicable to the latter. It is, therefore, unnecessary to be +particular on this point. We shall merely supply some omissions in the +preceding article. + +4. The sailors of antiquity confined their navigation chiefly to the +rivers, lakes, and inland seas, seldom venturing out of sight of land, +unless, from their knowledge of the coasts ahead, they were certain to +meet with it again in a short time. When they thus ventured from the +land, or were driven from it by tempests, the stars and planets were +their only guides. + +5. The qualifications of a skilful pilot or master, even for the +Mediterranean seas, in those days, required more study and more +practical information, than are necessary to render a mariner a +complete general navigator, in the present improved state of the +science of navigation; for then he must needs be acquainted, not only +with the general management of the ship, but also with all the ports, +land-marks, rocks, quicksands, and other dangers, which lay in the +track of his course. Besides this, he was required to be familiar with +the course of the winds, and the indications that preceded them, +together with the movements of the heavenly bodies, and the influence +which they were supposed to exert on the weather. Nor was the ability +to read the various omens which were gathered from the sighing of the +wind in the trees, the murmurs of the waters, and their dash upon the +shore, the flight of birds, and the gambol of fishes, a qualification +to be dispensed with. + +6. A voyage, in ancient times, was a momentous undertaking, and was +usually preceded by sacrifices to those gods who were supposed to +preside over the winds and the waves. All omens were carefully +regarded; and a very small matter, such as the perching of swallows on +the ship, or an accidental sneeze to the left, was sufficient to delay +departure. When, under proper auspices, a vessel or fleet had set +sail, and had advanced some distance, it was customary to release a +number of doves, which had been brought from home. The safe arrival of +these birds at the houses of the voyagers, was considered an +auspicious omen of the return of the fleet. + +7. Having escaped the multiplied dangers of the sea, the sailors, on +their return, fulfilled the vows which they had made before their +departure, or in seasons of peril, offering thanks to Neptune, and +sacrifices to Jupiter, or some other of their gods, to whose +protection they may have committed themselves. Those who had suffered +shipwreck, felt themselves under greater obligations of gratitude; +and, in addition to the usual sacrifices, they commonly offered the +garment in which they had been saved, together with a pictorial +representation of the disaster. If the individual escaped only with +life, his clothing having been totally lost, his hair was shorn from +the head, and consecrated to the tutelar deity. + +8. There is much that is beautiful in these simple acts of piety; and +similar customs, with regard to shipwrecked mariners, are still in +existence in the Catholic countries of the Mediterranean; but the +worship of the heathen deities having been discontinued, a favourite +saint, or perchance the true God, is substituted for them. Although +such acts of piety may not avail to avert impending danger, yet their +natural tendency doubtless is to inspire courage to meet it, when it +may arise. + +9. The Carthaginians, for several centuries, were more extensively +engaged in commerce, than any other people of antiquity; and, as they +carried on their lucrative trade with other nations and their own +colonies, by means of ships, they exceeded all others in the art of +navigation. Not content with exploring every nook and corner of the +Mediterranean, they passed the Pillars of Hercules, as the +promontories of the Straits of Gibraltar were then called, and visited +the Atlantic coasts of Europe, as far north as the Scilly Islands, +then denominated the Cassorides. It is asserted by Pliny, that Hanno +even circumnavigated Africa. + +10. The destruction of Carthage by the Romans, in the year before +Christ 146, interfered with improvements in the art of navigation; and +the invasion of the northern barbarians, several centuries afterwards, +extinguished nearly all the knowledge which had been previously +acquired; nor was it again revived, and brought to the state in which +it existed in the most flourishing era of antiquity, until about the +middle of the fourteenth century. + +11. After the period just mentioned, improvements in this art followed +each other in close succession. The chief cause of this rapid advance +was the discovery of the polarity of the magnet, and the consequent +invention of the mariner's compass. The power of the loadstone to +attract iron, was early known to the Greeks and Chinese; but its +property of pointing in a particular direction, when suspended, and +left to move freely, was not suspected until about the year 1200 of +our era. + +12. At first, mariners were accustomed to place the magnetic needle on +a floating straw, whenever they needed its guidance; but, in 1302, one +Flavio Giaio, an obscure individual of the kingdom of Naples, placed +it on a permanent pivot, and added a circular card. Still, it was +nearly half a century after this, before navigators properly +appreciated, and implicitly relied on this new guide. The compass did +not reach its present improved state, until the middle of the +sixteenth century. + +13. As soon as the reputation of this instrument had become well +established, navigation assumed a bolder character; and the capacity +of vessels having been enlarged to meet this adventurous spirit, oars +were laid aside as inapplicable, and sails alone were relied upon, as +means of propulsion. + +14. Navigation, in the early days of its revival, was indebted to the +Portuguese for many valuable improvements. To them, also, is the world +under obligation for many splendid discoveries, among which was that +of a passage by sea to India. This long-desired discovery was made in +1497, by Vasco de Gama, who had been sent out for the purpose by +Emanuel, king of Portugal. + +15. Five years before Vasco de Gama had found his way to India, by the +way of the Cape of Good Hope, Columbus made his discovery of the New +World. This great man had conceived or adopted the idea, that the form +of our earth was spherical, in opposition to the generally received +opinion, that it was an extended plane; and learning that India +stretched to an unknown distance eastward, he supposed, that, by +sailing in an opposite direction, the navigator would meet with its +eastern extremity. + +16. Pursuing this idea, he applied successively to the governments of +several states and kingdoms for patronage to enable him to test its +correctness; and having, at length, succeeded in obtaining three small +vessels, with the necessary equipments, from Ferdinand and Isabella, +sovereigns of Arragon and Castile, he proceeded on his proposed +voyage, which resulted in the discovery of the American continent. + +17. These two great discoveries gave another powerful impulse to +navigation; and inventions and improvements multiplied in rapid +succession. The learned and ingenious, who at different times have +turned their attention to the subject of navigation, have supplied the +mariner with various means, by which he can direct his course on the +deep with accuracy and certainty. + +18. The instruments now employed in navigation, are the mariner's +compass, the azimuth compass, the quadrant, the sextant, the +chronometer, the half minute-glass, the log, and the sounding-line. In +addition to these, the general navigator needs accurate maps and +charts, lists of the latitude and longitude of every part of the +world, the time of high water at every port, and a book of navigation, +containing tables, to aid him in performing various calculations with +facility; and, with a view to calculate the longitude by observation, +he should be furnished with the Nautical Almanac, containing the +places and declinations of the fixed stars and planets, and especially +the distances of the moon from the sun and other heavenly bodies. + +19. The mariner's compass, as has been before observed, is employed to +indicate the various points of the horizon; but the magnetic needle +varying more or less from the exact northern and southern direction, +the azimuth compass is used, to show the degree of that variation. The +quadrant and sextant are employed to ascertain the altitude and +relative position of the heavenly bodies, that the mariner may +determine the latitude and longitude in which his vessel may be. The +chronometer is nothing more than a watch, designed to measure time +with great accuracy. This instrument is used to determine the +longitude. + +20. The log is used for ascertaining the velocity of the ship on the +water. It consists of a quadrangular piece of wood, eight or nine +inches long, to which is attached a small cord, having knots in it, at +proper distances from each other. In the application, the log is +thrown upon the water, where it will not be disturbed by the wake of +the ship; and the cord, being wound upon a reel, passes from it as +fast as the vessel moves in the water. The number of knots, which pass +off every half minute, indicates the number of miles which the ship +sails per hour; hence, in nautical language, _knots_ and _miles_ are +synonymous terms. The sounding-line is a small cord, with several +pounds of lead of a conical figure attached to it; and is employed in +trying the depth of the water, and the quality of the bottom. + +21. Navigation is either _common_ or _proper_. The former is usually +called coasting, as the vessel is either on the same or neighboring +coast, and is seldom far from land, or out of sounding. The latter is +applied to long voyages upon the main ocean, when considerable skill +in mathematics and astronomy, together with an aptness in the use of +instruments for celestial observations, are required in the captain or +master. + +22. The application of steam to the purposes of navigation, is one of +the greatest achievements of modern science and art. The great utility +of this agent is particularly conspicuous in our vast country, where +large rivers and bays and mighty lakes are numerous, and where an +energetic people and an active commerce require a rapid +intercommunication. Steamboats are but little used on the great +oceans; as merchandise can there be more cheaply and safely +transported in vessels propelled by sails. Since the year 1839, two +lines of steam packets have been running regularly between this +country and Great Britain. They commonly occupy, in crossing the +Atlantic, between twelve and fifteen days. + +23. The chief obstacle to the employment of steam, in long voyages, +arises from the difficulty of generating a sufficient quantity of this +agent, with the fuel which could be carried without overburdening the +vessel; but a remedy for this inconvenience will probably be found, in +improvements in the construction of steam-generators. + +24. The power of confined steam acting by its expansive force, was +discovered by the celebrated Marquis of Worcester, about the middle of +the seventeenth century; but the first working steam-engine was +constructed in 1705, by Thomas Newcomen, a blacksmith of Dartmouth, +Devonshire, England. About the year 1769, James Watt, a native of +Glasgow, added a great number of improvements of his own invention. + +25. Steam navigation was first suggested in England, in 1736, by +Jonathan Hulls. It was first tried in practice in France, in 1782, by +the Marquis de Jouffroy, and nearly at the same time by James Rumsey, +of Virginia, and John Fitch, of Philadelphia; but it was first +rendered completely successful at New-York, in 1807, by Robert Fulton. + +26. The sailors employed by the captain, to aid him in navigating his +ship, are called a _crew_; and the individuals composing it are +responsible to the captain, the captain to the owners, and the owners +to the merchants, for all damages to goods, arising from negligence or +bad management. + +27. In England, ample provisions are made at Greenwich Hospital or by +pensions, for seamen disabled by age or otherwise. These benefits, +however, are extended only to those who have been engaged in the +national service. This noble and politic institution is supported +partly by public bounty, and in part by private donations, and a tax +of sixpence per month, deducted from the wages of all the seamen of +the nation. Marine Hospitals, for the temporary accommodation of +seamen, suffering from disease, have been established in several +cities of the continent of Europe, as well as of the United States. + +28. Mariners have ever been a distinct class of men, and, in their +general characters, very similar in every age of the world. Their +superstitious regard of the many signs of good and bad luck, is nearly +the same now, that it was two or three thousand years ago. In ancient +times, they had their lucky and unlucky days; and now, very few +sailors are willing to leave port on Friday, lest the circumstance +bring upon them some disaster, before the conclusion of the proposed +voyage. + +29. Superstitions of this nature, however, are not confined to the +navigators of the deep. Even in this country, where the inhabitants +enjoy superior intellectual advantages, and boast a high degree of +intelligence, thousands of persons who have never been on board of a +ship, are still under the influence of such heathen notions, +notwithstanding their pretended belief in Christianity, which, in all +cases, when properly understood, would prevent the forebodings of +evil, or expectations of good, from unimportant prognostics. + + + + +[Illustration: MERCHANT.] + +THE MERCHANT. + + +1. The word _merchant_, in its most extended application, signifies, a +person who deals in merchandise. This definition, with some +exceptions, agrees very well with general usage in this country; +although, in England, the term is principally restricted to those +dealers who export and import goods on their own account, either in +their own or in chartered vessels. In the United States, dealers of +this class are denominated _importing_ and _exporting_ merchants; or +simply, _importers_ and _exporters_. + +2. Such merchants, both here and in Europe, are distinguished from +each other by the kind of goods in which they traffic, or by the +foreign country in which they have their chief correspondence; thus, +one who deals in tobacco is called a tobacco-merchant; a wholesale +dealer in wines is called a wine-merchant; a West India, East India, +or Turkey merchant, exports goods to, and imports goods from, those +respective countries. + +3. The business of merchants, in foreign countries, is usually +transacted by agents, called factors, or commission merchants, to whom +goods are consigned to be sold, and by whom other articles of +merchandise are purchased and returned according to order. Sometimes +an agent, called a supercargo, accompanies the vessel; or the captain +may act in this capacity. Goods, however, are often obtained by order, +without the intervention of an agency of any kind. + +4. Almost every sort of foreign merchandise is subject to the +imposition of duties by the government of the country in which it is +received. These duties are paid at the _Custom-House_, to persons +appointed by the constituted authorities to collect them. As soon as a +vessel from abroad has entered the harbor, it is visited by a +custom-house officer, called a _Tide-Waiter_, whose business it is to +see that no part of the cargo is removed, until measures have been +taken to secure the customs. + +5. Goods brought into the country by importers, are frequently sold, +in succession, to several merchants of different grades, before they +come to the hands of the consumers. Cloths or stuffs of different +kinds, for instance, may be first sold by the bale to one merchant, +who, in turn, may dispose of them by the package to another, and this +last may retail them in small quantities to a greater number of +customers. + +6. Dealers in a small way, in cities and large towns, are frequently +denominated shop-keepers; but those who do an extensive retail +business, are usually called merchants or grocers, according as they +deal in dry goods or groceries. In cities, the extensive demand for +goods enables retailers to confine their attention to particular +classes of articles; such as groceries, hardware, crockery, a few +kinds of dry goods, or some articles of domestic manufacture; but in +other places, where trade is more limited, the merchant is obliged to +keep a more general assortment. + +7. The general retail merchant is compelled to transact business with +a great number of wholesale dealers, to whom he pays cash in hand, or +agrees to pay it at some future period, say, in four, six, nine, or +twelve months. The people in his vicinity, in turn, purchase his goods +on similar conditions, with this difference, that they often +substitute for cash agricultural and other productions, which the +merchant, at length, turns into ready money. + +8. Barter, or the exchange of commodities, prevails to a great extent, +in country places, in almost every part of the United States. In such +exchanges, the currency of the country is made the standard of +reference: for example; a merchant receiving from a customer twenty +bushels of wheat, estimated at one dollar per bushel, gives in return +twenty dollars' worth of goods, at his marked prices; or, in other +words, he gives credit for the wheat, and charges the goods. On the +same principle, merchants of the first class often exchange the +productions of their own country for those of another. + +9. Merchants, or store-keepers, as they are indifferently called in +some places, whose location is distant from the seaboard, visit the +city in which they deal once or twice a year, for the purpose of +laying in their stock of goods; but, in order to keep up their +assortment, they sometimes order small lots in the interim. Retailers +more conveniently situated, purchase a smaller amount of goods at a +time, and replenish their stores more frequently. + +10. Commerce, on the principles of barter, or a simple exchange of one +commodity for another, must have been practised in the early days of +Adam himself; although we have no positive record of the fact; for it +cannot be imagined that the arts, which are stated in the Scripture to +have flourished long before the flood, could have existed without +commercial transactions. The period at which the precious metals began +to be employed as a standard of value, or as a medium of commercial +intercourse, is not known. They were used for this purpose in the time +of Abraham, and probably many centuries before his day. + +11. The earliest hint respecting the existence of trade between +different nations, is to be found in the book of Genesis, where the +transaction regarding the sale of Joseph to the Ishmaelites, or +Midianites, is mentioned. These merchants, it appears, were travelling +in a caravan to Egypt, then the most cultivated and refined part of +the world. Their camels were loaded with balm, myrrh, and spices. The +first of these articles was the production of Gilead; the second, of +Arabia; and the last was probably from India; as in that country the +finer spices are produced. If this were really the case, commerce, in +its widest sense, was carried on much earlier than is generally +supposed. + +12. The fertility of Egypt, and its central position, made it an +emporium of commerce; and there it flourished, in an eminent degree, +long before it was cultivated in Europe and in Western Asia. For +several ages, however, the Egyptians, on account of their +superstitious prejudices against the sea, carried on no maritime +commerce. + +13. The Phoenicians were the first people who used the Mediterranean +Sea, as a highway for the transportation of merchandise. Tyre and +Sidon were their chief cities; and the latter was called a _great_, +and the former a _strong_ city, even in the time of Joshua, fifteen +hundred years before the advent of Christ. These people, in their +original association as a nation, possessed but a small territory; +and, being surrounded by many powerful nations, they never attempted +its enlargement on the land side. + +14. The settlement of the Israelites in the "Promised Land," +circumscribed their limits to a very small territory, and compelled +them to colonize a great number of their inhabitants. The colonies +which they formed in the various countries bordering upon the +Mediterranean and on the islands, enlarged the boundaries of +civilization, and greatly extended their trade. + +15. The Phoenicians continued their colonial system for many centuries +after the period just mentioned, and even extended it to the Atlantic +coasts of Europe. But the most distinguished of all their colonies was +the one which founded the city of Carthage, on the northern coast of +Africa, about the year 869 before Christ. Elissa, or, as she is +otherwise called, Dido, the reputed leader of this colony, makes a +conspicuous figure in one of the books of Virgil's AEneid. + +16. Carthage, adopting the same system which had so long been pursued +by the great cities of Phoenicia, rose, in a few centuries, to wealth +and splendor. But, changing, at length, her mercantile for a military +character, she ruled her dependent colonies with a rod of despotism. +This produced a spirit of resistance on the part of her distant +subjects, who applied to Rome for aid to resist her tyranny. The +consequence of this application was the three "Punic wars," so +renowned in history, and which terminated in the destruction of +Carthage, in the year 146 before the Christian era. During the first +Punic war, Carthage contained seven hundred thousand inhabitants; but +at its destruction, scarcely five thousand were found within its +walls. + +17. The period of the greatest prosperity of Tyre, may be placed 588 +years before Christ, at which time the remarkable prophecies of +Ezekiel concerning it were delivered. Soon after this, it was greatly +injured by Nebuchadnezzar; and was finally destroyed by Alexander the +Great, about the year 332 before Christ. + +18. A new channel was opened to commerce by the monarch just +mentioned, he having founded a city in Egypt, to which he gave the +name of Alexandria. His object seems to have been, to render this city +the centre of the commercial world; and its commanding position, at +the mouth of the Nile, was well calculated to make it so; since it was +easy of access from the west by the Mediterranean, from the east by +the Red Sea, and from the central countries of Asia by the Isthmus of +Suez. + +19. The plans of Alexander were carried out with vigor by Ptolemy, who +received Egypt as his portion of the Macedonian empire, after the +death of his master; and, by his liberality, he induced great numbers +of people to settle in the new metropolis for the purposes of trade. +Far south, on the Red Sea, he also founded a city, which he called +Berenice, and which he designed as a depot for the precious +commodities brought into his kingdom from India. From this city, goods +were transported on camels across the country, to a port on the Nile; +and thence they were taken down the river to Alexandria. + +20. Ptolemy also kept large fleets both on the Mediterranean and on +the Red Sea, for the protection of commerce, and the defence of his +dominions; yet, the Egyptians, even under the Ptolemies, never +attempted a direct trade to India. They, as the Phoenicians and their +own progenitors had done for ages, depended upon the Arabian merchants +for the productions of that country. + +21. The Greeks, before their subjugation to the Roman power, had paid +much attention to nautical affairs; but this had been chiefly for +warlike dominion, rather than for commercial purposes. The city of +Corinth, however, had become wealthy by the attention of its +inhabitants to manufactures and trade; but it was destroyed by the +same barbarian people who, about this time, annihilated Carthage. Both +of these cities were afterwards favored by Julius Caesar; but they +never regained anything like their former importance. + +22. Rome having, at length, obtained the complete dominion of the +Mediterranean Sea, and the countries bordering upon it, as well as +that of many others more distant, and less easy of access, became the +great mart for the sale of merchandise of every description, from all +parts of the known world. For the various commodities brought to the +city, the Romans paid gold and silver; as they had nothing else to +export in return. The money which they had exacted as tribute, or +which they had obtained by plunder, was thus returned to the nations +from which it had been taken. + +23. The subjected provinces continued to pour their choicest +productions into Rome, as long as she retained the control of the +empire; and thus they contributed to enervate, by the many luxuries +they afforded, the power by which they had been subdued. The _eternal +city_, as she is sometimes called, in the days of her extensive +dominion, contained about three millions of inhabitants; and, although +this immense population was chiefly supplied by importations, the +Romans never esteemed the character of a merchant. They despised the +peaceful pursuits of industry, whilst they regarded it honorable to +attack without provocation, and plunder without remorse, the weaker +nations of the earth. + +24. In the year 328 of the Christian era, Byzantium was made the seat +of government of the Roman empire by Constantine, who, with a view of +perpetuating his own name, called his new capital Constantinople. +However necessary this removal may have been, to keep in subjugation +the eastern provinces, it was fatal to the security of the western +division. The rivalry between the two cities produced frequent +contests for dominion; and these, together with the general corruption +and effeminacy of the people themselves, rendered it impossible to +resist the repeated and fierce invasions of the barbarous people from +the northern parts of Europe. + +25. These invasions commenced in the latter part of the fourth +century; and, in less than two hundred years, a great portion of the +inhabitants was destroyed, and the whole Western empire was completely +subverted. The conquerors were too barbarous to encourage or protect +commerce; and, like the arts of peace and civilization generally, it +sunk, with few exceptions, amid the general ruin. + +26. The empire of Constantinople, or, as it is usually called, the +Eastern empire, continued in existence several centuries after the +Western empire had been overrun; and commerce continued to flow, for a +considerable time, through some of its former channels to the capital. +At length, the Indian trade, which had so long been carried on chiefly +through Egypt by the Red Sea, was changed to a more northern route, +through Persia. + +27. Soon after the commencement of the pretended mission of Mohammed, +or Mahomet, in 609 of the Christian era, the power of the Arabians, +since called Saracens, began to rise. The followers of the Prophet, +impelled by religious zeal, and allured by plunder, in less than 150 +years extended their dominion almost to the borders of China on the +one side, and to the Mediterranean and Atlantic on the other. The +trade of the East, of course, fell into their hands; and they +continued to enjoy it, until they, in turn, were subdued by the Turks. + +28. So great was the prejudice of the Christians against the followers +of Mohammed, that, for a long time, it was considered heretical for +the former to trade with the latter; but the Saracens having a vast +extent of territory, and having control of the Mediterranean and Red +Seas, as well as of the Persian Gulf, carried on an extensive trade +among themselves. + +29. The first European power which rose to commercial eminence, after +the destruction of the Western empire, was the republic of Venice. +This important city owed its origin to some fugitives, who fled for +their lives to a number of small islands in the Adriatic Sea, during +the invasion of Italy by the Huns, under Attila, in the year 452. + +30. The houses first built by the refugees, were constructed of mud +and seagrass; and, so insignificant were they in their appearance, +that a writer of that period compares them to a collection of the +nests of water-fowls. The number of these islands, on which so +splendid a city was afterwards built, was, according to some, +seventy-two; but, according to others, ninety, or even one hundred and +fifty. For a considerable time, the distinction of rich and poor was +not known; for all lived upon the same fish-diet, and in houses of +similar form and materials. + +31. In less than a century, the inhabitants of these islands had +established a regular government; and, in the year 732, we find them +venturing beyond the Adriatic into the Mediterranean, even as far as +Constantinople, trading in silks, purple draperies, and Indian +commodities. In 813, the French commenced trading to Alexandria, and, +in a few years, the Venetians followed their example, in despite of +the ecclesiastical prohibitions against intercourse with the +followers of Mohammed. In the tenth century, Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and +Florence, began to rival Venice in trade. + +32. The crusades, which, for two centuries from the year 1095, engaged +so much of the attention of the Christian nations of Europe, greatly +promoted the interests of the commercial cities of Italy; as the +armies in these expeditions were dependent on them for provisions, and +for the means of crossing the sea, which lay between them and the +_Holy Land_. They also gave a new and powerful impulse to commerce in +general, by giving the people, in the unrefined parts of Europe, a +knowledge of the elegances and luxuries of the East. + +33. In the thirteenth century, commerce and manufactures began to +command considerable attention in Germany and the adjacent states; but +as the seas and rivers were infested with pirates, and the roads with +banditti, it became necessary for those engaged in commerce to adopt +measures to protect their commodities, while on the way from one place +to another. The citizens of Hamburg and Lubeck first united for this +purpose; and the advantages of such a union of strength becoming +apparent, many other cities soon entered into the confederation. + +34. This association was denominated the _Hanse_, or league, and the +cities thus united were called _Hanse Towns_. Most of the commercial +towns in the northern parts of the continent of Europe, at length, +became parties to the Hanseatic league. The number of these cities +varied, at different periods; but in the days of the greatest +prosperity of the association, it amounted to eighty-five. + +35. Representatives from the different cities met triennially at +Lubeck, where their common treasury and archives were kept. By this +assembly, which was called a diet, rules for the regulation of +commercial intercourse were made, and other business transacted, +which related to the general welfare of the confederation. + +36. In the fourteenth century, the league, in all parts of Europe, +attained a high degree of political importance, and developed that +commercial policy which it had originated, and which has since been +adopted by all civilized nations. The objects of the allied cities +were now declared to be--to protect their commerce against pillage, to +guard and extend their foreign trade, and, as far as possible, to +monopolize it, to maintain and extend the privileges obtained from the +princes of different nations, and to make rules or laws for the +regulation of trade, as well as to establish the necessary tribunals +for their due execution. The decisions of their courts were respected +by the civil authorities of the countries to which their trade +extended. + +37. The treasury was chiefly supplied by duties on merchandise; and +the great wealth thus acquired enabled the allied cities to obtain +commercial privileges from needy princes, for pecuniary +accommodations. The league, in defending its commerce, even carried on +wars against kingdoms; and, at length, by its wealth and naval power, +became mistress of the Northern seas, and rendered the different +cities of the confederation in a great measure independent of the +sovereigns of the countries in which they were situated. + +38. The conduct of the Hanse Towns, at length, excited the jealousies +of those sovereigns who had, for a long time, favored their union; and +the princes of Europe generally, becoming acquainted with the value of +commerce, both as means of enriching their people, and of filling +their own coffers, combined against the association. In 1518, the +governments of several states commanded all their cities to withdraw +from the league, which soon after voluntarily excluded some others. +After this the Hanse gradually sunk in importance, and finally ceased +to exist in 1630. + +39. The trade to the East Indies continued to be carried on through +Persia and Egypt, subject to the extortions of the Saracens, and the +still severer exactions of the merchants of the Italian cities, until +the route to those countries, by the Cape of Good Hope, was +discovered. + +40. The use of this new pathway of commerce, combined with the +discovery of America, caused an entire change in both the political +and commercial state of Europe. A strong desire of visiting the remote +parts of the world, thus laid open to the people of Europe, +immediately arose, not only among the Portuguese and Spaniards, but +also among other nations. Colonies were soon planted in the East and +in the West; and the whole world may be said to have been inspired +with new energy. + +41. The Portuguese, being considerably in advance of the other +Atlantic nations in the art of navigation, soon gained the entire +control of the East India trade, and were thus raised to great +eminence, prosperity, and power. Their dominions became extensive in +Africa and Asia, and their navy superior to any that had been seen for +several ages before. + +42. In 1580, or eighty-three years after Vasco de Gama found his way, +by the Cape, to Calicut, Portugal was subdued by Philip II., king of +Spain. The Spaniards, however, were not enriched by the conquest; +since their commercial energy and enterprise had been destroyed, by +the vast quantities of the precious metals obtained from their +American possessions. + +43. In 1579, the people of Holland, with those of six neighboring +provinces, being then subject to Spain, united, under the Prince of +Orange, for the purpose of regaining their liberties. This produced a +sanguinary war, which continued for thirty years, during which time +the Dutch wrested from the Spaniards most of their Portuguese +possessions in India, and, in addition to this, formed many other +settlements in various places from the River Tigris even to Japan. +Batavia, on the Island of Java, was made the grand emporium of trade, +and the seat of the government of their East India possessions. + +44. The prosperity of the United Provinces increased with great +rapidity; and, as they were but little interfered with by other +nations in their Eastern dominions, they enjoyed, for half a century +or more, almost the whole of the trade of the East. Besides this, they +shared largely with the rest of the world in almost every other branch +of trade. After the year 1660, other nations, by great exertions, +succeeded in obtaining considerable shares of the commerce of the +East; yet the Dutch still retain valuable possessions there. + +45. The chief articles exported from Britain, in ancient times, were +tin, lead, copper, iron, wool, and cattle; for which they received in +return, gold, silver, and manufactured articles. But the commerce of +the British Islands was inconsiderable, when compared with that of +many kingdoms on the Continent, until the beginning of the eighteenth +century. + +46. When Elizabeth ascended the throne of England, in 1558, the +circumstances of the nation required an extensive navy for its +protection; and the great attention which the queen paid to this means +of defence, gave animation to all maritime concerns. Under her +patronage, several companies for trading in foreign countries were +formed, which, at that time, and for a long period afterwards, were +very beneficial to trade in general. In her reign, also, the colonial +system of England had its origin, which contributed eventually, more +than any thing else, to the commercial prosperity of that nation. +Since the reign of this wise and judicious princess, the commerce and +manufactures of Great Britain have been, with a few interruptions, +steadily advancing; and, in these two particulars, she surpasses every +other nation. + +47. The United States possess superior local advantages for trade, and +embrace a population unsurpassed for enterprise and energy. Since the +Revolution, the resources of our country have been rapidly developing. +Our exports and imports are already next in amount to those of Great +Britain and France and the extensive improvements which have been made +by the different states, to facilitate internal intercourse, are +increasing with great rapidity. + +48. The banking system is very intimately interwoven with commercial +affairs in general. Banks are of three kinds, viz., of _discount_, of +_deposit_, and of _circulation_. The term _bank_, in its original +application, signified a place of common deposit for money, and where, +in commercial transactions, individuals could have the amount, or any +part of the amount, of their deposits transferred to each other's +accounts. + +49. The term _bank_ is derived from the Italian word _banco_, which +signified a kind of bench, or table, on which the Jews were accustomed +to place the money which they proposed to lend in the markets of the +principal towns. The first bank was established in Venice, about the +middle of the twelfth century; the Bank of Genoa, in 1345; the Bank of +Amsterdam, in 1607; the Bank of Hamburg, in 1619; the Bank of +Rotterdam, in 1635. These were all banks of mere deposit and transfer. + +50. _Lending-houses_ may be traced to a very ancient origin. They +were, at first, supported by humane persons, with a view of lending +money to the poor, on pledges, without interest. Augustus Caesar +appropriated a part of the confiscated effects of criminals to this +purpose; and Tiberias, also, advanced a large capital, to be lent for +three years, without interest, to those who could give security in +lands equal to twice the value of the sum borrowed. + +51. In the early ages of Christianity, free gifts were collected +and preserved by ecclesiastics, partly to defray the expenses of +divine service, and partly to relieve the poor of the church; and +the funds thus provided came, at length, to be called _montes +pietatis_--mountains of piety. This appellation was afterwards +applied to the _loaning-houses_, established in modern Italy in +imitation of those of antiquity. + +52. In course of time, the loaning-houses were permitted by the Roman +pontiff to charge a moderate interest on a part of their capital, and, +finally, upon the whole of it; still, they retained, for a long +period, the original denomination of _montes pietatis_. The receiving +of interest on loans was declared lawful by the Pope, about the middle +of the fifteenth century. Soon after this period, all the cities of +Italy hastened to establish these institutions; and their example was, +at length, followed in other parts of Europe. + +53. But long before the Pope had granted this privilege, individuals +were in the habit of loaning money at an exorbitant usury. These were +principally Jews and merchants from Lombardy; hence, all persons in +those countries, who dealt in money, came to be called _Lombard +merchants_. The prohibitions of the Church against receiving interest +were eluded, when necessary, by causing it to be paid in advance, by +way of present or premium. + +54. In the twelfth century, many of the dealers in money were expelled +from England, France, and the Netherlands, for usurious practices; +and, in order to regain possession of their effects, which they had, +in their haste, left in the hands of confidential friends, they +adopted the method of writing concise orders or drafts. Hence +originated bills of exchange, so convenient in commercial +transactions. + +55. The Bank of England was established in the year 1694. Hitherto, +the banks of deposit, and loaning-houses, were entirely distinct; but, +in this institution, these two branches of pecuniary operations were +united. It seems, also, that this was the first bank that issued +notes, to serve as a medium of circulation, and to supply, in part, +the place of gold and silver. + +56. In the United States, banking institutions are very numerous. They +are all established by companies, incorporated by the legislatures of +the different states, or by the congress of the United States. The act +which grants the privileges of banking, also fixes the amount of the +capital stock, and divides it into equal shares. The holders of the +stock choose the officers to transact the business of the corporation. + +57. Our banks receive deposits from individual customers, loan money +on notes of hand, acceptances, and drafts, issue notes of circulation, +and purchase and sell bills of exchange. They are usually authorized, +by their charters, to loan three times the amount, and to issue +bank-notes to twice the amount, of the capital stock paid in. Few +banking companies, however, exercise these privileges to the full +extent, lest the bank be embarrassed by too great a demand for specie. +As soon as a bank ceases to pay specie for its notes, it is said to be +broken, and its operations must cease. + +58. The Bank of North America was the first institution of this kind, +established in the United States. It was incorporated by Congress, in +1781, at the suggestion of Robert Morris. In 1791, after the union of +the states had been effected under the present constitution, the first +Bank of the United States was incorporated, with a capital of ten +millions of dollars. Most of the states soon followed this example; +and, before the beginning of the present century, the whole banking +capital amounted to near thirty millions of dollars. + +59. The charter of the first Bank of the United States expired, by its +own limitation, in 1811; and a new one, with a capital of thirty-five +millions of dollars, was established in 1816, which also closed its +concerns, as a national bank, in 1836, President Jackson having vetoed +the bill for its recharter. In that year the number of banks was 567, +and the bank capital $251,875,292. In the year 1840, the number of +banks had increased to 722, and their capital to $358,442,692. + + + + +[Illustration: AUCTIONEER.] + +THE AUCTIONEER. + + +1. The Auctioneer is one who disposes of property at public sale to +the highest bidder. The sale of property in this manner is regulated, +in some particulars, by legislative enactments, which have for their +object the prevention of fraud, or the imposition of duties. + +2. In Pennsylvania, the present law provides for three classes of +auctioneers, each of which is required to pay to the state a specified +sum for a license. The first class pays two thousand dollars per +annum; the second, one thousand; and the third, two hundred; and, +besides this, one and a half per cent. on the amount of all their +sales is required to be paid into the treasury of the state. To each +class are granted privileges corresponding to the cost of the +license. + +3. In the state of New-York, the number of auctioneers for the cities, +villages, and counties, is limited by law; and all persons who would +follow the business are compelled to give security for the faithful +execution of its duties. The state requires a duty of one per cent. on +all merchandise imported from beyond the Cape of Good Hope, one and a +half per cent. on such as may be imported from other foreign +countries, and two per cent. on wines and ardent spirits, whether +foreign or domestic. The laws and usages regarding sales at auction, +in most of the United States, are similar, in their general +principles, to those of Pennsylvania or New-York. + +4. A great amount of merchandise, both foreign and domestic, in our +principal cities, is sold by auction; and the price which staple +commodities there command is generally considered a tolerable +criterion of their value at the time. It very frequently happens, +however, that articles which are not in steady demand, are sold at a +great sacrifice. Auctioneers seldom import goods, nor is it usual for +them to own the property which they sell. + +5. In all cases, before an auction is held, due notice is given to the +public. This is usually done by the circulation of a printed +hand-bill, by a crier, or by an advertisement in a newspaper; or all +three of these modes may be employed to give publicity to one and the +same sale. + +6. Persons desirous of becoming purchasers at the proposed auction, +assemble at the time appointed; and, after the auctioneer has stated +the terms of sale, as regards the payment of whatever may be +purchased, he offers the property to the persons present, who make +their respective bids, he, in the mean time, _crying_ the sum +proposed. When no further advance is expected, he _knocks down_ the +article to the last bidder. + +7. A mode of sale was formerly, and, in some cases is still, +practised, in various parts of Europe, called _sale by inch of +candle_. The things for sale are offered in the ordinary manner, as +has been described in the preceding paragraph, and, at the same time, +a wax-candle, an inch in length, is lighted. The purchasers bid upon +each other, until the candle has been all consumed; and the last +bidder, when the light goes out, is entitled to the articles or goods +in question. + +8. Auctioneers, in large cities, hold their sales at regular periods; +sometimes, every day or evening. On extensive sales of merchandise, +credits of two, three, four, six, or nine months, are commonly given. +In such cases, the auctioneer often gives his own obligations for the +goods, and receives in return those of the purchasers. + +9. This mode of sale is employed in the disposition of property taken +by process of law for the payment of debts, in every part of the +world, where the influence of European law has extended. It is used in +preference to any other; because it is the most ready way of sale, and +is moreover the most likely method to secure to the debtor something +like the value of his property. + +10. Executors and administrators often employ this convenient method +of sale, in settling the estates of deceased persons; and they, as +well as sheriffs and constables, _ex-officio_, or by virtue of their +office, have a lawful right to act in the capacity of auctioneer, in +performing their respective duties; and no tax is required by the +state, in such cases. + +11. The sale by auction was in use among the Romans, even in the early +days of their city. It was first employed in the disposition of spoils +taken in war; hence a spear was adopted as a signal of a public sale; +and this continued to be the auctioneer's emblem, even after this mode +of sale was extended to property in general. The red flag and spear, +or rather the handle of that instrument, both emblematical of blood +and war, are still employed for the same purpose. + +12. Several attempts have been made in the United States, to suppress +sales of merchandise by auction; but these endeavors were +unsuccessful, since experience had proved this mode of effecting +exchanges to be prompt and convenient; and since some of the states +had derived considerable revenue from the duties. So long as +conflicting interests remain as they are, this mode of sale will be +likely to continue. + + + + +[Illustration: The CLERGYMAN.] + +THE CLERGYMAN. + + +1. The Lord Jesus Christ, our Saviour, during his visit of mercy to +the world, chose from among his disciples twelve men, to be his +especial agents in establishing his church. These men, in our +translation of the New Testament, are denominated apostles. The grand +commission which they received was, "Go ye into all the world, and +preach my gospel to every creature." + +2. The apostles commenced their noble enterprise on that memorable day +of Pentecost, which next occurred after the ascension of their Master; +and, in the city of his inveterate enemies, soon succeeded in +establishing a church of several thousand members. The doctrines of +Christianity soon spread to other cities and countries; and, before +the close of that century, they were known and embraced, more or +less, in every province of the Roman empire. + +3. The apostles, however, were not the only agents engaged in +spreading and maintaining the doctrines of Christianity; for, in every +church, persons were found capable of taking the supervision of the +rest, and of exercising the office of the ministry. These were +ordained either by the apostles themselves, or by persons authorized +by them to perform the ceremony. + +4. After the Church had passed through a great variety of +persecutions, during a period of nearly three centuries, the +Christians became superior in numbers to the pagans in the Roman +empire. In the early part of the fourth century, a free toleration in +religious matters was declared by Constantine the Great, who took the +Church under his especial protection. + +5. The Christians of the first and second centuries usually worshipped +God in private houses, or in the open air in retired places, chiefly +on account of the persecutions to which they were often subjected. It +was not until the third century, that they ventured to give greater +publicity to their service, by building churches for general +accommodation. When the Cross had obtained the ascendency, in the +subsequent age, many of the heathen temples were appropriated to +Christian purposes; and many splendid churches were erected, +especially by Constantine and his successors. + +6. In the middle ages, a great number of edifices were erected for the +performance of divine worship, which, in loftiness and grandeur, had +never been surpassed; and the greater part of these remain to the +present day. Some of the most famous churches are, St. Peter's, at +Rome; Notre Dame, at Paris; St. Stephen's, at Vienna; the church of +Isaac, at St. Petersburg; the minsters at Strasburg and Cologne and +St. Paul's, in London. + +7. Up to the time of the great change in favor of Christianity, just +mentioned, the whole Church had often acted together in matters of +common interest, through the medium of general councils; and this +practice continued for several centuries afterwards. But the variance +and dissensions between the Pope of Rome, and the Patriarch of +Constantinople, combined with some other causes, produced, about the +close of the ninth century, a total separation of the two great +divisions of the Church. + +8. At the time of this schism, the whole Christian world had become +subject to these two prelates. The part of the Church ruled by the +Patriarch, was called the _Eastern_, or _Greek Church_; and that part +which yielded obedience to the Pope, was denominated the _Western_, or +_Latin Church_. Many attempts have been since made to reunite these +two branches of the Church; but these endeavors have hitherto proved +unsuccessful. + +9. The conquest of the Roman empire, so often mentioned in the +preceding pages, was particularly injurious to the Church, especially +that part of it subject to the Roman pontiff; since it nearly +extinguished the arts and sciences, and since the barbarous conquerors +were received into the Church, before they had attained the proper +moral qualifications. From these causes, chiefly, arose the conduct of +the Church, in the middle ages, which has been so much censured by all +enlightened men, and which has been often unjustly attributed to +Christianity herself, rather than to the ignorance and barbarism of +the times. + +10. In the year 1517, while Leo X. occupied the papal chair, Martin +Luther, of Saxony, commenced his well-known opposition to many +practices and doctrines in the Church, which he conceived to be +departures from the spirit of primitive Christianity. He was soon +joined in his opposition by Philip Melancthon, Ulric Zuingle, and +finally by John Calvin, as well as by many other distinguished divines +of that century, in various parts of Europe. + +11. These men, with their followers and abettors, for reasons too +obvious to need explanation, received or assumed the appellation of +_Reformers_; and, on account of a solemn protest which they entered +against a certain decree which had been issued against them, they also +became distinguished by the name of _Protestants_. The latter term is +now applied to all sects, of whatever denomination, in the western +division of the Church, that do not acknowledge the authority of the +Roman See. + +12. The Protestant division of the Church is called by the Roman +Catholics, the _Western schism_, to distinguish it from that of the +Greek Church, which is termed the _Eastern schism_. The Protestants +are divided into a great number of sects, or parties; and, although +they differ from each other in many of their religious sentiments, +they agree in their steady opposition to the Roman Catholics. + +13. The ostensible object of the founders of all the churches +differing from the Romish communion, has been, to bring back +Christianity to the state in which it existed on its first +establishment; and to prove their positions in doctrine and church +government, they appeal to the Scriptures, and sometimes to the +Christian writers of the first four or five centuries. The advocates +of the "mother church," on the contrary, contend that, being +infallible, she can never have departed from primitive principles, on +any point essential to salvation. + +14. As to the government of the several churches it is, in most cases, +either Episcopal or Presbyterian. In the former case, three orders of +clergymen are recognized; viz., _bishops_, _presbyters_, and +_deacons_; and these three orders are supposed, by the advocates of +episcopacy, to have been ordained by the apostles. This opinion is +supported by the circumstance, that these orders are mentioned in the +Scriptures; and also by the fact, supposed to be sustained by the +primitive fathers, that they were uniformly established early in the +second century. + +15. It is believed by Episcopalians, that these three orders of +ministers were instituted in the Christian Church, in imitation of the +Jewish priesthood; the bishop representing the high-priest; the +presbyters, the priests; and the deacons, the Levites. + +16. On the other hand, the advocates of the Presbyterian form of +government, assert, that in the first century of the Church, bishop +and presbyter were the same order of ministers, and that the former +was nothing more than a presbyter, who presided in Christian +assemblies, when met to consult on church affairs. + +17. The deacons in the churches that have renounced episcopacy, are +not classed among the clergy, but are chosen from among the private +members, to manage the temporalities of the congregation, or church, +to which they belong, to assist the minister, on some occasions, in +religious assemblies, or to take the lead in religious worship in his +absence. Under this form of government, therefore, there is recognized +but one order of ministers, and every clergyman is denominated +_presbyter_, _priest_, or _elder_. + +18. The literary and religious qualifications required of candidates +for orders have varied in different ages of the Church, according to +the existing state of literature and religion; and the requirements in +these two particulars are now different, in the several denominations. +Nearly all, however, require the profession in the candidate, that he +believes he is moved by the Holy Ghost to take upon him the office of +the ministry. Some churches require a collegiate education, with two +or three years of the study of divinity; but others, only such as is +usually obtained in common schools, combined with a tolerable capacity +for public speaking. + +19. The clergy in the Roman Catholic Church, is of two kinds; the one +_regular_, comprehending all the religious who have taken upon +themselves monastic vows; the other _secular_, comprehending all the +ecclesiastics who do not assume these obligations. The latter, +however, in common with the former, take a vow of perpetual celibacy. + +20. It is the especial duty of clergymen, to preach the gospel, to +administer the ordinances, and to enforce the discipline of that +branch of the Church to which they belong. They are also expected to +administer consolation to persons in distress of mind, arising from +the complicated evils of this life, to unite persons by the bonds of +matrimony, and, finally, in attending on the burial of the dead, to +perform the last ceremony due from man to man. + +21. Ministers of the gospel occupy an elevated stand in all Christian +communities, both on account of the high tone of moral feeling which +they generally possess, and on account of the interest which the +people at large feel in the subject of religion. The work of the +ministry is emphatically a work of benevolence; and no man can perform +it with satisfaction to himself, or with acceptance to the people of +his charge, if destitute of love to God and man. + +22. In most of the kingdoms of Europe, some one of the several +denominations is supported by legal enactments; but, in the United +States, every branch of the Church enjoys equal favor, so far as +legislation is concerned. In most cases, the institutions of religion +are supported by voluntary contributions or subscriptions. + +23. The salary received by ministers of the gospel, in the United +States, is exceedingly various in the different denominations, and in +the same denomination from different congregations. In some instances, +they receive nothing for their services, in others, a liberal +compensation. + +24. It is but justice to this profession to remark, that, taking the +ability of its members into account, there is no employment less +productive of wealth; and this is so evidently the case, that some +denominations distribute, annually, a considerable amount among the +widows and orphans of those who have devoted their lives to the +ministry. + +25. The meagre support which the ministry usually receives, arises, in +part, from the opinion too commonly entertained, that this profession +ought to be one of benevolence exclusively, and that ministers should, +therefore, be contented with a bare subsistence, and look for their +reward in the consciousness of doing their duty, and in the prospect +of future felicity. This is a very convenient way of paying for the +services of faithful servants, and of relieving the consciences of +those whose duty it is to give them a liberal support. + + + + +[Illustration: The LAWYER.] + +ATTORNEY AT LAW. + + +1. A lawyer is one who, by profession, transacts legal business for +others, who, in this relation, are called _clients_. A lawyer is +either an attorney or councillor, or both. The part of legal business, +belonging peculiarly to the attorney, consists in preparing the +details of the _pleadings_ and the _briefs_ for the use of the +councillor, whose especial province it is to make the argument before +the court. When the lawyer prepares his own case and makes the +argument, as he generally does, he acts in the capacity of both +attorney and councillor. In the court of chancery the lawyer is +denominated _solicitor_, and in the admiralty court, _proctor_. Before +a person is permitted to practise law in our courts, he is required to +pass through a regular course of study, and afterwards undergo an +examination before persons learned in the law. + +2. This profession has its foundation in the numerous and complicated +laws which have been adopted by men, to govern their intercourse with +each other. These laws, as they exist in our country, may be divided +into _constitutional_ and _municipal_. Constitutional law is that by +which the government of the United States, and those of the different +states, have been established, and by which they are governed in their +action. The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of +the land. + +3. Municipal law embraces those rules of civil conduct prescribed by +the supreme power of the state, or of the United States; and is +composed of _statute_ and _common_ law. Statute law is the express +will of the legislative part of the government, rendered authentic by +certain forms and ceremonies prescribed by the Constitution. + +4. Common law is a system of rules and usages, which have been applied +in particular cases of litigation. It originated in the dictates of +natural justice, and cultivated reason, and is found more particularly +in the reports of the decisions of the courts of justice. The common +law is employed in cases which positive enactments do not reach, and +in construing and applying positive enactments. The common law of +England has been adopted by every state in the Union, except +Louisiana. + +5. The Constitution of the United States, and those of the several +states, provides for three departments in their respective +governments, viz., the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. +It is the chief province of the first to enact laws, and of the second +and third to see that they are duly executed. + +6. The judicial power of the United States is vested in one _supreme +court_ and two inferior courts. The Supreme Court is now composed of +seven justices who commence their session in the Capitol, at +Washington, on the second Monday in January. The two inferior courts +are the _District_ and _Circuit Courts_. In the first of these +presides a single judge; in the second, one of the justices of the +Supreme Court, and the district judge. + +7. The judiciary of the United States takes cognisance of all cases +which arise under the Constitution, laws, and treaties, of the United +States, and likewise of those cases arising under the law of nations. +It also embraces all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, as +well as those controversies to which the government of the United +States is a party, the controversies between two states, between a +state and citizens of another state, between citizens of different +states, and between a state or citizens thereof, and foreign states, +citizens, or subjects. + +8. The judicial systems of all the states correspond, in many +respects, with each other. In all, the office of justice of the peace +is similar. To these magistrates, the general police of the counties +is chiefly committed, as they have authority to cause criminals, and +other disturbers of the peace, to be arrested; and, if the offence is +small, to fix the penalty; but, if the offence is too great to be +brought within their jurisdiction, they commit the offenders to +prison, to be reserved for trial before a higher tribunal. + +9. In many of the states, the common magistrates of the county, or a +select number of them, form a court, called County Sessions, which has +a comprehensive jurisdiction in matters of police, and in regulating +the affairs of the county; such as building courthouses, assessing +county taxes, opening roads, and licensing taverns. + +10. In Virginia, the County Sessions is an important court. Its +jurisdiction extends to many criminal cases, and to those of a civil +nature involving the amount of $300. Although a great amount of +business passes through these courts, the justices discharge all their +duties without compensation. In most of the states, the common +magistrates, in their individual or collective capacity, have +jurisdiction over civil cases, varying in their greatest amount from +thirteen to one hundred dollars, a right of appeal being reserved to a +higher court. + +11. No definite qualifications are required by law or usage for +practising in the magistrates' courts, accordingly, there are many +persons who plead causes here, who do not properly belong to the +profession of law; these are called _pettifoggers_, and the practice +itself, by whomsoever performed, is called _pettifogging_. Lawyers of +inferior abilities and acquirements are, also, frequently termed +pettifoggers. + +12. In all the states, a class of county courts is established, +denominated Courts of Common Pleas, County Courts, District or Circuit +Courts, which have original jurisdiction of civil actions at law, or +indictments for crimes. Over these are established the Superior or +Supreme Courts, or Courts of Error and Appeal, to which appeals are +admitted from the inferior courts. + +13. Civil cases are frequently decided on principles of equity; and, +in some states, courts of chancery are established for this purpose. +But, in most of the states, there are no decisions of this kind; or +the same courts act as courts of law and equity, as is the case with +the courts of the United States. + +14. There are several other courts that might be mentioned; but enough +has been said of these institutions, to give an idea of the extensive +range of the profession of the law. It may be well to remark here, +that few lawyers aspire to the privilege of practising in the supreme +courts; since, to be successful there it would require not only great +abilities, but more extensive reading than the profession generally +are willing to encounter. + +15. When a client has stated his case in detail to his attorney, it is +the province of the latter to decide upon the course most proper to be +pursued in regard to it. If the client is the plaintiff, and +litigation is determined upon, the attorney decides upon the court in +which the case should be brought forward, and also upon the manner in +which it should be conducted. + +16. The suit having been brought, say into the County Court, it is +tried according to law. If it involves facts or damages, it is +canvassed before a jury of twelve men, who are bound by oath or +affirmation to bring in their verdict according to the evidence +presented by both parties. It is the business of the lawyers, each for +his own client, to sum up the evidence which may have been adduced, +and to present the whole in a light as favorable to his own side of +the question as possible. + +17. When the case involves points of law which must needs be +understood by the jury, to enable them to make a correct decision, the +advocates of the parties present their views with regard to them; but, +if these happen to be wrong, the judge, in his charge to the jury, +rectifies the mistake or misrepresentation. The case having been +decided, each party is bound to submit to the decision, or appeal, if +permitted by law, to a higher tribunal. + +18. Causes to be determined on legal principles only, are brought +before the judge or judges for adjudication. In such cases, the +advocates present the statute or common law supposed to be applicable, +and then reports of similar cases, which may have been formerly +decided in the same or similar courts. These reports are the exponents +of the common law of the case, and are supposed, in most instances, to +furnish data for correct decisions. + +10. Besides the management of causes in public courts, the lawyer has +a great mass of business of a private nature; such as drawing wills, +indentures, deeds, and mortgages. He is consulted in a great variety +of cases of a legal nature, where litigation is not immediately +concerned, and especially in regard to the validity of titles to real +estate; and the many impositions to which the community is liable from +defective titles, render the information which he is able to afford on +this subject, extremely valuable. + +20. In the preceding account of this profession, it is easy to +perceive that it is one of great utility and responsibility. It is to +the attorney, that the oppressed repair for redress against the +oppressor; and to him, the orphan and friendless look, to aid them in +obtaining or maintaining their rights. To this profession, also, as +much as to any other, the American people may confidently look for the +maintenance of correct political principles. + + + + +[Illustration: The PHYSICIAN.] + +THE PHYSICIAN. + + +1. Among the various avocations of men, that of the physician deserves +to be placed in the foremost rank. The profession is founded in the +multiplicity of diseases to which humanity is liable, and in the +medical qualities of certain substances, which have been found to +supply a remedy. + +2. It is implied, though not expressly declared, in the Scriptures, +that the diseases and other calamities pertaining to our earthly +condition, originated in the fall of man from his pristine innocence; +and the Grecian fable of Pandora's box appears to have originated in a +similar tradition. It seems that Jupiter, being angry at Prometheus, +ordered Vulcan to make a woman endowed with every possible perfection. +This workman having finished his task, and presented the workmanship +of his hands to the gods, they loaded her with presents, and sent her +to Prometheus. + +3. This prince, however, suspecting a trick, would have nothing to do +with her; but Epimetheus was so captivated with her charms, that he +took her to be his wife. The curiosity of Epimetheus led him to look +into a box, given to her by Jupiter, which he had no sooner opened, +than there issued from it the complicated miseries and diseases, which +have since afflicted the family of man. He instantly shut the box; but +all had flown, save Hope, which had not time to escape; and this is +consequently the only blessing that permanently remains with wretched +mortals. + +4. Since the introduction of moral evil into the world, it cannot be +supposed that man has ever enjoyed the blessing of uninterrupted +health; and, as it is an instinct of our nature to seek for means of +relieving pain, we may safely infer that medicinal remedies were +applied in the earliest ages of the human race. + +5. Among some of the ancient nations, the origin of diseases was +attributed to the malignant influence of supernatural agents. This +notion produced a corresponding absurdity, in the means of obtaining +relief. Accordingly, idolatrous priests, astrologers, and magicians, +were resorted to, who employed religious ceremonies, astrological +calculations, and cabalistic incantations. + +6. The healing art was cultivated at a very early period in Egypt; but +it was crippled in its infancy by ordinances, enjoining, without +discrimination, the remedies for every disease, and the precise time +and mode of their application. The practice was confined to the +priests, who connected with it the grossest superstitions. + +7. We are informed by the most ancient historians, that the Chaldeans +and Babylonians exposed their sick in places of public resort, and on +the highways; and that strangers and others were required by law to +give some advice in each case of disease. Amid the variety of +suggestions which must necessarily have been given under such +circumstances, it was expected that some would prove efficacious. This +custom was well calculated to enlarge the boundaries of medical +knowledge. + +8. The first records of medicine were kept in the temples dedicated by +the Greeks to Esculapius, who, on account of his skill in medicine, +was honored as the god of health. The name or description of the +disease, and the method of cure, were engraved on durable tablets, +which were suspended, where they could be readily seen by visitors. + +9. But medicine did not assume the dignity of a distinct science, +until the days of Hippocrates, who reckons himself the seventeenth +from Esculapius in a lineal descent. This great man, who flourished +about 400 years before the Christian era, is universally esteemed the +"Father of Medicine." After his death, the science was cultivated by +the philosophers of Greece, to whom, however, it owes but few +improvements. + +10. After the dismemberment of the Macedonian empire, learning +retreated from contending factions to Egypt, where it was liberally +fostered by the Ptolemies. Under their patronage, a medical school at +Alexandria became eminent, and the healing art flourished beyond all +former example. To the disciples of this school, is the world indebted +for the first correct description of the human structure. Their +knowledge on this subject was obtained from the dissection of the +bodies of criminals, which had been assigned to them by the +government. + +11. The acquisitions of the Greeks in medical science at length became +the inheritance of the Romans; but Rome had existed 535 years before +a professional physician was known in the city. This inattention to +the subject of medicine arose, chiefly, from an opinion, common to the +semi-barbarous nations of those times, that maladies were to be cured +by the interposition of superior beings. The sick, therefore, applied +to their idolatrous priests, who offered sacrifices to the gods in +their behalf, and practised over the body of the patient a variety of +magical ceremonies. + +12. Sacrifices were especially offered to the gods in cases of +pestilence; and, on one occasion of this kind, a temple was erected to +Apollo, who was regarded as the god of physic; and, on another, +Esculapius, under the form of a serpent, was conducted from Epidaurus, +in Greece, and introduced, with great pomp, upon an islet in the +Tiber, which was thenceforth devoted to his particular service. + +13. Archagathus, a Greek, was the first who practised physic, as an +art, at Rome; and he was soon followed by many more of his +professional brethren. These pioneers of medicine, however, were +violently opposed by Cato the Censor, who publicly charged them with a +conspiracy to poison the citizens. But the patients under their care +generally recovering, he began to regard them as impious sorcerers, +who counteracted the course of nature, and restored men to life by +means of unholy charms. + +14. Cato having succeeded in producing a general conviction, that the +practice of these physicians was calculated to enervate the +constitutions, and corrupt the manners of the people, restrictions +were laid upon the profession, and practitioners were even forbidden +to settle at Rome. But after the people had become more vicious and +luxurious, diseases became more frequent and obstinate, and physicians +more necessary. The restrictions were, therefore, at length removed. + +15. Among the Roman writers on medicine, Celsus was the first who is +worthy of consideration. He has been denominated the Roman +Hippocrates, because he imitated the close observation and practice of +that physician. His work, as well as that of his great prototype, is +read with advantage, even at the present day. He flourished at or near +the time of our Saviour. + +16. In the second century of the Christian era, Galen, a Greek +physician from Pergamus, and a disciple of the Alexandrian school, +settled in Rome. He was learned in all branches of medicine, and wrote +more copiously on the subject generally, than any other person amongst +the ancients. For 1300 years, his opinions were received as oracular, +wherever medicine was cultivated. + +17. After the destruction of the Western empire by the barbarous +nations, the science of medicine was cultivated only in the Greek +empire, and chiefly at Alexandria, until it began to arrest the +attention of the Arabians, in the seventh century. The works of +several Greek philosophers and physicians were translated into Arabic, +under the patronage of the caliphs, several of whom were zealous +promoters of learning. + +18. In the eighth century, the Caliph Almansur established, at Bagdad, +a hospital for the sick, and an academy, in which, among other +branches of knowledge, was taught the medical art. But it was in +Spain, that Arabian learning rose to the highest point, and produced +the most successful results. The University of Cordova became the most +celebrated in the world, and continued to maintain its reputation for +a long series of years. Arabian medicine reached its greatest +eminence, in the eleventh century, under Avicenna. + +19. In the tenth century, this science began to be taught in the +schools of other parts of Europe; but its professors derived their +knowledge of the subject from the Arabian school, or from Arabic +translations of the ancient authors; and this continued to be the +case, until the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453. At +this time, many erudite Greeks fled into Italy, and carried with them +the ancient writings. + +20. Before the general revival of this science in Europe, the cure of +diseases was chiefly confided, in the western nations, to the priests +and monks, who, however, generally relied more upon religious +ceremonies, and the influence of sacred relics, than upon the +application of medical remedies. The superstitions of those barbarous +times, respecting the means of curing diseases, have not yet entirely +disappeared, even from the most enlightened nations of Christendom. + +21. The science of chemistry began to attract much attention about the +beginning of the sixteenth century; and the many powerful medical +agents which it supplied, at length produced a great change in the +theory and practice of medicine. Many valuable medicines of the +vegetable kind, were also obtained from America. The discovery of the +circulation of the blood by William Harvey, in 1620, imparted a new +impulse to medicine; but, like chemistry, it gave rise to many absurd +and hurtful theories. + +22. Researches in different branches of medicine were continued with +ardor in the seventeenth century, in various parts of Europe; and +numerous discoveries of importance were made, especially in anatomy. +Many theories regarding the origin of diseases, and their treatment, +were proposed, advocated, and controverted; but all these were +overthrown by Stahl, Boerhaave, and Hoffman, three eminent theorists, +in the early part of the eighteenth century. + +23. These distinguished men were followed by others of equal +celebrity, in the same century, who, in part at least, exploded the +doctrines of their predecessors. The present century, above all other +periods, is remarkable for men eminent in this profession; and, +although all do not exactly agree in opinion, yet, guided in their +conclusions by a careful observation of facts, they are less under the +influence of visionary theories than physicians of former times. +Besides, many of the subjects of former controversy having been +satisfactorily settled, there are now fewer causes of division and +excitement among the medical profession. + +24. Medical science comprises several branches, of which the following +are the principal; viz., Anatomy, Surgery, Materia Medica, Chemistry, +the Theory and Practice of Physic. On these subjects, lectures are +given in several colleges and universities in Europe, and in the +United States. In this country, an attendance on two regular courses +of lectures entitles the student to the degree of Doctor of Medicine, +provided he can sustain with sufficient ability, an examination before +the professors, or, as they are usually termed, the medical faculty. + +25. The degree of M. D. conferred by a college or university, is a +passport to practice, in every state of the Union; and, in some +states, none are permitted to attend the sick, professionally, without +having first obtained a diploma conferring such degree. In other +states, however, no legal restrictions are imposed on the +practitioners of the healing art; or, they are licensed by a board of +physicians, constituted by law for the purpose. + +26. The practice of this profession is generally attended with great +labor, and, in many cases, with much perplexity. Diseases are often +stubborn or incurable, and effectually baffle the most skilful +practitioner. In most cases, however, diseases are under the control +of medical skill; and the high satisfaction which a benevolent +physician feels, in relieving the sufferings of his fellow-creatures, +may serve as a recompense for the many adverse circumstances which +attend the profession. + + + + +[Illustration: The CHEMIST.] + +THE CHEMIST. + + +1. This globe, and every thing appertaining to it, is composed of +substances, which exist either in a compound or simple state. It is +the object of the scientific chemist to investigate the properties of +these substances, and to show their action upon each other. By this +science, therefore, compound bodies are reduced to the simple elements +of which they are composed, or new combinations formed. + +2. According to the preceding definitions, chemistry comprehends an +immense variety of objects. It is scarcely possible to name a thing or +phenomenon in the natural world, to which it does not directly or +indirectly apply; even the growth of vegetables, and the preparation +and digestion of our food, depend upon chemical principles. + +3. The word chemistry is supposed to be of Egyptian origin, and, in +its primary application, was the same with our phrase natural +philosophy. Its meaning was afterwards restricted to the art of +working those metals which were most esteemed. In the third century, +it came to be applied to the pretended art of transmuting baser metals +into gold. The science, in the latter sense of the word, was eagerly +cultivated by the Greeks; and from them it passed to the Arabians, who +introduced it into Europe under the name of alchemy. + +4. The professors of the art were dignified with the appellation of +alchemistic philosophers, and the leading doctrine of the sect was, +that all metals are composed of the most simple substances; and that, +consequently, base metals were capable of being changed into gold; +hence, the chief object of their researches was the discovery of an +agent, by which this great change was to be effected. The substance +supposed to possess this wonderful property was called "the +philosopher's stone;" the touch of which was to change every kind of +metal into gold. + +5. The greatest rage for alchemy prevailed between the tenth and +sixteenth centuries. The writers on this subject who appeared during +that period, are very numerous, most of whom are unintelligible, +except to those initiated into the art. Many of them, however, display +great acuteness, and an extensive acquaintance with natural objects. +They all boast, that they are in possession of the philosopher's +stone, and profess the ability of communicating a knowledge of making +it to others. + +6. Their writings and confident professions gained almost implicit +credit, and many unwary persons were thus exposed to the tricks of +impostors, who offered to communicate their secret for a pecuniary +reward. Having obtained the sum proposed, they either absconded, or +wearied out their patrons with tedious and expensive processes. + +7. Chemists, for a long time, had supposed it possible to discover, by +their art, a medicine which should not only cure, but prevent all +diseases, and prolong life to an indefinite period, even to +immortality. This notion gradually becoming prevalent, the word +_chemistry_ acquired a more extensive application, and embraced not +only the art of making gold, but also that of preparing "the universal +medicine." Some of these visionary men asserted, that the +philosopher's stone was this wonderful panacea. + +8. Few readers need be informed, that the researches for the +philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, were, at length, +abandoned, as fruitless and visionary; yet the numerous experiments +which had been instituted on these accounts, were attended with the +incidental advantage of a considerable dexterity in the performance of +chemical operations, together with the discovery of many new +substances and valuable facts, which, without these strong incentives, +would have remained, at least, much longer in obscurity. + +9. Although none of the medicines, produced in the chemical +laboratory, answered the chimerical expectations of the chemists, in +curing all diseases, and in rendering the perishable body of man +immortal, yet they proved sufficiently valuable in the healing art, to +command the attention of the profession all over Europe. The adoption +of chemical medicines, however, was, at first, everywhere opposed, +either as unsafe remedies, or as being inferior in efficacy to those +which had been used for so many centuries. + +10. These prejudices having given way to the light of experience, +chemical medicines came, at length, to occupy a conspicuous place in +the Materia Medica; and their value within the present century has +become still more manifest. One of the most useful branches of +chemistry, therefore, is to make the various preparations used in the +medical art. + +11. The most efficient agent in the introduction of chemical +medicines, was Theophilus Paracelsus. This singular individual was +born near Zurich, in Switzerland. Having studied chemistry under two +masters, he commenced a rambling life, in pursuit of chemical and +medical knowledge; and, having visited Italy, France, and Germany, +where he met with many whimsical adventures, which contributed greatly +to advance his reputation, he was elected, in 1527, to fill the chair +of chemistry, in the University of Basle. + +12. One of the first acts of this arrogant professor was to burn, with +the utmost solemnity, while seated in his chair, the works of Galen +and Avicenna, declaring to his audience, that if God would not impart +the secrets of physic, it was not only allowable, but even +justifiable, to consult the devil. He also treated his contemporaries +with the same insolence, telling them, in a preface to one of his +books, that "the very down on his bald pate had more knowledge than +all their writers; the buckle of his shoes more learning than Galen +and Avicenna; and his beard more experience than all their +universities." + +13. It could not be expected, that a man with such a temper could long +retain his situation; and, accordingly, he was driven from it, in +1528, by a quarrel with those who had conferred the appointment. From +this time, he rambled about the country, chiefly in Germany, leading a +life of extreme intemperance, in the lowest company. Nevertheless, he +still maintained his reputation as a physician, by the extraordinary +cures occasionally effected by his powerful remedies; although his +failures were equally conspicuous. + +14. But the most signal failure of his remedies occurred in his own +person; for, after having boasted for many years of possessing an +elixir which would prolong life to an indefinite period, he died, in +1541, at Salzburg, with a bottle of his immortal catholicon in his +pocket. The medicines on which Paracelsus chiefly relied, were opium, +antimony, and various preparations of mercury. He has the merit of +applying the last, especially, to cases in which they had not been +before used; and upon this circumstance, his great reputation +depended. + +15. We have been thus particular in noticing this individual, because +he was the first who gave public lectures on chemistry in Europe, and +because he gave the first great impulse in favor of chemical +medicines. He also carried his speculations concerning the +philosopher's stone and the universal remedy, to the greatest height +of absurdity; and, by exemplifying their inutility and fallacy in his +own person, he contributed more than any one else to their disrepute, +and subsequent banishment from the science. + +16. Researches for the philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, +having been, at length, relinquished, the chemical facts which had +been collected became, in the general estimation, a heap of rubbish of +little value. At this time, there arose an individual thoroughly +acquainted with these facts, and capable of perceiving the important +purposes to which they might be applied. + +17. The name of this individual was John Joachim Becher. He published +a work in 1669, entitled "Physica Subterranica," by which he gave a +new direction to chemistry, by applying it to analyzing and +ascertaining the constituent parts of material bodies; and his system +is the foundation of the science, as it now exists. + +18. George Ernest Stahl, a medical professor in the University of +Halle, adopted the theory of Becher, and, after his death, edited the +work just mentioned; but he so simplified and improved it, that he +made it entirely his own; and, accordingly, it has always been +distinguished by the appellation of the Stahlian theory. The principal +work of Stahl, on this subject, was published in 1729; and, since that +time, chemistry has been cultivated with ardor in Germany, and in +other countries in the north of Europe. + +19. In France, chemistry became a fashionable study, about the middle +of the eighteenth century. It had, however, been cultivated there by a +few individuals, long before that period. Men of eminence now appeared +in all parts of the kingdom, and discoveries in the science were made +in rapid succession. Some attention was also paid to it in Italy and +Spain. + +20. In Great Britain, this subject attracted but little attention, +except from a few individuals, until Dr. Cullen had become professor +of the science, in the University of Edinburgh, in 1756. This accurate +investigator of natural phenomena, succeeded in enkindling an +enthusiasm for chemical investigations among the students; and the +subsequent experiments of Dr. Black, Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Priestley, and +Lavoisier, which resulted in the discovery of the constituent parts of +air and water, diffused the same ardor through every part of the +kingdom. + +21. Lavoisier, the celebrated French chemist, having proved the +Stahlian theory to be incorrect, founded another on the chemical +affinities and combinations of oxygen with the various substances in +nature. This system has been generally adopted; since it explains a +great number of phenomena more satisfactorily than any other ever +proposed. The great chemical agent, in the Stahlian system, was +supposed to be an inflammable substance, which was denominated by the +theorist _phlogiston_. To distinguish, therefore, the new theory from +the one which it superseded, it was called the pneumatic, or +anti-phlogistic system. + +22. In 1787, a new technical nomenclature was devised, by the aid of +which all the chemical facts are easily retained in the memory. Twelve +or fifteen terms have been found sufficient for the foundation of a +methodical language; and, by changing the terminations of these +radicals, or by prefixing certain words or syllables, the changes that +take place in bodies are clearly expressed. This valuable innovation +originated with Lavoisier and three other French chemists. + +23. In the present century, many important discoveries have been made +in this science; and, among those who have been distinguished for +their researches into its mysteries, Sir Humphrey Davy, of Great +Britain, shines pre-eminent. In the United States, it has many able +professors; among whom are Professors Hare and Mitchell, of +Philadelphia, Torrey, Renwick, and Draper, of New-York, Henry, of +Princeton, Beck, of Albany, Silliman, of New-Haven, and Johnson, of +Middletown. + +24. Chemistry is so extensive in its application, that we will not +attempt to describe any of the operations of the laboratory. We, +therefore, conclude this article by recommending this science to +general attention; assuring the uninitiated, that it is beset with +fewer difficulties than they are apt to suppose, and that every effort +in the course will be attended with interesting facts and phenomena, +which will abundantly reward the labor of investigation. + + + + +[Illustration: APOTHECARY.] + +THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY. + + +1. The druggist is a wholesale dealer in drugs, which, in commerce, +embrace not only articles used or recommended by the medical +profession, but also spices, dye-stuffs, and paints. The commodities +of his trade are obtained from almost every quarter of the globe; but +especially from the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea, +and from the East Indies and Spanish America. + +2. The chemist looks to the druggist for most of the materials +employed in his laboratory; and from him the apothecary, physician, +and country merchant, obtain their chief supply of medicines. There +are, however, but few persons in the United States, who confine +themselves exclusively to this branch of business; for most of the +druggists are also apothecaries, and sometimes operative or +manufacturing chemists. + +3. Medicinals, when they come into the warehouse of the druggist, are +usually in a crude state; and many, or most of them, must necessarily +undergo a variety of changes, of a chemical or mechanical nature, +before they can be applied in practice. The art by which these changes +are effected is called Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics; and the books which +treat of pharmaceutical operations are denominated Pharmacopoeias, or +Dispensatories. + +4. The operations of Pharmacy, which depend upon chemical principles, +are conducted chiefly by the operative chemist; but those which +consist merely in mechanical reduction, or in mixing together +different ingredients, to form compounds, belong properly to the +vocation of the apothecary. + +5. The apothecary sells medicines in small quantities, prepared for +application. Many of the standing compound preparations which have +been authorized by the Pharmacopoeias, and which are in regular +demand, he keeps ready prepared; but a great proportion of his +business consists in compounding and putting up the prescriptions of +the physician, as they are needed by the patient. + +6. In country places, where there are generally no apothecary-shops, +the physicians compound and prepare their own prescriptions; but in +cities, where these establishments are numerous, the medical +profession prefer to rid themselves of this trouble. In most cases, +however, they keep by them a few remedies, which can be applied in +cases of emergency. + +7. In Great Britain, the apothecary is permitted to attend sick +persons, and administer medicines either according to his own +judgment, or in conformity with the directions of the physician. He +is, therefore, a physician of an inferior order; and, as his fees are +more moderate than those of the regular profession, his practice is +extensive among persons who, from necessity or inclination, are +induced to study economy. + +8. The apothecaries in England, Scotland, and Ireland, are obliged to +make up their standing medicines according to the formulas of the +Dispensatories adopted in their respective countries; and their shops +are subject to the visitation of censors, who have authority to +destroy those medicines which they may consider unfit for use; so that +unwholesome or inefficient remedies be not imposed upon the sick. The +apothecaries' halls, in France, are also under the supervision of the +medical faculty. + +9. In the United States, there is no censorship of this kind +established by the public authorities; yet the physicians are careful +to recommend apothecaries, in whom they have confidence, to prepare +their prescriptions. The professors in our medical schools are, also, +particular in naming to their students those druggists whom they +consider men of honor; and omit, at least, to name those who have been +detected in selling adulterated medicines. + +10. We have, also, an incorporated college of pharmacy both in +New-York and Philadelphia, and in each of these, chemical and +pharmaceutical lectures are delivered by regular professors. These +institutions, although of recent origin, have exerted an important +influence in reforming and preventing abuses in the preparation of +medicines; and public opinion, especially in the cities, is beginning +to render it important for students in pharmacy to obtain a degree +from one of these colleges. Under the auspices of the institution at +Philadelphia, is published a quarterly journal, devoted to +pharmaceutical science. + +11. A Pharmacopoeia for the United States was formed at Washington, in +1820, by a delegation of physicians from the principal medical +societies of the Union. A revision of this work is expected to be +made every ten years. Dispensatories, as they exist in this country, +are founded upon the Pharmacopoeias, and may be properly considered +commentaries upon them, since the former contain the whole of the +latter, together with more minute descriptions of the sensible and +real properties of the medicines, as well as their history and exact +mode of preparation. + + + + +[Illustration: The DENTIST.] + +THE DENTIST. + + +1. The human family is subject to a variety of diseases in the teeth, +which generally cause the final destruction or loss of these important +instruments, unless judicious remedies are applied in proper season. +These remedies are administered by the dentist. + +2. There are few persons, in proportion to the great mass of the +people, who seem to be aware of the utility of dentistry; for, taking +the United States together, not more than one person in a hundred ever +resorts to the professors of this art, with the view of obtaining a +remedy for any dental disease with which he may be afflicted. The +common sentiment seems to be, that diseases of the teeth, and their +final loss, at different periods of life, are inevitable +inconveniences, to which we must submit with the same philosophy with +which we meet other misfortunes. + +3. To enable readers who have never examined this subject, to +comprehend its general nature, we will give a slight sketch of some of +the irregularities and diseases to which the teeth are liable, and, as +we proceed, speak of the remedies applied by the dentist. + +4. Two sets of teeth regularly appear, at different periods of life; +one in infancy, and the other, at a later period. The first set +consists of twenty, and the second of thirty-two teeth; the former are +called _infant_, and the latter _adult_; and all these, at the age of +six or seven, are upon the jaws at the same time. + +5. At the age just mentioned, the infant teeth begin to give way to +those which lie deeper in the sockets, and which are designed to +supersede the former. As the new teeth advance, the roots of the first +are absorbed; and, after having been thus deprived of their support, +they are easily removed; sometimes, by a slight pressure of the +tongue. + +6. In a majority of cases, the whole process is carried on by nature +with the utmost regularity; but, as she is not uniformly successful in +this operation, there is no other period at which the teeth of +children require so much attention and care. Sometimes the second set +rise in the socket without causing the absorption of the roots of the +first. In such cases, the former approach in an improper direction; +and, unless the latter are removed in season, deformity will be the +consequence. + +7. When, however, these precautions have been neglected, and the teeth +stand in an irregular manner, they can sometimes be reduced to +symmetry by the dentist, without occasioning much pain. When the front +teeth are too much crowded by reason of the restricted dimensions of +the jaw, the small teeth, situated next behind the eye, or canine +teeth, are extracted, one on each side, to give room to the rest. + +8. From the ages of six to fifteen years, the teeth of children should +be examined, at least once in six months, by a dentist, who, if +skilful, can seldom fail of rendering these ornaments of the human +countenance regular, healthy, and beautiful. It is customary in +England and France, for the proprietors of seminaries of learning to +employ a dentist to visit their establishments regularly, for the +purpose of performing such operations, and of administering such +remedies, as their pupils may require. + +9. The teeth are composed of very hard bone and enamel. The latter is +a substance exceeding in density any other in the body. It covers the +crown of the teeth, and is thickest in those parts which are most +exposed to forcible contact in mastication; but, in no place, is it +more than the twelfth of an inch in thickness. + +10. The most common disease of the teeth is _caries_, or decay, and +almost every part of them is liable to be affected by it, but +especially the sides of those in front, and the crowns of those on +other parts of the jaws. + +11. The disease begins its attack either on the enamel or on the bony +portion, and gradually extends itself over the tooth, until it reaches +the nerves which supply its natural cavity. These having become +exposed to the sudden changes of temperature, and to the contact of +extraneous substances in mastication, pain and inflammation are +produced, and the extraction of the tooth very commonly becomes the +only means of relief. + +12. All persons are more or less subject to this disease, but some +much more than others; and caries of a peculiar character has been so +often traced through whole families, from one generation to another, +that it is considered hereditary, as much as any other disease to +which the system is liable. In many cases, caries seems to be the +effect of some serious disease which affected the constitution, while +the teeth were in the early stages of formation. + +13. Although the teeth of some individuals possess but little +durability, and, when caries attacks them, go on rapidly to decay, in +spite of all the aid which science and skill can afford, yet, there +are comparatively but few instances in which seasonable and judicious +treatment will not arrest the progress of the disease. + +14. When the teeth are but slightly affected with caries, especially +on the sides, a cure may be accomplished by the removal of the decayed +portion. This is effected, by the most approved dentists, chiefly with +small cutting instruments. Formerly, the file and the saw were +employed for this purpose; and, by their indiscriminate and +injudicious use, many teeth were ruined, and the art of dentistry +itself brought into disrepute. + +15. Notwithstanding the injuries which have been inflicted by the +improper application of the saw and file, in some instances they are +indispensable; and, in the hands of the scientific operator, they need +not be feared. They are especially useful in preparing the way for the +employment of other instruments; for, in some cases, the affected part +can with difficulty be reached by any other means. But filing the +teeth for the purpose of improving their appearance, or for rendering +the sides more accessible to the tooth-pick and brush, seems to be +reprobated by the most intelligent part of the profession. + +16. When the caries has penetrated far into the tooth, and, in its +removal, a cavity of suitable form and dimensions can be produced, it +is filled with some substance, with the view of protecting the bone +from the action of extraneous agents. The dentist is careful to +remove every particle of the decayed portion, and to render the cavity +perfectly dry by repeated applications of lint or raw cotton, before +he attempts to fill it. + +17. Gold is the only substance which possesses sufficient solidity to +withstand the ordinary friction of mastication, and which, at the same +time, is capable of resisting the chemical action of the substances +that come in contact with it; yet lead and tin are frequently +employed; and many have been made to believe that they answer as good, +if not a better purpose, than gold itself. The durability of these +metals, however, can never be depended upon, and they ought not to be +employed, where the tooth is capable of resisting the mechanical force +required to fill it properly with gold. + +18. The metal is prepared for the use of the dentist by the +gold-beater, in the manner described in the article which treats upon +the business of the latter. The leaves, however, are not beaten so +thin as those designed for the common purposes of the arts. The +portion to be applied is cut from the leaf, and, after having been +twisted a little, is forced into the cavity. The metal is rendered +perfectly solid by means of instruments adapted to the purpose. + +19. This operation, properly performed under favorable circumstances, +generally renders the tooth as serviceable, to the end of life, as if +it had never been diseased. The hopes of the patient, however, are +sometimes disappointed by the unskilfulness of the operator, or by the +general unhealthiness of the mouth, arising from tartar, other decayed +teeth, or want of care in keeping them free from the lodgment of +particles of food. + +20. It is a common practice to have teeth extracted, when they are +affected with pain; but this operation is not always necessary. In +many cases, the nerve can be paralyzed, and the tooth plugged. By +these means, teeth which, under the ordinary treatment, would be +prematurely sacrificed, are often retained, for years, in a +serviceable state. + +21. The next most destructive affection to which the teeth are liable, +is the accumulation of _tartar_. This is an earthy substance, +deposited from the saliva, and is more or less abundant in different +individuals. This deposit is extremely troublesome, and generally does +much injury to the mouth, even before those who suffer from it are +aware of the mischief. + +22. The tartar on the teeth of some individuals, is of a black or +greenish color, and very hard; on those of others, brown or yellow, +and not so firm. When it is first deposited, it is soft, and can be +easily removed with a tooth-brush; but, if suffered to remain, it soon +becomes indurated, and gradually increases in thickness about the neck +of the teeth. The gums become irritated and inflamed. The sockets are +next absorbed, and the teeth, being left without their natural +support, either fall out, or become so loose, that they can be easily +removed. + +23. From this cause, old people lose their teeth, when, in many cases, +they are perfectly sound; but comparatively very few are aware of the +origin of this deprivation, or suppose that these valuable instruments +can be retained in old age. The loss is attributed to the deleterious +effects of calomel, or is imagined to be an evil inseparable from +advanced age. + +24. The affection of the gums, arising from causes just mentioned, is +frequently called scurvy, and, like caries, produces fetor of the +breath; but, when these two diseases are combined, as is frequently +the case, they render it extremely offensive. Besides, the effluvia +arising from these diseased parts give rise to many maladies which +terminate fatally, if a remedy is not applied sufficiently early to +save the patient. + +25. The obvious remedy for diseases arising from tartar, is the +removal of their cause. This is effected by the dentist, with small +sharp cutting instruments of a suitable form. To prevent the tartar +from accumulating again, and to restore the gums to a healthy state, +nothing more is generally requisite than the daily use of a stiff, +elastic brush, and the occasional application of some approved +dentrifice or astringent wash. Sometimes it may be necessary to +scarify the gums, or to apply leeches to them. + +26. The operations of dentistry, mentioned in the preceding part of +this article, are those which relate to the preservation of the teeth; +and, if performed in a proper manner, and under favorable +circumstances, they will, in most instances, prove effectual. But, as +few persons resort to the dentist, until the near approach of +deformity, or until they are impelled by pain to seek relief, a great +proportion of dental operations consists in inserting artificial +teeth, and in extracting those which are past recovery. + +27. When a tooth has gone so far to decay, that it cannot be cured by +_stopping_, it should not be suffered to remain in the mouth, lest it +infect the rest. Front teeth, however, when the roots remain sound, +and firmly based in the sockets, ought not to be extracted, as upon +the latter artificial teeth can be placed with great advantage. In +such cases, the removal of the crown only is necessary. + +28. The instruments commonly employed in extracting teeth, are the +key, or turnkey, the forceps, the hook, and the graver, or punch. +These are supposed to be sufficient to perform all the operations of +this kind which occur in practice; and, although many attempts have +been made to invent others which might answer a better purpose, yet +those we have mentioned, in their improved state, are likely to +continue in general use. + +29. It seems to be a common opinion, that any one can pull teeth, who +has a turnkey, and sufficient physical strength to use it; +accordingly, blacksmiths, barbers, and medical students, are the chief +operators in this line of dental surgery. The many fatal accidents +which must inevitably be the consequence, such as breaking the tooth +or jaw-bone, are considered matters of course. These, however, seldom +happen with skilful dentists; and it is to be regretted, that the +latter are not always employed, where unskilfulness may produce such +serious consequences. + +30. In the cut, at the head of this article, is represented a dentist, +about to extract a tooth for a lady, who may be supposed to be in a +state of alarm at the sight of the instruments; but he, having thrown +his right hand, which holds them, behind him, shows the other +containing nothing, with the view of allaying her fears. The manner in +which teeth are extracted, needs no description, since it is an +every-day operation in all parts of the world. + +31. One of the chief sources of income to this profession, is the +insertion of artificial teeth; for, although few are willing to expend +much to prevent the loss of their teeth, many will incur great expense +in supplying the deficiencies, after they have occurred. So perfectly +and neatly is this operation performed, by some dentists, that it is +difficult to distinguish between teeth which are natural, and those +which are artificial. + +32. The materials for artificial teeth were formerly found chiefly in +the teeth and tusks of the hippopotamus, and in the teeth of some +domestic animals; but, within a few years, a mineral composition, +called porcelain, has come into great repute, since it is very +beautiful, and is entirely proof against the most powerful acids. + +33. Surgical operations upon the teeth were performed in ancient +Greece and Rome, many of which were similar to those of the present +day. The extraction of teeth must have been practised at a period of +antiquity to which the records of medicine do not reach. The operation +is recommended by Hippocrates, who describes many of the diseases to +which the teeth are liable. He also mentions the practice of fixing +the teeth by means of gold wire, and gives several formulas for making +dentrifices. + +34. Celsus, a Roman writer on medicine, who flourished about the +beginning of the Christian era, seems to have been the first author +who described the method of extracting teeth, and the first who +notices the removal of tartar by means of cutting instruments, as well +as filling carious teeth with lead and other substances, with the view +of preventing further decay. Soon after this period, false teeth, of +bone and ivory, were introduced. Actius, a writer of the fourth +century, is the first who mentions the operation of filing the teeth. + +35. The return of barbarism to Europe, nearly extinguished the +knowledge of dentistry. As a branch of surgery, however, it was +revived by the Arabian writer, Albucasis, in the tenth century; but, +for many hundred years after this period, it received but little +attention from men of science, the operations of surgery being +confined chiefly to the barbers. + +36. The first modern work on the diseases of the teeth was published +at Lyons, in 1581. This was followed by many other publications on the +same subject, in the succeeding century. In the year 1700, it began to +be required in France, that all persons who intended to practise +dentistry in that country, should undergo an examination, to test +their qualifications. From this period is dated the establishment of +the dental art as a distinct branch of medical practice. + + + + +[Illustration] + +THE TEACHER. + + +1. Education, in antiquity, was entirely a matter of domestic concern. +In countries where priestly or royal despotism prevailed, schools for +the benefit of the sons of the great, and for the priests, were +established. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, was educated in a priestly +school in Egypt, and Cyrus, at a seminary belonging to the Persian +court. In Palestine, the Scriptures were taught in the schools of the +prophets; and, at later periods, in the synagogues, and in the schools +of the Rabbis, reading, committing to memory the sacred books, and +hearing explanations of their meaning, constituted the chief +exercises. + +2. In the Grecian cities, boys and girls were taught reading, writing, +and arithmetic in private schools; and, after having completed the +primary course, those who aspired to higher degrees of knowledge, +resorted to the instructions of the philosophers and sophists. This +system was commenced as early as 500 years before the advent of +Christ. + +3. Two hundred years after this period, the Romans began to have +primary schools for boys, in the cities; and, from the time of Julius +Caesar, who conferred on teachers the right of citizenship, they +possessed the higher institutions of the grammarians and the +rhetoricians. In the former of these, were taught the Latin and Greek +languages; and in the latter, young men of talent were prepared, by +exercises in declamation, for speaking in public. + +4. Children, among the Greeks and Romans, were accompanied to school +by slaves, who, from the performance of this duty, were called +_pedagogues_; but, after slaves and freedmen had made acquirements in +literature and science, they were frequently employed as tutors; hence +the term, at length, came to imply a teacher of children, and it is +still used in reference to this employment, although we usually +connect with it the idea of pedantry. + +5. Until the time of Vespasian, who commenced his reign in the year 70 +of the Christian era, the schools were sustained entirely by private +enterprise. That emperor instituted public professorships of grammar +and rhetoric with fixed salaries, for the purpose of educating young +men for the public service; and, in A.D. 150, Antoninus Pius founded +imperial schools in the larger cities of the Roman empire. The most +celebrated place for the cultivation of science, in the ancient world, +was Athens; and, to this city, students from all parts of Europe +resorted, even as late as the ninth century. + +6. Christianity, by degrees, gave a new turn to education; and, in the +East, it came gradually under the influence of the clergy. Schools +were instituted in the cities and villages for catechumens, and, in +some places, those of a higher grade, for the education of clergymen. +Of the latter kind, that in Alexandria was the most flourishing, from +the second to the fourth century. + +7. From the fifth century, these higher institutions began to decline, +and others, called cathedral or episcopal schools, seem to have taken +their place. In these, besides theology, were taught _the seven +liberal arts_--grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, +astronomy, and music; of which the three first were called the +_trivium_, and the four last the _quadrivium_. The text-book employed +was the Encyclopaedia of Marcianus Capella, of Africa. This compendium +was published at Rome, A.D. 470; and, although a meagre production, it +maintained its reputation in the schools of Europe more than 1000 +years. + +8. The imperial schools established by Antoninus Pius, declined, and +finally became extinct, in the confusion that followed the irruption +of the barbarians; but their places were supplied by the parochial and +cathedral schools just mentioned. These, however, were surpassed, in +the sixth century, by the _conventual_ schools, which were originally +designed to prepare persons for the monastic life, but which soon +began to be resorted to by laymen. + +9. These schools were connected with the convents belonging to the +order of St. Benedict, and served as the chief glimmering lights +during the darkest period between ancient and modern civilization, in +Europe. They flourished in Ireland, England, France, and Germany, from +the sixth to the eleventh century. The teachers of these seminaries +were called _scholastici_, and from them the scholastic philosophy +derived its origin and name. + +10. In the year 789, Charlemagne, king of the Franks, issued a decree +for the improvement of the schools of his empire, and for increasing +their number. Not only every bishop's see and every convent, but every +parish, was to have its school; the two former for the education of +clergymen and public officers, and the latter for the lower classes of +people. This monarch instituted an academy of learned men, to whom he +himself resorted for instruction, and whom he employed to educate his +children, and a select number of the sons of the nobility and +distinguished persons. + +11. The encouragement which these schools had received from government +was soon discontinued after the death of this monarch, and his school +establishment declined like that of Alfred the Great, which was +commenced in the ninth century, on a scale of equal liberality. The +designs of the English monarch were frustrated by the invasions of the +Danes. + +12. In the mean time, the Jewish rabbis had schools in Syria and in +Northern Africa, as well as in Europe, which contributed to the +preservation of ancient learning. Arabian schools were also +established, in the ninth century, by the followers of Mohammed, in +their Eastern and African caliphates, and in their Moorish dominions +in Spain. Through these institutions, the mathematical and medical +sciences were again revived in Europe. + +13. The cathedral and conventual schools continued, for a long time, +the principal institutions for education in Europe; and from them +proceeded many eminent men. By degrees the light of science began to +shine more brightly; teachers of eminence appeared in different +places, who collected around them a great number of scholars; and a +new kind of schools arose, the heads of which assumed the name of +_rectores_. + +14. In Paris, several of these teachers gave instructions in various +branches, but chiefly in rhetoric, philosophy, and theology. The +schools thus collected under different masters, were, in 1206, united +under one rector; and, on this account, the whole mass of teachers and +scholars was denominated _universitas_. Universities, in other parts +of Europe, arose in a similar manner, and some of them, about the same +time. Those of Oxford and Cambridge, according to some writers, were +established about the year 1200; and the two first of these +institutions in Germany were founded at Prague and Vienna, the former +in 1348, and the latter in 1365. + +15. The division of the students into four _nations_ was an essential +feature in the early universities. It arose from the circumstance that +the pupils coming from different countries, spoke different languages. +Those whose language was the same or similar, would naturally +associate together, and attend the instructions of the same teachers. +This division into nations is supposed to have grown up at Paris, +previous to the formal union of the several schools under one rector. + +16. The first teachers, from whose exertions the universities +originated, commenced their public instructions without permission +from established authority. Subsequently, the state and university +were careful to prevent all persons from giving lectures, who were not +well qualified for the employment. Examinations were therefore +instituted to determine the capabilities of students. Those who were +found competent, received a formal permission to teach, accompanied +with certain symbols in the spirit of the age. + +17. The first academical degree was that of _baccalaureus_, the +second, _licentiatus_; and the third _magister_. The last of these +entitled the student to all the privileges of his former teachers, and +constituted him one of the _facultas artium--the faculty of the seven +liberal arts_, since called the philosophic faculty. The other +faculties were those of theology, law, and medicine. The first of +these was instituted at Paris in 1259, and the two last, in 1260. The +faculties elected _deans_ from among their number, who, with the +_procuratores_, or heads of the four nations of students, represented +the university. These representatives possessed the power of +conferring degrees in the different departments of literature and +science. + +18. Among the public institutions of the early universities were the +colleges, (_collegia_,) buildings in which students, especially those +who were poor, might live together, under superintendents, without +paying for their lodging. In some cases, they received their board, +and frequently other allowances, gratis. These institutions were +commenced at Paris; but here, as well as in other places, they did not +continue the asylums of the necessitous only. In France and England, +the buildings of universities are composed chiefly of these colleges, +in which the students reside, and in which the business of instruction +is mainly carried on. + +19. The teachers in the universities were at first paid for their +services by the students. At a later period, the magistrates of the +town or city where the institution was located, made presents to +eminent scholars, to induce them to remain. This practice finally led +to the payment of regular salaries. From and after the fourteenth +century, universities were not left to grow up of themselves as +formerly, but were expressly established by public authorities or by +the popes. + +20. The inactivity and luxury of the clergy, had led to the neglect of +the old seminaries of learning. The universities were therefore +necessary, not only to revive the taste for science and literature, +but also to form a new body of teachers. These institutions, however, +at length became subject to undue clerical influence, since the monks +obtained admission into them as teachers, and then labored to increase +the importance of their several orders, as well as the power of the +Roman pontiff. + +21. The monks, also, connected, with their convents, popular schools, +and undertook the education of the children in the cities. But their +method of instruction was exceedingly defective, since the intelligent +investigation of the subjects studied was little encouraged, and since +the memory of the pupils was brought into requisition to the almost +entire exclusion of the other faculties of the mind. + +22. In the lower parish schools, the children were not permitted to +learn to write, the monks being desirous of confining to the clergy +the practice of this art, which was very lucrative before the +invention of printing. The art was called _ars clericalis_; and, for a +long time, the privilege of establishing writing schools for the +children of citizens, was a matter of negotiation between the +magistrates and the clergy. + +23. But the citizens becoming, at length, more independent, the +magistrates themselves began to superintend the education of youth. +_Trivial_ schools were established, in which the _trivium_, and +reading and writing, were taught; but for these, as well as for the +cathedral and parish schools, which had been neglected for some time +by the higher clergy, itinerant monks and students were employed as +teachers. + +24. The elder pupils of the highest class frequently wandered from one +school to another, under the pretence of pursuing their studies, +sometimes taking with them younger scholars, whom they compelled to +beg or steal, in order to supply their wants. As late as the sixteenth +century, Luther complains that these _vacantivi_ (or idlers) were the +persons chiefly employed as schoolmasters in Germany. + +25. A pious fraternity, called Jeronymites, consisting of clergymen +and laymen, who lived together, and occupied themselves partly in +mechanic arts, and partly in the instruction of youth, exerted +considerable influence on education in general. They first established +themselves in Italy, and afterwards in the Netherlands, on the Rhine, +and in Northern Germany. + +26. Much was done during the last half of the fourteenth century, and +in the one hundred years that followed, to encourage the study of the +ancient classics. The attention of literary men was turned to these +interesting remains of antiquity by the arrival of many learned +Greeks, who had fled from Turkish oppression, and who had brought with +them the ancient writings. + +27. These treasures of former civilization were unfolded to the modern +world by the art of printing, which was invented in 1441; and the +reformation, which commenced in 1517, also aided the advancement of +education. The corporations of the German cities in which the reformed +religion was received, founded seminaries, called _gymnasia_, and +_lyceums_, with permanent professorships. A vast amount of property, +belonging to the convents and the Church, was confiscated by the +governments, and appropriated chiefly to the promotion of education. + +28. The schools in the countries which adhered to the Roman Catholic +religion, however, continued in nearly the same state, until the +Jesuit schools arose, towards the end of the sixteenth century. These, +on account of the ability with which they were conducted, soon gained +the ascendency, and for a long time maintained their reputation; but +they, at length, degenerated, and finally became extinct, on the +suppression of the order of Jesuits in 1773. + +29. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, have, for a long time, been inactive +in relation to education, it being left entirely to the clergy, and +the efforts of the people in their individual capacity. Much has been +done in Austria, within fifty years, to advance this important +interest. Under the late emperor, professorships were constituted, in +the universities and cathedral seminaries, for the instruction of +teachers; and gymnasia, common and Sunday schools, were established in +almost every part of the kingdom. + +30. The general organization of schools in France, in the eighteenth +century, was similar to that of most other Catholic countries. The +government did nothing for the education of the people at large; and +the Church, which possessed a large proportion of the property of the +nation, left the people in total ignorance; whence may have arisen +much of the atrocity which marked the early part of the revolution. + +31. During the popular reign, the education of youth was declared to +be under the care of the state, and many schools, called +_polytechnic_, were established. Napoleon, also, afterwards instituted +several military schools, and contemplated the introduction of a +system of general education. With this view, he instituted an imperial +university, which was to have the supreme direction of instruction in +France; but his designs were but partially carried into effect. + +32. When the Bourbons were again restored to the throne of France, +they, with the clergy, labored to restore the old order of things; +and, to keep the common people from becoming dangerous, the +Lancasterian schools, established in 1816, were abolished. Efficient +measures, however, have been lately adopted by Louis Philip to +establish schools of different grades throughout his kingdom. + +33. In England and Ireland, although the middling and higher classes +are comparatively well educated, no system of general instruction has +ever been established for the benefit of the common people. Much, +however, has been accomplished by charity and Sunday schools; the +former of which were commenced in 1698, and the latter in 1812. +Besides these, there are numerous charitable foundations on which many +persons of limited means have been educated at the higher +institutions. + +34. In Scotland, more liberal provisions have been made for general +education. The system was commenced in the reign of William and Mary, +when, by an act of Parliament, every parish was required to maintain a +school. The people have so far improved their privileges, that nearly +all of the inhabitants of that part of Great Britain can read and +write. + +35. The government of Russia, during the last and present century, has +directed some attention to the promotion of education. According to +the decrees of the Emperor Alexander, schools of different grades were +to be established throughout the empire; but these decrees have been +yet only partially executed. + +36. In no part of the world has the education of all classes of people +been more encouraged than in the United States. This has arisen +chiefly from the circumstance, that a remarkable proportion of the +colonists were persons of education. This was particularly the case +with those of New-England, where the instruction of youth, from the +very beginning of the settlements, was made a matter of public +concern. + +37. The principle of making public provision for this purpose, thus +early adopted, has never been deserted; on the contrary, it has become +so deeply interwoven with the social condition of the people of +New-England, that there are few families in that part of the Union, +which are not within reach of a public school; and, in every state +where the influence of the people from that section of the country is +predominant, public schools have been organized by legal provisions, +and a fund has been provided, by which at least a part of the expense +of supporting them is paid. + +38. In all the states in which these primary institutions are +established by legislative enactments, they are kept in operation, in +country places, between six and nine months of the year. A _master_ is +employed in the winter, and a _mistress_, in the summer: the former +receives for his services from ten to fifteen dollars per month, and +the latter, from seventy-five cents to two dollars per week, together +with boarding. The teachers, however, during their engagement are +compelled to reside in the different families of the _district_, their +stay at each place being determined, with scrupulous exactness, by the +number of children sent to the school. + +39. From the low salaries received for these important services, and +the short periods for which engagements are made, it is evident, that +teaching a district school cannot be pursued as a regular employment. +These schools are, therefore, supplied by persons who, during the rest +of the year, follow some other business; or by students, who rely, in +part or entirely, on their own exertions to defray the expenses of +their academical, collegiate, or professional education. + +40. These schools are, no doubt, institutions of great value; but, in +the states where they have been established, they are evidently much +overrated. They fail in accomplishing the ends for which they have +been instituted, through the extreme tenacity with which the people +adhere to ancient and defective methods of instruction, the frequent +change of teachers, and the small compensation allowed for the +services of competent instructors. + +41. In the cities and populous towns or villages, the public schools +are kept up during the whole of the year, and the system of +instruction is generally better than that pursued in the country. In +New-York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and in some other cities, the +Lancasterian plan of mutual instruction, with many modifications, is +preferred, principally on account of its cheapness. + +42. Select-schools and private academies are, also, very numerous. +These are located chiefly in the cities and populous towns, and are +supported entirely by fees for tuition received from the parents or +guardians of the pupils. These institutions do not differ essentially +from those of a private nature in similar situations in other parts of +the United States, where common schools are not established by law. + +43. In the Southern states, wealthy families often employ private +tutors. Sometimes two, three, or more families, and even a whole +neighborhood, unite for the purpose of forming a school; and, to +induce a teacher to commence or continue his labors among them, an +adequate amount is made up beforehand by subscription. South of +Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the Ohio River, such engagements are +commonly made for a year, as, in that section of the Union, the +opinion prevails, that a teacher can do but little towards improving +his pupils in a much shorter time. + +44. The literary institutions which are next above the common schools, +and which are established by legislative authority, are the academies, +of which there are between five and six hundred in the United States. +Some of these have been founded by the funds of the state in which +they are located, some, by the union of a few spirited individuals, or +by private bequests. + +45. The course of instruction pursued in these seminaries of learning +varies considerably from each other. In some of them, it is confined +chiefly to the common branches of education; in others, the course is +pretty extensive, embracing natural and moral philosophy, chemistry, +belles lettres, and a sound course of mathematics, together with +Latin, Greek, and some of the modern languages. One great object in +these institutions is to prepare students for college. The teacher who +has charge of an academy is called the _principal_, while the teacher +who may aid him in his labors is denominated the _assistant_ or +_usher_. + +46. The highest institutions of learning among us are the colleges and +universities. Between these, however, there seems to be but little +difference, since the course of studies is nearly or quite the same in +both, and since the charters obtained from the legislatures grant to +both similar powers of conferring honorary degrees. The whole number +of these establishments in the United States is about eighty. + +47. The principal teachers in the colleges are denominated +_professors_, who confine their labors to communicating instructions +in particular branches of literature or science. These are aided by +assistants called _tutors_. The latter are generally young men, who +devote two or three years to this employment, before entering upon the +practice of a profession. The number of professors and tutors in the +several colleges varies according to their amount of funds, and number +of students. + + + END OF VOL. I. + + + * * * * * + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Obvious spelling and punctuation errors and inconsistencies were +repaired, but period spellings retained (e.g. "grisly bear," "lama," +"pistachoes," "hommony"). + +Negociat- and negotiat-, whale-bone and whalebone, ancles and ankle, +color- and colour-, endeavor- and endeavour-, favor- and favour-, +labor- and labour-, neighbor- and neighbour-, were retained as in +original. + +Contents page, Preface page number reads "7" but actually appears on +page "vii"; retained. + +Contents page, "Soapboiler" changed to more frequent "Soap-Boiler." + +P. ix, "removed from the ignorance," original reads "ignora ce." + +P. 16, "south-western parts," hyphen added for consistency within +text. + +P. 47, "maltster checks," original reads "malster." + +P. 53, "render the wine palatable," original reads "palateable." + +P. 66, Illustration at start of "Manufacturer of Cloth" chapter has +no caption in original. + +P. 101, "sewn together to form hats," original reads "sown." + +P. 174, "released from his dependence," original reads "dependance." + +P. 185, "Thomas Newcomen," original reads "Newcomer." + +P. 249, Illustration at start of "Teacher" chapter has no caption in +original. + +P. 249 and 252, "rabbis," original reads "rabbies." + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Popular Technology, Vol. I (of 2), by Edward Hazen + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 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